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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antimony is a semi-metallic chemical element that can exist in two forms: the metallic form which is shiny, silvery, hard and brittle; and the non-metallic form which is a grey powder. It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity, is stable in dry air and is not attacked by dilute acids or alkalis. Antimony is a mineral that has been known since ancient times. It can sometimes be found free in nature but is usually obtained from the minerals stibnite and valentinite. The symbol of this mineral is the Eye of Horus, an ancient Egyptian symbol of protection, royal power and good health. The ancient Egyptians used antimony sulfide as an eyelash mask.
It is a chemical element of the periodic table that can be freely found in nature. Bad conductor of heat and electricity is a mineral that has been known since ancient times.
Among its main characteristics we can mention the following:
Antimony and the compounds that formed it were widely known in ancient times; we can even find a jar made of antimony with more than 5,000 years in the Museum of the Louvre in Paris. Antimony sulfide (Sb2S3) is mentioned in a 16th century BC Egyptian people’s papyrus. The black form of this pigment, which occurs naturally as mineral stibine, was used as a mask and was once known as khol. The most famous historical figure who used this mineral was Jezebel, whose deeds are recorded in the Bible. During the 6th and 7th centuries BC, another pigment known to the Chaldean civilization emerged in what is now southern Iraq and was known as yellow lead antimonite. This mineral was also found in the enamel of bricks that decorated the town of Babylon and dates from the time of Nebuchadnezzar. It was widely used in medieval times, mainly to harden lead by its characteristics, although some were taken medicinally as a laxative pill.
The antimony is a mineral of which ancestral data are available since it is even mentioned in the Old Testament, although possibly, the settlers of the epoch didn’t know it in metallic state, and it was confused with its Sulphur. There is no specific person who has discovered it, but its different properties were described around the year 1450 by the German alchemist Basil Valentine, who is considered as its discoverer.
When found in its natural form it can be used in the manufacture of different semiconductor devices, in the creation of infrared detectors and diodes. It is widely used in the creation of different alloys with other metals such as lead, to achieve manufacture batteries, weapons, coatings for cables and different industrial products. It is an important component in soft solders that are melted at temperatures below 325 ° K. Its main function is to consolidate welding and suppress the formation of tin allotropes. | <urn:uuid:1bd155f0-23fe-4ff4-bf4b-e4f1817f7183> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.euston96.com/en/antimony/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00386.warc.gz | en | 0.981041 | 598 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.32003700733184814,... | 2 | Antimony is a semi-metallic chemical element that can exist in two forms: the metallic form which is shiny, silvery, hard and brittle; and the non-metallic form which is a grey powder. It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity, is stable in dry air and is not attacked by dilute acids or alkalis. Antimony is a mineral that has been known since ancient times. It can sometimes be found free in nature but is usually obtained from the minerals stibnite and valentinite. The symbol of this mineral is the Eye of Horus, an ancient Egyptian symbol of protection, royal power and good health. The ancient Egyptians used antimony sulfide as an eyelash mask.
It is a chemical element of the periodic table that can be freely found in nature. Bad conductor of heat and electricity is a mineral that has been known since ancient times.
Among its main characteristics we can mention the following:
Antimony and the compounds that formed it were widely known in ancient times; we can even find a jar made of antimony with more than 5,000 years in the Museum of the Louvre in Paris. Antimony sulfide (Sb2S3) is mentioned in a 16th century BC Egyptian people’s papyrus. The black form of this pigment, which occurs naturally as mineral stibine, was used as a mask and was once known as khol. The most famous historical figure who used this mineral was Jezebel, whose deeds are recorded in the Bible. During the 6th and 7th centuries BC, another pigment known to the Chaldean civilization emerged in what is now southern Iraq and was known as yellow lead antimonite. This mineral was also found in the enamel of bricks that decorated the town of Babylon and dates from the time of Nebuchadnezzar. It was widely used in medieval times, mainly to harden lead by its characteristics, although some were taken medicinally as a laxative pill.
The antimony is a mineral of which ancestral data are available since it is even mentioned in the Old Testament, although possibly, the settlers of the epoch didn’t know it in metallic state, and it was confused with its Sulphur. There is no specific person who has discovered it, but its different properties were described around the year 1450 by the German alchemist Basil Valentine, who is considered as its discoverer.
When found in its natural form it can be used in the manufacture of different semiconductor devices, in the creation of infrared detectors and diodes. It is widely used in the creation of different alloys with other metals such as lead, to achieve manufacture batteries, weapons, coatings for cables and different industrial products. It is an important component in soft solders that are melted at temperatures below 325 ° K. Its main function is to consolidate welding and suppress the formation of tin allotropes. | 595 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What was the Underground Railroad? The Underground Railroad was formed in the early 19th century and reached its height between and Much of what we know today comes from accounts after the Civil War and accurate statistics about fugitive slaves using the Underground Railway may never be verifiable. It is believed that aroundslaves between and escaped using the network.
And, as she once proudly pointed out to Frederick Douglass, in all of her journeys she "never lost a single passenger. At age five or six, she began to work as a house servant. Seven years later she was sent to work in the fields.
While she was still in her early teens, she suffered an injury that would follow her for the rest of her life. Always ready to stand up for someone else, Tubman blocked a doorway to protect another field hand from an angry overseer. The overseer picked up and threw a two-pound weight at the field hand.
It fell short, striking Tubman on the head. She never fully recovered from the blow, which subjected her to spells in which she would fall into a deep sleep. Around she married a free black named John Tubman and took his last name. She was born Araminta Ross; she later changed her first name to Harriet, after her mother.
Inin fear that she, along with the other slaves on the plantation, was to be sold, Tubman resolved to run away. She set out one night on foot.
With some assistance from a friendly white woman, Tubman was on her way. She followed the North Star by night, making her way to Pennsylvania and soon after to Philadelphia, where she found work and saved her money.
The following year she returned to Maryland and escorted her sister and her sister's two children to freedom.
She made the dangerous trip back to the South soon after to rescue her brother and two other men. On her third return, she went after her husband, only to find he had taken another wife. Undeterred, she found other slaves seeking freedom and escorted them to the North.
Tubman returned to the South again and again. She devised clever techniques that helped make her "forays" successful, including using the master's horse and buggy for the first leg of the journey; leaving on a Saturday night, since runaway notices couldn't be placed in newspapers until Monday morning; turning about and heading south if she encountered possible slave hunters; and carrying a drug to use on a baby if its crying might put the fugitives in danger.
Tubman even carried a gun which she used to threaten the fugitives if they became too tired or decided to turn back, telling them, "You'll be free or die.
On one occasion, she overheard some men reading her wanted poster, which stated that she was illiterate. She promptly pulled out a book and feigned reading it. The ploy was enough to fool the men. Tubman had made the perilous trip to slave country 19 times byincluding one especially challenging journey in which she rescued her year-old parents.
Of the famed heroine, who became known as "Moses," Frederick Douglass said, "Excepting John Brown -- of sacred memory -- I know of no one who has willingly encountered more perils and hardships to serve our enslaved people than [Harriet Tubman].
On the way to such a meeting in Boston inin an incident in Troy, New York, she helped a fugitive slave who had been captured. After the war she settled in Auburn, New York, where she would spend the rest of her long life. She died in Harriet Tubman summary: Harriet Tubman is often called the Moses of her people for leading so many of them out of bondage to freedom.
She was an abolitionist, an integral part of the Underground Railroad, a humanitarian, and a Union nurse and spy during the American Civil War.
Harriet Tubman was a fugitive slave, underground railroad conductor, abolitionist, spy, soldier, Civil War, African American, nurse, known for her work with Underground Railroad, Civil War service, and later, her advocacy of civil rights and woman suffrage.
Harriet Tubman (), born Araminta Ross, was a runaway slave and abolitionist who guided some fellow runaways to freedom as one of the most famous and successful "conductors" on the Underground Railroad.
Harriet Beecher Stowe summary: Harriet Beecher Stowe is best known for her novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, which played a significant role in accelerating the movement to abolish slavery in the United States.
The book originally was a serial in the anti-slavery newspaper The National Era in Born to. Harriet Tubman's career in the Railroad was ending by December She made her last rescue trip to Maryland, bringing seven people to Canada.
In the ten years she worked as a "conductor" on the Railroad, Harriet managed to rescue over people. Known as the “Moses of her people,” Harriet Tubman was enslaved, escaped, and helped others gain their freedom as a “conductor" of the Underground Railroad. Tubman also served as a scout, spy, guerrilla soldier, and nurse for the Union Army during the Civil War. | <urn:uuid:deb47ad7-d927-4cd1-826d-8b7dce497161> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ladujuhyqacig.skybox2008.com/a-history-of-the-contribution-of-hariet-tubman-to-the-success-of-the-underground-railroad-7151ss.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00463.warc.gz | en | 0.984808 | 1,069 | 4 | 4 | [
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-0.11602494... | 1 | What was the Underground Railroad? The Underground Railroad was formed in the early 19th century and reached its height between and Much of what we know today comes from accounts after the Civil War and accurate statistics about fugitive slaves using the Underground Railway may never be verifiable. It is believed that aroundslaves between and escaped using the network.
And, as she once proudly pointed out to Frederick Douglass, in all of her journeys she "never lost a single passenger. At age five or six, she began to work as a house servant. Seven years later she was sent to work in the fields.
While she was still in her early teens, she suffered an injury that would follow her for the rest of her life. Always ready to stand up for someone else, Tubman blocked a doorway to protect another field hand from an angry overseer. The overseer picked up and threw a two-pound weight at the field hand.
It fell short, striking Tubman on the head. She never fully recovered from the blow, which subjected her to spells in which she would fall into a deep sleep. Around she married a free black named John Tubman and took his last name. She was born Araminta Ross; she later changed her first name to Harriet, after her mother.
Inin fear that she, along with the other slaves on the plantation, was to be sold, Tubman resolved to run away. She set out one night on foot.
With some assistance from a friendly white woman, Tubman was on her way. She followed the North Star by night, making her way to Pennsylvania and soon after to Philadelphia, where she found work and saved her money.
The following year she returned to Maryland and escorted her sister and her sister's two children to freedom.
She made the dangerous trip back to the South soon after to rescue her brother and two other men. On her third return, she went after her husband, only to find he had taken another wife. Undeterred, she found other slaves seeking freedom and escorted them to the North.
Tubman returned to the South again and again. She devised clever techniques that helped make her "forays" successful, including using the master's horse and buggy for the first leg of the journey; leaving on a Saturday night, since runaway notices couldn't be placed in newspapers until Monday morning; turning about and heading south if she encountered possible slave hunters; and carrying a drug to use on a baby if its crying might put the fugitives in danger.
Tubman even carried a gun which she used to threaten the fugitives if they became too tired or decided to turn back, telling them, "You'll be free or die.
On one occasion, she overheard some men reading her wanted poster, which stated that she was illiterate. She promptly pulled out a book and feigned reading it. The ploy was enough to fool the men. Tubman had made the perilous trip to slave country 19 times byincluding one especially challenging journey in which she rescued her year-old parents.
Of the famed heroine, who became known as "Moses," Frederick Douglass said, "Excepting John Brown -- of sacred memory -- I know of no one who has willingly encountered more perils and hardships to serve our enslaved people than [Harriet Tubman].
On the way to such a meeting in Boston inin an incident in Troy, New York, she helped a fugitive slave who had been captured. After the war she settled in Auburn, New York, where she would spend the rest of her long life. She died in Harriet Tubman summary: Harriet Tubman is often called the Moses of her people for leading so many of them out of bondage to freedom.
She was an abolitionist, an integral part of the Underground Railroad, a humanitarian, and a Union nurse and spy during the American Civil War.
Harriet Tubman was a fugitive slave, underground railroad conductor, abolitionist, spy, soldier, Civil War, African American, nurse, known for her work with Underground Railroad, Civil War service, and later, her advocacy of civil rights and woman suffrage.
Harriet Tubman (), born Araminta Ross, was a runaway slave and abolitionist who guided some fellow runaways to freedom as one of the most famous and successful "conductors" on the Underground Railroad.
Harriet Beecher Stowe summary: Harriet Beecher Stowe is best known for her novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, which played a significant role in accelerating the movement to abolish slavery in the United States.
The book originally was a serial in the anti-slavery newspaper The National Era in Born to. Harriet Tubman's career in the Railroad was ending by December She made her last rescue trip to Maryland, bringing seven people to Canada.
In the ten years she worked as a "conductor" on the Railroad, Harriet managed to rescue over people. Known as the “Moses of her people,” Harriet Tubman was enslaved, escaped, and helped others gain their freedom as a “conductor" of the Underground Railroad. Tubman also served as a scout, spy, guerrilla soldier, and nurse for the Union Army during the Civil War. | 1,057 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Between August and December 1918 a number of British Prisoners of War died at Heilsberg Prisoner of War camp in the east of Germany. It is likely their deaths were a result of insufficient food, overwork or one of the diseases that often swept through these overcrowded and insanitary camps. Conditions in Germany at this time were harsh. Food was scarce due to the blockade enforced by the Royal Navy, with the German Army and Navy having priority above the civil population, which suffered from the effects of malnutrition. Inevitably, rations for prisoners came even lower down the list of priorities for the German authorities.
Heilsberg was one of the Mannschaftslager, these were the soldiers' (as opposed to officers') camps. Normally these comprised wooden barracks about 150 feet in length (each housing 250 POWs), although it is believed that in Heilsberg camp the barrack blocks were partly underground to preserve heat. Most prisoners were required to work, despite the insufficient rations. The Heilsberg camp contained mainly Russian and Rumanian prisoners, with British and Commonwealth POWs only a small proportion of the camp population. (It is believed that in October 1918, there were about 1,000 British POWs at the camp at its satellite or sub-camps, out of a total of 95000 prisoners).
Food parcels were sent to the camps by relatives and groups (such as the Red Cross) from the UK and commonwealth. These food parcels were not only good for morale, but were probably instrumental in saving many prisoners from starvation. The contents of these parcels often included tea, condensed milk, jam, dried fruit, meat and cheese, as well as cigarettes and pipe tobacco.
Image: Great War Red Cross Poster. Source Wikipedia
Letters from home! Who can imagine what it meant to us? For fifteen weary months we had been forced by starvation and hardship to submit to humiliation and indignities, allowed barely sufficient food to keep body and soul together, and forced to gather weeds and herbs for sustenance; gaunt, unwashed, unshaven and devoured by vermin; knowing practically nothing of what was going on beyond our barbed wire enclosures; seemingly dead to the world, and, for all we knew, mourned as dead; would we ever see our loved ones again?
...And at last to see the old familiar handwriting; to be brought into touch with the outer world. At sight of those letters I broke down completely.
Tommy Taylor (captured 1917), Heilsberg prisoner-of-war camp (courtesy of the Department of Veterans Affairs, Australia).
One of the British prisoners was 19 year old Frank Bower from the West Riding of Yorkshire.
Frank had been born in Huddersfield on 30 March 1899 to John and Mary Ellen Bower. His parents lived at 54 New Street, Paddock, his father working on the railway. In the following years, the family moved from Paddock to Ravensthorpe, taking up residence at 4 Netherfield Road.
Image: Netherfield Road, Ravensthorpe. Frank lived in the middle house (courtesy author's collection).
Until he joined the army on 13 April 1917, Frank worked as a clerk in the goods department of the London and North West Railway Company in Dewsbury. He also attended Dewsbury Technical School. Like so many of his generation, Frank attended the Parish Church: St. Saviour's Church was just around the corner from his home.
IMAGE: Frank Bower
After joining the army, he had a prolonged period of training (partly due to the policy of not sending soldiers to France until they were 19 years old) - he was eventually posted overseas just after his 19th birthday in April 1918, joining the 22nd Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers, which was in the Houplines sector, near Armentieres.
Supposedly a quiet part of the front, this state of affairs was about to change as the Germans launched a massive onslaught on the British lines on 9 April. The fighting here became known as the Battle of the Lys. Frank was destined to see no fighting. He was admitted to hospital (possibly a casualty clearing station) on 9 April, suffering from a poisoned stomach. He was taken prisoner, probably when the casualty clearing station was over-run.
Although his parents had received a letter from him dated 6 April 1918, saying he was in the trenches, the next they heard was a report stating that he was missing "...as between April 11th and April 14th".
Image: British and Portuguese POWs, probably captured during the Battle of the Lys, April 1918. Source German Bundesarchiv
A further letter came to them on 4 May from one of Frank's comrades, giving them the news that Frank had been in hospital at the time of the German offensive. Desperate for information, they wrote to both this correspondent and to his commanding officer, but without receiving any reply. It was not until early June that they received a field postcard from him to say that he had been made a prisoner and he was at Limburg on the Lahn in Germany. Although no doubt worried about their son, Frank's parents were no doubt relieved that he was alive, and would have been confident that he would eventually return home. Unfortunately this was not to be the case.
In July Frank completed the will in his Army pay book, leaving everything to his mother.
In mid-October Frank's parents received a letter from him (he was now at Friedrichsfeld) to say that he was 'in the pink' (ie in good health). He went on to say that amongst the soldiers in his hut was George Hargreaves of 25 Back North Road, Ravensthorpe and Harry Gibson of 17 Anroyd Street, Westborough, Dewsbury. It is possible that this was his last letter home.
Sometime between writing this letter and the end of October, Frank was moved from Friedrichsfeld to Heilsberg Prisoner of War camp, about 80 miles east of the city of Dantzig (now Gdansk). It was here that on Tuesday 29 October, Private Frank Bernard Bower died, aged just 19.
Image: The burial of a POW at Schweidnitz POW camp. Image courtesy of the BBC.
Frank was buried at Heilsberg Prisoner of War Cemetery in Germany (the region was ceded to Poland after the Second World War; Heilsberg became Lidzbark Warminski). The cemetery contained several thousand burials, mainly of Russians and other eastern Europeans who had died as prisoners of war. The number of British prisoners (39) was a very small proportion of the total burials, which were made in a series of mass graves.
Image: Lidzbark Warminski Camp Cemetery. This contains over 2800 war graves. Nearly 2100 are of Russian POWs, there are also 500 Romanians, with other nationalities (British, French, Belgian, Italian and Serbs) making up less than 200 of the burials. Courtesy Wikipedia
The Imperial War Graves Commission (as it then was) realised in the 1930's that the 39 British burials could not be located amongst the mass graves. However, the men were commemorated on the site. This situation continued until the 1960's when it became apparent that the cemetery could no longer be adequately maintained. As part of the Commission's policy of ensuring all soldiers are commemorated, the 39 men were named on a small memorial at Malbork Commonwealth War Cemetery (75 miles away, to the west).
Image: the Memorial at Malbork which, from the 1960s, was how the 39 were commemorated.
Recently, as a result of improved accessibility and maintenance at the cemetery, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission has sought and obtained approval from local authorities for a project to erect 39 headstones to commemorate the casualties buried within the Heilsberg / Lidzbark Warminski cemetery. Official clearance to proceed was received in August 2013 and work on the project commenced.
The 39 headstones will be grouped in a special memorial plot, in the vicinity of a marker stone, known as a Duhallow Block (so called because the first such memorials were erected in Duhallow A.D.S. Cemetery, near Ypres in Belgium.) The block will be engraved with the inscription seen below:
THE MEN IN WHOSE MEMORY THE HEADSTONES IN THIS GROUP HAVE BEEN ERECTED DIED IN CAPTIVITY DURING THE 1914-1919 WAR AND ARE BURIED ELSEWHERE IN THIS CEMETERY
The headstones will be numbered 1 – 39 and have been assigned to each casualty in alphabetical order. The new Lidzbark Warminski War Cemetery (located here) was completed in 2014.
Image: The entrance to the Lidzbark Warminski cemetery.
Relatives of the The "Heilsberg 39" are being sought by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. After some investigation work by The Western Front Association's David Tattersfield, a summary of the home addresses of the 39 men is shown below.Download PDF
The rededication ceremony took place on Friday, 16 May 2014.
WFA Development Trustee | <urn:uuid:7423eb01-8ad6-4a18-8bac-9def6b1d5a05> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.westernfrontassociation.com/world-war-i-articles/the-heilsberg-39-a-new-british-first-world-war-cemetery-in-poland/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00499.warc.gz | en | 0.985076 | 1,906 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.417384058237... | 1 | Between August and December 1918 a number of British Prisoners of War died at Heilsberg Prisoner of War camp in the east of Germany. It is likely their deaths were a result of insufficient food, overwork or one of the diseases that often swept through these overcrowded and insanitary camps. Conditions in Germany at this time were harsh. Food was scarce due to the blockade enforced by the Royal Navy, with the German Army and Navy having priority above the civil population, which suffered from the effects of malnutrition. Inevitably, rations for prisoners came even lower down the list of priorities for the German authorities.
Heilsberg was one of the Mannschaftslager, these were the soldiers' (as opposed to officers') camps. Normally these comprised wooden barracks about 150 feet in length (each housing 250 POWs), although it is believed that in Heilsberg camp the barrack blocks were partly underground to preserve heat. Most prisoners were required to work, despite the insufficient rations. The Heilsberg camp contained mainly Russian and Rumanian prisoners, with British and Commonwealth POWs only a small proportion of the camp population. (It is believed that in October 1918, there were about 1,000 British POWs at the camp at its satellite or sub-camps, out of a total of 95000 prisoners).
Food parcels were sent to the camps by relatives and groups (such as the Red Cross) from the UK and commonwealth. These food parcels were not only good for morale, but were probably instrumental in saving many prisoners from starvation. The contents of these parcels often included tea, condensed milk, jam, dried fruit, meat and cheese, as well as cigarettes and pipe tobacco.
Image: Great War Red Cross Poster. Source Wikipedia
Letters from home! Who can imagine what it meant to us? For fifteen weary months we had been forced by starvation and hardship to submit to humiliation and indignities, allowed barely sufficient food to keep body and soul together, and forced to gather weeds and herbs for sustenance; gaunt, unwashed, unshaven and devoured by vermin; knowing practically nothing of what was going on beyond our barbed wire enclosures; seemingly dead to the world, and, for all we knew, mourned as dead; would we ever see our loved ones again?
...And at last to see the old familiar handwriting; to be brought into touch with the outer world. At sight of those letters I broke down completely.
Tommy Taylor (captured 1917), Heilsberg prisoner-of-war camp (courtesy of the Department of Veterans Affairs, Australia).
One of the British prisoners was 19 year old Frank Bower from the West Riding of Yorkshire.
Frank had been born in Huddersfield on 30 March 1899 to John and Mary Ellen Bower. His parents lived at 54 New Street, Paddock, his father working on the railway. In the following years, the family moved from Paddock to Ravensthorpe, taking up residence at 4 Netherfield Road.
Image: Netherfield Road, Ravensthorpe. Frank lived in the middle house (courtesy author's collection).
Until he joined the army on 13 April 1917, Frank worked as a clerk in the goods department of the London and North West Railway Company in Dewsbury. He also attended Dewsbury Technical School. Like so many of his generation, Frank attended the Parish Church: St. Saviour's Church was just around the corner from his home.
IMAGE: Frank Bower
After joining the army, he had a prolonged period of training (partly due to the policy of not sending soldiers to France until they were 19 years old) - he was eventually posted overseas just after his 19th birthday in April 1918, joining the 22nd Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers, which was in the Houplines sector, near Armentieres.
Supposedly a quiet part of the front, this state of affairs was about to change as the Germans launched a massive onslaught on the British lines on 9 April. The fighting here became known as the Battle of the Lys. Frank was destined to see no fighting. He was admitted to hospital (possibly a casualty clearing station) on 9 April, suffering from a poisoned stomach. He was taken prisoner, probably when the casualty clearing station was over-run.
Although his parents had received a letter from him dated 6 April 1918, saying he was in the trenches, the next they heard was a report stating that he was missing "...as between April 11th and April 14th".
Image: British and Portuguese POWs, probably captured during the Battle of the Lys, April 1918. Source German Bundesarchiv
A further letter came to them on 4 May from one of Frank's comrades, giving them the news that Frank had been in hospital at the time of the German offensive. Desperate for information, they wrote to both this correspondent and to his commanding officer, but without receiving any reply. It was not until early June that they received a field postcard from him to say that he had been made a prisoner and he was at Limburg on the Lahn in Germany. Although no doubt worried about their son, Frank's parents were no doubt relieved that he was alive, and would have been confident that he would eventually return home. Unfortunately this was not to be the case.
In July Frank completed the will in his Army pay book, leaving everything to his mother.
In mid-October Frank's parents received a letter from him (he was now at Friedrichsfeld) to say that he was 'in the pink' (ie in good health). He went on to say that amongst the soldiers in his hut was George Hargreaves of 25 Back North Road, Ravensthorpe and Harry Gibson of 17 Anroyd Street, Westborough, Dewsbury. It is possible that this was his last letter home.
Sometime between writing this letter and the end of October, Frank was moved from Friedrichsfeld to Heilsberg Prisoner of War camp, about 80 miles east of the city of Dantzig (now Gdansk). It was here that on Tuesday 29 October, Private Frank Bernard Bower died, aged just 19.
Image: The burial of a POW at Schweidnitz POW camp. Image courtesy of the BBC.
Frank was buried at Heilsberg Prisoner of War Cemetery in Germany (the region was ceded to Poland after the Second World War; Heilsberg became Lidzbark Warminski). The cemetery contained several thousand burials, mainly of Russians and other eastern Europeans who had died as prisoners of war. The number of British prisoners (39) was a very small proportion of the total burials, which were made in a series of mass graves.
Image: Lidzbark Warminski Camp Cemetery. This contains over 2800 war graves. Nearly 2100 are of Russian POWs, there are also 500 Romanians, with other nationalities (British, French, Belgian, Italian and Serbs) making up less than 200 of the burials. Courtesy Wikipedia
The Imperial War Graves Commission (as it then was) realised in the 1930's that the 39 British burials could not be located amongst the mass graves. However, the men were commemorated on the site. This situation continued until the 1960's when it became apparent that the cemetery could no longer be adequately maintained. As part of the Commission's policy of ensuring all soldiers are commemorated, the 39 men were named on a small memorial at Malbork Commonwealth War Cemetery (75 miles away, to the west).
Image: the Memorial at Malbork which, from the 1960s, was how the 39 were commemorated.
Recently, as a result of improved accessibility and maintenance at the cemetery, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission has sought and obtained approval from local authorities for a project to erect 39 headstones to commemorate the casualties buried within the Heilsberg / Lidzbark Warminski cemetery. Official clearance to proceed was received in August 2013 and work on the project commenced.
The 39 headstones will be grouped in a special memorial plot, in the vicinity of a marker stone, known as a Duhallow Block (so called because the first such memorials were erected in Duhallow A.D.S. Cemetery, near Ypres in Belgium.) The block will be engraved with the inscription seen below:
THE MEN IN WHOSE MEMORY THE HEADSTONES IN THIS GROUP HAVE BEEN ERECTED DIED IN CAPTIVITY DURING THE 1914-1919 WAR AND ARE BURIED ELSEWHERE IN THIS CEMETERY
The headstones will be numbered 1 – 39 and have been assigned to each casualty in alphabetical order. The new Lidzbark Warminski War Cemetery (located here) was completed in 2014.
Image: The entrance to the Lidzbark Warminski cemetery.
Relatives of the The "Heilsberg 39" are being sought by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. After some investigation work by The Western Front Association's David Tattersfield, a summary of the home addresses of the 39 men is shown below.Download PDF
The rededication ceremony took place on Friday, 16 May 2014.
WFA Development Trustee | 2,009 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In reaction to the mistreatment of prisoners of war during the nineteenth century, beginning in 1864 a series of international meetings known as the Geneva Convention was held. The result was a set of rules regarding the humane treatment of prisoners of war, as well as the sick, the wounded, and those who died in battle. Despite some improvements as a result of the Geneva Convention and the rules for the treatment of prisoners of war that were defined at the Second Hague Conference of 1907, the conditions under which prisoners existed continued to be atrocious in many instances. During World War II for example, American soldiers captured by the Japanese were subjected to inhuman treatment and forced to survive on a near-starvation diet. In many ways, however, American soldiers who were taken prisoner by the Viet Cong or North Vietnamese during the Vietnam War suffered an even worse fate. Reminiscent of the treatment of inmates in concentration camps during World War 11, prisoners in Vietnam were malnourished, treated like animals, and made to perform unpatriotic or immoral acts. They suffered not only from physical disorders such as diarrhea, serious infections, and malnutrition but also from anxiety, depression, headaches, insomnia, irritability, nightmares, and other psychological disturbances.
The camp's conditions beggar description. At any time there were about 11 men who lived in a bamboo hut, sleeping on one crowded bamboo bed about 16 feet across. The basic diet was three small cups of red, rotten, vermin-infested rice a day. Within the first year the average prisoner lost 40 to 50 percent of his body weight, and acquired running sores and atrophied muscles. There were two prominent killers: malnutrition and helplessness. (Seligman, 1992, p. 166)
The physical and psychological changes in one prisoner caused by the loss of any hope of release from captivity and his resulting feelings of helplessness were described by a survivor of a Viet Cong prison camp:
Finally it dawned on him that he had been deceived—that he had already served his captors' purpose, and he wasn't going to be released. He stopped working and showed signs of severe depression: he refused food and lay on his bed in a fetal position, sucking his thumb. His fellow prisoners tried to bring him around. They hugged him, babied him, and when this didn't work, tried to bring him out of his stupor with their fists. He defecated and urinated in the bed. After a few weeks, it was apparent that [he] was moribund: although otherwise his gross physical shape was still better than most of the others, he was dusky and cyanotic. In the early hours of a November morning he lay dying ... (Seligman, 1992, p. 168)
Depending on the length of imprisonment and the harshness of the treatment, prisoners of war who survive the experience of captivity generally manifest a variety of debilitating conditions: lowered resistance to disease and frustration, greater dependence on alcohol and drugs, and general emotional instability (Hunter, 1978; O'Connell, 1976; Wilbur, 1973). Even among Vietnam veterans who had not been imprisoned, the frequency of depression, marital problems, and divorce was more common than among individuals of the same age who did not go to war (Hunter, 1981). For months and even years after their return, many of these veterans continued to have anxiety attacks, nightmares, insomnia, relationship problems, substance-abuse problems, and "flashbacks" (reexperiencing a stressful event) related to their stressful experiences of combat and captivity. These symptoms, referred to collectively as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have also been observed in civilians who have suffered through earthquakes, airplane clashes, shipwrecks, and other highly stressful events.
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:d41e99d0-b671-4a89-900d-a0b49e3368a0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ormedmedical.us/human-nutrition/captivity-and-posttraumatic-stress-disorder.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.982817 | 775 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.8220229744911194,... | 1 | In reaction to the mistreatment of prisoners of war during the nineteenth century, beginning in 1864 a series of international meetings known as the Geneva Convention was held. The result was a set of rules regarding the humane treatment of prisoners of war, as well as the sick, the wounded, and those who died in battle. Despite some improvements as a result of the Geneva Convention and the rules for the treatment of prisoners of war that were defined at the Second Hague Conference of 1907, the conditions under which prisoners existed continued to be atrocious in many instances. During World War II for example, American soldiers captured by the Japanese were subjected to inhuman treatment and forced to survive on a near-starvation diet. In many ways, however, American soldiers who were taken prisoner by the Viet Cong or North Vietnamese during the Vietnam War suffered an even worse fate. Reminiscent of the treatment of inmates in concentration camps during World War 11, prisoners in Vietnam were malnourished, treated like animals, and made to perform unpatriotic or immoral acts. They suffered not only from physical disorders such as diarrhea, serious infections, and malnutrition but also from anxiety, depression, headaches, insomnia, irritability, nightmares, and other psychological disturbances.
The camp's conditions beggar description. At any time there were about 11 men who lived in a bamboo hut, sleeping on one crowded bamboo bed about 16 feet across. The basic diet was three small cups of red, rotten, vermin-infested rice a day. Within the first year the average prisoner lost 40 to 50 percent of his body weight, and acquired running sores and atrophied muscles. There were two prominent killers: malnutrition and helplessness. (Seligman, 1992, p. 166)
The physical and psychological changes in one prisoner caused by the loss of any hope of release from captivity and his resulting feelings of helplessness were described by a survivor of a Viet Cong prison camp:
Finally it dawned on him that he had been deceived—that he had already served his captors' purpose, and he wasn't going to be released. He stopped working and showed signs of severe depression: he refused food and lay on his bed in a fetal position, sucking his thumb. His fellow prisoners tried to bring him around. They hugged him, babied him, and when this didn't work, tried to bring him out of his stupor with their fists. He defecated and urinated in the bed. After a few weeks, it was apparent that [he] was moribund: although otherwise his gross physical shape was still better than most of the others, he was dusky and cyanotic. In the early hours of a November morning he lay dying ... (Seligman, 1992, p. 168)
Depending on the length of imprisonment and the harshness of the treatment, prisoners of war who survive the experience of captivity generally manifest a variety of debilitating conditions: lowered resistance to disease and frustration, greater dependence on alcohol and drugs, and general emotional instability (Hunter, 1978; O'Connell, 1976; Wilbur, 1973). Even among Vietnam veterans who had not been imprisoned, the frequency of depression, marital problems, and divorce was more common than among individuals of the same age who did not go to war (Hunter, 1981). For months and even years after their return, many of these veterans continued to have anxiety attacks, nightmares, insomnia, relationship problems, substance-abuse problems, and "flashbacks" (reexperiencing a stressful event) related to their stressful experiences of combat and captivity. These symptoms, referred to collectively as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have also been observed in civilians who have suffered through earthquakes, airplane clashes, shipwrecks, and other highly stressful events.
Was this article helpful? | 814 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Music teachers should possess the attributes of the love of music and the enjoyment of working with people. Both these attribute help one effectively teach music. Teachers believe their work is important and worthwhile because of the progress they see in students and how that progress makes the teachers feel. A teacher will feel good if they can take that one tone deaf student that loves singing and get him to sing pitches correctly. This is meaningful. But why do we teach music?
Music education is just as important as formal education to our society. In the US, music was first taught in schools around the 1700s. However, in Europe, the formal teaching of music can be traced back to the early 8th and 9th centuries. This was the time when many ancient Greek philosophers claimed music and the arts to be key to children’s’ moral development. People of this time had the idea of the Quadrivium. The quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Music was set at such a high regard because it was viewed as central to those seeking to fulfill humanistic goals. This is for both vocal and instrumental music. Music became a significant part of the lives of the Pilgrims and settlers that were in the Northern Colonies of the first American settlements. They have the same religious reasons early Europeans had because many settlers brought their beliefs with them when journeying to the new world. I hope one day music can return to where it once was in reference to importance in our society.
Although music education is a controversial issue in schools, I personally believe that keeping music programs in schools is beneficial to the development of students. Formal education is how we expose learners to many different disciplines. When students are allowed to experience many different subjects, they become well-rounded, and are better able to find their strengths and weaknesses. Developing skills in multiple subjects makes students more attractive to colleges. | <urn:uuid:c420373f-a3a5-4366-9d5b-209c27898c51> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.orange.k12.nj.us/Page/10733 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.982997 | 384 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.4324009716510... | 2 | Music teachers should possess the attributes of the love of music and the enjoyment of working with people. Both these attribute help one effectively teach music. Teachers believe their work is important and worthwhile because of the progress they see in students and how that progress makes the teachers feel. A teacher will feel good if they can take that one tone deaf student that loves singing and get him to sing pitches correctly. This is meaningful. But why do we teach music?
Music education is just as important as formal education to our society. In the US, music was first taught in schools around the 1700s. However, in Europe, the formal teaching of music can be traced back to the early 8th and 9th centuries. This was the time when many ancient Greek philosophers claimed music and the arts to be key to children’s’ moral development. People of this time had the idea of the Quadrivium. The quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Music was set at such a high regard because it was viewed as central to those seeking to fulfill humanistic goals. This is for both vocal and instrumental music. Music became a significant part of the lives of the Pilgrims and settlers that were in the Northern Colonies of the first American settlements. They have the same religious reasons early Europeans had because many settlers brought their beliefs with them when journeying to the new world. I hope one day music can return to where it once was in reference to importance in our society.
Although music education is a controversial issue in schools, I personally believe that keeping music programs in schools is beneficial to the development of students. Formal education is how we expose learners to many different disciplines. When students are allowed to experience many different subjects, they become well-rounded, and are better able to find their strengths and weaknesses. Developing skills in multiple subjects makes students more attractive to colleges. | 381 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Dr. James Sulikowski, a professor of marine science at the University of New England, and his team was chumming the waters off the coast of Maine just after dawn July 2, they hoped to attract a porbeagle shark that they could tag and collect samples for research.
Instead, they found something much worse than they expected.
Sulikowski and members of the Maine-based Sulikowski Shark and Fish Research Lab were able to get a shark to follow their chum line to the bait. They reeled it in to secure it alongside their boat so they could begin the sampling procedure.
They'd landed a 7-foot porbeagle shark with a strip of plastic lodged around her neck.
"I immediately knew something was wrong as we were pulling her close," Sulikowski wrote in an email.
The plastic was wrapped around her gills and was cutting through her skin and into her muscles.
"We do not know for sure where the plastic came from, but it appears to be similar to that found around commercial fish bait boxes," Sulikowski said.
He was able to cut and remove the plastic, and he thinks the shark would have died if he hadn't done so. He believes that it has been there for years, wrapping around her neck when she was younger and digging in as she grew.
After the research team collected some samples, they attached a satellite tag to the shark's dorsal fin and released her, hoping to track her recovery.
"Given the nature of her injury and her fortitude to not give up, we have named her Destiny because she is definitely a survivor!," the research team wrote on Facebook.
Porbeagle sharks can live up to 65 years, according to Oceana . The largest ever recorded was 11.7 feet long. Porbeagles do not have any known natural predators due to their size, but they are still vulnerable to extinction.
"The porbeagle shark is considered vulnerable to the risk of global extinction by the [International Union for Conservation of Nature], is listed as an endangered species in Canada, and is considered a candidate species for being listed as endangered in US waters," Sulikowski said. "Due to the of the state of their population, we are collaborating with [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration] fisheries to provide updated information on the biology, ecology, and movement patterns of the shark. It's hoped this work will provide information to help better manage and conserve this species."
Sulikowski and his team have continued to monitor Destiny,
writing on Twitter
on Sunday that she is "alive and well and transmitting like a champ." | <urn:uuid:38b48916-a597-4858-9fe6-76fdfadd0857> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wmar2news.com/news/national/a-7-foot-shark-was-found-growing-around-a-plastic-ring-embedded-deep-in-her-muscles | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00336.warc.gz | en | 0.984956 | 544 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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-0.0329162962734... | 14 | When Dr. James Sulikowski, a professor of marine science at the University of New England, and his team was chumming the waters off the coast of Maine just after dawn July 2, they hoped to attract a porbeagle shark that they could tag and collect samples for research.
Instead, they found something much worse than they expected.
Sulikowski and members of the Maine-based Sulikowski Shark and Fish Research Lab were able to get a shark to follow their chum line to the bait. They reeled it in to secure it alongside their boat so they could begin the sampling procedure.
They'd landed a 7-foot porbeagle shark with a strip of plastic lodged around her neck.
"I immediately knew something was wrong as we were pulling her close," Sulikowski wrote in an email.
The plastic was wrapped around her gills and was cutting through her skin and into her muscles.
"We do not know for sure where the plastic came from, but it appears to be similar to that found around commercial fish bait boxes," Sulikowski said.
He was able to cut and remove the plastic, and he thinks the shark would have died if he hadn't done so. He believes that it has been there for years, wrapping around her neck when she was younger and digging in as she grew.
After the research team collected some samples, they attached a satellite tag to the shark's dorsal fin and released her, hoping to track her recovery.
"Given the nature of her injury and her fortitude to not give up, we have named her Destiny because she is definitely a survivor!," the research team wrote on Facebook.
Porbeagle sharks can live up to 65 years, according to Oceana . The largest ever recorded was 11.7 feet long. Porbeagles do not have any known natural predators due to their size, but they are still vulnerable to extinction.
"The porbeagle shark is considered vulnerable to the risk of global extinction by the [International Union for Conservation of Nature], is listed as an endangered species in Canada, and is considered a candidate species for being listed as endangered in US waters," Sulikowski said. "Due to the of the state of their population, we are collaborating with [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration] fisheries to provide updated information on the biology, ecology, and movement patterns of the shark. It's hoped this work will provide information to help better manage and conserve this species."
Sulikowski and his team have continued to monitor Destiny,
writing on Twitter
on Sunday that she is "alive and well and transmitting like a champ." | 531 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ancient Greeks strongly thought that fate ruled their lives. The gods, they thought, recognized the fate of each and every one of them. Their fate was determined at birth. This approach ended up being the driving force in Greek catastrophes. The three Theban plays of Sophocles including Oedipus as well as his household show this belief with heartbreaking results in each circumstances. Yet destiny plays a much various duty in the play Antigone than it carries out in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex. Oedipus was warned by the gods along with by prophets.
He lived his life in expectancy of his fate, whereas Antigone appears to serve as the master of her very own fate.
Both end up unfortunately with fate playing a starring role; yet in Antigone there are various other subtleties of fate that drive the story. The Duty of Fate in Sophocles’ Antigone Modern man is an animal of his free choice. A person who devotes a crime such as murder does so of his own free choice. If an individual being pursued murder were to suggest that it was fate– that he was destined to kill, this argument would certainly not bring much weight with a jury. This principle of guy’s free will is something that was not a part of old Greek approach. The gods ruled the lives of the Greeks and, they believed, directed their destiny.
The Greeks had three gods of destiny– the Moirai– who were thought to “spin the threads of a human fate” (Fate, 2008). Their names personified their functions– Clotho (Rewriter) was the siren that wove the destiny of everyone; Lachesis (Allotter) was the one who dispensed the fate; and also Atropos (Inflexible) determined when the thread of destiny would certainly be cut (the moment of an individual’s death) (Fate, 2008). They additionally counted on oracles or seers who predicted their destiny. Although these prophecies were typically misunderstood, the Greeks took them to heart, living their lives according to what they identified (appropriately or mistakenly) was their fate.
They were animals of the gods and also this ideology suffused their lives. They lived their lives going after expertise of their destiny, a difficult task thinking about that the gods as well as the oracles provided only an imprecise item of their tale. The Greek god Zeus, they thought, can conserve them from destiny if he desired. But most of the time, Zeus took no duty in the fate of each person. The Greeks’ perception of the function of fate in their lives was frequently the subject of Greek dramatization. Aeschylus depicts his personalities as driven by the activities of the gods.
Euripides’ personalities were ordinary Greeks portrayed as they were. Yet Sophocles created personalities who were “controlled in their fate more by their own mistakes than by the actions of the gods” (Sophocles, 2007). This is especially real in his play Antigone, where the title character is driven by her feeling of family members instead of her obedience to the regulation. She defies the order of her uncle, Creon, who ended up being the leader of Thebes upon the death of her sibling Eteocles by the hand of her other bro Polyneices. Creon orders that Polyneices, as a traitor to Thebes, must lie unburied (Sophocles, 1996).
Antigone resists his order and also spreads funeral oil as well as earth over her sibling’s body. She is identified to bury her sibling, no matter what the repercussions. She is certain that she is best and also she does not swerve from her goal. According to Lines in her essay Antigone’s Problems, the flaw of hubris in Antigone is forgotten since she appears to be doing the appropriate thing– following the law of the gods over the regulation of a plain mortal (Lines, 1999) but it is her very own persistence and possible ill-placed satisfaction in what she is doing that brings about her ultimate fatality. It is not the prophesy of a seer that establishes her destiny.
Basically, she is the master of her very own fate, unlike her dad whose destiny was determined by the gods and the prophecies of the oracles early in his life. Both Oedipus, Antigone’s papa, and Antigone herself experience the heartbreaking effects of their activities, yet Antigone, also if her destiny were spun by the Moirai, had possibilities to change her fate; Oedipus, by the time he recognized exactly how his life had been predetermined, truly had no choice in the issue. To prove her factor, Lines cites the carolers in Antigone who say that Antigone is “a law unto herself” (Lines, 1999).
Her fate, consequently, is self-willed. She is drawn to her destiny by her “self-certainty or, perhaps even much better, self-righteousness … a kind of hubris” (Lines, 1999). Her setting is strengthened in an essay by Leach in which she says “That ‘a guy’s personality is his destiny’, as Heraclitus claims, is a concept plainly identified certainly by the Greek dramatization” (Leach, 1917, 139). The philosophy of destiny and also destiny in old Greece was necessary to the unfortunate plays of males like Sophocles, however it did not constantly play the very same function in every dramatization.
There are those personalities that are predestined to accomplish the textile of fate woven for them by the Moirai at birth. As well as there are others whose problems seal their fate– a fate that may or else be stayed clear of. Antigone falls into the latter classification, her willfulness and also sanctity causing an awful end not just for her, yet likewise for her lover Haemon and his mommy Eurydice.
Recommendations Fate. (2008 ). In Encyclop? dia Britannica. Retrieved November 11, 2008, from Encyclop? dia Britannica Online http://www. britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202442/Fate Leach, Abby. (1917 ). Destiny and also free choice in Greek literary works. The Greek Genius and also Its Influence: Select Essays and Extracts. Lane Cooper ed. ). New Sanctuary, CT: Yale College Press. 1917. Lines, Patricia M. (1999 ). Antigone’s problem. Humanitas, 12, 4. Gotten November 11, 2008 from Questia. com data source. Sophocles. (2007 ). In The Columbia Encyclopedia (sixth ed. ). Fetched November 11, 2008, from Questia. com data source. Sophocles. (1996 ). The Oedipus Plays of Sophocles. (Paul Roche, Trans. ). New York City: Meridian. | <urn:uuid:e7affad2-c47c-495b-987d-d4baa4cb4052> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://whisperseer.com/the-role-of-fate-in-sophocles-antigone-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.980279 | 1,476 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.1116942167282... | 1 | The ancient Greeks strongly thought that fate ruled their lives. The gods, they thought, recognized the fate of each and every one of them. Their fate was determined at birth. This approach ended up being the driving force in Greek catastrophes. The three Theban plays of Sophocles including Oedipus as well as his household show this belief with heartbreaking results in each circumstances. Yet destiny plays a much various duty in the play Antigone than it carries out in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex. Oedipus was warned by the gods along with by prophets.
He lived his life in expectancy of his fate, whereas Antigone appears to serve as the master of her very own fate.
Both end up unfortunately with fate playing a starring role; yet in Antigone there are various other subtleties of fate that drive the story. The Duty of Fate in Sophocles’ Antigone Modern man is an animal of his free choice. A person who devotes a crime such as murder does so of his own free choice. If an individual being pursued murder were to suggest that it was fate– that he was destined to kill, this argument would certainly not bring much weight with a jury. This principle of guy’s free will is something that was not a part of old Greek approach. The gods ruled the lives of the Greeks and, they believed, directed their destiny.
The Greeks had three gods of destiny– the Moirai– who were thought to “spin the threads of a human fate” (Fate, 2008). Their names personified their functions– Clotho (Rewriter) was the siren that wove the destiny of everyone; Lachesis (Allotter) was the one who dispensed the fate; and also Atropos (Inflexible) determined when the thread of destiny would certainly be cut (the moment of an individual’s death) (Fate, 2008). They additionally counted on oracles or seers who predicted their destiny. Although these prophecies were typically misunderstood, the Greeks took them to heart, living their lives according to what they identified (appropriately or mistakenly) was their fate.
They were animals of the gods and also this ideology suffused their lives. They lived their lives going after expertise of their destiny, a difficult task thinking about that the gods as well as the oracles provided only an imprecise item of their tale. The Greek god Zeus, they thought, can conserve them from destiny if he desired. But most of the time, Zeus took no duty in the fate of each person. The Greeks’ perception of the function of fate in their lives was frequently the subject of Greek dramatization. Aeschylus depicts his personalities as driven by the activities of the gods.
Euripides’ personalities were ordinary Greeks portrayed as they were. Yet Sophocles created personalities who were “controlled in their fate more by their own mistakes than by the actions of the gods” (Sophocles, 2007). This is especially real in his play Antigone, where the title character is driven by her feeling of family members instead of her obedience to the regulation. She defies the order of her uncle, Creon, who ended up being the leader of Thebes upon the death of her sibling Eteocles by the hand of her other bro Polyneices. Creon orders that Polyneices, as a traitor to Thebes, must lie unburied (Sophocles, 1996).
Antigone resists his order and also spreads funeral oil as well as earth over her sibling’s body. She is identified to bury her sibling, no matter what the repercussions. She is certain that she is best and also she does not swerve from her goal. According to Lines in her essay Antigone’s Problems, the flaw of hubris in Antigone is forgotten since she appears to be doing the appropriate thing– following the law of the gods over the regulation of a plain mortal (Lines, 1999) but it is her very own persistence and possible ill-placed satisfaction in what she is doing that brings about her ultimate fatality. It is not the prophesy of a seer that establishes her destiny.
Basically, she is the master of her very own fate, unlike her dad whose destiny was determined by the gods and the prophecies of the oracles early in his life. Both Oedipus, Antigone’s papa, and Antigone herself experience the heartbreaking effects of their activities, yet Antigone, also if her destiny were spun by the Moirai, had possibilities to change her fate; Oedipus, by the time he recognized exactly how his life had been predetermined, truly had no choice in the issue. To prove her factor, Lines cites the carolers in Antigone who say that Antigone is “a law unto herself” (Lines, 1999).
Her fate, consequently, is self-willed. She is drawn to her destiny by her “self-certainty or, perhaps even much better, self-righteousness … a kind of hubris” (Lines, 1999). Her setting is strengthened in an essay by Leach in which she says “That ‘a guy’s personality is his destiny’, as Heraclitus claims, is a concept plainly identified certainly by the Greek dramatization” (Leach, 1917, 139). The philosophy of destiny and also destiny in old Greece was necessary to the unfortunate plays of males like Sophocles, however it did not constantly play the very same function in every dramatization.
There are those personalities that are predestined to accomplish the textile of fate woven for them by the Moirai at birth. As well as there are others whose problems seal their fate– a fate that may or else be stayed clear of. Antigone falls into the latter classification, her willfulness and also sanctity causing an awful end not just for her, yet likewise for her lover Haemon and his mommy Eurydice.
Recommendations Fate. (2008 ). In Encyclop? dia Britannica. Retrieved November 11, 2008, from Encyclop? dia Britannica Online http://www. britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202442/Fate Leach, Abby. (1917 ). Destiny and also free choice in Greek literary works. The Greek Genius and also Its Influence: Select Essays and Extracts. Lane Cooper ed. ). New Sanctuary, CT: Yale College Press. 1917. Lines, Patricia M. (1999 ). Antigone’s problem. Humanitas, 12, 4. Gotten November 11, 2008 from Questia. com data source. Sophocles. (2007 ). In The Columbia Encyclopedia (sixth ed. ). Fetched November 11, 2008, from Questia. com data source. Sophocles. (1996 ). The Oedipus Plays of Sophocles. (Paul Roche, Trans. ). New York City: Meridian. | 1,503 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Some of the Outstanding People_
Albert Einstein is known all over the world as a brilliant physicist and the founder of the theory of relativity. He is perhaps the greatest scientist of the 20th century. Some of his ides made possible the A-bombs, as well as TV and other inventions. He was born in 1879 in a small German town. The Einstein family soon moved to Munich, where Albert went to school. Neither his parents, nor his school teachers thought much of his mental abilities. In 1895 Albert failed the entrance examination to a technical college in Zurich. A year ago, however, he managed to pass the exam and entered the college. After graduating from college, Einstein started to work at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905 he wrote a short article in a science magazine. This was his "Special Theory of Relativity", the basis of Atomic energy. Later he became a professor in several European universities and in 1914 moved to Berlin as a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. After ten years of work, he created his "General Theory of Relativity". In 1921 Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics. A Jew, and a pacifist, he was attacked by Nazis, and when Hitler came to power in 1933 he decided to settle in the USA. After the war he spoke out passionately against nuclear weapons and repression. Einstein died in 1955. The artificial element einsteinium has been named in his honour.
William Hogarth was one of the greatest of English artists and a man of remarkably individual character and thought. He observed life with keen and critical eye and his range of observation was dramatic composition. Hogarth was a social painter who produced his own pictorial drama composition comprising various scenes of society's social life. His art was a reflection and interpretation on the social condition of his time. Hogarth's magnificent powers of composition were fully displayed in his series of engravings, the most famous is "The Marriage a-la-Mode". Hogarth was also a brilliant portrait painter. In portraiture he displayed a great variety. The portrait of his own face gives an idea of that keen and brave look with which William Hogarth regarded the world.
Levitan was one of the first painters of Russian scenery to reveal its beauty. He is a real poet of the Russian countryside. Levitan is a very special sort of painter. There is something is his landscapes that reflects our moods. He deeply felt what he wanted to depict. A master of landscape, he never introduced figures into it. Thought if you look at "The autumn in Sokolniky" you will notice the figure in the center. Everything seems to underline the loneliness of this figure: the trees loosing their leaves, the remote indifferent sky, the path going off into the distance. But the fact is that it was not Levitan who painted this figure. It was Chekhov's brother Nikolay who did it. Levitan's influence over lyrical landscape painters can't be over estimated. His paintings have won the love and gratitude of people.
John Constable , the greatest of English landscape painters, came from the Suffolk, and it was from the Suffolk landscape that he drew his inspiration. Constable's affection for nature was great and his mastery to show the much loved English scene reached its marvelous peak. He always attempted to depict the transient effects of nature: light, clouds and rain. Constable was an acute observer of nature and had a romantic passion for light. Constable's method of painting was nearest to Impressionism. His treatment of skies is especially notable. No one has painted cloud effects so truthfully and with so much skill.
Stanley Spencer is one of the most original of modern British artists. He was a painter of imaginative and religious subjects, landscapes and occasional portraits. "Swan Upping" is one of Spencer's best known pictures. This painting has an air of hightened reality; the light reflected from the water suggests moonlight, yet events take place in the foreground in daylight. There is anxiety in the immobilized swans and the face of the woman on the bridge, a mood enhanced by the serrated edges of the clouds and the flame-like branches of the tree on the right. An ordinary scene made to appeal extraordinary. Spencer's works are well represented in the Tate Gallery collection and the exhibition reveals the full range of his output, from early drawings done while still a student to his late self-portrait, painted a few months before his death in 1959.
Margaret Thatcher was the longest Prime Minister of the 20th century. Her style and her views appealed to mane British people who had lost confidence in the welfare state and in the direction the nation had taken. In some ways she was the first genuine leader the nation had had since Churchill. Margaret Thatcher began her career in politics, when she became a Conservative Member of Parliament. in 1979 she was elected as Britain's first woman Prime Minister. From the start, her autocratic style earned her the nickname of "The Iron Lady". Her abrasive manner has attracted some criticism. During the Falklands War of 1982, however, Margaret Thatcher's militant patriotism found her many supporters, and she became something of a popular hero-figure, much as Winston Churchill had been in the Second World War. Margaret Thatcher was re-elected Prime Minister in the general elections of 1983 and 1987.
Andrew Wyet is one of the prominent living American painters. He was born in 1917. The son of illustrator - Andrew is the leading member of the dynasty of painters that includes his sisters, their husbands and his own two sons. He won fame at the age of 12 for his illustrations of "Robin Hood". He was 20 when he first exhibited his paintings. Andrew studied with his father and was strongly influenced by him. His father's style of illustration expresses sentimentality. But very early the young artist gravitated a way from his teacher. Wyet's style is both precise and minute in detail, he is a realist influenced by photography. He painted portraits, landscapes, seascapes and domestic scenery. His favorite media are tempera and water colors. His works are easily recognized by dimly lit and deserted landscapes in tones of grey and brown which convey the feeling of loveliness and solitude. His most famous works are "Christina's world" and "Inland shell".
William Shakespeare. When to speak about world literature, then the name of William Shakespeare is the best to explain the real value of literature in the world of art. William Shakespeare is generally regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist of English literature. He wrote 37 plays which continue to be read widely and produced frequently throughout the world. Shakespeare was a master at creating a certain atmosphere of a play, its general mood or feeling. It could be melancholy, lively or frightening, tragic or mystical. The power and beauty of his language helped build the prevailing mood in each play. Shakespeare's genius lays in his power of understanding human nature which is the same today, tomorrow and forever. He showed the world of men in its complexity and variety. His plays have the same powerful impact an audience today as they did when they were first staged. There is no writer who has touched the depth and height of characters as Shakespeare did. There is a great joy in moving through a Shakespeare's play, living through the emotions of the characters, while reading a play or watching it. One experiences in one own being the troubles, tragedies, absurdities of the creatures created by that Great Imaginer.
Frank O'Connor. One of my favorite authors is Frank O'Connor. . Frank O'Connor is a pseudonym of Michael Odonovan, born in Cork, Ireland in 1903. He grew up in an Irish provincial town. His published works include poems, plays, novels, translations, criticism. Frank O'Connor was a real master of the short story. He could draw his readers into Irish life, showing his sense of humour and his compassion for human beings in their loneliness and their confusion. As you know a story's success depends on how heroes are presented in the story. They can be presented through the character's actions or their speech; through a physical description and through the opinions of other characters. In the Frank O'Connor's book "The Idealist" the heroes are presented through actions and conversations. I think that each character must have a special quality that makes you remember him for a long time. The main hero - Delany - was truthful, frank, decisive. Gorman, his classmate was mean, dishonest and unpleasant. By the way of contrast the author managed to underline the romantic nature of Delany, who created his own world of things, people and ideas. What impressed me most of all in Melonie, the teacher, it was his cruelty. He punished pupils with a cane. It goes without sign that the theme of the story is the relationships between pupils and a teacher. I think they were awful. Though Delany created his own world thanks to books, the real world turned out to differ from the imaginary one. I shall now elaborate the fourth point of my talk. I sympathize (admire, hate, spoilt my impressions of the book) with the main hero because he didn't give up reading, he continued reading books.
Публикация статьи и отдельных фрагментов возможна только при наличии ссылки на
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Albert Einstein is known all over the world as a brilliant physicist and the founder of the theory of relativity. He is perhaps the greatest scientist of the 20th century. Some of his ides made possible the A-bombs, as well as TV and other inventions. He was born in 1879 in a small German town. The Einstein family soon moved to Munich, where Albert went to school. Neither his parents, nor his school teachers thought much of his mental abilities. In 1895 Albert failed the entrance examination to a technical college in Zurich. A year ago, however, he managed to pass the exam and entered the college. After graduating from college, Einstein started to work at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905 he wrote a short article in a science magazine. This was his "Special Theory of Relativity", the basis of Atomic energy. Later he became a professor in several European universities and in 1914 moved to Berlin as a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. After ten years of work, he created his "General Theory of Relativity". In 1921 Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics. A Jew, and a pacifist, he was attacked by Nazis, and when Hitler came to power in 1933 he decided to settle in the USA. After the war he spoke out passionately against nuclear weapons and repression. Einstein died in 1955. The artificial element einsteinium has been named in his honour.
William Hogarth was one of the greatest of English artists and a man of remarkably individual character and thought. He observed life with keen and critical eye and his range of observation was dramatic composition. Hogarth was a social painter who produced his own pictorial drama composition comprising various scenes of society's social life. His art was a reflection and interpretation on the social condition of his time. Hogarth's magnificent powers of composition were fully displayed in his series of engravings, the most famous is "The Marriage a-la-Mode". Hogarth was also a brilliant portrait painter. In portraiture he displayed a great variety. The portrait of his own face gives an idea of that keen and brave look with which William Hogarth regarded the world.
Levitan was one of the first painters of Russian scenery to reveal its beauty. He is a real poet of the Russian countryside. Levitan is a very special sort of painter. There is something is his landscapes that reflects our moods. He deeply felt what he wanted to depict. A master of landscape, he never introduced figures into it. Thought if you look at "The autumn in Sokolniky" you will notice the figure in the center. Everything seems to underline the loneliness of this figure: the trees loosing their leaves, the remote indifferent sky, the path going off into the distance. But the fact is that it was not Levitan who painted this figure. It was Chekhov's brother Nikolay who did it. Levitan's influence over lyrical landscape painters can't be over estimated. His paintings have won the love and gratitude of people.
John Constable , the greatest of English landscape painters, came from the Suffolk, and it was from the Suffolk landscape that he drew his inspiration. Constable's affection for nature was great and his mastery to show the much loved English scene reached its marvelous peak. He always attempted to depict the transient effects of nature: light, clouds and rain. Constable was an acute observer of nature and had a romantic passion for light. Constable's method of painting was nearest to Impressionism. His treatment of skies is especially notable. No one has painted cloud effects so truthfully and with so much skill.
Stanley Spencer is one of the most original of modern British artists. He was a painter of imaginative and religious subjects, landscapes and occasional portraits. "Swan Upping" is one of Spencer's best known pictures. This painting has an air of hightened reality; the light reflected from the water suggests moonlight, yet events take place in the foreground in daylight. There is anxiety in the immobilized swans and the face of the woman on the bridge, a mood enhanced by the serrated edges of the clouds and the flame-like branches of the tree on the right. An ordinary scene made to appeal extraordinary. Spencer's works are well represented in the Tate Gallery collection and the exhibition reveals the full range of his output, from early drawings done while still a student to his late self-portrait, painted a few months before his death in 1959.
Margaret Thatcher was the longest Prime Minister of the 20th century. Her style and her views appealed to mane British people who had lost confidence in the welfare state and in the direction the nation had taken. In some ways she was the first genuine leader the nation had had since Churchill. Margaret Thatcher began her career in politics, when she became a Conservative Member of Parliament. in 1979 she was elected as Britain's first woman Prime Minister. From the start, her autocratic style earned her the nickname of "The Iron Lady". Her abrasive manner has attracted some criticism. During the Falklands War of 1982, however, Margaret Thatcher's militant patriotism found her many supporters, and she became something of a popular hero-figure, much as Winston Churchill had been in the Second World War. Margaret Thatcher was re-elected Prime Minister in the general elections of 1983 and 1987.
Andrew Wyet is one of the prominent living American painters. He was born in 1917. The son of illustrator - Andrew is the leading member of the dynasty of painters that includes his sisters, their husbands and his own two sons. He won fame at the age of 12 for his illustrations of "Robin Hood". He was 20 when he first exhibited his paintings. Andrew studied with his father and was strongly influenced by him. His father's style of illustration expresses sentimentality. But very early the young artist gravitated a way from his teacher. Wyet's style is both precise and minute in detail, he is a realist influenced by photography. He painted portraits, landscapes, seascapes and domestic scenery. His favorite media are tempera and water colors. His works are easily recognized by dimly lit and deserted landscapes in tones of grey and brown which convey the feeling of loveliness and solitude. His most famous works are "Christina's world" and "Inland shell".
William Shakespeare. When to speak about world literature, then the name of William Shakespeare is the best to explain the real value of literature in the world of art. William Shakespeare is generally regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist of English literature. He wrote 37 plays which continue to be read widely and produced frequently throughout the world. Shakespeare was a master at creating a certain atmosphere of a play, its general mood or feeling. It could be melancholy, lively or frightening, tragic or mystical. The power and beauty of his language helped build the prevailing mood in each play. Shakespeare's genius lays in his power of understanding human nature which is the same today, tomorrow and forever. He showed the world of men in its complexity and variety. His plays have the same powerful impact an audience today as they did when they were first staged. There is no writer who has touched the depth and height of characters as Shakespeare did. There is a great joy in moving through a Shakespeare's play, living through the emotions of the characters, while reading a play or watching it. One experiences in one own being the troubles, tragedies, absurdities of the creatures created by that Great Imaginer.
Frank O'Connor. One of my favorite authors is Frank O'Connor. . Frank O'Connor is a pseudonym of Michael Odonovan, born in Cork, Ireland in 1903. He grew up in an Irish provincial town. His published works include poems, plays, novels, translations, criticism. Frank O'Connor was a real master of the short story. He could draw his readers into Irish life, showing his sense of humour and his compassion for human beings in their loneliness and their confusion. As you know a story's success depends on how heroes are presented in the story. They can be presented through the character's actions or their speech; through a physical description and through the opinions of other characters. In the Frank O'Connor's book "The Idealist" the heroes are presented through actions and conversations. I think that each character must have a special quality that makes you remember him for a long time. The main hero - Delany - was truthful, frank, decisive. Gorman, his classmate was mean, dishonest and unpleasant. By the way of contrast the author managed to underline the romantic nature of Delany, who created his own world of things, people and ideas. What impressed me most of all in Melonie, the teacher, it was his cruelty. He punished pupils with a cane. It goes without sign that the theme of the story is the relationships between pupils and a teacher. I think they were awful. Though Delany created his own world thanks to books, the real world turned out to differ from the imaginary one. I shall now elaborate the fourth point of my talk. I sympathize (admire, hate, spoilt my impressions of the book) with the main hero because he didn't give up reading, he continued reading books.
Публикация статьи и отдельных фрагментов возможна только при наличии ссылки на
На правах рекламы: | 1,966 | ENGLISH | 1 |
His parents, who were poor peasants, died when he was three years old. He worked with his uncle until he was thirteen.
Benito Juarez is considered one of Mexico's greatest and most beloved leaders. During his political career he helped to institute a series of liberal reforms that were embodied into the new constitution of During the French occupation of Mexico, Juarez refused to accept the rule of the Monarchy or any other foreign nation, and helped to establish Mexico as a constitutional democracy.
He also promoted equal rights for the Indian population, better access to health care and education, lessening the political and financial power of the Roman Catholic church, and championed the raising of the living standards for the rural poor.
Benito Juarez was born March 21stthe child of Zapoteco Indians. After they died when he was three, he went to live with his uncle, but when he was 12 he joined his sister in Oaxaca. He began studying for the priesthood, but in changed to studying for a law degree, which he received in That year he also began his political career, with a seat on the municipal council.
In he became a judge, and the governor of Oaxaca. Benito Juarez - Mexican President and National Hero In the conservatives took power in Mexico and many liberals were exiled, including Juarez, who spent his time of exile in New Orleans.
In the liberals won the election, and Benito Juarez returned from his exile as the Minister of Justice. In he was elevated to preside over the supreme court, in effect making him the Vice President.
In the conservatives rebelled, and again Juarez had to leave Mexico City, this time fleeing to Veracruz, where he created a government in exile.
As the treasury was practically empty Juarez made the decision to suspend payment on all foreign debts for a two year period. Spain and Britain were there to protect their financial interests, and left in April, after it became clear that France had conquest in mind.
The French troops fought for two years, and although suffering a serious defeat on 5th Mayeventually captured Mexico City in Juneand placed Archduke Maximilian of Austria on the Mexican throne. After four years with growing pressure from America, continuing resistance from Mexicans and criticism from the French govenrment and people, finally the Napoleonic forces withdrew.
Maximilian himself was captured and executed on 19th June Juarez returned to Mexico city, and the presidency even after suffering a stroke in Octoberand the loss of his wife in He won the presidential election inbut died on 18th Julyof a heart attack.Benito Juarez’s beliefs of people’s rights and revolting against the French, converted him to become the first elected president of Mexico during the s.
Benito Juarez was born on March 21, in San Pablo Guelatao, Oaxaca, Mexico. Biographies Benito Juárez. President Benito Juárez. Benito Juárez was an important Mexican liberal during the time of the U.S.-Mexican War, and emerged as one of the nation’s most important. Mussolini was born on 29 July in Dovia di Predappio, a small town in the province of Forlì in vetconnexx.com, during the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed "Duce's town" and Forlì was called "Duce's city", with pilgrims going to Predappio and Forlì to see the birthplace of Mussolini.
Of central importance to this novel is the theme of survival, even in seemingly impossible and adverse conditions.
For Pi, the challenge of surviving operates on several levels. Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (July 29, – April 28, ) was the prime minister and dictator of Italy from until , when he was overthrown.
He established a repressive fascist regime that valued nationalism, militarism, anti-liberalism, and anti-communism combined with strict censorship and state vetconnexx.com was popular for some time as a champion of Italy's resurgence.
The prevailing concern of the Mexican revolution was the welfare of the common Mexican worker, be he a farm worker on a Southern hacienda, or a rancher in the North.
The presidents of Mexico, starting most notably with Benito Juárez, really incited the revolution, though laterthe main course of. | <urn:uuid:8c701316-e4ef-4174-bc5b-168f485f2a08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://relidyq.vetconnexx.com/short-essay-on-benito-juarez-25373kw.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.988631 | 917 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.0763142332434... | 1 | His parents, who were poor peasants, died when he was three years old. He worked with his uncle until he was thirteen.
Benito Juarez is considered one of Mexico's greatest and most beloved leaders. During his political career he helped to institute a series of liberal reforms that were embodied into the new constitution of During the French occupation of Mexico, Juarez refused to accept the rule of the Monarchy or any other foreign nation, and helped to establish Mexico as a constitutional democracy.
He also promoted equal rights for the Indian population, better access to health care and education, lessening the political and financial power of the Roman Catholic church, and championed the raising of the living standards for the rural poor.
Benito Juarez was born March 21stthe child of Zapoteco Indians. After they died when he was three, he went to live with his uncle, but when he was 12 he joined his sister in Oaxaca. He began studying for the priesthood, but in changed to studying for a law degree, which he received in That year he also began his political career, with a seat on the municipal council.
In he became a judge, and the governor of Oaxaca. Benito Juarez - Mexican President and National Hero In the conservatives took power in Mexico and many liberals were exiled, including Juarez, who spent his time of exile in New Orleans.
In the liberals won the election, and Benito Juarez returned from his exile as the Minister of Justice. In he was elevated to preside over the supreme court, in effect making him the Vice President.
In the conservatives rebelled, and again Juarez had to leave Mexico City, this time fleeing to Veracruz, where he created a government in exile.
As the treasury was practically empty Juarez made the decision to suspend payment on all foreign debts for a two year period. Spain and Britain were there to protect their financial interests, and left in April, after it became clear that France had conquest in mind.
The French troops fought for two years, and although suffering a serious defeat on 5th Mayeventually captured Mexico City in Juneand placed Archduke Maximilian of Austria on the Mexican throne. After four years with growing pressure from America, continuing resistance from Mexicans and criticism from the French govenrment and people, finally the Napoleonic forces withdrew.
Maximilian himself was captured and executed on 19th June Juarez returned to Mexico city, and the presidency even after suffering a stroke in Octoberand the loss of his wife in He won the presidential election inbut died on 18th Julyof a heart attack.Benito Juarez’s beliefs of people’s rights and revolting against the French, converted him to become the first elected president of Mexico during the s.
Benito Juarez was born on March 21, in San Pablo Guelatao, Oaxaca, Mexico. Biographies Benito Juárez. President Benito Juárez. Benito Juárez was an important Mexican liberal during the time of the U.S.-Mexican War, and emerged as one of the nation’s most important. Mussolini was born on 29 July in Dovia di Predappio, a small town in the province of Forlì in vetconnexx.com, during the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed "Duce's town" and Forlì was called "Duce's city", with pilgrims going to Predappio and Forlì to see the birthplace of Mussolini.
Of central importance to this novel is the theme of survival, even in seemingly impossible and adverse conditions.
For Pi, the challenge of surviving operates on several levels. Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (July 29, – April 28, ) was the prime minister and dictator of Italy from until , when he was overthrown.
He established a repressive fascist regime that valued nationalism, militarism, anti-liberalism, and anti-communism combined with strict censorship and state vetconnexx.com was popular for some time as a champion of Italy's resurgence.
The prevailing concern of the Mexican revolution was the welfare of the common Mexican worker, be he a farm worker on a Southern hacienda, or a rancher in the North.
The presidents of Mexico, starting most notably with Benito Juárez, really incited the revolution, though laterthe main course of. | 910 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One response journal is due every Friday. (Remember that you will lose 10 percent per day your response journal is late.) 1. Is Romeo in love with Rosaline or is it infatuation? What is the difference? If you had a friend who was in a similar situation to Romeo's what advice would you give that person? (This can be a letter, a telephone conversation or a dialogue).
2. When Romeo and Juliet meet at the party they fall in "love at first sight". Considering their age, is this real love? What is your opinion of "love at first sight?"
3. Romeo seems to be fickle with his affections. First he loves Rosaline and then he loves Juliet with a passion. How would you treat Romeo if he were your friend? What advice would you give him based on your knowledge of "fickle" friendships?
4. What qualities do you look for in friends? Which of these qualities did Benvolio and Mercutio share? Which of the two would you prefer to have as a friend?
5. Romeo and Juliet see each other despite the fact they know their parents would disapprove. Would their relationship have ended differently if they had tried to reason with their respective parents?
6. Juliet is never seen with any friends of her own age. If she had a close friend, what would Juliet say about Romeo and their relationship to her? (This can be a letter, a telephone conversation or a dialogue).
7. If Romeo and Juliet were modern teenagers, they would be unlikely to turn to a monk and a nurse for advice/help. Who would their modern mentors be and why?
8. Design a family crest for Romeo and Juliet based on crests and heraldry. Provide short written explanation of the symbols and the relevance of each one to Romeo and Juliet.
9. Write the letter that Romeo left for his father. Remember to include his feelings about the feud, his family and Juliet.
10. Write an interview with either Lord Capulet or Lord Montague that would take place after the deaths of their children. Include questions that would reflect his personality, his relationship with other characters and his feelings at the moment. | <urn:uuid:045103e8-559f-4624-9a0d-82993cee0b89> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.curriki.org/oer/Romeo-and-Juliet-Journal-Questions | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00328.warc.gz | en | 0.986597 | 447 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.069281205534935,... | 1 | One response journal is due every Friday. (Remember that you will lose 10 percent per day your response journal is late.) 1. Is Romeo in love with Rosaline or is it infatuation? What is the difference? If you had a friend who was in a similar situation to Romeo's what advice would you give that person? (This can be a letter, a telephone conversation or a dialogue).
2. When Romeo and Juliet meet at the party they fall in "love at first sight". Considering their age, is this real love? What is your opinion of "love at first sight?"
3. Romeo seems to be fickle with his affections. First he loves Rosaline and then he loves Juliet with a passion. How would you treat Romeo if he were your friend? What advice would you give him based on your knowledge of "fickle" friendships?
4. What qualities do you look for in friends? Which of these qualities did Benvolio and Mercutio share? Which of the two would you prefer to have as a friend?
5. Romeo and Juliet see each other despite the fact they know their parents would disapprove. Would their relationship have ended differently if they had tried to reason with their respective parents?
6. Juliet is never seen with any friends of her own age. If she had a close friend, what would Juliet say about Romeo and their relationship to her? (This can be a letter, a telephone conversation or a dialogue).
7. If Romeo and Juliet were modern teenagers, they would be unlikely to turn to a monk and a nurse for advice/help. Who would their modern mentors be and why?
8. Design a family crest for Romeo and Juliet based on crests and heraldry. Provide short written explanation of the symbols and the relevance of each one to Romeo and Juliet.
9. Write the letter that Romeo left for his father. Remember to include his feelings about the feud, his family and Juliet.
10. Write an interview with either Lord Capulet or Lord Montague that would take place after the deaths of their children. Include questions that would reflect his personality, his relationship with other characters and his feelings at the moment. | 444 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Playing Card Stamps
On August 1, 1894, a tax was imposed on playing cards as part of the Wilson Bill.
Certain luxury items, including Playing Cards, were first taxed in 1862. The tax was levied to help fund the Union’s Civil War effort. The tax rate structure was based on five different levels depending on the cost of the pack of cards. No consideration was given to the number of cards in the deck, and opening the pack usually destroyed the revenue stamp.
The Playing Cards stamps were the result of Schedule Co of the 1862 Revenue Act. This section of the law also included items such as medicines and perfumes. Schedule C stamps accounted for about 74 percent of all Revenue stamps sold but brought in less than half of the revenue. In 1863, they generated almost $300,000 in revenue. This increased to over $4 million by 1870.
As with all First Issue stamps, the law required Playing Cards stamps to only be used on packages of cards. In fact, a $50 fine was to be issued for any misuse of the stamp. Shortly after the first stamps were issued in October 1862, the Internal Revenue service realized it was unrealistic to produce all those stamps and expect each revenue collector to have them on hand at all times.
The law was changed in December of that year. After that time, any stamp could be used on a taxable item as long as the denomination was correct. There was an exception to the new ruling though, the new provisions were not to apply “to any stamp appropriated to denote the duty charged on proprietary articles.” This meant proprietary stamps, including Playing Cards stamps, could not be used on documents. However, that rule was often disregarded without penalty.
Private companies were also permitted, at their own expense, to produce their own stamps. These private die stamps featured the names of the companies as part of their designs.
Playing Card stamps were produced until 1871, after which point other Revenue stamps were used in their place to show the tax had been paid. Then 23 years later, Congress passed the Tariff Act of 1894, “to reduce taxation, to provide revenue for the Government, and for other purposes.” The act went into effect on August 1, 1894. Also known as the Wilson Bill, the act called for the creation of new playing card stamps. The stamps were overprinted with the initials of the manufacturers:
“A.P.C. CO.” – Arrco Playing Card
“B&B” – Brown & Bigelow
“C.D.C. CO.” – Consolidated Dougherty Card
“E.E.F. CORP” – E E Fairchild
“S.P.C.” – Standard Packaging
“U.S. P.C.Co.” – US Playing Card
“W.P.L. CO.” – Western Printing Lithographing
For the first 45 years, stamps were issued with the standard denominations (1¢, 2¢, etc.). Beginning in 1940, playing card stamps were issued per pack. Instead of a denomination of 1¢, the stamps showed one pack. This change meant the tax rates could change without having to reprint or surcharge the new stamps.
One tax stamp was required for every 54 cards in a deck (the 52 cards and two jokers). So a regular deck of 64 Double Pinochle cards would require two stamps, while a box of two Double Pinochle decks (which contained 128 cards) needed only three stamps.
The initial tax rate when these stamps were first issued in 1940 was 11¢ per pack. That rate increased to 13¢ the following year and remained the same until the playing card tax was ended on June 22, 1965. Even after the tax on playing cards was revoked in 1965, companies continued to produce their own stamps to seal the decks.
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History. | <urn:uuid:cc4409ba-cd17-4884-8340-42dc64b99eda> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mysticstamp.com/info/this-day-in-history-august-1-1894/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00290.warc.gz | en | 0.987333 | 827 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.45579662919044495... | 2 | Playing Card Stamps
On August 1, 1894, a tax was imposed on playing cards as part of the Wilson Bill.
Certain luxury items, including Playing Cards, were first taxed in 1862. The tax was levied to help fund the Union’s Civil War effort. The tax rate structure was based on five different levels depending on the cost of the pack of cards. No consideration was given to the number of cards in the deck, and opening the pack usually destroyed the revenue stamp.
The Playing Cards stamps were the result of Schedule Co of the 1862 Revenue Act. This section of the law also included items such as medicines and perfumes. Schedule C stamps accounted for about 74 percent of all Revenue stamps sold but brought in less than half of the revenue. In 1863, they generated almost $300,000 in revenue. This increased to over $4 million by 1870.
As with all First Issue stamps, the law required Playing Cards stamps to only be used on packages of cards. In fact, a $50 fine was to be issued for any misuse of the stamp. Shortly after the first stamps were issued in October 1862, the Internal Revenue service realized it was unrealistic to produce all those stamps and expect each revenue collector to have them on hand at all times.
The law was changed in December of that year. After that time, any stamp could be used on a taxable item as long as the denomination was correct. There was an exception to the new ruling though, the new provisions were not to apply “to any stamp appropriated to denote the duty charged on proprietary articles.” This meant proprietary stamps, including Playing Cards stamps, could not be used on documents. However, that rule was often disregarded without penalty.
Private companies were also permitted, at their own expense, to produce their own stamps. These private die stamps featured the names of the companies as part of their designs.
Playing Card stamps were produced until 1871, after which point other Revenue stamps were used in their place to show the tax had been paid. Then 23 years later, Congress passed the Tariff Act of 1894, “to reduce taxation, to provide revenue for the Government, and for other purposes.” The act went into effect on August 1, 1894. Also known as the Wilson Bill, the act called for the creation of new playing card stamps. The stamps were overprinted with the initials of the manufacturers:
“A.P.C. CO.” – Arrco Playing Card
“B&B” – Brown & Bigelow
“C.D.C. CO.” – Consolidated Dougherty Card
“E.E.F. CORP” – E E Fairchild
“S.P.C.” – Standard Packaging
“U.S. P.C.Co.” – US Playing Card
“W.P.L. CO.” – Western Printing Lithographing
For the first 45 years, stamps were issued with the standard denominations (1¢, 2¢, etc.). Beginning in 1940, playing card stamps were issued per pack. Instead of a denomination of 1¢, the stamps showed one pack. This change meant the tax rates could change without having to reprint or surcharge the new stamps.
One tax stamp was required for every 54 cards in a deck (the 52 cards and two jokers). So a regular deck of 64 Double Pinochle cards would require two stamps, while a box of two Double Pinochle decks (which contained 128 cards) needed only three stamps.
The initial tax rate when these stamps were first issued in 1940 was 11¢ per pack. That rate increased to 13¢ the following year and remained the same until the playing card tax was ended on June 22, 1965. Even after the tax on playing cards was revoked in 1965, companies continued to produce their own stamps to seal the decks.
Click here to see what else happened on This Day in History. | 852 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Elizabethan England was a fiercely patriarchal society with laws that heavily restricted what women could and could not do. Women were not allowed to attend school or university, which meant they couldn’t work in professions like law or medicine. Most of the guilds, which trained skilled workers like goldsmiths and carpenters, did not officially admit women. Even the disreputable profession of acting was off limits to women. The only trades legally available to women were those that could be mastered and practiced in the home, such as hat making and brewing. Women were also barred from voting, and though they could inherit property from their father or their husband, they could not themselves purchase property. In addition to these legal restrictions, women were also bound by strict social expectations that did not apply equally to men. Sermons and books written during the Elizabethan era encouraged women to be silent and obedient to male authority, whether that of their father or their husband.
Marriage in Elizabethan England replicated society’s patriarchal structure. Legally a girl could marry as young as 12 with her parents’ consent, though young women typically married in their late teens or early twenties. When a woman’s father deemed her ready to marry, he had a large degree of control of who she married. Among the aristocracy, where marriages were often more about politics than love, women often had no say at all in who they married. Upon entering marriage, a woman ceased to be her father’s responsibility, and her husband became her legal master. Shakespeare reflects this condition in
The Taming of the Shrew,
when Petruchio refers to his wife as “my goods, my chattels . . . my ox, my ass, my anything” (III.ii.). As his wife’s legal guardian, a husband was permitted to punish his wife as he saw fit, particularly in cases of infidelity. In several of his plays Shakespeare showcases the real danger that male anxiety over infidelity posed for women. Hermione in
The Winter’s Tale
is imprisoned because her husband mistakenly believes that she is pregnant by another man. In
Desdemona is murdered by her husband because he believes (again mistakenly) that she is having an affair.
Despite the intensely patriarchal nature of the society Shakespeare grew up in, for the majority of his life a woman occupied the throne—and an unmarried woman at that. Throughout Queen Elizabeth I’s reign, debates raged about whether a woman could rule as effectively as a man. Elizabeth constantly struggled to prove herself in the face of male doubt. When speaking to her troops ahead of a Spanish invasion, she famously reassured them: “I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king.” Yet Elizabeth enjoyed a long and politically stable reign, demonstrating the effectiveness of female rule. It is possible that Elizabeth’s success as a ruler inspired other women to demand more freedom, particularly within their marriages. The period between 1595 and 1620 saw a sharp increase in the number of disputes and separations between aristocratic wives and their husbands. By the same token, however, the rise in women’s dissatisfaction with the constraints of marriage also gave rise to the trope of the “shrew”—that is, an aggressively assertive woman who speaks her mind. The trope of the shrew in turn reinvigorated the idea that husbands need to discipline their wives, again renewing patriarchal norms. | <urn:uuid:e46574d0-ab9f-42b7-9590-430c12288516> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/life-and-times/social-context/women-in-shakespeares-england/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00103.warc.gz | en | 0.985097 | 716 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.036101713776... | 12 | Elizabethan England was a fiercely patriarchal society with laws that heavily restricted what women could and could not do. Women were not allowed to attend school or university, which meant they couldn’t work in professions like law or medicine. Most of the guilds, which trained skilled workers like goldsmiths and carpenters, did not officially admit women. Even the disreputable profession of acting was off limits to women. The only trades legally available to women were those that could be mastered and practiced in the home, such as hat making and brewing. Women were also barred from voting, and though they could inherit property from their father or their husband, they could not themselves purchase property. In addition to these legal restrictions, women were also bound by strict social expectations that did not apply equally to men. Sermons and books written during the Elizabethan era encouraged women to be silent and obedient to male authority, whether that of their father or their husband.
Marriage in Elizabethan England replicated society’s patriarchal structure. Legally a girl could marry as young as 12 with her parents’ consent, though young women typically married in their late teens or early twenties. When a woman’s father deemed her ready to marry, he had a large degree of control of who she married. Among the aristocracy, where marriages were often more about politics than love, women often had no say at all in who they married. Upon entering marriage, a woman ceased to be her father’s responsibility, and her husband became her legal master. Shakespeare reflects this condition in
The Taming of the Shrew,
when Petruchio refers to his wife as “my goods, my chattels . . . my ox, my ass, my anything” (III.ii.). As his wife’s legal guardian, a husband was permitted to punish his wife as he saw fit, particularly in cases of infidelity. In several of his plays Shakespeare showcases the real danger that male anxiety over infidelity posed for women. Hermione in
The Winter’s Tale
is imprisoned because her husband mistakenly believes that she is pregnant by another man. In
Desdemona is murdered by her husband because he believes (again mistakenly) that she is having an affair.
Despite the intensely patriarchal nature of the society Shakespeare grew up in, for the majority of his life a woman occupied the throne—and an unmarried woman at that. Throughout Queen Elizabeth I’s reign, debates raged about whether a woman could rule as effectively as a man. Elizabeth constantly struggled to prove herself in the face of male doubt. When speaking to her troops ahead of a Spanish invasion, she famously reassured them: “I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king.” Yet Elizabeth enjoyed a long and politically stable reign, demonstrating the effectiveness of female rule. It is possible that Elizabeth’s success as a ruler inspired other women to demand more freedom, particularly within their marriages. The period between 1595 and 1620 saw a sharp increase in the number of disputes and separations between aristocratic wives and their husbands. By the same token, however, the rise in women’s dissatisfaction with the constraints of marriage also gave rise to the trope of the “shrew”—that is, an aggressively assertive woman who speaks her mind. The trope of the shrew in turn reinvigorated the idea that husbands need to discipline their wives, again renewing patriarchal norms. | 702 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This week in English we have been exploring the difference between formal and informal language through the medium of letter writing. Initially many of my students were unfamiliar with the concept but as the week progressed they showed that they could apply the rules consistently when needed. Having finished our planned work by the end of the lesson Thursday I thought Friday presented an excellent opportunity to practice the skill using a different inspiration. After a long deliberation I chose the book Princeless, it’s twist on the classic princess tales that would offer a golden opportunity for the main character to write a letter.
In the book Adrienne has been locked in a tower by her father so she can be saved. She decides to break out and go on a mission to free her sisters before the same imprisonment can be placed upon them. After sneaking into her castle she finds her brother who relays the bad news that her sister Appalonia has already been locked away with the meanest guardian in the land protecting her. Adrienne sets off in a bid to free her and ends up in a village where she meets her new companion Bedelia. This part of the story was read to the children who took notes about key character names and events. After note taking the task was laid out, they would have to write a letter from Adrienne to her brother Devin explaining how she was faring in her quest to save their sister. We worked together to identify possible things that may have happened after she left the castle and met Bedelia.
With ideas gathered and expectations established the class then got on with writing a formal letter to Devin from the perspective of Adrienne. At first they struggled to start off the letter, many found it hard to comprehend how I had read them the story but left them in charge of filling in what happens between leaving and saving her sister. Eventually after a little prompting and a few examples being shared they started to let their imaginations loose and started creating events from this journey. Lots of them described the scenery they had passed or made reference to their new companion Bedelia and how she was helping. Some mentioned the dragon Sparky, the supplies they had gathered or even how far they were from finding Appalonia. Most importantly the majority stuck to the rules of writing a formal letter.
Contractions were abandoned, paragraphs were used in a more structured manner and vocabulary choices started to become more adventurous. I had banned certain words earlier in the week including ‘alright’, ‘ok’, ‘bad’ etc. which caused trouble for some at first but eventually they started to explore their own vocabularies or use a thesaurus to help them improve the overall tone of their work. Words such as ‘ashamed’, ‘informed’, ‘accompanied’ and ‘menace’ started to make their way into more pupils work and today the variety of vocabulary was the best it had been all week. Below are some of the best sentences created or some are examples from writers who often struggle but excelled during the task:
‘After leaving we finally came across a small village. I told Sparky (the dragon) to hide behind a few trees because I do not think civilians react well to dragons.’
‘I am informing you that I am safe. Since you last saw me at the castle a lot has changed.’
‘We are starting out tomorrow beware I might not make it back. Do not be upset if I do not come back but make me a promise. If I do not come home go and save our sister.’
‘I have great doubt that I will succeed brother but I will never stop fighting.’
‘It is getting dark and I am losing sight so I must say my goodbyes and if I do not make it tell my family I love them. It may not go well.’
A lot of children ended their letter with a warning about their potential fate which showed a good understanding of events that were about to occur. It also gave them a chance to discuss their family relationship at the end of the letter whereas the rest had been recounting the journey and trials ahead. Initially I was skeptical about the task but as we had achieved the goals for the week it seemed a worthy risk. On reflection it worked respectably well but having to read a comic to the class because you only have one copy did make the explanation process problematic at times. Ideally in future I would do something similar using either one page that covered enough content or use a comic that I had multiple copies of so the children could follow along more easily. | <urn:uuid:f5bd81bf-d8f0-4c6a-af20-c564bf18fc3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://comicsinclass.school.blog/2019/03/01/formal-letter-writing-using-princeless/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00469.warc.gz | en | 0.984103 | 946 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.0428786... | 2 | This week in English we have been exploring the difference between formal and informal language through the medium of letter writing. Initially many of my students were unfamiliar with the concept but as the week progressed they showed that they could apply the rules consistently when needed. Having finished our planned work by the end of the lesson Thursday I thought Friday presented an excellent opportunity to practice the skill using a different inspiration. After a long deliberation I chose the book Princeless, it’s twist on the classic princess tales that would offer a golden opportunity for the main character to write a letter.
In the book Adrienne has been locked in a tower by her father so she can be saved. She decides to break out and go on a mission to free her sisters before the same imprisonment can be placed upon them. After sneaking into her castle she finds her brother who relays the bad news that her sister Appalonia has already been locked away with the meanest guardian in the land protecting her. Adrienne sets off in a bid to free her and ends up in a village where she meets her new companion Bedelia. This part of the story was read to the children who took notes about key character names and events. After note taking the task was laid out, they would have to write a letter from Adrienne to her brother Devin explaining how she was faring in her quest to save their sister. We worked together to identify possible things that may have happened after she left the castle and met Bedelia.
With ideas gathered and expectations established the class then got on with writing a formal letter to Devin from the perspective of Adrienne. At first they struggled to start off the letter, many found it hard to comprehend how I had read them the story but left them in charge of filling in what happens between leaving and saving her sister. Eventually after a little prompting and a few examples being shared they started to let their imaginations loose and started creating events from this journey. Lots of them described the scenery they had passed or made reference to their new companion Bedelia and how she was helping. Some mentioned the dragon Sparky, the supplies they had gathered or even how far they were from finding Appalonia. Most importantly the majority stuck to the rules of writing a formal letter.
Contractions were abandoned, paragraphs were used in a more structured manner and vocabulary choices started to become more adventurous. I had banned certain words earlier in the week including ‘alright’, ‘ok’, ‘bad’ etc. which caused trouble for some at first but eventually they started to explore their own vocabularies or use a thesaurus to help them improve the overall tone of their work. Words such as ‘ashamed’, ‘informed’, ‘accompanied’ and ‘menace’ started to make their way into more pupils work and today the variety of vocabulary was the best it had been all week. Below are some of the best sentences created or some are examples from writers who often struggle but excelled during the task:
‘After leaving we finally came across a small village. I told Sparky (the dragon) to hide behind a few trees because I do not think civilians react well to dragons.’
‘I am informing you that I am safe. Since you last saw me at the castle a lot has changed.’
‘We are starting out tomorrow beware I might not make it back. Do not be upset if I do not come back but make me a promise. If I do not come home go and save our sister.’
‘I have great doubt that I will succeed brother but I will never stop fighting.’
‘It is getting dark and I am losing sight so I must say my goodbyes and if I do not make it tell my family I love them. It may not go well.’
A lot of children ended their letter with a warning about their potential fate which showed a good understanding of events that were about to occur. It also gave them a chance to discuss their family relationship at the end of the letter whereas the rest had been recounting the journey and trials ahead. Initially I was skeptical about the task but as we had achieved the goals for the week it seemed a worthy risk. On reflection it worked respectably well but having to read a comic to the class because you only have one copy did make the explanation process problematic at times. Ideally in future I would do something similar using either one page that covered enough content or use a comic that I had multiple copies of so the children could follow along more easily. | 905 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For three decades, Alcatraz Island in California was home to the most feared prison in America. It is set about a mile from land in the San Francisco Bay and was considered to be inescapable. If someone tried to escape, they would have to swim through the cold waters of the bay, while being taken by the harsh currents. This didn’t stop some from trying to escape, but officially, nobody ever has. These rare photographs reveal the reality of prison life inside Alcatraz.
Ten years after the prison closed, it opened up to visitors. Every year, close to a million people visit Alcatraz for the day or the evening. Tourists from all over the world visit the prison due to its grim history. It was home to some very vicious and violent inmates including George “Machine Gun” Kelly, Arthur “Doc” Baker, and Al Capone. Today, people believe that the prison is haunted by the ghosts of some of the more high-profile and violent inmates.
Alcatraz Island isn’t very big. It is roughly 1,700-feet long and 600-feet wide. It covers about 22 acres in area. It was initially discovered by Native Americans, possibly 20,000 years ago. The two tribes that are believed to have inhabited the island are the Ohlone and the Miwok tribes. Historians believe that the native people used the island to camp and gather food. They also believe that local people used the island as a home after being expelled from their communities. Like most areas of the U.S., the Native Americans wouldn’t hold onto the island for long. In 1775, the Spanish arrived. Juan Manuel de Ayala and his crew sailed to the island, originally calling it Alcatraces.
In 1846, the governor of Mexico, Pio Pico, gave the island to William Workman. That same year, it was sold to John C. Fremont, California’s military governor. He paid $5,000 for the island He was hoping that he would get a nice return on his investment, but he didn’t see a profit. When President Millard Fillmore commandeered the island for the military, he paid Fremont nothing, and he was out $5,000.
Fillmore had a reason for wanting the island. At the time, San Francisco’s population exploded due to the discovery of gold in California. He also wanted to defend the bay. He thought that he could do this by building a fort on the island. Alongside the fort, the army put over 100 guns. They also constructed the West Coast’s first lighthouse on the island.
In 1860, the United States Army started shipping convicted soldiers to the island. As time went on, the military found that the island was better served as a detention center than a fortress. By 1907, all the guns were gone, and Alcatraz was officially a prison. It would remain this way for the next quarter-century. At first, it housed and re-instructed army prisoners.
New Buildings and New Owners
As time went on, there were too many prisoners to house in the one building, so there was talk of building more. When the fort fell in 1909, a whole new prison complex was built. Today, visitors can see the tunnels and structure of the original castle under the new building. World War I caused financial problems for the military in 11933, so they allowed the Bureau of Prisons to take over the island. The BOP wanted it because they were struggling with prisoner security. In 1934, it became a federal facility. Only three dozen army prisoners remained there, and the rest were shipped out to make room for America’s most hardened criminals. Over 300 men could be housed on “The Rock,” but the capacity never reached 260.
The prisoners who were housed there had to follow the rules. Any infraction would land them in one of the 40 solitary confinement cells. The inmates had no control of the lights and would be left in the dark by the guards. There was also a “strip cell,” where the inmate would be shut in the cell naked, in complete darkness. There was no bed or toilet. They had to relieve themselves in a hole.
9 Asking To Go
Many prisoners found Alcatraz to be better than other prisons that they had been in because they liked having a cell to themselves. It wasn’t comfortable there; however. Everything beyond the barest minimum had to be earned. The prison system wanted to teach hardened criminals to toe the line. It wasn’t long before the most infamous criminals made their way to Alcatraz. Notorious gangster, Al Capone, was sent there, but not for one of the many murders he committed. It was for tax evasion. He was one of the original draft prisoners on the island, and his inmate number was AZ#85. He tried to control the prison with bribery, but it didn’t work. He admitted that he couldn’t beat Alcatraz. He played the banjo in a prison band, and when syphilis spread to his brain, he left Alcatraz for good.
George “Machine Gun” Kelly and Whitey Budger
Machine Gun claimed that he would escape from prison and then break his wife out as well. This caused the authorities to send him to Alcatraz, where he was a model prisoner for 17 years. James “Whitey” Bulger spent some time on Alcatraz for armed robbery in 1956. Once freed, he returned to his life of crime and spent some time on the run, before finally getting caught. | <urn:uuid:8656213a-8910-4d31-a6fc-bc003489e728> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://factsverse.com/these-rare-photographs-reveal-the-reality-of-prison-life-inside-alcatraz/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00419.warc.gz | en | 0.981288 | 1,181 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.6747797131538... | 5 | For three decades, Alcatraz Island in California was home to the most feared prison in America. It is set about a mile from land in the San Francisco Bay and was considered to be inescapable. If someone tried to escape, they would have to swim through the cold waters of the bay, while being taken by the harsh currents. This didn’t stop some from trying to escape, but officially, nobody ever has. These rare photographs reveal the reality of prison life inside Alcatraz.
Ten years after the prison closed, it opened up to visitors. Every year, close to a million people visit Alcatraz for the day or the evening. Tourists from all over the world visit the prison due to its grim history. It was home to some very vicious and violent inmates including George “Machine Gun” Kelly, Arthur “Doc” Baker, and Al Capone. Today, people believe that the prison is haunted by the ghosts of some of the more high-profile and violent inmates.
Alcatraz Island isn’t very big. It is roughly 1,700-feet long and 600-feet wide. It covers about 22 acres in area. It was initially discovered by Native Americans, possibly 20,000 years ago. The two tribes that are believed to have inhabited the island are the Ohlone and the Miwok tribes. Historians believe that the native people used the island to camp and gather food. They also believe that local people used the island as a home after being expelled from their communities. Like most areas of the U.S., the Native Americans wouldn’t hold onto the island for long. In 1775, the Spanish arrived. Juan Manuel de Ayala and his crew sailed to the island, originally calling it Alcatraces.
In 1846, the governor of Mexico, Pio Pico, gave the island to William Workman. That same year, it was sold to John C. Fremont, California’s military governor. He paid $5,000 for the island He was hoping that he would get a nice return on his investment, but he didn’t see a profit. When President Millard Fillmore commandeered the island for the military, he paid Fremont nothing, and he was out $5,000.
Fillmore had a reason for wanting the island. At the time, San Francisco’s population exploded due to the discovery of gold in California. He also wanted to defend the bay. He thought that he could do this by building a fort on the island. Alongside the fort, the army put over 100 guns. They also constructed the West Coast’s first lighthouse on the island.
In 1860, the United States Army started shipping convicted soldiers to the island. As time went on, the military found that the island was better served as a detention center than a fortress. By 1907, all the guns were gone, and Alcatraz was officially a prison. It would remain this way for the next quarter-century. At first, it housed and re-instructed army prisoners.
New Buildings and New Owners
As time went on, there were too many prisoners to house in the one building, so there was talk of building more. When the fort fell in 1909, a whole new prison complex was built. Today, visitors can see the tunnels and structure of the original castle under the new building. World War I caused financial problems for the military in 11933, so they allowed the Bureau of Prisons to take over the island. The BOP wanted it because they were struggling with prisoner security. In 1934, it became a federal facility. Only three dozen army prisoners remained there, and the rest were shipped out to make room for America’s most hardened criminals. Over 300 men could be housed on “The Rock,” but the capacity never reached 260.
The prisoners who were housed there had to follow the rules. Any infraction would land them in one of the 40 solitary confinement cells. The inmates had no control of the lights and would be left in the dark by the guards. There was also a “strip cell,” where the inmate would be shut in the cell naked, in complete darkness. There was no bed or toilet. They had to relieve themselves in a hole.
9 Asking To Go
Many prisoners found Alcatraz to be better than other prisons that they had been in because they liked having a cell to themselves. It wasn’t comfortable there; however. Everything beyond the barest minimum had to be earned. The prison system wanted to teach hardened criminals to toe the line. It wasn’t long before the most infamous criminals made their way to Alcatraz. Notorious gangster, Al Capone, was sent there, but not for one of the many murders he committed. It was for tax evasion. He was one of the original draft prisoners on the island, and his inmate number was AZ#85. He tried to control the prison with bribery, but it didn’t work. He admitted that he couldn’t beat Alcatraz. He played the banjo in a prison band, and when syphilis spread to his brain, he left Alcatraz for good.
George “Machine Gun” Kelly and Whitey Budger
Machine Gun claimed that he would escape from prison and then break his wife out as well. This caused the authorities to send him to Alcatraz, where he was a model prisoner for 17 years. James “Whitey” Bulger spent some time on Alcatraz for armed robbery in 1956. Once freed, he returned to his life of crime and spent some time on the run, before finally getting caught. | 1,192 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A spotlight on the floor is the only thing visible as a bright red robe and cardinal’s hat are thrown into the light. The Common Man enters and puts the robe and hat in his basket. Then he puts on his glasses and reads from a history book about the death of Cardinal Wolsey. He died of a broken heart or pneumonia, but the real cause was the displeasure of the King over his handling of the divorce. He was arrested and died on the way to the Tower in 1530. Afterwards, Sir Thomas More became the Lord Chancellor of England. More had the reputation of being a saint, which one would gather from his writings. In life that is harder to verify, the Common Man says, but since he seemed indifferent to reality, perhaps he was.
Act One, Scene Five: Commentary
The swift shift of scenes to highlight only certain moments in More’s story makes history feel more arbitrary, less logical and sequential. Wolsey is there, threatening, one moment, and the next, he is gone, a footnote in a history book, with only his robe and hat remaining. The Common Man’s commentary provides an ironic link between scenes. History is all about the important people like Wolsey and More, but as Alice More points out, great people can get colds as well as commoners. Wolsey’s pneumonia, his death, his fall, demonstrate the vulnerability of every person. The Common Man points out not the high drama, but the human condition. The Common Man is not very impressed by Sir Thomas More’s saintliness. | <urn:uuid:2d157428-3787-4aee-a7e5-3e4205548542> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.novelguide.com/a-man-for-all-seasons/summaries/act1-scene5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00106.warc.gz | en | 0.981617 | 323 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.178672894835... | 5 | A spotlight on the floor is the only thing visible as a bright red robe and cardinal’s hat are thrown into the light. The Common Man enters and puts the robe and hat in his basket. Then he puts on his glasses and reads from a history book about the death of Cardinal Wolsey. He died of a broken heart or pneumonia, but the real cause was the displeasure of the King over his handling of the divorce. He was arrested and died on the way to the Tower in 1530. Afterwards, Sir Thomas More became the Lord Chancellor of England. More had the reputation of being a saint, which one would gather from his writings. In life that is harder to verify, the Common Man says, but since he seemed indifferent to reality, perhaps he was.
Act One, Scene Five: Commentary
The swift shift of scenes to highlight only certain moments in More’s story makes history feel more arbitrary, less logical and sequential. Wolsey is there, threatening, one moment, and the next, he is gone, a footnote in a history book, with only his robe and hat remaining. The Common Man’s commentary provides an ironic link between scenes. History is all about the important people like Wolsey and More, but as Alice More points out, great people can get colds as well as commoners. Wolsey’s pneumonia, his death, his fall, demonstrate the vulnerability of every person. The Common Man points out not the high drama, but the human condition. The Common Man is not very impressed by Sir Thomas More’s saintliness. | 316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The telegraph from J.P. Morgan had just one line: "Congratulations, Mr. Carnegie, you are the richest man in the world." Andrew Carnegie had sold his steel empire, netting him a personal payout of $250 million (approximately $7.5 billion today). He would spend the next two decades becoming the world’s greatest philanthropist.
Carnegie had gone from an impoverished Scottish immigrant to the pinnacle of American industry. What was the secret behind his remarkable rise? From his earliest days, Carnegie saw every job, no matter how menial, as an opportunity to excel.
Andrew Carnegie was born in 1835 in a shared single-room cottage in Dunfermline, Scotland. His father was a hand-weaver, a trade that would be nearly eliminated by industrialization. When his father’s business failed, Carnegie and his family faced starvation. In dire straits, they decided to make a new start in America.
The teenage Carnegie got his first job at a cotton mill near Pittsburgh. He worked as a bobbin boy, changing spools of thread. He spent six days a week at the factory, frequently working 12-hour days, for a weekly salary of $1.20 (less than $40 a week today). Despite the rough conditions, Carnegie felt a profound sense of purpose. In his autobiography, he recalled, “I have made millions since, but none of those millions gave me such happiness as my first week's earnings. I was now a helper of the family, a breadwinner.”
A local manufacturer observed Carnegie’s work ethic and hired him to run a steam-engine. This job provided a raise to $2.00 per week but proved exhausting. After a few weeks, he was ready to quit. However, he thought about his parents’ sacrifices, and he knew he could not give up. One day, the manufacturer needed help with his bills. Carnegie had spent his free time improving his math skills and now seized the chance to become a clerk.
About a year later, a local telegraph office manager was looking for a new messenger. Carnegie was mentioned as a reliable and diligent young man. For $2.50 a week, Carnegie would spend his days racing around the city. To help him with this new job, he memorized the streets of Pittsburgh and the locations of important businesses. One night, Carnegie’s boss took him aside, declaring him the best messenger in the office and promising him a bonus. The moment filled him with such pride that he was “moved to tears of joy.”
Soon after, Carnegie was asked to fill in for a telegraph operator. When an assistant operator job opened, Carnegie was quickly promoted into the full-time role. He took the time to familiarize himself with the telegraph sounds, making him much faster than the other operators at taking messages. When a disaster hit a nearby town, he was dispatched to work the telegraph lines.
The superintendent of the railway, Thomas A. Scott, noticed this promising young man and asked Carnegie to become his private secretary for $4.00 a week. Scott taught Carnegie about investments and exposed him to a variety of new businesses. When the Civil War broke out and Scott was appointed to manage the North’s railways, he brought Carnegie along as his right-hand man. In this role, Carnegie noticed that the country needed a massive infrastructure overhaul. He was sure that steel would be America’s building material of the future. He poured his accumulated investment earnings into opening a steel mill. The rest, they say, is history.
Andrew Carnegie believed that no job was beneath him. Even from his humble beginnings, he showed a dedication to his work that separated him from his peers.
Many of us have had unpleasant, tedious, and tiring jobs. It is natural for your energy level to match your interest level. However, that is a huge mistake. A dull job often provides a golden opportunity to stand out. If your coworkers are demotivated, your extra effort is more likely to be noticed. In Carnegie’s early career, he worked in some particularly difficult environments, and yet he always found ways for his drive to shine through.
Regardless of your job, your title, or your salary, every day you can bring a commitment to excellence. You can always go the extra mile for your customers, your managers, or your company. Your enthusiasm may not only open doors, but it can also make you enjoy your job more. According to self-perception theory, behavior informs attitude as much as attitude informs behavior.
Carnegie said, “the average person puts only 25% of his energy and ability into his work. The world takes off its hat to those who put in more than 50% of their capacity and stands on its head for those few and far between souls who devote 100%.” He was right. If you want to be a success, you need to be all in.
Carnegie believed “the man who dies rich, dies disgraced.” After selling his business, he brought his trademark passion to philanthropy. By his death in 1919, he had given away over $350 million (as a share of GDP, his donations would equal nearly $80 billion today).
Carnegie believed that education could transform society. He funded the creation of over 3000 libraries across the world. He also gave generously to scholarships and teachers’ pension funds. Perhaps most notably, he founded the Carnegie Technical Schools to educate Pittsburgh’s working-class. The schools grew into the world-renowned Carnegie Mellon University (CMU). In building these schools, Carnegie remarked, “my heart is in the work,” which became CMU’s motto. Looking at Andrew Carnegie’s life, it could have been his personal motto too. | <urn:uuid:849e683b-7c29-46fa-9ab3-89953b86641a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidcarlin/2019/11/20/how-to-go-from-120-a-week-to-the-richest-man-in-the-world/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00437.warc.gz | en | 0.987217 | 1,206 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.026881922036... | 1 | The telegraph from J.P. Morgan had just one line: "Congratulations, Mr. Carnegie, you are the richest man in the world." Andrew Carnegie had sold his steel empire, netting him a personal payout of $250 million (approximately $7.5 billion today). He would spend the next two decades becoming the world’s greatest philanthropist.
Carnegie had gone from an impoverished Scottish immigrant to the pinnacle of American industry. What was the secret behind his remarkable rise? From his earliest days, Carnegie saw every job, no matter how menial, as an opportunity to excel.
Andrew Carnegie was born in 1835 in a shared single-room cottage in Dunfermline, Scotland. His father was a hand-weaver, a trade that would be nearly eliminated by industrialization. When his father’s business failed, Carnegie and his family faced starvation. In dire straits, they decided to make a new start in America.
The teenage Carnegie got his first job at a cotton mill near Pittsburgh. He worked as a bobbin boy, changing spools of thread. He spent six days a week at the factory, frequently working 12-hour days, for a weekly salary of $1.20 (less than $40 a week today). Despite the rough conditions, Carnegie felt a profound sense of purpose. In his autobiography, he recalled, “I have made millions since, but none of those millions gave me such happiness as my first week's earnings. I was now a helper of the family, a breadwinner.”
A local manufacturer observed Carnegie’s work ethic and hired him to run a steam-engine. This job provided a raise to $2.00 per week but proved exhausting. After a few weeks, he was ready to quit. However, he thought about his parents’ sacrifices, and he knew he could not give up. One day, the manufacturer needed help with his bills. Carnegie had spent his free time improving his math skills and now seized the chance to become a clerk.
About a year later, a local telegraph office manager was looking for a new messenger. Carnegie was mentioned as a reliable and diligent young man. For $2.50 a week, Carnegie would spend his days racing around the city. To help him with this new job, he memorized the streets of Pittsburgh and the locations of important businesses. One night, Carnegie’s boss took him aside, declaring him the best messenger in the office and promising him a bonus. The moment filled him with such pride that he was “moved to tears of joy.”
Soon after, Carnegie was asked to fill in for a telegraph operator. When an assistant operator job opened, Carnegie was quickly promoted into the full-time role. He took the time to familiarize himself with the telegraph sounds, making him much faster than the other operators at taking messages. When a disaster hit a nearby town, he was dispatched to work the telegraph lines.
The superintendent of the railway, Thomas A. Scott, noticed this promising young man and asked Carnegie to become his private secretary for $4.00 a week. Scott taught Carnegie about investments and exposed him to a variety of new businesses. When the Civil War broke out and Scott was appointed to manage the North’s railways, he brought Carnegie along as his right-hand man. In this role, Carnegie noticed that the country needed a massive infrastructure overhaul. He was sure that steel would be America’s building material of the future. He poured his accumulated investment earnings into opening a steel mill. The rest, they say, is history.
Andrew Carnegie believed that no job was beneath him. Even from his humble beginnings, he showed a dedication to his work that separated him from his peers.
Many of us have had unpleasant, tedious, and tiring jobs. It is natural for your energy level to match your interest level. However, that is a huge mistake. A dull job often provides a golden opportunity to stand out. If your coworkers are demotivated, your extra effort is more likely to be noticed. In Carnegie’s early career, he worked in some particularly difficult environments, and yet he always found ways for his drive to shine through.
Regardless of your job, your title, or your salary, every day you can bring a commitment to excellence. You can always go the extra mile for your customers, your managers, or your company. Your enthusiasm may not only open doors, but it can also make you enjoy your job more. According to self-perception theory, behavior informs attitude as much as attitude informs behavior.
Carnegie said, “the average person puts only 25% of his energy and ability into his work. The world takes off its hat to those who put in more than 50% of their capacity and stands on its head for those few and far between souls who devote 100%.” He was right. If you want to be a success, you need to be all in.
Carnegie believed “the man who dies rich, dies disgraced.” After selling his business, he brought his trademark passion to philanthropy. By his death in 1919, he had given away over $350 million (as a share of GDP, his donations would equal nearly $80 billion today).
Carnegie believed that education could transform society. He funded the creation of over 3000 libraries across the world. He also gave generously to scholarships and teachers’ pension funds. Perhaps most notably, he founded the Carnegie Technical Schools to educate Pittsburgh’s working-class. The schools grew into the world-renowned Carnegie Mellon University (CMU). In building these schools, Carnegie remarked, “my heart is in the work,” which became CMU’s motto. Looking at Andrew Carnegie’s life, it could have been his personal motto too. | 1,181 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“I am Ashurbanipal, great king, mighty king, king of the world, king of Assyria.”
With over 200 extraordinary objects, the British Museum is exploring the life of King Ashurbanipal of Assyria (r.668-627 BC). In his own words, Ashurbanipal was “king of the world”, but if he was so great, why is he not well-known today? Those familiar with the Assyrians have likely come across references in classical sources or the Bible. Assyria and its capital city, Nineveh, feature in Biblical stories such as Jonah when the Lord commands the prophet to “Go to the great city of Nineveh and proclaim to it the message I give you.” (Jonah 3:2 NIV) The eventual fall of Nineveh is written about in the book of Nahum but the supposedly most powerful individual on the planet never earned a mention.
The British Museum begins the exhibition I am Ashurbanipal with a brief history of the empire up to the reign of the great and mighty king. At the time of his reign (668 BC), the Iron Age Mesopotamian empire Neo-Assyria was the largest empire in the world. Assyria was originally an Akkadian kingdom which had begun to evolve as early as the 25th century BC, however, its most important period began in 911 BC with the ascension of Adad-Nirari II.
By the time Ashurbanipal became king, Assyria stretched from Cyprus in the west to Iran in the east, its capital city – the biggest city in the world – falling where Iraq is today. With an empire covering such a considerable amount of land, Ashurbanipal was not far off with his boast about being king of the world. Yet, being the youngest son of the previous king, he was never destined for the throne.
When King Esarhaddon’s (r.680-668 BC) eldest son died, he ignored his next eldest son, Shamash-shumu-ukin, making Ashurbanipal the crown prince instead. In order to attempt to keep the peace between the brothers, Esarhaddon gave Shamash-shumu-ukin the kingdom of Babylon, which he had rebuilt during his reign. This, however, as the exhibition proves, only stirred up more antagonism. Despite being a kingdom, Babylon was part of the Assyrian empire, thus the king of Babylon was subject to his baby brother.
Ashurbanipal reigned from the city of Nineveh in Upper Mesopotamia, on the outskirts of what is now the major city of Mosul in Iraq. During the time of the Neo-Assyrian empire, there was a significant architectural expansion of the city, eventually making it the largest in the world. The man mostly responsible for this endeavour was Ashurbanipal’s grandfather, King Sennacherib (r.704-681 BC).
Sennacherib laid out new streets and squares to help the old provincial town grow into a magnificent city. Towards the south-west of the city, Sennacherib built a palace, which he boasted to be a “palace without a rival”. It is thought to have contained over 80 rooms and had the approximate dimensions of 503 by 242 metres.
“I enlarged the site of Nineveh, my capital city. I broadend its squares, making them as bright as day. I had an inner and an out wall built and I raised them as high as mountains.”
– King Sennacherib
The British Museum displays the remains of wall panels and carvings that have been recovered from the remains of the palace’s site as well as the North Palace that Ashurbanipal built in about 645 BC on the citadel mound of Nineveh. The outer walls were most likely constructed of mud brick and plaster, while cedar wood beams were used to hold up the roof. The grander rooms of the palaces contained narrative scenes and protective figures carved into gypsum panels.
The main doorways were probably flanked by colossal stone lamassu figures. These were protective deities, often depicted with a human head but the body of a lion or bull. Whilst these have not survived to the present day, the museum has a couple of examples of protective spirits on wall panels, which, along with the stone figures, were revered as magical guardians who would protect the palace from malevolent supernatural forces, particularly those that could harm the king.
There are three spirits on the wall panels in the exhibition, each with different physical characteristics. One is called Lahmu or “the hairy one”, recognised by his elaborate ringlets, which also denote his divine status. Another is considered to be a “House God”, whose divinity can be determined by his headdress. These deities both have human heads, however, the one positioned between them has the head of a lion. Known as Ugallu, “Great Lion”, or “Big Weather-Beast”, this monstrous-looking deity or demon was believed to ward off evil and disease using threatening gestures with his dagger and mace.
Other carvings and statues of magical creatures were also found in the ruins of the ancient palaces, for example, the stone face of a sphinx that may once have formed part of a column base. A sphinx was believed to have similar powers to the human-headed lamassu figures, however, the sphinx usually looked more animalistic. With the haunches of a lion, a human head and often bird-like wings, the Sphinx was usually carved from one piece of limestone, however, Sennacherib also used other materials.
“Sphinxes of alabaster, as well as sphinxes of cast copper overlaid with silver … I erected over them columns of ebony, cypress, cedar, juniper and Indian wood, with gold and silver inlays.”
– King Sennacherib
The British Museum has examples of Assyrian wall reliefs in abundance and it is easy to be overwhelmed with the number of scenes they depict. These are some of the finest examples of Assyrian art, however, after continuously seeing one after another, they begin to all look the same. Nonetheless, these reliefs show some of the most important parts of Ashurbanipal’s reign and emphasise his importance and power throughout Assyria.
After being appointed crown prince by his father, Ashurbanipal began training to be king. Whilst living in a palace known as the “House of Succession”, the prince was taught royal etiquette, important military and leadership skills and was instructed in Mesopotamian scholarship. He also shadowed his father in court and was given the position of spymaster general, tasked with gathering information about Assyria’s allies and enemies throughout the empire.
“I cantered on thoroughbeds, rode stallions that were rearing to go; I held a bow and made arrows fly as befits a warrior …”
– King Ashurbanipal
As many of the wall reliefs show, Assyrian kings and warriors were famed for hunting lions, the most dangerous creature in the empire. This was considered a royal sport and represented the king’s ability to protect his nation against the dangers of the world. Assyrian kings were also believed to be the human representative of the gods, so these lion hunts were also a way of proving that they had divine protection from harm.
Ashurbanipal recorded his experience of lion slaying, describing how he seized a wild lion by the tail and “through the command of the gods” killed it by shattering its skull with his mace. Whilst this seems cruel and inhumane, these triumphs were celebrated at the time of the Neo-Assyrian empire, hence the number of reliefs depicting the feat.
When Ashurbanipal was not killing lions, he enjoyed reading and writing, which was rather an unusual hobby for a king. As well as being a good commander, Ashurbanipal believed that to have control over an empire, he needed to have knowledge too. He loved to boast about the extent of his scholarship and was proud of his education, especially after having studied with one of the top scribes of the time. As a result, many surviving images of the king depict him with a stylus for writing tucked into his belt.
“I have read cunningly written texts in obscure Sumerian and Akkadian that are difficult to interpret.”
– King Ashurbanipal
When he became king, Ashurbanipal inherited an enormous collection of specialist writings, which eventually became the foundation of the largest and most extensive library the world has seen. In total, it is believed Ashurbanipal owned at least 10,000 works.
The works in Ashurbanipal’s library were written on freshly made clay tablets and the British Museum has assembled a huge sample of the remaining fragments. Assyrian books were written in a script called cuneiform, which had first been developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia around 3000 BCE. The system of writing was read left to right and looked like a series of wedge-shaped marks. In fact, cuneiform simply translates as “wedge-shaped”.
Ashurbanipal’s library provided him access to texts and references of all types of knowledge, including rituals, calendars, prayers, magic and medicine. Mostly, Ashurbanipal used the books to help him communicate with the gods and determine what the future held.
“I, Ashurbanipal, learned the wisdom of Nabu [the god of writing], laid hold of scribal practices of all the experts, as many as there are, I examined their instructions.”
Fortunately for scholars all over the world, when Ashurbanipal’s palace was eventually destroyed, the library was buried underneath the rubble where it stayed hidden for 2000 years. As a result, excavators were able to find examples of many of the significant works in Ashurbanipal’s collection. One of these works, The Epic of Gilgamesh, is the most famous of Mesopotamian literature.
As well as being the most famous Mesopotamian work, The Epic of Gilgamesh is also considered to be the earliest surviving piece of literature. Written in the form of an epic poem, it tells the adventures of Sumerian Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, which include killing the monster Humbaba and searching for immortality.
A large part of the exhibition concentrates on the areas that were owned by the Assyrian empire. By the time Ashurbanipal came to power, Assyria controlled a huge territory, which was divided into several provinces. Each province was supervised by a governor who had been appointed by the king, for example, his brother who ruled Babylon. Other provinces included the Levantine kingdoms, Cyprus, Urartu, Western Iran, and Aramaean kingdoms, such as Syria and Turkey. The British Museum documents each place with examples of ancient relics, many of which may have been spoils of war.
Ashurbanipal was involved in many wars during his reign, particularly ones that helped to expand the empire’s borders or stamp out usurpers. The Assyrians were not deterred by violence, believing it was a just punishment against those who had slighted the king or the gods.
During the first half of his reign, Ashurbanipal sent his armies to the west to conquer Egypt and its neighbouring regions. His success came about by defeating his enemies and capturing the city of Thebes, however, in the East, other problems were brewing.
Whilst Ashurbanipal was busy dealing with Egypt, the kingdom of Elam tried to rise up against Assyria. The king’s armies quickly quashed the revolt and the threat abated until the Elamite king died later in the year. Rather than the rightful heir, Ummanigash, take the throne, his uncle Teumman seized the position. Fearing for his life, Ummanigash fled with his family to the safety of Assyria. Naturally, Teumman was displeased with this turn of event and demanded that Ashurbanipal force his nephew to return. Instead, the Assyrian’s retaliated by attacking the Elamite usurper. After Teumman’s defeat, his head was paraded through the streets of Nineveh.
“I cut off the head of Teumman, their presumptuous king who had plotted evil. I slew his warriors without number. I captured the fighting men alive.”
– King Ashurbanipal
Ashurbanipal took the credit for the defeat of Teumman claiming that he personally killed the Elamite king and his son with his own sword. In reality, Ashurbanipal never entered the battle in Elam, remaining in safety back at his palace in Nineveh. Nonetheless, the death of the usurper was permanently recorded on wall friezes depicting the king of Assyria relaxing in his garden. On a tree nearby, hangs the head of the ex-Elamite king.
For Ashurbanipal, the empire was the most important thing in his life, more important than family, including his brother. Shamash-shumu-ukin never got over his father’s choice to make his younger brother the crown prince of Assyria. Whilst he was given the kingdom of Babylon to rule over, Shamash-shumu-ukin was extremely displeased to be under the thumb of Ashurbanipal. In secret, he began to conspire against his younger brother, creating a coalition with other areas of the empire. Unfortunately for Shamash-shumu-ukin, Ashurbanipal caught wind of his vicious plot.
Initially, Ashurbanipal attempted to maintain peace with Babylon but his brother’s persistent rebellion sparked a war in 652 BC, lasting for four years. Although Shamash-shumu-ukin had the support of foreign rulers, the king soon had the upper hand. The Assyrians eventually laid siege to the city of Babylon for two years during which time the Babylonian’s suffered from lack of food and disease. The siege ended after Shamash-shumu-ukin perished after setting his palace on fire to avoid capture.
By the end of Ashurbanipal’s reign, he had ruthlessly crushed Assyria’s enemies, thus fulfilling his kingly duty to restore order in the world. Despite having a well-documented life, the final years of Ashurbanipal’s long reign have not been recorded or, at least, not been discovered. As a result, it is impossible to determine how or when he died; some scholars believe his reign ended as early as 631 BC, whereas others report that it was as late as 627 BC. What can be proved, however, is that after his death, all Ashurbanispal’s hard work began to unravel.
Just as Nahum prophesied in the Bible, the city of Nineveh was destined to fall: “he [God] will make an end of Nineveh; he will pursue his foes into the realm of darkness.” (Nahum 1:8 NIV)
Ashurbanipal was shortly succeeded by his son Ashur-etil-ilani until 624 BC and possibly another son, Sin-shar-ishkun until 612 BC. It was during this time that things began to fall apart, beginning with a general called Nabopolassar seizing the throne of Babylon in 626 BC. This caused a civil war that left the Assyrian empire fighting for survival.
The Iranian Medes joined the war, sacking cities and desecrating the tombs of past Assyrian kings. By 612 BC, Assyria’s enemies had fought their way to the capital city Nineveh which they razed to the ground, causing the death of King Sin-shar-ishkun, the last ever King of Assyria.
The British Museum ends the exhibition with an insight into the work taking place in Iraq, including the ancient site of Nineveh. Archaeological discoveries relating to the Assyrians were first made in the 1840s, however, recent events have destroyed a lot of remaining cultural heritage. The Gulf War (1990-91) and invasions between 2003 and 2011 resulted in the loss and vandalism of many ancient relics. Further irreparable damage was made during Daesh from 2014 to 2017. The British Museum is currently one of a number of organisations working with the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage to salvage what they can plus rebuild and preserve Iraq’s cultural heritage.
I am Ashurbanipal is on view in Room 30 of the British Museum until 24th February 2019. Ticket prices are £17, however, under-16s may visit for free when accompanied by a paying adult. | <urn:uuid:8b43a4eb-adda-44b9-979a-5a9ea4b69009> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hazelstainer.wordpress.com/2019/02/01/i-am-ashurbanipal/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00167.warc.gz | en | 0.981305 | 3,520 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.2195449769... | 11 | “I am Ashurbanipal, great king, mighty king, king of the world, king of Assyria.”
With over 200 extraordinary objects, the British Museum is exploring the life of King Ashurbanipal of Assyria (r.668-627 BC). In his own words, Ashurbanipal was “king of the world”, but if he was so great, why is he not well-known today? Those familiar with the Assyrians have likely come across references in classical sources or the Bible. Assyria and its capital city, Nineveh, feature in Biblical stories such as Jonah when the Lord commands the prophet to “Go to the great city of Nineveh and proclaim to it the message I give you.” (Jonah 3:2 NIV) The eventual fall of Nineveh is written about in the book of Nahum but the supposedly most powerful individual on the planet never earned a mention.
The British Museum begins the exhibition I am Ashurbanipal with a brief history of the empire up to the reign of the great and mighty king. At the time of his reign (668 BC), the Iron Age Mesopotamian empire Neo-Assyria was the largest empire in the world. Assyria was originally an Akkadian kingdom which had begun to evolve as early as the 25th century BC, however, its most important period began in 911 BC with the ascension of Adad-Nirari II.
By the time Ashurbanipal became king, Assyria stretched from Cyprus in the west to Iran in the east, its capital city – the biggest city in the world – falling where Iraq is today. With an empire covering such a considerable amount of land, Ashurbanipal was not far off with his boast about being king of the world. Yet, being the youngest son of the previous king, he was never destined for the throne.
When King Esarhaddon’s (r.680-668 BC) eldest son died, he ignored his next eldest son, Shamash-shumu-ukin, making Ashurbanipal the crown prince instead. In order to attempt to keep the peace between the brothers, Esarhaddon gave Shamash-shumu-ukin the kingdom of Babylon, which he had rebuilt during his reign. This, however, as the exhibition proves, only stirred up more antagonism. Despite being a kingdom, Babylon was part of the Assyrian empire, thus the king of Babylon was subject to his baby brother.
Ashurbanipal reigned from the city of Nineveh in Upper Mesopotamia, on the outskirts of what is now the major city of Mosul in Iraq. During the time of the Neo-Assyrian empire, there was a significant architectural expansion of the city, eventually making it the largest in the world. The man mostly responsible for this endeavour was Ashurbanipal’s grandfather, King Sennacherib (r.704-681 BC).
Sennacherib laid out new streets and squares to help the old provincial town grow into a magnificent city. Towards the south-west of the city, Sennacherib built a palace, which he boasted to be a “palace without a rival”. It is thought to have contained over 80 rooms and had the approximate dimensions of 503 by 242 metres.
“I enlarged the site of Nineveh, my capital city. I broadend its squares, making them as bright as day. I had an inner and an out wall built and I raised them as high as mountains.”
– King Sennacherib
The British Museum displays the remains of wall panels and carvings that have been recovered from the remains of the palace’s site as well as the North Palace that Ashurbanipal built in about 645 BC on the citadel mound of Nineveh. The outer walls were most likely constructed of mud brick and plaster, while cedar wood beams were used to hold up the roof. The grander rooms of the palaces contained narrative scenes and protective figures carved into gypsum panels.
The main doorways were probably flanked by colossal stone lamassu figures. These were protective deities, often depicted with a human head but the body of a lion or bull. Whilst these have not survived to the present day, the museum has a couple of examples of protective spirits on wall panels, which, along with the stone figures, were revered as magical guardians who would protect the palace from malevolent supernatural forces, particularly those that could harm the king.
There are three spirits on the wall panels in the exhibition, each with different physical characteristics. One is called Lahmu or “the hairy one”, recognised by his elaborate ringlets, which also denote his divine status. Another is considered to be a “House God”, whose divinity can be determined by his headdress. These deities both have human heads, however, the one positioned between them has the head of a lion. Known as Ugallu, “Great Lion”, or “Big Weather-Beast”, this monstrous-looking deity or demon was believed to ward off evil and disease using threatening gestures with his dagger and mace.
Other carvings and statues of magical creatures were also found in the ruins of the ancient palaces, for example, the stone face of a sphinx that may once have formed part of a column base. A sphinx was believed to have similar powers to the human-headed lamassu figures, however, the sphinx usually looked more animalistic. With the haunches of a lion, a human head and often bird-like wings, the Sphinx was usually carved from one piece of limestone, however, Sennacherib also used other materials.
“Sphinxes of alabaster, as well as sphinxes of cast copper overlaid with silver … I erected over them columns of ebony, cypress, cedar, juniper and Indian wood, with gold and silver inlays.”
– King Sennacherib
The British Museum has examples of Assyrian wall reliefs in abundance and it is easy to be overwhelmed with the number of scenes they depict. These are some of the finest examples of Assyrian art, however, after continuously seeing one after another, they begin to all look the same. Nonetheless, these reliefs show some of the most important parts of Ashurbanipal’s reign and emphasise his importance and power throughout Assyria.
After being appointed crown prince by his father, Ashurbanipal began training to be king. Whilst living in a palace known as the “House of Succession”, the prince was taught royal etiquette, important military and leadership skills and was instructed in Mesopotamian scholarship. He also shadowed his father in court and was given the position of spymaster general, tasked with gathering information about Assyria’s allies and enemies throughout the empire.
“I cantered on thoroughbeds, rode stallions that were rearing to go; I held a bow and made arrows fly as befits a warrior …”
– King Ashurbanipal
As many of the wall reliefs show, Assyrian kings and warriors were famed for hunting lions, the most dangerous creature in the empire. This was considered a royal sport and represented the king’s ability to protect his nation against the dangers of the world. Assyrian kings were also believed to be the human representative of the gods, so these lion hunts were also a way of proving that they had divine protection from harm.
Ashurbanipal recorded his experience of lion slaying, describing how he seized a wild lion by the tail and “through the command of the gods” killed it by shattering its skull with his mace. Whilst this seems cruel and inhumane, these triumphs were celebrated at the time of the Neo-Assyrian empire, hence the number of reliefs depicting the feat.
When Ashurbanipal was not killing lions, he enjoyed reading and writing, which was rather an unusual hobby for a king. As well as being a good commander, Ashurbanipal believed that to have control over an empire, he needed to have knowledge too. He loved to boast about the extent of his scholarship and was proud of his education, especially after having studied with one of the top scribes of the time. As a result, many surviving images of the king depict him with a stylus for writing tucked into his belt.
“I have read cunningly written texts in obscure Sumerian and Akkadian that are difficult to interpret.”
– King Ashurbanipal
When he became king, Ashurbanipal inherited an enormous collection of specialist writings, which eventually became the foundation of the largest and most extensive library the world has seen. In total, it is believed Ashurbanipal owned at least 10,000 works.
The works in Ashurbanipal’s library were written on freshly made clay tablets and the British Museum has assembled a huge sample of the remaining fragments. Assyrian books were written in a script called cuneiform, which had first been developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia around 3000 BCE. The system of writing was read left to right and looked like a series of wedge-shaped marks. In fact, cuneiform simply translates as “wedge-shaped”.
Ashurbanipal’s library provided him access to texts and references of all types of knowledge, including rituals, calendars, prayers, magic and medicine. Mostly, Ashurbanipal used the books to help him communicate with the gods and determine what the future held.
“I, Ashurbanipal, learned the wisdom of Nabu [the god of writing], laid hold of scribal practices of all the experts, as many as there are, I examined their instructions.”
Fortunately for scholars all over the world, when Ashurbanipal’s palace was eventually destroyed, the library was buried underneath the rubble where it stayed hidden for 2000 years. As a result, excavators were able to find examples of many of the significant works in Ashurbanipal’s collection. One of these works, The Epic of Gilgamesh, is the most famous of Mesopotamian literature.
As well as being the most famous Mesopotamian work, The Epic of Gilgamesh is also considered to be the earliest surviving piece of literature. Written in the form of an epic poem, it tells the adventures of Sumerian Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, which include killing the monster Humbaba and searching for immortality.
A large part of the exhibition concentrates on the areas that were owned by the Assyrian empire. By the time Ashurbanipal came to power, Assyria controlled a huge territory, which was divided into several provinces. Each province was supervised by a governor who had been appointed by the king, for example, his brother who ruled Babylon. Other provinces included the Levantine kingdoms, Cyprus, Urartu, Western Iran, and Aramaean kingdoms, such as Syria and Turkey. The British Museum documents each place with examples of ancient relics, many of which may have been spoils of war.
Ashurbanipal was involved in many wars during his reign, particularly ones that helped to expand the empire’s borders or stamp out usurpers. The Assyrians were not deterred by violence, believing it was a just punishment against those who had slighted the king or the gods.
During the first half of his reign, Ashurbanipal sent his armies to the west to conquer Egypt and its neighbouring regions. His success came about by defeating his enemies and capturing the city of Thebes, however, in the East, other problems were brewing.
Whilst Ashurbanipal was busy dealing with Egypt, the kingdom of Elam tried to rise up against Assyria. The king’s armies quickly quashed the revolt and the threat abated until the Elamite king died later in the year. Rather than the rightful heir, Ummanigash, take the throne, his uncle Teumman seized the position. Fearing for his life, Ummanigash fled with his family to the safety of Assyria. Naturally, Teumman was displeased with this turn of event and demanded that Ashurbanipal force his nephew to return. Instead, the Assyrian’s retaliated by attacking the Elamite usurper. After Teumman’s defeat, his head was paraded through the streets of Nineveh.
“I cut off the head of Teumman, their presumptuous king who had plotted evil. I slew his warriors without number. I captured the fighting men alive.”
– King Ashurbanipal
Ashurbanipal took the credit for the defeat of Teumman claiming that he personally killed the Elamite king and his son with his own sword. In reality, Ashurbanipal never entered the battle in Elam, remaining in safety back at his palace in Nineveh. Nonetheless, the death of the usurper was permanently recorded on wall friezes depicting the king of Assyria relaxing in his garden. On a tree nearby, hangs the head of the ex-Elamite king.
For Ashurbanipal, the empire was the most important thing in his life, more important than family, including his brother. Shamash-shumu-ukin never got over his father’s choice to make his younger brother the crown prince of Assyria. Whilst he was given the kingdom of Babylon to rule over, Shamash-shumu-ukin was extremely displeased to be under the thumb of Ashurbanipal. In secret, he began to conspire against his younger brother, creating a coalition with other areas of the empire. Unfortunately for Shamash-shumu-ukin, Ashurbanipal caught wind of his vicious plot.
Initially, Ashurbanipal attempted to maintain peace with Babylon but his brother’s persistent rebellion sparked a war in 652 BC, lasting for four years. Although Shamash-shumu-ukin had the support of foreign rulers, the king soon had the upper hand. The Assyrians eventually laid siege to the city of Babylon for two years during which time the Babylonian’s suffered from lack of food and disease. The siege ended after Shamash-shumu-ukin perished after setting his palace on fire to avoid capture.
By the end of Ashurbanipal’s reign, he had ruthlessly crushed Assyria’s enemies, thus fulfilling his kingly duty to restore order in the world. Despite having a well-documented life, the final years of Ashurbanipal’s long reign have not been recorded or, at least, not been discovered. As a result, it is impossible to determine how or when he died; some scholars believe his reign ended as early as 631 BC, whereas others report that it was as late as 627 BC. What can be proved, however, is that after his death, all Ashurbanispal’s hard work began to unravel.
Just as Nahum prophesied in the Bible, the city of Nineveh was destined to fall: “he [God] will make an end of Nineveh; he will pursue his foes into the realm of darkness.” (Nahum 1:8 NIV)
Ashurbanipal was shortly succeeded by his son Ashur-etil-ilani until 624 BC and possibly another son, Sin-shar-ishkun until 612 BC. It was during this time that things began to fall apart, beginning with a general called Nabopolassar seizing the throne of Babylon in 626 BC. This caused a civil war that left the Assyrian empire fighting for survival.
The Iranian Medes joined the war, sacking cities and desecrating the tombs of past Assyrian kings. By 612 BC, Assyria’s enemies had fought their way to the capital city Nineveh which they razed to the ground, causing the death of King Sin-shar-ishkun, the last ever King of Assyria.
The British Museum ends the exhibition with an insight into the work taking place in Iraq, including the ancient site of Nineveh. Archaeological discoveries relating to the Assyrians were first made in the 1840s, however, recent events have destroyed a lot of remaining cultural heritage. The Gulf War (1990-91) and invasions between 2003 and 2011 resulted in the loss and vandalism of many ancient relics. Further irreparable damage was made during Daesh from 2014 to 2017. The British Museum is currently one of a number of organisations working with the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage to salvage what they can plus rebuild and preserve Iraq’s cultural heritage.
I am Ashurbanipal is on view in Room 30 of the British Museum until 24th February 2019. Ticket prices are £17, however, under-16s may visit for free when accompanied by a paying adult. | 3,484 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Each year Canada honours the legacy of black Canadians during Black History Month in February, and Canadians can gain insight into the experiences of black Canadians and their vital role in the country’s history. But what many people might not know is these contributions extended beyond the border.
In the years before the American Civil War, many African-Americans moved to Canada – or, more accurately, the territories that would become Canada in 1867 – seeking a better life without slavery or restrictive laws. Racism was still a reality in Canada, but it was not institutionalized as it was in the U.S.
Yet after the war began in 1861 and Abraham Lincoln changed the law to allow black men to serve in the army, nearly 2,500 African-Canadians and African Americans volunteered to leave Canada and fight in the Union army and navy. In some parts of Canada, these volunteers accounted for as much as 14 per cent of the black population.
This is a part of Canadian black history that many of us don’t know, says Richard Reid, U of G history professor emeritus. His book, African Canadians in Union Blue, shares these stories. “We know very little of most of these men,” he says. “I can just open small windows into complex lives through my research and writing.”
War is always dangerous, but it was even worse for these black soldiers, who, if captured, could be killed or enslaved, and the white officers leading them faced punishment for “inciting servile insurrection.” In fact, there were a number of battles that resulted in the alleged massacre of black soldiers, as described in Reid’s book.
Why were these Canadians prepared to take such a risk? “I can only speculate, but I think my speculation is good,” says Reid. “It was an altruistic war, and I think the call to fight against slavery touched not only the black volunteers, but also the much larger numbers of white Canadian volunteers.”
Money was also a factor. As the war dragged on and fewer people volunteered for service, the government began offering significant sums to encourage people to sign up. Initially, black soldiers were paid about half the amount received by their white colleagues, but only when that differential was resolved, did most African- Canadians volunteer.
In one chapter Reid focuses on the lives of black doctors working in the Union army. “It was hard to decide whether I should emphasize the advances that had made it possible for these men to become doctors, or the racism and intolerance that inhibited their careers.”
Consider Alexander Augusta, who was refused entrance by U.S. medical schools, so he enrolled at the University of Toronto. After graduation in 1856, he stayed in Toronto to practice, and did not head back to the U.S. until Lincoln authorized the use of black troops.
Reid says that when Augusta arrived to write the required medical exam for entrance into the army, the reaction was, “There must be some mistake; this man is black.” Augusta did so well on the exam that he was given the rank of major and was made the senior surgeon, assigned to care for both black enlisted men and the white officers, in one regiment. He endured protests and insults from others in the army, including the white physicians, yet in 1864 he was invited to a soiree given by Lincoln. After the war, he became the first African-American to teach at a U.S. medical school.
Until recently, most historians had assumed the number of black Canadians in the American Civil War was small. Reid’s painstaking review of the documents has revealed a different story: “This was a fight that very much mattered to the African-Canadians of the time.” | <urn:uuid:84874d68-54e6-430c-9644-9195c5673b26> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://news.uoguelph.ca/2015/02/how-african-canadians-risked-their-lives-to-fight-in-the-american-civil-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.9831 | 784 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.0544644817... | 5 | Each year Canada honours the legacy of black Canadians during Black History Month in February, and Canadians can gain insight into the experiences of black Canadians and their vital role in the country’s history. But what many people might not know is these contributions extended beyond the border.
In the years before the American Civil War, many African-Americans moved to Canada – or, more accurately, the territories that would become Canada in 1867 – seeking a better life without slavery or restrictive laws. Racism was still a reality in Canada, but it was not institutionalized as it was in the U.S.
Yet after the war began in 1861 and Abraham Lincoln changed the law to allow black men to serve in the army, nearly 2,500 African-Canadians and African Americans volunteered to leave Canada and fight in the Union army and navy. In some parts of Canada, these volunteers accounted for as much as 14 per cent of the black population.
This is a part of Canadian black history that many of us don’t know, says Richard Reid, U of G history professor emeritus. His book, African Canadians in Union Blue, shares these stories. “We know very little of most of these men,” he says. “I can just open small windows into complex lives through my research and writing.”
War is always dangerous, but it was even worse for these black soldiers, who, if captured, could be killed or enslaved, and the white officers leading them faced punishment for “inciting servile insurrection.” In fact, there were a number of battles that resulted in the alleged massacre of black soldiers, as described in Reid’s book.
Why were these Canadians prepared to take such a risk? “I can only speculate, but I think my speculation is good,” says Reid. “It was an altruistic war, and I think the call to fight against slavery touched not only the black volunteers, but also the much larger numbers of white Canadian volunteers.”
Money was also a factor. As the war dragged on and fewer people volunteered for service, the government began offering significant sums to encourage people to sign up. Initially, black soldiers were paid about half the amount received by their white colleagues, but only when that differential was resolved, did most African- Canadians volunteer.
In one chapter Reid focuses on the lives of black doctors working in the Union army. “It was hard to decide whether I should emphasize the advances that had made it possible for these men to become doctors, or the racism and intolerance that inhibited their careers.”
Consider Alexander Augusta, who was refused entrance by U.S. medical schools, so he enrolled at the University of Toronto. After graduation in 1856, he stayed in Toronto to practice, and did not head back to the U.S. until Lincoln authorized the use of black troops.
Reid says that when Augusta arrived to write the required medical exam for entrance into the army, the reaction was, “There must be some mistake; this man is black.” Augusta did so well on the exam that he was given the rank of major and was made the senior surgeon, assigned to care for both black enlisted men and the white officers, in one regiment. He endured protests and insults from others in the army, including the white physicians, yet in 1864 he was invited to a soiree given by Lincoln. After the war, he became the first African-American to teach at a U.S. medical school.
Until recently, most historians had assumed the number of black Canadians in the American Civil War was small. Reid’s painstaking review of the documents has revealed a different story: “This was a fight that very much mattered to the African-Canadians of the time.” | 754 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The awakening of adolescence has been a recurring theme that has always fascinated a great many visual artists; conflicts of identity, physical metamorphosis, psychological instability (more…)
Frida Kahlo (1907 – 1954) was a Mexican painter, who mostly painted self-portraits. Inspired by Mexican popular culture, she employed a naïve folk art style to explore questions of identity, postcolonialism, gender, class, and race in Mexican society. Her paintings often had strong autobiographical elements and mixed realism with fantasy. In addition to belonging to the post-revolutionary Mexicanidad movement, which sought to define a Mexican identity, Kahlo has been described as a Surrealist or magical realist. Her work has been celebrated internationally as emblematic of Mexican national and indigenous traditions, and by feminists for what is seen as its uncompromising depiction of the female experience and form.
Born to a German father and a mestiza mother, Kahlo spent most of her childhood and adult life at her family home, La Casa Azul, in Coyoacán. She was left disabled by polio as a child, and at the age of eighteen was seriously injured in a traffic accident, which caused her pain and medical problems for the rest of her life. Prior to the accident, she had been a promising student headed for medical school, but in the aftermath had to abandon higher education. Although art had been her hobby throughout her childhood, Kahlo began to entertain the idea of becoming an artist during her long recovery. She was also interested in politics and in 1927 joined the Mexican Communist Party. Through the Party, she met the celebrated muralist Diego Rivera. They were married in 1928, and remained a couple until Kahlo’s death. The relationship was volatile due to both having extramarital affairs; they divorced in 1940, but remarried the following year.
Kahlo was mainly known as Rivera’s wife until the late 1970s, when her work was rediscovered by art historians and political activists. By the 1990s, she had become not only a recognized figure in art history, but also regarded as an icon.
Kahlo spent the late 1920s and early 1930s traveling in Mexico and the United States with Rivera who was working on commissions. During this time, she developed her own style as an artist, drawing her main inspiration from Mexican folk culture and painting mostly small self-portraits, which mixed elements from pre-Columbian and Catholic mythology. Although always overshadowed by Rivera, her paintings raised the interest of Surrealist artist André Breton, who arranged for her to have her first solo exhibition at the Julien Levy Gallery in New York in 1938. The exhibition was a success and was followed by another in Paris in 1939. While the French exhibition was less successful, the Louvre purchased a painting from Kahlo, making her the first Mexican artist to be featured in their collection.
Throughout the 1940s, Kahlo continued to participate in exhibitions in Mexico and the United States. She also began to teach at the Escuela Nacional de Pintura, Escultura y Grabado “La Esmeralda”, and became a founding member of the Seminario de Cultura Mexicana. Kahlo’s always fragile health began to increasingly decline in the same decade. She had her first solo exhibition in Mexico in 1953, shortly before her death the following year at the age of 47. | <urn:uuid:49457c5d-4bfa-4df7-b1de-3ac6b31f7921> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artpil.com/frida-kahlo/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00473.warc.gz | en | 0.988316 | 705 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.282152652740478... | 2 | The awakening of adolescence has been a recurring theme that has always fascinated a great many visual artists; conflicts of identity, physical metamorphosis, psychological instability (more…)
Frida Kahlo (1907 – 1954) was a Mexican painter, who mostly painted self-portraits. Inspired by Mexican popular culture, she employed a naïve folk art style to explore questions of identity, postcolonialism, gender, class, and race in Mexican society. Her paintings often had strong autobiographical elements and mixed realism with fantasy. In addition to belonging to the post-revolutionary Mexicanidad movement, which sought to define a Mexican identity, Kahlo has been described as a Surrealist or magical realist. Her work has been celebrated internationally as emblematic of Mexican national and indigenous traditions, and by feminists for what is seen as its uncompromising depiction of the female experience and form.
Born to a German father and a mestiza mother, Kahlo spent most of her childhood and adult life at her family home, La Casa Azul, in Coyoacán. She was left disabled by polio as a child, and at the age of eighteen was seriously injured in a traffic accident, which caused her pain and medical problems for the rest of her life. Prior to the accident, she had been a promising student headed for medical school, but in the aftermath had to abandon higher education. Although art had been her hobby throughout her childhood, Kahlo began to entertain the idea of becoming an artist during her long recovery. She was also interested in politics and in 1927 joined the Mexican Communist Party. Through the Party, she met the celebrated muralist Diego Rivera. They were married in 1928, and remained a couple until Kahlo’s death. The relationship was volatile due to both having extramarital affairs; they divorced in 1940, but remarried the following year.
Kahlo was mainly known as Rivera’s wife until the late 1970s, when her work was rediscovered by art historians and political activists. By the 1990s, she had become not only a recognized figure in art history, but also regarded as an icon.
Kahlo spent the late 1920s and early 1930s traveling in Mexico and the United States with Rivera who was working on commissions. During this time, she developed her own style as an artist, drawing her main inspiration from Mexican folk culture and painting mostly small self-portraits, which mixed elements from pre-Columbian and Catholic mythology. Although always overshadowed by Rivera, her paintings raised the interest of Surrealist artist André Breton, who arranged for her to have her first solo exhibition at the Julien Levy Gallery in New York in 1938. The exhibition was a success and was followed by another in Paris in 1939. While the French exhibition was less successful, the Louvre purchased a painting from Kahlo, making her the first Mexican artist to be featured in their collection.
Throughout the 1940s, Kahlo continued to participate in exhibitions in Mexico and the United States. She also began to teach at the Escuela Nacional de Pintura, Escultura y Grabado “La Esmeralda”, and became a founding member of the Seminario de Cultura Mexicana. Kahlo’s always fragile health began to increasingly decline in the same decade. She had her first solo exhibition in Mexico in 1953, shortly before her death the following year at the age of 47. | 737 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pompeii is an ancient Roman city that was buried under meters of ash from a volcano called Vesuvius. Pompeii is no longer a place where you can live because it’s too fragile. Pompeii is located in Pompeii, in the Province of Naples Campania, Italy.
Mount Vesuvius, a volcano near the bay just erupted on October 24, 79 AD. More than 2,000 people died of the heat, ash, and fumes.
The shape of Pompeii’s victims were captured. The eruption was so bad it lasted 24 hours after the eruption the ancient roman city of Pompeii was lost for centuries. Pompeii was rediscovered by Demenico Fontana. He was digging a channel underground when he discovered the city.
Today a third of the city is still buried. People cannot live in Pompeii because it is way too fragile, but today still lies Pompeii, Province of Naples Campiana, Italy. | <urn:uuid:4bb567b2-e052-4a7e-9357-2012e051b930> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrsmckelvey.edublogs.org/2020/01/08/the-ancient-city-of-pompeii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00337.warc.gz | en | 0.980693 | 198 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.55902105569839... | 10 | Pompeii is an ancient Roman city that was buried under meters of ash from a volcano called Vesuvius. Pompeii is no longer a place where you can live because it’s too fragile. Pompeii is located in Pompeii, in the Province of Naples Campania, Italy.
Mount Vesuvius, a volcano near the bay just erupted on October 24, 79 AD. More than 2,000 people died of the heat, ash, and fumes.
The shape of Pompeii’s victims were captured. The eruption was so bad it lasted 24 hours after the eruption the ancient roman city of Pompeii was lost for centuries. Pompeii was rediscovered by Demenico Fontana. He was digging a channel underground when he discovered the city.
Today a third of the city is still buried. People cannot live in Pompeii because it is way too fragile, but today still lies Pompeii, Province of Naples Campiana, Italy. | 201 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Fountain 1917 is considered to be one of the Marcel Duchamp’s most famous and most controversial readymade sculptures. The sculpture was often directly opposed to conventional beliefs of what can be qualified as a work of art. Moreover, it was treated as vulgar, immoral and not worth being shown to the public. The Fountain was forbidden to be exhibited in the 1917 Independents Exhibition which was organized by the Society of Independent Artists. Afterwards, the sculpture disappeared making the artists create numerous replicas. Due to some evidences which prove that the idea of the Fountain did not belong to Duchamp, Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven is often treated to be the person whose relationship to the readymade concept is the greatest. The Duchamp’s Fountain catches the attentions of positive and negative criticism which make the sculpture be in the center of art history. The Fountain 1917 made an enduring impact on the cultural understanding of art and is worldwide recognized as an art icon of the 20th century.
Marcel Duchamp, Fountain 1917 and the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven
Duchamp is the most famous for his readymade sculptures. He belived that an artist chooses the object to be art and he did not need to manufacture it. The Fountain is considered to be one of his most famous and most controversial sculptures. Duchamp’s Fountaint entered the art history in April 1917 during the first exhibition of the American Society of Independent Artists. This piece of readymade art has been so influential in changing our understanding of artistic expression as nothing else before. People’s understanding of what could be qualified as an artistic expression was transformed with the help of Duchamp’s work, and because of Duchamp’s modified background his art gained significance.
Fountain is considered to be one of the Duchamp’s most famous works in the modern art history. It is recognized worldwide as an icon of the 20th century. The missing original, signed “R. Mutt 1918” was made of a typical laid flat urinal on its back instead of the upright position. The 1964 replica by Tate was made from glassy ceramic material aimed to look like the original work. It is signed with black paint. Duchamp used to call Fountain a ‘readymade’, a commonly shaped object considered to be the work of art.
Dada Movement and the Duchamp's Fountain
At the rise of World War I, a meeting was organized by a bunch of revolutionary artists in 1916 in Zurich, Switzerland, to discuss their future plans for a new movement. There exists an ongoing legend that when viewers asked the artists to name their collection, they threw a directory of French phones against the wall and called themselves d-a-d-a (the first four letters on the exposed pages). Dada artists such as Francis Picabia, Marcel Duchamp, the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, Man Ray and others were aiming at never keeping up with the rules of any norms, never conventional and making funny and ironic statements on society, challenging traditions, circumstances and normal items into absurd things. In the center of the scandal around the introduction of the Dadaism concept into American Art was Duchamp’s urinal. The artist did not change any detail; he just removed it from its original place, called it “Fountain” and signed “R. Mutt.”
Cultural movement of Dada began to form and increase, art experts from across the globe began to understand that Dada wasn’t like any other movement they had known. Marcel Duchamp characterized this movement in his work Fountain 1917, and it had an intellectual and enduring impact on the cultural understanding of art. Fountain wasn’t only a work of art, it also helped to turn over the experts’ minds about art, making it more important in art history.
Duchamp’s Fountain was often directly opposed to conventional beliefs of what can be qualified as a work of art. Many times in his career, Duchamp favored himself in appearance opposite to art, called “readymades,” where he had found a conventional object - like a bicycle wheel, urinal - used in the Fountain - presenting it as a piece of art with a slight modification. This method showed the least possible interaction between an artist and his work, and also was considered as brutal withdrawal of other pieces of art ever created.
It is sometimes difficult to imagine how a usual urinal can be pulled out from somewhere on artist’s decision and remain proudly alongside with such works like Mona Lisa in museums. In 1917, the year the Fountain was created, it was not considered as a work of art by anyone’s definition. Though in 1918, lots of people had to adjust their definition to recognize it as a piece of art.
Without historical background, from where it started, it is impossible to understand Fountain and its aftermath, like most works of art itself. Dada movement was exactly what people were looking for in art, after World War I, when anti-cultural sentiments were uncontrolled. Dada found its place in a disappointed, itching for cultural changes during disrespectful and conservative actions against a system of institutions which led Europe to collapse. It doesn’t mean that Duchamp’s timing was perfect by anyway - but he made himself an average amount of enemies, making a drastic take on artistic expression. Generally, Fountain and Dada movement had indeed a good timing to transform art and make fun of tradition during a time of rising conventional culture.
Origin of the Fountain 1917
The term ‘readymade’ was used by the Duchamp in 1915 to indicate an object that was not altered in any way, but was exhibited as a piece of art. Duchamp had a discussion with his friends from America, a collector Walter Arensburg and an artist Joseph Stella, about the idea of making such a humble object to be a piece of art. During this discussion, Duchamp submitted a urinal from a plumber’s merchant to a Society of Independent Artists exhibition. Being obligated by the Society constitution to accept all receiving submissions from members, the Board of Directors, decided to make an exception and refused to exhibit the Fountain. After such an exception, Duchamp and Arensburg (both of them were on the Board) tried to protest immediately. There was an article published in favor of the Fountain and convincing the public that Mr Mutt’s fountain was not absurd or immoral and was compared with a bathtub since both of them are seen every day in the shop windows of plumbers.
Duchamp was going to display the Fountain at the 1917 Independents Exhibition. It was considered to be the largest show of modern art in America. The exhibition was organized by the Society of Independent Artists that constituted from a group of forward-looking, free thinking intellectuals who made attempts to make a stand against what they perceived to be a conservative attitude to modern art imposed by the National Academy of Design. The board members declared that any artist could become the Society member for the price of 1 dollar. They also noted that any member could display up to two works, as long as he paid an additional charge of 5 dollars per artwork. Marcel Duchamp was a director of the Society and a member of the 1917 Independents Exhibition organizing committee. This is thought to be a reason of taking a pseudonym for his mischievous entry. By choosing a urinal to turn into a ‘readymade’ sculpture, Duchamp wanted to question the very notion of what constituted a piece of art. The submittion of the Fountain was considered to be a provocation act, but it was lost after the exhibition. There are still a lot of arguments concerning the originality of the urinal as it was invented by somebody else as a household piece. The Fountain submission was a kind of challenge to academics and critics, whom he saw as largely unqualified and the self-elected individuals. Duchamp believed that it was for artists to decide what could be treated as a piece of art.
Duchamp sent in his readymade sculpture with the required fees and followed all exhibition rules. He was sure that the Fountain was to be accepted. However, the fact that it was a urinal changed the plan of actions. The sculpture was considered to be inappropriate and controversial for the society of the time and was turned down. A long battle concerning the acceptance of the sculpture to be exhibited lasted till the opening hour of the exhibition. The defenders lost it with a small margin. The Fountain did not even appear in the exhibited work catalogue. There are rumors that the sculpture was exhibited only behind the curtain and did not reach the public view.
It still remains unknown what happened to the Duchamp’s pseudonymous work. According to one of the versions., the sculpture was smashed by one of the committee members. Duchamp claimed that the Fountain was bought by Walter Arensberg and later the owner lost it. However, there existed different ideas concerning its disappearance. It was said that this piece of art was broken by William Glackens. According to another version, it was stolen or just hidden. The Fountain was reproduced in May 1917 in the second issue of The Blind Man.
The majority claimed that the Fountain might have been useful in the place. However, the place of the object was not the art exhibition. Hence, it was without a doubt, an art work. There appeared a lot of articles in newspapers regarding the sculpture, but nobody knew who R. Mutt was. The Fountain brouhaha spread for a couple of weeks. On April 25, it was said in Boston that Richard Mutt was a Philadelphian member of society, and he had not any relation to the person of the cartoons about Mutt and Jeff, he just presented a bathroom unit as an artwork. It was also mentioned that R. Mutt wanted to start sueing the board of directors as they decided to remove the bathroom unit which was submitted as an artwork. However, in spite of the press interest, the public was not acquainted with the Fountain. No one knew that it was a urinal as the sculpture did not figure in the catalogue, was not exhibited, and was described only as a bathroom fixture.
In 1917, after the exhibition, the gallery owner and photographer Alfred Steiglitz made a photo of Duchamp and the Fountain. But later, when the original got lost, this photo was of vital importance. All of the fifteen Fountain authorized replicas were issued one by one in 1951, 1953 and 1963 and the rest twelve in 1964.
Galleria Schwarz edition of eight included the Tate’s version by number two, which was presented in Milan, October 1964. Four examples were manufactured at this time, Duchamp and Arturo Schwarz received one for both and two were made for the museum exhibition. Each of the replicas was signed by Duchamp on the back of the left edge ‘Marcel Duchamp 1964’. A copper plate was made on the base of each work Duchamp had signed, dates of the original and the replica were mentioned, the title, publisher’s name and edition number. Duchamp’s reproductions ended up in such important public collections at San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, Indiana University Art Museum, Centre Georges Pompidou, Philadelphia Museum of Art, the National Gallery of Canada, and Tate Modern.
When Marcel Duchamp arrived in the United States, together with his friends Beatrice Wood and Henri-Pierre Roché, he published three issues of Dada journals: The Blind Man No. The Blind Man No. 2 and Rongwrong. All of them were small and very short-lived. But, the Blind Man No. 2 is best known and remembered as it published documents which surrounded the Duchamp's 1917 Fountain scandal.
The Richard Mutt Case” was an unsigned editorial, but it is thought to be written by Beatrice Wood and partly by Duchamp himself. Duchamp summarized the objections to the Fountain in a brief response in The Blind Man, he said that some people believed the sculpture to be vulgar and immoral. Others found it a plain piece of plumbing and plagiarism. As indicated in the Blind Man, Duchamp incorporated the name, place, visual and conceptual point of view. He took an object out of its usual place and used it in a different context with a new title and point of view.
It has been claimed that the fact whether Richard Mutt made the fountain himself or no was not as important as the fact that the artist chose it. He took the object of everyday life, placed it in the way which eliminated its useful significance, gave a new title and a point of view, and created new thoughts for that object.
Later, Duchamp commented on the pseudonym he created for this work that Mutt came from Mott Works, who was a large manufacturer of sanitary equipment. But, Duchamp decided to alter Mott into Mutt, as it was too close. Richard was a mere old name which was used by him. Duschamp adopted his alter ego known as Rose Sélavy, because of his false signature ‘R. Mutt’(it’s known, that in one of Duchamp’s letters Mutt was mentioned as a woman). Some journalists noticed that the inverted urinal looks like a female body and considered this as a kind of a game with gender bounds, an important Duchamp’s career leitmotif.
He wanted to undermine the taste by his readymades and turn them into objects of art. In the interview with Hans Richter, the artist stated that discovering his readymades he discouraged aesthetics. Duchamp’s choice on readymades was mainly based on the visual indifference reaction and a total absence of taste. He chose the urinal because he wanted to make an experiment and choose the object which had no chances to be liked.
Duchamp’s motive was to challenge taste and aesthetics. His Fountain questioned the role of the artist as it was an attempt to break the social values and norms that defined an individual as an artist. The urinal submission as an art object was an attempt to kick out the pedestal from under the artist and to destabilize and change the artist’s status in the social hierarchy. In 1963, Duchamp noted in an interview with Francis Roberts that the found taste to be an enemy of art.
The Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven and the Fountain
The Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven was a self-proclaimed anarchist. Her personality was controversial as she used postage stamps as beauty marks, wore shower curtain rings as bracelets, tin-can bras, and other extraordinary things. She was a real representative and living artwork of the Dada movement as she did everything to look absurd and ugly
At the age of 40, Elsa Plötz Endell Greve decides to marry Leopold Karl Friedrich Baron von Freytag-Loringhoven. On the way to their wedding the future Baroness finds an iron ring. Later she said that the ring was the first piece of her so called found-object art. Two years later, Picabia and Duchamp arrive in New York where Duchamp makes up the term “readymades”. The evidence key piece in Gammel's compelling case for why the Fountain may have been Elsa’s idea is a letter which Duchamp wrote to his sister in April 1917. Gamel characterized the essence of Elsa's practice as the one that would confirm an identity with R. Mutt's gesture because her materials were considered to be perishable and the material products showed a lack of permanence. Gamel claimed that Elsa was literally ingested, consumed by her art, and audience assimilated. Duchamp had long talks with Elsa during their occupation of the Lincoln Arcade studios when he informed the friend of the readymade concept. Elsa also told about the proto-Dada aesthetics.
The early press coverage of the affair concerning Richard Mutt’s urinal locates its author in Philadelphia which was the city where the Baroness lived since the February of 1917 in poverty and bathed in public fountains which were a part of the station landscaping, she often slept on park benches. In October she returned to New York.
In 1917, he signed a urinal with the pseudonym “R. Mutt” and confounded he world of art. In the letter to his sister Suzanne Duchamp had mentioned that he was not the author of the urinal that he had submitted to the New York Independents. He spoke about a female friend who had given the idea of the Fountain and was centrally involved in its conception. He wrote that one of his female friends had chosen the pseudonym Richard Mutt and sent him a porcelain urinal as a sculpture. In the letter he also told his sister that he was obliged to resign from the Independents committee as they did not follow their rules and rejected a urinal which was submitted by his female friend under the pseudonym R Mutt. But there are some arguments concerning this piece of art as it seems to be more keeping up with the scatological aesthetics of the friend in the face of Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, than Duchamp himself. It is explained by the fact that the Baroness created different pieces of art out of the rubbish collected in the streets. Hence, she is an avid collaborator of the conception of the Duchamp’s readymade Fountain.
Thus, because of evident proofs that the idea of the Fountain did not belong to Marcel Duchamp, the sculpture is often considered to be a kind of plagiarism and sometimes criticized for the stolen idea.
Criticism of the Sculpture
In the 1990’s people were only starting to get used to the idea of modern art. Most of them were not comfortable enough to be introduced to such an art work as the Fountain. A urinal was considered to be immoral and could hardly be accepted. In the Blind Man Duchamp tries to defend his sculpture.
Many of the initial responses to Duchamp's artwork were extremely critical. The object was not discussed in public and could not be displayed. There were a lot of questions as to why something like this should be art. Many considered it as plagiarism because it was only a bathroom fixture. But not all of the reactions to sculpture were negative. There were some individuals who thought that Duchamp’s art work played a vital role in the inspiration of a new generation of modern art. Duchamp was supported by the artist Beatrice Wood who was named the “Mama of Dada” due to her influential work during this period of time. She, along with Roche and Duchamp, wrote a letter to the Society of Independent Artists declaring that the Fountain should be displayed as the artist followed all the admission rules, and tried to convince that the sculpture was not vulgar and immoral.
Duchamp is not considered special - he just went shopping at a plumbing store. There is nothing special in the artwork - it was an object of factory mass-production. Art experience is not honorable and exciting - it is confusing and can leave you with a sense of disgust. But it’s not as easy as it seems, Duchamp did not just decide to select any convenient ready-made object to present. He could step on a door handle or sink. His message was unclear when he selected the urinal, but his other message was clear: there is no problem pissing on art.
The artist triggered the Americans move from realism to abstraction. He pioneered the idea of the changing context concept which presupposed to make art out of everything. Duchamp was not considered a born artist and his career was very brief. Moreover, many of his most famous works seemed to be a joke for his own entertainment. Nevertheless, a lot of critics declare that Marcel Duchamp's urinal is the most important artwork of the 20th century. The artwork was the first readymade piece that was engineered for scandal. It has been claimed that the specific feature of an artwork lies not in the work itself, but in the idea that is behind it. Emphasis is made on the artist whose choice of an object is accepted as creative art. The readymades thus become the focus of a consideration of the relation between external things and their perception.
The disapproval to Fountain began in 1917 and has never gone away. These objections are attempts to shrink the object and its meanings to the functional use. It is surprising how the urinal that is taken from its usual setting, laid on its back and given a signature, immediately multiplies its meaning. For some audience, the object has been unfamiliar and exotic. Some critics deny the Fountain to be an artwork, but they believe it to be significant for the history of art and aesthetics. Others claim that the sculpture is art but do not agree that it is significant. Thus, some are convinced that the Fountain is neither an object of historical consequence nor art, while a few claim opposite (“Unpacking Duchamp” 126).
Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven's Relationship with Felix Paul Greve
Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, a poet and a Dadaist artist, was born on July12, 1874 in a small town in Germany and was verbally and physically abused by her father in the childhood. She used to have some relationships and affairs with people who were involved in art in Italy, Munich and Berlin, also she worked and trained as vaudeville entertainer and actress.
She got married in 1901 to August Endell, an architect from Berlin and became Else Endell. After having a long-lasting relationship with August Endell, in a year she began a romantic relationship with the poet, translator and Endell’s friend, Felix Paul Greve (also known as Frederick Philip Grove), and in January 1903, all of them moved to Palermo (Italy). In 1990, Greve staged his suicide and disappeared from Germany. Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven took part in the fake and followed her husband to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Sparta, Kentucky. Then they moved to different places and reached North America in July 1910, where they established a farm in Kentucky. After all Grove left her and moved to North Dakota, and in 1912 settled in Manitoba. In November 1913, she got married to Leopold von Freytag-Loringhoven who was a German Baron, after she became a model for artists in Kentucky and went way east to Philadelphia and West Virginia. She was considered there to be a bright sentative of Dada movement and even called Dadaist.
Duchamp's pristine beliefs were his own things which lately transformed into "readymades". It is often believed that his objects were planned for entertainment in private, not in public. His art works were created by decision and mind, and not by skill and hand. Duchamp stated later in his life that people could accept everything and they showed it with the Fountain. He defined art as a mental statement, but not the visual one. This approach is believed to rule over the art of the Western world of the 20th century.
Duchamp made an ultimate statement about art’s history and future with his best known work Fountain (1917). No doubt, that he was well aware of the history of art and set some trends. He knew about his achievements, how art demanded technical knowledge, skills and was considered the powerful vehicle, the highest development of people’s creative vision. Also, he was aware of its power to glorify senses, devotion, and minds of everyone who experiences it. Duchamp offered a clear summary statement with his work.
Duchamp may not have made any physical changes about urinal itself, adjusted environment starting with the bathroom and ending with museum floor - that is what makes the Fountain almost stimulating and unique. The history of the Fountain did not end after its disappearance. It continued with the history of the sculpture reproductions. The sculpture suffered a sort of “death” as the object approximately resembled in several versions which were slightly different from the other. Reproduction attempts are not considered as the Fountain reincarnations of a destroyed or lost object. It is rather an instance of the industrial production process.
Nowadays, Marcel Duchamp’s Fountain is thought to be one of the most famous and influential pieces of modern art. Duchamp is considered to be a paradoxical master. He made a complex theoretical contribution and the most forgivable and lovable of charlatans. The artist opened the way for the anti-authoritarian, the slacker, and anonymous poetry moments, while remaining the most disciplined, charismatic, and powerfully individual of artists.
The Fountain was voted the most influential work of modern art in December 2004. With the help of this single ready-made piece, Duchamp invented conceptual art and broke a traditional link between the labor of an artist and the work merit. The Duchamp’s work has become an iconic symbol of what art can be and how far it can go beyond the stated limits. The artist is thought to push the art boundaries of the time. However, it does not matter whether Duchamp’s art is approved or not, it remains evident that its impact on the art community throughout the world has been great. This new and modern style of art has influenced different artists and inspired new art styles. Nowadays, Duchamp's Fountain 1917 has had a huge impact on the world of art. | <urn:uuid:6ceade1f-4919-4a72-aeaf-3f5e693c72f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primeessays.com/samples/art/the-fountain-1917.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.983995 | 5,335 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | The Fountain 1917 is considered to be one of the Marcel Duchamp’s most famous and most controversial readymade sculptures. The sculpture was often directly opposed to conventional beliefs of what can be qualified as a work of art. Moreover, it was treated as vulgar, immoral and not worth being shown to the public. The Fountain was forbidden to be exhibited in the 1917 Independents Exhibition which was organized by the Society of Independent Artists. Afterwards, the sculpture disappeared making the artists create numerous replicas. Due to some evidences which prove that the idea of the Fountain did not belong to Duchamp, Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven is often treated to be the person whose relationship to the readymade concept is the greatest. The Duchamp’s Fountain catches the attentions of positive and negative criticism which make the sculpture be in the center of art history. The Fountain 1917 made an enduring impact on the cultural understanding of art and is worldwide recognized as an art icon of the 20th century.
Marcel Duchamp, Fountain 1917 and the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven
Duchamp is the most famous for his readymade sculptures. He belived that an artist chooses the object to be art and he did not need to manufacture it. The Fountain is considered to be one of his most famous and most controversial sculptures. Duchamp’s Fountaint entered the art history in April 1917 during the first exhibition of the American Society of Independent Artists. This piece of readymade art has been so influential in changing our understanding of artistic expression as nothing else before. People’s understanding of what could be qualified as an artistic expression was transformed with the help of Duchamp’s work, and because of Duchamp’s modified background his art gained significance.
Fountain is considered to be one of the Duchamp’s most famous works in the modern art history. It is recognized worldwide as an icon of the 20th century. The missing original, signed “R. Mutt 1918” was made of a typical laid flat urinal on its back instead of the upright position. The 1964 replica by Tate was made from glassy ceramic material aimed to look like the original work. It is signed with black paint. Duchamp used to call Fountain a ‘readymade’, a commonly shaped object considered to be the work of art.
Dada Movement and the Duchamp's Fountain
At the rise of World War I, a meeting was organized by a bunch of revolutionary artists in 1916 in Zurich, Switzerland, to discuss their future plans for a new movement. There exists an ongoing legend that when viewers asked the artists to name their collection, they threw a directory of French phones against the wall and called themselves d-a-d-a (the first four letters on the exposed pages). Dada artists such as Francis Picabia, Marcel Duchamp, the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, Man Ray and others were aiming at never keeping up with the rules of any norms, never conventional and making funny and ironic statements on society, challenging traditions, circumstances and normal items into absurd things. In the center of the scandal around the introduction of the Dadaism concept into American Art was Duchamp’s urinal. The artist did not change any detail; he just removed it from its original place, called it “Fountain” and signed “R. Mutt.”
Cultural movement of Dada began to form and increase, art experts from across the globe began to understand that Dada wasn’t like any other movement they had known. Marcel Duchamp characterized this movement in his work Fountain 1917, and it had an intellectual and enduring impact on the cultural understanding of art. Fountain wasn’t only a work of art, it also helped to turn over the experts’ minds about art, making it more important in art history.
Duchamp’s Fountain was often directly opposed to conventional beliefs of what can be qualified as a work of art. Many times in his career, Duchamp favored himself in appearance opposite to art, called “readymades,” where he had found a conventional object - like a bicycle wheel, urinal - used in the Fountain - presenting it as a piece of art with a slight modification. This method showed the least possible interaction between an artist and his work, and also was considered as brutal withdrawal of other pieces of art ever created.
It is sometimes difficult to imagine how a usual urinal can be pulled out from somewhere on artist’s decision and remain proudly alongside with such works like Mona Lisa in museums. In 1917, the year the Fountain was created, it was not considered as a work of art by anyone’s definition. Though in 1918, lots of people had to adjust their definition to recognize it as a piece of art.
Without historical background, from where it started, it is impossible to understand Fountain and its aftermath, like most works of art itself. Dada movement was exactly what people were looking for in art, after World War I, when anti-cultural sentiments were uncontrolled. Dada found its place in a disappointed, itching for cultural changes during disrespectful and conservative actions against a system of institutions which led Europe to collapse. It doesn’t mean that Duchamp’s timing was perfect by anyway - but he made himself an average amount of enemies, making a drastic take on artistic expression. Generally, Fountain and Dada movement had indeed a good timing to transform art and make fun of tradition during a time of rising conventional culture.
Origin of the Fountain 1917
The term ‘readymade’ was used by the Duchamp in 1915 to indicate an object that was not altered in any way, but was exhibited as a piece of art. Duchamp had a discussion with his friends from America, a collector Walter Arensburg and an artist Joseph Stella, about the idea of making such a humble object to be a piece of art. During this discussion, Duchamp submitted a urinal from a plumber’s merchant to a Society of Independent Artists exhibition. Being obligated by the Society constitution to accept all receiving submissions from members, the Board of Directors, decided to make an exception and refused to exhibit the Fountain. After such an exception, Duchamp and Arensburg (both of them were on the Board) tried to protest immediately. There was an article published in favor of the Fountain and convincing the public that Mr Mutt’s fountain was not absurd or immoral and was compared with a bathtub since both of them are seen every day in the shop windows of plumbers.
Duchamp was going to display the Fountain at the 1917 Independents Exhibition. It was considered to be the largest show of modern art in America. The exhibition was organized by the Society of Independent Artists that constituted from a group of forward-looking, free thinking intellectuals who made attempts to make a stand against what they perceived to be a conservative attitude to modern art imposed by the National Academy of Design. The board members declared that any artist could become the Society member for the price of 1 dollar. They also noted that any member could display up to two works, as long as he paid an additional charge of 5 dollars per artwork. Marcel Duchamp was a director of the Society and a member of the 1917 Independents Exhibition organizing committee. This is thought to be a reason of taking a pseudonym for his mischievous entry. By choosing a urinal to turn into a ‘readymade’ sculpture, Duchamp wanted to question the very notion of what constituted a piece of art. The submittion of the Fountain was considered to be a provocation act, but it was lost after the exhibition. There are still a lot of arguments concerning the originality of the urinal as it was invented by somebody else as a household piece. The Fountain submission was a kind of challenge to academics and critics, whom he saw as largely unqualified and the self-elected individuals. Duchamp believed that it was for artists to decide what could be treated as a piece of art.
Duchamp sent in his readymade sculpture with the required fees and followed all exhibition rules. He was sure that the Fountain was to be accepted. However, the fact that it was a urinal changed the plan of actions. The sculpture was considered to be inappropriate and controversial for the society of the time and was turned down. A long battle concerning the acceptance of the sculpture to be exhibited lasted till the opening hour of the exhibition. The defenders lost it with a small margin. The Fountain did not even appear in the exhibited work catalogue. There are rumors that the sculpture was exhibited only behind the curtain and did not reach the public view.
It still remains unknown what happened to the Duchamp’s pseudonymous work. According to one of the versions., the sculpture was smashed by one of the committee members. Duchamp claimed that the Fountain was bought by Walter Arensberg and later the owner lost it. However, there existed different ideas concerning its disappearance. It was said that this piece of art was broken by William Glackens. According to another version, it was stolen or just hidden. The Fountain was reproduced in May 1917 in the second issue of The Blind Man.
The majority claimed that the Fountain might have been useful in the place. However, the place of the object was not the art exhibition. Hence, it was without a doubt, an art work. There appeared a lot of articles in newspapers regarding the sculpture, but nobody knew who R. Mutt was. The Fountain brouhaha spread for a couple of weeks. On April 25, it was said in Boston that Richard Mutt was a Philadelphian member of society, and he had not any relation to the person of the cartoons about Mutt and Jeff, he just presented a bathroom unit as an artwork. It was also mentioned that R. Mutt wanted to start sueing the board of directors as they decided to remove the bathroom unit which was submitted as an artwork. However, in spite of the press interest, the public was not acquainted with the Fountain. No one knew that it was a urinal as the sculpture did not figure in the catalogue, was not exhibited, and was described only as a bathroom fixture.
In 1917, after the exhibition, the gallery owner and photographer Alfred Steiglitz made a photo of Duchamp and the Fountain. But later, when the original got lost, this photo was of vital importance. All of the fifteen Fountain authorized replicas were issued one by one in 1951, 1953 and 1963 and the rest twelve in 1964.
Galleria Schwarz edition of eight included the Tate’s version by number two, which was presented in Milan, October 1964. Four examples were manufactured at this time, Duchamp and Arturo Schwarz received one for both and two were made for the museum exhibition. Each of the replicas was signed by Duchamp on the back of the left edge ‘Marcel Duchamp 1964’. A copper plate was made on the base of each work Duchamp had signed, dates of the original and the replica were mentioned, the title, publisher’s name and edition number. Duchamp’s reproductions ended up in such important public collections at San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, Indiana University Art Museum, Centre Georges Pompidou, Philadelphia Museum of Art, the National Gallery of Canada, and Tate Modern.
When Marcel Duchamp arrived in the United States, together with his friends Beatrice Wood and Henri-Pierre Roché, he published three issues of Dada journals: The Blind Man No. The Blind Man No. 2 and Rongwrong. All of them were small and very short-lived. But, the Blind Man No. 2 is best known and remembered as it published documents which surrounded the Duchamp's 1917 Fountain scandal.
The Richard Mutt Case” was an unsigned editorial, but it is thought to be written by Beatrice Wood and partly by Duchamp himself. Duchamp summarized the objections to the Fountain in a brief response in The Blind Man, he said that some people believed the sculpture to be vulgar and immoral. Others found it a plain piece of plumbing and plagiarism. As indicated in the Blind Man, Duchamp incorporated the name, place, visual and conceptual point of view. He took an object out of its usual place and used it in a different context with a new title and point of view.
It has been claimed that the fact whether Richard Mutt made the fountain himself or no was not as important as the fact that the artist chose it. He took the object of everyday life, placed it in the way which eliminated its useful significance, gave a new title and a point of view, and created new thoughts for that object.
Later, Duchamp commented on the pseudonym he created for this work that Mutt came from Mott Works, who was a large manufacturer of sanitary equipment. But, Duchamp decided to alter Mott into Mutt, as it was too close. Richard was a mere old name which was used by him. Duschamp adopted his alter ego known as Rose Sélavy, because of his false signature ‘R. Mutt’(it’s known, that in one of Duchamp’s letters Mutt was mentioned as a woman). Some journalists noticed that the inverted urinal looks like a female body and considered this as a kind of a game with gender bounds, an important Duchamp’s career leitmotif.
He wanted to undermine the taste by his readymades and turn them into objects of art. In the interview with Hans Richter, the artist stated that discovering his readymades he discouraged aesthetics. Duchamp’s choice on readymades was mainly based on the visual indifference reaction and a total absence of taste. He chose the urinal because he wanted to make an experiment and choose the object which had no chances to be liked.
Duchamp’s motive was to challenge taste and aesthetics. His Fountain questioned the role of the artist as it was an attempt to break the social values and norms that defined an individual as an artist. The urinal submission as an art object was an attempt to kick out the pedestal from under the artist and to destabilize and change the artist’s status in the social hierarchy. In 1963, Duchamp noted in an interview with Francis Roberts that the found taste to be an enemy of art.
The Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven and the Fountain
The Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven was a self-proclaimed anarchist. Her personality was controversial as she used postage stamps as beauty marks, wore shower curtain rings as bracelets, tin-can bras, and other extraordinary things. She was a real representative and living artwork of the Dada movement as she did everything to look absurd and ugly
At the age of 40, Elsa Plötz Endell Greve decides to marry Leopold Karl Friedrich Baron von Freytag-Loringhoven. On the way to their wedding the future Baroness finds an iron ring. Later she said that the ring was the first piece of her so called found-object art. Two years later, Picabia and Duchamp arrive in New York where Duchamp makes up the term “readymades”. The evidence key piece in Gammel's compelling case for why the Fountain may have been Elsa’s idea is a letter which Duchamp wrote to his sister in April 1917. Gamel characterized the essence of Elsa's practice as the one that would confirm an identity with R. Mutt's gesture because her materials were considered to be perishable and the material products showed a lack of permanence. Gamel claimed that Elsa was literally ingested, consumed by her art, and audience assimilated. Duchamp had long talks with Elsa during their occupation of the Lincoln Arcade studios when he informed the friend of the readymade concept. Elsa also told about the proto-Dada aesthetics.
The early press coverage of the affair concerning Richard Mutt’s urinal locates its author in Philadelphia which was the city where the Baroness lived since the February of 1917 in poverty and bathed in public fountains which were a part of the station landscaping, she often slept on park benches. In October she returned to New York.
In 1917, he signed a urinal with the pseudonym “R. Mutt” and confounded he world of art. In the letter to his sister Suzanne Duchamp had mentioned that he was not the author of the urinal that he had submitted to the New York Independents. He spoke about a female friend who had given the idea of the Fountain and was centrally involved in its conception. He wrote that one of his female friends had chosen the pseudonym Richard Mutt and sent him a porcelain urinal as a sculpture. In the letter he also told his sister that he was obliged to resign from the Independents committee as they did not follow their rules and rejected a urinal which was submitted by his female friend under the pseudonym R Mutt. But there are some arguments concerning this piece of art as it seems to be more keeping up with the scatological aesthetics of the friend in the face of Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, than Duchamp himself. It is explained by the fact that the Baroness created different pieces of art out of the rubbish collected in the streets. Hence, she is an avid collaborator of the conception of the Duchamp’s readymade Fountain.
Thus, because of evident proofs that the idea of the Fountain did not belong to Marcel Duchamp, the sculpture is often considered to be a kind of plagiarism and sometimes criticized for the stolen idea.
Criticism of the Sculpture
In the 1990’s people were only starting to get used to the idea of modern art. Most of them were not comfortable enough to be introduced to such an art work as the Fountain. A urinal was considered to be immoral and could hardly be accepted. In the Blind Man Duchamp tries to defend his sculpture.
Many of the initial responses to Duchamp's artwork were extremely critical. The object was not discussed in public and could not be displayed. There were a lot of questions as to why something like this should be art. Many considered it as plagiarism because it was only a bathroom fixture. But not all of the reactions to sculpture were negative. There were some individuals who thought that Duchamp’s art work played a vital role in the inspiration of a new generation of modern art. Duchamp was supported by the artist Beatrice Wood who was named the “Mama of Dada” due to her influential work during this period of time. She, along with Roche and Duchamp, wrote a letter to the Society of Independent Artists declaring that the Fountain should be displayed as the artist followed all the admission rules, and tried to convince that the sculpture was not vulgar and immoral.
Duchamp is not considered special - he just went shopping at a plumbing store. There is nothing special in the artwork - it was an object of factory mass-production. Art experience is not honorable and exciting - it is confusing and can leave you with a sense of disgust. But it’s not as easy as it seems, Duchamp did not just decide to select any convenient ready-made object to present. He could step on a door handle or sink. His message was unclear when he selected the urinal, but his other message was clear: there is no problem pissing on art.
The artist triggered the Americans move from realism to abstraction. He pioneered the idea of the changing context concept which presupposed to make art out of everything. Duchamp was not considered a born artist and his career was very brief. Moreover, many of his most famous works seemed to be a joke for his own entertainment. Nevertheless, a lot of critics declare that Marcel Duchamp's urinal is the most important artwork of the 20th century. The artwork was the first readymade piece that was engineered for scandal. It has been claimed that the specific feature of an artwork lies not in the work itself, but in the idea that is behind it. Emphasis is made on the artist whose choice of an object is accepted as creative art. The readymades thus become the focus of a consideration of the relation between external things and their perception.
The disapproval to Fountain began in 1917 and has never gone away. These objections are attempts to shrink the object and its meanings to the functional use. It is surprising how the urinal that is taken from its usual setting, laid on its back and given a signature, immediately multiplies its meaning. For some audience, the object has been unfamiliar and exotic. Some critics deny the Fountain to be an artwork, but they believe it to be significant for the history of art and aesthetics. Others claim that the sculpture is art but do not agree that it is significant. Thus, some are convinced that the Fountain is neither an object of historical consequence nor art, while a few claim opposite (“Unpacking Duchamp” 126).
Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven's Relationship with Felix Paul Greve
Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, a poet and a Dadaist artist, was born on July12, 1874 in a small town in Germany and was verbally and physically abused by her father in the childhood. She used to have some relationships and affairs with people who were involved in art in Italy, Munich and Berlin, also she worked and trained as vaudeville entertainer and actress.
She got married in 1901 to August Endell, an architect from Berlin and became Else Endell. After having a long-lasting relationship with August Endell, in a year she began a romantic relationship with the poet, translator and Endell’s friend, Felix Paul Greve (also known as Frederick Philip Grove), and in January 1903, all of them moved to Palermo (Italy). In 1990, Greve staged his suicide and disappeared from Germany. Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven took part in the fake and followed her husband to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Sparta, Kentucky. Then they moved to different places and reached North America in July 1910, where they established a farm in Kentucky. After all Grove left her and moved to North Dakota, and in 1912 settled in Manitoba. In November 1913, she got married to Leopold von Freytag-Loringhoven who was a German Baron, after she became a model for artists in Kentucky and went way east to Philadelphia and West Virginia. She was considered there to be a bright sentative of Dada movement and even called Dadaist.
Duchamp's pristine beliefs were his own things which lately transformed into "readymades". It is often believed that his objects were planned for entertainment in private, not in public. His art works were created by decision and mind, and not by skill and hand. Duchamp stated later in his life that people could accept everything and they showed it with the Fountain. He defined art as a mental statement, but not the visual one. This approach is believed to rule over the art of the Western world of the 20th century.
Duchamp made an ultimate statement about art’s history and future with his best known work Fountain (1917). No doubt, that he was well aware of the history of art and set some trends. He knew about his achievements, how art demanded technical knowledge, skills and was considered the powerful vehicle, the highest development of people’s creative vision. Also, he was aware of its power to glorify senses, devotion, and minds of everyone who experiences it. Duchamp offered a clear summary statement with his work.
Duchamp may not have made any physical changes about urinal itself, adjusted environment starting with the bathroom and ending with museum floor - that is what makes the Fountain almost stimulating and unique. The history of the Fountain did not end after its disappearance. It continued with the history of the sculpture reproductions. The sculpture suffered a sort of “death” as the object approximately resembled in several versions which were slightly different from the other. Reproduction attempts are not considered as the Fountain reincarnations of a destroyed or lost object. It is rather an instance of the industrial production process.
Nowadays, Marcel Duchamp’s Fountain is thought to be one of the most famous and influential pieces of modern art. Duchamp is considered to be a paradoxical master. He made a complex theoretical contribution and the most forgivable and lovable of charlatans. The artist opened the way for the anti-authoritarian, the slacker, and anonymous poetry moments, while remaining the most disciplined, charismatic, and powerfully individual of artists.
The Fountain was voted the most influential work of modern art in December 2004. With the help of this single ready-made piece, Duchamp invented conceptual art and broke a traditional link between the labor of an artist and the work merit. The Duchamp’s work has become an iconic symbol of what art can be and how far it can go beyond the stated limits. The artist is thought to push the art boundaries of the time. However, it does not matter whether Duchamp’s art is approved or not, it remains evident that its impact on the art community throughout the world has been great. This new and modern style of art has influenced different artists and inspired new art styles. Nowadays, Duchamp's Fountain 1917 has had a huge impact on the world of art. | 5,278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many rebellions took place during the peak of the slave trade. The reasons for the uprising are simple; enslaved Africans were tired of being abused, misused and mistreated. They were also tired of seeing each other die and living in stark poverty all their lives.
Enslaved Africans were not allowed to voice out their troubles and problems; this led to the act of rebelling against their masters and fleeing to freedom, their only way of being heard.
In 1733, one such revolt against the Danes in the West Indies happened. Known as the 1733 slave insurrection on St John, it is one of the longest lasting rebellion recorded in the history of the Americas lasting from November 1733 to August 1734. It is also one of the earliest to have occurred.
Feature Image By Artist Andrea Blumör
Full article @ Face2Face Africa | <urn:uuid:e607afca-1090-4484-b406-81aa259c010b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.kolumnmagazine.com/2019/12/28/the-story-of-breffu-a-female-slave-from-ghana-who-led-a-massive-slave-revolt-to-take-over-the-west-indies-in-1733-face2face-africa/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00113.warc.gz | en | 0.983049 | 174 | 4.40625 | 4 | [
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0.2781059145927429,... | 1 | Many rebellions took place during the peak of the slave trade. The reasons for the uprising are simple; enslaved Africans were tired of being abused, misused and mistreated. They were also tired of seeing each other die and living in stark poverty all their lives.
Enslaved Africans were not allowed to voice out their troubles and problems; this led to the act of rebelling against their masters and fleeing to freedom, their only way of being heard.
In 1733, one such revolt against the Danes in the West Indies happened. Known as the 1733 slave insurrection on St John, it is one of the longest lasting rebellion recorded in the history of the Americas lasting from November 1733 to August 1734. It is also one of the earliest to have occurred.
Feature Image By Artist Andrea Blumör
Full article @ Face2Face Africa | 184 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Criticism of Shakespeare's comedies has shifted from stressing their light-hearted and festive qualities to giving a stronger sense of their dark aspects and their social resonances. This volume introduces the key critical debates under five headings: genre, history and politics, gender and sexuality, language, and performance. The Guide serves students of Shakespeare in two ways. Firstly, by presenting ten recent critical interventions in the field of Shakespeare studies, it provides an up-to-date compendium of current scholarship. All the articles are contextualised with brief critical overviews and annotated suggestions for further reading. An additional chapter on pre-twentieth-century criticism is mainly in narrative form but excerpts significant early views by Johnson, Hazlitt and Coleridge. Thus, secondly, the volume acts as a guide to further reading to help students extend their knowledge of Shakespeare criticism.
The life of William Shakespeare, arguably the most significant figure in the Western literary canon, is relatively unknown. Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1565, possibly on the 23rd April, St. George's Day, and baptised there on 26th April. Little is known of his education and the first firm facts to his life relate to his marriage, aged 18, to Anne Hathaway, who was 26 and from the nearby village of Shottery. Anne gave birth to their first son six months later. Shakespeare's first play, The Comedy of Errors began a procession of real heavyweights that were to emanate from his pen in a career of just over twenty years in which 37 plays were written and his reputation forever established. This early skill was recognised by many and by 1594 the Lord Chamberlain's Men were performing his works. With the advantage of Shakespeare's progressive writing they rapidly became London's leading company of players, affording him more exposure and, following the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, a royal patent by the new king, James I, at which point they changed their name to the King's Men. By 1598, and despite efforts to pirate his work, Shakespeare's name was well known and had become a selling point in its own right on title pages. No plays are attributed to Shakespeare after 1613, and the last few plays he wrote before this time were in collaboration with other writers, one of whom is likely to be John Fletcher who succeeded him as the house playwright for the King's Men. William Shakespeare died two months later on April 23rd, 1616, survived by his wife, two daughters and a legacy of writing that none have since yet eclipsed.
Sports Drinks Articles
Sports Drinks Books | <urn:uuid:d05e4633-de50-4624-b802-e090168b9999> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://mizone.com.au/topic/Shakes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00454.warc.gz | en | 0.984837 | 533 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.100804954... | 1 | Criticism of Shakespeare's comedies has shifted from stressing their light-hearted and festive qualities to giving a stronger sense of their dark aspects and their social resonances. This volume introduces the key critical debates under five headings: genre, history and politics, gender and sexuality, language, and performance. The Guide serves students of Shakespeare in two ways. Firstly, by presenting ten recent critical interventions in the field of Shakespeare studies, it provides an up-to-date compendium of current scholarship. All the articles are contextualised with brief critical overviews and annotated suggestions for further reading. An additional chapter on pre-twentieth-century criticism is mainly in narrative form but excerpts significant early views by Johnson, Hazlitt and Coleridge. Thus, secondly, the volume acts as a guide to further reading to help students extend their knowledge of Shakespeare criticism.
The life of William Shakespeare, arguably the most significant figure in the Western literary canon, is relatively unknown. Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1565, possibly on the 23rd April, St. George's Day, and baptised there on 26th April. Little is known of his education and the first firm facts to his life relate to his marriage, aged 18, to Anne Hathaway, who was 26 and from the nearby village of Shottery. Anne gave birth to their first son six months later. Shakespeare's first play, The Comedy of Errors began a procession of real heavyweights that were to emanate from his pen in a career of just over twenty years in which 37 plays were written and his reputation forever established. This early skill was recognised by many and by 1594 the Lord Chamberlain's Men were performing his works. With the advantage of Shakespeare's progressive writing they rapidly became London's leading company of players, affording him more exposure and, following the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, a royal patent by the new king, James I, at which point they changed their name to the King's Men. By 1598, and despite efforts to pirate his work, Shakespeare's name was well known and had become a selling point in its own right on title pages. No plays are attributed to Shakespeare after 1613, and the last few plays he wrote before this time were in collaboration with other writers, one of whom is likely to be John Fletcher who succeeded him as the house playwright for the King's Men. William Shakespeare died two months later on April 23rd, 1616, survived by his wife, two daughters and a legacy of writing that none have since yet eclipsed.
Sports Drinks Articles
Sports Drinks Books | 552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Word Count: 376A hero is considered to be any man noted for feats of courage or nobility of purpose; especially, one who has risked or sacrificed his life. This describes one of the main characters in the highly acclaimed novel, One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, by Ken Kesey. Randle McMurphy is the hero of this novel because he stood firmly against oppressive powers, showing courage and ultimately paying with his life. There were no heroes on the psychiatric ward before McMurphy’s arrival. Nurse Ratched wielded supreme power. No single patient had the ability to stand against the injustices to which they were subjected. McMurphy united these patients. He gave them collective courage and a sense that they could resist their persecutor. For example, Harding states, “No one’s ever dared to come out and say it before, but there’s not a man among us that doesn’t think it. That doesn’t feel just as you do about her and the whole business-feel it somewhere down deep in his scared little soul.” Not only did McMurphy unite his friends, the patients; but he understood the enemy, the staff. He recognized the ultimate authority and oppressive power of those in charge of the psychiatric ward. He also knew that to resist them would put himself at great personnel risk. McMurphy, however, took the risk and defended his fellow patients. For example, McMurphy says to the black boy who is harassing George, “I said that’s enough buddy.” McMurphy knew this confrontation would have harsh consequences, but he took the chance. In fact McMurphy took one too many chances. This hero’s end comes when he lashes out at nurse Ratched, blaming her for the death of Billy Bibbit. McMurphy demonstrated his feeling for Billy by his emotional reaction to his death, “First Charles Cheswick and now William Bibbit! I hope you’re finally satisfied. Playing with human lives-gambling with human lives-as if you thought yourself to be God!” This outburst results in McMurphy having a lobotomy and later dying. In conclusion, Randle McMurphy lost his life courageously defending the other patients. McMurphy had several chances to save himself, but chose instead to stay and help his fellow patients. McMurphy is a true hero and his acts of bravery and selfless behavior prove this. | <urn:uuid:bc2a02f2-7fe5-4b91-abe2-2cfa07c2b514> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/invisible/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.985356 | 513 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.01926388591... | 1 | Word Count: 376A hero is considered to be any man noted for feats of courage or nobility of purpose; especially, one who has risked or sacrificed his life. This describes one of the main characters in the highly acclaimed novel, One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, by Ken Kesey. Randle McMurphy is the hero of this novel because he stood firmly against oppressive powers, showing courage and ultimately paying with his life. There were no heroes on the psychiatric ward before McMurphy’s arrival. Nurse Ratched wielded supreme power. No single patient had the ability to stand against the injustices to which they were subjected. McMurphy united these patients. He gave them collective courage and a sense that they could resist their persecutor. For example, Harding states, “No one’s ever dared to come out and say it before, but there’s not a man among us that doesn’t think it. That doesn’t feel just as you do about her and the whole business-feel it somewhere down deep in his scared little soul.” Not only did McMurphy unite his friends, the patients; but he understood the enemy, the staff. He recognized the ultimate authority and oppressive power of those in charge of the psychiatric ward. He also knew that to resist them would put himself at great personnel risk. McMurphy, however, took the risk and defended his fellow patients. For example, McMurphy says to the black boy who is harassing George, “I said that’s enough buddy.” McMurphy knew this confrontation would have harsh consequences, but he took the chance. In fact McMurphy took one too many chances. This hero’s end comes when he lashes out at nurse Ratched, blaming her for the death of Billy Bibbit. McMurphy demonstrated his feeling for Billy by his emotional reaction to his death, “First Charles Cheswick and now William Bibbit! I hope you’re finally satisfied. Playing with human lives-gambling with human lives-as if you thought yourself to be God!” This outburst results in McMurphy having a lobotomy and later dying. In conclusion, Randle McMurphy lost his life courageously defending the other patients. McMurphy had several chances to save himself, but chose instead to stay and help his fellow patients. McMurphy is a true hero and his acts of bravery and selfless behavior prove this. | 491 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Washington Carver is known for his work with peanuts (though he did not invent peanut butter, as some may believe). However, there's a lot more to this scientist and inventor than simply being the "Peanut Man." Read on for seven insights into Carver, his life and his accomplishments.
He was known as the young 'plant doctor'
Even as a child, Carver was interested in nature. Spared from demanding work because of his poor health, he had the time to study plants. His talents flourished to the extent that people started to ask him for help with their ailing vegetation.
In a 1922 interview, he recalled, "Often the people of the neighborhood who had plants would say to me, 'George, my fern is sick. See what you can do with it.' I would take their plants off to my garden and there soon have them blooming again ... At this time I had never heard of botany and could scarcely read."
Though Carver would gain new skills over the years, the path he'd follow in life was clear.
Appearing before Congress made him the 'Peanut Man'
Besides peanuts, Carver's research also involved clays, seeds and sweet potatoes. So why is his name associated with just one legume? It's thanks in large part to an appearance he made before the House Ways and Means Committee.
In 1920, Carver spoke at the United Peanut Association of America's convention. He was such a success that the group decided to have him tell Congress about peanuts and the need for a tariff in January of 1921.
Though his congressional presentation didn't start out well — the representatives weren't predisposed to listen to a black man — Carver ended up winning over the committee. They were drawn into testimony that covered many of the products Carver had created with peanuts, such as flour, milk, dyes and cheese, and ended up inviting him to take as much time as he needed to talk.
After his appearance, peanuts and Carver were intertwined in the public's mind. The scientist didn't mind the association; however, when asked in 1938 if his work with peanuts was his best, Carver answered, "No, but it has been featured more than my other work."
He believed peanuts could fight polio
Polio victims were often left with weakened muscles or paralyzed limbs. Carver felt that peanuts — or rather peanut oil — could help these people regain some lost function.
In the 1930s, Carver began to treat patients with peanut oil massages. He reported positive results, which in turn made more and more people want to undergo the treatment. Even Franklin D. Roosevelt joined in; gifted with the oil by Carver, he told the scientist, "I do use peanut oil from time to time and I am sure that it helps."
Unfortunately, despite the improvements that Carver witnessed and reported, there was never any scientific evidence that peanut oil actually helped polio victims recover. Instead, the patients may have benefited from the massage treatment itself, as well as the attentive care that Carver provided.
He didn’t write down details
Though Carver worked on many products, both peanut and non-peanut, he didn't see the need to keep detailed records.
In 1937, Carver was asked for a list of the peanut products that he'd developed. He wrote in reply, "There are more than 300 of them. I do not attempt to keep a list, as a list today would not be the same tomorrow, if I am allowed to work on that particular product. To keep a list would also give the Institute a great deal of trouble, as people would write wanting to know why one list differs from another. For this reason we have stopped sending out lists."
However, Carver did see the point in writing down advice and recipes, which he shared in agricultural bulletins such as "How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it For Human Consumption" (1916). So while you can't see all of Carver's formulas, Carver's instructions for peanut soup, peanut bread, peanut cake and more are available!
He was a well-connected man
Carver was a friend, colleague or associate to a veritable "Who's Who" of the 20th century. This began in 1896 when Booker T. Washington hired him to oversee the agricultural department at the Tuskegee Institute.
Between 1919 and 1926, Carver corresponded with John Harvey Kellogg (of cereal fame), as they shared an interest in food and health. Carver and automaker Henry Ford quickly struck up a friendship after meeting in 1937. Carver would stop by Ford's laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan, and Ford himself visited Tuskegee in Alabama. Ford also gave the funds to install an elevator in Carver's dormitory as the scientist grew weaker in his later years.
Carver's connections also extended outside the United States. Supporters of Mahatma Gandhi asked Carver for advice about how Gandhi could build up strength in between hunger strikes. And the Indian leader wrote Carver to thank him for sending agricultural bulletins.
He considered weeds 'nature’s vegetables'
Along with peanuts, Carver felt that weeds — or "nature's vegetables" — were a nutritious and undeveloped food source for America. Carver once noted, "There is no need for America to go hungry as long as nature provides weeds and wild vegetables..."
Ford shared this appreciation for wild greens. He'd happily eat sandwiches made by his friend Carver, which contained ingredients such as wild onion, peppergrass, chickweed, wild lettuce and rabbit tobacco.
But before you rush outside to harvest your next salad or sandwich filling, you should know that not everyone was a fan of Carver's weed-based preparations. "They tasted terrible and if we didn't say they were good he got mad," a former student of Carver's complained in 1948.
He cared about people, not money
Throughout his life, Carver's actions demonstrated how little he cared for money. For example, he turned down a six-figure job offer from Thomas Edison. Carver also didn't spend much on clothes (and consequently was always shabbily dressed).
In addition, Carver filed only three patents on the products he'd developed. As he explained, "One reason I never patent my products is that if I did, it would take so much time I would get nothing else done. But mainly I don't want any discoveries to benefit specific favored persons. I think they should be available to all peoples."
In 1917, Carter revealed what motivated him: "Well, some day I will have to leave this world. And when that day comes, I want to feel that my life has been of some service to my fellow man." When he passed away in 1943, it would seem he had lived just such a life. | <urn:uuid:6f5c15cf-28ec-4d14-8797-e34cebc248d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biography.com/news/george-washington-carver-facts-national-peanut-month | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00246.warc.gz | en | 0.987144 | 1,419 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | George Washington Carver is known for his work with peanuts (though he did not invent peanut butter, as some may believe). However, there's a lot more to this scientist and inventor than simply being the "Peanut Man." Read on for seven insights into Carver, his life and his accomplishments.
He was known as the young 'plant doctor'
Even as a child, Carver was interested in nature. Spared from demanding work because of his poor health, he had the time to study plants. His talents flourished to the extent that people started to ask him for help with their ailing vegetation.
In a 1922 interview, he recalled, "Often the people of the neighborhood who had plants would say to me, 'George, my fern is sick. See what you can do with it.' I would take their plants off to my garden and there soon have them blooming again ... At this time I had never heard of botany and could scarcely read."
Though Carver would gain new skills over the years, the path he'd follow in life was clear.
Appearing before Congress made him the 'Peanut Man'
Besides peanuts, Carver's research also involved clays, seeds and sweet potatoes. So why is his name associated with just one legume? It's thanks in large part to an appearance he made before the House Ways and Means Committee.
In 1920, Carver spoke at the United Peanut Association of America's convention. He was such a success that the group decided to have him tell Congress about peanuts and the need for a tariff in January of 1921.
Though his congressional presentation didn't start out well — the representatives weren't predisposed to listen to a black man — Carver ended up winning over the committee. They were drawn into testimony that covered many of the products Carver had created with peanuts, such as flour, milk, dyes and cheese, and ended up inviting him to take as much time as he needed to talk.
After his appearance, peanuts and Carver were intertwined in the public's mind. The scientist didn't mind the association; however, when asked in 1938 if his work with peanuts was his best, Carver answered, "No, but it has been featured more than my other work."
He believed peanuts could fight polio
Polio victims were often left with weakened muscles or paralyzed limbs. Carver felt that peanuts — or rather peanut oil — could help these people regain some lost function.
In the 1930s, Carver began to treat patients with peanut oil massages. He reported positive results, which in turn made more and more people want to undergo the treatment. Even Franklin D. Roosevelt joined in; gifted with the oil by Carver, he told the scientist, "I do use peanut oil from time to time and I am sure that it helps."
Unfortunately, despite the improvements that Carver witnessed and reported, there was never any scientific evidence that peanut oil actually helped polio victims recover. Instead, the patients may have benefited from the massage treatment itself, as well as the attentive care that Carver provided.
He didn’t write down details
Though Carver worked on many products, both peanut and non-peanut, he didn't see the need to keep detailed records.
In 1937, Carver was asked for a list of the peanut products that he'd developed. He wrote in reply, "There are more than 300 of them. I do not attempt to keep a list, as a list today would not be the same tomorrow, if I am allowed to work on that particular product. To keep a list would also give the Institute a great deal of trouble, as people would write wanting to know why one list differs from another. For this reason we have stopped sending out lists."
However, Carver did see the point in writing down advice and recipes, which he shared in agricultural bulletins such as "How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it For Human Consumption" (1916). So while you can't see all of Carver's formulas, Carver's instructions for peanut soup, peanut bread, peanut cake and more are available!
He was a well-connected man
Carver was a friend, colleague or associate to a veritable "Who's Who" of the 20th century. This began in 1896 when Booker T. Washington hired him to oversee the agricultural department at the Tuskegee Institute.
Between 1919 and 1926, Carver corresponded with John Harvey Kellogg (of cereal fame), as they shared an interest in food and health. Carver and automaker Henry Ford quickly struck up a friendship after meeting in 1937. Carver would stop by Ford's laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan, and Ford himself visited Tuskegee in Alabama. Ford also gave the funds to install an elevator in Carver's dormitory as the scientist grew weaker in his later years.
Carver's connections also extended outside the United States. Supporters of Mahatma Gandhi asked Carver for advice about how Gandhi could build up strength in between hunger strikes. And the Indian leader wrote Carver to thank him for sending agricultural bulletins.
He considered weeds 'nature’s vegetables'
Along with peanuts, Carver felt that weeds — or "nature's vegetables" — were a nutritious and undeveloped food source for America. Carver once noted, "There is no need for America to go hungry as long as nature provides weeds and wild vegetables..."
Ford shared this appreciation for wild greens. He'd happily eat sandwiches made by his friend Carver, which contained ingredients such as wild onion, peppergrass, chickweed, wild lettuce and rabbit tobacco.
But before you rush outside to harvest your next salad or sandwich filling, you should know that not everyone was a fan of Carver's weed-based preparations. "They tasted terrible and if we didn't say they were good he got mad," a former student of Carver's complained in 1948.
He cared about people, not money
Throughout his life, Carver's actions demonstrated how little he cared for money. For example, he turned down a six-figure job offer from Thomas Edison. Carver also didn't spend much on clothes (and consequently was always shabbily dressed).
In addition, Carver filed only three patents on the products he'd developed. As he explained, "One reason I never patent my products is that if I did, it would take so much time I would get nothing else done. But mainly I don't want any discoveries to benefit specific favored persons. I think they should be available to all peoples."
In 1917, Carter revealed what motivated him: "Well, some day I will have to leave this world. And when that day comes, I want to feel that my life has been of some service to my fellow man." When he passed away in 1943, it would seem he had lived just such a life. | 1,448 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of the Machine Gun
Category: Shotguns and Smoothbores
The machine gun, which came to change and even became a force to reckon with during the battlefields of world war one, was thought to be one of those primitive weapons when the war officially began in 1914.
Of all the armies that took part in the war, machine guns were too heavy, and ill-suited for effective use by the advancing infantry troops. The weight of each machine gun ranged somewhere between 30 kilograms to 60 kilograms, without their carriages, supplies, or mountings.
The machine gun of 1914 had its position on a flat tripod and would often require a gun crew of between four to six operators. In theory, these machine guns could fire approximately 400 to 600 rounds of ammunitions per minute, a figure that came to double at the end of the war. The rounds were fed into the machine gun through the metal grip or the fabric belt.
In reality, since these machine guns were not fitted with a cooling mechanism, they could at times overheat and subsequently become inoperative; thus, they were often fired in short bursts rather than sustained ones. The cooling could take some forms that included the use of water or air.
Water jackets were provided to the former, whereas the building of air vents took place for the latter. However, water cooled machine guns could at times overheat quickly and, therefore, large amounts of water were often required during the battle. Just in case the water ran out during the process, the machine gun crew would often urinate into the jacket to cool it.
Whether water or air cooled, many machine guns jammed frequently, most especially during the high temperatures or when under the custody of inexperienced operators. Consequently, the machine gun crew would often group the machine guns together to obtain a more defensive position.
Most machine guns varied depending on their accuracy, equivalent firepower, with some people making an estimate of between 60-100 rifles for every machine gun. A more accurate figure is about 80, which is still a high figure. | <urn:uuid:0bd4e077-61b9-4a86-9daf-0478aa9940f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://knowledgebase.lookseek.com/The-History-of-the-Machine-Gun.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.98665 | 417 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.02366017... | 5 | The History of the Machine Gun
Category: Shotguns and Smoothbores
The machine gun, which came to change and even became a force to reckon with during the battlefields of world war one, was thought to be one of those primitive weapons when the war officially began in 1914.
Of all the armies that took part in the war, machine guns were too heavy, and ill-suited for effective use by the advancing infantry troops. The weight of each machine gun ranged somewhere between 30 kilograms to 60 kilograms, without their carriages, supplies, or mountings.
The machine gun of 1914 had its position on a flat tripod and would often require a gun crew of between four to six operators. In theory, these machine guns could fire approximately 400 to 600 rounds of ammunitions per minute, a figure that came to double at the end of the war. The rounds were fed into the machine gun through the metal grip or the fabric belt.
In reality, since these machine guns were not fitted with a cooling mechanism, they could at times overheat and subsequently become inoperative; thus, they were often fired in short bursts rather than sustained ones. The cooling could take some forms that included the use of water or air.
Water jackets were provided to the former, whereas the building of air vents took place for the latter. However, water cooled machine guns could at times overheat quickly and, therefore, large amounts of water were often required during the battle. Just in case the water ran out during the process, the machine gun crew would often urinate into the jacket to cool it.
Whether water or air cooled, many machine guns jammed frequently, most especially during the high temperatures or when under the custody of inexperienced operators. Consequently, the machine gun crew would often group the machine guns together to obtain a more defensive position.
Most machine guns varied depending on their accuracy, equivalent firepower, with some people making an estimate of between 60-100 rifles for every machine gun. A more accurate figure is about 80, which is still a high figure. | 435 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This page describes the Capuchin order of friars. The term Capuchin also refers to several species of monkeys of the genus Cebus.
Capuchins, an order of friars in the Roman Catholic Church, are the chief and only permanent offshoot from the Franciscans.
It arose about the year 1520, when Matteo di Bassi, an "Observant" Franciscan, became possessed of the idea that the habit worn by the Franciscans was not the one that St Francis had worn; accordingly he made himself a pointed or pyramidal hood and also allowed his beard to grow and went about barefooted.
His superiors tried to suppress these innovations, but in 1528 he obtained the sanction of Clement VII and also the permission to live as a hermit and to go about everywhere preaching to the poor; and these permissions were not only for himself, but for all such as might join. him in the attempt to restore the most literal observance possible of St Francis's rule. Matteo was soon joined by others. The Observants opposed the movement, but the Conventuals supported it, and so Matteo and his companions were formed into a congregation, called the Hermit Friars Minor, as a branch of the Conventual Franciscans, but with a vicar of their own, subject to the jurisdiction of the general of the Conventuals. From their hood (capucize) they received the popular name of Capuchins.
In 1529 they had four houses and held their first general chapter, at which their special rules were drawn up. The eremitical idea was abandoned, but the life was to be one of extreme austerity, simplicity and poverty—in all things as near an approach to St Francis's idea as was practicable. Neither the monasteries nor the congregation should possess anything, nor were any devices to be resorted to for evading this law; no large provision against temporal wants should be made, and the supplies in the house should never exceed what was necessary for a few days. Everything was to be obtained by begging, and the friars were not allowed even to touch money. The communities were to be small, eight being fixed as the normal number and twelve as the limit. In furniture and clothing extreme simplicity was enjoined and the friars were to go bare-footed without even sandals.
Besides the choral canonical office, a portion of which was recited at midnight, there were two hours of private prayer daily. The fasts and disciplines were rigorous and frequent. The great external work was preaching and spiritual ministrations among the poor. In theology the Capuchins abandoned the later Franciscan school of Scotus, and returned to the earlier school of Bonaventura. The new congregation at the outset of its history underwent a series of severe blows. The two founders left it, Matteo di Bassi to return to the Observants, while his first companion, on being superseded in the office of vicar, became so insubordinate that he had to be expelled. The case of the third vicar, Bernardino Ochino, who became a Calvinist, 1543, and married, was even more disastrous.
This mishap brought the whole congregation under the suspicion of heretical tendencies and the pope resolved to suppress it; he was with difficulty induced to allow it to continue, but the Capuchins were forbidden to preach. In a couple of years the authorities were satisfied as to the soundness of the general body of Capuchin friars, and the permission to preach was restored. The congregation at once began to multiply with extraordinary rapidity, and by the end of the 16th century the Capuchins had spread all over the Catholic parts of Europe, so that in 1619 they were freed from their dependence on the Conventual Franciscans and became an independent order, with a general of their own. They are said to have had at that time 1500 houses divided into fifty provinces. They were one of the chief factors in the Catholic Counter-reformation, working assiduously among the poor, preaching, catechizing, confessing in all parts, and impressing the minds of the common people by the great poverty and austerity of their life.
By these means they were also extraordinarily successful in making converts from Protestantism to Catholicism. Nor were the activities of the Capuchins confined to Europe. From an early date they undertook missions to the heathen in America, Asia and Africa, and was founded in Rome for the purpose of preparing their subjects for foreign missions. A large number of Capuchins have suffered martyrdom for the Gospel. This activity in Europe and elsewhere continued until the close of the 18th century, when the number of Capuchin friars was estimated at 31,000.
Like all other orders, the Capuchins suffered severely from the secularizations and revolutions of the end of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th; but they survived the strain, and during the latter part of the 19th century rapidly recovered ground. At the beginning of the present century there were fifty provinces with some 500 monasteries and 300 hospices or lesser houses; and the number of Capuchin friars, including lay-brothers, was reckoned at 9500. In England there are ten or twelve Capuchin monasteries, and in Ireland three. The Capuchins now possess the church of the Portiuncula at Assisi. The Capuchins still keep up their missionary work and have some 200 missionary stations in all parts of the world—notably India, Abyssinia and the Turkish empire. Though "the poorest of all orders," it has attracted into its ranks an extraordinary number of the highest nobility and even of royalty. The celebrated Father Mathew, the apostle of Temperance in Ireland, was a Capuchin friar. Like the Franciscans the Capuchins wear a brown habit.
The Capuchines are Capuchin nuns. They were founded in 1538 in Naples. They lived according to the rules and regulations of the Capuchin friars, and so austere was the life that they were called "Sisters of Suffering." The order spread to France and Spain, and a few convents still exist.
In order fully to grasp the meaning of the Capuchin reform, it is necessary to know the outlines of Franciscan history. There does not appear to be any modern general history of the Capuchin order as a whole, though there are histories of various provinces and of the foreign missions. The references to all this literature will be found in the article "Kapuzinerorden" in Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.), which is the best ‘general sketch on the subject. Shorter sketches, with the needful references, are given in Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. § 4j~ and in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopedie (3rd ed.), art. "Kapuziner." Helyot's Hist. des ordres religieux (1792), vii. c. 24 and c. 27, gives an account of the Capuchins up to the end of the 17th century.
This entry was originally from the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica. | <urn:uuid:d415321b-aa80-48ce-b826-66d6b616abaa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.infomutt.com/c/ca/capuchin.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00357.warc.gz | en | 0.980413 | 1,511 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.172369956970... | 3 | This page describes the Capuchin order of friars. The term Capuchin also refers to several species of monkeys of the genus Cebus.
Capuchins, an order of friars in the Roman Catholic Church, are the chief and only permanent offshoot from the Franciscans.
It arose about the year 1520, when Matteo di Bassi, an "Observant" Franciscan, became possessed of the idea that the habit worn by the Franciscans was not the one that St Francis had worn; accordingly he made himself a pointed or pyramidal hood and also allowed his beard to grow and went about barefooted.
His superiors tried to suppress these innovations, but in 1528 he obtained the sanction of Clement VII and also the permission to live as a hermit and to go about everywhere preaching to the poor; and these permissions were not only for himself, but for all such as might join. him in the attempt to restore the most literal observance possible of St Francis's rule. Matteo was soon joined by others. The Observants opposed the movement, but the Conventuals supported it, and so Matteo and his companions were formed into a congregation, called the Hermit Friars Minor, as a branch of the Conventual Franciscans, but with a vicar of their own, subject to the jurisdiction of the general of the Conventuals. From their hood (capucize) they received the popular name of Capuchins.
In 1529 they had four houses and held their first general chapter, at which their special rules were drawn up. The eremitical idea was abandoned, but the life was to be one of extreme austerity, simplicity and poverty—in all things as near an approach to St Francis's idea as was practicable. Neither the monasteries nor the congregation should possess anything, nor were any devices to be resorted to for evading this law; no large provision against temporal wants should be made, and the supplies in the house should never exceed what was necessary for a few days. Everything was to be obtained by begging, and the friars were not allowed even to touch money. The communities were to be small, eight being fixed as the normal number and twelve as the limit. In furniture and clothing extreme simplicity was enjoined and the friars were to go bare-footed without even sandals.
Besides the choral canonical office, a portion of which was recited at midnight, there were two hours of private prayer daily. The fasts and disciplines were rigorous and frequent. The great external work was preaching and spiritual ministrations among the poor. In theology the Capuchins abandoned the later Franciscan school of Scotus, and returned to the earlier school of Bonaventura. The new congregation at the outset of its history underwent a series of severe blows. The two founders left it, Matteo di Bassi to return to the Observants, while his first companion, on being superseded in the office of vicar, became so insubordinate that he had to be expelled. The case of the third vicar, Bernardino Ochino, who became a Calvinist, 1543, and married, was even more disastrous.
This mishap brought the whole congregation under the suspicion of heretical tendencies and the pope resolved to suppress it; he was with difficulty induced to allow it to continue, but the Capuchins were forbidden to preach. In a couple of years the authorities were satisfied as to the soundness of the general body of Capuchin friars, and the permission to preach was restored. The congregation at once began to multiply with extraordinary rapidity, and by the end of the 16th century the Capuchins had spread all over the Catholic parts of Europe, so that in 1619 they were freed from their dependence on the Conventual Franciscans and became an independent order, with a general of their own. They are said to have had at that time 1500 houses divided into fifty provinces. They were one of the chief factors in the Catholic Counter-reformation, working assiduously among the poor, preaching, catechizing, confessing in all parts, and impressing the minds of the common people by the great poverty and austerity of their life.
By these means they were also extraordinarily successful in making converts from Protestantism to Catholicism. Nor were the activities of the Capuchins confined to Europe. From an early date they undertook missions to the heathen in America, Asia and Africa, and was founded in Rome for the purpose of preparing their subjects for foreign missions. A large number of Capuchins have suffered martyrdom for the Gospel. This activity in Europe and elsewhere continued until the close of the 18th century, when the number of Capuchin friars was estimated at 31,000.
Like all other orders, the Capuchins suffered severely from the secularizations and revolutions of the end of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th; but they survived the strain, and during the latter part of the 19th century rapidly recovered ground. At the beginning of the present century there were fifty provinces with some 500 monasteries and 300 hospices or lesser houses; and the number of Capuchin friars, including lay-brothers, was reckoned at 9500. In England there are ten or twelve Capuchin monasteries, and in Ireland three. The Capuchins now possess the church of the Portiuncula at Assisi. The Capuchins still keep up their missionary work and have some 200 missionary stations in all parts of the world—notably India, Abyssinia and the Turkish empire. Though "the poorest of all orders," it has attracted into its ranks an extraordinary number of the highest nobility and even of royalty. The celebrated Father Mathew, the apostle of Temperance in Ireland, was a Capuchin friar. Like the Franciscans the Capuchins wear a brown habit.
The Capuchines are Capuchin nuns. They were founded in 1538 in Naples. They lived according to the rules and regulations of the Capuchin friars, and so austere was the life that they were called "Sisters of Suffering." The order spread to France and Spain, and a few convents still exist.
In order fully to grasp the meaning of the Capuchin reform, it is necessary to know the outlines of Franciscan history. There does not appear to be any modern general history of the Capuchin order as a whole, though there are histories of various provinces and of the foreign missions. The references to all this literature will be found in the article "Kapuzinerorden" in Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.), which is the best ‘general sketch on the subject. Shorter sketches, with the needful references, are given in Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. § 4j~ and in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopedie (3rd ed.), art. "Kapuziner." Helyot's Hist. des ordres religieux (1792), vii. c. 24 and c. 27, gives an account of the Capuchins up to the end of the 17th century.
This entry was originally from the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica. | 1,574 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Joad family had to abandon their home and their livelihoods.
The Grapes of Wrath: Symbolic Characters Struggling through such things as the depression, the Dust Bowl summers, and trying to provide for their own families, which included finding somewhere to travel to where life would be safe. Such is the story of the Joads.
The Joads were the main family in John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath, a book which was written in order to show what a family was going through, at this time period, and how they were trying to better their lives at the same time. It wouldn't be enough for Steinbeck to simply write this story in very plain terms, as anyone could have simply logged an account of events and published it.
Critics have argued, however, that Steinbeck was too artificial in his ways of trying to gain some respect for the migrants. Regardless of the critical opinions, John Steinbeck utilized symbolism as a forum to convey the hardships and attitudes of the citizens of America during the 's in his book The Grapes of Wrath.
The first aspect of the novel that must be looked at when viewing the symbolic nature is that of the characters created by Steinbeck and how even the smallest facets of their person lead to a much larger meaning. The first goal that Steinbeck had in mind, was to appeal to the common Midwesterner at that time.
The best way to go about doing this was to focus on one of the two things that nearly all migrants had in common, which was religion and hardships. Steinbeck creates a story about the journey of a family and mirrors it to that of biblical events.
The entire family, in themselves, were like the Israelites. Unfortunately, although the Israelites were successful, the Joads never really found what they could consider to be a promised land.
They were never lucky enough to really satisfy their dreams of living a comfortable life. But, they were still able to improve on their situation. Another symbolic character that was undoubtedly more religious than anyone else taking the journey was Jim Casy. He was a preacher that was picked up along the way by the Joads.
Steinbeck manages to squeeze in a lot about this character, and a lot of the background he creates about Mr. Casy shows just how much of a biblical man he really is supposed to be. So much so, that Steinbeck uses Jim Casy to symbolize Christ.
Oddly enough, his initials were not only the same as Jesus Christ, but much of his life is similar to the biblical accounts of Christ. Not only did he also begin his long trek after a stay in the wilderness, he also had rejected an old religion to try and find his own version of the gospel and convince people to follow him.
His death, another aspect comparable to that of Christ, also occurred in the middle of a stream, which could represent the "crossing over Jordan" account.
Jim's last words are to forgive the man who kills him with a pickax. He tells him "You don't know what you're a-doing," which is a simple allusion to the statement by Jesus to God when He is being crucified and asks his Father to forgive them, for they knew not what they were doing.
In this novel, even the title is a Christian allusion. The title is "a direct Christian allusion, suggesting the glory of the coming of the Lord" Shockley, Looking at the main character of the story, Tom Joad, even more Christian symbolism is seen.
Tom Joad is almost a direct fit for the story of the "prodigal son" from the bible.
He is the son that must lead everyone across in a great journey, while symbolically already wandering from the favor of God by killing a man in self-defense. Tom must find a way to forget about this event and continue to keep his goal of getting to California and his Promised Land in sight.
He understands that he must stay determined and persevere because he is an example and a leader to his family and he cannot allow any internal event to slow him down. Rose of Sharon, the daughter of the family, also has a very religious connotation; her religious meaning is not so much symbolic of a specific person or event in the bible, but more of an example of Christian values.
The great hardship in her life was the fact that the child she was pregnant with the whole story, and the one that kept her from doing work necessary to everyone's survival, was stillborn.
Now, after going through all this, she had to face the reality of living without her child and the reality of her husband walking out on her. Even after all this when the Joads come upon the old man in the barn "the two women [Ma Joad and Rose of Sharon] looked deep into each other's eyes. Not my will, but Thine be done.
Next, the women in the story are an example of the mentality of the "indestructible woman.The Grapes of Wrath Overview.
The Grapes of Wrath is a National Book Award and Pulitzer Prize-winning realist novel by John Steinbeck. First published in , the novel follows the Joad family as they make their way west to California from the devastated Dust Bowl in Oklahoma. (Source)Over 14 million copies of The Grapes of Wrath have been sold in the last half century Steaminess Rating These Joads talk a good talk about getting busy.
Grapes of Wrath John Steinbeck's novel, "The Grapes of Wrath," described the economic divide that existed in America during the Great Depression of the 's . Grapes of wrath movie essay. By on Nov 21, in Grapes of wrath movie essay | 0 comments.
Hoop dreams movie essay on malcolm. Mother tongue education importance essay men at work interview essay, the dolls museum in dublin poem analysis essays nettles poem essay c word in the hallways rhetorical analysis essay. John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath, Tom Joad and his family are forced from their farm in the Depression-era Oklahoma Dust Bowl and set out for California along with thousands of others in search of jobs, land, and hope for a brighter future.
The grapes of wrath film critique essays. By 25/11/ 0 essay on is google beloved reflective essay essaye moi musique relaxante unternehmensphilosophie beispiel essay epic hero essay odysseus movie.
A short essay on self discipline banchero costa research paper. | <urn:uuid:315b01f1-39eb-47ee-b360-a5d11ee7cb58> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://buqefomaqefa.tranceformingnlp.com/hero-essay-grapes-of-wrath-49592tk.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00416.warc.gz | en | 0.98251 | 1,367 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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The Grapes of Wrath: Symbolic Characters Struggling through such things as the depression, the Dust Bowl summers, and trying to provide for their own families, which included finding somewhere to travel to where life would be safe. Such is the story of the Joads.
The Joads were the main family in John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath, a book which was written in order to show what a family was going through, at this time period, and how they were trying to better their lives at the same time. It wouldn't be enough for Steinbeck to simply write this story in very plain terms, as anyone could have simply logged an account of events and published it.
Critics have argued, however, that Steinbeck was too artificial in his ways of trying to gain some respect for the migrants. Regardless of the critical opinions, John Steinbeck utilized symbolism as a forum to convey the hardships and attitudes of the citizens of America during the 's in his book The Grapes of Wrath.
The first aspect of the novel that must be looked at when viewing the symbolic nature is that of the characters created by Steinbeck and how even the smallest facets of their person lead to a much larger meaning. The first goal that Steinbeck had in mind, was to appeal to the common Midwesterner at that time.
The best way to go about doing this was to focus on one of the two things that nearly all migrants had in common, which was religion and hardships. Steinbeck creates a story about the journey of a family and mirrors it to that of biblical events.
The entire family, in themselves, were like the Israelites. Unfortunately, although the Israelites were successful, the Joads never really found what they could consider to be a promised land.
They were never lucky enough to really satisfy their dreams of living a comfortable life. But, they were still able to improve on their situation. Another symbolic character that was undoubtedly more religious than anyone else taking the journey was Jim Casy. He was a preacher that was picked up along the way by the Joads.
Steinbeck manages to squeeze in a lot about this character, and a lot of the background he creates about Mr. Casy shows just how much of a biblical man he really is supposed to be. So much so, that Steinbeck uses Jim Casy to symbolize Christ.
Oddly enough, his initials were not only the same as Jesus Christ, but much of his life is similar to the biblical accounts of Christ. Not only did he also begin his long trek after a stay in the wilderness, he also had rejected an old religion to try and find his own version of the gospel and convince people to follow him.
His death, another aspect comparable to that of Christ, also occurred in the middle of a stream, which could represent the "crossing over Jordan" account.
Jim's last words are to forgive the man who kills him with a pickax. He tells him "You don't know what you're a-doing," which is a simple allusion to the statement by Jesus to God when He is being crucified and asks his Father to forgive them, for they knew not what they were doing.
In this novel, even the title is a Christian allusion. The title is "a direct Christian allusion, suggesting the glory of the coming of the Lord" Shockley, Looking at the main character of the story, Tom Joad, even more Christian symbolism is seen.
Tom Joad is almost a direct fit for the story of the "prodigal son" from the bible.
He is the son that must lead everyone across in a great journey, while symbolically already wandering from the favor of God by killing a man in self-defense. Tom must find a way to forget about this event and continue to keep his goal of getting to California and his Promised Land in sight.
He understands that he must stay determined and persevere because he is an example and a leader to his family and he cannot allow any internal event to slow him down. Rose of Sharon, the daughter of the family, also has a very religious connotation; her religious meaning is not so much symbolic of a specific person or event in the bible, but more of an example of Christian values.
The great hardship in her life was the fact that the child she was pregnant with the whole story, and the one that kept her from doing work necessary to everyone's survival, was stillborn.
Now, after going through all this, she had to face the reality of living without her child and the reality of her husband walking out on her. Even after all this when the Joads come upon the old man in the barn "the two women [Ma Joad and Rose of Sharon] looked deep into each other's eyes. Not my will, but Thine be done.
Next, the women in the story are an example of the mentality of the "indestructible woman.The Grapes of Wrath Overview.
The Grapes of Wrath is a National Book Award and Pulitzer Prize-winning realist novel by John Steinbeck. First published in , the novel follows the Joad family as they make their way west to California from the devastated Dust Bowl in Oklahoma. (Source)Over 14 million copies of The Grapes of Wrath have been sold in the last half century Steaminess Rating These Joads talk a good talk about getting busy.
Grapes of Wrath John Steinbeck's novel, "The Grapes of Wrath," described the economic divide that existed in America during the Great Depression of the 's . Grapes of wrath movie essay. By on Nov 21, in Grapes of wrath movie essay | 0 comments.
Hoop dreams movie essay on malcolm. Mother tongue education importance essay men at work interview essay, the dolls museum in dublin poem analysis essays nettles poem essay c word in the hallways rhetorical analysis essay. John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath, Tom Joad and his family are forced from their farm in the Depression-era Oklahoma Dust Bowl and set out for California along with thousands of others in search of jobs, land, and hope for a brighter future.
The grapes of wrath film critique essays. By 25/11/ 0 essay on is google beloved reflective essay essaye moi musique relaxante unternehmensphilosophie beispiel essay epic hero essay odysseus movie.
A short essay on self discipline banchero costa research paper. | 1,329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the late 19th century, the United States took lands from American Indian nations and transferred them to individual tribal members. Those lands were often managed by the federal government through the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) which would arrange to lease the lands for grazing and mining purposes. The U.S. was supposed to pay the royalties to the Indian owners but often did not do so and over time many records were lost. Twenty years of litigation has ended with a settlement by which the US will pay $1.4 billion to class members (roughly $1000 per person) and in addition establish a $2 billion fund for the voluntary buy-back and consolidation of fractionated land interests. Read Interior Department press release. Here is the Turtletalk report on the settlement. | <urn:uuid:35e74267-690c-46dc-a378-83920f8adb74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scholar.harvard.edu/jsinger/3-4-billion-settlement-in-cobell-litigation-involving-federal-mismanagement-of-individual-tribal-trust-lands | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.986382 | 157 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.276503831148... | 3 | In the late 19th century, the United States took lands from American Indian nations and transferred them to individual tribal members. Those lands were often managed by the federal government through the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) which would arrange to lease the lands for grazing and mining purposes. The U.S. was supposed to pay the royalties to the Indian owners but often did not do so and over time many records were lost. Twenty years of litigation has ended with a settlement by which the US will pay $1.4 billion to class members (roughly $1000 per person) and in addition establish a $2 billion fund for the voluntary buy-back and consolidation of fractionated land interests. Read Interior Department press release. Here is the Turtletalk report on the settlement. | 160 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why did cortes want to conquer the aztecs
All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the s. Although much of the original gold looted from the Aztec Empire was lost to shipwrecks or pirates, rich silver mines were discovered in Mexico and later in Peru. The Aztec lands were renamed "New Spain" and the colonization process began. European countries fought with each other on sea and land to control the trade routes and the countries they discovered. According to Aztec religion , these omens meant that something bad was going to happen. Merchants travelled through the whole empire, trading as well as serving as ambassadors, spies and sometimes soldiers. Montezuma at first welcomed the Spanish as the Aztecs thoughts they might be holy men, but they were soon to realise this was not so. These same native cultures were shocked to discover that the Spanish did not believe the same way. There was no trade across the Atlantic Ocean at this stage. Resistance Case Study 3 The Spanish encountered particularly fierce resistance from the Auracanian tribes. The feather painting scenes were done nearly fifty years after the painting of the juggler. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico.
It was used more than years before the Gregorian calendar used in our world today and shows the level of sophistication of Aztec science. The Inca leader knew what the gold-hungry Spanish were after and offered to pay a ransom by filling the room where he was being held with gold.
The mural is called 'Colonial Domination'.
Inafter two years of resistance, the Aztec Empire fell to the Spanish. Notably, the accounts of the conquest, Spanish and indigenous alike, have biases and exaggerations.
Resistance Case Study 3 The Spanish encountered particularly fierce resistance from the Auracanian tribes.
The victorious sun rose each morning, drove off the moon and stars and captured the daytime sky. Continue Reading.
The spread of Christianity throughout the world was made possible by missionary activities. Wounded in one leg, the Spanish leader was ultimately rescued by his captains.
Spanish conquest of the americas timeline
Pizarro raised an army of men to take with him to Peru. The slaves were kept in forts on the African coast before being transported to America. The Jesuits were especially active in South America. Over time, around 80 percent of the people living in the Valley of Mexico died from these diseases. These high taxes made the price of products like gold, silk and spices that Europeans wanted, more expensive for them to buy. Almagro was executed, but his son, known as Almagro the Lad, continued the war. The event would come to be known as the Night of Sorrows. This is a portrait of Atahualpa, drawn from life, by a member of Pizarro's detachment, Church and state worked together to change the indigenous belief systems of the people they ruled. His followers were tricked into paying a large ransom of silver and gold. The Aztecs therefore went to war continuously.
His troops included many men who had arrived on the island too late to grab their own estates.
based on 85 review | <urn:uuid:0fff2d7c-6543-440c-ae43-0ebd2c8951d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lisylafadiciwu.whatshanesaid.com/spanish-conquest259151836ca.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.983665 | 657 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.294185996055603... | 1 | Why did cortes want to conquer the aztecs
All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the s. Although much of the original gold looted from the Aztec Empire was lost to shipwrecks or pirates, rich silver mines were discovered in Mexico and later in Peru. The Aztec lands were renamed "New Spain" and the colonization process began. European countries fought with each other on sea and land to control the trade routes and the countries they discovered. According to Aztec religion , these omens meant that something bad was going to happen. Merchants travelled through the whole empire, trading as well as serving as ambassadors, spies and sometimes soldiers. Montezuma at first welcomed the Spanish as the Aztecs thoughts they might be holy men, but they were soon to realise this was not so. These same native cultures were shocked to discover that the Spanish did not believe the same way. There was no trade across the Atlantic Ocean at this stage. Resistance Case Study 3 The Spanish encountered particularly fierce resistance from the Auracanian tribes. The feather painting scenes were done nearly fifty years after the painting of the juggler. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico.
It was used more than years before the Gregorian calendar used in our world today and shows the level of sophistication of Aztec science. The Inca leader knew what the gold-hungry Spanish were after and offered to pay a ransom by filling the room where he was being held with gold.
The mural is called 'Colonial Domination'.
Inafter two years of resistance, the Aztec Empire fell to the Spanish. Notably, the accounts of the conquest, Spanish and indigenous alike, have biases and exaggerations.
Resistance Case Study 3 The Spanish encountered particularly fierce resistance from the Auracanian tribes.
The victorious sun rose each morning, drove off the moon and stars and captured the daytime sky. Continue Reading.
The spread of Christianity throughout the world was made possible by missionary activities. Wounded in one leg, the Spanish leader was ultimately rescued by his captains.
Spanish conquest of the americas timeline
Pizarro raised an army of men to take with him to Peru. The slaves were kept in forts on the African coast before being transported to America. The Jesuits were especially active in South America. Over time, around 80 percent of the people living in the Valley of Mexico died from these diseases. These high taxes made the price of products like gold, silk and spices that Europeans wanted, more expensive for them to buy. Almagro was executed, but his son, known as Almagro the Lad, continued the war. The event would come to be known as the Night of Sorrows. This is a portrait of Atahualpa, drawn from life, by a member of Pizarro's detachment, Church and state worked together to change the indigenous belief systems of the people they ruled. His followers were tricked into paying a large ransom of silver and gold. The Aztecs therefore went to war continuously.
His troops included many men who had arrived on the island too late to grab their own estates.
based on 85 review | 655 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Image: Portrait of Frederick Law Olmsted. Public domain.
Frederick Law Olmsted is arguably the most important historical figure that the average American knows the least about. Best remembered for his landscape architecture, from New York's Central Park to Boston's Emerald Necklace to Stanford University's campus, Olmsted was also an influential journalist, early voice for the environment, and abolitionist credited with helping dissuade England from joining the South in the Civil War. This momentous career was shadowed by a tragic personal life, also fully portrayed here.
Most of all, he was a social reformer. He didn't simply create places that were beautiful in the abstract. An awesome and timeless intent stands behind Olmsted's designs, allowing his work to survive to the present day. With our urgent need to revitalize cities and a widespread yearning for green space, his work is more relevant now than it was during his lifetime. Justin Martin restores Olmsted to his rightful place in the pantheon of great Americans. | <urn:uuid:8b07068e-3b21-4d99-877e-3d5b70b39b31> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://audioboom.com/posts/7420157-1-1-genius-of-place-the-life-of-frederick-law-olmsted-by-justin-martin | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00024.warc.gz | en | 0.983529 | 209 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.41766175... | 1 | Image: Portrait of Frederick Law Olmsted. Public domain.
Frederick Law Olmsted is arguably the most important historical figure that the average American knows the least about. Best remembered for his landscape architecture, from New York's Central Park to Boston's Emerald Necklace to Stanford University's campus, Olmsted was also an influential journalist, early voice for the environment, and abolitionist credited with helping dissuade England from joining the South in the Civil War. This momentous career was shadowed by a tragic personal life, also fully portrayed here.
Most of all, he was a social reformer. He didn't simply create places that were beautiful in the abstract. An awesome and timeless intent stands behind Olmsted's designs, allowing his work to survive to the present day. With our urgent need to revitalize cities and a widespread yearning for green space, his work is more relevant now than it was during his lifetime. Justin Martin restores Olmsted to his rightful place in the pantheon of great Americans. | 207 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The saxophone has long been a star instrument in jazz, big bands, and solo performances. But when exactly did this grand instrument come about? Who invented it? Not many people know that when the saxophone first appeared in jazz, many performers turned up their noses to it, much preferring the clarinet. But as the hardness began to wear off, the saxophone became a hit in itself.
Did you know?
- Adolphe Sax moved to Paris in 1842 and registered his invention the saxophone in 1846.
- The saxophone has a metal body and is played with a single beating reed, which the player controls through his or her mouth tightness.
- There are eight different sizes of saxophones in the sax family. The highest pitched ones are known as the Sopranino and Soprano sax. The more moderately middle toned saxes are the Alto and Tenor, while the lowest pitched saxs are Baritone Sax, Bass Sax, Contrabass Sax, and Sub-Contrabass Sax.
- Only four members of the sax family are commonly used today: the Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass Saxophone. The most popular are the Alto and Tenor.
- Although the saxophone is usually thought of as a jazz instrument, it has been used successfully with symphonic music such as Bizet, Massenet, and Berlioz. Tenorsax Image Credit: ‘Tenor Sax’, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.
- Although the saxophone is closely related to the clarinet, the fingering of a saxophone is much easier. Because the higher and lower octaves of the sax have the same fingering, it is much easier to play than the clarinet, which over blows at 12ths, meaning a clarinet player must learn different fingers for higher and lower octaves.
- When the saxophone was first introduced to jazz, the clarinet was much more popular and many musicians resisted the saxophone for a time.
- However, the tenor, alto, and soprano saxs soon caught on and became very popular in music from New Orleans jazz to rock music.
- Gene Ammons, founder of the Chicago school of Tenor Sax, recorded The Big Sound and Groove Blues on a single day in 1958.
- John Douglas Surman was a remarkable player of the soprano and baritone saxophones (as well as many other instruments). He attended the London College of Music and was a member of the Jazz Workshop at Plymouth Arts Center. His solo album, The Amazing Adventures of Simon Simon, features many different saxophone sounds.
Come visit us and experience it for yourself! | <urn:uuid:067274c8-8581-438f-a2a6-ab0221253f8f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tommorrowlandmusic.com/services/saxophone/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00202.warc.gz | en | 0.980342 | 558 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.026072494685649... | 3 | The saxophone has long been a star instrument in jazz, big bands, and solo performances. But when exactly did this grand instrument come about? Who invented it? Not many people know that when the saxophone first appeared in jazz, many performers turned up their noses to it, much preferring the clarinet. But as the hardness began to wear off, the saxophone became a hit in itself.
Did you know?
- Adolphe Sax moved to Paris in 1842 and registered his invention the saxophone in 1846.
- The saxophone has a metal body and is played with a single beating reed, which the player controls through his or her mouth tightness.
- There are eight different sizes of saxophones in the sax family. The highest pitched ones are known as the Sopranino and Soprano sax. The more moderately middle toned saxes are the Alto and Tenor, while the lowest pitched saxs are Baritone Sax, Bass Sax, Contrabass Sax, and Sub-Contrabass Sax.
- Only four members of the sax family are commonly used today: the Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass Saxophone. The most popular are the Alto and Tenor.
- Although the saxophone is usually thought of as a jazz instrument, it has been used successfully with symphonic music such as Bizet, Massenet, and Berlioz. Tenorsax Image Credit: ‘Tenor Sax’, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.
- Although the saxophone is closely related to the clarinet, the fingering of a saxophone is much easier. Because the higher and lower octaves of the sax have the same fingering, it is much easier to play than the clarinet, which over blows at 12ths, meaning a clarinet player must learn different fingers for higher and lower octaves.
- When the saxophone was first introduced to jazz, the clarinet was much more popular and many musicians resisted the saxophone for a time.
- However, the tenor, alto, and soprano saxs soon caught on and became very popular in music from New Orleans jazz to rock music.
- Gene Ammons, founder of the Chicago school of Tenor Sax, recorded The Big Sound and Groove Blues on a single day in 1958.
- John Douglas Surman was a remarkable player of the soprano and baritone saxophones (as well as many other instruments). He attended the London College of Music and was a member of the Jazz Workshop at Plymouth Arts Center. His solo album, The Amazing Adventures of Simon Simon, features many different saxophone sounds.
Come visit us and experience it for yourself! | 552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
TW Viewpoint | John A. MacDonald: the Patriot StatesmanFebruary 21, 2018 | Stuart Wachowicz
With his legacy currently under attack, one must ask: "Who is John A. MacDonald?" and "Why was his leadership so important for the establishment of Canada?"
In Kingston, Ontario, at the old Cataraqui Cemetery, one could miss an unpretentious granite marker, engraved with a simple inscription: John Alexander MacDonald, 1815-1891, At Rest.
One would not suspect that this grave contains the remains of one of the great driving forces behind the creation of the Dominion of Canada. MacDonald was a talented, hard-working visionary who left two great legacies - the unification of British colonies in eastern North America into a single nation, followed by the expansion of this union across the continent to the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, bringing into existence the second largest country on earth.
John A., as he was often known, was born in Glasgow, Scotland in January 1815. Five years later his parents immigrated to Kingston, located in what was then Upper Canada. His ability was considerable as he was inducted into the Law Society of Upper Canada at age 20.
In the 1840's MacDonald won a seat in the Upper Canada legislature. By 1854 he became Premier.
As a conservative, he would always defend the democratic right of an individual to voice a dissenting opinion - something today at risk under the censorship of political correctness.
He sought opportunities to create workable coalitions of people, political parties and business to achieve big ideas. "…MacDonald would be bold enough to make tough decisions and sensible enough to submerge his own ego to support a cause." ("Canada's Patriot Statesman - The Politician", Library and Archives Canada.) In a land where there was a strong English-French divide, MacDonald, who spoke French, sought to build partnerships with French Canada, and notably with the great Quebecer, George Etienne Cartier. Together they would help people rise above the immediate challenges to see a vision of what could be if they worked for a common goal.
The ability to see big solutions and make them reality took great skill, wisdom, humility and the ability to inspire. There is a story told by former Prime Minister John Turner which illustrates this quality of John A.
David Thompson, a Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) representing Haldimand and a Macdonald contemporary, had just returned to Parliament after an extended absence due to illness. According to Turner's story, Thompson reported that: "The first man I met was [Liberal leader Edward] Blake; he passed me with a simple nod as if he had forgotten I was away. Then I met [Liberal MP Richard] Cartwright, who was just as cold. Then I met Sir John, who rushed across the Chamber, slapped me on the shoulder, grasped my hand, and said, 'Davy, I am glad you are back again; I hope you will live many a day to vote against me.' It was pretty hard not to follow a man like that." Ibid
Not since the War of 1812 had there been fear of foreign invasion, yet throughout the 1860's an Irish society, called the Fenians, was conducting what today would be called terrorist raids across the border in numerous locations. Some states were granting the Fenians safe haven, creating a risk to Canada. This threat was an impetus for the colonies to consider a union. Following the 1864 U.S. election, the Republicans, to placate Irish Americans, put forward The Canada Annexation Bill in July of 1866. Fear of annexation enabled MacDonald and his allies to bring about a consensus for union.
Consequently, in 1866 the British parliament passed the British North America Act, a large part of which was drafted by John A. July 1, 1867 was selected as the date on which the Dominion of Canada would be born. MacDonald was the obvious choice to become the first prime minister. Many challenges lay ahead, but his vision, patience and willingness to respect other opinions enabled him to be a unifying force.
He was acutely aware of the need to expand Confederation westward to the Pacific. MacDonald led the task of bringing the new province of Manitoba into existence (1870), followed by the addition of British Columbia (1871). The latter required the promise of a transcontinental railway, the greatest single project ever undertaken by the Canadian government. The project led to a financial scandal that caused the government's defeat in 1873. Yet in 1878 he was back. The populace looked for a visionary who had a record of delivery. MacDonald then went on to win 4 consecutive elections, stabilized the young nation, and put it on a pathway to success. MacDonald believed in a strong central government and a willingness to spend on projects that were in the national interest. He oversaw the development of a national police force that would become the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, to bring order to the West. He was faced with a national crisis when a rebellion occurred in the North West, challenges he handled with skill and balance.
He developed a strong friendship with Crowfoot, the leading Blackfoot Chief, who realized MacDonald wanted to make lasting improvements in the lives of aboriginal peoples, desiring them to become full citizens of the British Empire. Unfortunately in the politically-correct environment of today's society, history is not viewed in the context of the time, and MacDonald is judged much too harshly.
He endured many personal trials including the death of his first wife and their daughter, and the debilitating illness of his second daughter. MacDonald was always a devoted husband and loving father. Even in his worst moments he never let his loyalty to country, or his sense of duty to his people depart from his sight.
At times he would delay a difficult decision until the conditions for a successful outcome were evident. This earned him the nickname, "Old Tomorrow".
Canadian Senator Hugh Segal writes of MacDonald: He could always build a coalition on an issue that mattered…That was his most compelling success. There's a point in any partisan debate where you've got to stand back and realize there is something more…and that is loyalty to your country. (Canada's Patriot Statesman - The Prime Minister- Library and Archives Canada.)
"Old Tomorrow" gave a young nation vision and strong, unselfish leadership. MacDonald was not without faults and weaknesses, but lack of love of country and loyalty to family were not among them. Wilfred Laurier, Canada's first French Canadian Prime Minister, said in 1891 on the death of MacDonald: "It may be said without any exaggeration whatever, that the life of Sir John Macdonald, from the date he entered Parliament, is the history of Canada."
Aspiring leaders of today would do well modeling Sir John A.'s vision, passion and loyalty. It is needed as never before. | <urn:uuid:dd2b41cd-6475-4ba8-819a-58a03d3c4488> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lcgcanada.org/viewpoint/john-a-macdonald-patriot-statesman.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00276.warc.gz | en | 0.980206 | 1,400 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.05264478921890... | 9 | TW Viewpoint | John A. MacDonald: the Patriot StatesmanFebruary 21, 2018 | Stuart Wachowicz
With his legacy currently under attack, one must ask: "Who is John A. MacDonald?" and "Why was his leadership so important for the establishment of Canada?"
In Kingston, Ontario, at the old Cataraqui Cemetery, one could miss an unpretentious granite marker, engraved with a simple inscription: John Alexander MacDonald, 1815-1891, At Rest.
One would not suspect that this grave contains the remains of one of the great driving forces behind the creation of the Dominion of Canada. MacDonald was a talented, hard-working visionary who left two great legacies - the unification of British colonies in eastern North America into a single nation, followed by the expansion of this union across the continent to the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, bringing into existence the second largest country on earth.
John A., as he was often known, was born in Glasgow, Scotland in January 1815. Five years later his parents immigrated to Kingston, located in what was then Upper Canada. His ability was considerable as he was inducted into the Law Society of Upper Canada at age 20.
In the 1840's MacDonald won a seat in the Upper Canada legislature. By 1854 he became Premier.
As a conservative, he would always defend the democratic right of an individual to voice a dissenting opinion - something today at risk under the censorship of political correctness.
He sought opportunities to create workable coalitions of people, political parties and business to achieve big ideas. "…MacDonald would be bold enough to make tough decisions and sensible enough to submerge his own ego to support a cause." ("Canada's Patriot Statesman - The Politician", Library and Archives Canada.) In a land where there was a strong English-French divide, MacDonald, who spoke French, sought to build partnerships with French Canada, and notably with the great Quebecer, George Etienne Cartier. Together they would help people rise above the immediate challenges to see a vision of what could be if they worked for a common goal.
The ability to see big solutions and make them reality took great skill, wisdom, humility and the ability to inspire. There is a story told by former Prime Minister John Turner which illustrates this quality of John A.
David Thompson, a Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) representing Haldimand and a Macdonald contemporary, had just returned to Parliament after an extended absence due to illness. According to Turner's story, Thompson reported that: "The first man I met was [Liberal leader Edward] Blake; he passed me with a simple nod as if he had forgotten I was away. Then I met [Liberal MP Richard] Cartwright, who was just as cold. Then I met Sir John, who rushed across the Chamber, slapped me on the shoulder, grasped my hand, and said, 'Davy, I am glad you are back again; I hope you will live many a day to vote against me.' It was pretty hard not to follow a man like that." Ibid
Not since the War of 1812 had there been fear of foreign invasion, yet throughout the 1860's an Irish society, called the Fenians, was conducting what today would be called terrorist raids across the border in numerous locations. Some states were granting the Fenians safe haven, creating a risk to Canada. This threat was an impetus for the colonies to consider a union. Following the 1864 U.S. election, the Republicans, to placate Irish Americans, put forward The Canada Annexation Bill in July of 1866. Fear of annexation enabled MacDonald and his allies to bring about a consensus for union.
Consequently, in 1866 the British parliament passed the British North America Act, a large part of which was drafted by John A. July 1, 1867 was selected as the date on which the Dominion of Canada would be born. MacDonald was the obvious choice to become the first prime minister. Many challenges lay ahead, but his vision, patience and willingness to respect other opinions enabled him to be a unifying force.
He was acutely aware of the need to expand Confederation westward to the Pacific. MacDonald led the task of bringing the new province of Manitoba into existence (1870), followed by the addition of British Columbia (1871). The latter required the promise of a transcontinental railway, the greatest single project ever undertaken by the Canadian government. The project led to a financial scandal that caused the government's defeat in 1873. Yet in 1878 he was back. The populace looked for a visionary who had a record of delivery. MacDonald then went on to win 4 consecutive elections, stabilized the young nation, and put it on a pathway to success. MacDonald believed in a strong central government and a willingness to spend on projects that were in the national interest. He oversaw the development of a national police force that would become the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, to bring order to the West. He was faced with a national crisis when a rebellion occurred in the North West, challenges he handled with skill and balance.
He developed a strong friendship with Crowfoot, the leading Blackfoot Chief, who realized MacDonald wanted to make lasting improvements in the lives of aboriginal peoples, desiring them to become full citizens of the British Empire. Unfortunately in the politically-correct environment of today's society, history is not viewed in the context of the time, and MacDonald is judged much too harshly.
He endured many personal trials including the death of his first wife and their daughter, and the debilitating illness of his second daughter. MacDonald was always a devoted husband and loving father. Even in his worst moments he never let his loyalty to country, or his sense of duty to his people depart from his sight.
At times he would delay a difficult decision until the conditions for a successful outcome were evident. This earned him the nickname, "Old Tomorrow".
Canadian Senator Hugh Segal writes of MacDonald: He could always build a coalition on an issue that mattered…That was his most compelling success. There's a point in any partisan debate where you've got to stand back and realize there is something more…and that is loyalty to your country. (Canada's Patriot Statesman - The Prime Minister- Library and Archives Canada.)
"Old Tomorrow" gave a young nation vision and strong, unselfish leadership. MacDonald was not without faults and weaknesses, but lack of love of country and loyalty to family were not among them. Wilfred Laurier, Canada's first French Canadian Prime Minister, said in 1891 on the death of MacDonald: "It may be said without any exaggeration whatever, that the life of Sir John Macdonald, from the date he entered Parliament, is the history of Canada."
Aspiring leaders of today would do well modeling Sir John A.'s vision, passion and loyalty. It is needed as never before. | 1,452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Richard II. of Bordeaux—The Story of Wat Tyler's Rebellion
W HEN Edward III. died in 1377 A.D., his grandson, Richard, the son of the Black Prince, became king. He was only a boy of eleven, but the people already loved him for the sake of his brave father, and there was great rejoicing when he was crowned.
Like so many other boy kings, Richard was too young to reign, and the power was really in the hands of his uncle, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. The people hoped that with a new king happier times would come for them, but they were soon disappointed, and John of Gaunt was hated as Edward had been hated in his last years.
The war with France still went on, although it became harder and harder to find money with which to pay the soldiers, and the people were taxed more and more heavily.
A new tax, called the poll-tax, had been first paid in the reign of Edward III. Poll means head, and it really was a tax upon the head of every one in the kingdom over the age of fourteen. Rich people had to pay more than poor people, still it was the poor who felt the burden most.
This tax was now made three times as heavy as it had been, and the poor were driven almost to despair. Rough, rude men were sent all over the country to gather the money. These men insulted and ill-treated the people, and at last one of them behaved so brutally to the daughter of a man called Wat, that Wat struck him on the head with his hammer and killed him.
This man Wat or Walter was a tiler of houses, and from that he was called "Wat the Tiler" or Tyler. In those days people very often took their names from the work they did.
As soon as it became known that Wat Tyler had killed a tax-collector, the people of the town flocked round him. They had been ready to rise in rebellion before, and now this action of Wat decided them. They armed themselves with any kind of weapon upon which they could lay hands—sticks, rusty swords, old bows and featherless arrows—and began to march to London. Everywhere, as they passed along through towns and villages, others joined them, and men, leaving their carts and ploughs in the fields, forsook their wives and children till, when they reached London, they were a great army of one hundred thousand men.
The chief leaders of this army were Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and a priest called John Ball.
This priest had done a great deal towards stirring up the people against their masters. He had already been put into prison three times for preaching that all men should be equal, and that it was wicked for one man to have more money than another.
Many of those who had joined Wat Tyler hardly knew what they wanted. They knew only that they were miserable and poor, and they hoped that if they saw the King he would do something to make them happy. They blamed John of Gaunt for the misery they suffered, and on the road to London they stopped all whom they met, and made them swear to be true to Richard II., and never to accept any one of the name of John as King.
When they came near London they camped upon Blackheath, and sent messengers to the King begging to be allowed to speak with him.
"You need not fear," they said, "we will do you no harm. We have always respected you, and will respect you as our King. But we have many things to say to you which you ought to hear."
"Tell them," said King Richard, "that
The next day the young King rowed down the river to talk to the people as he had promised. But when he saw what a great crowd there was he would not land. He sat in his boat and tried to talk to the leaders as they stood upon the bank. But they were angry because he would not land, and made such a noise that it was impossible to hear anything.
"Tell me what you want," shouted the King; "I have come to hear what you have to say."
"You must land first. Then we will tell you what we want," yelled the crowd in return.
But Richard was afraid to land, and indeed the barons and lords would not allow him to do so. So after rowing up and down the river for some time, trying in vain to make himself heard by the howling, yelling crowd on the bank, he returned to the Tower, where he was living.
When the people saw the King row away they were madly angry. They had been quiet and orderly. They were so no longer. "Let us march to London," they said, "and take it."
The Mayor of London shut the city gates, but the poor people within opened them to their friends, and the yelling crowd poured into the city.
They broke into all the shops where food was sold, eating and drinking as much as they wanted. They burned and wrecked John of Gaunt's house, called the Savoy, which was the most beautiful palace in London. Other houses and some churches were destroyed, and many people were killed. The prisons were broken open, and all the prisoners set free. Yet the rioters did not steal. They burned and threw into the river the beautiful furniture and jewels belonging to John of Gaunt, because they hated him and blamed him for their misery, but they would not allow anything to be taken away. One man who was seen to steal a piece of silver was thrown into the flames, and burned alive as a punishment by his companions. "We are not thieves and robbers," they said. "We are fighting only for truth and justice."
As the day went on, the noise grew greater and greater, and when night came the rioters collected in the square in front of the Tower. There they made a terrible noise, swearing that, if the King did not come out to them, they would burn the Tower.
The King and his friends held a council together, and Richard decided that next day he would again try to speak with the people. He sent a message to them telling them to go to an open space called Mile End, and that there he would come to speak with them in the morning.
A great many of the people, when they heard this, marched to Mile End, but others refused to go away from the Tower. Next morning, as soon as the gates were opened for the King to pass out, these rioters rushed in. They killed many of the people in the Tower, and nearly frightened the King's mother, the Princess of Wales, to death.
Meanwhile, Richard rode to Mile End, and found a great company of people awaiting him there. As soon as he was near enough he spoke to them kindly.
"My good people," he said, "I am your King. What is it you want? And what do you wish to say to me?"
"We want you to make us free for ever, both ourselves and our children. We will not be slaves any longer," they replied.
"You have your wish," answered Richard. "Now go home quietly. Leave behind you one or two men from each village. To them I will give letters signed and sealed with my seal, promising what you ask."
Then the people, who really did not know quite what they wanted, set up a great shout for the King, and went back to their homes.
Richard gave orders to about thirty secretaries, who wrote the letters as fast as they could. They sat up all night to write. These letters promised freedom to all the slaves and, as soon as they were written, they were signed and sealed with the King's seal, and given to the men who waited for them.
But Wat Tyler had not been with the rioters at Mile End, and he would not agree to go home. He wanted the King to promise much more than that there should no longer be slaves in England. Next day, while he and his followers were gathered at a place called Smithfield, the King came riding by, attended only by a few friends and soldiers.
"Here is the King," said Wat, "I will go to speak to him. You must not move until I give you a signal." He waved his hand and added, "When you see me make this sign, run forward and kill every man of them, except the King. Do not kill him, for he is young, and we can make him do what we like."
Then he set spurs to his horse, and galloped towards Richard, who was waiting to see what the rebels meant to do.
"King," said Wat, "do you see all those men there?"
"Yes," replied the King, "I do. Why do you ask?"
"Because they are all under my orders," said Wat, "and have sworn to do whatever I command them."
"I have no objection to that," replied the King, and he went on to speak quietly and peaceably to Wat Tyler, but Wat was too angry to listen. Finding that he could not quarrel with the King, he began to do so with one of the gentlemen beside him.
Hot words passed between them, till Richard growing angry turned to the Mayor of London, who was also there, and told him to seize Wat Tyler.
"Truly," said the Mayor, "it ill becomes such a rascal to use such words in the presence of the King. I will pay him for it," and raising his sword he struck Wat Tyler a blow on the head. Wat fell to the ground, the King's friends closed round him, and a minute later he was dead.
When Wat Tyler's men saw him fall, they called out, "They have killed our captain. Let us slay them all," and they ran towards the King with their bows bent ready to shoot.
Then Richard did a brave thing. Forbidding any of his men to follow him, he rode alone toward the rioters. "Friends," he said, "what are you doing? I am your King. Follow me. I myself shall be your leader."
At these words many of the rioters were ashamed. Some of them at once slipped quietly away, and Richard, putting himself at the head of the others, led them out into the country.
Meanwhile some of Richard's company had fled back into London, crying, "They are killing the King, they are killing the King."
When the people heard that, many of the King's soldiers came running together, and an army marched out to the fields to meet Richard and the rebels.
As soon as he saw them, the king left the rebels and put himself at the head of his own soldiers. Several of the nobles then wished to attack the rebels, but Richard forbade them to do so. But he ordered all the letters promising freedom, which the rioters had among them, to be given up at once on pain of instant death.
As soon as the King received the letters, he tore them up in sight of the rebels. These poor people now saw all their hopes of freedom gone. Their leader, too, was dead, so not waiting for more they broke and fled they hardly knew where. Many of them returned to their homes, but John Ball and Jack Straw were cruelly betrayed by the very men they had tried to help and free. They were beheaded by Richard's orders, along with many of their followers.
The King did not keep any of his promises to the people. "Slaves you are, and slaves you shall remain," he said savagely, when the danger to himself was over. It seemed as if the rising had been in vain. But that was not so. Many masters freed their slaves, and although years passed before all were free, Wat Tyler's rebellion was the beginning of freedom for the lower classes in England. Up to this time many of the labourers and workers who were free men had been treated almost as badly as slaves, but now their condition became better. | <urn:uuid:291c7df1-d08b-454d-b598-59aad3aeb373> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/samples/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=wat | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00373.warc.gz | en | 0.994852 | 2,512 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.347829788... | 1 | Richard II. of Bordeaux—The Story of Wat Tyler's Rebellion
W HEN Edward III. died in 1377 A.D., his grandson, Richard, the son of the Black Prince, became king. He was only a boy of eleven, but the people already loved him for the sake of his brave father, and there was great rejoicing when he was crowned.
Like so many other boy kings, Richard was too young to reign, and the power was really in the hands of his uncle, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. The people hoped that with a new king happier times would come for them, but they were soon disappointed, and John of Gaunt was hated as Edward had been hated in his last years.
The war with France still went on, although it became harder and harder to find money with which to pay the soldiers, and the people were taxed more and more heavily.
A new tax, called the poll-tax, had been first paid in the reign of Edward III. Poll means head, and it really was a tax upon the head of every one in the kingdom over the age of fourteen. Rich people had to pay more than poor people, still it was the poor who felt the burden most.
This tax was now made three times as heavy as it had been, and the poor were driven almost to despair. Rough, rude men were sent all over the country to gather the money. These men insulted and ill-treated the people, and at last one of them behaved so brutally to the daughter of a man called Wat, that Wat struck him on the head with his hammer and killed him.
This man Wat or Walter was a tiler of houses, and from that he was called "Wat the Tiler" or Tyler. In those days people very often took their names from the work they did.
As soon as it became known that Wat Tyler had killed a tax-collector, the people of the town flocked round him. They had been ready to rise in rebellion before, and now this action of Wat decided them. They armed themselves with any kind of weapon upon which they could lay hands—sticks, rusty swords, old bows and featherless arrows—and began to march to London. Everywhere, as they passed along through towns and villages, others joined them, and men, leaving their carts and ploughs in the fields, forsook their wives and children till, when they reached London, they were a great army of one hundred thousand men.
The chief leaders of this army were Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and a priest called John Ball.
This priest had done a great deal towards stirring up the people against their masters. He had already been put into prison three times for preaching that all men should be equal, and that it was wicked for one man to have more money than another.
Many of those who had joined Wat Tyler hardly knew what they wanted. They knew only that they were miserable and poor, and they hoped that if they saw the King he would do something to make them happy. They blamed John of Gaunt for the misery they suffered, and on the road to London they stopped all whom they met, and made them swear to be true to Richard II., and never to accept any one of the name of John as King.
When they came near London they camped upon Blackheath, and sent messengers to the King begging to be allowed to speak with him.
"You need not fear," they said, "we will do you no harm. We have always respected you, and will respect you as our King. But we have many things to say to you which you ought to hear."
"Tell them," said King Richard, "that
The next day the young King rowed down the river to talk to the people as he had promised. But when he saw what a great crowd there was he would not land. He sat in his boat and tried to talk to the leaders as they stood upon the bank. But they were angry because he would not land, and made such a noise that it was impossible to hear anything.
"Tell me what you want," shouted the King; "I have come to hear what you have to say."
"You must land first. Then we will tell you what we want," yelled the crowd in return.
But Richard was afraid to land, and indeed the barons and lords would not allow him to do so. So after rowing up and down the river for some time, trying in vain to make himself heard by the howling, yelling crowd on the bank, he returned to the Tower, where he was living.
When the people saw the King row away they were madly angry. They had been quiet and orderly. They were so no longer. "Let us march to London," they said, "and take it."
The Mayor of London shut the city gates, but the poor people within opened them to their friends, and the yelling crowd poured into the city.
They broke into all the shops where food was sold, eating and drinking as much as they wanted. They burned and wrecked John of Gaunt's house, called the Savoy, which was the most beautiful palace in London. Other houses and some churches were destroyed, and many people were killed. The prisons were broken open, and all the prisoners set free. Yet the rioters did not steal. They burned and threw into the river the beautiful furniture and jewels belonging to John of Gaunt, because they hated him and blamed him for their misery, but they would not allow anything to be taken away. One man who was seen to steal a piece of silver was thrown into the flames, and burned alive as a punishment by his companions. "We are not thieves and robbers," they said. "We are fighting only for truth and justice."
As the day went on, the noise grew greater and greater, and when night came the rioters collected in the square in front of the Tower. There they made a terrible noise, swearing that, if the King did not come out to them, they would burn the Tower.
The King and his friends held a council together, and Richard decided that next day he would again try to speak with the people. He sent a message to them telling them to go to an open space called Mile End, and that there he would come to speak with them in the morning.
A great many of the people, when they heard this, marched to Mile End, but others refused to go away from the Tower. Next morning, as soon as the gates were opened for the King to pass out, these rioters rushed in. They killed many of the people in the Tower, and nearly frightened the King's mother, the Princess of Wales, to death.
Meanwhile, Richard rode to Mile End, and found a great company of people awaiting him there. As soon as he was near enough he spoke to them kindly.
"My good people," he said, "I am your King. What is it you want? And what do you wish to say to me?"
"We want you to make us free for ever, both ourselves and our children. We will not be slaves any longer," they replied.
"You have your wish," answered Richard. "Now go home quietly. Leave behind you one or two men from each village. To them I will give letters signed and sealed with my seal, promising what you ask."
Then the people, who really did not know quite what they wanted, set up a great shout for the King, and went back to their homes.
Richard gave orders to about thirty secretaries, who wrote the letters as fast as they could. They sat up all night to write. These letters promised freedom to all the slaves and, as soon as they were written, they were signed and sealed with the King's seal, and given to the men who waited for them.
But Wat Tyler had not been with the rioters at Mile End, and he would not agree to go home. He wanted the King to promise much more than that there should no longer be slaves in England. Next day, while he and his followers were gathered at a place called Smithfield, the King came riding by, attended only by a few friends and soldiers.
"Here is the King," said Wat, "I will go to speak to him. You must not move until I give you a signal." He waved his hand and added, "When you see me make this sign, run forward and kill every man of them, except the King. Do not kill him, for he is young, and we can make him do what we like."
Then he set spurs to his horse, and galloped towards Richard, who was waiting to see what the rebels meant to do.
"King," said Wat, "do you see all those men there?"
"Yes," replied the King, "I do. Why do you ask?"
"Because they are all under my orders," said Wat, "and have sworn to do whatever I command them."
"I have no objection to that," replied the King, and he went on to speak quietly and peaceably to Wat Tyler, but Wat was too angry to listen. Finding that he could not quarrel with the King, he began to do so with one of the gentlemen beside him.
Hot words passed between them, till Richard growing angry turned to the Mayor of London, who was also there, and told him to seize Wat Tyler.
"Truly," said the Mayor, "it ill becomes such a rascal to use such words in the presence of the King. I will pay him for it," and raising his sword he struck Wat Tyler a blow on the head. Wat fell to the ground, the King's friends closed round him, and a minute later he was dead.
When Wat Tyler's men saw him fall, they called out, "They have killed our captain. Let us slay them all," and they ran towards the King with their bows bent ready to shoot.
Then Richard did a brave thing. Forbidding any of his men to follow him, he rode alone toward the rioters. "Friends," he said, "what are you doing? I am your King. Follow me. I myself shall be your leader."
At these words many of the rioters were ashamed. Some of them at once slipped quietly away, and Richard, putting himself at the head of the others, led them out into the country.
Meanwhile some of Richard's company had fled back into London, crying, "They are killing the King, they are killing the King."
When the people heard that, many of the King's soldiers came running together, and an army marched out to the fields to meet Richard and the rebels.
As soon as he saw them, the king left the rebels and put himself at the head of his own soldiers. Several of the nobles then wished to attack the rebels, but Richard forbade them to do so. But he ordered all the letters promising freedom, which the rioters had among them, to be given up at once on pain of instant death.
As soon as the King received the letters, he tore them up in sight of the rebels. These poor people now saw all their hopes of freedom gone. Their leader, too, was dead, so not waiting for more they broke and fled they hardly knew where. Many of them returned to their homes, but John Ball and Jack Straw were cruelly betrayed by the very men they had tried to help and free. They were beheaded by Richard's orders, along with many of their followers.
The King did not keep any of his promises to the people. "Slaves you are, and slaves you shall remain," he said savagely, when the danger to himself was over. It seemed as if the rising had been in vain. But that was not so. Many masters freed their slaves, and although years passed before all were free, Wat Tyler's rebellion was the beginning of freedom for the lower classes in England. Up to this time many of the labourers and workers who were free men had been treated almost as badly as slaves, but now their condition became better. | 2,465 | ENGLISH | 1 |
HMS Terror was an English warship that that was lost to the depths of the ocean in 1845. Originally launched in 1813, the vessel served during the War of 1812 before eventually being converted into a polar exploration ship.
It was on this ill-fated journey into the cold that HMS Terror sank, becoming lost to time. In 2016, nearly 200 years later, a group of divers discovered the remains of the ship, and this is what they found.
The Polar Expedition
HMS Terror and HMS Erebus set sail from England in 1845 to explore the Arctic. The goal of the expedition was simple — continue to map the Northwest Passage while gathering magnetic data.
The reality of how difficult the expedition was, however, was unprecedented. There were an estimated 130 crew members between both ships, all being led by Arctic explorer Sir John Franklin. Both ships were lost, and no one ever made back home to tell their tale.
Set Up For Success
Knowing the expedition ahead was going to be long and dangerous, HMS Terror and HMS Erebus were both made as safe as possible. Each ship had enough food for three years, iron covered hulls, steam engines, and top of the line scientific equipment.
The polar expedition was one of the most well-equipped to ever leave the shores of England. The last time either ship was seen was three months later. So what went wrong?
Lost To The Depths
After being lost, there were multiple attempts made to find the missing ships to no avail. As the years passed, it seemed less and less likely the remains of HMS Terror would ever be found.
Still, scientists couldn’t let the mystery go unsolved. How could two of the most well-equipped exploratory vessels in the English fleet go missing? What happened to them? Scientists needed to find the answers, and eventually, their patience would pay off.
The Remains Of The Ships Were Found, But Not Their Crews
Finally, after over a century, HMS Eberus was found in 2014 beneath the Canadian Arctic Ocean. Two years later, in 2016, HMS Terror was located. The mystery didn’t end here, though. The ships still had secrets, like what happened to their crews.
Upon searching the wreckage of the ships, not a single set of remains from a single crew member was found. That indicated that everyone on board was forced to abandon their ships. But for what reason?
Trapped In The Ice
As scientists began to explore the wreckage, they were able to piece together clues indicating that before the ships sank they were stuck in the ice. It was getting trapped that likely made the crew abandon the boats.
Still, one mystery remained. There was no damage to HMS Terror to indicate why the ship would have sunk. There were no hull breaches, but from the way the ship landed it was clear that it had sunk swiftly and without warning.
Another strange clue indicating that the ships never should have sunk was the placement of the propeller. During winter, a mechanism would be used to lift it out of the water to avoid freezing.
The propeller on HMS Terror was in the down position, indicating it likely sunk in the spring. During spring, weather conditions wouldn’t be nearly as severe as winter. Would a dive crew be able to uncover clues to solve the mystery?
The Fate Of The Crew
As you already know, no remains of any crew member were discovered at the spot of the wreckage. With so many years having passed since HMS Terror sank, scientists could only piece together clues from accounts of previous explorers.
The fate of the crew was discovered during a series of expeditions from 1848 to 1866. These investigations discovered that while every crew member made it off the ships, no one survived the harsh weather and lack of food as they tried to traverse to Fort Resolution for safety.
One Revealing Record Recovered
Between HMS Terror’s sinking and discovery in 2016, some artifacts from crew members were found. The most valuable piece was a piece of paper that was the only physical record of the ship’s wreck.
The captain of the Terror, Francis Crozier, wrote the letter. The shaky and clearly rushed letter explains that the crews abandoned the ships on April 22nd, and only 105 remained three days later. This was the last correspondence written by the captain.
A Small Window To Explore
Because of where HMS Terror was wrecked and discovered, it is nearly impossible to explore the wreckage. Harsh weather conditions made diving only manageable for a small window of time, and even then the human body struggles with the water’s frigid temperatures.
One of the scientists from the wreckage exploration crew explains the window like this, “a few weeks if you’re lucky, a few days if you’re not.” As the team prepared to dive, would they get lucky?
Technology To The Rescue
Eventually, the team of scientists and divers came across their exploration window. The time was now or never, and they didn’t want to blow their chance. To make sure they got the information they needed, they sent a robot down into the wreckage with the divers.
The robot, which was remotely operated, could map out the ship, revealing wonders the team never thought possible. Can you guess what they found?
Finding The Unexpected
As they approached HMS Terror, the divers couldn’t believe their eyes. The ship was intact and surprisingly well-preserved. Because of the icy conditions of the water, the ship didn’t look close to its nearly 200 years of lost beauty.
The scientists began referring to the boat as “frozen in time” because of the pristine condition it was still in. The handler of the robot even remarked that the Terror looked like it had just recently been abandoned!
A Ghost Ship
The dive crew entered the ship, which was eerily empty. There were 20 bedrooms for crewmen, all of which had their doors wide open. Inside the rooms, the drawers and desks were all tightly sealed, keeping their secrets hidden.
As divers continued to explore the ship, the mystery would only deepen. There were still a lot of secrets to be revealed, and eventually, some, although not all of the explorers’ questions would be answered.
One Mystery Remains
The crew, with the help of the robot, was able to explore the entire ship except for one room — the captain’s quarters. When they arrived at the room, it was locked and there was no way to get inside.
Because the captain’s quarters were below deck, it was also impossible to get into them through the roof of the ship. The only thing the crew could do was use flashlights to try and get a look inside.
What Could Be Inside
While peering into the captain’s quarters from the outside of HMS Terror, the crew was able to see a tripod, thermometers, an armchair, and a desk covered in sediment. Unfortunately, they couldn’t get inside to find anything else.
If the crew were able to get inside they could possibly uncover documents or even more important clues as to what happened to the ship. Surely the captain kept a written record of what was happening, and that record was likely kept secure somewhere in his quarters.
Other important artifacts the crew hoped to find were preserved pictures. Remember, because of the unique condition of the wreckage, valuable artifacts could be surprisingly well preserved. Pictures, if recovered, could provide some of the best clues about what happened.
We know there were pictures taken on the expedition because, according to historians, the crew traveled with a daguerreotype camera. The camera was incredibly high quality, and any pictures taken on it would be of immense importance.
HMS Terror Was Almost Discovered In 2009
Seven years before HMS Terror was officially discovered, it was nearly accidentally discovered by Sammy Kogvik. Kogvik, interestingly enough, would be the reason the ship was found so quickly in 2016.
Kogvik was sailing with colleagues in 2009 near the area where HMS Terror would later be found when he saw a wooden pole sticking out of the ice. As he went to grab his camera, it fell into the water. When he recovered his camera, the pole had sunk beneath the surface.
Kogvik Kept Quiet Until The Time Was Right
With no proof of such a strange discovery, Sammy Kogvik kept quiet about his stick in the ice for years. It was only when he joined the expedition looking for HMS Terror that he knew he had found something.
The site the crew was looking at included the area he saw the stick. Kogvik told his colleagues, and they decided to investigate his strange claim. Less than two and a half hours after starting their search, HMS Terror was found in 79 feet of water.
The Findings Will Be Co-Owned
Because of where HMS Terror was situated, the findings of the discovery are under co-ownership of the Inuit people of the area and the government of Canada. This partnership will benefit both sides for one major reason.
By co-owning the discovery, the Inuit people and the Canadian government can continue to work together on future research initiatives. Another dive could reveal even more about the story of HMS Terror, like what was in the Captain’s quarters.
The Story Isn’t Over
While dive crews seemed to have been left with more questions than answers, they are convinced that with more research everything will make sense. By getting to the bottom of the ocean, one crew member claims they will “get to the bottom of the story.”
Where that story leads is anyone’s guess. With no records indicating what happened to the crew or how the ship sunk we are only left with tall tales and legends.
HMS Terror In Pop Culture
Because no one knows exactly what happened on HMS Terror, Hollywood has, of course, stepped up to fill the gaps. In 2018, The Terror debuted on AMC as an anthology series, with the first season telling the horrific tale of the lost ship and its crew.
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0.20639973... | 6 | HMS Terror was an English warship that that was lost to the depths of the ocean in 1845. Originally launched in 1813, the vessel served during the War of 1812 before eventually being converted into a polar exploration ship.
It was on this ill-fated journey into the cold that HMS Terror sank, becoming lost to time. In 2016, nearly 200 years later, a group of divers discovered the remains of the ship, and this is what they found.
The Polar Expedition
HMS Terror and HMS Erebus set sail from England in 1845 to explore the Arctic. The goal of the expedition was simple — continue to map the Northwest Passage while gathering magnetic data.
The reality of how difficult the expedition was, however, was unprecedented. There were an estimated 130 crew members between both ships, all being led by Arctic explorer Sir John Franklin. Both ships were lost, and no one ever made back home to tell their tale.
Set Up For Success
Knowing the expedition ahead was going to be long and dangerous, HMS Terror and HMS Erebus were both made as safe as possible. Each ship had enough food for three years, iron covered hulls, steam engines, and top of the line scientific equipment.
The polar expedition was one of the most well-equipped to ever leave the shores of England. The last time either ship was seen was three months later. So what went wrong?
Lost To The Depths
After being lost, there were multiple attempts made to find the missing ships to no avail. As the years passed, it seemed less and less likely the remains of HMS Terror would ever be found.
Still, scientists couldn’t let the mystery go unsolved. How could two of the most well-equipped exploratory vessels in the English fleet go missing? What happened to them? Scientists needed to find the answers, and eventually, their patience would pay off.
The Remains Of The Ships Were Found, But Not Their Crews
Finally, after over a century, HMS Eberus was found in 2014 beneath the Canadian Arctic Ocean. Two years later, in 2016, HMS Terror was located. The mystery didn’t end here, though. The ships still had secrets, like what happened to their crews.
Upon searching the wreckage of the ships, not a single set of remains from a single crew member was found. That indicated that everyone on board was forced to abandon their ships. But for what reason?
Trapped In The Ice
As scientists began to explore the wreckage, they were able to piece together clues indicating that before the ships sank they were stuck in the ice. It was getting trapped that likely made the crew abandon the boats.
Still, one mystery remained. There was no damage to HMS Terror to indicate why the ship would have sunk. There were no hull breaches, but from the way the ship landed it was clear that it had sunk swiftly and without warning.
Another strange clue indicating that the ships never should have sunk was the placement of the propeller. During winter, a mechanism would be used to lift it out of the water to avoid freezing.
The propeller on HMS Terror was in the down position, indicating it likely sunk in the spring. During spring, weather conditions wouldn’t be nearly as severe as winter. Would a dive crew be able to uncover clues to solve the mystery?
The Fate Of The Crew
As you already know, no remains of any crew member were discovered at the spot of the wreckage. With so many years having passed since HMS Terror sank, scientists could only piece together clues from accounts of previous explorers.
The fate of the crew was discovered during a series of expeditions from 1848 to 1866. These investigations discovered that while every crew member made it off the ships, no one survived the harsh weather and lack of food as they tried to traverse to Fort Resolution for safety.
One Revealing Record Recovered
Between HMS Terror’s sinking and discovery in 2016, some artifacts from crew members were found. The most valuable piece was a piece of paper that was the only physical record of the ship’s wreck.
The captain of the Terror, Francis Crozier, wrote the letter. The shaky and clearly rushed letter explains that the crews abandoned the ships on April 22nd, and only 105 remained three days later. This was the last correspondence written by the captain.
A Small Window To Explore
Because of where HMS Terror was wrecked and discovered, it is nearly impossible to explore the wreckage. Harsh weather conditions made diving only manageable for a small window of time, and even then the human body struggles with the water’s frigid temperatures.
One of the scientists from the wreckage exploration crew explains the window like this, “a few weeks if you’re lucky, a few days if you’re not.” As the team prepared to dive, would they get lucky?
Technology To The Rescue
Eventually, the team of scientists and divers came across their exploration window. The time was now or never, and they didn’t want to blow their chance. To make sure they got the information they needed, they sent a robot down into the wreckage with the divers.
The robot, which was remotely operated, could map out the ship, revealing wonders the team never thought possible. Can you guess what they found?
Finding The Unexpected
As they approached HMS Terror, the divers couldn’t believe their eyes. The ship was intact and surprisingly well-preserved. Because of the icy conditions of the water, the ship didn’t look close to its nearly 200 years of lost beauty.
The scientists began referring to the boat as “frozen in time” because of the pristine condition it was still in. The handler of the robot even remarked that the Terror looked like it had just recently been abandoned!
A Ghost Ship
The dive crew entered the ship, which was eerily empty. There were 20 bedrooms for crewmen, all of which had their doors wide open. Inside the rooms, the drawers and desks were all tightly sealed, keeping their secrets hidden.
As divers continued to explore the ship, the mystery would only deepen. There were still a lot of secrets to be revealed, and eventually, some, although not all of the explorers’ questions would be answered.
One Mystery Remains
The crew, with the help of the robot, was able to explore the entire ship except for one room — the captain’s quarters. When they arrived at the room, it was locked and there was no way to get inside.
Because the captain’s quarters were below deck, it was also impossible to get into them through the roof of the ship. The only thing the crew could do was use flashlights to try and get a look inside.
What Could Be Inside
While peering into the captain’s quarters from the outside of HMS Terror, the crew was able to see a tripod, thermometers, an armchair, and a desk covered in sediment. Unfortunately, they couldn’t get inside to find anything else.
If the crew were able to get inside they could possibly uncover documents or even more important clues as to what happened to the ship. Surely the captain kept a written record of what was happening, and that record was likely kept secure somewhere in his quarters.
Other important artifacts the crew hoped to find were preserved pictures. Remember, because of the unique condition of the wreckage, valuable artifacts could be surprisingly well preserved. Pictures, if recovered, could provide some of the best clues about what happened.
We know there were pictures taken on the expedition because, according to historians, the crew traveled with a daguerreotype camera. The camera was incredibly high quality, and any pictures taken on it would be of immense importance.
HMS Terror Was Almost Discovered In 2009
Seven years before HMS Terror was officially discovered, it was nearly accidentally discovered by Sammy Kogvik. Kogvik, interestingly enough, would be the reason the ship was found so quickly in 2016.
Kogvik was sailing with colleagues in 2009 near the area where HMS Terror would later be found when he saw a wooden pole sticking out of the ice. As he went to grab his camera, it fell into the water. When he recovered his camera, the pole had sunk beneath the surface.
Kogvik Kept Quiet Until The Time Was Right
With no proof of such a strange discovery, Sammy Kogvik kept quiet about his stick in the ice for years. It was only when he joined the expedition looking for HMS Terror that he knew he had found something.
The site the crew was looking at included the area he saw the stick. Kogvik told his colleagues, and they decided to investigate his strange claim. Less than two and a half hours after starting their search, HMS Terror was found in 79 feet of water.
The Findings Will Be Co-Owned
Because of where HMS Terror was situated, the findings of the discovery are under co-ownership of the Inuit people of the area and the government of Canada. This partnership will benefit both sides for one major reason.
By co-owning the discovery, the Inuit people and the Canadian government can continue to work together on future research initiatives. Another dive could reveal even more about the story of HMS Terror, like what was in the Captain’s quarters.
The Story Isn’t Over
While dive crews seemed to have been left with more questions than answers, they are convinced that with more research everything will make sense. By getting to the bottom of the ocean, one crew member claims they will “get to the bottom of the story.”
Where that story leads is anyone’s guess. With no records indicating what happened to the crew or how the ship sunk we are only left with tall tales and legends.
HMS Terror In Pop Culture
Because no one knows exactly what happened on HMS Terror, Hollywood has, of course, stepped up to fill the gaps. In 2018, The Terror debuted on AMC as an anthology series, with the first season telling the horrific tale of the lost ship and its crew.
In the television series, which itself is based on a book, the crew of HMS Terror was taught to survive the harsh weather conditions outside while being trapped in the ice. And did we mention something supernatural is stalking the crew? | 2,113 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What type of foreign policy did the United States adopt after World War I
The most common answer to this is that the United States adopted a policy of isolationism in the years after World War I. However, this is not strictly correct. The true policy of isolationism did not come until the 1930s. During the 1920s, the US adopted a foreign policy that was meant to prevent war, but one which engaged with other countries in this attempt.
There were two major events that show that this was true. The first was the Washington Naval Conference and the treaties that arose from it. These treaties attempted to set the sizes of the great powers’ navies. This was meant to prevent the sort of massive arms race that helped bring WWI about. The second of these was the Kellogg-Briand Pact. This was a treaty signed in 1928 which committed the US and other signatories to renounce war. In other words, this treat outlawed war. These were efforts by the US to prevent another war, but they were not isolationist.
Isolationism only came later. This came about particularly in the 1930s. By then, it seemed clear that the efforts of the 1920s were not working. Because of this, many Americans gave up on the idea of preventing war among other countries and concentrated on keeping the US from getting dragged into any wars that occurred. This was seen most clearly in the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s.
Thus, US policy right after WWI was a policy of making treaties to prevent war. After that seemed to fail, the US turned to isolationism.
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... | 1 | What type of foreign policy did the United States adopt after World War I
The most common answer to this is that the United States adopted a policy of isolationism in the years after World War I. However, this is not strictly correct. The true policy of isolationism did not come until the 1930s. During the 1920s, the US adopted a foreign policy that was meant to prevent war, but one which engaged with other countries in this attempt.
There were two major events that show that this was true. The first was the Washington Naval Conference and the treaties that arose from it. These treaties attempted to set the sizes of the great powers’ navies. This was meant to prevent the sort of massive arms race that helped bring WWI about. The second of these was the Kellogg-Briand Pact. This was a treaty signed in 1928 which committed the US and other signatories to renounce war. In other words, this treat outlawed war. These were efforts by the US to prevent another war, but they were not isolationist.
Isolationism only came later. This came about particularly in the 1930s. By then, it seemed clear that the efforts of the 1920s were not working. Because of this, many Americans gave up on the idea of preventing war among other countries and concentrated on keeping the US from getting dragged into any wars that occurred. This was seen most clearly in the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s.
Thus, US policy right after WWI was a policy of making treaties to prevent war. After that seemed to fail, the US turned to isolationism.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Race relations are an ever prominent issue in American society. Controversies focusing around race are a commonly seen smeared across the front page of the newspaper or headlining on the evening news. The opposition is usually between a minority group and “The Man,” a colloquialism used by many Blacks to refer to the overwhelming power stemming from white racist tendencies. This racial tension can sometimes can cause the oppressed to band together against the oppressor. Many times, the most prevalent link is between the African American community and the Latino community.
Here we find two groups of people with very similar lifestyles who find camaraderie between themselves when dealing with America s racism. Although the specifics may differ, the experiences of Blacks and Latinos, specifically Mexican Americans, has impacted the two communities very similarly. For example, many sociologists agree that the slavery experience is the cause of many problems Black America has today. Things such as “Black on Black” crime, broken homes, high poverty levels and drug problems are believed to have links back to slavery.
Much like Blacks, Mexican Americans have problems in their communities today that stem from their dealing with immigration in this country. Their problems still exist greatly because immigration is still going on between Mexico and America. The affects of slavery and illegal immigration began many years ago, continued throughout history and continue into today s culture. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, Blacks were oppressed with the use of Black Codes followed by the implementation of Jim Crow laws and segregation. These acts of racism have since been outlawed yet the ramification of which are felt even today.
Now, black must deal with harassment, police brutality, prejudice attitudes and other acts of individual racism. Mexicans were kicked out of their native lands and killed in wars over territory. Mexican American today face many of the same acts of individual racism as Blacks but there is even more of a similarity between the institutional racism that both groups face. Acts of institutional racism are rules or laws set up in society to directly and systematically exclude certain people from obtain total assimilation and often directly impact one uality of life.
Items such as zoning laws, housing and employment availability and quality of education seem to be set up so that these two groups will never be able to escape what is referred to as a “web of pathology. ” Even more so, Mexicans have to deal with institutional racism in immigration laws. Many theorists believe that this is the reason Blacks seem to be confined to the ghetto and Mexicans to the “barrio. ” Many of those who have been unable to escape their surroundings have chosen to separated rather than assimilate.
To assimilate into one ulture one must adhere to the customs and lifestyle of the host culture and take it on as their own. Some minorities choose to do this, those who do not separate, often totally from the eyes of the majority race. Both Blacks and Mexican Americans can be categorized as having members who have assimilated and separated. Theories about assimilation versus separation and the debate about institutional racism are both interesting and compelling subjects to write on. But, perhaps the most compelling issues I have found regarding these two racial ethnic groups are conflict theory and order theory.
Order theorists believe in the motto America is supposedly founded on, the notion that “all men are created equal” and eventually racial conflicts will be nonexistent and all will assimilate. Conflict theorists believe that no minority group will have total assimilation into society because “it is not in the best interest of the majority group. ” By this, conflict theorists mean that by giving all Americans that chance to assimilate, White America will lose some of it s power and influence. I found this most interesting because I never really thought of equality in this way.
I can say that I never thought that minorities will even achieve total equality but now I have a strong reason why I fell this way. It was nice to know that my feelings had a term and that I was not some “weirdo” to feel so. By agreeing with the notions of other Conflict theorists I fell that there is no way for these groups, or any others for that matter, to overcome racism. I feel that racism will always exist in this country as long as minorities are alienated by the majority race. The change must begin there.
Since the culture f both Latinos and Blacks are so diverse, it is difficult to make up a profile of the average Black or the average Latino. In this profile I will try to incorporate my own knowledge of the Latino community and personal knowledge of my own Black community. Mary is an 18 year old single female from South Central Los Angeles who defines herself as Black/Mexican Biracial. Her father is Mexican and her mother is Black. Both parents are in the home along with her father s parents. She is an only child. They are a middle class family, her father is a construction worker and her mother works at a bank.
She is the first generation to attend college. Her parents make enough money to take care of the household and give her everything she needs but they do live paycheck to paycheck, making every penny count. Mary attended Westchester High School Magnet which a very culturally diverse school. She is very popular at school and has many friends of all racial make-ups. She considers herself to have high levels of assimilation along with a very strong cultural identity. She speaks Spanish fluently and knows a great deal about her grandparent’s entry into this country. She also was taught very extensively about her mother
African American heritage. Mary has also had a long term relationship with a young man who is Phillipino. She knows that her chances of becoming a doctor are not as great as those of her white counterparts but she has proven to herself that she can achieve anything she wants. Mary finds nothing wrong with accepting and using the money the school has set aside for her to be able to achieve her dreams. Since her grandparents were the first generation in America, her father was urged to get a good job and start a family, some of the most important roles of the men in Mexico.
Since her dad was born her and her mother and her family had been here for a long time, they stress the more traditional American values to Mary: to get a good education. Mary transitions well into her two worlds and is comfortable in each. She may still face the ramifications of both individual racism and institutional racism but her overall life appears to be somewhat conflict free when regarding the issue of race. The issues of whether or not a minority group is able to assimilate are argued greatly about amongst conflict theorists and Order theorists.
While conflict theorists maintain that assimilation will never be totally existent for American minorities, order theorists disagree. Many use Asian Americans to display what they believe to be a group of people who were able to overcome racism and become a thriving, good part of this country. Due to their success, Asian Americans have been labeled the “model minority” in other words, what all other minority groups should aspire to be. These “examples” for the rest of the country are seen as hard working, self-reliant, and having strong family values and high educational achievement.
Many Asian Americans, one would think, would feel complimented by this praise given to them by the majority group but many Asian Americans have declared that this notion is detrimental to the Asian American s relationships with other minorities. The person who came up with the idea that Asians Americans are the “model minority” probably thought that he was doing his part in tearing down color lines. Many Sociologists think that the abilities and achievements of the Asian American community should be expressed as testimonies to the rest of the minority groups but what probably was not looked at as an act of racism has turned into just that.
First, many Asian American leaders have deemed this concept as no longer being just a theory but rather, a myth. They say that these “stereotypes” paint an untrue picture of Asian Americans in this country and forget to tell the country about the many Asian Americans that have hardly assimilated at all. They do not recognize the many families on welfare, those who are gang affiliated, the drug users and those that live in run-down, crowded tenements who suffer from tuberculosis and depression. It forgets the many who are forced to work in sweatshops and live below poverty level.
Secondly, the Model Minority Myth is a dangerous concept because Asian Americans are alienated from the majority race as well as the minority race pool. They are still perceived by white America as outsiders yet are set up for resentment by other minorities. This makes life hard for the Asian American that achieves because he is almost forced to turn against his other brothers and sisters of color. This is detrimental to the well-being of the Asian American in this country. This concept should not be used to describe the modern Asian American and should be recognized as a stereotype like any other in our society. | <urn:uuid:62b41db0-16ec-4472-b273-23fbbe1a1b06> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://clikngo.com/race-relations-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00195.warc.gz | en | 0.981062 | 1,824 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.25126206... | 2 | Race relations are an ever prominent issue in American society. Controversies focusing around race are a commonly seen smeared across the front page of the newspaper or headlining on the evening news. The opposition is usually between a minority group and “The Man,” a colloquialism used by many Blacks to refer to the overwhelming power stemming from white racist tendencies. This racial tension can sometimes can cause the oppressed to band together against the oppressor. Many times, the most prevalent link is between the African American community and the Latino community.
Here we find two groups of people with very similar lifestyles who find camaraderie between themselves when dealing with America s racism. Although the specifics may differ, the experiences of Blacks and Latinos, specifically Mexican Americans, has impacted the two communities very similarly. For example, many sociologists agree that the slavery experience is the cause of many problems Black America has today. Things such as “Black on Black” crime, broken homes, high poverty levels and drug problems are believed to have links back to slavery.
Much like Blacks, Mexican Americans have problems in their communities today that stem from their dealing with immigration in this country. Their problems still exist greatly because immigration is still going on between Mexico and America. The affects of slavery and illegal immigration began many years ago, continued throughout history and continue into today s culture. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, Blacks were oppressed with the use of Black Codes followed by the implementation of Jim Crow laws and segregation. These acts of racism have since been outlawed yet the ramification of which are felt even today.
Now, black must deal with harassment, police brutality, prejudice attitudes and other acts of individual racism. Mexicans were kicked out of their native lands and killed in wars over territory. Mexican American today face many of the same acts of individual racism as Blacks but there is even more of a similarity between the institutional racism that both groups face. Acts of institutional racism are rules or laws set up in society to directly and systematically exclude certain people from obtain total assimilation and often directly impact one uality of life.
Items such as zoning laws, housing and employment availability and quality of education seem to be set up so that these two groups will never be able to escape what is referred to as a “web of pathology. ” Even more so, Mexicans have to deal with institutional racism in immigration laws. Many theorists believe that this is the reason Blacks seem to be confined to the ghetto and Mexicans to the “barrio. ” Many of those who have been unable to escape their surroundings have chosen to separated rather than assimilate.
To assimilate into one ulture one must adhere to the customs and lifestyle of the host culture and take it on as their own. Some minorities choose to do this, those who do not separate, often totally from the eyes of the majority race. Both Blacks and Mexican Americans can be categorized as having members who have assimilated and separated. Theories about assimilation versus separation and the debate about institutional racism are both interesting and compelling subjects to write on. But, perhaps the most compelling issues I have found regarding these two racial ethnic groups are conflict theory and order theory.
Order theorists believe in the motto America is supposedly founded on, the notion that “all men are created equal” and eventually racial conflicts will be nonexistent and all will assimilate. Conflict theorists believe that no minority group will have total assimilation into society because “it is not in the best interest of the majority group. ” By this, conflict theorists mean that by giving all Americans that chance to assimilate, White America will lose some of it s power and influence. I found this most interesting because I never really thought of equality in this way.
I can say that I never thought that minorities will even achieve total equality but now I have a strong reason why I fell this way. It was nice to know that my feelings had a term and that I was not some “weirdo” to feel so. By agreeing with the notions of other Conflict theorists I fell that there is no way for these groups, or any others for that matter, to overcome racism. I feel that racism will always exist in this country as long as minorities are alienated by the majority race. The change must begin there.
Since the culture f both Latinos and Blacks are so diverse, it is difficult to make up a profile of the average Black or the average Latino. In this profile I will try to incorporate my own knowledge of the Latino community and personal knowledge of my own Black community. Mary is an 18 year old single female from South Central Los Angeles who defines herself as Black/Mexican Biracial. Her father is Mexican and her mother is Black. Both parents are in the home along with her father s parents. She is an only child. They are a middle class family, her father is a construction worker and her mother works at a bank.
She is the first generation to attend college. Her parents make enough money to take care of the household and give her everything she needs but they do live paycheck to paycheck, making every penny count. Mary attended Westchester High School Magnet which a very culturally diverse school. She is very popular at school and has many friends of all racial make-ups. She considers herself to have high levels of assimilation along with a very strong cultural identity. She speaks Spanish fluently and knows a great deal about her grandparent’s entry into this country. She also was taught very extensively about her mother
African American heritage. Mary has also had a long term relationship with a young man who is Phillipino. She knows that her chances of becoming a doctor are not as great as those of her white counterparts but she has proven to herself that she can achieve anything she wants. Mary finds nothing wrong with accepting and using the money the school has set aside for her to be able to achieve her dreams. Since her grandparents were the first generation in America, her father was urged to get a good job and start a family, some of the most important roles of the men in Mexico.
Since her dad was born her and her mother and her family had been here for a long time, they stress the more traditional American values to Mary: to get a good education. Mary transitions well into her two worlds and is comfortable in each. She may still face the ramifications of both individual racism and institutional racism but her overall life appears to be somewhat conflict free when regarding the issue of race. The issues of whether or not a minority group is able to assimilate are argued greatly about amongst conflict theorists and Order theorists.
While conflict theorists maintain that assimilation will never be totally existent for American minorities, order theorists disagree. Many use Asian Americans to display what they believe to be a group of people who were able to overcome racism and become a thriving, good part of this country. Due to their success, Asian Americans have been labeled the “model minority” in other words, what all other minority groups should aspire to be. These “examples” for the rest of the country are seen as hard working, self-reliant, and having strong family values and high educational achievement.
Many Asian Americans, one would think, would feel complimented by this praise given to them by the majority group but many Asian Americans have declared that this notion is detrimental to the Asian American s relationships with other minorities. The person who came up with the idea that Asians Americans are the “model minority” probably thought that he was doing his part in tearing down color lines. Many Sociologists think that the abilities and achievements of the Asian American community should be expressed as testimonies to the rest of the minority groups but what probably was not looked at as an act of racism has turned into just that.
First, many Asian American leaders have deemed this concept as no longer being just a theory but rather, a myth. They say that these “stereotypes” paint an untrue picture of Asian Americans in this country and forget to tell the country about the many Asian Americans that have hardly assimilated at all. They do not recognize the many families on welfare, those who are gang affiliated, the drug users and those that live in run-down, crowded tenements who suffer from tuberculosis and depression. It forgets the many who are forced to work in sweatshops and live below poverty level.
Secondly, the Model Minority Myth is a dangerous concept because Asian Americans are alienated from the majority race as well as the minority race pool. They are still perceived by white America as outsiders yet are set up for resentment by other minorities. This makes life hard for the Asian American that achieves because he is almost forced to turn against his other brothers and sisters of color. This is detrimental to the well-being of the Asian American in this country. This concept should not be used to describe the modern Asian American and should be recognized as a stereotype like any other in our society. | 1,791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mary, Queen of Scots Early life: Mary lived from December 8th 1542 (one week after her father, James V of Scotland, died) to February 8th of 1587 and was Queen of Scotland for 25 years. She was born in Linlithgow Palace. Mary’s family was “Stewart”. However in France she adopted the French spelling “Stuart”. The two variants were used almost interchangeably by later generations, depending on how close relations were with France at the time. Spouses: Francis II: In 1558 she married Francis, the eldest son of King Henry II and Catherine de Medicis. Francis was crowned in 1559, making Mary France’s Queen consort. Unfortunately, Francis died from an ear infection the year after, leaving Mary widow at the age of eighteen. Henry Stewart, Earl of Darnley: She married her cousin in 1565; Henry was a grandson of Margaret Tudor. This marriage turned Mary’s halfbrother against her and caused a lot of problems to Mary. In 1566 Henry and a group of protestant nobles murdered David Rizzio (Mary’s Italian secretary) by stabbing him 56 times. Though she gave birth to their son a few months later, she no longer wished to be married to Henry. He was mysteriously killed by an explosion of Kirk O’Field and Mary’s involvement is unclear. James Hepburn, Ear of Bothwell: She married James Hepburn, the main suspect in her previous husband’s murder and only three months after. This made the Scottish nobility rise against her. Bothwell went into exile, where he was ultimately arrested and held captive until his death. In July 1567, Mary was compelled to abdicate the throne in Scotland in favour of her infant son. She was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle. Mary’s Children: Mary gave birth June 18th 1566 to the future James VI o Scotland and James I of England. He became King in July 1567 at Stirling (Scotland). Queen at war: Elizabeth I vs. Mary, Queen of Scots: Mary I was not well received in England and Elizabeth I was able to incriminate her for her former husband’s murder and imprison her for eighteen years. Mary became physically weak, out of shape and lost her beauty. In 1586, the English Catholics that wanted Mary on the throne attempted to assassinate Elizabeth I. Mary was tried by an English court and condemned to death. Death: Mary was executed in Fotheringay Castle in Northamptonshire on February 8th 1587. She was 44 years old. Mary was buried in Peterborough Cathedral, but when her son became King James I of England, he moved his mother’s body to Westminster Abbey in 1612. | <urn:uuid:bd4b935c-3fac-471d-847b-2843aee12b92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studylib.net/doc/25305344/presentation-about-mary-queen-of-scots | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00304.warc.gz | en | 0.989527 | 577 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.013832676224... | 1 | Mary, Queen of Scots Early life: Mary lived from December 8th 1542 (one week after her father, James V of Scotland, died) to February 8th of 1587 and was Queen of Scotland for 25 years. She was born in Linlithgow Palace. Mary’s family was “Stewart”. However in France she adopted the French spelling “Stuart”. The two variants were used almost interchangeably by later generations, depending on how close relations were with France at the time. Spouses: Francis II: In 1558 she married Francis, the eldest son of King Henry II and Catherine de Medicis. Francis was crowned in 1559, making Mary France’s Queen consort. Unfortunately, Francis died from an ear infection the year after, leaving Mary widow at the age of eighteen. Henry Stewart, Earl of Darnley: She married her cousin in 1565; Henry was a grandson of Margaret Tudor. This marriage turned Mary’s halfbrother against her and caused a lot of problems to Mary. In 1566 Henry and a group of protestant nobles murdered David Rizzio (Mary’s Italian secretary) by stabbing him 56 times. Though she gave birth to their son a few months later, she no longer wished to be married to Henry. He was mysteriously killed by an explosion of Kirk O’Field and Mary’s involvement is unclear. James Hepburn, Ear of Bothwell: She married James Hepburn, the main suspect in her previous husband’s murder and only three months after. This made the Scottish nobility rise against her. Bothwell went into exile, where he was ultimately arrested and held captive until his death. In July 1567, Mary was compelled to abdicate the throne in Scotland in favour of her infant son. She was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle. Mary’s Children: Mary gave birth June 18th 1566 to the future James VI o Scotland and James I of England. He became King in July 1567 at Stirling (Scotland). Queen at war: Elizabeth I vs. Mary, Queen of Scots: Mary I was not well received in England and Elizabeth I was able to incriminate her for her former husband’s murder and imprison her for eighteen years. Mary became physically weak, out of shape and lost her beauty. In 1586, the English Catholics that wanted Mary on the throne attempted to assassinate Elizabeth I. Mary was tried by an English court and condemned to death. Death: Mary was executed in Fotheringay Castle in Northamptonshire on February 8th 1587. She was 44 years old. Mary was buried in Peterborough Cathedral, but when her son became King James I of England, he moved his mother’s body to Westminster Abbey in 1612. | 602 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How fast would you like to get it? The ideas that war presents major life challenges, both physical and spiritual are withstanding in his work but most significantly is the idea that the governments and world leaders do not care for the lives of their youthful soldiers as they willingly sacrifice them into the realms of war.
Conclusively, Owens perspectives all opposed the idea of war but most importantly is perspectives revealed the challenges that war presented in the lives of those involved. War Is a life-changing obstacle for not only countries but also the men who are forced to go Into war and the innocent men, women and children who are forced to be inextricably involved with the devastating outcomes.
Three different but familiar cries of dying soldiers are listed. Day Lewis, and Stephen Spender. It suggests the idea that because God never helped them during the war it would Just be in insult to include hem in their deaths.
Owen shared the idea that war presents not only a physical challenge to the life of those involved but also a spiritual challenge as those involved will question their faith and their beliefs. Major Works Owen's early poetry is considered to be derivative and undistinguished, influenced by his interest in romantic themes, particularly beauty, much as Keats had been.
In the fourth stanza the man looks back ironically on how he used to like having cuts after a football match to show that he can handle injuries and now that he has the worst injuries that he can imagine he realises it is not so good.
When the soldiers had a close call with death they laughed, It was the only thing they could do, and this again suggests their sanity Is waning. This quote refers to his life before the war; in a time where an injury was seen as masculine and tough but now he went into war expecting that same outcome forever was confronted with a life changing wound, which he would now prefer to not have encountered.
War Poet Wilfred Owen: The choirs that would usually be heard in a church are, on the battleground only: In this and other poems, the Christian ethical principle of "greater love," based on the New Testament teaching "Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friends" John Still the soldiers carry on.
It was nothing like the cheering crowds from which he was sent to war but: Onomatopoeia is used here to enhance the image created. The maturation of his poetic style can be traced to his encounter with Sassoon, from whom he learned to adapt his technique to non traditional war subjects, allowing him to express more fully his emotions and his experiences.
In the second stanza the man remembers how he lost his limbs and how things used to be before the war: This shows that the young boys are thought of only as cannon fodder and that they are not cared for. By using the structure of the sonnet to show this, Owen emphasized this difference with Juxtaposition by having the octave which implies death as the enemy and the sestets which depicts the leaders as the real enemy right next to each there.
Owen claims his primary aim is not poetry, but to describe the full horrors of war and other aspects of human suffering and ignorance. Owen uses very strong adjectives and extremely powerful metaphors to recreate the images that he has seen in the war.
The aspect of the pity of war portrayed in this quote is the effect of war on the soldiers. This conveys again that the boys get no proper funeral. They had to become friends with him otherwise they would go Insane worrying constantly about who would die next and whether It would be them or not.
Biographical Information Owen was born in Oswestry, Shropshire, the eldest son of a minor railroad official.Essay about War Poetry Wilfred Owen War Poetry I have studied two poems, 'Dulce et decorum est' and 'The Sentry' both by the poet Wilfred Owen.
The first one I will study is 'Dulce et Decorum est'. Owen is regarded by some as the leading poet of the First World War, known for his war poetry on the horrors of trench and gas warfare. He died in action in France. Wilfred Owen, a war poet, uses a great number of linguistic and structural devices throughout his poems in order to express his anger at the war.
In this essay I will focus on three of his works: ‘Anthem for Doomed Youth’, ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’. Wilfred Owen War Poems Essay Sample “Owen presents an exclusively bleak view of human experience in WW1.
Discuss” Wilfred Owens collection of letters and poetry can be seen as incredibly insightful accounts of the experiences of war.
How does Wilfred Owen reveal his personal perspective in order to present a view on the challenges of life? Throughout his poetry, War Poems and Others, Wilfred Owen exposes his prominent opinion on the challenges of life and more specifically war.
Wilfred Owen's Poetry and War Essay - Wilfred Owen's Poetry and War Wilfred Owen is now seen as one of the most important of the many poets of the First World War.
He was born the son of a railway worker in Shropshire, and educated at schools in Shrewsbury and Liverpool.Download | <urn:uuid:d3333c59-b733-4579-9241-1df443d151b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wiqonuq.bistroriviere.com/wilfred-owen-war-poetry-essay-9924qc.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00335.warc.gz | en | 0.980574 | 1,099 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | How fast would you like to get it? The ideas that war presents major life challenges, both physical and spiritual are withstanding in his work but most significantly is the idea that the governments and world leaders do not care for the lives of their youthful soldiers as they willingly sacrifice them into the realms of war.
Conclusively, Owens perspectives all opposed the idea of war but most importantly is perspectives revealed the challenges that war presented in the lives of those involved. War Is a life-changing obstacle for not only countries but also the men who are forced to go Into war and the innocent men, women and children who are forced to be inextricably involved with the devastating outcomes.
Three different but familiar cries of dying soldiers are listed. Day Lewis, and Stephen Spender. It suggests the idea that because God never helped them during the war it would Just be in insult to include hem in their deaths.
Owen shared the idea that war presents not only a physical challenge to the life of those involved but also a spiritual challenge as those involved will question their faith and their beliefs. Major Works Owen's early poetry is considered to be derivative and undistinguished, influenced by his interest in romantic themes, particularly beauty, much as Keats had been.
In the fourth stanza the man looks back ironically on how he used to like having cuts after a football match to show that he can handle injuries and now that he has the worst injuries that he can imagine he realises it is not so good.
When the soldiers had a close call with death they laughed, It was the only thing they could do, and this again suggests their sanity Is waning. This quote refers to his life before the war; in a time where an injury was seen as masculine and tough but now he went into war expecting that same outcome forever was confronted with a life changing wound, which he would now prefer to not have encountered.
War Poet Wilfred Owen: The choirs that would usually be heard in a church are, on the battleground only: In this and other poems, the Christian ethical principle of "greater love," based on the New Testament teaching "Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friends" John Still the soldiers carry on.
It was nothing like the cheering crowds from which he was sent to war but: Onomatopoeia is used here to enhance the image created. The maturation of his poetic style can be traced to his encounter with Sassoon, from whom he learned to adapt his technique to non traditional war subjects, allowing him to express more fully his emotions and his experiences.
In the second stanza the man remembers how he lost his limbs and how things used to be before the war: This shows that the young boys are thought of only as cannon fodder and that they are not cared for. By using the structure of the sonnet to show this, Owen emphasized this difference with Juxtaposition by having the octave which implies death as the enemy and the sestets which depicts the leaders as the real enemy right next to each there.
Owen claims his primary aim is not poetry, but to describe the full horrors of war and other aspects of human suffering and ignorance. Owen uses very strong adjectives and extremely powerful metaphors to recreate the images that he has seen in the war.
The aspect of the pity of war portrayed in this quote is the effect of war on the soldiers. This conveys again that the boys get no proper funeral. They had to become friends with him otherwise they would go Insane worrying constantly about who would die next and whether It would be them or not.
Biographical Information Owen was born in Oswestry, Shropshire, the eldest son of a minor railroad official.Essay about War Poetry Wilfred Owen War Poetry I have studied two poems, 'Dulce et decorum est' and 'The Sentry' both by the poet Wilfred Owen.
The first one I will study is 'Dulce et Decorum est'. Owen is regarded by some as the leading poet of the First World War, known for his war poetry on the horrors of trench and gas warfare. He died in action in France. Wilfred Owen, a war poet, uses a great number of linguistic and structural devices throughout his poems in order to express his anger at the war.
In this essay I will focus on three of his works: ‘Anthem for Doomed Youth’, ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’. Wilfred Owen War Poems Essay Sample “Owen presents an exclusively bleak view of human experience in WW1.
Discuss” Wilfred Owens collection of letters and poetry can be seen as incredibly insightful accounts of the experiences of war.
How does Wilfred Owen reveal his personal perspective in order to present a view on the challenges of life? Throughout his poetry, War Poems and Others, Wilfred Owen exposes his prominent opinion on the challenges of life and more specifically war.
Wilfred Owen's Poetry and War Essay - Wilfred Owen's Poetry and War Wilfred Owen is now seen as one of the most important of the many poets of the First World War.
He was born the son of a railway worker in Shropshire, and educated at schools in Shrewsbury and Liverpool.Download | 1,059 | ENGLISH | 1 |
December 24, 2019 report
New study suggests 'enigmatic hominoid' did not walk upright and was not a tree climber
An international team of researchers has concluded that the so-called "enigmatic hominoid" did not walk upright and was also not a tree climber. In their paper published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the group describes their in-depth study of the skeletal remains of Oreopithecus bambolii and what they learned from it.
O. bambolii was a primate living in what is now Sardinia and Tuscany approximately 6.7 to 8.3 million years ago. Evidence of its existence was first discovered as far back as 1872. Since that time, scientists have debated its primary means of locomotion. Some have suggested that it was a tree climber, others disagreed, insisting it had evolved to become an upright walking terrestrial creature. Over time, it has come to be known as the "enigmatic hominoid." In his new effort, the researchers sought to settle the debate once and for all by studying the most complete skeleton that has ever been found—one unearthed in 1958 while workers were digging a coal mine. Prior research had shown the skeleton to be that of a 30-kilo male.
To figure out if it was tree climber or if it walked upright, the researchers carefully studied the nearly complete skeleton and compared what they found with other ancient and modern primates. They report that they found the torso bears a close resemblance to a type of modern gibbon. They also found that it had five lumbar vertebrae instead of the four found in modern great apes. And they found that the pelvis was different from all other known primates—modern or ancient. It had a transverse orientation of the iliac wings and the length of the ischium more closely resemble Miocene hominids.
They report that the structure of the pelvis was more conducive to walking upright than is the case for modern apes, but not enough to walk upright like humans. And they noted that there was little evidence of the torso and pelvic stiffness needed for climbing trees. They conclude by suggesting that because the creature lived on an island it had found, it could safely walk on land, and because of that, lost the ability to climb, but never found it necessary to walk upright. They also noted that it had evolved other adaptations for such an existence, including changes to its hands and feet.
© 2019 Science X Network | <urn:uuid:f7ebf960-894f-4693-aee1-136a9894beda> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://phys.org/news/2019-12-enigmatic-hominoid-upright-tree-climber.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.98306 | 513 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.161108821630477... | 5 | December 24, 2019 report
New study suggests 'enigmatic hominoid' did not walk upright and was not a tree climber
An international team of researchers has concluded that the so-called "enigmatic hominoid" did not walk upright and was also not a tree climber. In their paper published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the group describes their in-depth study of the skeletal remains of Oreopithecus bambolii and what they learned from it.
O. bambolii was a primate living in what is now Sardinia and Tuscany approximately 6.7 to 8.3 million years ago. Evidence of its existence was first discovered as far back as 1872. Since that time, scientists have debated its primary means of locomotion. Some have suggested that it was a tree climber, others disagreed, insisting it had evolved to become an upright walking terrestrial creature. Over time, it has come to be known as the "enigmatic hominoid." In his new effort, the researchers sought to settle the debate once and for all by studying the most complete skeleton that has ever been found—one unearthed in 1958 while workers were digging a coal mine. Prior research had shown the skeleton to be that of a 30-kilo male.
To figure out if it was tree climber or if it walked upright, the researchers carefully studied the nearly complete skeleton and compared what they found with other ancient and modern primates. They report that they found the torso bears a close resemblance to a type of modern gibbon. They also found that it had five lumbar vertebrae instead of the four found in modern great apes. And they found that the pelvis was different from all other known primates—modern or ancient. It had a transverse orientation of the iliac wings and the length of the ischium more closely resemble Miocene hominids.
They report that the structure of the pelvis was more conducive to walking upright than is the case for modern apes, but not enough to walk upright like humans. And they noted that there was little evidence of the torso and pelvic stiffness needed for climbing trees. They conclude by suggesting that because the creature lived on an island it had found, it could safely walk on land, and because of that, lost the ability to climb, but never found it necessary to walk upright. They also noted that it had evolved other adaptations for such an existence, including changes to its hands and feet.
© 2019 Science X Network | 529 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Erik the Red
Erik the Red was the founder of the first Norse settlement in Greenland. The region which was named Greenland by him was once inhabited by the Inuit people. According to medieval and Icelandic saga sources, he was born as Eiríkr Þorvaldsson in Rogaland, Norway. His father was banished from the country due to an allegation of murder and thus the family shifted to Hornstrandir in northwestern Iceland. After a few years, Erik too was accused of committing some murders and was sentenced to exile for three years. Forced to find a new place to settle down, he embarked on a voyage, sailing towards the west and soon discovered a country with fertile conditions that would support development of colonies. Elated at his discovery, he travelled back to Iceland to inform his people about the “green land” he had spotted on his expedition. He impressed his people with his description of the new place and was successful in persuading a group of people to join him on his next expedition to the same country. Eventually he established thriving colonies in Southern Greenland, becoming the first European to do so. His son, Leif Eriksson, also grew up to be a famous explorer in his own right and took forward his father’s legacy by becoming one of the first Europeans to reach North America
- He was born as Eiríkr Þorvaldsson (also called Erik Thorvaldsson) in the Jæren district of Rogaland, Norway, around 950. His father’s name was Þorvald Ásvaldsson (also called Thorvald Asvaldsson).Thorvald was exiled from Norway c. 960, during the reign of King Harald Fairhair, for having killed some people. Erik was just a young boy at the time of this incident.The father took along the family and sailed West from Norway, finally settling in Hornstrandir in northwestern Iceland. Thorvald died some time before 980.Continue Reading BelowLater Years
- Erik grew up to be an adventurous and hot-tempered young man who gained the nickname “Erik the Red” because of his red hair, red beard, and also his red-hot temper.He allegedly killed some people around the year 982 and was banished from Iceland for three years, just like the way his father had been exiled from Norway years ago.While on exile he decided to embark on an expedition and explore new lands. He set off with a small group of men from Snæfellsjökull, one of the westernmost points of Iceland, around 982 and reached land on the opposite shore of what was then a little-known landmass.His men rounded the southern tip of the island and arrived at an island at the mouth of Eriksfjord (now known as Tunulliarfik Fjord) near Qaqortoq (formerly Julianehåb). Erik spent the next two years exploring the west and north, and also assigned names to the places he visited.He named the country “Greenland” as many parts of the land seemed ice-free and had conditions conducive to future growth and development. Over the course of his exploration he spent the first winter on the island of Eiriksey and the second winter in Eiriksholmar (close to Hvarfsgnipa). He explored as far north as Snaefell and into Hrafnsfjord during the final summer of his stay.After completing his exile, Erik returned to Iceland in 985 or 986. He brought along with him the exciting stories of his adventures in the new land he had discovered. He described Greenland in great detail and told the people that the new land offered great scope for establishing new settlements.Gifted with strong persuasive skills, Erik the Red was able to convince the people that Greenland held great opportunity. After gaining the support of many people he set out again with a fleet of 25 ships from Iceland.Several of the ships turned back, or were lost or destroyed along with their occupants over the course of the hazardous journey across the sea. Only 14 ships out of the 25 are believed to have arrived safely at an area which became known as Eystribygd (“Eastern Settlement”).Initially there were around 400-500 settlers in the colony. Erik successfully established settlements there and assumed the title of paramount chieftain of Greenland. Over the ensuing years he gained both wealth and respect.The colonists thrived in the new land and were soon joined by several other immigrants who travelled all the way from Iceland in order to escape over-crowding in their own homeland.The flourishing settlement grew to around 5000 inhabitants and spread over a considerable area along Eriksfjord and neighboring fjords. However, something disastrous happened soon after which almost ruined the colony.Another group of immigrants arrived from Iceland in 1002. But these immigrants carried a deadly disease which soon spread to the population already living in Greenland. The epidemic killed several of the leading citizens of the colony and greatly threatened its very existence. Nevertheless, the colony survived till the 15th century before being wiped out due to several causes.Major Works
- Erik the Red is remembered as the one who founded the first Norse settlement in Greenland. The Icelandic sagas suggest that Norsemen before him had already discovered Greenland but their attempts to colonize the region were not successful. Thus Erik is credited to be the first permanent European settler in Greenland who was successful in establishing a settlement.Personal Life & Legacy
- Erik the Red was married to Þjóðhildr (Thjodhildr) and had four children: one daughter and three sons. His son Leif Eiríksson also became a famous explorer later on.He died c. 1003, a victim of the epidemic that annihilated a vast majority of the settlers in Greenland.
How To CiteArticle Title- Erik the Red BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/erik-the-red-6596.phpLast Updated- March 30, 2017
People Also Viewed | <urn:uuid:ef376eac-11a1-4b8e-b782-41b98d502323> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/erik-the-red-6596.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00463.warc.gz | en | 0.986498 | 1,284 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2574964761734... | 1 | Erik the Red
Erik the Red was the founder of the first Norse settlement in Greenland. The region which was named Greenland by him was once inhabited by the Inuit people. According to medieval and Icelandic saga sources, he was born as Eiríkr Þorvaldsson in Rogaland, Norway. His father was banished from the country due to an allegation of murder and thus the family shifted to Hornstrandir in northwestern Iceland. After a few years, Erik too was accused of committing some murders and was sentenced to exile for three years. Forced to find a new place to settle down, he embarked on a voyage, sailing towards the west and soon discovered a country with fertile conditions that would support development of colonies. Elated at his discovery, he travelled back to Iceland to inform his people about the “green land” he had spotted on his expedition. He impressed his people with his description of the new place and was successful in persuading a group of people to join him on his next expedition to the same country. Eventually he established thriving colonies in Southern Greenland, becoming the first European to do so. His son, Leif Eriksson, also grew up to be a famous explorer in his own right and took forward his father’s legacy by becoming one of the first Europeans to reach North America
- He was born as Eiríkr Þorvaldsson (also called Erik Thorvaldsson) in the Jæren district of Rogaland, Norway, around 950. His father’s name was Þorvald Ásvaldsson (also called Thorvald Asvaldsson).Thorvald was exiled from Norway c. 960, during the reign of King Harald Fairhair, for having killed some people. Erik was just a young boy at the time of this incident.The father took along the family and sailed West from Norway, finally settling in Hornstrandir in northwestern Iceland. Thorvald died some time before 980.Continue Reading BelowLater Years
- Erik grew up to be an adventurous and hot-tempered young man who gained the nickname “Erik the Red” because of his red hair, red beard, and also his red-hot temper.He allegedly killed some people around the year 982 and was banished from Iceland for three years, just like the way his father had been exiled from Norway years ago.While on exile he decided to embark on an expedition and explore new lands. He set off with a small group of men from Snæfellsjökull, one of the westernmost points of Iceland, around 982 and reached land on the opposite shore of what was then a little-known landmass.His men rounded the southern tip of the island and arrived at an island at the mouth of Eriksfjord (now known as Tunulliarfik Fjord) near Qaqortoq (formerly Julianehåb). Erik spent the next two years exploring the west and north, and also assigned names to the places he visited.He named the country “Greenland” as many parts of the land seemed ice-free and had conditions conducive to future growth and development. Over the course of his exploration he spent the first winter on the island of Eiriksey and the second winter in Eiriksholmar (close to Hvarfsgnipa). He explored as far north as Snaefell and into Hrafnsfjord during the final summer of his stay.After completing his exile, Erik returned to Iceland in 985 or 986. He brought along with him the exciting stories of his adventures in the new land he had discovered. He described Greenland in great detail and told the people that the new land offered great scope for establishing new settlements.Gifted with strong persuasive skills, Erik the Red was able to convince the people that Greenland held great opportunity. After gaining the support of many people he set out again with a fleet of 25 ships from Iceland.Several of the ships turned back, or were lost or destroyed along with their occupants over the course of the hazardous journey across the sea. Only 14 ships out of the 25 are believed to have arrived safely at an area which became known as Eystribygd (“Eastern Settlement”).Initially there were around 400-500 settlers in the colony. Erik successfully established settlements there and assumed the title of paramount chieftain of Greenland. Over the ensuing years he gained both wealth and respect.The colonists thrived in the new land and were soon joined by several other immigrants who travelled all the way from Iceland in order to escape over-crowding in their own homeland.The flourishing settlement grew to around 5000 inhabitants and spread over a considerable area along Eriksfjord and neighboring fjords. However, something disastrous happened soon after which almost ruined the colony.Another group of immigrants arrived from Iceland in 1002. But these immigrants carried a deadly disease which soon spread to the population already living in Greenland. The epidemic killed several of the leading citizens of the colony and greatly threatened its very existence. Nevertheless, the colony survived till the 15th century before being wiped out due to several causes.Major Works
- Erik the Red is remembered as the one who founded the first Norse settlement in Greenland. The Icelandic sagas suggest that Norsemen before him had already discovered Greenland but their attempts to colonize the region were not successful. Thus Erik is credited to be the first permanent European settler in Greenland who was successful in establishing a settlement.Personal Life & Legacy
- Erik the Red was married to Þjóðhildr (Thjodhildr) and had four children: one daughter and three sons. His son Leif Eiríksson also became a famous explorer later on.He died c. 1003, a victim of the epidemic that annihilated a vast majority of the settlers in Greenland.
How To CiteArticle Title- Erik the Red BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/erik-the-red-6596.phpLast Updated- March 30, 2017
People Also Viewed | 1,302 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Egyptians used meteorites as an early source of metal iron before they understood how to extract iron from mineral ores.The earliest known example of the use of iron in Egypt is in the form of beads found in two graves at a prehistoric cemetery at Gerzeh, 70km south of Cairo. Other possible examples of meteorite iron use in ancient Egypt include iron objects found in Tutankhamun’s tomb, including a dagger blade.
This hieroglyphic word used by ancient Egyptians means iron, which literally translates as “iron from the sky”
The Gerzeh beads were made in about 3400 BCE. We do not know who they belonged to but the grave they were found in also had other high status goods so they were probably owned by someone important to this community, such as a leader | <urn:uuid:93f94b2e-b7e7-4bcc-9bd2-010e6a194488> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://catchashootingstar.wordpress.com/meteorites/meteorites-in-history/ancient-egyptian-meteorites/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.981409 | 167 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.21891336143016... | 3 | Ancient Egyptians used meteorites as an early source of metal iron before they understood how to extract iron from mineral ores.The earliest known example of the use of iron in Egypt is in the form of beads found in two graves at a prehistoric cemetery at Gerzeh, 70km south of Cairo. Other possible examples of meteorite iron use in ancient Egypt include iron objects found in Tutankhamun’s tomb, including a dagger blade.
This hieroglyphic word used by ancient Egyptians means iron, which literally translates as “iron from the sky”
The Gerzeh beads were made in about 3400 BCE. We do not know who they belonged to but the grave they were found in also had other high status goods so they were probably owned by someone important to this community, such as a leader | 166 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Back in the days, it was common for people to cook on open fires on the ground outside and it was impossible back then to have a modern kitchen. The wood and the food were subsequently maintained with simple masonry buildings. As the middle ages approached, in metal chaudrons hanging over the fire, food was often mounted. Naturally, this cooking area lead people to collecting the primary sources of heat, light, protection and, as is obvious, food.
Fireworks produced smoke as well as soot, which was a major problem right up to the sixteenth century, when chemists were commonly used in the home. Smoke was basically dealt with as it was taken out of the living space with a chimney to make extensive cooking fires that were easier to breathe and to make them easier in fires.
The design as well as the functionality of the kitchen is influenced by economic trends and policy. Technological progress was slow, most of which was designed to reduce work and time. The wood was heating the stoves in the 18th century. Just so you know, the stew stove was designed in the year 1735 by the French inventor Francois Cuvilliés was one of the first wood-burning kitchen stoves.
In the 18th century, metal stoves were used. Moving on, the Franklin stove was introduced to the world by Benjamin Franklin in 1742, is an early and popular example of a metal stove. It had a labyrinthine path that allowed the heat to enter rather than the chimney to escape hot exhaust gasses. This stove has, however, only been designed for heating rather than cooking.
Philo Stewart invented the Oberlin Stove in 1834 as a wood-burning, lightweight, cast-iron stove. It was a kitchen stove made of metal smaller than cooking in a fireplace, as the heating capacity increased and the cooking time were registered. This was a huge business success; it might be shaped into decorative forms and shapes and can easily withstand changes in temperatures from warm to cold. Such iron stoves have developed into advanced cooking equipment with fireplaces, furnace door, and hot water installations.
In the wake of World War II, the housing boom and technological developments influenced the’ new’ kitchen. The demand for kitchen technology and equipment encouraged homes to tear down walls that once concealed the utilitarian kitchens. There was an increased demand. The kitchen was becoming healthier, cleaner, structured and easier to work in; a source of intense pride and an enjoyable place for tourists.
Health and energy efficient ovens are more easily available today. Eventually, our appliances suit our quick, demanding lifestyles. Speed stoves reduce the cooking time by half, thereby reducing energy consumption when cooking. In the traditional sense, the kitchen does not look like the kitchen. Now it is a clean room with a whole range of modern equipment aimed at a sustainable future. | <urn:uuid:de1db38a-a7f2-4dc6-9679-1b1ad0f71705> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jpn-miyabi.com/art-and-design/a-brief-look-into-the-history-of-kitchens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00505.warc.gz | en | 0.981664 | 582 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.2160813212394... | 13 | Back in the days, it was common for people to cook on open fires on the ground outside and it was impossible back then to have a modern kitchen. The wood and the food were subsequently maintained with simple masonry buildings. As the middle ages approached, in metal chaudrons hanging over the fire, food was often mounted. Naturally, this cooking area lead people to collecting the primary sources of heat, light, protection and, as is obvious, food.
Fireworks produced smoke as well as soot, which was a major problem right up to the sixteenth century, when chemists were commonly used in the home. Smoke was basically dealt with as it was taken out of the living space with a chimney to make extensive cooking fires that were easier to breathe and to make them easier in fires.
The design as well as the functionality of the kitchen is influenced by economic trends and policy. Technological progress was slow, most of which was designed to reduce work and time. The wood was heating the stoves in the 18th century. Just so you know, the stew stove was designed in the year 1735 by the French inventor Francois Cuvilliés was one of the first wood-burning kitchen stoves.
In the 18th century, metal stoves were used. Moving on, the Franklin stove was introduced to the world by Benjamin Franklin in 1742, is an early and popular example of a metal stove. It had a labyrinthine path that allowed the heat to enter rather than the chimney to escape hot exhaust gasses. This stove has, however, only been designed for heating rather than cooking.
Philo Stewart invented the Oberlin Stove in 1834 as a wood-burning, lightweight, cast-iron stove. It was a kitchen stove made of metal smaller than cooking in a fireplace, as the heating capacity increased and the cooking time were registered. This was a huge business success; it might be shaped into decorative forms and shapes and can easily withstand changes in temperatures from warm to cold. Such iron stoves have developed into advanced cooking equipment with fireplaces, furnace door, and hot water installations.
In the wake of World War II, the housing boom and technological developments influenced the’ new’ kitchen. The demand for kitchen technology and equipment encouraged homes to tear down walls that once concealed the utilitarian kitchens. There was an increased demand. The kitchen was becoming healthier, cleaner, structured and easier to work in; a source of intense pride and an enjoyable place for tourists.
Health and energy efficient ovens are more easily available today. Eventually, our appliances suit our quick, demanding lifestyles. Speed stoves reduce the cooking time by half, thereby reducing energy consumption when cooking. In the traditional sense, the kitchen does not look like the kitchen. Now it is a clean room with a whole range of modern equipment aimed at a sustainable future. | 585 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reigate stone was once a popular building material during the medieval period, however it is no longer mined, and very difficult to source, as the mines have been closed since the 1960s and will never re-open. Today, as part of an agreement set up by Historic England, salvaged Reigate Stone found on archaeological sites is logged and collected before being reused to make repairs to historic buildings. Its location of reuse is also recorded. The precious supply of building material from the Boar’s Head site will therefore be donated to the Tower of London to help with the conservation of the buildings which incorporate Reigate stone.
Reigate stone was previously favoured as it was one of the few building stones found close to London, therefore it was relatively easy to transport. It was also considered to be suitable for carving. However, as a type of sandstone, it was soft and porous, making it extremely prone to weathering. Today, there are almost no examples of Reigate stone left on the outside of surviving historic buildings. More hard-wearing stone, like Bath stone, was typically favoured in buildings in the 19th century.
The stone from the Boar’s Head site was found used in the construction of 17th century buildings, likely reused from older medieval buildings in the area, which would have been torn down when Henry VIII ordered the dissolution of the monasteries from 1536 onwards. We are thrilled to be able to help continue this cycle of re-use by ensuring the stone finds a new home at the Tower of London, several hundred years after it was originally mined from the hills of Surrey. | <urn:uuid:0fa3e753-839d-4f59-9487-dd4db12b3df9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mola.org.uk/blog/reigate-stone-found-site-boar%E2%80%99s-head-be-recycled-help-conserve-tower-london | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.987003 | 329 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.50234293937... | 4 | Reigate stone was once a popular building material during the medieval period, however it is no longer mined, and very difficult to source, as the mines have been closed since the 1960s and will never re-open. Today, as part of an agreement set up by Historic England, salvaged Reigate Stone found on archaeological sites is logged and collected before being reused to make repairs to historic buildings. Its location of reuse is also recorded. The precious supply of building material from the Boar’s Head site will therefore be donated to the Tower of London to help with the conservation of the buildings which incorporate Reigate stone.
Reigate stone was previously favoured as it was one of the few building stones found close to London, therefore it was relatively easy to transport. It was also considered to be suitable for carving. However, as a type of sandstone, it was soft and porous, making it extremely prone to weathering. Today, there are almost no examples of Reigate stone left on the outside of surviving historic buildings. More hard-wearing stone, like Bath stone, was typically favoured in buildings in the 19th century.
The stone from the Boar’s Head site was found used in the construction of 17th century buildings, likely reused from older medieval buildings in the area, which would have been torn down when Henry VIII ordered the dissolution of the monasteries from 1536 onwards. We are thrilled to be able to help continue this cycle of re-use by ensuring the stone finds a new home at the Tower of London, several hundred years after it was originally mined from the hills of Surrey. | 331 | ENGLISH | 1 |
« 이전계속 »
were still in the confusion of apartly executed manoeuvre (CC). Their admiral had doubtless recognised, from the change of wind, and from the direction of the enemy when last visible, that an encounter could not be avoided. If he continued on the starboard tack, the van of the pursuing enemy, whose resolve to force battle could not be misunderstood, would overtake his rear ships, engaging as many of them as he might choose. By resuming the port tack, the heads of the columns would meet, and the fleets pass in opposite directions, on equal terms as regarded position; because all the French would engage, and not only a part of their rear. Therefore he had ordered his ships to go about, all at the same time; thus forming column again rapidly, but reversing the order so that the rear became the van. Keppel so far had made no signal for the line of battle, nor did he now. Recognising from the four days' chase that his enemy was avoiding action, he judged correctly that he should force it, even at some risk. It was not the time for a drill-master, nor a parade. Besides, thanks to the morning signal for the leewardly ships to chase, these, forming the rear of the disorderly column in which he was advancing, were now well to windward, able therefore to support their comrades, if needful, as well as to attack the enemy. In short, practically the whole force was coming into action, although much less regularly than might have been desired. What was to follow was a rough-and-ready fight, but it was all that could be had, and better than nothing. Keppel therefore simply made the signal for battle, and that just as the firing began. The collision was so sudden that the ships at first had not their colours flying. The French also, although their manoeuvres had been more methodical, were in some confusion. It is not given to a body of thirty ships, of varying qualities, to attain perfection of movement in a fortnight of sea practice. The
change of wind had precipitated an action, which one admiral had been seeking, and the other shunning; but each had to meet it with such shift as he could. The British (CC) being close-hauled, the French (CC), advancing on a parallel line, were four points' off the wind. Most of their ships, therefore, could have gone clear to windward of their opponents, but the fact that the latter could reach some of the leaders compelled the others to support them. As d'Orvilliers had said, it was hard to avoid an enemy resolute to fight. The leading three French vessels 4 (e) hauled their wind, in obedience to the admiral's signal to form the line of battle, which means a close-hauled line. The effect of this was to draw them gradually away from the hostile line, taking them out of range of the British centre and rear. This, if imitated by their followers, would render the affair even more partial and indecisive than such passing by usually was. The fourth French ship began the action, opening fire soon after eleven. The vessels of the opposing fleets surged by under short canvas, (D), firing as opportunity offered, but necessarily much handicapped by smoke, which prevented the clear sight of an enemy, and caused anxiety lest an unseen friend might receive a broadside. “The distance between the Formidable, 90, (Palliser's flagship) and the Egmont, 74, was so short,” testified Captain John Laforey, whose three-decker, the Ocean, 90, was abreast and outside this interval, “that it was with difficulty I could keep betwixt them to engage, without firing upon them, and I was once very near on board the Egmont,” – next ahead of the Ocean. The Formidable kept her mizzen topsail aback much of the time, to deaden her way, to make the needed room ahead for the Ocean, and also to allow the rear ships to close. “At a quarter pastone,” testified Captain Maitland of the Elizabeth, 74, “we were very close behind the Formidable, and a midshipman upon the poop called out that there was a ship coming on board on the weatherbow. I put the helm up, . . . and found, when the smoke cleared away, I was shot up under the Formidable's lee. She was then engaged with the two last ships in the French fleet, and, as I could not fire at them without firing through the Formidable, I was obliged to shoot on.” " Captain Bazely, of the Formidable, says of the same incident, “The Formidable did at the time of action bear up to one of the enemy's ships, to avoid being aboard of her, whose jib boom nearly touched the main topsail weather leech of the Formidable. I thought we could not avoid being on board.”
1 Forty-five degrees.
* Chevalier says, p. 89, “The English passed out of range” of these ships. As these ships had the wind, they had the choice of range, barring signals from their own admiral. In truth, they were obeying his order.
Contrary to the usual result, the loss of the rear division, in killed and wounded, was heaviest, nearly equalling the aggregate of the two others.” This was due to the morning signal to chase to windward, which brought these ships closer than their leaders. As soon as the British van, ten ships, had passed the French rear, its commander, ViceAdmiral Sir Robert Harland, anticipating Keppel's wishes, signalled it to go about and follow the enemy (Fig. 2, V). As the French column was running free, these ships, when about, fetched to windward of its wake. When the Victory drew out of the fire, at 1 P.M., Keppel also made a similar signal, and attempted to wear (c), the injuries to his rigging not permitting tacking; but caution was needed in manoeuvring across the bows of the following ships, and it was not
* This evidence of the captains of the Ocean and the Elizabeth contradicts Palliser's charge that his ship was not adequately supported.
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were still in the confusion of apartly executed manoeuvre (CC). Their admiral had doubtless recognised, from the change of wind, and from the direction of the enemy when last visible, that an encounter could not be avoided. If he continued on the starboard tack, the van of the pursuing enemy, whose resolve to force battle could not be misunderstood, would overtake his rear ships, engaging as many of them as he might choose. By resuming the port tack, the heads of the columns would meet, and the fleets pass in opposite directions, on equal terms as regarded position; because all the French would engage, and not only a part of their rear. Therefore he had ordered his ships to go about, all at the same time; thus forming column again rapidly, but reversing the order so that the rear became the van. Keppel so far had made no signal for the line of battle, nor did he now. Recognising from the four days' chase that his enemy was avoiding action, he judged correctly that he should force it, even at some risk. It was not the time for a drill-master, nor a parade. Besides, thanks to the morning signal for the leewardly ships to chase, these, forming the rear of the disorderly column in which he was advancing, were now well to windward, able therefore to support their comrades, if needful, as well as to attack the enemy. In short, practically the whole force was coming into action, although much less regularly than might have been desired. What was to follow was a rough-and-ready fight, but it was all that could be had, and better than nothing. Keppel therefore simply made the signal for battle, and that just as the firing began. The collision was so sudden that the ships at first had not their colours flying. The French also, although their manoeuvres had been more methodical, were in some confusion. It is not given to a body of thirty ships, of varying qualities, to attain perfection of movement in a fortnight of sea practice. The
change of wind had precipitated an action, which one admiral had been seeking, and the other shunning; but each had to meet it with such shift as he could. The British (CC) being close-hauled, the French (CC), advancing on a parallel line, were four points' off the wind. Most of their ships, therefore, could have gone clear to windward of their opponents, but the fact that the latter could reach some of the leaders compelled the others to support them. As d'Orvilliers had said, it was hard to avoid an enemy resolute to fight. The leading three French vessels 4 (e) hauled their wind, in obedience to the admiral's signal to form the line of battle, which means a close-hauled line. The effect of this was to draw them gradually away from the hostile line, taking them out of range of the British centre and rear. This, if imitated by their followers, would render the affair even more partial and indecisive than such passing by usually was. The fourth French ship began the action, opening fire soon after eleven. The vessels of the opposing fleets surged by under short canvas, (D), firing as opportunity offered, but necessarily much handicapped by smoke, which prevented the clear sight of an enemy, and caused anxiety lest an unseen friend might receive a broadside. “The distance between the Formidable, 90, (Palliser's flagship) and the Egmont, 74, was so short,” testified Captain John Laforey, whose three-decker, the Ocean, 90, was abreast and outside this interval, “that it was with difficulty I could keep betwixt them to engage, without firing upon them, and I was once very near on board the Egmont,” – next ahead of the Ocean. The Formidable kept her mizzen topsail aback much of the time, to deaden her way, to make the needed room ahead for the Ocean, and also to allow the rear ships to close. “At a quarter pastone,” testified Captain Maitland of the Elizabeth, 74, “we were very close behind the Formidable, and a midshipman upon the poop called out that there was a ship coming on board on the weatherbow. I put the helm up, . . . and found, when the smoke cleared away, I was shot up under the Formidable's lee. She was then engaged with the two last ships in the French fleet, and, as I could not fire at them without firing through the Formidable, I was obliged to shoot on.” " Captain Bazely, of the Formidable, says of the same incident, “The Formidable did at the time of action bear up to one of the enemy's ships, to avoid being aboard of her, whose jib boom nearly touched the main topsail weather leech of the Formidable. I thought we could not avoid being on board.”
1 Forty-five degrees.
* Chevalier says, p. 89, “The English passed out of range” of these ships. As these ships had the wind, they had the choice of range, barring signals from their own admiral. In truth, they were obeying his order.
Contrary to the usual result, the loss of the rear division, in killed and wounded, was heaviest, nearly equalling the aggregate of the two others.” This was due to the morning signal to chase to windward, which brought these ships closer than their leaders. As soon as the British van, ten ships, had passed the French rear, its commander, ViceAdmiral Sir Robert Harland, anticipating Keppel's wishes, signalled it to go about and follow the enemy (Fig. 2, V). As the French column was running free, these ships, when about, fetched to windward of its wake. When the Victory drew out of the fire, at 1 P.M., Keppel also made a similar signal, and attempted to wear (c), the injuries to his rigging not permitting tacking; but caution was needed in manoeuvring across the bows of the following ships, and it was not
* This evidence of the captains of the Ocean and the Elizabeth contradicts Palliser's charge that his ship was not adequately supported.
* It was actually quite equal, but this was due to an accidental explosion on board the Formidable. | 1,344 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get to Know the Duchy of Athens in the Middle Ages of Greece
Comments Off on Get to Know the Duchy of Athens in the Middle Ages of Greece
The country of Greece has gone through a significant number of forms, sizes and rulers throughout its history. One of these was the Duchy of Athens. This Crusader state encompassed Attica, the region that Athens is located in, and Boeotia, which is located directly to the northwest of there, and existed from 1205-1458. The area had previously been under the rule of the Byzantine Empire, and it would be ruled by the Ottoman Empire after this 253-year period ended.
Three languages were primary ones here at one time or another. From its founding until 1311, French was the primary language spoken in the Duchy of Athens. At this time, the Duchy of Athens was under the rule of Otto de la Roche, who had served as a knight in the Fourth Crusade. He was from present-day Rigney, France. He declared himself, “Sire d’Athenes,” which translates as “Lord of Athens” while the Greek citizens referred to him as “Μέγας Κύρης,” which translates as “Great Lord.” He and other dukes throughout the Duchy of Athens’ history resided at the Acropolis.
In 1308, rulership of the Duchy of Athens was passed to Walter V of Brienne. Although he spent time in places such as present-day France, Italy and Greece, he later learned Catalan, most likely when he spent time in captivity when he was used as a hostage so that his father, a military commander, could be released.
Three years later, he was killed by members of the Catalan Company, mercenaries who he had hired but then did not pay, during the Battle of Halmyros. Leadership would ultimately go to King Frederick III of Sicily in 1312. From a year prior to his arrival until 1388, Catalan was the official language of the Duchy of Athens. It was also at this time when each city and district started having its own governor, a system that copied what was taking place in Sicily.
Eventually, the Acciaioli family of Florence captured and started ruling over the Duchy of Athens. Rulership was later held by the Republic of Venice, and, in 1444, the area fell under the oversight of the Ottoman Empire’s Constantine XI Palaeologus. In 1456, Ottoman ruler Turahanoglu Omer Beygained took control. That turned out to be just two years before the Duchy of Athens ceased to exist. The last Duke of Athens was Francesco II Acciaioli.
From 1388 until the end of the Duchy of Athens, Greek was the official language of the area. It should also be noted that Greek had been widely spoken in the years that preceded then too.
Throughout its existence, the Duchy of Athens was overseen by the Kingdom of Thessalonica, Kingdom of Sicily, Crown of Aragon, Republic of Venice and Despotate of the Morea. This area remained with the Ottoman Empire until the Greek War of Independence, which started in 1821, sparked the First Hellenic Republic to be declared as an independent state one year later.
Categorized in: Modern Greek History
This post was written by GreekBoston.com | <urn:uuid:1fd5869d-88ad-477f-8900-4ac205ab6cd5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.greekboston.com/culture/modern-history/duchy-athens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00494.warc.gz | en | 0.984863 | 726 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.400164544... | 12 | Get to Know the Duchy of Athens in the Middle Ages of Greece
Comments Off on Get to Know the Duchy of Athens in the Middle Ages of Greece
The country of Greece has gone through a significant number of forms, sizes and rulers throughout its history. One of these was the Duchy of Athens. This Crusader state encompassed Attica, the region that Athens is located in, and Boeotia, which is located directly to the northwest of there, and existed from 1205-1458. The area had previously been under the rule of the Byzantine Empire, and it would be ruled by the Ottoman Empire after this 253-year period ended.
Three languages were primary ones here at one time or another. From its founding until 1311, French was the primary language spoken in the Duchy of Athens. At this time, the Duchy of Athens was under the rule of Otto de la Roche, who had served as a knight in the Fourth Crusade. He was from present-day Rigney, France. He declared himself, “Sire d’Athenes,” which translates as “Lord of Athens” while the Greek citizens referred to him as “Μέγας Κύρης,” which translates as “Great Lord.” He and other dukes throughout the Duchy of Athens’ history resided at the Acropolis.
In 1308, rulership of the Duchy of Athens was passed to Walter V of Brienne. Although he spent time in places such as present-day France, Italy and Greece, he later learned Catalan, most likely when he spent time in captivity when he was used as a hostage so that his father, a military commander, could be released.
Three years later, he was killed by members of the Catalan Company, mercenaries who he had hired but then did not pay, during the Battle of Halmyros. Leadership would ultimately go to King Frederick III of Sicily in 1312. From a year prior to his arrival until 1388, Catalan was the official language of the Duchy of Athens. It was also at this time when each city and district started having its own governor, a system that copied what was taking place in Sicily.
Eventually, the Acciaioli family of Florence captured and started ruling over the Duchy of Athens. Rulership was later held by the Republic of Venice, and, in 1444, the area fell under the oversight of the Ottoman Empire’s Constantine XI Palaeologus. In 1456, Ottoman ruler Turahanoglu Omer Beygained took control. That turned out to be just two years before the Duchy of Athens ceased to exist. The last Duke of Athens was Francesco II Acciaioli.
From 1388 until the end of the Duchy of Athens, Greek was the official language of the area. It should also be noted that Greek had been widely spoken in the years that preceded then too.
Throughout its existence, the Duchy of Athens was overseen by the Kingdom of Thessalonica, Kingdom of Sicily, Crown of Aragon, Republic of Venice and Despotate of the Morea. This area remained with the Ottoman Empire until the Greek War of Independence, which started in 1821, sparked the First Hellenic Republic to be declared as an independent state one year later.
Categorized in: Modern Greek History
This post was written by GreekBoston.com | 726 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Joel Garcia
February 29, leap year day, has been a day of superstitions and traditions since Emperor Augustus Caesar created the need for it 2000 years ago. Emperor Augustus found it unfair that the month of July- named after the previous ruler Julius Caesar, was 31 days long and August-his month, was only 29 days long. Out of jealously, he cut a few days from other months so that his month could have as many days as July. In the end, February was the month that was left with the least amount of days.
Fast forward a few hundred years to the Emerald Isle, Ireland. Under a different ruling, St. Brigid with St Patrick allowed women to propose to men on the 29th of February, every four years. It is thought to create balance between the sexes similar to the way that the Leap Day balances the calendar. The tradition spread throughout Europe to the extent that, in some places, Leap Day has been known as “Bachelors’ Day” for the same reason. Traditionally, a man was expected to pay a penalty, such as a gown or money, if he rejected a proposal from a woman on that day. In the upper classes of European society, tradition dictated that any man who refused a woman’s proposal on February 29 had to buy her 12 pairs of gloves. This was done so that the women can wear the gloves to hide their embarrassment of not having an engagement ring.
In Scotland, it used to be considered unlucky to be born on Leap Year, let alone Leap Day. Today, many parents aim to have their children born on the quadrennial date of February 29th to just make it seem unique by having your technical birthday every four years. Now, scientifically, we use leap day to balance the years for inaccurate time measurements which help synchronize our calendar year to the solar year. | <urn:uuid:bc2c9b19-a6ba-4b56-b521-505cc79a8279> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sghsrambler.com/2016/04/06/2016-4-5-the-origin-of-leap-year/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00159.warc.gz | en | 0.983155 | 383 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.3841267526... | 5 | By Joel Garcia
February 29, leap year day, has been a day of superstitions and traditions since Emperor Augustus Caesar created the need for it 2000 years ago. Emperor Augustus found it unfair that the month of July- named after the previous ruler Julius Caesar, was 31 days long and August-his month, was only 29 days long. Out of jealously, he cut a few days from other months so that his month could have as many days as July. In the end, February was the month that was left with the least amount of days.
Fast forward a few hundred years to the Emerald Isle, Ireland. Under a different ruling, St. Brigid with St Patrick allowed women to propose to men on the 29th of February, every four years. It is thought to create balance between the sexes similar to the way that the Leap Day balances the calendar. The tradition spread throughout Europe to the extent that, in some places, Leap Day has been known as “Bachelors’ Day” for the same reason. Traditionally, a man was expected to pay a penalty, such as a gown or money, if he rejected a proposal from a woman on that day. In the upper classes of European society, tradition dictated that any man who refused a woman’s proposal on February 29 had to buy her 12 pairs of gloves. This was done so that the women can wear the gloves to hide their embarrassment of not having an engagement ring.
In Scotland, it used to be considered unlucky to be born on Leap Year, let alone Leap Day. Today, many parents aim to have their children born on the quadrennial date of February 29th to just make it seem unique by having your technical birthday every four years. Now, scientifically, we use leap day to balance the years for inaccurate time measurements which help synchronize our calendar year to the solar year. | 395 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 6th graders have learned about many civilizations that occupied Ancient Mesopotamia thousands of years ago. Located in the modern day Middle East, “the fertile crescent” was host to many kingdoms and empires that took turns ruling the coveted land. The Sumerians, Chaldeans, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians, were some of the many civilizations that contributed to the advancement of technology for future generations of humans. One such contribution was a wedge-shaped writing system called cuneiform. This form of writing originated first from pictographs, which showed actual objects, ideas, and sounds. Ancient Mesopotamians used a sharpened reed called a stylus to press markings into clay tablets. This is the reason why over time, the use of pictures was discontinued and was replaced entirely by wedge shapes.
We decided to emulate Ancient Mesopotamian scribes and write our own cuneiform writings on clay tablets. However, we had our work cut out for us! For example, the Sumerian language contained about 600 different symbols, and learning all of these symbols took years. With the help of observing patterns in their writing system as well as our alphabet, coupled with a very useful online cuneiform translator, we were able to write our names on wet clay tablets with the use of wedge-like sticks. We learned the importance of writing during that time, as very few people could decipher the Mesopotamian alphabet. We were also thankful for the much easier current writing system that we have today! Imagine the spelling quizzes that 6th graders had to study for back then! | <urn:uuid:e62e9c19-8260-49ec-a5e7-9a9132a2d08a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.hshla.org/ancient-civilizations/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.981845 | 330 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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-0.012453068... | 6 | The 6th graders have learned about many civilizations that occupied Ancient Mesopotamia thousands of years ago. Located in the modern day Middle East, “the fertile crescent” was host to many kingdoms and empires that took turns ruling the coveted land. The Sumerians, Chaldeans, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians, were some of the many civilizations that contributed to the advancement of technology for future generations of humans. One such contribution was a wedge-shaped writing system called cuneiform. This form of writing originated first from pictographs, which showed actual objects, ideas, and sounds. Ancient Mesopotamians used a sharpened reed called a stylus to press markings into clay tablets. This is the reason why over time, the use of pictures was discontinued and was replaced entirely by wedge shapes.
We decided to emulate Ancient Mesopotamian scribes and write our own cuneiform writings on clay tablets. However, we had our work cut out for us! For example, the Sumerian language contained about 600 different symbols, and learning all of these symbols took years. With the help of observing patterns in their writing system as well as our alphabet, coupled with a very useful online cuneiform translator, we were able to write our names on wet clay tablets with the use of wedge-like sticks. We learned the importance of writing during that time, as very few people could decipher the Mesopotamian alphabet. We were also thankful for the much easier current writing system that we have today! Imagine the spelling quizzes that 6th graders had to study for back then! | 332 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Evers promoted youth participation by establishing student-centered auxiliaries of the NAACP. The most active youth chapters during the 1950s were in Jackson and Hattiesburg. In Jackson, Evers's efforts benefited from the presence in the area of three historically black colleges and universities. Evers recruited over 200 Jackson area students joined the NAACP youth council and began fighting for the cause. The council also included among its members the Ladner sisters, Joyce and Dorie, who later were youth leaders at Tougaloo College and members of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).
On March 27, 1961, the Tougaloo Nine, four females and five males, entered the segregated main branch of the municipal library in search of source material for a class assignment. When the students took seats and began reading, a library staff member called the police. After refusing orders by the police chief to leave the library, the Tougaloo Nine were arrested. The read-in drew support from students at Jackson and Tougaloo colleges as well as Millsaps, a predominantly white college in Jackson. The Tougaloo Nine were charged and convicted of breach-of-peace. Each of them was fined $100 and given a 30-day suspended sentence.
Tougaloo became the site of many meetings and activists who made it to the gates of campus felt secure, Tougaloo also became a safe haven for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). However, as word of civil rights meetings spread throughout the state, political pressure was placed on administrators and faculty to distance themselves from the movement. Professors began having difficulty placing their students in public schools-either in teaching positions or as students learning their craft as student-teachers. Graduates also found that their degree made them suspect in the eyes of white employers. As a result, the college's role as a safe-have for civil rights activism came at a high cost for many. | <urn:uuid:355dfa5d-57ba-413b-ae53-b41a63855fc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/9943 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00511.warc.gz | en | 0.98392 | 394 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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-0.0... | 1 | Evers promoted youth participation by establishing student-centered auxiliaries of the NAACP. The most active youth chapters during the 1950s were in Jackson and Hattiesburg. In Jackson, Evers's efforts benefited from the presence in the area of three historically black colleges and universities. Evers recruited over 200 Jackson area students joined the NAACP youth council and began fighting for the cause. The council also included among its members the Ladner sisters, Joyce and Dorie, who later were youth leaders at Tougaloo College and members of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).
On March 27, 1961, the Tougaloo Nine, four females and five males, entered the segregated main branch of the municipal library in search of source material for a class assignment. When the students took seats and began reading, a library staff member called the police. After refusing orders by the police chief to leave the library, the Tougaloo Nine were arrested. The read-in drew support from students at Jackson and Tougaloo colleges as well as Millsaps, a predominantly white college in Jackson. The Tougaloo Nine were charged and convicted of breach-of-peace. Each of them was fined $100 and given a 30-day suspended sentence.
Tougaloo became the site of many meetings and activists who made it to the gates of campus felt secure, Tougaloo also became a safe haven for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). However, as word of civil rights meetings spread throughout the state, political pressure was placed on administrators and faculty to distance themselves from the movement. Professors began having difficulty placing their students in public schools-either in teaching positions or as students learning their craft as student-teachers. Graduates also found that their degree made them suspect in the eyes of white employers. As a result, the college's role as a safe-have for civil rights activism came at a high cost for many. | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the period between 1946 and 1964 or between post World War II and the Vietnam War, a significant increase of birth rate was recorded. This generation was called the baby boomers generation.If you were born within the years 1946 and 1964, you can consider yourself as part of the baby boomers generation. This particular generation is one of the generations that contributed a lot in politics and also to the culture of the United States.The main cause of the baby boom was the after effect of World War II. In this period, cities were in rubbles and world economies that were affected severely by the war were in need for goods and services. The needs were so staggering that it is considered as the largest in peacetime.The United States have been providing a lot of money and also services for their allies in order to help them recover from the war. The United States factories which made war materials before began producing peacetime goods and materials for export. Because the United States began exporting goods and materials to the free world to help them rebuild their economy, it led to a very lucrative business and didn’t slow down up until 1958. Because of this growth, education became cheaper and many people began attending colleges and some even took second college degrees. Because of the increase in education and high incomes of families in this period, it made it possible for them to produce more children. Besides, they had enough money and resources for it.Today, the baby boomers population is one of the largest in the United States. In fact, there were almost 76 million Americans born during the baby boomers period. This means that they represent about 28 percent of the United States population. This is considered as one of the largest in the United States history.You have to consider that there are now millions of aging baby boomers today who have reached mid-life. Because of the significantly high population of the baby boomers generation, they contributed a lot to the United States. They were the manpower who was also responsible for the increasing economy of the United States. In fact, you can even consider the baby boomers as the economy of the United States.The baby boomers today also hold a large amount of government offices. In fact, the highest office in the United States already had 2 baby boomers, namely Bill Clinton and the incumbent president George W. Bush.You have to expect that baby boomers will be on the political scenery for quite some time.Also, because of the advancement of technology in the medical field, baby boomers are expected to live longer than their predecessors. Today, they now have access to advanced medical technology and great quality health care.You should also expect baby boomers getting a hold of the judicial system for a long time in the United States. Statistics have suggested that baby boomers will be in political power up until 2010 to 2015. And, the political influence of baby boomers will be around for quite a long time.Expect that society will further be influenced by baby boomers in the future and political views will be one of the fields that most baby boomers will have influence on. | <urn:uuid:3510aef3-0f70-474d-a12d-d8b799d3a4ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://codepost.org/during-lot-of-money-and-also-services-for/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00060.warc.gz | en | 0.980718 | 624 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | During the period between 1946 and 1964 or between post World War II and the Vietnam War, a significant increase of birth rate was recorded. This generation was called the baby boomers generation.If you were born within the years 1946 and 1964, you can consider yourself as part of the baby boomers generation. This particular generation is one of the generations that contributed a lot in politics and also to the culture of the United States.The main cause of the baby boom was the after effect of World War II. In this period, cities were in rubbles and world economies that were affected severely by the war were in need for goods and services. The needs were so staggering that it is considered as the largest in peacetime.The United States have been providing a lot of money and also services for their allies in order to help them recover from the war. The United States factories which made war materials before began producing peacetime goods and materials for export. Because the United States began exporting goods and materials to the free world to help them rebuild their economy, it led to a very lucrative business and didn’t slow down up until 1958. Because of this growth, education became cheaper and many people began attending colleges and some even took second college degrees. Because of the increase in education and high incomes of families in this period, it made it possible for them to produce more children. Besides, they had enough money and resources for it.Today, the baby boomers population is one of the largest in the United States. In fact, there were almost 76 million Americans born during the baby boomers period. This means that they represent about 28 percent of the United States population. This is considered as one of the largest in the United States history.You have to consider that there are now millions of aging baby boomers today who have reached mid-life. Because of the significantly high population of the baby boomers generation, they contributed a lot to the United States. They were the manpower who was also responsible for the increasing economy of the United States. In fact, you can even consider the baby boomers as the economy of the United States.The baby boomers today also hold a large amount of government offices. In fact, the highest office in the United States already had 2 baby boomers, namely Bill Clinton and the incumbent president George W. Bush.You have to expect that baby boomers will be on the political scenery for quite some time.Also, because of the advancement of technology in the medical field, baby boomers are expected to live longer than their predecessors. Today, they now have access to advanced medical technology and great quality health care.You should also expect baby boomers getting a hold of the judicial system for a long time in the United States. Statistics have suggested that baby boomers will be in political power up until 2010 to 2015. And, the political influence of baby boomers will be around for quite a long time.Expect that society will further be influenced by baby boomers in the future and political views will be one of the fields that most baby boomers will have influence on. | 646 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Victorian Mores In Jane Ere During the Victorian era, It was just appropriate to follow a set of unmentioned guidelines acknowledged by society called mores. Some of the mores that were present In the eighteenth-century time period included the importance of the household, high standards of morality and decency, and that individuals need to be penalized or rewarded for their actions and deeds. Although these mores are not present in contemporary culture, undetectable laws still exist in society today and need to be brought to awareness cause of the history behind them.
In the Victorian unique Jane Ere, Charlotte Bronze exemplifies Victorian mores In an uncustomary way throughout the life story of a young woman called Jane Ere that deals with much abuse, both physical and psychological, from the people around her as she remains in continual look for a richer and fuller life. As Bronze uses Cane’s battles and difficulties to illustrate her hard life, she likewise utilizes them to exemplify the value of a social class, challenge the standard family ND to focus on receiving the appropriate repercussion for the action one makes.
Throughout Victorian times, it was presumed that a genuine Christian person would belong to a household. Bronze denounces this notion by making the shopping center character, Jane, an orphan. While she deals with her auntie and cousins, she is not dealt with as part of their household. After being accused of “strike [inning] a young gentleman” (John Reed), Jane is advised that she is not a real member of the Reed household as she is informed that she is something “less than a servant” (Bronze 7).
Her relatives might have easily treated her with love and kindness, however rather she was denied of a household that she not just needed, but deserved. Although Jane spends her early years without one, she finds a household towards completion of the book that gives her a sense of belonging when she stumbles upon “a bro: one [she] might be proud of one [she] could love; and two sis” (Bronze 446). The Rivers sisters and SST. John had the ability to provide the strength Jane required to push forward through her adversities.
Another more that was feel bitter during eighteenth century Victorian literature is the importance of one’s social class. Everyone was expected to come from a class that specified them. Jane has the bad luck of belonging to a rather low social class and Is constantly reminded of the fact. She Is treated as If she Is a beggar at the Reeds’ house as John Reed informs her she “should beg” for everything due to the fact that she” [has] no money” and everything comes from him (Bronze 5). The agonizing pointers continue as Jane is employed at Threefold Hall as a governess.
At one point in her stay, Jane is asked by her master, Edward Rochester, toxic substance him in a video game of charades when among his upscale guests calls her” too stupid for any game of the sort” which reminds her that she belongs to a lower class than, not just the Inconsiderate home guest, however to Mr. Rochester too (Bronze 207). This time In her life, filled with difficulty and continuous tips of how she wasn’t at all sufficient, would soon come to an abrupt end when she finds out that she has an uncle who had actually passed away and willed to her a great amount of cash.
This event in her life gave Jane the opportunity to rise up the social ladder along with display her kindness to her long lost family, the Rivers. Poetic Justice is another more that becomes more obvious as the story progresses. Of health” caused by a stroke due to her kid’s death (Bronze 253). John is penalized in this kind of Justice for the physical and psychological abuse he put his cousin through. Additionally, Mrs. Reed is penalized for enabling her boy to abuse Jane, who she guaranteed she would take care of.
Auntie Reed is likewise punished for her actions as she sees with the guilt of knowing she never genuinely accepted Jane as a part of her own household. Mr. Rochester is punished for all that he has actually put Jane through. While concealing the reality that his “spouse [was] still living” in the 3rd story floor of Threefold, he is founded guilty of being a bigamist (Bronze 334). During the Victorian time period, conducting such practices was not only unlawful, however consistently unbearable and socially undesirable. Edward Rochester’s Justice was given him as he is badly injured and becoming “stone blind” as his house was burnt down. Bronze 498). Justice is brought to people who deserve it for their misdeeds and wrongdoings and for the Reeds and Mr. Rochester, they got what they deserved based on their actions. Most of the time Justice is undesirable. In the case of Jane Ere, however, Justice works in her favor. Because she is guilty of absolutely nothing, Jane has nothing to be penalized for. She is rewarded with “3 relations … Born into [her] world complete grown” (Bronze 446). The Rivers siblings bless Walking cane’s life as they treat her as their own sister and not somebody who is in a class that is underneath their own.
Jane is also rewarded with a household of her own after lastly weding Rochester and subsequently having her first child. Being bad and dissatisfied the majority of her life, Jane Ere is brought Justice when she discovers that her passed uncle “has left [Jane] all his property’ and she ends up being “abundant- rather an heiress” worth 20,000 pounds (Bronze 442). Throughout the story of Jane Ere, Jane had a hard time to continue through every phase of her life. Through poetic justice, Jane is able to get what she has should have for such a long period of time. She is compensated with wealth and family.
While her brand-new family has the ability to supply her with the love and assistance she was denied of when she was young, wealth has the ability to secure her self-reliance. She is no longer restrained to and relying on another, however offering herself. Throughout the Victorian period, one was presumed to be a part of a household, come from a social class and get what they should have based upon their actions through Justice. In Charlotte Bronze’s novel, Jane Ere, she utilizes Cane’s battles and difficulties to illustrate her difficult life, however also to exemplify the mores that existed during the eighteenth century period. | <urn:uuid:9b98c53c-d09e-4477-b072-6eb2e5a513bd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://whisperseer.com/jane-eyre-victorian-mores | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.9842 | 1,380 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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-0.02789347... | 1 | Victorian Mores In Jane Ere During the Victorian era, It was just appropriate to follow a set of unmentioned guidelines acknowledged by society called mores. Some of the mores that were present In the eighteenth-century time period included the importance of the household, high standards of morality and decency, and that individuals need to be penalized or rewarded for their actions and deeds. Although these mores are not present in contemporary culture, undetectable laws still exist in society today and need to be brought to awareness cause of the history behind them.
In the Victorian unique Jane Ere, Charlotte Bronze exemplifies Victorian mores In an uncustomary way throughout the life story of a young woman called Jane Ere that deals with much abuse, both physical and psychological, from the people around her as she remains in continual look for a richer and fuller life. As Bronze uses Cane’s battles and difficulties to illustrate her hard life, she likewise utilizes them to exemplify the value of a social class, challenge the standard family ND to focus on receiving the appropriate repercussion for the action one makes.
Throughout Victorian times, it was presumed that a genuine Christian person would belong to a household. Bronze denounces this notion by making the shopping center character, Jane, an orphan. While she deals with her auntie and cousins, she is not dealt with as part of their household. After being accused of “strike [inning] a young gentleman” (John Reed), Jane is advised that she is not a real member of the Reed household as she is informed that she is something “less than a servant” (Bronze 7).
Her relatives might have easily treated her with love and kindness, however rather she was denied of a household that she not just needed, but deserved. Although Jane spends her early years without one, she finds a household towards completion of the book that gives her a sense of belonging when she stumbles upon “a bro: one [she] might be proud of one [she] could love; and two sis” (Bronze 446). The Rivers sisters and SST. John had the ability to provide the strength Jane required to push forward through her adversities.
Another more that was feel bitter during eighteenth century Victorian literature is the importance of one’s social class. Everyone was expected to come from a class that specified them. Jane has the bad luck of belonging to a rather low social class and Is constantly reminded of the fact. She Is treated as If she Is a beggar at the Reeds’ house as John Reed informs her she “should beg” for everything due to the fact that she” [has] no money” and everything comes from him (Bronze 5). The agonizing pointers continue as Jane is employed at Threefold Hall as a governess.
At one point in her stay, Jane is asked by her master, Edward Rochester, toxic substance him in a video game of charades when among his upscale guests calls her” too stupid for any game of the sort” which reminds her that she belongs to a lower class than, not just the Inconsiderate home guest, however to Mr. Rochester too (Bronze 207). This time In her life, filled with difficulty and continuous tips of how she wasn’t at all sufficient, would soon come to an abrupt end when she finds out that she has an uncle who had actually passed away and willed to her a great amount of cash.
This event in her life gave Jane the opportunity to rise up the social ladder along with display her kindness to her long lost family, the Rivers. Poetic Justice is another more that becomes more obvious as the story progresses. Of health” caused by a stroke due to her kid’s death (Bronze 253). John is penalized in this kind of Justice for the physical and psychological abuse he put his cousin through. Additionally, Mrs. Reed is penalized for enabling her boy to abuse Jane, who she guaranteed she would take care of.
Auntie Reed is likewise punished for her actions as she sees with the guilt of knowing she never genuinely accepted Jane as a part of her own household. Mr. Rochester is punished for all that he has actually put Jane through. While concealing the reality that his “spouse [was] still living” in the 3rd story floor of Threefold, he is founded guilty of being a bigamist (Bronze 334). During the Victorian time period, conducting such practices was not only unlawful, however consistently unbearable and socially undesirable. Edward Rochester’s Justice was given him as he is badly injured and becoming “stone blind” as his house was burnt down. Bronze 498). Justice is brought to people who deserve it for their misdeeds and wrongdoings and for the Reeds and Mr. Rochester, they got what they deserved based on their actions. Most of the time Justice is undesirable. In the case of Jane Ere, however, Justice works in her favor. Because she is guilty of absolutely nothing, Jane has nothing to be penalized for. She is rewarded with “3 relations … Born into [her] world complete grown” (Bronze 446). The Rivers siblings bless Walking cane’s life as they treat her as their own sister and not somebody who is in a class that is underneath their own.
Jane is also rewarded with a household of her own after lastly weding Rochester and subsequently having her first child. Being bad and dissatisfied the majority of her life, Jane Ere is brought Justice when she discovers that her passed uncle “has left [Jane] all his property’ and she ends up being “abundant- rather an heiress” worth 20,000 pounds (Bronze 442). Throughout the story of Jane Ere, Jane had a hard time to continue through every phase of her life. Through poetic justice, Jane is able to get what she has should have for such a long period of time. She is compensated with wealth and family.
While her brand-new family has the ability to supply her with the love and assistance she was denied of when she was young, wealth has the ability to secure her self-reliance. She is no longer restrained to and relying on another, however offering herself. Throughout the Victorian period, one was presumed to be a part of a household, come from a social class and get what they should have based upon their actions through Justice. In Charlotte Bronze’s novel, Jane Ere, she utilizes Cane’s battles and difficulties to illustrate her difficult life, however also to exemplify the mores that existed during the eighteenth century period. | 1,346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This historical marker was placed in 1910 for an ambush that occurred near this location on July 30, 1813. The ambush was part of a larger battle for control of the region between Native Americans and the United States and Great Britain. Native Americans attacked US forces near this location but the ambush failed and seventeen Native Americans perished.
General Harrison’s goal was to take Detroit back and then invade Canada where the British and their Native American allies were located. Once General William Henry Harrison learned of British plans to attack Fort Stephenson and sent orders for his troops at Fort Stephenson to evacuate. Harrison's messenger got lost along the way and by the time the men received the message the British had already arrived. Major Croghan decided that it was better to stay put than risk being outnumbered by the British outside of the fort.
Major Ball and his squadron were headed alongside Col. Wells 17th U.S. Infantry to release Major Croghan of the command of Fort Stephenson. Major Croghan was accused of insubordination after refusing to leave the fort. Later, General Harrison retracted his command to remove Major Croghan due to his victory over the British. | <urn:uuid:ab02a8da-4585-42e1-bdc0-6987dcdf3dda> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/57649 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00473.warc.gz | en | 0.985958 | 230 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.157064110040664... | 2 | This historical marker was placed in 1910 for an ambush that occurred near this location on July 30, 1813. The ambush was part of a larger battle for control of the region between Native Americans and the United States and Great Britain. Native Americans attacked US forces near this location but the ambush failed and seventeen Native Americans perished.
General Harrison’s goal was to take Detroit back and then invade Canada where the British and their Native American allies were located. Once General William Henry Harrison learned of British plans to attack Fort Stephenson and sent orders for his troops at Fort Stephenson to evacuate. Harrison's messenger got lost along the way and by the time the men received the message the British had already arrived. Major Croghan decided that it was better to stay put than risk being outnumbered by the British outside of the fort.
Major Ball and his squadron were headed alongside Col. Wells 17th U.S. Infantry to release Major Croghan of the command of Fort Stephenson. Major Croghan was accused of insubordination after refusing to leave the fort. Later, General Harrison retracted his command to remove Major Croghan due to his victory over the British. | 241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Greenwich Hospital was founded on the belief that England should look after her injured and aged sailors.
'The Darling Object of my life'
It was the cherished dream of Queen Mary, wife of William III, that England should pay what she viewed as a long-standing debt to the men who had fought to protect the country.
Plans had existed through previous reigns to build a home for old and disabled seamen, similar to the provision for soldiers at the Royal Chelsea Hospital. Little progress had been made, however, until Queen Mary expressed her personal concern. At first William did not share his wife's enthusiasm, but after her sudden death in 1694 he granted a charter to carry out her wishes.
He even backdated the charter to a time before her death so that it could be issued in both their names.
How did Queen Mary and King William come to the throne?
Mary Stuart and her husband, William of Orange, were Protestants who became rulers of England in 1688 when the 'Glorious (and bloodless) Revolution' forced her Catholic father, James II, from the throne.
Mary was well-loved by the nation and her support for soldier-king William helped him to raise England's political and economic profile in Europe. William and Mary were devoted to each other and on her premature death in December 1694 from smallpox, he was distraught with grief.
What site was chosen for the Hospital?
The Royal Charter granted the 'Royal Palace and Grounds at Greenwich' on the southern bank of the Thames as the site for the Hospital. There had been a palace at Greenwich for centuries, although by the time of Charles II, the old Tudor palace of Placentia (the 'Pleasant Palace'), birthplace of Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, had fallen into disrepair. Charles II planned to rebuild the palace, employing Christopher Wren as architect.
Before the project was finished, however, Charles ran out of money, so only one block of the 'Grand Design' was completed.
The earlier Queen's House, designed by Inigo Jones for Anne of Denmark, wife of James I, remained in its position south of Wren's buildings. Wren only kept this building in his 'Grand Design' for Greenwich because Queen Mary wanted to keep the view, or 'visto' of the river.
Why was Queen Mary concerned about the fate of seamen?
Many sailors were disabled as a result of injuries sustained during the various fierce sea battles fought during the 17th century. Without other means of support, often such men were reduced to begging in order to survive. On 21 May 1692, news arrived of Admiral Russell's great victory against the French at the Battle of La Hogue.
Mary was so moved by the plight of sailors maimed in this action that she personally sent surgeons to treat them in Portsmouth. Within a week the Treasury heard word that
'The Queen desires you to hasten ...the grant of Greenwich as a hospital for seamen.'
What were the aims of the Greenwich Hospital Charter?
The principal aims of the charter, dated 25 October 1694, were:
The relief and support of seamen serving on board ...ships.. belonging to the Royal Navy ...who by reason of age, wounds or other disabilities ...shall be...incapable of further service and unable to maintain themselves.The sustentation of the widows of seamen.The maintenance and education of children of seamen.
Who were the architects of Greenwich Hospital?
The list of designers involved in the Hospital project read like a 'who's who' of the most renowned 17th and 18th century architects.
Sir Christopher Wren was responsible for the original 'Grand Design' for the Hospital. It was Wren who transformed the London skyline by his rebuilding of the city churches after the Great Fire of 1666, with St. Paul's cathedral as his greatest triumph. Wren's assistant and clerk was Nicolas Hawksmoor, architect of further churches including St. Alphege in Greenwich, all of which had a highly individual style. Hawksmoor was appointed Site Architect for Greenwich Hospital. Wren's successor as surveyor to the Hospital was Sir John Vanbrugh, who combined his career as architect with that of soldier and dramatist.
It was Vanbrugh who added the touches of grandeur to the design, turning accommodation for old sailors into a magnificent national monument.
He also commissioned artist John Thornhill to decorate the walls and ceiling of the splendid Painted Hall. Thornhill was knighted for his twenty years of work on this project for which he was paid 'piece-work', £3 per yard for the ceiling, £1 per yard for the walls.
Records also show that a Mr Daniel Foe was contracted to supply bricks for the building. He later became famous as Daniel Defoe, author of Robinson Crusoe.
How was the Hospital funded?
Royal Commission was set up to carry out Wren's plans. The diarist, John Evelyn was appointed Treasurer, a position which he fulfilled with unfailing effort and at some personal financial cost. Among his advisers was fellow diarist, Samuel Pepys. Funding the Hospital, both for its building and maintenance, was always a problem for successive governments, and a variety of sources of income were sought. These included fundraising from private subscriptions, a lottery, prize money from enemy ships captured in the great 18th-century naval wars, and fines and confiscated wealth.
The most famous contribution in the final category came, unwittingly, from the forfeited treasure of Captain Kidd who had been executed for piracy.
An early source of funding also came from the Chatham Chest – an early form of insurance for seamen, established in 1588 at the time of the Spanish Armada, which required sailors to pay six pence a month into a 'pension fund'. This fund was later transferred to the Greenwich Hospital.
When was the Hospital completed?
By 1714 the aims of the charter were finally met. Old and wounded sailors were being cared for, as were their widows and children. A school was founded for the teaching of writing, arithmetic and navigation.
What was the later history of Greenwich Hospital?
Throughout the 18th century, the Hospital met an acute need, reaching its highest level of care during the Napoleonic Wars. By 1814, the original provision for one hundred pensioners had grown to 2710. However, during the Victorian era there were changes in patterns of war and the attitude of governments towards social responsibility which reduced this need. For example, the establishment of government-funded naval pensions in 1873 took over much of the role of the Hospital. When the Hospital closed, the main buildings were transferred to the Royal Naval College, which occupied the site until 1997.
What happened to the Greenwich Hospital School?
The school continued into the present century. However, in 1933 it moved from its Greenwich premises, which included the Queen's House, plus the East and West wings and colonnades, to its present site at Holbrook, near Ipswich in Suffolk. When the hospital closed, the vacated buildings became the home of the National Maritime Museum.
What happened to objects from the hospital when it closed?
The National Maritime Museum has inherited and exhibits many objects from the old Greenwich Hospital. One of these, a ceramic jug, has a ballad, ' The Greenwich Pensioner' printed on its sides. This popular song sums up the career and attitude of a typical inhabitant of Greenwich Hospital. In the final verse the pensioner sings :
Yet still I am enabled
To bring up in life's rear
Although I am disabled
And lie in Greenwich tier
The King, God bless His Majesty
Who saved me from the main
I'll praise with love and loyalty
But ne'er to sea again! | <urn:uuid:c320d814-d959-4c13-83a3-3822761e8b16> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rmg.co.uk/discover/explore/greenwich-hospital-0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00434.warc.gz | en | 0.9821 | 1,613 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.456416636705... | 2 | Greenwich Hospital was founded on the belief that England should look after her injured and aged sailors.
'The Darling Object of my life'
It was the cherished dream of Queen Mary, wife of William III, that England should pay what she viewed as a long-standing debt to the men who had fought to protect the country.
Plans had existed through previous reigns to build a home for old and disabled seamen, similar to the provision for soldiers at the Royal Chelsea Hospital. Little progress had been made, however, until Queen Mary expressed her personal concern. At first William did not share his wife's enthusiasm, but after her sudden death in 1694 he granted a charter to carry out her wishes.
He even backdated the charter to a time before her death so that it could be issued in both their names.
How did Queen Mary and King William come to the throne?
Mary Stuart and her husband, William of Orange, were Protestants who became rulers of England in 1688 when the 'Glorious (and bloodless) Revolution' forced her Catholic father, James II, from the throne.
Mary was well-loved by the nation and her support for soldier-king William helped him to raise England's political and economic profile in Europe. William and Mary were devoted to each other and on her premature death in December 1694 from smallpox, he was distraught with grief.
What site was chosen for the Hospital?
The Royal Charter granted the 'Royal Palace and Grounds at Greenwich' on the southern bank of the Thames as the site for the Hospital. There had been a palace at Greenwich for centuries, although by the time of Charles II, the old Tudor palace of Placentia (the 'Pleasant Palace'), birthplace of Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, had fallen into disrepair. Charles II planned to rebuild the palace, employing Christopher Wren as architect.
Before the project was finished, however, Charles ran out of money, so only one block of the 'Grand Design' was completed.
The earlier Queen's House, designed by Inigo Jones for Anne of Denmark, wife of James I, remained in its position south of Wren's buildings. Wren only kept this building in his 'Grand Design' for Greenwich because Queen Mary wanted to keep the view, or 'visto' of the river.
Why was Queen Mary concerned about the fate of seamen?
Many sailors were disabled as a result of injuries sustained during the various fierce sea battles fought during the 17th century. Without other means of support, often such men were reduced to begging in order to survive. On 21 May 1692, news arrived of Admiral Russell's great victory against the French at the Battle of La Hogue.
Mary was so moved by the plight of sailors maimed in this action that she personally sent surgeons to treat them in Portsmouth. Within a week the Treasury heard word that
'The Queen desires you to hasten ...the grant of Greenwich as a hospital for seamen.'
What were the aims of the Greenwich Hospital Charter?
The principal aims of the charter, dated 25 October 1694, were:
The relief and support of seamen serving on board ...ships.. belonging to the Royal Navy ...who by reason of age, wounds or other disabilities ...shall be...incapable of further service and unable to maintain themselves.The sustentation of the widows of seamen.The maintenance and education of children of seamen.
Who were the architects of Greenwich Hospital?
The list of designers involved in the Hospital project read like a 'who's who' of the most renowned 17th and 18th century architects.
Sir Christopher Wren was responsible for the original 'Grand Design' for the Hospital. It was Wren who transformed the London skyline by his rebuilding of the city churches after the Great Fire of 1666, with St. Paul's cathedral as his greatest triumph. Wren's assistant and clerk was Nicolas Hawksmoor, architect of further churches including St. Alphege in Greenwich, all of which had a highly individual style. Hawksmoor was appointed Site Architect for Greenwich Hospital. Wren's successor as surveyor to the Hospital was Sir John Vanbrugh, who combined his career as architect with that of soldier and dramatist.
It was Vanbrugh who added the touches of grandeur to the design, turning accommodation for old sailors into a magnificent national monument.
He also commissioned artist John Thornhill to decorate the walls and ceiling of the splendid Painted Hall. Thornhill was knighted for his twenty years of work on this project for which he was paid 'piece-work', £3 per yard for the ceiling, £1 per yard for the walls.
Records also show that a Mr Daniel Foe was contracted to supply bricks for the building. He later became famous as Daniel Defoe, author of Robinson Crusoe.
How was the Hospital funded?
Royal Commission was set up to carry out Wren's plans. The diarist, John Evelyn was appointed Treasurer, a position which he fulfilled with unfailing effort and at some personal financial cost. Among his advisers was fellow diarist, Samuel Pepys. Funding the Hospital, both for its building and maintenance, was always a problem for successive governments, and a variety of sources of income were sought. These included fundraising from private subscriptions, a lottery, prize money from enemy ships captured in the great 18th-century naval wars, and fines and confiscated wealth.
The most famous contribution in the final category came, unwittingly, from the forfeited treasure of Captain Kidd who had been executed for piracy.
An early source of funding also came from the Chatham Chest – an early form of insurance for seamen, established in 1588 at the time of the Spanish Armada, which required sailors to pay six pence a month into a 'pension fund'. This fund was later transferred to the Greenwich Hospital.
When was the Hospital completed?
By 1714 the aims of the charter were finally met. Old and wounded sailors were being cared for, as were their widows and children. A school was founded for the teaching of writing, arithmetic and navigation.
What was the later history of Greenwich Hospital?
Throughout the 18th century, the Hospital met an acute need, reaching its highest level of care during the Napoleonic Wars. By 1814, the original provision for one hundred pensioners had grown to 2710. However, during the Victorian era there were changes in patterns of war and the attitude of governments towards social responsibility which reduced this need. For example, the establishment of government-funded naval pensions in 1873 took over much of the role of the Hospital. When the Hospital closed, the main buildings were transferred to the Royal Naval College, which occupied the site until 1997.
What happened to the Greenwich Hospital School?
The school continued into the present century. However, in 1933 it moved from its Greenwich premises, which included the Queen's House, plus the East and West wings and colonnades, to its present site at Holbrook, near Ipswich in Suffolk. When the hospital closed, the vacated buildings became the home of the National Maritime Museum.
What happened to objects from the hospital when it closed?
The National Maritime Museum has inherited and exhibits many objects from the old Greenwich Hospital. One of these, a ceramic jug, has a ballad, ' The Greenwich Pensioner' printed on its sides. This popular song sums up the career and attitude of a typical inhabitant of Greenwich Hospital. In the final verse the pensioner sings :
Yet still I am enabled
To bring up in life's rear
Although I am disabled
And lie in Greenwich tier
The King, God bless His Majesty
Who saved me from the main
I'll praise with love and loyalty
But ne'er to sea again! | 1,626 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Purges in the USSR
The purges in the USSR started in the mid-1930’s and continued throughout the late 1930’s. Joseph Stalin had shared power with Zinoviev and Kamenev in the time after the death of Lenin (1924) and he had no intention of ever being put in that position again. By the mid-1930’s Stalin believed that the Bolshevik Party ‘Old Guard’ represented a threat to him and unless he did something about them they would remove him from power. Stalin suspected everyone who had any semblance of power and he wanted them dealt with. For the purges to start Stalin wanted to give the process a degree of legal legitimacy. In December 1934, the popular party head of Leningrad, Sergei Kirov, was murdered. What part Stalin played in this remains an issue that historians are not fully agreed on. Stalin, adhering to his policy of making the whole issue look legitimate, asked the Politburo for their support to purge the party so that certain elements could be removed. The Politburo gave Stalin their support for this and the purges began.
The first people rounded up were labelled ‘Trotskyites’. They were put in prisons run by the NKVD who, according to the very few that survived this experience, used both physical and psychological torture to gain information about other ‘traitors’ to the cause. The NKVD also did what it could to get signed confessions out of those they dealt with. Stalin himself upped the ante when he signed a decree that made families liable for the crimes committed by their husband or father. Children aged 12 could also be executed under this decree. Basically no one was safe. However, the people that had good reason to be very fearful were those who Stalin believed were a challenge to his position and one of the most common charges made against an arrested person was plotting to kill Stalin. The NKVD needed a confession and they proved very adept at their work. One member of the NKVD stated that given the time he could get anyone to sign a confession that they were “the king of England”. Given the nature of the work they did, there are no clear figures for the number of people arrested by the NKVD. If anyone enquired, then they themselves would have been viewed as suspect in the extreme.
In keeping with Stalin’s desire to maintain an air of legality to the purges, major figures were given the ‘luxury’ of a public trial – the so-called show trials. A guilty verdict at the end of these stage-managed trials was an inevitability. Many signed a confession knowing that what they had confessed to was wrong. In his book “Darkness at Noon” Arthur Koestler commented that many in NKVD prisons saw death as the best way out of life in these prisons and signed confessions knowing that they were in effect signing their own death warrants but death was a swift way out. To what extent this is true is impossible to know as no one survived their execution! Some did survive NKVD prisons and the gulags and later wrote about their experiences (such as Alexander Solzhenitsyn in “One day in the life of Ivan Denisovich”) and what unites all of these books is the appalling life they must have led while in these establishments while they had to live with the knowledge that an early release was all but impossible. For them death must have seemed a release. But for Stalin a signed confession was like a trophy to parade among the people as proof of his suspicions of their treasonable behaviour.
It has been estimated that between 1934 and 1939, one million party members were arrested and executed. During the same period it is thought that 10 million were sent to the gulags with many of them dying – either in transit or as a result of the terrible living conditions they had to endure.
Stalin used the purges to promote his own people to positions of responsibility. Whereas before the NKVD had assured him that through their interrogations they had found out that hundreds of the ‘Old Guard’ were plotting against him, Stalin could feel content that while the purges went on, he had loyal people in place. These people would have known what had happened to their predecessors – the newspapers openly published trial reports with Stalin’s blessing – and by the very nature of this, they would have known that it was common-sense to be openly loyal to Stalin as he was their benefactor.
Not everything went as the NKVD had planned. Nikolas Krestinsky is a case in point. He was arrested for being a “Trotskyite”. On the first day of his trial he stated in an open court that he had been forced to sign a confession and to confess to certain crimes for which he was not guilty. “I plead not guilty to the charge of having had connections with the German intelligence.” Krestinsky also stated in court, “I am not a Trotskyite”. Clearly this could have proved an embarrassment to Stalin and the trial was quickly adjourned. What happened over the next hours is unknown but in court the next day Krestinsky apologised to the court and stated:
“I fully and completely admit that I am guilty of all the gravest charges brought against me personally and that I admit my complete responsibility for the treason and treachery I have committed.”
After admitting his guilt, the court found him guilty and he was executed.
Stalin believed that he would not trust the Red Army, especially the senior officers. He was convinced that they were plotting a coup against him. 30,000 members of the army were executed, which represented 50% of the officer corps and three out of five Marshals. Military historians have part blamed this cull of Red Army officers for the Wehrmacht’s success during the first few days of ‘Operation Barbarossa’ – that the army was led by inexperienced officers who did not know how to react to the situation the Red Army was in. The initial success of Barbarossa was built on by experienced Wehrmacht officers and the Red Army had to wait until the likes of Zhukov had made their name at Stalingrad.
With the army purged as well as the Old Guard, Stalin now felt strong enough to purge the NKVD – the very organisation that had been carrying out his desired purges. Stalin was scared that senior NKVD officers knew too much and that this information could be held against him in future years. Stalin announced that the NKVD had been infiltrated by fascists and that they had arrested and executed innocent people. Laventry Beria was appointed to hunt out the fascists in the NKVD. Many of those who held senior positions in the NKVD were found guilty and executed including three former chiefs of it.
It can be argued that the purges finally ended on August 20th 1940 when Stalin’s nemesis, Leon Trotsky, was murdered by a Soviet agent in Mexico. Trotsky was in the process of writing a biography of Stalin. His last words in the incomplete work were:
“Stalin’s first qualification was a contemptuous attitude towards ideas.”
- The Show Trials in the USSR The show trials that took place in Stalin’s USSR had a very specific purpose for Stalin. The show trials… | <urn:uuid:14ebeae5-48f4-453a-8ac9-2cf45b8d191b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/russia-1900-to-1939/the-purges-in-the-ussr/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00425.warc.gz | en | 0.993218 | 1,523 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.32668337225... | 1 | The Purges in the USSR
The purges in the USSR started in the mid-1930’s and continued throughout the late 1930’s. Joseph Stalin had shared power with Zinoviev and Kamenev in the time after the death of Lenin (1924) and he had no intention of ever being put in that position again. By the mid-1930’s Stalin believed that the Bolshevik Party ‘Old Guard’ represented a threat to him and unless he did something about them they would remove him from power. Stalin suspected everyone who had any semblance of power and he wanted them dealt with. For the purges to start Stalin wanted to give the process a degree of legal legitimacy. In December 1934, the popular party head of Leningrad, Sergei Kirov, was murdered. What part Stalin played in this remains an issue that historians are not fully agreed on. Stalin, adhering to his policy of making the whole issue look legitimate, asked the Politburo for their support to purge the party so that certain elements could be removed. The Politburo gave Stalin their support for this and the purges began.
The first people rounded up were labelled ‘Trotskyites’. They were put in prisons run by the NKVD who, according to the very few that survived this experience, used both physical and psychological torture to gain information about other ‘traitors’ to the cause. The NKVD also did what it could to get signed confessions out of those they dealt with. Stalin himself upped the ante when he signed a decree that made families liable for the crimes committed by their husband or father. Children aged 12 could also be executed under this decree. Basically no one was safe. However, the people that had good reason to be very fearful were those who Stalin believed were a challenge to his position and one of the most common charges made against an arrested person was plotting to kill Stalin. The NKVD needed a confession and they proved very adept at their work. One member of the NKVD stated that given the time he could get anyone to sign a confession that they were “the king of England”. Given the nature of the work they did, there are no clear figures for the number of people arrested by the NKVD. If anyone enquired, then they themselves would have been viewed as suspect in the extreme.
In keeping with Stalin’s desire to maintain an air of legality to the purges, major figures were given the ‘luxury’ of a public trial – the so-called show trials. A guilty verdict at the end of these stage-managed trials was an inevitability. Many signed a confession knowing that what they had confessed to was wrong. In his book “Darkness at Noon” Arthur Koestler commented that many in NKVD prisons saw death as the best way out of life in these prisons and signed confessions knowing that they were in effect signing their own death warrants but death was a swift way out. To what extent this is true is impossible to know as no one survived their execution! Some did survive NKVD prisons and the gulags and later wrote about their experiences (such as Alexander Solzhenitsyn in “One day in the life of Ivan Denisovich”) and what unites all of these books is the appalling life they must have led while in these establishments while they had to live with the knowledge that an early release was all but impossible. For them death must have seemed a release. But for Stalin a signed confession was like a trophy to parade among the people as proof of his suspicions of their treasonable behaviour.
It has been estimated that between 1934 and 1939, one million party members were arrested and executed. During the same period it is thought that 10 million were sent to the gulags with many of them dying – either in transit or as a result of the terrible living conditions they had to endure.
Stalin used the purges to promote his own people to positions of responsibility. Whereas before the NKVD had assured him that through their interrogations they had found out that hundreds of the ‘Old Guard’ were plotting against him, Stalin could feel content that while the purges went on, he had loyal people in place. These people would have known what had happened to their predecessors – the newspapers openly published trial reports with Stalin’s blessing – and by the very nature of this, they would have known that it was common-sense to be openly loyal to Stalin as he was their benefactor.
Not everything went as the NKVD had planned. Nikolas Krestinsky is a case in point. He was arrested for being a “Trotskyite”. On the first day of his trial he stated in an open court that he had been forced to sign a confession and to confess to certain crimes for which he was not guilty. “I plead not guilty to the charge of having had connections with the German intelligence.” Krestinsky also stated in court, “I am not a Trotskyite”. Clearly this could have proved an embarrassment to Stalin and the trial was quickly adjourned. What happened over the next hours is unknown but in court the next day Krestinsky apologised to the court and stated:
“I fully and completely admit that I am guilty of all the gravest charges brought against me personally and that I admit my complete responsibility for the treason and treachery I have committed.”
After admitting his guilt, the court found him guilty and he was executed.
Stalin believed that he would not trust the Red Army, especially the senior officers. He was convinced that they were plotting a coup against him. 30,000 members of the army were executed, which represented 50% of the officer corps and three out of five Marshals. Military historians have part blamed this cull of Red Army officers for the Wehrmacht’s success during the first few days of ‘Operation Barbarossa’ – that the army was led by inexperienced officers who did not know how to react to the situation the Red Army was in. The initial success of Barbarossa was built on by experienced Wehrmacht officers and the Red Army had to wait until the likes of Zhukov had made their name at Stalingrad.
With the army purged as well as the Old Guard, Stalin now felt strong enough to purge the NKVD – the very organisation that had been carrying out his desired purges. Stalin was scared that senior NKVD officers knew too much and that this information could be held against him in future years. Stalin announced that the NKVD had been infiltrated by fascists and that they had arrested and executed innocent people. Laventry Beria was appointed to hunt out the fascists in the NKVD. Many of those who held senior positions in the NKVD were found guilty and executed including three former chiefs of it.
It can be argued that the purges finally ended on August 20th 1940 when Stalin’s nemesis, Leon Trotsky, was murdered by a Soviet agent in Mexico. Trotsky was in the process of writing a biography of Stalin. His last words in the incomplete work were:
“Stalin’s first qualification was a contemptuous attitude towards ideas.”
- The Show Trials in the USSR The show trials that took place in Stalin’s USSR had a very specific purpose for Stalin. The show trials… | 1,501 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Written by Jocelyn Hitchcock, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom
“Sing, O Muse, of the man of many devices…”
Line one of the Odyssey begins like so many in ancient literature, by invoking the muses or gods. It was a common practice to ask, thank, and implore the other-worldly forces for inspiration and guidance in writing and story-telling.
The muses themselves are generally split into two different generations: the “Elder” and the “Younger.” The Younger Muses are perhaps more widely known, as they were often represented on Mount Olympus or in the company of Dionysus and Apollo. Stories, music, and dance were all a part of their entertainment repertoire, performing in joy and in sorrow, as they were said to have been present even at the funerals of Achilles and Patroclus, lamenting the deceased and their honors in life.
It is the Younger Muses, as Hesiod referred to them in his Theogony, that Calliope, the muse of eloquence and epic poetry, belonged to. Calliope was the eldest of the muse offspring between Zeus and Mnemosyne (the goddess of memory), supposedly conceived on the first night of the partnership. Calliope was also the mother of Orpheus, fathered by Oiagros, the Thracian king, who caused “stones and trees to move” with his own singing.
Calliope is usually depicted with a lyre, tablet, or stylus, representing her written and verbal talents. She doesn’t usually appear by herself in stories, but with her sisters complementing one another.
Calliope, being the muse of eloquence, is naturally closely linked with the mortal world. It is said that she was the one who gifted kings with the ability to speak with grace and power when they were babies by anointing their lips with honey. In this way, when the babies grew up, they were able to “utter true judgments” and “would soon make wise end even of a great quarrel” (Hesiod, Theogony, 75).
Depictions in Art
As the muses as a whole were incredibly influential in the mortal and divine world, it comes as no surprise that they were depicted at length in classical art. Calliope, being considered the eldest, the muse at the helm of her sisters, was a popular subject. She is depicted on dozens of Athenian red figure vases, mosaics, and sculptures.
One famous depiction is on the Francois Vase, a large Attic volute krater produced by the artist Ergotimos around 570 BCE. You can see her identified by name on the upper belly of the vase next to two horses, Zeus, and Ourania, who Calliope leads the procession with. The other 7 muses are depicted behind Zeus. Seen frontally on the vase, Calliope occupies an interesting position of dominance.
In more recent art, such as the painting by Charles Meynier in 1798, Calliope is depicted as directly inspiring the Homeric epics. While she is not specifically named at the opening of epics—just a general ‘muse’ being used to invoke the ethereal realm—Calliope being the oldest, most prominent, and most associated with eloquence, makes it likely that she was the intended muse.
Other renderings of Calliope depict her in the classical style we are familiar with: flowing robes, a tablet or writing instrument, and austere but serene countenance.
Overall, the 9 Muses continue to be treated as a cohesive unit, operating in pursuit of a common goal. However, Calliope is presented and revered as one of the more prominent of muses, no doubt due to the fact that she is intimately tied to the Homeric epics and feats of leaders. She operates immediately behind the scenes, never far from the action. | <urn:uuid:fe4f8baf-7d24-4727-b07c-0b3f71f49560> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://classicalwisdom.com/mythology/calliope-muse-of-eloquence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.981851 | 830 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.4691539406776... | 10 | Written by Jocelyn Hitchcock, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom
“Sing, O Muse, of the man of many devices…”
Line one of the Odyssey begins like so many in ancient literature, by invoking the muses or gods. It was a common practice to ask, thank, and implore the other-worldly forces for inspiration and guidance in writing and story-telling.
The muses themselves are generally split into two different generations: the “Elder” and the “Younger.” The Younger Muses are perhaps more widely known, as they were often represented on Mount Olympus or in the company of Dionysus and Apollo. Stories, music, and dance were all a part of their entertainment repertoire, performing in joy and in sorrow, as they were said to have been present even at the funerals of Achilles and Patroclus, lamenting the deceased and their honors in life.
It is the Younger Muses, as Hesiod referred to them in his Theogony, that Calliope, the muse of eloquence and epic poetry, belonged to. Calliope was the eldest of the muse offspring between Zeus and Mnemosyne (the goddess of memory), supposedly conceived on the first night of the partnership. Calliope was also the mother of Orpheus, fathered by Oiagros, the Thracian king, who caused “stones and trees to move” with his own singing.
Calliope is usually depicted with a lyre, tablet, or stylus, representing her written and verbal talents. She doesn’t usually appear by herself in stories, but with her sisters complementing one another.
Calliope, being the muse of eloquence, is naturally closely linked with the mortal world. It is said that she was the one who gifted kings with the ability to speak with grace and power when they were babies by anointing their lips with honey. In this way, when the babies grew up, they were able to “utter true judgments” and “would soon make wise end even of a great quarrel” (Hesiod, Theogony, 75).
Depictions in Art
As the muses as a whole were incredibly influential in the mortal and divine world, it comes as no surprise that they were depicted at length in classical art. Calliope, being considered the eldest, the muse at the helm of her sisters, was a popular subject. She is depicted on dozens of Athenian red figure vases, mosaics, and sculptures.
One famous depiction is on the Francois Vase, a large Attic volute krater produced by the artist Ergotimos around 570 BCE. You can see her identified by name on the upper belly of the vase next to two horses, Zeus, and Ourania, who Calliope leads the procession with. The other 7 muses are depicted behind Zeus. Seen frontally on the vase, Calliope occupies an interesting position of dominance.
In more recent art, such as the painting by Charles Meynier in 1798, Calliope is depicted as directly inspiring the Homeric epics. While she is not specifically named at the opening of epics—just a general ‘muse’ being used to invoke the ethereal realm—Calliope being the oldest, most prominent, and most associated with eloquence, makes it likely that she was the intended muse.
Other renderings of Calliope depict her in the classical style we are familiar with: flowing robes, a tablet or writing instrument, and austere but serene countenance.
Overall, the 9 Muses continue to be treated as a cohesive unit, operating in pursuit of a common goal. However, Calliope is presented and revered as one of the more prominent of muses, no doubt due to the fact that she is intimately tied to the Homeric epics and feats of leaders. She operates immediately behind the scenes, never far from the action. | 813 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Spanish Treasure Fleets
Why did these ships sink in Florida waters? Where were they coming from?
Where were they going? And why were they carrying so much treasure?
The marriage in 1469 of Isabella, heir to the throne of Castile, and Ferdinand, King of Sicily and heir to the throne of Aragon, set the stage for the unification of multiple Iberian Peninsula kingdoms and the birth of the kingdom of Spain.
Their sponsorship of the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus intended to establish a western route to the Orient, but resulting in the ‘discovery’ of the Americas, was the precursor to the rise of a global empire.
News of Columbus's discovery was received by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain upon his first return from America. It was as much the thrill and prestige of discovery that fueled the ambitions of Christopher Columbus and the legions of Conquistadors who followed in his wake as it was the lure of gold.
Columbus's “New World” turned out to be abundant in mineral wealth, in particular the precious metal silver. The young kingdom of Spain did not have its own reliable source of mineral wealth, so with a need for money and a conviction of entitlement to acquire it at any cost, its approach was to plunder the resources of others. By the 1500’s, the New World had been conquered and Spain had taken control of much of its peoples and wealth.
In order to control the torrent of silver flowing from rapidly colonizing Spanish dominions, royal mints were established at key locations with rich mines in the New World. To transport all of this treasure back to Spain, massive wooden ships were built which sailed in organized fleets, or flotas, each with a particular purpose and route. Each year, these fleets voyaged from Spain to the Americas along a route called the Carrera de Indias. By the time King Philip IV inherited the throne in 1621, New World silver in the form of the Spanish dollar was the most coveted money on earth. Because Spain had control of all this silver, it was the most powerful kingdom in the world. Because the royal court was lavish in its’ lifestyle, and at war much of the time, the kingdom of Spain was also deeply in dept. When ships with rich cargos were lost due to storms, pirate raids, or human error, the economic impact was immediate, far reaching, and devastating.
MRR Shipwreck Projects:
Columbus is received by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain upon his first return from America. | <urn:uuid:39157f66-5097-4b74-bc1f-91c19e12a5f0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mrronline.com/copy-of-history-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.981955 | 526 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.227547... | 20 | Spanish Treasure Fleets
Why did these ships sink in Florida waters? Where were they coming from?
Where were they going? And why were they carrying so much treasure?
The marriage in 1469 of Isabella, heir to the throne of Castile, and Ferdinand, King of Sicily and heir to the throne of Aragon, set the stage for the unification of multiple Iberian Peninsula kingdoms and the birth of the kingdom of Spain.
Their sponsorship of the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus intended to establish a western route to the Orient, but resulting in the ‘discovery’ of the Americas, was the precursor to the rise of a global empire.
News of Columbus's discovery was received by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain upon his first return from America. It was as much the thrill and prestige of discovery that fueled the ambitions of Christopher Columbus and the legions of Conquistadors who followed in his wake as it was the lure of gold.
Columbus's “New World” turned out to be abundant in mineral wealth, in particular the precious metal silver. The young kingdom of Spain did not have its own reliable source of mineral wealth, so with a need for money and a conviction of entitlement to acquire it at any cost, its approach was to plunder the resources of others. By the 1500’s, the New World had been conquered and Spain had taken control of much of its peoples and wealth.
In order to control the torrent of silver flowing from rapidly colonizing Spanish dominions, royal mints were established at key locations with rich mines in the New World. To transport all of this treasure back to Spain, massive wooden ships were built which sailed in organized fleets, or flotas, each with a particular purpose and route. Each year, these fleets voyaged from Spain to the Americas along a route called the Carrera de Indias. By the time King Philip IV inherited the throne in 1621, New World silver in the form of the Spanish dollar was the most coveted money on earth. Because Spain had control of all this silver, it was the most powerful kingdom in the world. Because the royal court was lavish in its’ lifestyle, and at war much of the time, the kingdom of Spain was also deeply in dept. When ships with rich cargos were lost due to storms, pirate raids, or human error, the economic impact was immediate, far reaching, and devastating.
MRR Shipwreck Projects:
Columbus is received by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain upon his first return from America. | 526 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How should the Scots who migrated to the Ulster plantations be characterized?
Ans. 1: They were essentially the dregs of society, being the poorest of the poor and from the Lowland area of Scotland, involving none of the more respectable Highlanders. Ans. 2: At the time they migrated to Ulster, 90% of the population of Scotland lived in the Lowlands and it was the most backward nation in Europe. Those migrating to Ulster were typical of the majority of the population of Scotland at the time. The Highlanders, not involved, were even more primitive economically. When they migrated to the American colonies, were they still genetically Scots? Ans. 1: Yes. While others had migrated to the Ulster plantations, e.g., from the London area, they did not thrive and eventually returned to England. There was great animosity between the Protestant Scots and the Catholic Irish, and intermarriage was highly unlikely, even dangerous. Ans. 2: No. There was a significant amount of intermarriage between the Protestant Scots with Catholic Irish and Catholic Scots in Ulster before th | <urn:uuid:a9cc9749-b617-4162-b269-a2a3386d0c1d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.experts123.com/q/how-should-the-scots-who-migrated-to-the-ulster-plantations-be-characterized.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00374.warc.gz | en | 0.9838 | 217 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.19266305863... | 1 | How should the Scots who migrated to the Ulster plantations be characterized?
Ans. 1: They were essentially the dregs of society, being the poorest of the poor and from the Lowland area of Scotland, involving none of the more respectable Highlanders. Ans. 2: At the time they migrated to Ulster, 90% of the population of Scotland lived in the Lowlands and it was the most backward nation in Europe. Those migrating to Ulster were typical of the majority of the population of Scotland at the time. The Highlanders, not involved, were even more primitive economically. When they migrated to the American colonies, were they still genetically Scots? Ans. 1: Yes. While others had migrated to the Ulster plantations, e.g., from the London area, they did not thrive and eventually returned to England. There was great animosity between the Protestant Scots and the Catholic Irish, and intermarriage was highly unlikely, even dangerous. Ans. 2: No. There was a significant amount of intermarriage between the Protestant Scots with Catholic Irish and Catholic Scots in Ulster before th | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Haerehuka, also known as Huka, was a chief of Ngati Whakaue, of Te Arawa, and lived at Ohinemutu. His mother's name is not recorded. His father was Taiki Haerehuka. He was a descendant of Taua. Taua's wife was abducted to Taupo by Ngati Tuwharetoa and Taua took a war party in pursuit. At the rapids of Haerehuka, in the Waikato River, near Orakei Korako, Taua encouraged his followers after a defeat by pointing out a rock which at times was covered by water, but reappeared unconquered. Taua recovered his wife, and he and his descendants took the name Haerehuka.
Haerehuka excelled as an orator and a poet. He was also one of a number of Maori leaders who received goods from the trader Phillip Tapsell at Maketu, on the Bay of Plenty coast, in exchange for flax fibre. When payment for the first lot of goods was received, Tapsell supplied more goods, against the next lot of flax. According to one account Haerehuka failed to pay for goods he had received and Tapsell refused to give him more until six muskets were paid for. Haerehuka threatened to stop the flax-scraping and the supply of fibre to Tapsell. Other accounts state that Haerehuka was furious with his tribe for dividing up trade goods in his absence and leaving none for him, and for the desecration of a burial place. Whatever the cause, in 1835 Haerehuka brought war on his own people, war that was to last for nearly 10 years.
On Christmas Day 1835 Haerehuka went to the Ngati Rangiwewehi village at Parahaki, by Rotorua, where Te Hunga of Ngati Haua was visiting his daughter. Te Hunga was a relative of the powerful Ngati Haua leader Te Waharoa of Matamata. In the act of greeting Te Hunga, Haerehuka struck him dead with a tomahawk blow to the side of the head. Some accounts state that it was not Haerehuka himself who struck the fatal blow. Haerehuka and his supporters removed Te Hunga's body to Te Waerenga, on the north side of Rotorua. When Haerehuka returned to Ohinemutu, some of his people were angry with him, but others took part in eating the body of Te Hunga, to show their support for Haerehuka. War between Ngati Whakaue and Ngati Haua was inevitable, which was what Haerehuka had intended.
In the days after the killing the Rotorua district was in an uproar, as food was gathered and defences strengthened. Te Waharoa gathered an army of Ngati Haua, Ngati Maniapoto and Waikato warriors and went to Tauranga to join his Ngai Te Rangi allies. Te Arawa gathered at Maketu but Te Waharoa, by skilful manoeuvring, convinced them that Rotorua was to be the point of attack. Te Arawa went to Rotorua leaving only a small garrison at the pa at Maketu. This was attacked and overwhelmed by Te Waharoa's army on 28 March 1836. It is said that Haerehuka's mother and two sisters were killed there.
On 5 May Te Arawa attacked and captured the Ngai Te Rangi pa of Te Tumu. Haerehuka may have been at the battle of Te Tumu, and was probably at the following battle of Mataipuku, near Ohinemutu, in August, when Te Waharoa invaded the Rotorua district. This battle was inconclusive, and Te Waharoa returned to Matamata after destroying the mission station at Te Koutu. Fighting continued between Te Arawa and Ngai Te Rangi throughout the late 1830s and into the 1840s.
Peace was made in September 1845 when 400 Te Arawa Maori, including Haerehuka, visited Ngai Te Rangi at Tauranga. A large stone was brought from Maunganui and set up on the spot where peace was concluded. The ownership of Motiti Island was left unresolved by the peace agreement. Haerehuka claimed in 1852 that his forefathers were the first to set foot on the island. He supported his cousin, Te Amohau, against another Te Arawa leader, Tohi Te Ururangi, who desecrated the graves of Te Amohau's ancestors on the island. The island was also claimed and later occupied by Hori Tupaea of Ngai Te Rangi. Few Te Arawa supported Tohi Te Ururangi, however, and war was avoided.
After peace was made Haerehuka probably returned to live at Ohinemutu. According to the Tauranga missionary, A. N. Brown, in 1848 he was at Otumoetai pa in Tauranga attempting to buy guns and powder for an attack on Epeha, near Lake Taupo. Other leaders used their influence to prevent this. Brown stated that Haerehuka 'would again if it were in his power, embroil the Natives in warfare'. In 1853 Haerehuka, who was connected by marriage to Ngati Rangitihi of Tarawera, was involved in their dispute with Tuhourangi over the ownership of O-tu-kapua-rangi and Te Tarata, the pink and white terraces at Rotomahana. He narrowly escaped death in a battle at Tawanui, and was briefly taken prisoner by Tuhourangi.
In the wars of the 1860s Haerehuka followed the majority of Te Arawa in supporting the government. In March 1865 he was among the Maketu chiefs who petitioned the government for troops to be sent to protect their women and children, should Te Arawa warriors be ordered away from their home area.
The names of the wife or wives of Haerehuka are not recorded. He had at least three children, including a son, Te Kanapu, and daughters Rakitu and Pipi (also known as Te Arani) Haerehuka. The death of Haerehuka and his place of burial are not recorded. | <urn:uuid:15d9d2c2-944b-4ee3-b51e-7273f01908f8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/1h3/haerehuka/print | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00323.warc.gz | en | 0.987434 | 1,368 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | Haerehuka, also known as Huka, was a chief of Ngati Whakaue, of Te Arawa, and lived at Ohinemutu. His mother's name is not recorded. His father was Taiki Haerehuka. He was a descendant of Taua. Taua's wife was abducted to Taupo by Ngati Tuwharetoa and Taua took a war party in pursuit. At the rapids of Haerehuka, in the Waikato River, near Orakei Korako, Taua encouraged his followers after a defeat by pointing out a rock which at times was covered by water, but reappeared unconquered. Taua recovered his wife, and he and his descendants took the name Haerehuka.
Haerehuka excelled as an orator and a poet. He was also one of a number of Maori leaders who received goods from the trader Phillip Tapsell at Maketu, on the Bay of Plenty coast, in exchange for flax fibre. When payment for the first lot of goods was received, Tapsell supplied more goods, against the next lot of flax. According to one account Haerehuka failed to pay for goods he had received and Tapsell refused to give him more until six muskets were paid for. Haerehuka threatened to stop the flax-scraping and the supply of fibre to Tapsell. Other accounts state that Haerehuka was furious with his tribe for dividing up trade goods in his absence and leaving none for him, and for the desecration of a burial place. Whatever the cause, in 1835 Haerehuka brought war on his own people, war that was to last for nearly 10 years.
On Christmas Day 1835 Haerehuka went to the Ngati Rangiwewehi village at Parahaki, by Rotorua, where Te Hunga of Ngati Haua was visiting his daughter. Te Hunga was a relative of the powerful Ngati Haua leader Te Waharoa of Matamata. In the act of greeting Te Hunga, Haerehuka struck him dead with a tomahawk blow to the side of the head. Some accounts state that it was not Haerehuka himself who struck the fatal blow. Haerehuka and his supporters removed Te Hunga's body to Te Waerenga, on the north side of Rotorua. When Haerehuka returned to Ohinemutu, some of his people were angry with him, but others took part in eating the body of Te Hunga, to show their support for Haerehuka. War between Ngati Whakaue and Ngati Haua was inevitable, which was what Haerehuka had intended.
In the days after the killing the Rotorua district was in an uproar, as food was gathered and defences strengthened. Te Waharoa gathered an army of Ngati Haua, Ngati Maniapoto and Waikato warriors and went to Tauranga to join his Ngai Te Rangi allies. Te Arawa gathered at Maketu but Te Waharoa, by skilful manoeuvring, convinced them that Rotorua was to be the point of attack. Te Arawa went to Rotorua leaving only a small garrison at the pa at Maketu. This was attacked and overwhelmed by Te Waharoa's army on 28 March 1836. It is said that Haerehuka's mother and two sisters were killed there.
On 5 May Te Arawa attacked and captured the Ngai Te Rangi pa of Te Tumu. Haerehuka may have been at the battle of Te Tumu, and was probably at the following battle of Mataipuku, near Ohinemutu, in August, when Te Waharoa invaded the Rotorua district. This battle was inconclusive, and Te Waharoa returned to Matamata after destroying the mission station at Te Koutu. Fighting continued between Te Arawa and Ngai Te Rangi throughout the late 1830s and into the 1840s.
Peace was made in September 1845 when 400 Te Arawa Maori, including Haerehuka, visited Ngai Te Rangi at Tauranga. A large stone was brought from Maunganui and set up on the spot where peace was concluded. The ownership of Motiti Island was left unresolved by the peace agreement. Haerehuka claimed in 1852 that his forefathers were the first to set foot on the island. He supported his cousin, Te Amohau, against another Te Arawa leader, Tohi Te Ururangi, who desecrated the graves of Te Amohau's ancestors on the island. The island was also claimed and later occupied by Hori Tupaea of Ngai Te Rangi. Few Te Arawa supported Tohi Te Ururangi, however, and war was avoided.
After peace was made Haerehuka probably returned to live at Ohinemutu. According to the Tauranga missionary, A. N. Brown, in 1848 he was at Otumoetai pa in Tauranga attempting to buy guns and powder for an attack on Epeha, near Lake Taupo. Other leaders used their influence to prevent this. Brown stated that Haerehuka 'would again if it were in his power, embroil the Natives in warfare'. In 1853 Haerehuka, who was connected by marriage to Ngati Rangitihi of Tarawera, was involved in their dispute with Tuhourangi over the ownership of O-tu-kapua-rangi and Te Tarata, the pink and white terraces at Rotomahana. He narrowly escaped death in a battle at Tawanui, and was briefly taken prisoner by Tuhourangi.
In the wars of the 1860s Haerehuka followed the majority of Te Arawa in supporting the government. In March 1865 he was among the Maketu chiefs who petitioned the government for troops to be sent to protect their women and children, should Te Arawa warriors be ordered away from their home area.
The names of the wife or wives of Haerehuka are not recorded. He had at least three children, including a son, Te Kanapu, and daughters Rakitu and Pipi (also known as Te Arani) Haerehuka. The death of Haerehuka and his place of burial are not recorded. | 1,392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The great literary landmarks of the 'wisdom' teaching are the Books of Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Sirach, and the Wisdom of Solomon. This literature, in its present form at least, belongs to the latter half of the Persian period and to the Greek period of Jewish history. But behind this latest and finest product of the Hebrew mind there lay a long process of germination. In the pre-exilic history there are traces of the presence of the 'wisdom' element from early times. This primitive 'wisdom' was not regarded as an exclusively Israelitish possession, but was shared with other nations (1Ki 4:30-31; Ge 41:8; Jg 5:29; Jer 10:7; Eze 27:8). In Israel it was confined neither to rank (1Ki 10:28; De 16:19; Job 32:9) nor to sex (2Sa 14:1 ff; 2Sa 20:22); but it was particularly characteristic of 'the elders' (De 1:16; Job 12:12; 32:7), and in course of time seems to have given rise to a special class of teachers known as 'the Wise' (Jer 18:18).
Early 'Wisdom' was varied in character and of as wide a scope as the range of human activities. It thus included the most heterogeneous elements: e.g. mechanical skill (1Ki 7:14), statecraft (1Ki 5:12), financial and commercial ability (Eze 28), political trickery (1Ki 2:6), common sense and tact (2Sa 14; 20:14-22), learning (1Ki 3:16-28), military skill and administrative ability (Isa 10:13), piety (De 4:6), and the creative energy of God (Jer 10:12). In short, any capacity possessed in an exceptional degree was recognized as 'wisdom,' and was regarded as the gift of God. But there was already manifest a marked tendency to magnify the ethical and religious elements of 'wisdom,' which later came to their full recognition.
In pre-exilic Israel, however, 'wisdom' played a relatively small part in religion. The vital, progressive religious spirit exhausted itself in prophecy. Here was laid the foundation of all the later 'wisdom.' Not only laid the prophets hand down the literary forms through which the sages expressed themselves, e.g. riddle (Jg 14:14-18), fable (Jg 9:3-15), parable (2Sa 12:1-3; Isa 5:1-5), proverb (1Sa 10:12; Jer 31:29), essay (Isa 28:23-29), lyric, address, etc., but they also wrought out certain great ideas that were presupposed in all the later 'wisdom.' These were: (a) monotheism, which found free course in Deuteronomy, Jeremiah, and Deutero-Isaiah; (b) individualism, or the responsibility of the individual before God for his own sins and for the sins of no one else
And it came to pass in the morning, that his spirit was troubled; and he sent and called for all the scribes of Egypt, and all the sages who were therein, and Pharaoh told them his dream; but there was none to interpret them to Pharaoh.
And I commanded your judges at that time, saying, Hear the causes between your brethren, and judge righteously between a man and his brother, and him also that sojourneth with him.
And ye shall keep and do them; for that will be your wisdom and your understanding before the eyes of the peoples that shall hear all these statutes, and say, Verily this great nation is a wise and understanding people.
Thou shalt not wrest judgment; thou shalt not respect persons, neither take a bribe; for the bribe blindeth the eyes of the wise, and perverteth the words of the righteous.
Her wisest ladies make answer, nay, she gives answer to herself,
And his mother's kinsmen spoke all these words on his behalf in the ears of all the men of Shechem; and their hearts inclined to follow Abim'elech, for they said, "He is our brother." And they gave him seventy pieces of silver out of the house of Ba'al-be'rith with which Abim'elech hired worthless and reckless fellows, who followed him. read more. And he went to his father's house at Ophrah, and slew his brothers the sons of Jerubba'al, seventy men, upon one stone; but Jotham the youngest son of Jerubba'al was left, for he hid himself. And all the citizens of Shechem came together, and all Beth-millo, and they went and made Abim'elech king, by the oak of the pillar at Shechem. When it was told to Jotham, he went and stood on the top of Mount Ger'izim, and cried aloud and said to them, "Listen to me, you men of Shechem, that God may listen to you. The trees once went forth to anoint a king over them; and they said to the olive tree, 'Reign over us.' But the olive tree said to them, 'Shall I leave my fatness, by which gods and men are honored, and go to sway over the trees?' And the trees said to the fig tree, 'Come you, and reign over us.' But the fig tree said to them, 'Shall I leave my sweetness and my good fruit, and go to sway over the trees?' And the trees said to the vine, 'Come you, and reign over us.' But the vine said to them, 'Shall I leave my wine which cheers gods and men, and go to sway over the trees?' Then all the trees said to the bramble, 'Come you, and reign over us.' And the bramble said to the trees, 'If in good faith you are anointing me king over you, then come and take refuge in my shade; but if not, let fire come out of the bramble and devour the cedars of Lebanon.'
And he said to them, "Out of the eater came something to eat. Out of the strong came something sweet." And they could not in three days tell what the riddle was. On the fourth day they said to Samson's wife, "Entice your husband to tell us what the riddle is, lest we burn you and your father's house with fire. Have you invited us here to impoverish us?" read more. And Samson's wife wept before him, and said, "You only hate me, you do not love me; you have put a riddle to my countrymen, and you have not told me what it is." And he said to her, "Behold, I have not told my father nor my mother, and shall I tell you?" She wept before him the seven days that their feast lasted; and on the seventh day he told her, because she pressed him hard. Then she told the riddle to her countrymen. And the men of the city said to him on the seventh day before the sun went down, "What is sweeter than honey? What is stronger than a lion?" And he said to them, "If you had not plowed with my heifer, you would not have found out my riddle."
And a man of that place answered and said, But who is their father? Therefore it became a proverb, Is Saul also among the prophets?
And Jehovah sent Nathan to David. And he came to him, and said to him, There were two men in one city; the one rich, and the other poor. The rich had very many flocks and herds; read more. but the poor man had nothing at all, but one little ewe lamb which he had bought, and was nourishing; and it grew up with him, and together with his children: it ate of his morsel, and drank of his own cup, and slept in his bosom, and was to him as a daughter.
And Joab the son of Zeruiah perceived that the king's heart was toward Absalom.
Then the woman went to all the people in her wisdom. And they cut off the head of Sheba the son of Bichri, and cast it to Joab. And he blew a trumpet, and they dispersed from the city, every man to his tent. And Joab returned to Jerusalem to the king.
And thou shalt do according to thy wisdom, and not let his hoar head go down to Sheol in peace.
Then came two women, harlots, to the king, and stood before him. And the first woman said, Ah, my lord! I and this woman abode in one house; and I was delivered of a child with her in the house. read more. And it came to pass the third day after I was delivered, that this woman was delivered also; and we were together; no stranger was with us in the house, only we two were in the house. And this woman's child died in the night; because she had lain upon it. And she arose at midnight, and took my son from beside me, while thy handmaid slept, and laid it in her bosom, and laid her dead son in my bosom. And when I rose in the morning to give my child suck, behold, it was dead; and I considered it in the morning, and behold, it was not my son, whom I bore. And the other woman said, No, for the living is my son, and the dead is thy son. And this one said, No, but the dead is thy son, and the living is my son. Thus they spoke before the king. Then said the king, The one says, This that is living is my son, and thy son is the dead; and the other says, No, for thy son is the dead, and my son is the living. And the king said, Bring me a sword. And they brought a sword before the king. And the king said, Divide the living child in two, and give half to the one, and half to the other. Then spoke the woman whose was the living child to the king, for her bowels yearned over her son, and she said, Ah, my lord! give her the living child, and in no wise put it to death. But the other said, Let it be neither mine nor thine; divide it. And the king answered and said, Give this one the living child, and in no wise put it to death: she is its mother. And all Israel heard of the judgment which the king had judged; and they feared the king, for they saw that the wisdom of God was in him, to do justice.
And Solomon's wisdom excelled the wisdom of all the sons of the east, and all the wisdom of Egypt. For he was wiser than all men; than Ethan the Ezrahite, and Heman, and Calcol, and Darda, the sons of Mahol; and his fame was in all the nations round about.
And Jehovah gave Solomon wisdom as he promised him. And there was peace between Hiram and Solomon; and they two made a league.
He was a widow's son of the tribe of Naphtali, and his father was a man of Tyre, a worker in brass; and he was full of wisdom and understanding and knowledge, to do all kinds of works in brass. And he came to king Solomon, and made all his work.
And the exportation of horses that Solomon had was from Egypt: a caravan of the king's merchants fetched a drove of horses, at a price.
With the aged is wisdom, and in length of days understanding.
I said, Let days speak, and multitude of years teach wisdom.
It is not the great that are wise; neither do the aged understand judgment.
Jehovah possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. I was set up from eternity, from the beginning, before the earth was. read more. When there were no depths, I was brought forth, when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth; while as yet he had not made the earth, nor the fields, nor the beginning of the dust of the world. When he prepared the heavens I was there; when he ordained the circle upon the face of the deep; when he established the skies above, when the fountains of the deep became strong; when he imposed on the sea his decree that the waters should not pass his commandment, when he appointed the foundations of the earth: then I was by him his nursling, and I was daily his delight, rejoicing always before him; rejoicing in the habitable part of his earth, and my delights were with the sons of men.
I will sing to my well-beloved a song of my beloved touching his vineyard: My well-beloved had a vineyard upon a fruitful hill. And he dug it, and gathered out the stones thereof, and planted it with the choicest vine; and he built a tower in the midst of it, and also hewed out a winepress therein; and he looked that it should bring forth grapes, but it brought forth wild grapes. read more. And now, inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah, judge, I pray you, between me and my vineyard. What was there yet to do to my vineyard that I have not done in it? Wherefore, when I looked that it should bring forth grapes, brought it forth wild grapes? -- And now, let me tell you what I am about to do to my vineyard: I will take away its hedge, and it shall be eaten up; I will break down its wall, and it shall be trodden under foot;
For he saith, By the strength of my hand I have done it, and by my wisdom, for I am intelligent; and I have removed the bounds of the peoples, and have robbed their treasures, and, like a valiant man, I have brought down them that sit on thrones;
Give ear, and hear my voice; hearken, and hear my speech. Doth the ploughman plough all day to sow? Is he all day opening and breaking the clods of his land? read more. Doth he not, when he hath levelled the face thereof, cast abroad dill, and scatter cummin, and set the wheat in rows, and the barley in an appointed place, and the rye in its border? His God doth instruct him in his judgment, he doth teach him. For the dill is not threshed with a threshing instrument, neither is a cart-wheel turned about upon the cummin; but dill is beaten out with a staff, and cummin with a rod. Bread corn is crushed, because he will not ever be threshing it; and if he drove the wheels of his cart and his horses over it, he would not crush it. This also cometh forth from Jehovah of hosts; he is wonderful in counsel, great in wisdom.
Who would not fear thee, O King of nations? For to thee doth it appertain; for among all the wise men of the nations, and in all their kingdoms, there is none like unto thee.
He hath made the earth by his power, he hath established the world by his wisdom, and hath stretched out the heavens by his understanding.
And they said, Come, and let us devise devices against Jeremiah; for law shall not perish from the priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor word from the prophet. Come and let us smite him with the tongue, and let us not give heed to any of his words.
In those days they shall say no more, The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge:
WISDOM is put for that prudence and discretion which enables a man to perceive that which is fit to be done, according to the circumstances of time, place, persons, manners, and end of doing, Ec 2:13-14. It was this sort of wisdom that Solomon intreated of God with so much earnestness, and which God granted him with such divine liberality, 1Ki 3:9,12,28. It also signifies quickness of invention, and dexterity in the execution of several works, which require not so much strength of body, as industry, and labour of the mind. For example, God told Moses, Ex 31:3, that he had filled Bezaleel and Aholiab with wisdom, and understanding, and knowledge, to invent and perform several sorts of work for completing the tabernacle. It is used for craft, cunning, and stratagem, and that whether good or evil. Thus it is said by Moses, that Pharaoh dealt wisely with the Israelites, when he opposed them in Egypt, Ex 1:10; it is observed of Jonadab; the friend of Ammon, and nephew of David, that he was very wise, that is, very subtle and crafty, 2Sa 13:3; and Job 5:13, says, that God "taketh the wine in their own craftiness." Wisdom means also doctrine, learning, and experience: "With the ancient is wisdom, and in length of days understanding," Job 12:12. It is put for true piety, or the fear of God, which is spiritual wisdom: "So teach us to number our days, that we may apply or hearts unto wisdom," Ps 90:12; "The fear of the Lord that is wisdom," Job 27:23. Wisdom is put for the eternal Wisdom, the Word of God. It was by wisdom that God established the heavens, and founded the earth, Pr 3:19. How magnificently does Solomon describe the primeval birth of the eternal Son of God, under the character of Wisdom personified; to which so many references and allusions are to be found in the Old and New Testament! "The Lord possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was. When there were no depths, I was brought forth; when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth," Pr 8:22-25. The apocryphal book of Wisdom introduces, by a reference to this passage, the following admirable invocation, Wisdom 9:9, 10:
Come on, let us deal wisely with them, lest they multiply, and it come to pass that, if war occur, they take side with our enemies and fight against us, and go up out of the land.
and have filled him with the spirit of God, in wisdom, and in understanding, and in knowledge, and in every work,
And Amnon had a friend whose name was Jonadab, the son of Shimeah David's brother; and Jonadab was a very shrewd man.
Give therefore to thy servant an understanding heart, to judge thy people, to discern between good and bad; for who is able to judge this thy numerous people?
behold, I have done according to thy word: behold, I have given thee a wise and an understanding heart, so that there hath been none like unto thee before thee, neither after thee shall any arise like unto thee.
And all Israel heard of the judgment which the king had judged; and they feared the king, for they saw that the wisdom of God was in him, to do justice.
He taketh the wise in their own craftiness; and the counsel of the wily is carried headlong:
With the aged is wisdom, and in length of days understanding.
Men shall clap their hands at him, and shall hiss him out of his place.
So teach us to number our days, that we may acquire a wise heart.
Jehovah by wisdom founded the earth; by understanding he established the heavens.
Jehovah possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. I was set up from eternity, from the beginning, before the earth was. read more. When there were no depths, I was brought forth, when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth;
And I saw that wisdom excelleth folly, as light excelleth darkness. The wise man's eyes are in his head, and the fool walketh in darkness; but I myself also perceived that one event happeneth to them all.
The Son of man has come eating and drinking, and they say, Behold, a man that is eating and wine-drinking, a friend of tax-gatherers, and of sinners: and wisdom has been justified by her children.
Therefore, behold, I send unto you prophets, and wise men, and scribes; and some of them ye will kill and crucify, and some of them ye will scourge in your synagogues, and will persecute from city to city;
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0.30117267370224... | 1 | The great literary landmarks of the 'wisdom' teaching are the Books of Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Sirach, and the Wisdom of Solomon. This literature, in its present form at least, belongs to the latter half of the Persian period and to the Greek period of Jewish history. But behind this latest and finest product of the Hebrew mind there lay a long process of germination. In the pre-exilic history there are traces of the presence of the 'wisdom' element from early times. This primitive 'wisdom' was not regarded as an exclusively Israelitish possession, but was shared with other nations (1Ki 4:30-31; Ge 41:8; Jg 5:29; Jer 10:7; Eze 27:8). In Israel it was confined neither to rank (1Ki 10:28; De 16:19; Job 32:9) nor to sex (2Sa 14:1 ff; 2Sa 20:22); but it was particularly characteristic of 'the elders' (De 1:16; Job 12:12; 32:7), and in course of time seems to have given rise to a special class of teachers known as 'the Wise' (Jer 18:18).
Early 'Wisdom' was varied in character and of as wide a scope as the range of human activities. It thus included the most heterogeneous elements: e.g. mechanical skill (1Ki 7:14), statecraft (1Ki 5:12), financial and commercial ability (Eze 28), political trickery (1Ki 2:6), common sense and tact (2Sa 14; 20:14-22), learning (1Ki 3:16-28), military skill and administrative ability (Isa 10:13), piety (De 4:6), and the creative energy of God (Jer 10:12). In short, any capacity possessed in an exceptional degree was recognized as 'wisdom,' and was regarded as the gift of God. But there was already manifest a marked tendency to magnify the ethical and religious elements of 'wisdom,' which later came to their full recognition.
In pre-exilic Israel, however, 'wisdom' played a relatively small part in religion. The vital, progressive religious spirit exhausted itself in prophecy. Here was laid the foundation of all the later 'wisdom.' Not only laid the prophets hand down the literary forms through which the sages expressed themselves, e.g. riddle (Jg 14:14-18), fable (Jg 9:3-15), parable (2Sa 12:1-3; Isa 5:1-5), proverb (1Sa 10:12; Jer 31:29), essay (Isa 28:23-29), lyric, address, etc., but they also wrought out certain great ideas that were presupposed in all the later 'wisdom.' These were: (a) monotheism, which found free course in Deuteronomy, Jeremiah, and Deutero-Isaiah; (b) individualism, or the responsibility of the individual before God for his own sins and for the sins of no one else
And it came to pass in the morning, that his spirit was troubled; and he sent and called for all the scribes of Egypt, and all the sages who were therein, and Pharaoh told them his dream; but there was none to interpret them to Pharaoh.
And I commanded your judges at that time, saying, Hear the causes between your brethren, and judge righteously between a man and his brother, and him also that sojourneth with him.
And ye shall keep and do them; for that will be your wisdom and your understanding before the eyes of the peoples that shall hear all these statutes, and say, Verily this great nation is a wise and understanding people.
Thou shalt not wrest judgment; thou shalt not respect persons, neither take a bribe; for the bribe blindeth the eyes of the wise, and perverteth the words of the righteous.
Her wisest ladies make answer, nay, she gives answer to herself,
And his mother's kinsmen spoke all these words on his behalf in the ears of all the men of Shechem; and their hearts inclined to follow Abim'elech, for they said, "He is our brother." And they gave him seventy pieces of silver out of the house of Ba'al-be'rith with which Abim'elech hired worthless and reckless fellows, who followed him. read more. And he went to his father's house at Ophrah, and slew his brothers the sons of Jerubba'al, seventy men, upon one stone; but Jotham the youngest son of Jerubba'al was left, for he hid himself. And all the citizens of Shechem came together, and all Beth-millo, and they went and made Abim'elech king, by the oak of the pillar at Shechem. When it was told to Jotham, he went and stood on the top of Mount Ger'izim, and cried aloud and said to them, "Listen to me, you men of Shechem, that God may listen to you. The trees once went forth to anoint a king over them; and they said to the olive tree, 'Reign over us.' But the olive tree said to them, 'Shall I leave my fatness, by which gods and men are honored, and go to sway over the trees?' And the trees said to the fig tree, 'Come you, and reign over us.' But the fig tree said to them, 'Shall I leave my sweetness and my good fruit, and go to sway over the trees?' And the trees said to the vine, 'Come you, and reign over us.' But the vine said to them, 'Shall I leave my wine which cheers gods and men, and go to sway over the trees?' Then all the trees said to the bramble, 'Come you, and reign over us.' And the bramble said to the trees, 'If in good faith you are anointing me king over you, then come and take refuge in my shade; but if not, let fire come out of the bramble and devour the cedars of Lebanon.'
And he said to them, "Out of the eater came something to eat. Out of the strong came something sweet." And they could not in three days tell what the riddle was. On the fourth day they said to Samson's wife, "Entice your husband to tell us what the riddle is, lest we burn you and your father's house with fire. Have you invited us here to impoverish us?" read more. And Samson's wife wept before him, and said, "You only hate me, you do not love me; you have put a riddle to my countrymen, and you have not told me what it is." And he said to her, "Behold, I have not told my father nor my mother, and shall I tell you?" She wept before him the seven days that their feast lasted; and on the seventh day he told her, because she pressed him hard. Then she told the riddle to her countrymen. And the men of the city said to him on the seventh day before the sun went down, "What is sweeter than honey? What is stronger than a lion?" And he said to them, "If you had not plowed with my heifer, you would not have found out my riddle."
And a man of that place answered and said, But who is their father? Therefore it became a proverb, Is Saul also among the prophets?
And Jehovah sent Nathan to David. And he came to him, and said to him, There were two men in one city; the one rich, and the other poor. The rich had very many flocks and herds; read more. but the poor man had nothing at all, but one little ewe lamb which he had bought, and was nourishing; and it grew up with him, and together with his children: it ate of his morsel, and drank of his own cup, and slept in his bosom, and was to him as a daughter.
And Joab the son of Zeruiah perceived that the king's heart was toward Absalom.
Then the woman went to all the people in her wisdom. And they cut off the head of Sheba the son of Bichri, and cast it to Joab. And he blew a trumpet, and they dispersed from the city, every man to his tent. And Joab returned to Jerusalem to the king.
And thou shalt do according to thy wisdom, and not let his hoar head go down to Sheol in peace.
Then came two women, harlots, to the king, and stood before him. And the first woman said, Ah, my lord! I and this woman abode in one house; and I was delivered of a child with her in the house. read more. And it came to pass the third day after I was delivered, that this woman was delivered also; and we were together; no stranger was with us in the house, only we two were in the house. And this woman's child died in the night; because she had lain upon it. And she arose at midnight, and took my son from beside me, while thy handmaid slept, and laid it in her bosom, and laid her dead son in my bosom. And when I rose in the morning to give my child suck, behold, it was dead; and I considered it in the morning, and behold, it was not my son, whom I bore. And the other woman said, No, for the living is my son, and the dead is thy son. And this one said, No, but the dead is thy son, and the living is my son. Thus they spoke before the king. Then said the king, The one says, This that is living is my son, and thy son is the dead; and the other says, No, for thy son is the dead, and my son is the living. And the king said, Bring me a sword. And they brought a sword before the king. And the king said, Divide the living child in two, and give half to the one, and half to the other. Then spoke the woman whose was the living child to the king, for her bowels yearned over her son, and she said, Ah, my lord! give her the living child, and in no wise put it to death. But the other said, Let it be neither mine nor thine; divide it. And the king answered and said, Give this one the living child, and in no wise put it to death: she is its mother. And all Israel heard of the judgment which the king had judged; and they feared the king, for they saw that the wisdom of God was in him, to do justice.
And Solomon's wisdom excelled the wisdom of all the sons of the east, and all the wisdom of Egypt. For he was wiser than all men; than Ethan the Ezrahite, and Heman, and Calcol, and Darda, the sons of Mahol; and his fame was in all the nations round about.
And Jehovah gave Solomon wisdom as he promised him. And there was peace between Hiram and Solomon; and they two made a league.
He was a widow's son of the tribe of Naphtali, and his father was a man of Tyre, a worker in brass; and he was full of wisdom and understanding and knowledge, to do all kinds of works in brass. And he came to king Solomon, and made all his work.
And the exportation of horses that Solomon had was from Egypt: a caravan of the king's merchants fetched a drove of horses, at a price.
With the aged is wisdom, and in length of days understanding.
I said, Let days speak, and multitude of years teach wisdom.
It is not the great that are wise; neither do the aged understand judgment.
Jehovah possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. I was set up from eternity, from the beginning, before the earth was. read more. When there were no depths, I was brought forth, when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth; while as yet he had not made the earth, nor the fields, nor the beginning of the dust of the world. When he prepared the heavens I was there; when he ordained the circle upon the face of the deep; when he established the skies above, when the fountains of the deep became strong; when he imposed on the sea his decree that the waters should not pass his commandment, when he appointed the foundations of the earth: then I was by him his nursling, and I was daily his delight, rejoicing always before him; rejoicing in the habitable part of his earth, and my delights were with the sons of men.
I will sing to my well-beloved a song of my beloved touching his vineyard: My well-beloved had a vineyard upon a fruitful hill. And he dug it, and gathered out the stones thereof, and planted it with the choicest vine; and he built a tower in the midst of it, and also hewed out a winepress therein; and he looked that it should bring forth grapes, but it brought forth wild grapes. read more. And now, inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah, judge, I pray you, between me and my vineyard. What was there yet to do to my vineyard that I have not done in it? Wherefore, when I looked that it should bring forth grapes, brought it forth wild grapes? -- And now, let me tell you what I am about to do to my vineyard: I will take away its hedge, and it shall be eaten up; I will break down its wall, and it shall be trodden under foot;
For he saith, By the strength of my hand I have done it, and by my wisdom, for I am intelligent; and I have removed the bounds of the peoples, and have robbed their treasures, and, like a valiant man, I have brought down them that sit on thrones;
Give ear, and hear my voice; hearken, and hear my speech. Doth the ploughman plough all day to sow? Is he all day opening and breaking the clods of his land? read more. Doth he not, when he hath levelled the face thereof, cast abroad dill, and scatter cummin, and set the wheat in rows, and the barley in an appointed place, and the rye in its border? His God doth instruct him in his judgment, he doth teach him. For the dill is not threshed with a threshing instrument, neither is a cart-wheel turned about upon the cummin; but dill is beaten out with a staff, and cummin with a rod. Bread corn is crushed, because he will not ever be threshing it; and if he drove the wheels of his cart and his horses over it, he would not crush it. This also cometh forth from Jehovah of hosts; he is wonderful in counsel, great in wisdom.
Who would not fear thee, O King of nations? For to thee doth it appertain; for among all the wise men of the nations, and in all their kingdoms, there is none like unto thee.
He hath made the earth by his power, he hath established the world by his wisdom, and hath stretched out the heavens by his understanding.
And they said, Come, and let us devise devices against Jeremiah; for law shall not perish from the priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor word from the prophet. Come and let us smite him with the tongue, and let us not give heed to any of his words.
In those days they shall say no more, The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge:
WISDOM is put for that prudence and discretion which enables a man to perceive that which is fit to be done, according to the circumstances of time, place, persons, manners, and end of doing, Ec 2:13-14. It was this sort of wisdom that Solomon intreated of God with so much earnestness, and which God granted him with such divine liberality, 1Ki 3:9,12,28. It also signifies quickness of invention, and dexterity in the execution of several works, which require not so much strength of body, as industry, and labour of the mind. For example, God told Moses, Ex 31:3, that he had filled Bezaleel and Aholiab with wisdom, and understanding, and knowledge, to invent and perform several sorts of work for completing the tabernacle. It is used for craft, cunning, and stratagem, and that whether good or evil. Thus it is said by Moses, that Pharaoh dealt wisely with the Israelites, when he opposed them in Egypt, Ex 1:10; it is observed of Jonadab; the friend of Ammon, and nephew of David, that he was very wise, that is, very subtle and crafty, 2Sa 13:3; and Job 5:13, says, that God "taketh the wine in their own craftiness." Wisdom means also doctrine, learning, and experience: "With the ancient is wisdom, and in length of days understanding," Job 12:12. It is put for true piety, or the fear of God, which is spiritual wisdom: "So teach us to number our days, that we may apply or hearts unto wisdom," Ps 90:12; "The fear of the Lord that is wisdom," Job 27:23. Wisdom is put for the eternal Wisdom, the Word of God. It was by wisdom that God established the heavens, and founded the earth, Pr 3:19. How magnificently does Solomon describe the primeval birth of the eternal Son of God, under the character of Wisdom personified; to which so many references and allusions are to be found in the Old and New Testament! "The Lord possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was. When there were no depths, I was brought forth; when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth," Pr 8:22-25. The apocryphal book of Wisdom introduces, by a reference to this passage, the following admirable invocation, Wisdom 9:9, 10:
Come on, let us deal wisely with them, lest they multiply, and it come to pass that, if war occur, they take side with our enemies and fight against us, and go up out of the land.
and have filled him with the spirit of God, in wisdom, and in understanding, and in knowledge, and in every work,
And Amnon had a friend whose name was Jonadab, the son of Shimeah David's brother; and Jonadab was a very shrewd man.
Give therefore to thy servant an understanding heart, to judge thy people, to discern between good and bad; for who is able to judge this thy numerous people?
behold, I have done according to thy word: behold, I have given thee a wise and an understanding heart, so that there hath been none like unto thee before thee, neither after thee shall any arise like unto thee.
And all Israel heard of the judgment which the king had judged; and they feared the king, for they saw that the wisdom of God was in him, to do justice.
He taketh the wise in their own craftiness; and the counsel of the wily is carried headlong:
With the aged is wisdom, and in length of days understanding.
Men shall clap their hands at him, and shall hiss him out of his place.
So teach us to number our days, that we may acquire a wise heart.
Jehovah by wisdom founded the earth; by understanding he established the heavens.
Jehovah possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. I was set up from eternity, from the beginning, before the earth was. read more. When there were no depths, I was brought forth, when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth;
And I saw that wisdom excelleth folly, as light excelleth darkness. The wise man's eyes are in his head, and the fool walketh in darkness; but I myself also perceived that one event happeneth to them all.
The Son of man has come eating and drinking, and they say, Behold, a man that is eating and wine-drinking, a friend of tax-gatherers, and of sinners: and wisdom has been justified by her children.
Therefore, behold, I send unto you prophets, and wise men, and scribes; and some of them ye will kill and crucify, and some of them ye will scourge in your synagogues, and will persecute from city to city;
and wisdom has been justified of all her children. | 4,540 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tapioca consists of starch extracted from the cassava root. Cassava was one of the main food sources of Native Americans throughout South America. It is thought that it originated south of the Amazon River in what is now Brazil. It was being cultivated by the people in this region as far back as 8000 BC. By 6000 BC, it was being grown in what is now Mexico and in Peru by 2000 BC. Its cultivation would spread throughout the Caribbean well before the arrival of the Europeans.
Christopher Columbus would encounter cassava bread after arriving in the Caribbean, but it was not until the early 18th century that Europeans found out about the starch extracted from cassava. The Portuguese would learn about tapioca from the Tupi-Guarani in Brazil. | <urn:uuid:c5673f44-a375-4d17-b39e-9bee96a26d93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.spiceography.com/page/85/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00299.warc.gz | en | 0.986971 | 153 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.094944357872... | 1 | Tapioca consists of starch extracted from the cassava root. Cassava was one of the main food sources of Native Americans throughout South America. It is thought that it originated south of the Amazon River in what is now Brazil. It was being cultivated by the people in this region as far back as 8000 BC. By 6000 BC, it was being grown in what is now Mexico and in Peru by 2000 BC. Its cultivation would spread throughout the Caribbean well before the arrival of the Europeans.
Christopher Columbus would encounter cassava bread after arriving in the Caribbean, but it was not until the early 18th century that Europeans found out about the starch extracted from cassava. The Portuguese would learn about tapioca from the Tupi-Guarani in Brazil. | 164 | ENGLISH | 1 |
AD stands for the Latin phrase: Anno Domini, the year of our lord.
It is used to indicate which part of the timeline is being dated on the Gregorian calendar in years.
The creators of the Gregorian calendar felt that the most important marker in earth’s history was the coming of Jesus Christ. The term AD was used to begin this turning point in earth’s history. The year that the creators of this new calendar marked the 1AD was the year that they thought Jesus was born. Upon further study, biblical historians realized that the makers of the Gregorian calendar were a little off in their date and found that Jesus Christ was actually born about four years prior in what would be termed 4 BC.
This may bring one to the next question, “What does BC stand for?” The acronym BC means simply, “Before Christ.” Some have mistakenly defined AD as “after death,” as they imply that it relates to time after the death of Jesus. This is a common misconception.
Astronomers in the 1500s were hoping to keep a more accurate measure of the length of the year. They realized that it took more closely to 365.25 days for the earth to revolve around the sun. Therefore in 1580, the Gregorian calendar was introduced with the notion that every four years, that calendar year would need to have an extra day. This is what we call a “leap year.” Although the main astronomer who created the framework was an Italian scientist named Luigi Lilio, the calendar was named after the pope of that time, pope Gregory XIII.
The years in the Gregorian calendar are go forward in the term AD and backward in the term BC. To help better understand this in numerical terms, it is similar to a number line where all the numbers running positive to the right would be AD and those that are negative to the left would be BC. The only difference is that in the number line of historical dates there is no year zero. It goes from 1 BC directly to 1 AD.
While most of the world adheres to this method of dating, some have introduced a different label to identify years in history. The acronyms BCE and CE have more recently been utilized among historians. The term CE is defined as the, “Common Era.” In like manner BCE is defined as “Before the Common Era.” BCE is synonymous with BC. Likewise, CE is synonymous with AD. There is no difference in regard to calendar year. This method of labeling years was introduced as a more secular means of dating history. The Gregorian calendar is often called the “Christian calendar” as it is centered in the birth of Jesus.
In His service, | <urn:uuid:c323400b-7b3f-4cff-83e9-a90c805781ee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bibleask.org/what-does-ad-stand-for/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00488.warc.gz | en | 0.980583 | 567 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.122859492897... | 5 | AD stands for the Latin phrase: Anno Domini, the year of our lord.
It is used to indicate which part of the timeline is being dated on the Gregorian calendar in years.
The creators of the Gregorian calendar felt that the most important marker in earth’s history was the coming of Jesus Christ. The term AD was used to begin this turning point in earth’s history. The year that the creators of this new calendar marked the 1AD was the year that they thought Jesus was born. Upon further study, biblical historians realized that the makers of the Gregorian calendar were a little off in their date and found that Jesus Christ was actually born about four years prior in what would be termed 4 BC.
This may bring one to the next question, “What does BC stand for?” The acronym BC means simply, “Before Christ.” Some have mistakenly defined AD as “after death,” as they imply that it relates to time after the death of Jesus. This is a common misconception.
Astronomers in the 1500s were hoping to keep a more accurate measure of the length of the year. They realized that it took more closely to 365.25 days for the earth to revolve around the sun. Therefore in 1580, the Gregorian calendar was introduced with the notion that every four years, that calendar year would need to have an extra day. This is what we call a “leap year.” Although the main astronomer who created the framework was an Italian scientist named Luigi Lilio, the calendar was named after the pope of that time, pope Gregory XIII.
The years in the Gregorian calendar are go forward in the term AD and backward in the term BC. To help better understand this in numerical terms, it is similar to a number line where all the numbers running positive to the right would be AD and those that are negative to the left would be BC. The only difference is that in the number line of historical dates there is no year zero. It goes from 1 BC directly to 1 AD.
While most of the world adheres to this method of dating, some have introduced a different label to identify years in history. The acronyms BCE and CE have more recently been utilized among historians. The term CE is defined as the, “Common Era.” In like manner BCE is defined as “Before the Common Era.” BCE is synonymous with BC. Likewise, CE is synonymous with AD. There is no difference in regard to calendar year. This method of labeling years was introduced as a more secular means of dating history. The Gregorian calendar is often called the “Christian calendar” as it is centered in the birth of Jesus.
In His service, | 553 | ENGLISH | 1 |
145 whales were found stranded, 30 kilometres on the southern coast in New Zealand. A hiker found these incredible mammals, and while half the whales were pronounced dead at the scene, many were still alive, fighting for their lives.
Unfortunately, the remaining living whales could not be saved, due to their remote location, which leads officials with no choice but to euthanise them
Even though many locals tried to carry the smaller whales to the ocean, there was just no way to re-float them in the water, to ensure them staying alive.
It was an extremely heart-breaking scene to those who made an effort to try and save the whales. With four different strandings, accumulating the 145 whales that died, officials clarify that their New Zealand is a typical country for whales strandings on their shores. However, with approximately 85 cases reported annually, there has never been such a great number of whales stranded, which raises the much-anticipated question as to why this stranding occurred.
The Cause of Stranded Whales
Nobody knows for sure why these whales died, or why close to a hundred whales strand on the beach of New Zealand throughout the year, along with dolphins, which makes up close to 300 cases of stranded marine mammals.
Most of the whales stranded in this case were pilot whales. This whale species has pod members, which are connected through a social bond and are extremely known for mass occurrences.
One reason why it is believed they stranded, is because they follow either the older, injured or ill whales, which leads them to the shore. Some also believe that the pilot whales’ echolocation becomes compromised once they reach shallow water, which misleads them to the shallow waters, where they get stranded. | <urn:uuid:0c2eff0d-899d-4e22-8d99-6c3b46fc15bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.living-water.co.uk/blog/the-death-of-145-whales-in-new-zealand-in-november-2018/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00495.warc.gz | en | 0.982261 | 353 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.618418812751... | 1 | 145 whales were found stranded, 30 kilometres on the southern coast in New Zealand. A hiker found these incredible mammals, and while half the whales were pronounced dead at the scene, many were still alive, fighting for their lives.
Unfortunately, the remaining living whales could not be saved, due to their remote location, which leads officials with no choice but to euthanise them
Even though many locals tried to carry the smaller whales to the ocean, there was just no way to re-float them in the water, to ensure them staying alive.
It was an extremely heart-breaking scene to those who made an effort to try and save the whales. With four different strandings, accumulating the 145 whales that died, officials clarify that their New Zealand is a typical country for whales strandings on their shores. However, with approximately 85 cases reported annually, there has never been such a great number of whales stranded, which raises the much-anticipated question as to why this stranding occurred.
The Cause of Stranded Whales
Nobody knows for sure why these whales died, or why close to a hundred whales strand on the beach of New Zealand throughout the year, along with dolphins, which makes up close to 300 cases of stranded marine mammals.
Most of the whales stranded in this case were pilot whales. This whale species has pod members, which are connected through a social bond and are extremely known for mass occurrences.
One reason why it is believed they stranded, is because they follow either the older, injured or ill whales, which leads them to the shore. Some also believe that the pilot whales’ echolocation becomes compromised once they reach shallow water, which misleads them to the shallow waters, where they get stranded. | 355 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The origins of ‘Boxing Day’ are steeped in history and in my naivety, I assumed everyone had or knew of Boxing Day. Growing up in England my understanding was that it was an old tradition to open gifts the day after as Christmas Day was spent in church and then feasting.
The exact etymology of the term ‘boxing’ is unfortunately unclear and although there are several competing theories, none are definitive. Money and other gifts were traditionally given to the needy and to those in service positions, such as servants. The European tradition goes back to the Middle Ages but its exact origin is still unknown. There have also been claims that it dates back to the late Roman/early Christian era. It is known that metal boxes were placed outside churches to collect special offerings tied to the Feast of Saint Stephen. In England it was the custom in the nineteen-century for Victorian tradesmen to collect their ‘Christmas boxes’ or gifts on the day after Christmas in return for good and reliable service throughout the year.
The name could also derive from another old English tradition, where wealthy landowners would allow their servants to have the 26th off work to visit their families in return for a smoothly run Christmas Day feast. Each servant was given a box containing gifts and bonuses and sometimes leftover food! Also around the 1800’s churches would open their alms boxes and distribute the contents to the poor. These boxes were filled with monetary donations from the wealthier members of the congregation.
No matter which version you would like to believe, Boxing Day is still an enjoyable holiday and one spent with family and friends, enjoying the ‘left overs’ and new gifts.
What will you be doing this Boxing Day? | <urn:uuid:3db411c5-e239-45ea-938d-467e1a9f8b15> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mandyevebarnett.com/tag/gifts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00216.warc.gz | en | 0.98204 | 350 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.32234346866... | 22 | The origins of ‘Boxing Day’ are steeped in history and in my naivety, I assumed everyone had or knew of Boxing Day. Growing up in England my understanding was that it was an old tradition to open gifts the day after as Christmas Day was spent in church and then feasting.
The exact etymology of the term ‘boxing’ is unfortunately unclear and although there are several competing theories, none are definitive. Money and other gifts were traditionally given to the needy and to those in service positions, such as servants. The European tradition goes back to the Middle Ages but its exact origin is still unknown. There have also been claims that it dates back to the late Roman/early Christian era. It is known that metal boxes were placed outside churches to collect special offerings tied to the Feast of Saint Stephen. In England it was the custom in the nineteen-century for Victorian tradesmen to collect their ‘Christmas boxes’ or gifts on the day after Christmas in return for good and reliable service throughout the year.
The name could also derive from another old English tradition, where wealthy landowners would allow their servants to have the 26th off work to visit their families in return for a smoothly run Christmas Day feast. Each servant was given a box containing gifts and bonuses and sometimes leftover food! Also around the 1800’s churches would open their alms boxes and distribute the contents to the poor. These boxes were filled with monetary donations from the wealthier members of the congregation.
No matter which version you would like to believe, Boxing Day is still an enjoyable holiday and one spent with family and friends, enjoying the ‘left overs’ and new gifts.
What will you be doing this Boxing Day? | 344 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The War in the South and West
The war had now been going on for than three years, and the British could not defeat the American Patriots.
Next lesson: Conflict Between North and South
Continue learning. This transcript is for your convenience. So they decided to come up with a new strategy. They thought that in the South, there were far more Loyalists than in the North. The British were hoping that these southern Loyalists would help them, so they invaded the South.
At first, this new strategy did work. By mid-1780, the British soldiers had conquered South Carolina and Georgia. Many of the Loyalists had helped them. One of the Loyalists was the famous Patriot Benedict Arnold who had secretly changed sides to become a British general. Today, he is still seen as a traitor.
In the South, the British were winning many battles but the Patriots were fighting back fiercely. One of the officers was using surprise attacks. His troops would sneak up on the British soldiers, attacked them, to retreat quickly. Hit and run.
Another Patriot, named Nathanael Greene, would force the British to come and chase his small Patriot army, a method that tired the British forces and exhausted their supplies. The Patriot forces were fighting back the West as well and captured a few British forts in the Ohio River Valley. Spain then also joined the war and was also capturing some British forts.
The War Ends
The Patriots were fighting the last major battle against the British forces around Yorktown, Virginia. Washington was marching his troops from New York all the way to Virginia where the British forces, headed by Cornwallis, we located. French ships were also helping the Patriots and Washington’s army, together with the French navy, succeeded in trapping the British army.
Cornwallis had good hopes that British arm including soldiers and ships, stationed in New York would come to help him, but the British were not able to defeat the ships of the French. After fighting for a week, Cornwallis realized his men would not win at Yorktown so in 1781, on October 19th, the British army surrendered. The war actually went on for another two years, but fighting took hardly place.
In September of 1783, Britain and the United States signed the important “Treaty of Paris” which states that from now on, America was an independent country. This also meant that Americans were in need of a government to lead the new country.
Last Updated on | <urn:uuid:c9b0c545-c021-4467-b078-ef1240362f67> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bestgedclasses.org/winning-the-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.992051 | 508 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.387670725... | 2 | The War in the South and West
The war had now been going on for than three years, and the British could not defeat the American Patriots.
Next lesson: Conflict Between North and South
Continue learning. This transcript is for your convenience. So they decided to come up with a new strategy. They thought that in the South, there were far more Loyalists than in the North. The British were hoping that these southern Loyalists would help them, so they invaded the South.
At first, this new strategy did work. By mid-1780, the British soldiers had conquered South Carolina and Georgia. Many of the Loyalists had helped them. One of the Loyalists was the famous Patriot Benedict Arnold who had secretly changed sides to become a British general. Today, he is still seen as a traitor.
In the South, the British were winning many battles but the Patriots were fighting back fiercely. One of the officers was using surprise attacks. His troops would sneak up on the British soldiers, attacked them, to retreat quickly. Hit and run.
Another Patriot, named Nathanael Greene, would force the British to come and chase his small Patriot army, a method that tired the British forces and exhausted their supplies. The Patriot forces were fighting back the West as well and captured a few British forts in the Ohio River Valley. Spain then also joined the war and was also capturing some British forts.
The War Ends
The Patriots were fighting the last major battle against the British forces around Yorktown, Virginia. Washington was marching his troops from New York all the way to Virginia where the British forces, headed by Cornwallis, we located. French ships were also helping the Patriots and Washington’s army, together with the French navy, succeeded in trapping the British army.
Cornwallis had good hopes that British arm including soldiers and ships, stationed in New York would come to help him, but the British were not able to defeat the ships of the French. After fighting for a week, Cornwallis realized his men would not win at Yorktown so in 1781, on October 19th, the British army surrendered. The war actually went on for another two years, but fighting took hardly place.
In September of 1783, Britain and the United States signed the important “Treaty of Paris” which states that from now on, America was an independent country. This also meant that Americans were in need of a government to lead the new country.
Last Updated on | 509 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A replica of a 2,500-year-old merchant ship from the Hellenistic era set sail during its launch ceremony in Haifa, Israel, on March 17, 2017. This was an identical copy of a ship which that ran aground off the coast of present-day Israel about 500 years before Christ’s birth. It was discovered in 1985 south of the northern Israeli city of Haifa. The small vessel was pulled from the depths three years later, a statement from the University of Haifa and the Israel Antiquities Authority said.
It had been exceptionally conserved as it was buried under sand for two millennia and was therefore protected from erosion, archaeologist Avner Hilman of the Antiquities Authority said.
“The ship was loaded with a very heavy cargo of shale coming from Cyprus, and following a navigation error it ran aground on a sandbank near the coast and was buried,” he told AFP. He said the wreck’s state was “exceptional” considering its age.
The keel, numerous wooden plates, 14 cross bars and the base of the mast were found intact, offering researchers rare insights into how such ships were built, the statement said. Work on building a replica began two years ago using ancient techniques, including a toolbox found in the wreck. Hilman said that shipbuilding techniques were so different back then that they had to work out things for themselves.”No boatbuilder could help us,” he said.
He gave as an example the fact that the ribs of the ship were installed last, after the keel and the outer shell. Today the ribs are among the first sections to be put in place.
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0.21127849817276,... | 2 | A replica of a 2,500-year-old merchant ship from the Hellenistic era set sail during its launch ceremony in Haifa, Israel, on March 17, 2017. This was an identical copy of a ship which that ran aground off the coast of present-day Israel about 500 years before Christ’s birth. It was discovered in 1985 south of the northern Israeli city of Haifa. The small vessel was pulled from the depths three years later, a statement from the University of Haifa and the Israel Antiquities Authority said.
It had been exceptionally conserved as it was buried under sand for two millennia and was therefore protected from erosion, archaeologist Avner Hilman of the Antiquities Authority said.
“The ship was loaded with a very heavy cargo of shale coming from Cyprus, and following a navigation error it ran aground on a sandbank near the coast and was buried,” he told AFP. He said the wreck’s state was “exceptional” considering its age.
The keel, numerous wooden plates, 14 cross bars and the base of the mast were found intact, offering researchers rare insights into how such ships were built, the statement said. Work on building a replica began two years ago using ancient techniques, including a toolbox found in the wreck. Hilman said that shipbuilding techniques were so different back then that they had to work out things for themselves.”No boatbuilder could help us,” he said.
He gave as an example the fact that the ribs of the ship were installed last, after the keel and the outer shell. Today the ribs are among the first sections to be put in place.
Original Source: AFP – 2017 | 354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The First Nansen Passport: The League of Nations and Those Whose State Disappeared.
With the need to increase legal protection for the increasing number of refugees in the world, it is useful to recall the first Nansen Passport created by Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930).
The leader of a Nordic-North Pole exploration
Fridtjof Nansen was thought of as a Norwegian, although he was born before the creation in 1905 of an independent State of Norway. His family had historically been living in Copenhagen, Denmark, before his grandfather moved to Norway, then a part of the Kingdom of Denmark. His family were traditionally lawyers, often involved in diplomacy.
Fridtjof, however, as a young man, was not interested in law but rather in the “great outdoors” and the natural sciences. From 1893 to 1896, he was the leader of a Nordic-North Pole exploration. His account of the North Pole became a “best seller” and gained for him international recognition.
An Independent Norway
Although he was never interested in participating in electoral politics, he was a strong supporter of an independent Norway separate from the Kingdom of Sweden, an independence which was granted in 1905. In 1906, he was appointed as Ambassador of Norway to London to negotiate a treaty of guarantees for the independence of Norway, thus setting out on a path of diplomacy which he never left, although in the public mind he was always the North Pole explorer.
The First World War −1914-1918 − saw the disappearance of two major multi-ethnic empires: the Ottoman Empire and the Austria-Hungarian Empire, leaving millions of people “Stateless” − their States having disappeared. They were usually unwelcome minorities in the States created by the break up of the two empires.
In addition, there was the 1917 Russian Revolution, which led to civil wars which lasted at least until 1922. There was also an issue of prisoners of war from the First World War stranded in Russia unable to be repatriated and at least a million refugees from Russia scattered all over Europe.
The Origins of Totalitarianism
The break up of the Ottoman Empire led to war between the newly created Turkey and Greece in 1922 with a massive exchange of populations. There was also some 300,000 Armenians displaced by the 1915 genocide. As Hannah Arendt wrote in The Origins of Totalitarianism “Once the refugees had left their homeland, they remained homeless, once they had left their State they became Stateless, once they were deprived of their human rights, they were rightless.”
The League of Nations Secretariat, encouraged by the International Committee of the Red Cross, turned to Fridtjof Nansen in 1921 and said “Do something”, giving him the title of High Commissioner for Refugees but very little money to “do something”. Nansen depended heavily on the funds and expertise of private voluntary organizations. In 1922, he set up an Advisory Committee consisting of 16 private organizations which helped draw up a number of plans to solve the refugee issues and to encourage non-governmental action.
The Nansen Passport
Due to the lack of legal protection which negatively affected most refugees from Russia, in July 1922, Nansen created a special certificate of identity for Russian refugees, commonly called the “Nansen Passport.” The document, valid for one year, certified that its holder was a Russian national by origin.
It contained no general definition of a refugee and no specification of the motivation for flight. It served as a form of “certification” that provided the refugee with enough legal status to enable its holder to travel to countries where he or she would be more likely to find work.
The individual refugee and the Nansen certificate
In 1924, the Nansen passport was made to cover Armenian refugees as well and then in 1928 to Assyrian refugees from the former Ottoman Empire. As the US journalist Dorothy Thompson wrote in her book Refugees “ There is no doubt that by and large, the Nansen certificate is the greatest thing that has happened for the individual refugee. It returned his lost identity. The refugee could never be sure whether he would get a labor permit by means of the Nansen certificate, but he could be sure that without the Nansen certificate he would never get it.”
The Nansen Office
Nansen died in 1930. The title of High Commissioner for Refugees was abolished. However the work continued under the title of the Nansen Office. It operated until 1938 and the effective end of the League of Nations. The title of High Commissioner for Refugees was re-established in 1951 when it became clear that refugees would continue on the world scene.
Nansen’s outstanding personality and his strong and creative leadership have left a lasting impression on world refugee policies as well as a foundation for cosmopolitan thought.
Rene Wadlow, President, Association of World Citizens | <urn:uuid:f8921f55-99ff-45a9-8ec8-ae067de432f8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://awcunited.tk/the-first-nansen-passport-the-league-of-nations-and-those-whose-state-disappeared/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00514.warc.gz | en | 0.980244 | 1,012 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.49099200963974,... | 2 | The First Nansen Passport: The League of Nations and Those Whose State Disappeared.
With the need to increase legal protection for the increasing number of refugees in the world, it is useful to recall the first Nansen Passport created by Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930).
The leader of a Nordic-North Pole exploration
Fridtjof Nansen was thought of as a Norwegian, although he was born before the creation in 1905 of an independent State of Norway. His family had historically been living in Copenhagen, Denmark, before his grandfather moved to Norway, then a part of the Kingdom of Denmark. His family were traditionally lawyers, often involved in diplomacy.
Fridtjof, however, as a young man, was not interested in law but rather in the “great outdoors” and the natural sciences. From 1893 to 1896, he was the leader of a Nordic-North Pole exploration. His account of the North Pole became a “best seller” and gained for him international recognition.
An Independent Norway
Although he was never interested in participating in electoral politics, he was a strong supporter of an independent Norway separate from the Kingdom of Sweden, an independence which was granted in 1905. In 1906, he was appointed as Ambassador of Norway to London to negotiate a treaty of guarantees for the independence of Norway, thus setting out on a path of diplomacy which he never left, although in the public mind he was always the North Pole explorer.
The First World War −1914-1918 − saw the disappearance of two major multi-ethnic empires: the Ottoman Empire and the Austria-Hungarian Empire, leaving millions of people “Stateless” − their States having disappeared. They were usually unwelcome minorities in the States created by the break up of the two empires.
In addition, there was the 1917 Russian Revolution, which led to civil wars which lasted at least until 1922. There was also an issue of prisoners of war from the First World War stranded in Russia unable to be repatriated and at least a million refugees from Russia scattered all over Europe.
The Origins of Totalitarianism
The break up of the Ottoman Empire led to war between the newly created Turkey and Greece in 1922 with a massive exchange of populations. There was also some 300,000 Armenians displaced by the 1915 genocide. As Hannah Arendt wrote in The Origins of Totalitarianism “Once the refugees had left their homeland, they remained homeless, once they had left their State they became Stateless, once they were deprived of their human rights, they were rightless.”
The League of Nations Secretariat, encouraged by the International Committee of the Red Cross, turned to Fridtjof Nansen in 1921 and said “Do something”, giving him the title of High Commissioner for Refugees but very little money to “do something”. Nansen depended heavily on the funds and expertise of private voluntary organizations. In 1922, he set up an Advisory Committee consisting of 16 private organizations which helped draw up a number of plans to solve the refugee issues and to encourage non-governmental action.
The Nansen Passport
Due to the lack of legal protection which negatively affected most refugees from Russia, in July 1922, Nansen created a special certificate of identity for Russian refugees, commonly called the “Nansen Passport.” The document, valid for one year, certified that its holder was a Russian national by origin.
It contained no general definition of a refugee and no specification of the motivation for flight. It served as a form of “certification” that provided the refugee with enough legal status to enable its holder to travel to countries where he or she would be more likely to find work.
The individual refugee and the Nansen certificate
In 1924, the Nansen passport was made to cover Armenian refugees as well and then in 1928 to Assyrian refugees from the former Ottoman Empire. As the US journalist Dorothy Thompson wrote in her book Refugees “ There is no doubt that by and large, the Nansen certificate is the greatest thing that has happened for the individual refugee. It returned his lost identity. The refugee could never be sure whether he would get a labor permit by means of the Nansen certificate, but he could be sure that without the Nansen certificate he would never get it.”
The Nansen Office
Nansen died in 1930. The title of High Commissioner for Refugees was abolished. However the work continued under the title of the Nansen Office. It operated until 1938 and the effective end of the League of Nations. The title of High Commissioner for Refugees was re-established in 1951 when it became clear that refugees would continue on the world scene.
Nansen’s outstanding personality and his strong and creative leadership have left a lasting impression on world refugee policies as well as a foundation for cosmopolitan thought.
Rene Wadlow, President, Association of World Citizens | 1,057 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Greek courts in the Archaic period
You could drag him or her in front of a rich man (if you were strong enough, or if you had strong friends to help you). Then you could try to convince the rich man to order the police (who were mostly enslaved men) to beat the person or kill them. This was pretty much the same as the laws in other cities in Afro-Eurasia at this time.
Solon – writing down the laws
In the time of Solon, people said that they needed to know what the law was really. What could you be punished for? What was the right punishment for each crime? So the Athenian aristocrats wrote down the laws. Other places were writing down their laws, too, like the early Code of Hammurabi in Babylon, or the Twelve Tables in Rome, and probably Carthage, in Africa.
Greek courts in the Classical period
Juries of 500 people
Athenian juries had 500 people on them. They sat in a big theater and listened to the accuser make a speech. Then the defendant got a turn. You could get someone to help you write your speech, but you had to give it yourself.
When the speeches were over, and witnesses had testified, all the people of the jury voted on whether the accused person was innocent or guilty. Whoever got more votes won. Then each of you would make a speech saying what you thought the punishment should be, and the jury would vote again. The punishment that got more votes would be the one that the police carried out.
Under this system, having people like you counted for a lot. Popular people tended to win trials, while unpopular people lost them. It was a trial like this that condemned Socrates to death.
What do you think would happen at your school if they used this system to decide whether you had done anything wrong and what the punishment should be? Is the system you have now better? Why or why not?
The Trial of Socrates (Famous Trials Series), by Don Nardo (1997).
Law, Violence, and Community in Classical Athens, by David Cohen (P. A. Cartledge and Peter Garnsey are the editors) (1995). Cohen shows how agon (fighting) was the main idea behind the Greek court system.
The Law in Classical Athens, by Douglas M. MacDowell (reprinted 1986).
Women in Athenian Law and Life, by Roger Just (reprinted 1991). | <urn:uuid:efb8bcc8-f00c-40bc-94ca-f7067053f2ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://quatr.us/greeks/ancient-greek-court-system.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00116.warc.gz | en | 0.981111 | 506 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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You could drag him or her in front of a rich man (if you were strong enough, or if you had strong friends to help you). Then you could try to convince the rich man to order the police (who were mostly enslaved men) to beat the person or kill them. This was pretty much the same as the laws in other cities in Afro-Eurasia at this time.
Solon – writing down the laws
In the time of Solon, people said that they needed to know what the law was really. What could you be punished for? What was the right punishment for each crime? So the Athenian aristocrats wrote down the laws. Other places were writing down their laws, too, like the early Code of Hammurabi in Babylon, or the Twelve Tables in Rome, and probably Carthage, in Africa.
Greek courts in the Classical period
Juries of 500 people
Athenian juries had 500 people on them. They sat in a big theater and listened to the accuser make a speech. Then the defendant got a turn. You could get someone to help you write your speech, but you had to give it yourself.
When the speeches were over, and witnesses had testified, all the people of the jury voted on whether the accused person was innocent or guilty. Whoever got more votes won. Then each of you would make a speech saying what you thought the punishment should be, and the jury would vote again. The punishment that got more votes would be the one that the police carried out.
Under this system, having people like you counted for a lot. Popular people tended to win trials, while unpopular people lost them. It was a trial like this that condemned Socrates to death.
What do you think would happen at your school if they used this system to decide whether you had done anything wrong and what the punishment should be? Is the system you have now better? Why or why not?
The Trial of Socrates (Famous Trials Series), by Don Nardo (1997).
Law, Violence, and Community in Classical Athens, by David Cohen (P. A. Cartledge and Peter Garnsey are the editors) (1995). Cohen shows how agon (fighting) was the main idea behind the Greek court system.
The Law in Classical Athens, by Douglas M. MacDowell (reprinted 1986).
Women in Athenian Law and Life, by Roger Just (reprinted 1991). | 521 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is a savage, brutal episode in Scotland’s history and largely forgotten.
But the potato blight that preceded the harsh winter of 1847 sparked fear and chaos across swathes of the country.
News of Ireland being ravaged by its own famine only heightened tensions and led to rioting and unrest the authorities were ill prepared to combat.
So when the price of oatmeal, the main replacement for potatoes, rocketed as farmers realised they could gain a better price for exporting the grain rather than selling it locally, it sparked demonstrations and stand-offs that often turned violent.
James Hunter, emeritus professor of history at the University of the Highlands and Islands, wanted to investigate after coming across some boxes at the National Records of Scotland which were simply labelled, “Disturbances in the north”.
The result is Insurrection: Scotland’s Famine Winter, which tells the story of that devastating season through the human tales James uncovered in his research.
Ultimately it was the goodwill of fellow Scots to help those less fortunate, James found, which prevented a bad situation from becoming much worse.
“It didn’t become quite as catastrophic as Ireland, although there was a fear it could have done,” he said.
“What interests me is trying to get the story of ordinary folk – who they were and what they were doing. That’s the kind of history that needs to be told and I think Scottish people should be aware of what their ancestors did.”
The potato blight that began in August 1846 affected the Highlands and Hebrides in the west, while in the east, communities from Aberdeen to Wick and Thurso raised up in protest at the skyrocketing cost of oatmeal.
“By January 1847, the oatmeal price had doubled,” continued James. “Farmers were attracted by the fact you could ship this stuff out to the central belt and down to England for a wholesale price that was better than selling in dribs and drabs locally.
“People took the law into their own hands, trying to stop shipments with some considerable success.
“Aberdeen, Fraserburgh, Macduff, all along the Moray Firth and up to Thurso, it was a movement that went right round the coast.
“There was no police force of any consequence, so the local sheriff would try to mobilise the most respectable parts of the communities as special constables.”
But there was widespread sympathy for what the protesters were trying to do, so people refused to help.
The Army was called in and at times the situations became violent, especially in Wick, where the troops fired into the crowd.
“Another problem the authorities had was a lack of military resources up north,” said James.
“There were no Royal Navy ships, only one small gunboat on the east coast, and there were just 1,500 troops available in all of Scotland.
“Scotland was expected to be a peaceful place, whereas there were 30,000 of an Army presence in Ireland, where there was always an expectation of an uprising. The Army firing on people caused a lot of consternation, to put it mildly.”
The military action was successful to the extent that shipments started again, but by this point communities realised they had to do something.
Seeing their neighbours being arrested and others becoming ill, or worse, due to starvation, led to large sums of money being raised in towns like Inverness and Elgin.
“There were vast amounts of money raised for famine relief, many millions in today’s money.
“Those large sums were used to subsidise the price of oatmeal, which was then sold on to the working people below the market price.
“Quite a bit of that money would have come from tradesmen donating a few shillings, ordinary folk who might not have been well off but helped people who were worse off.
“People on the islands with a little food would share it with those who had none.”
By mid-March of 1847 the riots were over, although the effects of the famine would be felt for much longer in those families who had lost loved ones to starvation or had relatives jailed for protesting in desperation.
“There is a feeling of solidarity, humanity wishing to help in poor circumstances,” James added. “Without getting starry-eyed, I found it remarkable the way people rallied round. Although I don’t touch on it in the book, thoughts of current food poverty and food banks did come to mind as I was writing.
“I think it’s worth reminding ourselves just how many people did so many good things to help others.
“It is one of the best sides of human nature.”
On February 24, 1847, the Army’s 76th Regiment marched down Union Street in Pulteneytown, near Wick, with two men they had arrested.
As demonstrators threw stones, the sheriff of Caithness ordered the troops to open fire. William Hogston was struck in the hand with a bullet, mutilating his fingers and leading to his hand being amputated. He was a cooper by trade, rendering him unemployable and leaving his wife and five children destitute.
OUR LOST CHILD
Catherine MacMillan, 14, of Barra, died as a result of starvation. Her parents, Archibald and Jean, and her five siblings had frequently been without food for a period of months. They had lived principally on the remains of diseased potatoes, which they had taken from fields where they were left to rot. Catherine became so emaciated, “falling away greatly in strength and appearance”, that she was unable to withstand the illness, perhaps dysentery or typhus, that was the immediate cause of her death.
THE FLOUR BAGGERS
A ship containing 6,000 barrels of flour ran aground at the Sound of Harris. Like Whisky Galore, many locals took what was going to end up in the sea anyway. Eight men – honest or foolish enough to own up – were jailed for three months. But the sheriff of Inverness, William Fraser-Tytler, had sympathy. He interviewed them, had them bailed, gave them work on his estate, and wrote to the Lord Advocate asking they be admonished in a rare show of humane Victorian justice.
A WALK OF HOPE
In August 1847, three women walked from Newtonmore to Kinlochlaggan in a desperate attempt to change their family’s fortunes. Mary Jack, Isabella Main and Margaret Main hoped for an audience with the holidaying Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, after three relatives were sentenced to seven years’ transportation after pleading guilty to mobbing, rioting and assault. They were told to send a petition to the Queen. The men were released back to their home village of Burghead.
Insurrection: Scotland’s Famine Hunter by James Hunter, is published by Birlinn | <urn:uuid:9212f003-329b-4722-9017-8bb8bea9aa6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sundaypost.com/fp/the-winter-of-discontent-when-starving-scots-could-take-no-more-the-scots/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00416.warc.gz | en | 0.987472 | 1,475 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1964008808... | 1 | It is a savage, brutal episode in Scotland’s history and largely forgotten.
But the potato blight that preceded the harsh winter of 1847 sparked fear and chaos across swathes of the country.
News of Ireland being ravaged by its own famine only heightened tensions and led to rioting and unrest the authorities were ill prepared to combat.
So when the price of oatmeal, the main replacement for potatoes, rocketed as farmers realised they could gain a better price for exporting the grain rather than selling it locally, it sparked demonstrations and stand-offs that often turned violent.
James Hunter, emeritus professor of history at the University of the Highlands and Islands, wanted to investigate after coming across some boxes at the National Records of Scotland which were simply labelled, “Disturbances in the north”.
The result is Insurrection: Scotland’s Famine Winter, which tells the story of that devastating season through the human tales James uncovered in his research.
Ultimately it was the goodwill of fellow Scots to help those less fortunate, James found, which prevented a bad situation from becoming much worse.
“It didn’t become quite as catastrophic as Ireland, although there was a fear it could have done,” he said.
“What interests me is trying to get the story of ordinary folk – who they were and what they were doing. That’s the kind of history that needs to be told and I think Scottish people should be aware of what their ancestors did.”
The potato blight that began in August 1846 affected the Highlands and Hebrides in the west, while in the east, communities from Aberdeen to Wick and Thurso raised up in protest at the skyrocketing cost of oatmeal.
“By January 1847, the oatmeal price had doubled,” continued James. “Farmers were attracted by the fact you could ship this stuff out to the central belt and down to England for a wholesale price that was better than selling in dribs and drabs locally.
“People took the law into their own hands, trying to stop shipments with some considerable success.
“Aberdeen, Fraserburgh, Macduff, all along the Moray Firth and up to Thurso, it was a movement that went right round the coast.
“There was no police force of any consequence, so the local sheriff would try to mobilise the most respectable parts of the communities as special constables.”
But there was widespread sympathy for what the protesters were trying to do, so people refused to help.
The Army was called in and at times the situations became violent, especially in Wick, where the troops fired into the crowd.
“Another problem the authorities had was a lack of military resources up north,” said James.
“There were no Royal Navy ships, only one small gunboat on the east coast, and there were just 1,500 troops available in all of Scotland.
“Scotland was expected to be a peaceful place, whereas there were 30,000 of an Army presence in Ireland, where there was always an expectation of an uprising. The Army firing on people caused a lot of consternation, to put it mildly.”
The military action was successful to the extent that shipments started again, but by this point communities realised they had to do something.
Seeing their neighbours being arrested and others becoming ill, or worse, due to starvation, led to large sums of money being raised in towns like Inverness and Elgin.
“There were vast amounts of money raised for famine relief, many millions in today’s money.
“Those large sums were used to subsidise the price of oatmeal, which was then sold on to the working people below the market price.
“Quite a bit of that money would have come from tradesmen donating a few shillings, ordinary folk who might not have been well off but helped people who were worse off.
“People on the islands with a little food would share it with those who had none.”
By mid-March of 1847 the riots were over, although the effects of the famine would be felt for much longer in those families who had lost loved ones to starvation or had relatives jailed for protesting in desperation.
“There is a feeling of solidarity, humanity wishing to help in poor circumstances,” James added. “Without getting starry-eyed, I found it remarkable the way people rallied round. Although I don’t touch on it in the book, thoughts of current food poverty and food banks did come to mind as I was writing.
“I think it’s worth reminding ourselves just how many people did so many good things to help others.
“It is one of the best sides of human nature.”
On February 24, 1847, the Army’s 76th Regiment marched down Union Street in Pulteneytown, near Wick, with two men they had arrested.
As demonstrators threw stones, the sheriff of Caithness ordered the troops to open fire. William Hogston was struck in the hand with a bullet, mutilating his fingers and leading to his hand being amputated. He was a cooper by trade, rendering him unemployable and leaving his wife and five children destitute.
OUR LOST CHILD
Catherine MacMillan, 14, of Barra, died as a result of starvation. Her parents, Archibald and Jean, and her five siblings had frequently been without food for a period of months. They had lived principally on the remains of diseased potatoes, which they had taken from fields where they were left to rot. Catherine became so emaciated, “falling away greatly in strength and appearance”, that she was unable to withstand the illness, perhaps dysentery or typhus, that was the immediate cause of her death.
THE FLOUR BAGGERS
A ship containing 6,000 barrels of flour ran aground at the Sound of Harris. Like Whisky Galore, many locals took what was going to end up in the sea anyway. Eight men – honest or foolish enough to own up – were jailed for three months. But the sheriff of Inverness, William Fraser-Tytler, had sympathy. He interviewed them, had them bailed, gave them work on his estate, and wrote to the Lord Advocate asking they be admonished in a rare show of humane Victorian justice.
A WALK OF HOPE
In August 1847, three women walked from Newtonmore to Kinlochlaggan in a desperate attempt to change their family’s fortunes. Mary Jack, Isabella Main and Margaret Main hoped for an audience with the holidaying Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, after three relatives were sentenced to seven years’ transportation after pleading guilty to mobbing, rioting and assault. They were told to send a petition to the Queen. The men were released back to their home village of Burghead.
Insurrection: Scotland’s Famine Hunter by James Hunter, is published by Birlinn | 1,406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On occasion, you might hear old-timers speak of a time when herds of wild hogs were hunted in the West Virginia hills.
Chances are, they never witnessed such a hunt themselves, as the practice was a tradition so long ago that they likely heard of it from their own grandparents. These hunts would have been undertaken in the 18th and 19th centuries when the store food could grow scarce in winter.
The hogs were, apparently, non-native and had been brought to the region by early settlers, who allowed them to run wild in the woods. There, the swine feasted and fattened until they could provide enough pork for remote settlements without requiring much effort on the part of the pioneers.
The hogs were customarily hunted in late autumn, as settlers had discovered that the meat tasted better when the animals had been eating chestnuts and white-oak acorns. Later, when only red-oak acorns were available, it tasted overly strong.
Older hogs were so vicious that few hunters dared venture near their feeding grounds to take them. Instead, mass hunts were organized. When temperatures began to fall, the hogs would nest in brush that surrounded an open space, sleeping on beds of leaves and holing-up during severe winter weather. They would defend their nests to the extent that some say even a bear was in danger if it attempted to kill a hog near its nest.
The hunts were conducted after scouts had observed the hogs to be denned. The hunters would open a trail through the forest that lead away from the entrance to the den area and circled around so that their quarry would be led past the hunters a second time if enough animals were not killed on a first volley.
Riflemen the took up positions along the route, standing on protected logs and boulders where they might be safe from an attack by the herd. One hunter would then ride into the den on a horse, driving the pigs out, sending them in the direction of the hunters, who would kill as many as were required.
After the desired number were slaughtered, the hunters would wait until the remainder returned to their shelter and would then lash a thong about each pig's tusks and tie it to a horse's tail. The animals were then pulled over the snow to an area nearby that had been set up for butchering.
The practice flourished during pioneer days when acquiring food for winter was a dire necessity. Few if any wild hogs now roam the hills—at least not in herds—though Eurasian wild boar now roam isolated parts of Boone, Logan, Raleigh, and Wyoming counties where they were imported by wildlife officials in 1971. | <urn:uuid:98e9798b-7c2c-4b8a-b0d7-63d8ae5968cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wvexplorer.com/2019/09/25/wild-hogs-boar-hunt-west-virginia-wv/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00515.warc.gz | en | 0.98982 | 548 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.1126384586... | 13 | On occasion, you might hear old-timers speak of a time when herds of wild hogs were hunted in the West Virginia hills.
Chances are, they never witnessed such a hunt themselves, as the practice was a tradition so long ago that they likely heard of it from their own grandparents. These hunts would have been undertaken in the 18th and 19th centuries when the store food could grow scarce in winter.
The hogs were, apparently, non-native and had been brought to the region by early settlers, who allowed them to run wild in the woods. There, the swine feasted and fattened until they could provide enough pork for remote settlements without requiring much effort on the part of the pioneers.
The hogs were customarily hunted in late autumn, as settlers had discovered that the meat tasted better when the animals had been eating chestnuts and white-oak acorns. Later, when only red-oak acorns were available, it tasted overly strong.
Older hogs were so vicious that few hunters dared venture near their feeding grounds to take them. Instead, mass hunts were organized. When temperatures began to fall, the hogs would nest in brush that surrounded an open space, sleeping on beds of leaves and holing-up during severe winter weather. They would defend their nests to the extent that some say even a bear was in danger if it attempted to kill a hog near its nest.
The hunts were conducted after scouts had observed the hogs to be denned. The hunters would open a trail through the forest that lead away from the entrance to the den area and circled around so that their quarry would be led past the hunters a second time if enough animals were not killed on a first volley.
Riflemen the took up positions along the route, standing on protected logs and boulders where they might be safe from an attack by the herd. One hunter would then ride into the den on a horse, driving the pigs out, sending them in the direction of the hunters, who would kill as many as were required.
After the desired number were slaughtered, the hunters would wait until the remainder returned to their shelter and would then lash a thong about each pig's tusks and tie it to a horse's tail. The animals were then pulled over the snow to an area nearby that had been set up for butchering.
The practice flourished during pioneer days when acquiring food for winter was a dire necessity. Few if any wild hogs now roam the hills—at least not in herds—though Eurasian wild boar now roam isolated parts of Boone, Logan, Raleigh, and Wyoming counties where they were imported by wildlife officials in 1971. | 547 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Those that know the history of the war in Sudan know about the unrest that lasted for 22 years and the 2 million lives that it claimed. But a hardship that is not discussed as often is the plight of the young boys that have lost and been lost. These are the young boys that have been stripped of their homes, their families, and essentially, their freedom. These are the Lost Boys of South Sudan.
When the war began in 1987, approximately 20,000 boys, mostly between the ages of 5 and 7, were forced to flee their villages in South Sudan. Their only hope for survival was to find refuge in a neighboring country like Kenya, Ethiopia, or Egypt. Their journey would be long and arduous, often absent of food, water, and safety. Before the voyage is complete almost half will die. And those that survive will continue to endure unspeakable tribulations.
With the help of allies in Darfur, the militia of North Sudan proceeded to carry out a plan of genocide against their southern brothers once the civil war began nearly three decades ago. The aggressors, who were widely known as the Jangaweed, began burning villages in South Sudan. They were given strict orders to take the women and girls as slaves and to slaughter the men and young boys. The boys ,who were natives to the burning villages, were told to run at the first sign of trouble. And so they ran, only to find themselves alone and orphaned once the fires and smoke had settled. And so they walked, not knowing at all where the road ahead would lead them. None of them could foresee the deplorable future that awaited them.
The boys walked and walked, showing compassion towards each other and forming a brotherhood. Together they marched on with little to no food, contaminated drinking water if there was access to any at all ,and no protection from the wild animals that saw them as prey. They walked for many months and for thousands of miles. While dodging militia and fighting disease, the boys prayed for the families they had been so viciously driven away from. Many of the Lost Boys would be the only surviving members of their villages.
Those that were able to make the trek to Ethiopia found refuge that was short-lived. The Ethiopian government that had welcomed the Lost Boys with open arms was overthrown by allies of the Northern Sudanese. The camp that housed the boys was attacked by militia, forcing them to cross a wide, deep river that was laced with crocodiles.The unarmed camp that had proven to be a safe haven was no longer. Over 5,000 boys met their demise during this attack. The survivors made it to Kenya, only to continue to live in poverty.
Over 3,000 Lost Boys have settled in the U.S. since 1999. Even with the burden of their painful experiences, those that were forced to flee their homes have consistently put a strong emphasis on the importance of education. Many of the Lost Boys who had been educated in the Kenyan refugee camp began to dream of bringing education to their homeland of South Sudan, where the literacy rate is among the lowest in the world.
One group of Lost Boys settled in the Midwest and have become advocates for education in South Sudan. This group of men began meeting every month to discuss the importance of education for a free South Sudan and to strategize about how to afford the country the resources that it needs. With the help of some of their American friends, the Lost Boys formed an organization known as Lost Boys Rebuilding Southern Sudan. The courage and resilience of the young boys who once ran from burning villages is a testament to us all - The power of education can be felt in even the most destitute of places and in the dire of situations. | <urn:uuid:87326fc6-97d8-45ad-a627-8ba6bd19b1cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.stand4education.org/single-post/2014/08/22/Finding-Whats-Lost- | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.984982 | 755 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.20891503989696503,... | 2 | Those that know the history of the war in Sudan know about the unrest that lasted for 22 years and the 2 million lives that it claimed. But a hardship that is not discussed as often is the plight of the young boys that have lost and been lost. These are the young boys that have been stripped of their homes, their families, and essentially, their freedom. These are the Lost Boys of South Sudan.
When the war began in 1987, approximately 20,000 boys, mostly between the ages of 5 and 7, were forced to flee their villages in South Sudan. Their only hope for survival was to find refuge in a neighboring country like Kenya, Ethiopia, or Egypt. Their journey would be long and arduous, often absent of food, water, and safety. Before the voyage is complete almost half will die. And those that survive will continue to endure unspeakable tribulations.
With the help of allies in Darfur, the militia of North Sudan proceeded to carry out a plan of genocide against their southern brothers once the civil war began nearly three decades ago. The aggressors, who were widely known as the Jangaweed, began burning villages in South Sudan. They were given strict orders to take the women and girls as slaves and to slaughter the men and young boys. The boys ,who were natives to the burning villages, were told to run at the first sign of trouble. And so they ran, only to find themselves alone and orphaned once the fires and smoke had settled. And so they walked, not knowing at all where the road ahead would lead them. None of them could foresee the deplorable future that awaited them.
The boys walked and walked, showing compassion towards each other and forming a brotherhood. Together they marched on with little to no food, contaminated drinking water if there was access to any at all ,and no protection from the wild animals that saw them as prey. They walked for many months and for thousands of miles. While dodging militia and fighting disease, the boys prayed for the families they had been so viciously driven away from. Many of the Lost Boys would be the only surviving members of their villages.
Those that were able to make the trek to Ethiopia found refuge that was short-lived. The Ethiopian government that had welcomed the Lost Boys with open arms was overthrown by allies of the Northern Sudanese. The camp that housed the boys was attacked by militia, forcing them to cross a wide, deep river that was laced with crocodiles.The unarmed camp that had proven to be a safe haven was no longer. Over 5,000 boys met their demise during this attack. The survivors made it to Kenya, only to continue to live in poverty.
Over 3,000 Lost Boys have settled in the U.S. since 1999. Even with the burden of their painful experiences, those that were forced to flee their homes have consistently put a strong emphasis on the importance of education. Many of the Lost Boys who had been educated in the Kenyan refugee camp began to dream of bringing education to their homeland of South Sudan, where the literacy rate is among the lowest in the world.
One group of Lost Boys settled in the Midwest and have become advocates for education in South Sudan. This group of men began meeting every month to discuss the importance of education for a free South Sudan and to strategize about how to afford the country the resources that it needs. With the help of some of their American friends, the Lost Boys formed an organization known as Lost Boys Rebuilding Southern Sudan. The courage and resilience of the young boys who once ran from burning villages is a testament to us all - The power of education can be felt in even the most destitute of places and in the dire of situations. | 776 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Story of Richard Cœur de Lion
T HE country where Christ was born, lived, and died is called Palestine. The capital of that country is Jerusalem. From that far-off country the story of Christ was carried all over the world.
Many listened to the story and were glad, but the country where he lived fell into the hands of the Saracens and Turks who neither believed in nor loved Christ. When people, for the love of Christ, went the long, long, journey to Palestine, in order to see for themselves the Holy Sepulchre, these Saracens and Turks ill-treated them, and insulted their religion.
At last a monk, called Peter the Hermit, went through Europe, preaching and calling upon all Christians to fight for the city of their Lord. If they truly loved Christ, he said, they would deliver His grave from the hands of the Saracens. At his call Christian people rose, eager to show their love, and journeyed to Palestine; but the way was long and difficult, and few reached the capital.
The people, however, were not disheartened, and the following year a great army set out which did reach Jerusalem, and after much fighting the Holy Sepulchre was taken from the Turks.
Later on the Turks took it back again, and so, for nearly two hundred years, with times of peace between, Christians and Turks were at war.
These wars were called crusades, which means, wars of the cross. The word comes from the Latin word crux. They were called crusades because the people who fought in them were fighting for the place where Christ died upon the cross. As a badge or sign, they wore a cross upon their armour or clothes.
Many kings and princes joined these wars. King Henry II. had been making ready to go to Palestine when he died. His son Richard I., who was king after him, made up his mind to go as soon as he was crowned.
Richard had not been a good son. He had helped to make his father's last days unhappy, but when his father was dead he was sorry for what he had done, and he punished the people who had helped him to rebel, instead of rewarding them as they had expected. Richard was very brave as his name, Cœur de Lion, which means Lion-hearted, shows. He was a great soldier, he loved to fight, he loved to have adventures. So instead of staying at home and looking after his kingdom as he ought to have done, he went far away to Palestine to fight.
And his people were proud of their king and glad to have him go, for they knew that he would make the name of England famous wherever he went, although Richard himself was really hardly English. He had indeed been born in England, but he had lived nearly all his life in France, and he did not know nor care much about the English people.
Richard Cœur de Lion came to England to be crowned. He sold everything he could in order to get money for the crusade (for wars always cost a great deal of money), and then he sailed away.
But first he chose two bishops to rule the country while he was gone. One was a very old man, and the other, William Longchamps, was a Norman. He could hardly speak a word of English and he treated the people so badly that they hated him and soon rebelled.
Now Richard's younger brother, John, wanted to be King of England, so he encouraged the people to rebel. Then he began to rule, but the unhappy people soon found that John was no kinder than William Longchamps. Indeed he was rather worse, for John wanted the kingdom for himself, and Longchamps, although proud and haughty and cruel to the people, was at least true to his king.
John and his Norman friends oppressed the people, and the hatred between English and Norman, to which Henry II. had done so much to put an end, flamed up again. Many of the English left their homes, or were driven from them, and the land became full of robbers and outlaws.
One of the most famous of these outlaws was Robin Hood. He lived in Sherwood, a forest which at that time covered a great part of the centre of England. He was the head of a large band and so powerful was he that he was called the King of Sherwood. And indeed his followers loved and obeyed him as they would have done a king.
Robbers as a rule are not men to be admired, but these were wild times, very different from ours, and Robin had been forced to become a robber through the wickedness of the rulers of the land. Among his own band he kept such good order, that in Sherwood women and children could wander safely, where it was dangerous for haughty knights and wicked priests to go. Robin's rules were strict, and those who would not obey them were driven out of the band of Merrie Men, as his followers were called.
The sheriff of Nottingham was Robin's greatest enemy. Many times he tried to catch Robin but he never succeeded.
In those days bows and arrows were used in battle instead of guns, as gunpowder had not been invented. Bows and arrows were also used for hunting wild animals. The English archers were the most famous in the world, and Robin Hood was the most famous archer in England. He could split a willow wand, and hit a mark which another man could hardly see.
Robin and his men lived in caves in the forest, shooting the King's deer for food and getting money by robbing the rich knights and priests who travelled through the Green Wood. But they never hurt nor robbed the poor people, indeed Robin used to help many of them. The common people loved him, although the rich, and great barons and nobles hated him.
Far away in Palestine news of the wicked things which John was doing reached Richard, and he felt that it was time that he should go home again. He had not succeeded in what he had set out to do. He had not won Jerusalem from the Turks. But he made a truce with their great leader, Saladin. A truce means that the people who have been fighting do not make peace for good and all, but that they promise not to fight against each other for some arranged time. Saladin and Richard made a truce for three years, during which time Saladin promised that no harm should be done to the pilgrims who came to the Holy Sepulchre.
Richard set sail for home, but his heart was in the Holy Land. Tears filled his eyes as its shores grew dim in the distance. Stretching out his hand, as if in prayer, "Blessed land," he cried, "farewell. To God's keeping I commend thee. May He give me life that I may return to deliver thee from the hand of the unbeliever."
As Richard sailed homeward, storms arose and his ship was wrecked upon the shore of Austria. Nearly everyone was drowned, but the King and a few of his knights escaped.
While in Palestine, Richard had quarrelled with the Duke of Austria, and he knew that it would not be safe to travel openly in this land. So the King and his knights disguised themselves as merchants, hoping in that way to pass safely on their journey.
But they had many adventures, and more than once were nearly discovered. At last Richard was left with only one knight and one little page. When they arrived at the large town near which the Duke of Austria lived, Richard and the knight lay hidden, while the page went into the town to buy food. They had been travelling for several days without daring to enter a house, and all the food they had was finished, and they were both weary and hungry.
Richard, like many brave and reckless people, was neither thoughtful nor careful. He gave the page a large sum of money and allowed him to go into the town carrying the King's gloves in his belt.
In those days only very rich people wore gloves, and Richard's were beautifully embroidered with silk and gold, such as only kings and princes wore. The page had often before bought food for his master, and he went fearlessly into the market-place to get what was needed. But when he handed the merchant a large piece of gold in payment, the man looked sharply at him.
"Who is your master?" he asked.
"My master is a rich merchant called Hugh," replied the boy. "He is returning from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land."
"Merchant, indeed," said another man. "Look at his gloves."
A third plucked them from his belt. "Merchant indeed," he too cried. "These are king's gloves. Who is your master, boy?"
"I have told you," replied the page steadily, "he is a merchant called Hugh."
But the townspeople would not believe that. They beat and tortured the poor lad. Still he would not tell.
Then they dragged him before the duke with whom Richard had quarrelled in Palestine. He was more strong and cruel than the others, and at last forced the page to confess that his master was Richard Cœur de Lion, the King of England.
Then Leopold, Duke of Austria, was very glad. He hated Richard with a great hatred. He sent soldiers to the King's hiding-place, seized him, and put him in prison.
Duke Leopold kept Richard prisoner for some time, and then he sold him to the Emperor of Germany for a large sum of money. The Emperor of Germany also hated Richard, so he, in his turn, put him into prison.
Then the Emperor wrote to the King of France telling him that the King of England was safely imprisoned in one of his strong castles. And King Philip of France was glad, for he, too, hated Richard, and had been helping Prince John stir up the English people to rebellion. When Prince John heard about it, he was glad too. So a great many people rejoiced that Richard Cœur de Lion was in prison. | <urn:uuid:7ccf7ae3-03d1-4166-bed7-c388fa718bc0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=coeur | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00116.warc.gz | en | 0.994281 | 2,110 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.054014749825... | 1 | The Story of Richard Cœur de Lion
T HE country where Christ was born, lived, and died is called Palestine. The capital of that country is Jerusalem. From that far-off country the story of Christ was carried all over the world.
Many listened to the story and were glad, but the country where he lived fell into the hands of the Saracens and Turks who neither believed in nor loved Christ. When people, for the love of Christ, went the long, long, journey to Palestine, in order to see for themselves the Holy Sepulchre, these Saracens and Turks ill-treated them, and insulted their religion.
At last a monk, called Peter the Hermit, went through Europe, preaching and calling upon all Christians to fight for the city of their Lord. If they truly loved Christ, he said, they would deliver His grave from the hands of the Saracens. At his call Christian people rose, eager to show their love, and journeyed to Palestine; but the way was long and difficult, and few reached the capital.
The people, however, were not disheartened, and the following year a great army set out which did reach Jerusalem, and after much fighting the Holy Sepulchre was taken from the Turks.
Later on the Turks took it back again, and so, for nearly two hundred years, with times of peace between, Christians and Turks were at war.
These wars were called crusades, which means, wars of the cross. The word comes from the Latin word crux. They were called crusades because the people who fought in them were fighting for the place where Christ died upon the cross. As a badge or sign, they wore a cross upon their armour or clothes.
Many kings and princes joined these wars. King Henry II. had been making ready to go to Palestine when he died. His son Richard I., who was king after him, made up his mind to go as soon as he was crowned.
Richard had not been a good son. He had helped to make his father's last days unhappy, but when his father was dead he was sorry for what he had done, and he punished the people who had helped him to rebel, instead of rewarding them as they had expected. Richard was very brave as his name, Cœur de Lion, which means Lion-hearted, shows. He was a great soldier, he loved to fight, he loved to have adventures. So instead of staying at home and looking after his kingdom as he ought to have done, he went far away to Palestine to fight.
And his people were proud of their king and glad to have him go, for they knew that he would make the name of England famous wherever he went, although Richard himself was really hardly English. He had indeed been born in England, but he had lived nearly all his life in France, and he did not know nor care much about the English people.
Richard Cœur de Lion came to England to be crowned. He sold everything he could in order to get money for the crusade (for wars always cost a great deal of money), and then he sailed away.
But first he chose two bishops to rule the country while he was gone. One was a very old man, and the other, William Longchamps, was a Norman. He could hardly speak a word of English and he treated the people so badly that they hated him and soon rebelled.
Now Richard's younger brother, John, wanted to be King of England, so he encouraged the people to rebel. Then he began to rule, but the unhappy people soon found that John was no kinder than William Longchamps. Indeed he was rather worse, for John wanted the kingdom for himself, and Longchamps, although proud and haughty and cruel to the people, was at least true to his king.
John and his Norman friends oppressed the people, and the hatred between English and Norman, to which Henry II. had done so much to put an end, flamed up again. Many of the English left their homes, or were driven from them, and the land became full of robbers and outlaws.
One of the most famous of these outlaws was Robin Hood. He lived in Sherwood, a forest which at that time covered a great part of the centre of England. He was the head of a large band and so powerful was he that he was called the King of Sherwood. And indeed his followers loved and obeyed him as they would have done a king.
Robbers as a rule are not men to be admired, but these were wild times, very different from ours, and Robin had been forced to become a robber through the wickedness of the rulers of the land. Among his own band he kept such good order, that in Sherwood women and children could wander safely, where it was dangerous for haughty knights and wicked priests to go. Robin's rules were strict, and those who would not obey them were driven out of the band of Merrie Men, as his followers were called.
The sheriff of Nottingham was Robin's greatest enemy. Many times he tried to catch Robin but he never succeeded.
In those days bows and arrows were used in battle instead of guns, as gunpowder had not been invented. Bows and arrows were also used for hunting wild animals. The English archers were the most famous in the world, and Robin Hood was the most famous archer in England. He could split a willow wand, and hit a mark which another man could hardly see.
Robin and his men lived in caves in the forest, shooting the King's deer for food and getting money by robbing the rich knights and priests who travelled through the Green Wood. But they never hurt nor robbed the poor people, indeed Robin used to help many of them. The common people loved him, although the rich, and great barons and nobles hated him.
Far away in Palestine news of the wicked things which John was doing reached Richard, and he felt that it was time that he should go home again. He had not succeeded in what he had set out to do. He had not won Jerusalem from the Turks. But he made a truce with their great leader, Saladin. A truce means that the people who have been fighting do not make peace for good and all, but that they promise not to fight against each other for some arranged time. Saladin and Richard made a truce for three years, during which time Saladin promised that no harm should be done to the pilgrims who came to the Holy Sepulchre.
Richard set sail for home, but his heart was in the Holy Land. Tears filled his eyes as its shores grew dim in the distance. Stretching out his hand, as if in prayer, "Blessed land," he cried, "farewell. To God's keeping I commend thee. May He give me life that I may return to deliver thee from the hand of the unbeliever."
As Richard sailed homeward, storms arose and his ship was wrecked upon the shore of Austria. Nearly everyone was drowned, but the King and a few of his knights escaped.
While in Palestine, Richard had quarrelled with the Duke of Austria, and he knew that it would not be safe to travel openly in this land. So the King and his knights disguised themselves as merchants, hoping in that way to pass safely on their journey.
But they had many adventures, and more than once were nearly discovered. At last Richard was left with only one knight and one little page. When they arrived at the large town near which the Duke of Austria lived, Richard and the knight lay hidden, while the page went into the town to buy food. They had been travelling for several days without daring to enter a house, and all the food they had was finished, and they were both weary and hungry.
Richard, like many brave and reckless people, was neither thoughtful nor careful. He gave the page a large sum of money and allowed him to go into the town carrying the King's gloves in his belt.
In those days only very rich people wore gloves, and Richard's were beautifully embroidered with silk and gold, such as only kings and princes wore. The page had often before bought food for his master, and he went fearlessly into the market-place to get what was needed. But when he handed the merchant a large piece of gold in payment, the man looked sharply at him.
"Who is your master?" he asked.
"My master is a rich merchant called Hugh," replied the boy. "He is returning from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land."
"Merchant, indeed," said another man. "Look at his gloves."
A third plucked them from his belt. "Merchant indeed," he too cried. "These are king's gloves. Who is your master, boy?"
"I have told you," replied the page steadily, "he is a merchant called Hugh."
But the townspeople would not believe that. They beat and tortured the poor lad. Still he would not tell.
Then they dragged him before the duke with whom Richard had quarrelled in Palestine. He was more strong and cruel than the others, and at last forced the page to confess that his master was Richard Cœur de Lion, the King of England.
Then Leopold, Duke of Austria, was very glad. He hated Richard with a great hatred. He sent soldiers to the King's hiding-place, seized him, and put him in prison.
Duke Leopold kept Richard prisoner for some time, and then he sold him to the Emperor of Germany for a large sum of money. The Emperor of Germany also hated Richard, so he, in his turn, put him into prison.
Then the Emperor wrote to the King of France telling him that the King of England was safely imprisoned in one of his strong castles. And King Philip of France was glad, for he, too, hated Richard, and had been helping Prince John stir up the English people to rebellion. When Prince John heard about it, he was glad too. So a great many people rejoiced that Richard Cœur de Lion was in prison. | 2,063 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The sample paper on Ophelia Play familiarizes the reader with the topic-related facts, theories, and approaches. Scroll down to read the entire paper.
Ophelia and Gertrude are the most prominent female characters in “Hamlet” and as a result they do seem quite susceptible and vulnerable in the patriarchal society of Denmark that the play is set in. Many of the ideas and suggestions presented in the play are put forward by the dominant male characters. Since both women seem to have a loving attachment to Hamlet, when it comes to suggestions for establishing the cause of Hamlets madness, they are often used by the men as “bait” to lure him in. This in itself could testify for the idea that both Gertrude and Ophelia are collectively victimised.
This is demonstrated in the scene just before Hamlet talks to Ophelia about his real feelings for her. Claudius declares he and Polonius will act as “lawful espials” and they then “may of their encounter frankly judge”. Ophelia does not voice her opinion of their plans, although she is present for the entire discussion. Through this, she is shown to be passive with no strength to defy the orders of others. This could be due to a weak character or the fact that Ophelia is forced to conform to the ideals of the time and doesn’t know any better.
Through this repression, Ophelia is some what victimised as she feels and knows she must respect her elders wishes and obey her father. In one of the earlier scenes of the play, after Ophelia has been discussing her courtship with Hamlet to her brother Laertes, Ophelia attempts to express to her father these feelings that Hamlet has claimed to have for her. She says “He hath of late made many tenders of his affection to me. ” To which Polonius replies “Affection? Puh! You speak like a green girl.
” This makes the audience aware of Polonius’ attitude towards his daughter, he quickly dismisses all the claims she makes and by calling her a “green girl” he is emphasizing her young naivety. This attitude does not seem dissimilar to some held by other male characters, Laertes calls her “chariest maid” and there is definite emphasis on her innocence and purity throughout. Polonius effectively exploits her to the other characters by commanding Ophelia not to respond to or read her love letters from Hamlet and then publicly humiliating her by reading extracts out to members of the royal court.
The aim of this is quite self centred, they are merely trying to account for reasons for Hamlets madness. Polonius shows a lack of respect or consideration for his daughters feelings, which doesn’t help, what we could perhaps assume to be, her steadily deteriorating mental state. Ophelia’s character is effectively trapped by Hamlets decision to feign madness. His behaviours leave her distressed and confused and she is unwittingly victimised by him. He declares to her that “I did love you once” and in his next statement he says “I never loved you”.
As a character with relatively little to say, the audience does not begin to understand Ophelia’s feelings towards Hamlet until she turns mad. These earlier statements not only seem to trigger the emotional turmoil that she suffers, but later on we are presented with a possibility that the statements were not true, and that Hamlet did love Ophelia. By this point it is too late and his only shown moments of love and affection towards her are when she is gone. Hamlet says “I loved Ophelia; forty thousand brothers could not with all their quantity of love make up my sum.
” Thereby defying everything he has said to her before. In this situation, Ophelia has become the helpless victim, her lover murders her father and says he doesn’t love her and she is left alone and helpless when he is sent away to England. Her madness however provokes some insight into Ophelia’s inner most feelings, the only time we really learn anything about her character. Behind the poetic words of her song seems to lie plausible meaning “How should I your true love know” and “And I a maid at your window, to be your valentine” seems to show for the first time some of her feelings of love and longing for Hamlet.
Whereas “He is dead and gone; At his head a grass- green turf, at his heels a stone. ” seems to be a blatant reference to her fathers recent death, the appearance of these two matters in her mad evoked sing-song seems to indicate further the importance of them to her and demonstrates that she has now become a victim of her own feelings. Her weak character allows her to succumb to her bout of emotions rather than allowing her to get along with her life, her death signifies her character being finally engulfed by this. In comparison to Ophelia, Gertrude is shown to be victimised in a quite different way.
Although it never seems entirely clear if she was aware of the plot to kill her last husband, she has been effectively forced into a situation with little control over what is going on around her and where she must make the right connections or face learning to fend for herself. At King Hamlet’s death, Gertrude is the first living victim, as she is not linked by Royal Parentage she is almost forced to remarry quickly to her deceased husbands brother to maintain her position as Queen. She is not guiltless for this, she worries for her son constantly as his madness becomes apparent.
However, she shows some ignorance as to all the plausible causes for his state saying “it is no other but the main. His father’s death and our o’er hasty marriage”. It is not until later that some other possible reasons are explored, and through this explanation she, like Ophelia, is somewhat victimised. Gertrude only wants the best for Hamlet, yet here she is used in plans where she is not always aware of what’s going on, and her efforts to get through to him are hapless as well as the subject of monitoring by the other royal courtiers.
Gertrude’s efforts to amend circumstances after King Hamlet’s death lead only to her son turning against her, Hamlet feigning his madness now feels he has the capability to have control over his mother much like the other male figures in the play. He quite openly insults and manipulates her feelings, for example in Act 3 Scene 4 he says “The heyday in the blood it tame” inflicting her with the idea that she is getting quickly older. Gertrude has no power to protect herself from her sons disposition and this is demonstrated by her weak replies to what he is saying to her “O Hamlet, speak no more.
Thou turn’st my eyes into my very soul. ” It is clear that Hamlets behaviour towards her is highly distressing and it may follow that she is now becoming some what frightened of what he could do to her. Following his murder of Polonius, she is harrowed by what she has witnessed and seems to succumb to all ideas presented to her regarding him, even his being sent away to England. Despite her helplessness, Gertrude has attempted to gain some control over the political standing of Denmark when King Hamlet dies.
To some degree she has remarried not only to keep her position (or perhaps to fulfil possible desires for Claudius) but in an attempt to keep her beloved country from falling into disarray under an entirely new monarchy. She is a weakened character but she is also devoted and concerned for the well being of others and of her nation. Gertrude, like Ophelia, is a victim of Hamlet’s madness, however she pulls through better and this may be contributed to her maturity or the arguable point that she doesn’t suffer as much as the young Ophelia.
In conclusion, Shakespeare has produced two somewhat vulnerable and slightly passive female characters. They are certainly both the subject of victimisation and this is predominantly caused by the oppression and grief they face from members of the opposite sex, particularly Hamlet. Their representation as weak minded reinforces the ideals of the time, that the men should be strong and go out and fight and the women must be passive and obedient at home. They are victims not only of their associates but of patriarchal society. | <urn:uuid:0ee29b04-fff0-4c96-b435-8c74e14e074a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://paperap.com/paper-on-play-hamlet-ophelia-gerturde/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00289.warc.gz | en | 0.984547 | 1,804 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.16240796446800232... | 2 | The sample paper on Ophelia Play familiarizes the reader with the topic-related facts, theories, and approaches. Scroll down to read the entire paper.
Ophelia and Gertrude are the most prominent female characters in “Hamlet” and as a result they do seem quite susceptible and vulnerable in the patriarchal society of Denmark that the play is set in. Many of the ideas and suggestions presented in the play are put forward by the dominant male characters. Since both women seem to have a loving attachment to Hamlet, when it comes to suggestions for establishing the cause of Hamlets madness, they are often used by the men as “bait” to lure him in. This in itself could testify for the idea that both Gertrude and Ophelia are collectively victimised.
This is demonstrated in the scene just before Hamlet talks to Ophelia about his real feelings for her. Claudius declares he and Polonius will act as “lawful espials” and they then “may of their encounter frankly judge”. Ophelia does not voice her opinion of their plans, although she is present for the entire discussion. Through this, she is shown to be passive with no strength to defy the orders of others. This could be due to a weak character or the fact that Ophelia is forced to conform to the ideals of the time and doesn’t know any better.
Through this repression, Ophelia is some what victimised as she feels and knows she must respect her elders wishes and obey her father. In one of the earlier scenes of the play, after Ophelia has been discussing her courtship with Hamlet to her brother Laertes, Ophelia attempts to express to her father these feelings that Hamlet has claimed to have for her. She says “He hath of late made many tenders of his affection to me. ” To which Polonius replies “Affection? Puh! You speak like a green girl.
” This makes the audience aware of Polonius’ attitude towards his daughter, he quickly dismisses all the claims she makes and by calling her a “green girl” he is emphasizing her young naivety. This attitude does not seem dissimilar to some held by other male characters, Laertes calls her “chariest maid” and there is definite emphasis on her innocence and purity throughout. Polonius effectively exploits her to the other characters by commanding Ophelia not to respond to or read her love letters from Hamlet and then publicly humiliating her by reading extracts out to members of the royal court.
The aim of this is quite self centred, they are merely trying to account for reasons for Hamlets madness. Polonius shows a lack of respect or consideration for his daughters feelings, which doesn’t help, what we could perhaps assume to be, her steadily deteriorating mental state. Ophelia’s character is effectively trapped by Hamlets decision to feign madness. His behaviours leave her distressed and confused and she is unwittingly victimised by him. He declares to her that “I did love you once” and in his next statement he says “I never loved you”.
As a character with relatively little to say, the audience does not begin to understand Ophelia’s feelings towards Hamlet until she turns mad. These earlier statements not only seem to trigger the emotional turmoil that she suffers, but later on we are presented with a possibility that the statements were not true, and that Hamlet did love Ophelia. By this point it is too late and his only shown moments of love and affection towards her are when she is gone. Hamlet says “I loved Ophelia; forty thousand brothers could not with all their quantity of love make up my sum.
” Thereby defying everything he has said to her before. In this situation, Ophelia has become the helpless victim, her lover murders her father and says he doesn’t love her and she is left alone and helpless when he is sent away to England. Her madness however provokes some insight into Ophelia’s inner most feelings, the only time we really learn anything about her character. Behind the poetic words of her song seems to lie plausible meaning “How should I your true love know” and “And I a maid at your window, to be your valentine” seems to show for the first time some of her feelings of love and longing for Hamlet.
Whereas “He is dead and gone; At his head a grass- green turf, at his heels a stone. ” seems to be a blatant reference to her fathers recent death, the appearance of these two matters in her mad evoked sing-song seems to indicate further the importance of them to her and demonstrates that she has now become a victim of her own feelings. Her weak character allows her to succumb to her bout of emotions rather than allowing her to get along with her life, her death signifies her character being finally engulfed by this. In comparison to Ophelia, Gertrude is shown to be victimised in a quite different way.
Although it never seems entirely clear if she was aware of the plot to kill her last husband, she has been effectively forced into a situation with little control over what is going on around her and where she must make the right connections or face learning to fend for herself. At King Hamlet’s death, Gertrude is the first living victim, as she is not linked by Royal Parentage she is almost forced to remarry quickly to her deceased husbands brother to maintain her position as Queen. She is not guiltless for this, she worries for her son constantly as his madness becomes apparent.
However, she shows some ignorance as to all the plausible causes for his state saying “it is no other but the main. His father’s death and our o’er hasty marriage”. It is not until later that some other possible reasons are explored, and through this explanation she, like Ophelia, is somewhat victimised. Gertrude only wants the best for Hamlet, yet here she is used in plans where she is not always aware of what’s going on, and her efforts to get through to him are hapless as well as the subject of monitoring by the other royal courtiers.
Gertrude’s efforts to amend circumstances after King Hamlet’s death lead only to her son turning against her, Hamlet feigning his madness now feels he has the capability to have control over his mother much like the other male figures in the play. He quite openly insults and manipulates her feelings, for example in Act 3 Scene 4 he says “The heyday in the blood it tame” inflicting her with the idea that she is getting quickly older. Gertrude has no power to protect herself from her sons disposition and this is demonstrated by her weak replies to what he is saying to her “O Hamlet, speak no more.
Thou turn’st my eyes into my very soul. ” It is clear that Hamlets behaviour towards her is highly distressing and it may follow that she is now becoming some what frightened of what he could do to her. Following his murder of Polonius, she is harrowed by what she has witnessed and seems to succumb to all ideas presented to her regarding him, even his being sent away to England. Despite her helplessness, Gertrude has attempted to gain some control over the political standing of Denmark when King Hamlet dies.
To some degree she has remarried not only to keep her position (or perhaps to fulfil possible desires for Claudius) but in an attempt to keep her beloved country from falling into disarray under an entirely new monarchy. She is a weakened character but she is also devoted and concerned for the well being of others and of her nation. Gertrude, like Ophelia, is a victim of Hamlet’s madness, however she pulls through better and this may be contributed to her maturity or the arguable point that she doesn’t suffer as much as the young Ophelia.
In conclusion, Shakespeare has produced two somewhat vulnerable and slightly passive female characters. They are certainly both the subject of victimisation and this is predominantly caused by the oppression and grief they face from members of the opposite sex, particularly Hamlet. Their representation as weak minded reinforces the ideals of the time, that the men should be strong and go out and fight and the women must be passive and obedient at home. They are victims not only of their associates but of patriarchal society. | 1,724 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Australia had a dilemma at the start of World War Two. When Britain declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939, Australia had to decide whether to use her military to support Britain in the European sphere of war or to keep her forces in the Far East in view of the worsening situation there with regards to Japanese expansion. Any movement of Australian troops to Britain (or to places such as Egypt) would weaken the strength of Australia’s military at home. Any serious Allied military defeat would also impact on the Australian military, which might be part of this defeat. The Australian government decided that any major Axis victory in Europe against the British would almost certainly be decisive and change the course of the war – therefore, the government decided that it would commit all its forces against the danger Germany posed in Europe.
Australian soldiers in Syria
Australia had anticipated Britain’s declaration of war against the Germans as early as August 1939. Heavy artillery units were mobilised and outlying military centres such as Port Moresby, received supplies of weapons and ammunition in case such a declaration stimulated further Japanese aggression.
The Australian Parliament was united on a declaration of war against the Axis powers. The only potential problem was the issue of conscription. During World War One, this had caused major political troubles. However, in World War Two, a compromise was reached. Parliament voted in November 1939 for conscription, but conscripts could only serve in Australia itself and neighbouring islands.
Britain requested military assistance from Australia within a week of declaring war on Germany. However, the army was short of both equipment and manpower. 20,000 men were assigned to the 6th Division. The man appointed to command it was Major-General Blamey. He was a man with a direct way of dealing with people and he took badly any criticism of his style of leadership. Blamey had his supporters in the army, but there were also many who had not supported his appointment.
In November 1939, the government announced that the 6th Division would be sent overseas when their training had reached a certain standard of proficiency. Training abroad in terrain more European or North African would follow so that the 6th Division would hone their skills in a similar environment to one they would be fighting in. When Britain announced that they were concerned for the safety of the Suez Canal, it seemed logical that the 6th Division should be sent to Egypt to act as a deterrent to Italy. From Egypt, they could transfer to France it required. The first troops left for what was then Palestine in January 1940 and over the next few months more brigades from the 6th Division followed. The rapid collapse of France in the spring of 1940 ensured that the 6th Division would not be transferring to Europe.
The European situation also led to the Australian government forming three new divisions (the 7th, 8th and 9th Divisions). The entry of Italy into the war, and the increased threat to the Mediterranean area, and Germany’s supremacy in northern Europe, meant that Australia faced a massive task simply getting its new fighting force properly trained. Many in Australia simply assumed that the Australians would soon be involved in fighting major battles.
Away from the army, men in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fought in the Battle of Britain as part of the RAF. Men from the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) gained operational experience with the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean.
After the Dunkirk evacuation, the Australian government started to re-focus on Australia itself. Many politicians rightly believed that the Axis victory in Europe would stimulate further Japanese aggression in the Far East and that Australia itself might be threatened. With so many of its army abroad, many felt that this would also stimulate Japanese aggression. A joint-approach was made to America by Britain and Australia for the US to send a fleet to the British naval base at Singapore. It was hoped that such a gesture would make it clear to the Japanese that any action by them would be met with an aggressive reaction. No such naval force was sent to Singapore.
Another idea to stop Japanese aggression was to greatly increase the military power the Australians had in Malaya. This would require troops from the 6th Division to be removed from the Middle East and sent to the Far East. However, at this time, Italy was expanding aggressively in the Mediterranean region and all the men from the 6th Division were needed where they were based. In August 1940, the Australian government received an assurance from Winston Churchill that any threat to Australia or New Zealand would result in the Mediterranean Fleet being sent to the Far East immediately.
The declining situation in the Far East led to a meeting in October 1940 of military representatives from Australia, Burma, India and New Zealand. They met in Singapore. They all agreed that the defence of Malaya was vital if any Japanese aggression was to be halted. The Australians wanted the Indian Army to take the responsibility for defending Malaya while the Australians would provide a naval force for the region. It became obvious to many that Singapore had the potential to be an Achilles heel for the Allies. It would be an obvious target for the Japanese but its power had been built around the navy and not land and air defences. In late 1940, its vulnerability to a land attack was a major fear for many, even if few thought that the Japanese could come down the Malayan Peninsula. In December 1940, an Australian brigade was sent to Malaya. The plan was that an Indian brigade should replace it in May 1941.
The Australian 6th Division saw action in the deserts of North Africa from December 1940 on. They also fought in the Greek campaign and their stand at Thermopylae allowed a relatively successful Allied evacuation to take place. The Australian 7th Division successfully occupied Vichy Syria.
|“Thus Australia’s expeditionary force to the Middle East had been of incalculable value in saving the Middle East from Axis domination during the first six months of 1941.Robert O’Neill|
Throughout March 1941 Australian intelligence intercepted cables sent by the Japanese government to Japanese firms based in Australia. These recommended that as many personnel as possible should be sent back to Japan. These cables convinced many in the Australian government that an attack in the Far East was imminent. There was a general concern that too much of Australia’s military was based too far away to defend Australia. Clashes also occurred with senior British commanders in Singapore. Air Chief Marshall Sir Robert Brooke-Popham, c-in-c in the Far East, claimed that talk of Singapore’s downfall was “defeatist”. Even Churchill referred to Singapore as a fortress – much to the concern of military figures in Australia who held the opposite viewpoint. To complicate matters more, America stated that though the loss of Singapore would be unfortunate, it would not be a vital loss.
It was in 1941, that relations between Canberra and London became strained. In particular, the Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, believed that Churchill was fully focused on Europe and not what was happening in the Far East. On June 10th, 1941, Menzies reported to his government after meeting with Churchill:
|“Mr. Churchill had no conception of the British Dominions as separate entities and the more distant the problem from the heart of the Empire the less he thought about it.”|
However, it was Menzies who was a casualty from this. The Australian press had turned against him and so had many in his own party, the United Australia Party. The charge against him was that he had not been as robust against Churchill as Australia needed him to be for their own security. In August 1941 he resigned. Between August and October 1941, Australia was governed by Fadden’s County Party. But in October, the Australian Labour Party took over government led by John Curtin.
From October onwards, Australia prepared for a Japanese sweep south in the Far East. In August 1939, the Labour Party had opposed conscription. Now, Curtin argued that it geographical limits should be increased to include New Guinea and the South-West Pacific. It was decided that the most important part of Australia, a zone around Sydney which included major industrial plants, should be the most defended area. As the militia of Australia only consisted of 5 infantry and 2 cavalry divisions, only a very small area of the country could be covered. Areas outside of this zone were angered that they were being seemingly sacrificed to the Japanese military machine. Though the zone was expanded to the so-called ‘Brisbane Line’, the feeling remained that the government was too concerned with New South Wales at the expense of the rest of the country.
When the attack on Pearl Harbour (December 1941) brought general war to the Far East, few could have anticipated the success the Japanese military would have. Within 5 months, northern Australia was threatened as the Dutch East Indies fell. Darwin in particular was under threat.
America wanted to use Australia as a base for its troops and an agreement was reached on this in December 1941. 4,500 American troops arrived in Australia on December 22nd and in February 1942, the US 41st Division was ordered to Australia along with 38,000 support troops. Most had arrived by May 1942. Here a clear difference was appearing – many realised that Britain was not in a position to help Australia but America not only promised help but backed up that promise with men and equipment. When the Australian General Bennett arrived in Darwin after his escape from Singapore, he received a less than cordial greeting. When Douglas MacArthur arrived in Darwin after his escape from the Philippines, his reception was a lot more positive. Curtin suggested that MacArthur be made Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces , South-West Pacific Area – a suggestion that was taken up.
By mid-1942, Australia was in a much better position to defend itself against the Japanese onslaught. There were 38,000 American troops in Australia, the Australian Imperial Force numbered 104,000 as the 6th and 7th Divisions had returned from the Middle East, and there were 265,000 men in the militia. All land forces were placed under the command of General Blamey. | <urn:uuid:b60f1e95-f94b-4ef4-8f38-0d4b019cdf92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/the-pacific-war-1941-to-1945/australia-at-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00195.warc.gz | en | 0.988473 | 2,064 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.78788948059082... | 4 | Australia had a dilemma at the start of World War Two. When Britain declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939, Australia had to decide whether to use her military to support Britain in the European sphere of war or to keep her forces in the Far East in view of the worsening situation there with regards to Japanese expansion. Any movement of Australian troops to Britain (or to places such as Egypt) would weaken the strength of Australia’s military at home. Any serious Allied military defeat would also impact on the Australian military, which might be part of this defeat. The Australian government decided that any major Axis victory in Europe against the British would almost certainly be decisive and change the course of the war – therefore, the government decided that it would commit all its forces against the danger Germany posed in Europe.
Australian soldiers in Syria
Australia had anticipated Britain’s declaration of war against the Germans as early as August 1939. Heavy artillery units were mobilised and outlying military centres such as Port Moresby, received supplies of weapons and ammunition in case such a declaration stimulated further Japanese aggression.
The Australian Parliament was united on a declaration of war against the Axis powers. The only potential problem was the issue of conscription. During World War One, this had caused major political troubles. However, in World War Two, a compromise was reached. Parliament voted in November 1939 for conscription, but conscripts could only serve in Australia itself and neighbouring islands.
Britain requested military assistance from Australia within a week of declaring war on Germany. However, the army was short of both equipment and manpower. 20,000 men were assigned to the 6th Division. The man appointed to command it was Major-General Blamey. He was a man with a direct way of dealing with people and he took badly any criticism of his style of leadership. Blamey had his supporters in the army, but there were also many who had not supported his appointment.
In November 1939, the government announced that the 6th Division would be sent overseas when their training had reached a certain standard of proficiency. Training abroad in terrain more European or North African would follow so that the 6th Division would hone their skills in a similar environment to one they would be fighting in. When Britain announced that they were concerned for the safety of the Suez Canal, it seemed logical that the 6th Division should be sent to Egypt to act as a deterrent to Italy. From Egypt, they could transfer to France it required. The first troops left for what was then Palestine in January 1940 and over the next few months more brigades from the 6th Division followed. The rapid collapse of France in the spring of 1940 ensured that the 6th Division would not be transferring to Europe.
The European situation also led to the Australian government forming three new divisions (the 7th, 8th and 9th Divisions). The entry of Italy into the war, and the increased threat to the Mediterranean area, and Germany’s supremacy in northern Europe, meant that Australia faced a massive task simply getting its new fighting force properly trained. Many in Australia simply assumed that the Australians would soon be involved in fighting major battles.
Away from the army, men in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fought in the Battle of Britain as part of the RAF. Men from the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) gained operational experience with the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean.
After the Dunkirk evacuation, the Australian government started to re-focus on Australia itself. Many politicians rightly believed that the Axis victory in Europe would stimulate further Japanese aggression in the Far East and that Australia itself might be threatened. With so many of its army abroad, many felt that this would also stimulate Japanese aggression. A joint-approach was made to America by Britain and Australia for the US to send a fleet to the British naval base at Singapore. It was hoped that such a gesture would make it clear to the Japanese that any action by them would be met with an aggressive reaction. No such naval force was sent to Singapore.
Another idea to stop Japanese aggression was to greatly increase the military power the Australians had in Malaya. This would require troops from the 6th Division to be removed from the Middle East and sent to the Far East. However, at this time, Italy was expanding aggressively in the Mediterranean region and all the men from the 6th Division were needed where they were based. In August 1940, the Australian government received an assurance from Winston Churchill that any threat to Australia or New Zealand would result in the Mediterranean Fleet being sent to the Far East immediately.
The declining situation in the Far East led to a meeting in October 1940 of military representatives from Australia, Burma, India and New Zealand. They met in Singapore. They all agreed that the defence of Malaya was vital if any Japanese aggression was to be halted. The Australians wanted the Indian Army to take the responsibility for defending Malaya while the Australians would provide a naval force for the region. It became obvious to many that Singapore had the potential to be an Achilles heel for the Allies. It would be an obvious target for the Japanese but its power had been built around the navy and not land and air defences. In late 1940, its vulnerability to a land attack was a major fear for many, even if few thought that the Japanese could come down the Malayan Peninsula. In December 1940, an Australian brigade was sent to Malaya. The plan was that an Indian brigade should replace it in May 1941.
The Australian 6th Division saw action in the deserts of North Africa from December 1940 on. They also fought in the Greek campaign and their stand at Thermopylae allowed a relatively successful Allied evacuation to take place. The Australian 7th Division successfully occupied Vichy Syria.
|“Thus Australia’s expeditionary force to the Middle East had been of incalculable value in saving the Middle East from Axis domination during the first six months of 1941.Robert O’Neill|
Throughout March 1941 Australian intelligence intercepted cables sent by the Japanese government to Japanese firms based in Australia. These recommended that as many personnel as possible should be sent back to Japan. These cables convinced many in the Australian government that an attack in the Far East was imminent. There was a general concern that too much of Australia’s military was based too far away to defend Australia. Clashes also occurred with senior British commanders in Singapore. Air Chief Marshall Sir Robert Brooke-Popham, c-in-c in the Far East, claimed that talk of Singapore’s downfall was “defeatist”. Even Churchill referred to Singapore as a fortress – much to the concern of military figures in Australia who held the opposite viewpoint. To complicate matters more, America stated that though the loss of Singapore would be unfortunate, it would not be a vital loss.
It was in 1941, that relations between Canberra and London became strained. In particular, the Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, believed that Churchill was fully focused on Europe and not what was happening in the Far East. On June 10th, 1941, Menzies reported to his government after meeting with Churchill:
|“Mr. Churchill had no conception of the British Dominions as separate entities and the more distant the problem from the heart of the Empire the less he thought about it.”|
However, it was Menzies who was a casualty from this. The Australian press had turned against him and so had many in his own party, the United Australia Party. The charge against him was that he had not been as robust against Churchill as Australia needed him to be for their own security. In August 1941 he resigned. Between August and October 1941, Australia was governed by Fadden’s County Party. But in October, the Australian Labour Party took over government led by John Curtin.
From October onwards, Australia prepared for a Japanese sweep south in the Far East. In August 1939, the Labour Party had opposed conscription. Now, Curtin argued that it geographical limits should be increased to include New Guinea and the South-West Pacific. It was decided that the most important part of Australia, a zone around Sydney which included major industrial plants, should be the most defended area. As the militia of Australia only consisted of 5 infantry and 2 cavalry divisions, only a very small area of the country could be covered. Areas outside of this zone were angered that they were being seemingly sacrificed to the Japanese military machine. Though the zone was expanded to the so-called ‘Brisbane Line’, the feeling remained that the government was too concerned with New South Wales at the expense of the rest of the country.
When the attack on Pearl Harbour (December 1941) brought general war to the Far East, few could have anticipated the success the Japanese military would have. Within 5 months, northern Australia was threatened as the Dutch East Indies fell. Darwin in particular was under threat.
America wanted to use Australia as a base for its troops and an agreement was reached on this in December 1941. 4,500 American troops arrived in Australia on December 22nd and in February 1942, the US 41st Division was ordered to Australia along with 38,000 support troops. Most had arrived by May 1942. Here a clear difference was appearing – many realised that Britain was not in a position to help Australia but America not only promised help but backed up that promise with men and equipment. When the Australian General Bennett arrived in Darwin after his escape from Singapore, he received a less than cordial greeting. When Douglas MacArthur arrived in Darwin after his escape from the Philippines, his reception was a lot more positive. Curtin suggested that MacArthur be made Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces , South-West Pacific Area – a suggestion that was taken up.
By mid-1942, Australia was in a much better position to defend itself against the Japanese onslaught. There were 38,000 American troops in Australia, the Australian Imperial Force numbered 104,000 as the 6th and 7th Divisions had returned from the Middle East, and there were 265,000 men in the militia. All land forces were placed under the command of General Blamey. | 2,159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Please note: the dates used in this timeline are those that were in use in England in 1588. In Spain the change from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar occurred in 1582, in England the change did not take place until 1752. The change in calendar meant that the following day jumped forward by 10 days and explains why some sources date the events of the Armada 10 days later than those used here.
LONG TERM CAUSES
The Act of Supremacy
This act made Henry VIII
Head of the Church in England and broke all links with the Catholic Church.
1547 (28th January)
King Henry VIII died and was succeeded by his son, Edward VI
who was a committed Protestant.
1553 (19th July)
Henry VIII’s daughter Mary
became Queen of England. Mary was a Catholic and reversed the Protestant laws passed by Edward VI.
1554 (25th July)
Mary married Philip of Spain
. Philip hoped that his marriage to Mary would result in the succession of their children and the return of England to Catholicism.
1558 (17th November)
Queen Mary I died. She had no children so was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister, Elizabeth
. However, many Catholics believed that Mary Queen of Scots
, the granddaughter of Henry VIII’s sister, Margaret
, was the rightful Queen because in the eyes of the Catholic Church Elizabeth was illegitimate.
Queen Elizabeth I turned down a proposal of marriage from Philip of Spain.
1559 (8th May)
The Acts of Uniformity and Supremacy
The act of Uniformity made Protestantism the official religion of England and the Act of Supremacy passed the same day made Elizabeth Supreme Governor of the Church in England.
Philip considered an invasion of England to protect English Catholics, but ultimately rejected the plan.
There was widespread revolt in the Netherlands against the Catholic rule of Philip II. Elizabeth made no secret of the fact that she supported the Protestants.
Mary Queen of Scots fled Scotland to England after being implicated in the murder of her husband Lord Darnley
. She wanted Elizabeth’s help to regain her throne. Elizabeth realised that Mary’s presence in England placed her own position under threat and placed Mary under house arrest.
1570 (27th April)
Pope Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth and decreed that she was a pretender to the throne.
This plot, led by Roberto Ridolfi, sought to depose Elizabeth and replace her with Mary Queen of Scots. The plot was discovered by Elizabeth’s ministers.
SHORT TERM CAUSES
Treaty of Nonsuch
This was a treaty between the Netherlands and England whereby Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch against the Spanish.
1585 (after August)
Elizabeth sent troops led by Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, to the continent to help Protestants in the Netherlands fighting Philip II. However, she told Dudley not to engage in active fighting because she hoped to negotiate with Spain.
This plot, led by Anthony Babington, sought to depose Elizabeth and replace her with Mary Queen of Scots. It was discovered by Francis Walsingham.
1586 (15th October)
Mary Queen of Scots was found guilty of treason for her part in the Babington Plot and was sentenced to death. However, Elizabeth, fearing reprisals from Philip of Spain, did not sign the death warrant.
1586 (late October)
Philip began building an armada of ships which he intended to use to invade England in retaliation for Elizabeth’s treatment of Catholics, working against him in the Netherlands and for the treatment of Mary Queen of Scots.
1587 (8th February)
Elizabeth had finally been persuaded by her ministers to sign the death warrant. They decided to act on it promptly before Elizabeth could change her mind and Mary Queen of Scots was executed at Fotheringay Castle. When Elizabeth found out about the execution she was deeply upset and annoyed with her ministers. She claimed that although she had signed the warrant she had told her ministers not to carry it out. Elizabeth knew that it would now be virtually impossible to negotiate a peace with Philip of Spain.
Sir Francis Drake raided and burnt Spanish ships in the port of Cadiz that were being assembled to attack on England. Drake’s action did delay the sailing of the Armada and bought the English additional time to prepare for the invasion. This attack is often referred to as the singeing of the King of Spain’s beard.
Robert Dudley resigned as commander of English troops in the Netherlands. He was annoyed with Elizabeth’s policy of duplicity and also her failure to adequately provide for the troops in terms of supplies and food.
Philip’s chosen commander of his Armada, the Marquis de Santa Cruz, died. Philip appointed the Duke of Medina Sidonia as his replacement.
1588 (25th April)
Pope Pius V blessed the Armada’s banner, giving his backing to Philip’s invasion of England.
1588 (28th May)
Philip of Spain’s Armada of 122 ships, commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, began to sail from Lisbon bound for the Netherlands where they were to pick up around 30,000 soldiers stationed there and then mount an invasion of England.
1588 (28th May)
Valentine Dale, Elizabeth’s ambassador in the Netherlands, met representatives of the Duke of Parma in the Netherlands to try to agree a peace.
1588 (30th May)
The last ships of the Spanish Armada left the port of Lisbon bound for England.
1588 (19th June)
The Armada put into the port of Corunna in northern Spain to take on fresh supplies. During the night storms battered and damaged a number of ships which then required repairs, delaying the Armada for nearly a month.
1588 (25th June)
English scout ships were sent into the Atlantic Ocean to try to find the location of the Armada.
1588 (late June)
The Spanish commander sent word to Philip of Spain saying that he believed that the Armada ships were not fit for purpose. Philip did not reply and Medina Sidonia had no choice but to continue with the voyage. His instructions were to enter the English Channel then sail along the English shore to Margate point where he would be met by ships carrying Parma’s army.
1588 (6th July)
Peace negotiations with the Duke of Parma in the Netherlands broke down and were abandoned. The English fleet was assembled at Plymouth.
1588 (12th July)
Philip of Spain’s Armada set sail again from the port of Corunna.
1588 (19th July)
The Armada was sighted off the south-west coast of England by Thomas Fleming, Captain of the Golden Hinde. Fleming set sail for Plymouth where he raised the alarm and fire beacons were lit. Legend states that when Drake was told of the approaching Armada he insisted on finishing a game of bowls.
1588 (19th July)
With the turn of the tide in the evening, the English navy under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham sailed to meet the Spanish Armada. There were exchanges of gunfire between the two sides.
1588 (20th July)
English ships commanded by Howard Effingham and Francis Drake reached Eddystone Rock and caught sight of the Armada for the first time. The English shadowed the Armada as it sailed into the English Channel hoping to engage the Spanish in battle.
1588 (after 20th July)
The Spanish commander Medina Sidonia, sent messenger ships to the Duke of Parma to find out whether his army was assembled and ready to be collected. He received no reply. The Duke of Parma understood Philip’s orders to mean that the Armada would destroy all enemy ships in the Channel before escorting his men from Dunkirk to England.
1588 (21st July)
The English ships had continued to shadow the Armada which was arranged in a crescent formation with the larger and slower ships in the middle. The arrangement of the Armada made it difficult for the English to engage the Spanish and so they had used their speed and long range guns to try to damage the Spanish ships. However, the English had only succeeded in destroying two ships, the Nuestra del Rosario which collided with another ship and the San Salvador whose gunpowder store exploded.
1588 (23rd July)
The Armada had reached Portland Bill when the wind direction changed. The Spanish ships were able to turn and attack the English ships. The English bombarded the Spanish with gunfire while the Spanish returned fire but were frustrated because the English never came close enough for them to grapple the ships together.
1588 (24th July)
Medina Sidonia contemplated heading for the Solent and making an attack on Southampton. However, the wind was not favourable and he was unable to put this plan into action. Nevertheless there were exchanges near the Isle of Wight.
1588 (27th July)
Having received no message from the Duke of Parma as to where they would meet, the Spanish commander, Medina Sidonia, made the decision to anchor off Gravelines and wait for the Spanish troops to arrive from the Netherlands.
1588 (28th July)
The Duke of Parma finally responded to Medina Sidonia. He sent word that his troops were not ready.
1588 (29th July)
The English sent eight fireships (ships loaded with gunpowder and wood that would explode when fired at) to attack the Spanish ships anchored off Gravelines. Medina Sidonia gave order for the ships to cut their anchor cables and sail east, away from the English. However, the English continued to attack firing on the ships at close range. By late afternoon the English were running out of ammunition.
1588 (30th July)
The wind changed direction and those Spanish ships that had survived the Battle of Gravelines sailed into the North Sea. The English followed to ensure that the Spanish fleet did not double back and try to meet with the Duke of Parma. This meant that the Spanish had to return to Spain by travelling around the north of Scotland and to the west of Ireland.
1588 (31st July)
English ships pursuing the Armada in the North Sea returned to the English Channel.
1588 (early August)
The Spanish Armada ships were met with storms and gale force winds in the North Sea. Most of the ships had cut their anchors to escape Gravelines and, unable to drop anchor, around half of the ships were battered and destroyed.
1588 (8th August)
Elizabeth, unaware that the Armada had been defeated, inspected troops at Tilbury. She wore a silver armoured breastplate over her dress. Her famous speech includes the words “I now I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king.”
1588 (11th August)
The remaining ships of the Armada rounded the northern coast of Scotland.
1588 (late August)
More bad storms resulted in a number of the Armada ships being blown onto the coast of Ireland. Survivors of the wrecks were killed by the Irish.
1588 (12th September)
The remnants of the Armada finally returned to Corunna. Most of the ships had run out of food and water and many sailors had died of starvation.
The Armada Portrait of Elizabeth was painted by George Gower or an unknown artist to commemorate the English victory over the Armada. The picture depicts an elaborately dressed Elizabeth sitting on a throne with her hand on a globe. In the background two windows show the English ships in sunshine and the Spanish ships in a storm. | <urn:uuid:56a11495-e178-428a-98c5-099b12085c7f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.totallytimelines.com/the-spanish-armada-causes-and-events-1534-1588/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00176.warc.gz | en | 0.980679 | 2,473 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.065775647... | 2 | Please note: the dates used in this timeline are those that were in use in England in 1588. In Spain the change from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar occurred in 1582, in England the change did not take place until 1752. The change in calendar meant that the following day jumped forward by 10 days and explains why some sources date the events of the Armada 10 days later than those used here.
LONG TERM CAUSES
The Act of Supremacy
This act made Henry VIII
Head of the Church in England and broke all links with the Catholic Church.
1547 (28th January)
King Henry VIII died and was succeeded by his son, Edward VI
who was a committed Protestant.
1553 (19th July)
Henry VIII’s daughter Mary
became Queen of England. Mary was a Catholic and reversed the Protestant laws passed by Edward VI.
1554 (25th July)
Mary married Philip of Spain
. Philip hoped that his marriage to Mary would result in the succession of their children and the return of England to Catholicism.
1558 (17th November)
Queen Mary I died. She had no children so was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister, Elizabeth
. However, many Catholics believed that Mary Queen of Scots
, the granddaughter of Henry VIII’s sister, Margaret
, was the rightful Queen because in the eyes of the Catholic Church Elizabeth was illegitimate.
Queen Elizabeth I turned down a proposal of marriage from Philip of Spain.
1559 (8th May)
The Acts of Uniformity and Supremacy
The act of Uniformity made Protestantism the official religion of England and the Act of Supremacy passed the same day made Elizabeth Supreme Governor of the Church in England.
Philip considered an invasion of England to protect English Catholics, but ultimately rejected the plan.
There was widespread revolt in the Netherlands against the Catholic rule of Philip II. Elizabeth made no secret of the fact that she supported the Protestants.
Mary Queen of Scots fled Scotland to England after being implicated in the murder of her husband Lord Darnley
. She wanted Elizabeth’s help to regain her throne. Elizabeth realised that Mary’s presence in England placed her own position under threat and placed Mary under house arrest.
1570 (27th April)
Pope Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth and decreed that she was a pretender to the throne.
This plot, led by Roberto Ridolfi, sought to depose Elizabeth and replace her with Mary Queen of Scots. The plot was discovered by Elizabeth’s ministers.
SHORT TERM CAUSES
Treaty of Nonsuch
This was a treaty between the Netherlands and England whereby Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch against the Spanish.
1585 (after August)
Elizabeth sent troops led by Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, to the continent to help Protestants in the Netherlands fighting Philip II. However, she told Dudley not to engage in active fighting because she hoped to negotiate with Spain.
This plot, led by Anthony Babington, sought to depose Elizabeth and replace her with Mary Queen of Scots. It was discovered by Francis Walsingham.
1586 (15th October)
Mary Queen of Scots was found guilty of treason for her part in the Babington Plot and was sentenced to death. However, Elizabeth, fearing reprisals from Philip of Spain, did not sign the death warrant.
1586 (late October)
Philip began building an armada of ships which he intended to use to invade England in retaliation for Elizabeth’s treatment of Catholics, working against him in the Netherlands and for the treatment of Mary Queen of Scots.
1587 (8th February)
Elizabeth had finally been persuaded by her ministers to sign the death warrant. They decided to act on it promptly before Elizabeth could change her mind and Mary Queen of Scots was executed at Fotheringay Castle. When Elizabeth found out about the execution she was deeply upset and annoyed with her ministers. She claimed that although she had signed the warrant she had told her ministers not to carry it out. Elizabeth knew that it would now be virtually impossible to negotiate a peace with Philip of Spain.
Sir Francis Drake raided and burnt Spanish ships in the port of Cadiz that were being assembled to attack on England. Drake’s action did delay the sailing of the Armada and bought the English additional time to prepare for the invasion. This attack is often referred to as the singeing of the King of Spain’s beard.
Robert Dudley resigned as commander of English troops in the Netherlands. He was annoyed with Elizabeth’s policy of duplicity and also her failure to adequately provide for the troops in terms of supplies and food.
Philip’s chosen commander of his Armada, the Marquis de Santa Cruz, died. Philip appointed the Duke of Medina Sidonia as his replacement.
1588 (25th April)
Pope Pius V blessed the Armada’s banner, giving his backing to Philip’s invasion of England.
1588 (28th May)
Philip of Spain’s Armada of 122 ships, commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, began to sail from Lisbon bound for the Netherlands where they were to pick up around 30,000 soldiers stationed there and then mount an invasion of England.
1588 (28th May)
Valentine Dale, Elizabeth’s ambassador in the Netherlands, met representatives of the Duke of Parma in the Netherlands to try to agree a peace.
1588 (30th May)
The last ships of the Spanish Armada left the port of Lisbon bound for England.
1588 (19th June)
The Armada put into the port of Corunna in northern Spain to take on fresh supplies. During the night storms battered and damaged a number of ships which then required repairs, delaying the Armada for nearly a month.
1588 (25th June)
English scout ships were sent into the Atlantic Ocean to try to find the location of the Armada.
1588 (late June)
The Spanish commander sent word to Philip of Spain saying that he believed that the Armada ships were not fit for purpose. Philip did not reply and Medina Sidonia had no choice but to continue with the voyage. His instructions were to enter the English Channel then sail along the English shore to Margate point where he would be met by ships carrying Parma’s army.
1588 (6th July)
Peace negotiations with the Duke of Parma in the Netherlands broke down and were abandoned. The English fleet was assembled at Plymouth.
1588 (12th July)
Philip of Spain’s Armada set sail again from the port of Corunna.
1588 (19th July)
The Armada was sighted off the south-west coast of England by Thomas Fleming, Captain of the Golden Hinde. Fleming set sail for Plymouth where he raised the alarm and fire beacons were lit. Legend states that when Drake was told of the approaching Armada he insisted on finishing a game of bowls.
1588 (19th July)
With the turn of the tide in the evening, the English navy under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham sailed to meet the Spanish Armada. There were exchanges of gunfire between the two sides.
1588 (20th July)
English ships commanded by Howard Effingham and Francis Drake reached Eddystone Rock and caught sight of the Armada for the first time. The English shadowed the Armada as it sailed into the English Channel hoping to engage the Spanish in battle.
1588 (after 20th July)
The Spanish commander Medina Sidonia, sent messenger ships to the Duke of Parma to find out whether his army was assembled and ready to be collected. He received no reply. The Duke of Parma understood Philip’s orders to mean that the Armada would destroy all enemy ships in the Channel before escorting his men from Dunkirk to England.
1588 (21st July)
The English ships had continued to shadow the Armada which was arranged in a crescent formation with the larger and slower ships in the middle. The arrangement of the Armada made it difficult for the English to engage the Spanish and so they had used their speed and long range guns to try to damage the Spanish ships. However, the English had only succeeded in destroying two ships, the Nuestra del Rosario which collided with another ship and the San Salvador whose gunpowder store exploded.
1588 (23rd July)
The Armada had reached Portland Bill when the wind direction changed. The Spanish ships were able to turn and attack the English ships. The English bombarded the Spanish with gunfire while the Spanish returned fire but were frustrated because the English never came close enough for them to grapple the ships together.
1588 (24th July)
Medina Sidonia contemplated heading for the Solent and making an attack on Southampton. However, the wind was not favourable and he was unable to put this plan into action. Nevertheless there were exchanges near the Isle of Wight.
1588 (27th July)
Having received no message from the Duke of Parma as to where they would meet, the Spanish commander, Medina Sidonia, made the decision to anchor off Gravelines and wait for the Spanish troops to arrive from the Netherlands.
1588 (28th July)
The Duke of Parma finally responded to Medina Sidonia. He sent word that his troops were not ready.
1588 (29th July)
The English sent eight fireships (ships loaded with gunpowder and wood that would explode when fired at) to attack the Spanish ships anchored off Gravelines. Medina Sidonia gave order for the ships to cut their anchor cables and sail east, away from the English. However, the English continued to attack firing on the ships at close range. By late afternoon the English were running out of ammunition.
1588 (30th July)
The wind changed direction and those Spanish ships that had survived the Battle of Gravelines sailed into the North Sea. The English followed to ensure that the Spanish fleet did not double back and try to meet with the Duke of Parma. This meant that the Spanish had to return to Spain by travelling around the north of Scotland and to the west of Ireland.
1588 (31st July)
English ships pursuing the Armada in the North Sea returned to the English Channel.
1588 (early August)
The Spanish Armada ships were met with storms and gale force winds in the North Sea. Most of the ships had cut their anchors to escape Gravelines and, unable to drop anchor, around half of the ships were battered and destroyed.
1588 (8th August)
Elizabeth, unaware that the Armada had been defeated, inspected troops at Tilbury. She wore a silver armoured breastplate over her dress. Her famous speech includes the words “I now I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king.”
1588 (11th August)
The remaining ships of the Armada rounded the northern coast of Scotland.
1588 (late August)
More bad storms resulted in a number of the Armada ships being blown onto the coast of Ireland. Survivors of the wrecks were killed by the Irish.
1588 (12th September)
The remnants of the Armada finally returned to Corunna. Most of the ships had run out of food and water and many sailors had died of starvation.
The Armada Portrait of Elizabeth was painted by George Gower or an unknown artist to commemorate the English victory over the Armada. The picture depicts an elaborately dressed Elizabeth sitting on a throne with her hand on a globe. In the background two windows show the English ships in sunshine and the Spanish ships in a storm. | 2,467 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bates (Scott County)
Bates is an unincorporated community in western Scott County. It is located along Highway 28 west, between the junction of Shadley Creek and East Shadley Creek just north of the Poteau River. Bates was established in 1907 and named after the Bates family who settled in the area. Agriculture, timber, and coal mining have historically been important industries in Bates.
Prior to European exploration, Bates was a wilderness lush with native vegetation and numerous species of wildlife, some of which no longer inhabit the area. Early inhabitants of the area were present during the Woodland, Archaic, and Mississippian periods. There are numerous archaeological sites located along the Poteau River south of Bates. This evidence indicates that the people of the Caddo tribe lived along major waterways near Bates.
During the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, French hunters and tradesmen traveled west from the Arkansas Post. These Frenchmen often traversed rivers and streams throughout the region. Several rivers that flow through Scott County were likely named by these French explorers, including the Petit Jean, Poteau, and Fourche La Fave rivers. It is probable that they traveled through the area near present-day Bates.
Early settlers began arriving in the area near Bates in the late 1820s and early 1830s. Most families participated in a wide variety of agricultural practices. In the 1840s, Thompson G. Bates Sr. and his family settled along Jones Creek south of present-day Bates. It was reported that Thompson Bates Sr. owned two slaves, Doc and Henry, who were eventually freed by Bates. Doc later married a woman named Jennie and settled near the town of Bates. Henry was supposedly given land in Bates.
Men who were called to fight in the Civil War served with both the Confederacy and Union. The women and elderly were left at home to look after family homes and farms.
Local legend tells of early settlers in Denton (Scott County) capturing a wolf and tying a bell around its neck. Supposedly the wolf was later heard running throughout the forest near Bates.
In addition to agriculture, mining was an important industry in Bates. Veins of coal were discovered at the base of Poteau Mountain north of Bates. Waldron (Scott County) resident Dimple Johnson claimed that her grandfather dug coal from a family mine called “Pigeon Hole” during the early 1860s.
During Reconstruction, Scott County went through a period of violence. Former slave Doc Bates and his wife Jennie, who lived in the Poteau River valley near Bates, were murdered in the mid-1870s.
The coal mining and agriculture industries continued to provide economic benefits to citizens in Bates during the late nineteenth century.
In 1901, the Arkansas Western Railroad, a subsidiary of the Kansas City Southern, built a 31.7-mile line east from Heavener, Oklahoma, to Waldron in order to service the timber industry. Bates was one of several towns located along the route. The first depot to be built along the route was located ten miles east of Heavener near Bates. The train depot was named Godman, after the president of the railroad. After the railroad was constructed, poor working conditions allowed several accidents to occur. J. C. Davis of Bates was killed in one of the first serious accidents along the Arkansas Western Railway.
In 1902, the Bates Post Office was established, with Thomas Golden as the first postmaster. The town of Bates was officially established five years later in 1907. That same year, the Bates School District was established when it was consolidated with Coaldale School District. There were seventy-seven students enrolled in Bates School during the first year. By 1907, Bates had received a telephone line exchange with the Waldron Telephone Company. By the early twentieth century, Bates had grown to include several stores, a blacksmith, and a sawmill.
During the Great Depression, many farmers in Bates suffered from economic distress. Cotton had dropped from forty cents per pound to five cents. According to reports, a group of Klansmen marched into a religious congregation in Bates and complimented the minister on his work in the community during the Depression. They then made a large contribution and left in their automobiles.
In 1936, an explosion occurred at one of the coal mines in Bates, killing Bill Goesky, John Delay, Joe Taylor, and Tome Ellis. Despite the deaths of these four workers, mining operations continued. During the 1940s, several immigrants moved to the area near Bates to work in the coal mines. Another explosion at a Bates coal mine on August 27, 1940, killed ten men, including Gilbert Johnson and Earl Renfro from Bates.
Several citizens of Bates were drafted into the armed services during World War II.
The Bates School was consolidated with the Waldron School District between the years 1949 and 1953. It was during this time that the town of Bates began to decline in population.
In 1974, the Bates Post Office was converted to a community post office for Waldron. The Bates School House began serving as a community center, voting site, and event center. The old Bates Store was purchased and renamed Westfalls Café Store and Auction. The Hargrove store building still remains standing in Bates in the twenty-first century, although the store closed. The Bates Baptist Church, Bates Assembly of God, and Pentecostal Church of God are active with thriving congregations. The Bates Volunteer Fire Department serves the community.
For additional information:
Cate, Michael. History of Scott County, Arkansas. Dallas, TX: Curtis Media Corporation, 1991.
Echoes: The Scott County Historical and Genealogical Society Quarterly. Waldron, AR: Scott County Historical and Genealogical Society (1986–).
Goodner, Charles. Scott County in Retrospect. Mansfield, AR: Frank Boyd, 1976.
Goodner, Norman. A History of Scott County, Arkansas. Siloam Springs, AR: Bar D Press, 1941.
McCutcheon, Henry Grady. History of Scott County, Arkansas. Little Rock: H. G. Pugh and Company, 1922.
Richardson Preservation Consulting
Last Updated: 10/09/2018 | <urn:uuid:2ccb3bc8-2a6a-4796-87ad-830b61755d44> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/bates-scott-county-10557/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.980496 | 1,275 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.386718153953... | 2 | Bates (Scott County)
Bates is an unincorporated community in western Scott County. It is located along Highway 28 west, between the junction of Shadley Creek and East Shadley Creek just north of the Poteau River. Bates was established in 1907 and named after the Bates family who settled in the area. Agriculture, timber, and coal mining have historically been important industries in Bates.
Prior to European exploration, Bates was a wilderness lush with native vegetation and numerous species of wildlife, some of which no longer inhabit the area. Early inhabitants of the area were present during the Woodland, Archaic, and Mississippian periods. There are numerous archaeological sites located along the Poteau River south of Bates. This evidence indicates that the people of the Caddo tribe lived along major waterways near Bates.
During the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, French hunters and tradesmen traveled west from the Arkansas Post. These Frenchmen often traversed rivers and streams throughout the region. Several rivers that flow through Scott County were likely named by these French explorers, including the Petit Jean, Poteau, and Fourche La Fave rivers. It is probable that they traveled through the area near present-day Bates.
Early settlers began arriving in the area near Bates in the late 1820s and early 1830s. Most families participated in a wide variety of agricultural practices. In the 1840s, Thompson G. Bates Sr. and his family settled along Jones Creek south of present-day Bates. It was reported that Thompson Bates Sr. owned two slaves, Doc and Henry, who were eventually freed by Bates. Doc later married a woman named Jennie and settled near the town of Bates. Henry was supposedly given land in Bates.
Men who were called to fight in the Civil War served with both the Confederacy and Union. The women and elderly were left at home to look after family homes and farms.
Local legend tells of early settlers in Denton (Scott County) capturing a wolf and tying a bell around its neck. Supposedly the wolf was later heard running throughout the forest near Bates.
In addition to agriculture, mining was an important industry in Bates. Veins of coal were discovered at the base of Poteau Mountain north of Bates. Waldron (Scott County) resident Dimple Johnson claimed that her grandfather dug coal from a family mine called “Pigeon Hole” during the early 1860s.
During Reconstruction, Scott County went through a period of violence. Former slave Doc Bates and his wife Jennie, who lived in the Poteau River valley near Bates, were murdered in the mid-1870s.
The coal mining and agriculture industries continued to provide economic benefits to citizens in Bates during the late nineteenth century.
In 1901, the Arkansas Western Railroad, a subsidiary of the Kansas City Southern, built a 31.7-mile line east from Heavener, Oklahoma, to Waldron in order to service the timber industry. Bates was one of several towns located along the route. The first depot to be built along the route was located ten miles east of Heavener near Bates. The train depot was named Godman, after the president of the railroad. After the railroad was constructed, poor working conditions allowed several accidents to occur. J. C. Davis of Bates was killed in one of the first serious accidents along the Arkansas Western Railway.
In 1902, the Bates Post Office was established, with Thomas Golden as the first postmaster. The town of Bates was officially established five years later in 1907. That same year, the Bates School District was established when it was consolidated with Coaldale School District. There were seventy-seven students enrolled in Bates School during the first year. By 1907, Bates had received a telephone line exchange with the Waldron Telephone Company. By the early twentieth century, Bates had grown to include several stores, a blacksmith, and a sawmill.
During the Great Depression, many farmers in Bates suffered from economic distress. Cotton had dropped from forty cents per pound to five cents. According to reports, a group of Klansmen marched into a religious congregation in Bates and complimented the minister on his work in the community during the Depression. They then made a large contribution and left in their automobiles.
In 1936, an explosion occurred at one of the coal mines in Bates, killing Bill Goesky, John Delay, Joe Taylor, and Tome Ellis. Despite the deaths of these four workers, mining operations continued. During the 1940s, several immigrants moved to the area near Bates to work in the coal mines. Another explosion at a Bates coal mine on August 27, 1940, killed ten men, including Gilbert Johnson and Earl Renfro from Bates.
Several citizens of Bates were drafted into the armed services during World War II.
The Bates School was consolidated with the Waldron School District between the years 1949 and 1953. It was during this time that the town of Bates began to decline in population.
In 1974, the Bates Post Office was converted to a community post office for Waldron. The Bates School House began serving as a community center, voting site, and event center. The old Bates Store was purchased and renamed Westfalls Café Store and Auction. The Hargrove store building still remains standing in Bates in the twenty-first century, although the store closed. The Bates Baptist Church, Bates Assembly of God, and Pentecostal Church of God are active with thriving congregations. The Bates Volunteer Fire Department serves the community.
For additional information:
Cate, Michael. History of Scott County, Arkansas. Dallas, TX: Curtis Media Corporation, 1991.
Echoes: The Scott County Historical and Genealogical Society Quarterly. Waldron, AR: Scott County Historical and Genealogical Society (1986–).
Goodner, Charles. Scott County in Retrospect. Mansfield, AR: Frank Boyd, 1976.
Goodner, Norman. A History of Scott County, Arkansas. Siloam Springs, AR: Bar D Press, 1941.
McCutcheon, Henry Grady. History of Scott County, Arkansas. Little Rock: H. G. Pugh and Company, 1922.
Richardson Preservation Consulting
Last Updated: 10/09/2018 | 1,346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Follow the link to explore some Creation Myths:
Please read the following Creation Myth from the Hebrew culture. At the end answer a few questions.
In the Beginning…
In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.2 The earth didn’t have any shape. And it was empty. Darkness was over the surface of the ocean. At that time, the ocean covered the earth. The Spirit of God was hovering over the waters.
3 God said, “Let there be light.” And there was light. 4 God saw that the light was good. He separated the light from the darkness. 5 God called the light “day.” He called the darkness “night.” There was evening, and there was morning. It was day one.
6 God said, “Let there be a huge space between the waters. Let it separate water from water.” 7 And that’s exactly what happened. God made the huge space between the waters. He separated the water that was under the space from the water that was above it. 8 God called the huge space “sky.” There was evening, and there was morning. It was day two.
9 God said, “Let the water under the sky be gathered into one place. Let dry ground appear.” And that’s exactly what happened. 10 God called the dry ground “land.” He called the waters that were gathered together “oceans.” And God saw that it was good.
11 Then God said, “Let the land produce plants. Let them bear their own seeds. And let there be trees on the land that bear fruit with seeds in it. Let each kind of plant or tree have its own kind of seeds.” And that’s exactly what happened.
12 The land produced plants. Each kind of plant had its own kind of seeds. The land produced trees that bore fruit with seeds in it. Each kind of tree had its own kind of seeds.
God saw that it was good. 13 And there was evening, and there was morning. It was day three.
14 God said, “Let there be lights in the huge space of the sky. Let them separate the day from the night. Let them serve as signs to mark off the seasons and the days and the years. 15 Let them serve as lights in the huge space of the sky to give light on the earth.” And that’s exactly what happened.
16 God made two great lights. He made the larger light to rule over the day. He made the smaller light to rule over the night. He also made the stars.
17 God put the lights in the huge space of the sky to give light on the earth. 18 He put them there to rule over the day and the night. He put them there to separate light from darkness.
God saw that it was good. 19 And there was evening, and there was morning. It was day four.
20 God said, “Let the waters be filled with living things. Let birds fly above the earth across the huge space of the sky.”21 So God created the great creatures of the ocean. He created every living and moving thing that fills the waters. He created all kinds of them. He created every kind of bird that flies. And God saw that it was good.
22 God blessed them. He said, “Have little ones and increase your numbers. Fill the water in the oceans. Let there be more and more birds on the earth.”
23 There was evening, and there was morning. It was day five.
24 God said, “Let the land produce all kinds of living creatures. Let there be livestock, and creatures that move along the ground, and wild animals. Let there be all kinds of them.” And that’s exactly what happened.
25 God made all kinds of wild animals. He made all kinds of livestock. He made all kinds of creatures that move along the ground. And God saw that it was good.
26 Then God said, “Let us make man in our likeness. Let them rule over the fish in the waters and the birds of the air. Let them rule over the livestock and over the whole earth. Let them rule over all of the creatures that move along the ground.”
27 So God created man in his own likeness.
He created him in the likeness of God.
He created them as male and female.
28 God blessed them. He said to them, “Have children and increase your numbers. Fill the earth and bring it under your control. Rule over the fish in the waters and the birds of the air. Rule over every living creature that moves on the ground.”
29 Then God said, “I am giving you every plant on the face of the whole earth that bears its own seeds. I am giving you every tree that has fruit with seeds in it. All of them will be given to you for food.
30 “I am giving every green plant to all of the land animals and the birds of the air for food. I am also giving the plants to all of the creatures that move on the ground. I am giving them to every living thing that breathes.” And that’s exactly what happened.
31 God saw everything he had made. And it was very good. There was evening, and there was morning. It was day six.
So the heavens and the earth and everything in them were completed.
2 By the seventh day God had finished the work he had been doing. So on the seventh day he rested from all of his work.3 God blessed the seventh day and made it holy. He rested on it. After he had created everything, he rested from all of the work he had done.
4 Here is the story of the heavens and the earth when they were created.
The Lord God made the earth and the heavens. 5 At that time, bushes had not appeared on the earth. Plants had not come up in the fields. The Lord God had not sent rain on the earth. And there wasn’t any man to work the ground. 6 But streams came up from the earth. They watered the whole surface of the ground.
7 Then the Lord God formed a man. He made him out of the dust of the ground. He breathed the breath of life into him. And the man became a living person.
8 The Lord God had planted a garden in the east. It was in Eden. There he put the man he had formed. 9 The Lord God made all kinds of trees grow out of the ground. Their fruit was pleasing to look at and good to eat.
The tree that gives life forever was in the middle of the garden. The tree that gives the ability to tell the difference between good and evil was also there.
10 A river watered the garden. It flowed from Eden. From there it separated into four other rivers.
11 The name of the first river is the Pishon. It winds through the whole land of Havilah. Gold is found there. 12 The gold of that land is good. Onyx and sweet-smelling resin are also found there.
13 The name of the second river is the Gihon. It winds through the whole land of Cush. 14 The name of the third river is the Tigris. It runs along the east side of Asshur. And the fourth river is the Euphrates.
15 The Lord God put the man in the Garden of Eden. He put him there to work its ground and to take care of it.
16 The Lord God gave the man a command. He said, “You can eat the fruit of any tree that is in the garden. 17 But you must not eat the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. If you do, you can be sure that you will die.”
18 The Lord God said, “It is not good for the man to be alone. I will make a helper who is just right for him.”
19 The Lord God had formed all of the wild animals. He had also formed all of the birds of the air. He had made all of them out of the ground. He brought them to the man to see what names he would give them. And the name the man gave each living creature became its name.
20 So the man gave names to all of the livestock. He gave names to all of the birds of the air. And he gave names to all of the wild animals.
But Adam didn’t find a helper that was right for him. 21 So theLord God caused him to fall into a deep sleep. While the man was sleeping, the Lord God took out one of his ribs. He closed up the opening that was in his side.
22 Then the Lord God made a woman. He made her from the rib he had taken out of the man. And he brought her to him.
23 The man said,
“Her bones have come from my bones.
Her body has come from my body.
She will be named ‘woman,’
because she was taken out of a man.”
24 That’s why a man will leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife. The two of them will become one.
25 The man and his wife were both naked. They didn’t feel any shame.
1. How was this myth similar or different from the other Creation myths we saw?
2. How was the world created?
3. How were people created?
4. How did the Creator feel about the people?
5. What was the people’s relationship to the Creator?
6. What was the people’s job?
7. What were the people not allowed to do? What would happen? | <urn:uuid:b4a8f8a7-87a0-4fdf-a1d3-13ca6ccc7a5e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrpatrickgalileo.wordpress.com/2014/04/04/4c-creation-myths/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.989114 | 2,072 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.09980873763... | 1 | Follow the link to explore some Creation Myths:
Please read the following Creation Myth from the Hebrew culture. At the end answer a few questions.
In the Beginning…
In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.2 The earth didn’t have any shape. And it was empty. Darkness was over the surface of the ocean. At that time, the ocean covered the earth. The Spirit of God was hovering over the waters.
3 God said, “Let there be light.” And there was light. 4 God saw that the light was good. He separated the light from the darkness. 5 God called the light “day.” He called the darkness “night.” There was evening, and there was morning. It was day one.
6 God said, “Let there be a huge space between the waters. Let it separate water from water.” 7 And that’s exactly what happened. God made the huge space between the waters. He separated the water that was under the space from the water that was above it. 8 God called the huge space “sky.” There was evening, and there was morning. It was day two.
9 God said, “Let the water under the sky be gathered into one place. Let dry ground appear.” And that’s exactly what happened. 10 God called the dry ground “land.” He called the waters that were gathered together “oceans.” And God saw that it was good.
11 Then God said, “Let the land produce plants. Let them bear their own seeds. And let there be trees on the land that bear fruit with seeds in it. Let each kind of plant or tree have its own kind of seeds.” And that’s exactly what happened.
12 The land produced plants. Each kind of plant had its own kind of seeds. The land produced trees that bore fruit with seeds in it. Each kind of tree had its own kind of seeds.
God saw that it was good. 13 And there was evening, and there was morning. It was day three.
14 God said, “Let there be lights in the huge space of the sky. Let them separate the day from the night. Let them serve as signs to mark off the seasons and the days and the years. 15 Let them serve as lights in the huge space of the sky to give light on the earth.” And that’s exactly what happened.
16 God made two great lights. He made the larger light to rule over the day. He made the smaller light to rule over the night. He also made the stars.
17 God put the lights in the huge space of the sky to give light on the earth. 18 He put them there to rule over the day and the night. He put them there to separate light from darkness.
God saw that it was good. 19 And there was evening, and there was morning. It was day four.
20 God said, “Let the waters be filled with living things. Let birds fly above the earth across the huge space of the sky.”21 So God created the great creatures of the ocean. He created every living and moving thing that fills the waters. He created all kinds of them. He created every kind of bird that flies. And God saw that it was good.
22 God blessed them. He said, “Have little ones and increase your numbers. Fill the water in the oceans. Let there be more and more birds on the earth.”
23 There was evening, and there was morning. It was day five.
24 God said, “Let the land produce all kinds of living creatures. Let there be livestock, and creatures that move along the ground, and wild animals. Let there be all kinds of them.” And that’s exactly what happened.
25 God made all kinds of wild animals. He made all kinds of livestock. He made all kinds of creatures that move along the ground. And God saw that it was good.
26 Then God said, “Let us make man in our likeness. Let them rule over the fish in the waters and the birds of the air. Let them rule over the livestock and over the whole earth. Let them rule over all of the creatures that move along the ground.”
27 So God created man in his own likeness.
He created him in the likeness of God.
He created them as male and female.
28 God blessed them. He said to them, “Have children and increase your numbers. Fill the earth and bring it under your control. Rule over the fish in the waters and the birds of the air. Rule over every living creature that moves on the ground.”
29 Then God said, “I am giving you every plant on the face of the whole earth that bears its own seeds. I am giving you every tree that has fruit with seeds in it. All of them will be given to you for food.
30 “I am giving every green plant to all of the land animals and the birds of the air for food. I am also giving the plants to all of the creatures that move on the ground. I am giving them to every living thing that breathes.” And that’s exactly what happened.
31 God saw everything he had made. And it was very good. There was evening, and there was morning. It was day six.
So the heavens and the earth and everything in them were completed.
2 By the seventh day God had finished the work he had been doing. So on the seventh day he rested from all of his work.3 God blessed the seventh day and made it holy. He rested on it. After he had created everything, he rested from all of the work he had done.
4 Here is the story of the heavens and the earth when they were created.
The Lord God made the earth and the heavens. 5 At that time, bushes had not appeared on the earth. Plants had not come up in the fields. The Lord God had not sent rain on the earth. And there wasn’t any man to work the ground. 6 But streams came up from the earth. They watered the whole surface of the ground.
7 Then the Lord God formed a man. He made him out of the dust of the ground. He breathed the breath of life into him. And the man became a living person.
8 The Lord God had planted a garden in the east. It was in Eden. There he put the man he had formed. 9 The Lord God made all kinds of trees grow out of the ground. Their fruit was pleasing to look at and good to eat.
The tree that gives life forever was in the middle of the garden. The tree that gives the ability to tell the difference between good and evil was also there.
10 A river watered the garden. It flowed from Eden. From there it separated into four other rivers.
11 The name of the first river is the Pishon. It winds through the whole land of Havilah. Gold is found there. 12 The gold of that land is good. Onyx and sweet-smelling resin are also found there.
13 The name of the second river is the Gihon. It winds through the whole land of Cush. 14 The name of the third river is the Tigris. It runs along the east side of Asshur. And the fourth river is the Euphrates.
15 The Lord God put the man in the Garden of Eden. He put him there to work its ground and to take care of it.
16 The Lord God gave the man a command. He said, “You can eat the fruit of any tree that is in the garden. 17 But you must not eat the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. If you do, you can be sure that you will die.”
18 The Lord God said, “It is not good for the man to be alone. I will make a helper who is just right for him.”
19 The Lord God had formed all of the wild animals. He had also formed all of the birds of the air. He had made all of them out of the ground. He brought them to the man to see what names he would give them. And the name the man gave each living creature became its name.
20 So the man gave names to all of the livestock. He gave names to all of the birds of the air. And he gave names to all of the wild animals.
But Adam didn’t find a helper that was right for him. 21 So theLord God caused him to fall into a deep sleep. While the man was sleeping, the Lord God took out one of his ribs. He closed up the opening that was in his side.
22 Then the Lord God made a woman. He made her from the rib he had taken out of the man. And he brought her to him.
23 The man said,
“Her bones have come from my bones.
Her body has come from my body.
She will be named ‘woman,’
because she was taken out of a man.”
24 That’s why a man will leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife. The two of them will become one.
25 The man and his wife were both naked. They didn’t feel any shame.
1. How was this myth similar or different from the other Creation myths we saw?
2. How was the world created?
3. How were people created?
4. How did the Creator feel about the people?
5. What was the people’s relationship to the Creator?
6. What was the people’s job?
7. What were the people not allowed to do? What would happen? | 1,987 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Oliver Cromwell is one of the most popular statesmen ever. He rewrote the history books in England. Read more about him here.
The person who ended the royal rule and enjoyed all the powers of a king without a crown; that was Oliver Cromwell. 400 years ago in England, the ruling dynasty and people's parliament were in constant battle. After the battle for power that lasted years, King Charles I was executed in 1649. The following eleven years were filled with confusion and tyranny. It was during this time, Oliver Cromwell was raised to power.
Oliver was born in Huntington, in a small middle-class family. His father died during his college education, leaving him unable to continue the studies.
However, as result of the death of a relative, they got a big fortune. The increase in wealth earned him a better status in society. This time the people of England were unhappy with the rule of Charles I. Kromwell gradually became active in local politics. He was elected as the Justice of Peace in Huntington. He also was highly critical of the king. As a result he had to flee from his hometown.
However, a few years later he returned to active politics. Oliver was also involved in religious matters. His considered all his activities a sort of prayer. He acquired the membership of Parliament in 1692. He was seen with much respect. He was instrumental in passing many laws that curtailed the king's influences. He also punished many corrupt officials. Soon, a civil war broke out between those who backed the royal power and those with the parliament. Oliver rose to the position of a Colonel and he fought valiantly. In the end, Charles I surrendered but the problems didn't cease. Oliver took the king in his custody and conquered the capital.
However, Charles I escaped and made a pact with the Scottish army. The forces of Oliver and Charles met in a battle again, this time also resulting in Oliver's victory. The king was declared a enemy of the state and was executed on 30 January 1649. Soon Oliver Cromwell became the most powerful person in England. He was bestowed upon the title Lord Protector of Commonwealth. He created a stable parliament and designed a new constitution. In every way, he was a king without a crown.
Oliver commenced the steps to expand the British empire out of the British isles. Britain also rose to the largest naval power at the time as well. Oliver was bestowed upon the power to rule his follower by the parliament. Howver, later he dismissed the parliament and ruled with the support of the military. In 1658, Oliver Kromwell bid adieu to the world.
MHOW Cantonment is the oldest military Cantonment in India. Read the below article to know about this Cantonment in detail..
Did you know that a religious leader of indigenous people in our country also became a revolutionary leader during the propagation of Christian Religion in our country during the 16th century? .
Joan of Arc is one of the glittering stars in the history of France. She fought valiantly for her country in the 100 Years War, sacrificing her life. | <urn:uuid:67c046d5-7cb6-4535-9ccb-1174d63c56d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/oliver-kromwell-great-military-and-political-leader | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00049.warc.gz | en | 0.990412 | 642 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.05332101881504059... | 1 | Oliver Cromwell is one of the most popular statesmen ever. He rewrote the history books in England. Read more about him here.
The person who ended the royal rule and enjoyed all the powers of a king without a crown; that was Oliver Cromwell. 400 years ago in England, the ruling dynasty and people's parliament were in constant battle. After the battle for power that lasted years, King Charles I was executed in 1649. The following eleven years were filled with confusion and tyranny. It was during this time, Oliver Cromwell was raised to power.
Oliver was born in Huntington, in a small middle-class family. His father died during his college education, leaving him unable to continue the studies.
However, as result of the death of a relative, they got a big fortune. The increase in wealth earned him a better status in society. This time the people of England were unhappy with the rule of Charles I. Kromwell gradually became active in local politics. He was elected as the Justice of Peace in Huntington. He also was highly critical of the king. As a result he had to flee from his hometown.
However, a few years later he returned to active politics. Oliver was also involved in religious matters. His considered all his activities a sort of prayer. He acquired the membership of Parliament in 1692. He was seen with much respect. He was instrumental in passing many laws that curtailed the king's influences. He also punished many corrupt officials. Soon, a civil war broke out between those who backed the royal power and those with the parliament. Oliver rose to the position of a Colonel and he fought valiantly. In the end, Charles I surrendered but the problems didn't cease. Oliver took the king in his custody and conquered the capital.
However, Charles I escaped and made a pact with the Scottish army. The forces of Oliver and Charles met in a battle again, this time also resulting in Oliver's victory. The king was declared a enemy of the state and was executed on 30 January 1649. Soon Oliver Cromwell became the most powerful person in England. He was bestowed upon the title Lord Protector of Commonwealth. He created a stable parliament and designed a new constitution. In every way, he was a king without a crown.
Oliver commenced the steps to expand the British empire out of the British isles. Britain also rose to the largest naval power at the time as well. Oliver was bestowed upon the power to rule his follower by the parliament. Howver, later he dismissed the parliament and ruled with the support of the military. In 1658, Oliver Kromwell bid adieu to the world.
MHOW Cantonment is the oldest military Cantonment in India. Read the below article to know about this Cantonment in detail..
Did you know that a religious leader of indigenous people in our country also became a revolutionary leader during the propagation of Christian Religion in our country during the 16th century? .
Joan of Arc is one of the glittering stars in the history of France. She fought valiantly for her country in the 100 Years War, sacrificing her life. | 654 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A brief history of English part three: Middle English
We continue the story of the English language, and we now enter the period known as ‘Middle English’.
The year is 1066. It is the time known as the Norman conquest, that is, when a French-speaking dynasty based in the Normandy region of France invaded England. The result was the country's first king - king of a whole country, not just of various parts: William the first, also known as William the Conqueror. And he spoke French. This meant that Norman French was the 'official' language of England, and various historical accounts see the conquest as having wrecked a relatively sophisticated culture by a rule that was more tyrannical, and the language's existence under serious threat. Those accounts were kept alive for centuries, becoming particularly useful in politics, the hundred years war and even later than that: it is often seen as the source of the rivalries that continue to exist today between the French and the English.
However, the reality of the conquest was this. There were not that many invaders from France; they were spread out across the country, and the English language continued to be used. Even William supposedly tried to learn English. For 300 years after the conquest French was used by all the Kings of England, and it wasn't until the fifteenth century when Henry IV became the first English king to speak English as his first language.
Although the Norman kings used French for their bureaucracy and in law (and also in the church), some of the written language was in Latin, often used in law before the conquest. Even so, English remained a minority written language until the fourteenth century.
Of course, a considerable number of French words were included into the English vocabulary. From the Norman conquest we had 'duc' (duke), 'werre' (war), and 'pais' (peace).
In 1204 the influence of French (particularly the variety known as Central French, the language we more closely associate with modern French) grew stronger as the language began to be linked to being in a higher social class, but oddly England itself began to be more independent from the country that gave it French. It is estimated that by this time about 21 per cent of the English vocabulary had come from French in some form, but many of these words came from the church and law. But most words still originated from Germanic Northern Europe - the invaders before the French.
There are some written texts available that show the influences of French, but it is still possible to see the influence of Old English. Indeed, the texts are perhaps even easier to understand than Old English.
There were still many regional differences in English, particularly in spelling. At this time, there was no dictionary or effective guide to inform people how words should be spelt; often they were written as to how they were sounded in the region.
In the second half of the fourteenth century English was becoming more widely used than French. There are many possible reasons for this:
As much of the population could not speak French, English became more widely used in law. This became particularly important after the plague known as the Black Death, when a shortage of workers meant that English became very important.
The church was seen as using the money it collected in ways it should not, and the lower classes supported changes. One result was the New Testament translated into English for those people.
A lot of texts were now being written in English.
England was at war with France for over a century, and use of the French language was being seen as anti patriotic.
Although Latin was still important in education, English replaced French as the language of instruction.
English as a language was never really taken seriously before the fourteenth century as it was never a taught language. By contrast, Latin was still the language to be taught: it was very much connected to the church, it was the language of the sciences, the arts and general literature, and therefore the language for educated people. But English was gradually becoming the automatic choice of language, particularly from the king.
As mentioned earlier, there were many different dialects of English around the country. The written form adopted by the crown was known as Chancery English - a form of English of the East Midlands that had moved into London. This particular English is seen by many as the variety that influences Standard English today. At this time there was a move to remove variations in spelling, even though documents passed for copying by scribes were often respelled to fit the dialect for the area.
In 1362 English became the official language of Parliament, with the king and the country's lawmakers speaking the language well enough to use it. It was the following century that, as mentioned, Henry IV was the first native English speaking king.
What is presented here is not necessarily the true story of a language referred to as 'middle English'. There is not a lot of evidence, and many historical accounts are often taken from a perspective that shows negativity towards the French in that period. Often there is evidence that has been chosen to 'fit the facts', leading to ideas that England was a country forming its own identity, the result being a form of Standard English.
In the next section we move into the era of Henry the Eighth, the Renaissance, the sciences, and how Caxton and Doctor Johnson played their parts in shaping the language. | <urn:uuid:64e45d73-71e2-4c2b-80b6-bbae9d15e359> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.typicalerrorsinenglish.com/middle-english | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.989238 | 1,099 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.16132339835... | 12 | A brief history of English part three: Middle English
We continue the story of the English language, and we now enter the period known as ‘Middle English’.
The year is 1066. It is the time known as the Norman conquest, that is, when a French-speaking dynasty based in the Normandy region of France invaded England. The result was the country's first king - king of a whole country, not just of various parts: William the first, also known as William the Conqueror. And he spoke French. This meant that Norman French was the 'official' language of England, and various historical accounts see the conquest as having wrecked a relatively sophisticated culture by a rule that was more tyrannical, and the language's existence under serious threat. Those accounts were kept alive for centuries, becoming particularly useful in politics, the hundred years war and even later than that: it is often seen as the source of the rivalries that continue to exist today between the French and the English.
However, the reality of the conquest was this. There were not that many invaders from France; they were spread out across the country, and the English language continued to be used. Even William supposedly tried to learn English. For 300 years after the conquest French was used by all the Kings of England, and it wasn't until the fifteenth century when Henry IV became the first English king to speak English as his first language.
Although the Norman kings used French for their bureaucracy and in law (and also in the church), some of the written language was in Latin, often used in law before the conquest. Even so, English remained a minority written language until the fourteenth century.
Of course, a considerable number of French words were included into the English vocabulary. From the Norman conquest we had 'duc' (duke), 'werre' (war), and 'pais' (peace).
In 1204 the influence of French (particularly the variety known as Central French, the language we more closely associate with modern French) grew stronger as the language began to be linked to being in a higher social class, but oddly England itself began to be more independent from the country that gave it French. It is estimated that by this time about 21 per cent of the English vocabulary had come from French in some form, but many of these words came from the church and law. But most words still originated from Germanic Northern Europe - the invaders before the French.
There are some written texts available that show the influences of French, but it is still possible to see the influence of Old English. Indeed, the texts are perhaps even easier to understand than Old English.
There were still many regional differences in English, particularly in spelling. At this time, there was no dictionary or effective guide to inform people how words should be spelt; often they were written as to how they were sounded in the region.
In the second half of the fourteenth century English was becoming more widely used than French. There are many possible reasons for this:
As much of the population could not speak French, English became more widely used in law. This became particularly important after the plague known as the Black Death, when a shortage of workers meant that English became very important.
The church was seen as using the money it collected in ways it should not, and the lower classes supported changes. One result was the New Testament translated into English for those people.
A lot of texts were now being written in English.
England was at war with France for over a century, and use of the French language was being seen as anti patriotic.
Although Latin was still important in education, English replaced French as the language of instruction.
English as a language was never really taken seriously before the fourteenth century as it was never a taught language. By contrast, Latin was still the language to be taught: it was very much connected to the church, it was the language of the sciences, the arts and general literature, and therefore the language for educated people. But English was gradually becoming the automatic choice of language, particularly from the king.
As mentioned earlier, there were many different dialects of English around the country. The written form adopted by the crown was known as Chancery English - a form of English of the East Midlands that had moved into London. This particular English is seen by many as the variety that influences Standard English today. At this time there was a move to remove variations in spelling, even though documents passed for copying by scribes were often respelled to fit the dialect for the area.
In 1362 English became the official language of Parliament, with the king and the country's lawmakers speaking the language well enough to use it. It was the following century that, as mentioned, Henry IV was the first native English speaking king.
What is presented here is not necessarily the true story of a language referred to as 'middle English'. There is not a lot of evidence, and many historical accounts are often taken from a perspective that shows negativity towards the French in that period. Often there is evidence that has been chosen to 'fit the facts', leading to ideas that England was a country forming its own identity, the result being a form of Standard English.
In the next section we move into the era of Henry the Eighth, the Renaissance, the sciences, and how Caxton and Doctor Johnson played their parts in shaping the language. | 1,096 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, often known as VOC) was a chartered company which issued a considerable series of coinage in bronze, silver and gold for its territories in the Far East between 1602 and 1799.
Dutch East India Company coinage Wikipedia
The Dutch East India Company (VOC) was established as a chartered company in 1602 and was designed to replace a number of earlier Dutch trading companies. To prevent the constant infighting between rival companies, the Dutch States-General gave the company officially-recognised status and allowed it fulfill some function usually reserved for a state. The company's charter allowed it to have its own military forces, make treaties and coin its own money. It was given full powers to act between the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits of Magellan. The company grew rapidly, founding towns and colonies at Cape Town, Batavia (modern Jakarta) and elsewhere.
During the 200 years of its existence, VOC issued large quantities and many different patterns of coins. Writers on the subject distinguish between the types produced in the Netherlands for the company and those issued by it locally in Asia. Both types often circulated together, but European coins were more common in some areas than others. Most coins issued for the company carried its distinctive monogram of the interlocked letters "VOC". The most common denominations were the Guilder, Ducatoon, Stiver (or Stuiver) and Doit (Duit). Some fractions, like the Half-Doit, were also produced.
Coins were issued in the Netherlands during the mid-17th century and again from 1744 until its dissolution. Coins were struck in gold, silver, bronze and, unusually, pewter. They were issued by the local mints of the Netherlands, including Holland, Utrecht, Zeeland, Gelderland and Overijssel.
The locally produced coins in Asia display more variation and were produced in gold, silver and bronze. Countermarks are sometimes seen on these coins, either stamped by the company or by local private individuals. Foreign coins, including Japanese Koban or Surat rupees, were sometimes countermarked by the company for its own use. | <urn:uuid:61479ec1-5351-4ee0-b087-e9addadce775> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Dutch-East-India-Company-coinage | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00311.warc.gz | en | 0.98172 | 461 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.382683098316192... | 2 | The Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, often known as VOC) was a chartered company which issued a considerable series of coinage in bronze, silver and gold for its territories in the Far East between 1602 and 1799.
Dutch East India Company coinage Wikipedia
The Dutch East India Company (VOC) was established as a chartered company in 1602 and was designed to replace a number of earlier Dutch trading companies. To prevent the constant infighting between rival companies, the Dutch States-General gave the company officially-recognised status and allowed it fulfill some function usually reserved for a state. The company's charter allowed it to have its own military forces, make treaties and coin its own money. It was given full powers to act between the Cape of Good Hope and the Straits of Magellan. The company grew rapidly, founding towns and colonies at Cape Town, Batavia (modern Jakarta) and elsewhere.
During the 200 years of its existence, VOC issued large quantities and many different patterns of coins. Writers on the subject distinguish between the types produced in the Netherlands for the company and those issued by it locally in Asia. Both types often circulated together, but European coins were more common in some areas than others. Most coins issued for the company carried its distinctive monogram of the interlocked letters "VOC". The most common denominations were the Guilder, Ducatoon, Stiver (or Stuiver) and Doit (Duit). Some fractions, like the Half-Doit, were also produced.
Coins were issued in the Netherlands during the mid-17th century and again from 1744 until its dissolution. Coins were struck in gold, silver, bronze and, unusually, pewter. They were issued by the local mints of the Netherlands, including Holland, Utrecht, Zeeland, Gelderland and Overijssel.
The locally produced coins in Asia display more variation and were produced in gold, silver and bronze. Countermarks are sometimes seen on these coins, either stamped by the company or by local private individuals. Foreign coins, including Japanese Koban or Surat rupees, were sometimes countermarked by the company for its own use. | 467 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born in Florence, Amerigo Vespucci was a great Italian navigator who would give origin to the name of the American continent. He arrived in Spain as a simple merchant, long before Columbus had his first departure and in this place, he had an important mission as a merchant and had great contacts and business with some important people of the time and place. As we already know, Christopher Columbus died thinking that he had discovered the Indies, without suspecting for a moment that in reality, those islands were a new continent. Amerigo Vespucci was in charge of informing the Crown of Castile that these islands were not Asian, but, on the contrary, were part of a fourth part. His role was very important in the discovery of America, although, all the merits went to Christopher Columbus. However, history ultimately gave him his merits by giving him an important role in the discovery of the continent.
Amerigo Vespucci was an Italian merchant who arrived in Spain long before Christopher Columbus made his first voyage. He did important business and had many contacts. He was the one who had the task of informing the Crown of Castile that the place discovered was not Asia, but a new continent.
Originally from Florence, he was born on March 9, 1454, son of Nastagio Vespucci, an important foreign exchange man, and Lisa di Giovanni Mini. Naturalized Castilian in the year 1505, he dedicated himself to commerce in Spain in the 15th century and was hired by the Medicis who were a powerful and wealthy family of the time. He actively participated in two exploratory trips in the New World, what we know today as America. In 1508 he was appointed senior pilot of the House of Seville and published two important works, the Mundus Novus, and the Letter to Soderini, in which dates the identification he made of America. He opened a school for the children of Florentine aristocrats and trained Amerigo with Aristotle’s own teachings on astronomy and geography. Amerigo Vespucci died in Seville in 1491.
In 1502, he was aboard in a fleet consisting of three Portuguese ships, which were under the command of Gonzalo Cohelo, during which time they found ships of Pedro Alvarez Cabral and in them, travelled the Atlantic coast of South America; this route was made from Rio de Janeiro to Argentine Patagonia.
Later, in March of that same year, he was already in command of these three ships and made explorations along Rio de la Plata, this activity took place approximately on March 20 of that year, and at the beginning, he named the river as “Jordan River“.
During 1505, he thought that America could be reached through a strait that would allow them to navigate freely and for this reason, he decided to group with the Spanish navigator Juan de la Cosa, and with him, he made several trips through America, obtaining in each of them great wealth and profits.
Amerigo Vespucci only managed to make two different journeys of exploration to the New World, at least this is what is known for certain, because many historians around the world, based on their letters, think that he could have made at least six different journeys there.
Amerigo Vespucci is credited with the discovery of the American continent. When Vespucci returned to Lisbon, he wrote a letter to Pier Francesco de Médicis informing him that the lands to which Christopher Columbus had arrived were not the Indies, but rather a new continent, that these lands were larger than had been thought.
Two important works published Amerigo Vespucci, two letters. One of them called it “New World” and was a Latin translation of the letter he had originally sent to Pier Medicis. In this letter he carefully described his trip to South America, which took place during the years 1501 and 1502. This letter was printed again and then distributed throughout Europe very quickly.
The second letter was known as “Letter from Amerigo Vespucci about the newly discovered islands in his four journeys”. This letter was written in Italian and was addressed to Piero Soderini. It was printed on an unspecified date between 1504 and 1505, and in it Vespucci stated that he had travelled to America during his travels. A Latin translation was made and published in 1507.
Amerigo Vespucci left us the contribution of having discovered that the land that Columbus had managed to reach was not part of Asia, but that it was a completely new continent. It is for this reason that the continent is given its name, because it was discovered by him. In addition, Vespucci managed to embark on a fifth expedition that managed to reach the coasts of Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. | <urn:uuid:93418905-4e66-43ae-9d52-720534740137> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.euston96.com/en/amerigo-vespucci/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.991151 | 990 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.4204081892967... | 2 | Born in Florence, Amerigo Vespucci was a great Italian navigator who would give origin to the name of the American continent. He arrived in Spain as a simple merchant, long before Columbus had his first departure and in this place, he had an important mission as a merchant and had great contacts and business with some important people of the time and place. As we already know, Christopher Columbus died thinking that he had discovered the Indies, without suspecting for a moment that in reality, those islands were a new continent. Amerigo Vespucci was in charge of informing the Crown of Castile that these islands were not Asian, but, on the contrary, were part of a fourth part. His role was very important in the discovery of America, although, all the merits went to Christopher Columbus. However, history ultimately gave him his merits by giving him an important role in the discovery of the continent.
Amerigo Vespucci was an Italian merchant who arrived in Spain long before Christopher Columbus made his first voyage. He did important business and had many contacts. He was the one who had the task of informing the Crown of Castile that the place discovered was not Asia, but a new continent.
Originally from Florence, he was born on March 9, 1454, son of Nastagio Vespucci, an important foreign exchange man, and Lisa di Giovanni Mini. Naturalized Castilian in the year 1505, he dedicated himself to commerce in Spain in the 15th century and was hired by the Medicis who were a powerful and wealthy family of the time. He actively participated in two exploratory trips in the New World, what we know today as America. In 1508 he was appointed senior pilot of the House of Seville and published two important works, the Mundus Novus, and the Letter to Soderini, in which dates the identification he made of America. He opened a school for the children of Florentine aristocrats and trained Amerigo with Aristotle’s own teachings on astronomy and geography. Amerigo Vespucci died in Seville in 1491.
In 1502, he was aboard in a fleet consisting of three Portuguese ships, which were under the command of Gonzalo Cohelo, during which time they found ships of Pedro Alvarez Cabral and in them, travelled the Atlantic coast of South America; this route was made from Rio de Janeiro to Argentine Patagonia.
Later, in March of that same year, he was already in command of these three ships and made explorations along Rio de la Plata, this activity took place approximately on March 20 of that year, and at the beginning, he named the river as “Jordan River“.
During 1505, he thought that America could be reached through a strait that would allow them to navigate freely and for this reason, he decided to group with the Spanish navigator Juan de la Cosa, and with him, he made several trips through America, obtaining in each of them great wealth and profits.
Amerigo Vespucci only managed to make two different journeys of exploration to the New World, at least this is what is known for certain, because many historians around the world, based on their letters, think that he could have made at least six different journeys there.
Amerigo Vespucci is credited with the discovery of the American continent. When Vespucci returned to Lisbon, he wrote a letter to Pier Francesco de Médicis informing him that the lands to which Christopher Columbus had arrived were not the Indies, but rather a new continent, that these lands were larger than had been thought.
Two important works published Amerigo Vespucci, two letters. One of them called it “New World” and was a Latin translation of the letter he had originally sent to Pier Medicis. In this letter he carefully described his trip to South America, which took place during the years 1501 and 1502. This letter was printed again and then distributed throughout Europe very quickly.
The second letter was known as “Letter from Amerigo Vespucci about the newly discovered islands in his four journeys”. This letter was written in Italian and was addressed to Piero Soderini. It was printed on an unspecified date between 1504 and 1505, and in it Vespucci stated that he had travelled to America during his travels. A Latin translation was made and published in 1507.
Amerigo Vespucci left us the contribution of having discovered that the land that Columbus had managed to reach was not part of Asia, but that it was a completely new continent. It is for this reason that the continent is given its name, because it was discovered by him. In addition, Vespucci managed to embark on a fifth expedition that managed to reach the coasts of Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. | 1,005 | ENGLISH | 1 |
France follows a unitary semi-presidential republic kind of governance. The constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved on September 1958 according to which the President of the Republic is the head of the state who is elected by direct elections for a term of five years. The Prime Minister on the other hand is the head of the government and the council of ministers. As per the French constitution, he is appointed by the public-appointed President. The Prime Minister of France was originally referred to as the President of the Council of Ministers during the Third and Fourth Republic. The role of the French Prime Minister is largely administrative – he is involved in the decision-making and policymaking of the government along with his cabinet. He determines the conduct and policy of the nation and is directly responsible for the actions of the government. Michel Debre was the first Prime Minister of the Fifth Republic. His term in office lasted from 1959 until 1962. In the short history of the Fifth Republic, France has had numerous ‘unelected’ prime ministers like Georges Pompidou, Raymond Barre and Dominique de Villepin. Manuel Valls is the incumbent prime minister of France, his term commenced from March 31, 2014. With this segment, know more about famous French prime ministers. | <urn:uuid:47a0a4f5-54c7-4a13-ae2f-7f5f45daed66> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefamouspeople.com/french-prime-ministers.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00095.warc.gz | en | 0.980186 | 256 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.7238508462905884... | 2 | France follows a unitary semi-presidential republic kind of governance. The constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved on September 1958 according to which the President of the Republic is the head of the state who is elected by direct elections for a term of five years. The Prime Minister on the other hand is the head of the government and the council of ministers. As per the French constitution, he is appointed by the public-appointed President. The Prime Minister of France was originally referred to as the President of the Council of Ministers during the Third and Fourth Republic. The role of the French Prime Minister is largely administrative – he is involved in the decision-making and policymaking of the government along with his cabinet. He determines the conduct and policy of the nation and is directly responsible for the actions of the government. Michel Debre was the first Prime Minister of the Fifth Republic. His term in office lasted from 1959 until 1962. In the short history of the Fifth Republic, France has had numerous ‘unelected’ prime ministers like Georges Pompidou, Raymond Barre and Dominique de Villepin. Manuel Valls is the incumbent prime minister of France, his term commenced from March 31, 2014. With this segment, know more about famous French prime ministers. | 266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By the summer of 1944, the Allies were pushing the German Army back on the Eastern Front, had pushed the Axis forces out of Africa, had control of the Atlantic and were moving north in Italy. The last great barrier, however, still needed to be breached to defeat Germany: Fortress Europe. The Western Wall was a series of defenses the Germans had built to repel invasion with Field Marshal Erwin Rommel the architect of many of the defenses. The Allies put together what would be the largest invasion force to that time and Operation Overlord began on June 6, 1944: The invasion of Western Europe. Over 6,500 ships brought the invasion force to the beaches while over 1m000 C-47’s brought in the airborne forces. Over 130,000 troops landed on the five D-Day beached: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno & Sword. The heaviest casualties were at Omaha Beach but by the end of the day all five landing beaches were secure. The Allies had their foothold on Fortress Europe. | <urn:uuid:45750fab-0e6b-49a2-9492-c85f044fec10> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://valoroustv.com/video/road-to-berlin-episode-10-normandy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.983039 | 205 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.282274782657... | 8 | By the summer of 1944, the Allies were pushing the German Army back on the Eastern Front, had pushed the Axis forces out of Africa, had control of the Atlantic and were moving north in Italy. The last great barrier, however, still needed to be breached to defeat Germany: Fortress Europe. The Western Wall was a series of defenses the Germans had built to repel invasion with Field Marshal Erwin Rommel the architect of many of the defenses. The Allies put together what would be the largest invasion force to that time and Operation Overlord began on June 6, 1944: The invasion of Western Europe. Over 6,500 ships brought the invasion force to the beaches while over 1m000 C-47’s brought in the airborne forces. Over 130,000 troops landed on the five D-Day beached: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno & Sword. The heaviest casualties were at Omaha Beach but by the end of the day all five landing beaches were secure. The Allies had their foothold on Fortress Europe. | 226 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Did Lincoln provoke the US civil war?
Did there exist a position that Lincoln took that ignited the war, or was it just the consequence of long unsolved US problems.
If the reason is the second, which problems provoked the war?
There were long unresolved problems that lay behind the US Civil War. At most, the election of Lincoln as President was just a catalyst. What follows is copied from my answer here.
The tensions between North and South had been growing since long before Lincoln was elected. While it is true than many in the South believed that Lincoln supported the forced suppression of slavery, his election as a Republican president was simply the trigger for secession.
The story of John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry in Virginia in October 1859 explains a great deal. Brown had planned to instigate a major slave rebellion in the South, but the raid was poorly planned and ill equipped (less than 20 men without adequate rations). Although the raid was doomed from the outset (he and his men were captured within 2 days), the response from many in the North was widespread admiration.
Brown was hanged for his actions in the raid, but came to be seen as a martyr by many in the North, including the popular poet, Ralph Waldo Emerson. This just fuelled the flames of outrage in the South.
Although the Republican party condemned Brown and the raid on Harper's Ferry, many individuals within that party did not. Again, this caused further outrage in the South. Several Southern politicians blamed the Republican Party for the attack and (falsely) claimed that that Abraham Lincoln supported Brown's intentions. Fake news is not a new phenomenon! As a result, the idea of Abraham Lincoln as President became intolerable to many in the south.
Both sides were becoming more and more polarised. Moderate voices on both sides were silenced (or perhaps simply not reported - moderate opinion rarely sells newspapers!)
Some of the key milestones on the road that led to the secession of the Southern states are discussed on this site, and are well worth reading.
For Abraham Lincoln's opinions on the subject of secession, this site, maintained by the National Park Service is also worth a read.
I'd also recommend watching the first episode of Ken Burns' 1990 documentary series The Civil War. Actually, I'd recommend watching the whole series. In my opinion, one of the best television documentaries ever made.
Also, as @T.E.D. suggested in his comment above, I think you'll find the answers to Why did the Southern states secede from the US? informative.
Hope that helps clarify.
“Provoke” connotes intent. Lincoln had no such intent.
On one hand, legal slavery was falling from favor in most countries and essentially disappeared within decades of the Civil War. But Lincoln’s best thought on ending slavery was a buyout of the southern “chattel” investment. Industrial mechanization was the better hope but a few years in the future.
The basic sticking point wasn’t the status quo in that it could be ridden out. The intractable issue was the new states that presented the issue of free or slave. In many ways the war started not with Fort Sumner but with the Kansas/Missouri bloodshed.
For many the principle wasn’t slavery (few in the south owned slaves) but whether they lived in the united states or the United States. There was a deep belief that the association was voluntary and terminable. Slavery was the issue that brought the principle into play. Lincoln’s election just made it clear that the more industrial north was tending towards John Brown rather than patience. | <urn:uuid:12b74b0b-7d4c-4b62-8067-7b4cc50435d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/38122/did-lincoln-provoke-the-us-civil-war/38126 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.982645 | 747 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.5848917961120605... | 1 | Did Lincoln provoke the US civil war?
Did there exist a position that Lincoln took that ignited the war, or was it just the consequence of long unsolved US problems.
If the reason is the second, which problems provoked the war?
There were long unresolved problems that lay behind the US Civil War. At most, the election of Lincoln as President was just a catalyst. What follows is copied from my answer here.
The tensions between North and South had been growing since long before Lincoln was elected. While it is true than many in the South believed that Lincoln supported the forced suppression of slavery, his election as a Republican president was simply the trigger for secession.
The story of John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry in Virginia in October 1859 explains a great deal. Brown had planned to instigate a major slave rebellion in the South, but the raid was poorly planned and ill equipped (less than 20 men without adequate rations). Although the raid was doomed from the outset (he and his men were captured within 2 days), the response from many in the North was widespread admiration.
Brown was hanged for his actions in the raid, but came to be seen as a martyr by many in the North, including the popular poet, Ralph Waldo Emerson. This just fuelled the flames of outrage in the South.
Although the Republican party condemned Brown and the raid on Harper's Ferry, many individuals within that party did not. Again, this caused further outrage in the South. Several Southern politicians blamed the Republican Party for the attack and (falsely) claimed that that Abraham Lincoln supported Brown's intentions. Fake news is not a new phenomenon! As a result, the idea of Abraham Lincoln as President became intolerable to many in the south.
Both sides were becoming more and more polarised. Moderate voices on both sides were silenced (or perhaps simply not reported - moderate opinion rarely sells newspapers!)
Some of the key milestones on the road that led to the secession of the Southern states are discussed on this site, and are well worth reading.
For Abraham Lincoln's opinions on the subject of secession, this site, maintained by the National Park Service is also worth a read.
I'd also recommend watching the first episode of Ken Burns' 1990 documentary series The Civil War. Actually, I'd recommend watching the whole series. In my opinion, one of the best television documentaries ever made.
Also, as @T.E.D. suggested in his comment above, I think you'll find the answers to Why did the Southern states secede from the US? informative.
Hope that helps clarify.
“Provoke” connotes intent. Lincoln had no such intent.
On one hand, legal slavery was falling from favor in most countries and essentially disappeared within decades of the Civil War. But Lincoln’s best thought on ending slavery was a buyout of the southern “chattel” investment. Industrial mechanization was the better hope but a few years in the future.
The basic sticking point wasn’t the status quo in that it could be ridden out. The intractable issue was the new states that presented the issue of free or slave. In many ways the war started not with Fort Sumner but with the Kansas/Missouri bloodshed.
For many the principle wasn’t slavery (few in the south owned slaves) but whether they lived in the united states or the United States. There was a deep belief that the association was voluntary and terminable. Slavery was the issue that brought the principle into play. Lincoln’s election just made it clear that the more industrial north was tending towards John Brown rather than patience. | 735 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By MICHAEL SCHREIBER
For close to three centuries, experienced pilots have guided seagoing vessels through the treacherous waters of the Delaware River and Bay. In the very early days, merchant vessels often relied on Native American pilots from the area of the Delaware capes. By the mid-18th century, however, piloting had become established as a trade; initiates had to undertake training and apprenticeship for four years, and then pass an examination, in order to be admitted to the pilots’ ranks.
Piloting could be highly dangerous in those waters, where currents were unpredictable and storms could sweep in with little warning. Delaware Bay contained numerous shoals and constricted channels, while the unbroken ocean shore south of Cape Henlopen gave no refuge for larger vessels until the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, 130 miles away. For that reason, pilot boats were often called upon to rescue mariners who had been caught in storms and the winter ice.
Despite the dangers that they faced, pilots had to scramble to make a living for their families. By the late 18th century, the pilots of Delaware Bay generally sailed in schooners that were large enough to enable them to cruise into the Atlantic in search of incoming vessels that might require their services. But the time between jobs still meant that the pilots often had a difficult time bringing in enough cash for their families.
In 1792, the pilots felt they had organized sufficiently as a group to be able to withhold their labor in a strike for higher fees. The Philadelphia merchants attempted to break the strike by advertising in the local newspapers for scabs, while the Port Wardens revoked the licenses of the strikers. But the menace to shipping was too great and the organized pilots soon got a raise.
Almost a century later, in 1881, a bill was passed in the Pennsylvania Assembly that severely watered down an earlier law (1866) dealing with the remuneration of Delaware pilots. Philadelphia pilot Lester D. Schellenger wrote a letter of protest to the Harrisburg Patriot that appeared June 7, 1881. It was subtitled: “The Pilot Bill a Scheme to Make the Rich Richer and the Poor Poorer” and complained that the new law would compel pilots to pay one-third of their “hard earnings to support the steam tugs owned by wealthy houses and extensive associations.”
Schellenger pointed out: “The law of 1866 allowed us pay at the rate of three dollars a day, after twenty-four hours when detained at the Breakwater waiting orders and full pilotage if the vessel went to another port than Philadelphia. This bill allows us nothing for detention, no matter how long that may be and then only half pilotage in case she goes to another port. Is this just? Should we be compelled to remain on the vessel without pay when we could be out cruising and trying to get other vessels?
Lester D. Schellenger belonged to a large family of pilots and sea captains. For several generations, family members in Lewes, Del., and Cape May, N.J., as well as in Philadelphia, had followed the trade. Several men in the family were lost at sea, including Lester’s brother William in 1839 and his brother Henry F. (Harry) in 1872.
Charles and Elizabeth Schellenger
Here we take a look at Charles D. Schellenger (either a brother or a cousin of Lester), who drowned off the Delaware capes in 1889. Charles worked from the pilot schooner Enoch Turley, which sank with all hands lost during a hard gale in April of that year. He is commemorated on a stone in the Gloria Dei churchyard along with his widow, Elizabeth Schellenger, who died in 1907, and is buried at the site.
Charles was born around 1831 in Philadelphia and probably lived as a child in the Southwark district. He apprenticed as a pilot while still in his teens. For most of the 1850s, he resided in Delaware, where he married Elizabeth Rowland. Elizabeth’s father, David J. Rowland, was also a pilot; her mother, Catharine M. West Rowland (died 1860), came from a family of pilots.
The Rowlands lived in the seaside community of Rehoboth, Del., when Elizabeth was a small girl in the 1830s. Later, they moved a few miles north to Lewes, which lies just above Cape Henlopen on the Delaware Bay. Their house is now open to the public from May through October as a maritime museum and the headquarters of the Lewes Historical Society. The museum has a coffee urn in its collection that was made for Charles D. Schellenger by friends. It also has a model of the pilot boat Enoch Turley, on which Schellenger lost his life. The building is commonly known as the Cannonball House; it was a casualty of the British naval bombardment of Lewes in 1813, and a cannonball is still embedded in its foundations. Elizabeth’s stepmother, Susan King Rowland, died on the premises in 1917, when a can of stove polish exploded in her kitchen.
While living in Lewes, the Schellengers had five children: the twins Henry F. and Henrietta F. (born 1852), David R. (1855, died in 1857), Charles Jr. (1857), and William (1860). During the Civil War, Charles and Elizabeth and their young family moved to Philadelphia, where they rented a house on Wharton St., west of Front St. In July 1863, Charles registered for the draft to serve in the Union Army. Two years later, in June 1865, tragedy struck when their eight-year-old son, Charlie, died of scarlet fever, which was epidemic among small children in those years. He was buried in the churchyard at Gloria Dei.
In the 1870s, the family lived at various addresses close to the Philadelphia southern waterfront. Their teenage son, Henry F. (Harry), followed the family trade and apprenticed as a pilot boy during the early years of the decade. Around 1880, they moved to a recently built brick house at 140 Mary St. (today League St.), which is still standing.
“Skimmed the water like a bird”
The pilot boat Enoch Turley was a small schooner, 70 feet in length, with 12 berths in her cabin, and two masts. She was named in honor of a Philadelphian who was esteemed as a sea captain in the early 19th century and died suddenly at age 39 in 1823. His son (born 1810), also named Enoch Turley, carried on as a sea captain, was appointed harbormaster for the port of Philadelphia (1856), and later served as president of the Society for the Relief of Poor Shipmasters.
The Enoch Turley was built in Baltimore and launched on the Delaware in 1842. The Philadelphia Public Ledger (Nov. 25, 1842) reported, “The new pilot boat ‘Enoch Turley,’ Capt. William Baker, was tried yesterday afternoon for the first time. She is a beautiful craft; was full dress with every rag she could carry, and skimmed the water like a bird. A large party were on board of her, who were elegantly entertained by the captain.”
In the spring of 1843, the Turley was entered in a race with another pilot boat, the John G. Whilder. The racecourse was to be from Philadelphia all the way to the breakwater at the Delaware capes. In late November of that year, however, the Turley was blown ashore in a heavy wind off Indian River Inlet. It was feared that she was a total wreck, but with some difficulty, she was raised and her keel was rebuilt.
Back in service, in September 1844, the Enoch Turley engaged in a race with the pilot boat Herald. The Public Ledger reported on Sept. 12 that the boats “left Southwark this morning,
crowded with ladies, for a race and excursion, the stake being a sumptuous repast for all hands, to be paid for by the losing boat. Result not yet known.”
Throughout the 1840s, the Enoch Turley continued to carry pleasure-seekers on excursions as far as Newport, R.I. However, the hard-working schooner also performed a number of crucial rescues of disabled vessels. U.S. Coast Guard records mention, for example, that the Turley helped to tow the coast survey brig Washington following the hurricane of Sept. 8, 1846. In November 1846, the pilot boat rescued the brig Carleton, which had become disabled in a storm off the capes, and towed her to Reedy Island in the Delaware. In September 1847, she aided in the rescue of the Flora del Mar.
The Turley was rebuilt in Wilmington in 1862, and continued her heroic life-saving work through out the next two decades. Several weeks after the Turley disappeared at sea, the Delaware Gazette & State Journal (May 2, 1889) reminisced: “She has always been considered an able and safe boat and a favorite among Delaware pilots all through her long and useful career.”
Able though she might have been, some evidently thought that the Enoch Turley was hexed. On May 22, 1889, The Philadelphia Inquirer commented: “The old boat was looked up on as particularly unlucky for the last three years, as she has been ashore several times and otherwise in trouble, and on that account the pilots were a little afraid of her.”
But the pilot boat’s owners discounted any talk of unluckiness. One of the owners, Capt. Harry Long, a pilot himself, told The Inquirer (April 13, 1889) that, although very old, “the Turley was well found and capable of standing any type of weather. She weathered the great gale of November 1888 in gallant style.”
The year 1888 was indeed grueling for the Delaware Bay pilots and their crafts. The United States Life Saving Service’s annual report for 1889 recounted their heroic actions during the extreme cold and blizzard conditions in March and April of the previous year. The Enoch Turley played a role in the rescues, but encountered her own perils. Before dawn on March 5, one of her pilots, John West, fell into the icy water as he was climbing onto the deck of the steamship Indiana. He remained in the water for half an hour, until he was found floating half a mile away unconscious. A few days later, it was reported, he had almost recovered.
A week later, on the morning of March 12, a tremendous storm and blizzard roared into Delaware Bay. Two dozen vessels were wrecked, and crew members and passengers were swept into the sea. The Enoch Turley became snagged on a shoal near the Lewes breakwater, where she lost her masts. But the boat and her men emerged relatively unscathed due to a timely rescue operation.
The Life Saving Service’s report (p. 238) stated that the Turley “had dragged ashore at 8 o’clock in the morning and was lying about seventy-five yards off the beach, with the heavy seas washing over her. The life-savers succeeded in firing a line to her, and after some difficulty, occasioned by the vessel’s crew being so benumbed with cold that they could not readily handle the gear, the whip and hawser were got in working order and all hands, numbering seven, were safely landed, one at a time, in the breeches-buoy. The rescue was a timely one, as the men were nearly used up from the severe exposure to which they had been subjected for several hours.”
On Nov. 26, 1888, while cruising off the capes, the Turley encountered the “great gale” that Long spoke of, coupled with a heavy snowstorm. She was blown far south, but was able to find harbor at Fortress Monroe, Va., at the mouth of the Chesapeake, without serious damage.
Swept away in the gale
Just over four months later, a far more powerful gale struck the coast. This one led to the demise of the Enoch Turley and the death of Charles D. Schellenger and nine other men who were aboard her. The storm began on Saturday, April 6, and continued into Sunday.
The damage was considerable. The Philadelphia Inquirer reported that in the aftermath of the storm, Rehoboth, the former home of Elizabeth Schellenger, looked like “the ruins of some ancient city.” The boardwalk had washed away, and the pavilion that used to stand at the foot of Rehoboth Avenue had blown down. Several vessels had grounded, including the three-masted schooner Carrie A. Buckham.
As usual in such circumstances, the Enoch Turley went to sea in search of vessels that might need assistance in the storm. It appears, however, that the pilot boat was blown toward the south—just as happened the previous November. The pilot boat Edwards sighted her off Fenwick Island light (about 60 miles south of the cape). And the Inquirer later reported, “The last seen of the missing vessel was on the night of Saturday, April 6, when the bark Wyho passed her and reported her as scudding for Hampton Roads.”
A search was made for the missing vessel, but nothing definitive was found of her. The captain of a schooner from Wilmington reported that on April 13 he had spotted a damaged boat that he was “pretty sure” was the Turley. On April 19, a dispatch in the Wilmington Evening Journal said that a sunken vessel had been discovered off Cape Charles and “in all probability the wreck was that of the Turley, as she was steering in that direction when she was last seen.” Contradictory reports of other wrecks that “might have been the Turley” continued to appear for a couple of weeks more.
Finally, on April 26, the Turley’s co-owner Capt. Harry Long was quoted in the Inquirer as stating: “I think it may be assumed that the Turley has gone down, and the chance of any one of the crew being picked up is a very remote one. It is true that a sailing vessel bound south may have them on board, but it is cruel to raise false hopes. My opinion is that the Turley has gone down with all hands.”
Besides Schellenger, the dead included pilots John S. Kelly, Morgan Saunders, Henry M. Parker, and James A. Orton. Also lost were crew members E.W. Donaldson (or Danielson), Fred Greenwood, Juber Havilon (the cook), Alfred Allen (a Black man), and an English boy, Charles Young.
A fund was taken up for the widows and children. Agent Young of the Pennsylvania Pilots Association pointed out that families were severely hurt by the loss of their breadwinners. He added that in fact, “there were two or three of the lost pilots whose earnings were the entire support of the family” (Philadelphia Inquirer, April 27, 1889).
“Graceful as a waterfowl”
The legend persists even today that on stormy nights over the Atlantic, the ghostly shape of the Enoch Turley can be seen, trying to make its way back to the breakwater and safety. But rather than leave our readers on that gloomy note, we will recount the adventures of a happier day, when the Turley was in her prime.
An account in the Philadelphia Press (Aug. 28, 1866) described a voyage on the pilot boat: “On the morning of the 16th instant, the pilot-boat Enoch Turley road at anchor a short distance from the beach at Cape May. Graceful as a waterfowl she rose upon each wave like a thing of life, and those who saw her from the shore predicted a safe and pleasant trip to the pleasure-party about to embark on her for the waters of the Chesapeake. Taking their seats in her life-boats, the excursionists plunged out through the heavy breakers, and soon were on board the little craft.
“She is one of the five pilot-boats owned by the pilots of Delaware Bay, men who at all seasons of the year, without regard to storm or weather, cruise off the mouth of the bay to furnish a pilot to every vessel seeking the port of Philadelphia. A more hardy, industrious, temperate, and worthy set of men do not live than these pilots.
“Up goes the anchor, and away goes the Enoch Turley before a favoring wind. In an hour the Cape May lighthouse has disappeared, and all trace of the point from whence the party started has vanished. Before us stands Cape Henlopen, a long ridge of sand …”
After touring Chesapeake Bay and viewing deserted rebel fortifications and half-sunken hulks from the Civil War, the correspondent wrote: “Wind changing in our favor carried us flying before it down the bay and out to sea, and the Enoch Turley proved her speed and excellent sea-going qualities by returning us to the starting point in sixteen hours from the time we left Fortress Monroe. Noble little craft, and nobler men who commanded her! Are not her and their virtues forever inscribed on our memories?” | <urn:uuid:451ba34a-37d2-4bc5-8865-21bfa590ec8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://philahistory.org/2020/01/11/lost-on-the-pilot-boat-enoch-turley/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.982541 | 3,690 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.19602990150451... | 18 | By MICHAEL SCHREIBER
For close to three centuries, experienced pilots have guided seagoing vessels through the treacherous waters of the Delaware River and Bay. In the very early days, merchant vessels often relied on Native American pilots from the area of the Delaware capes. By the mid-18th century, however, piloting had become established as a trade; initiates had to undertake training and apprenticeship for four years, and then pass an examination, in order to be admitted to the pilots’ ranks.
Piloting could be highly dangerous in those waters, where currents were unpredictable and storms could sweep in with little warning. Delaware Bay contained numerous shoals and constricted channels, while the unbroken ocean shore south of Cape Henlopen gave no refuge for larger vessels until the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, 130 miles away. For that reason, pilot boats were often called upon to rescue mariners who had been caught in storms and the winter ice.
Despite the dangers that they faced, pilots had to scramble to make a living for their families. By the late 18th century, the pilots of Delaware Bay generally sailed in schooners that were large enough to enable them to cruise into the Atlantic in search of incoming vessels that might require their services. But the time between jobs still meant that the pilots often had a difficult time bringing in enough cash for their families.
In 1792, the pilots felt they had organized sufficiently as a group to be able to withhold their labor in a strike for higher fees. The Philadelphia merchants attempted to break the strike by advertising in the local newspapers for scabs, while the Port Wardens revoked the licenses of the strikers. But the menace to shipping was too great and the organized pilots soon got a raise.
Almost a century later, in 1881, a bill was passed in the Pennsylvania Assembly that severely watered down an earlier law (1866) dealing with the remuneration of Delaware pilots. Philadelphia pilot Lester D. Schellenger wrote a letter of protest to the Harrisburg Patriot that appeared June 7, 1881. It was subtitled: “The Pilot Bill a Scheme to Make the Rich Richer and the Poor Poorer” and complained that the new law would compel pilots to pay one-third of their “hard earnings to support the steam tugs owned by wealthy houses and extensive associations.”
Schellenger pointed out: “The law of 1866 allowed us pay at the rate of three dollars a day, after twenty-four hours when detained at the Breakwater waiting orders and full pilotage if the vessel went to another port than Philadelphia. This bill allows us nothing for detention, no matter how long that may be and then only half pilotage in case she goes to another port. Is this just? Should we be compelled to remain on the vessel without pay when we could be out cruising and trying to get other vessels?
Lester D. Schellenger belonged to a large family of pilots and sea captains. For several generations, family members in Lewes, Del., and Cape May, N.J., as well as in Philadelphia, had followed the trade. Several men in the family were lost at sea, including Lester’s brother William in 1839 and his brother Henry F. (Harry) in 1872.
Charles and Elizabeth Schellenger
Here we take a look at Charles D. Schellenger (either a brother or a cousin of Lester), who drowned off the Delaware capes in 1889. Charles worked from the pilot schooner Enoch Turley, which sank with all hands lost during a hard gale in April of that year. He is commemorated on a stone in the Gloria Dei churchyard along with his widow, Elizabeth Schellenger, who died in 1907, and is buried at the site.
Charles was born around 1831 in Philadelphia and probably lived as a child in the Southwark district. He apprenticed as a pilot while still in his teens. For most of the 1850s, he resided in Delaware, where he married Elizabeth Rowland. Elizabeth’s father, David J. Rowland, was also a pilot; her mother, Catharine M. West Rowland (died 1860), came from a family of pilots.
The Rowlands lived in the seaside community of Rehoboth, Del., when Elizabeth was a small girl in the 1830s. Later, they moved a few miles north to Lewes, which lies just above Cape Henlopen on the Delaware Bay. Their house is now open to the public from May through October as a maritime museum and the headquarters of the Lewes Historical Society. The museum has a coffee urn in its collection that was made for Charles D. Schellenger by friends. It also has a model of the pilot boat Enoch Turley, on which Schellenger lost his life. The building is commonly known as the Cannonball House; it was a casualty of the British naval bombardment of Lewes in 1813, and a cannonball is still embedded in its foundations. Elizabeth’s stepmother, Susan King Rowland, died on the premises in 1917, when a can of stove polish exploded in her kitchen.
While living in Lewes, the Schellengers had five children: the twins Henry F. and Henrietta F. (born 1852), David R. (1855, died in 1857), Charles Jr. (1857), and William (1860). During the Civil War, Charles and Elizabeth and their young family moved to Philadelphia, where they rented a house on Wharton St., west of Front St. In July 1863, Charles registered for the draft to serve in the Union Army. Two years later, in June 1865, tragedy struck when their eight-year-old son, Charlie, died of scarlet fever, which was epidemic among small children in those years. He was buried in the churchyard at Gloria Dei.
In the 1870s, the family lived at various addresses close to the Philadelphia southern waterfront. Their teenage son, Henry F. (Harry), followed the family trade and apprenticed as a pilot boy during the early years of the decade. Around 1880, they moved to a recently built brick house at 140 Mary St. (today League St.), which is still standing.
“Skimmed the water like a bird”
The pilot boat Enoch Turley was a small schooner, 70 feet in length, with 12 berths in her cabin, and two masts. She was named in honor of a Philadelphian who was esteemed as a sea captain in the early 19th century and died suddenly at age 39 in 1823. His son (born 1810), also named Enoch Turley, carried on as a sea captain, was appointed harbormaster for the port of Philadelphia (1856), and later served as president of the Society for the Relief of Poor Shipmasters.
The Enoch Turley was built in Baltimore and launched on the Delaware in 1842. The Philadelphia Public Ledger (Nov. 25, 1842) reported, “The new pilot boat ‘Enoch Turley,’ Capt. William Baker, was tried yesterday afternoon for the first time. She is a beautiful craft; was full dress with every rag she could carry, and skimmed the water like a bird. A large party were on board of her, who were elegantly entertained by the captain.”
In the spring of 1843, the Turley was entered in a race with another pilot boat, the John G. Whilder. The racecourse was to be from Philadelphia all the way to the breakwater at the Delaware capes. In late November of that year, however, the Turley was blown ashore in a heavy wind off Indian River Inlet. It was feared that she was a total wreck, but with some difficulty, she was raised and her keel was rebuilt.
Back in service, in September 1844, the Enoch Turley engaged in a race with the pilot boat Herald. The Public Ledger reported on Sept. 12 that the boats “left Southwark this morning,
crowded with ladies, for a race and excursion, the stake being a sumptuous repast for all hands, to be paid for by the losing boat. Result not yet known.”
Throughout the 1840s, the Enoch Turley continued to carry pleasure-seekers on excursions as far as Newport, R.I. However, the hard-working schooner also performed a number of crucial rescues of disabled vessels. U.S. Coast Guard records mention, for example, that the Turley helped to tow the coast survey brig Washington following the hurricane of Sept. 8, 1846. In November 1846, the pilot boat rescued the brig Carleton, which had become disabled in a storm off the capes, and towed her to Reedy Island in the Delaware. In September 1847, she aided in the rescue of the Flora del Mar.
The Turley was rebuilt in Wilmington in 1862, and continued her heroic life-saving work through out the next two decades. Several weeks after the Turley disappeared at sea, the Delaware Gazette & State Journal (May 2, 1889) reminisced: “She has always been considered an able and safe boat and a favorite among Delaware pilots all through her long and useful career.”
Able though she might have been, some evidently thought that the Enoch Turley was hexed. On May 22, 1889, The Philadelphia Inquirer commented: “The old boat was looked up on as particularly unlucky for the last three years, as she has been ashore several times and otherwise in trouble, and on that account the pilots were a little afraid of her.”
But the pilot boat’s owners discounted any talk of unluckiness. One of the owners, Capt. Harry Long, a pilot himself, told The Inquirer (April 13, 1889) that, although very old, “the Turley was well found and capable of standing any type of weather. She weathered the great gale of November 1888 in gallant style.”
The year 1888 was indeed grueling for the Delaware Bay pilots and their crafts. The United States Life Saving Service’s annual report for 1889 recounted their heroic actions during the extreme cold and blizzard conditions in March and April of the previous year. The Enoch Turley played a role in the rescues, but encountered her own perils. Before dawn on March 5, one of her pilots, John West, fell into the icy water as he was climbing onto the deck of the steamship Indiana. He remained in the water for half an hour, until he was found floating half a mile away unconscious. A few days later, it was reported, he had almost recovered.
A week later, on the morning of March 12, a tremendous storm and blizzard roared into Delaware Bay. Two dozen vessels were wrecked, and crew members and passengers were swept into the sea. The Enoch Turley became snagged on a shoal near the Lewes breakwater, where she lost her masts. But the boat and her men emerged relatively unscathed due to a timely rescue operation.
The Life Saving Service’s report (p. 238) stated that the Turley “had dragged ashore at 8 o’clock in the morning and was lying about seventy-five yards off the beach, with the heavy seas washing over her. The life-savers succeeded in firing a line to her, and after some difficulty, occasioned by the vessel’s crew being so benumbed with cold that they could not readily handle the gear, the whip and hawser were got in working order and all hands, numbering seven, were safely landed, one at a time, in the breeches-buoy. The rescue was a timely one, as the men were nearly used up from the severe exposure to which they had been subjected for several hours.”
On Nov. 26, 1888, while cruising off the capes, the Turley encountered the “great gale” that Long spoke of, coupled with a heavy snowstorm. She was blown far south, but was able to find harbor at Fortress Monroe, Va., at the mouth of the Chesapeake, without serious damage.
Swept away in the gale
Just over four months later, a far more powerful gale struck the coast. This one led to the demise of the Enoch Turley and the death of Charles D. Schellenger and nine other men who were aboard her. The storm began on Saturday, April 6, and continued into Sunday.
The damage was considerable. The Philadelphia Inquirer reported that in the aftermath of the storm, Rehoboth, the former home of Elizabeth Schellenger, looked like “the ruins of some ancient city.” The boardwalk had washed away, and the pavilion that used to stand at the foot of Rehoboth Avenue had blown down. Several vessels had grounded, including the three-masted schooner Carrie A. Buckham.
As usual in such circumstances, the Enoch Turley went to sea in search of vessels that might need assistance in the storm. It appears, however, that the pilot boat was blown toward the south—just as happened the previous November. The pilot boat Edwards sighted her off Fenwick Island light (about 60 miles south of the cape). And the Inquirer later reported, “The last seen of the missing vessel was on the night of Saturday, April 6, when the bark Wyho passed her and reported her as scudding for Hampton Roads.”
A search was made for the missing vessel, but nothing definitive was found of her. The captain of a schooner from Wilmington reported that on April 13 he had spotted a damaged boat that he was “pretty sure” was the Turley. On April 19, a dispatch in the Wilmington Evening Journal said that a sunken vessel had been discovered off Cape Charles and “in all probability the wreck was that of the Turley, as she was steering in that direction when she was last seen.” Contradictory reports of other wrecks that “might have been the Turley” continued to appear for a couple of weeks more.
Finally, on April 26, the Turley’s co-owner Capt. Harry Long was quoted in the Inquirer as stating: “I think it may be assumed that the Turley has gone down, and the chance of any one of the crew being picked up is a very remote one. It is true that a sailing vessel bound south may have them on board, but it is cruel to raise false hopes. My opinion is that the Turley has gone down with all hands.”
Besides Schellenger, the dead included pilots John S. Kelly, Morgan Saunders, Henry M. Parker, and James A. Orton. Also lost were crew members E.W. Donaldson (or Danielson), Fred Greenwood, Juber Havilon (the cook), Alfred Allen (a Black man), and an English boy, Charles Young.
A fund was taken up for the widows and children. Agent Young of the Pennsylvania Pilots Association pointed out that families were severely hurt by the loss of their breadwinners. He added that in fact, “there were two or three of the lost pilots whose earnings were the entire support of the family” (Philadelphia Inquirer, April 27, 1889).
“Graceful as a waterfowl”
The legend persists even today that on stormy nights over the Atlantic, the ghostly shape of the Enoch Turley can be seen, trying to make its way back to the breakwater and safety. But rather than leave our readers on that gloomy note, we will recount the adventures of a happier day, when the Turley was in her prime.
An account in the Philadelphia Press (Aug. 28, 1866) described a voyage on the pilot boat: “On the morning of the 16th instant, the pilot-boat Enoch Turley road at anchor a short distance from the beach at Cape May. Graceful as a waterfowl she rose upon each wave like a thing of life, and those who saw her from the shore predicted a safe and pleasant trip to the pleasure-party about to embark on her for the waters of the Chesapeake. Taking their seats in her life-boats, the excursionists plunged out through the heavy breakers, and soon were on board the little craft.
“She is one of the five pilot-boats owned by the pilots of Delaware Bay, men who at all seasons of the year, without regard to storm or weather, cruise off the mouth of the bay to furnish a pilot to every vessel seeking the port of Philadelphia. A more hardy, industrious, temperate, and worthy set of men do not live than these pilots.
“Up goes the anchor, and away goes the Enoch Turley before a favoring wind. In an hour the Cape May lighthouse has disappeared, and all trace of the point from whence the party started has vanished. Before us stands Cape Henlopen, a long ridge of sand …”
After touring Chesapeake Bay and viewing deserted rebel fortifications and half-sunken hulks from the Civil War, the correspondent wrote: “Wind changing in our favor carried us flying before it down the bay and out to sea, and the Enoch Turley proved her speed and excellent sea-going qualities by returning us to the starting point in sixteen hours from the time we left Fortress Monroe. Noble little craft, and nobler men who commanded her! Are not her and their virtues forever inscribed on our memories?” | 3,755 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Forbidden City was the name given to the complex of palaces that only the Emperors of Ancient China were allowed to go inside. It is the biggest palace in the world.
Entry was forbidden without permission from the emperor. This is how the palaces got their name. There are many palaces and buildings surrounded by a really high wall.
The Forbidden City is located in Beijing. 24 emperors lived here during the Ming and Qing Dynasties between 1368 and 1911.
A long time to build
This palace was built by Emperor Chenzu during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). It was started in 1407 and finished in 1420. It was not an easy or cheap project. It took fourteen years to build.
There are rumours that over 100,000 craftspeople worked on the buildings and elaborate decoration of the palaces. It is said that there were 1 million workers in total that built it. This is no surprise.
The Forbidden City is very big. It is 961 meters north to south, and 753 meters east to west. It has 200,000 m2 of floor space.
The biggest palace in the world
The Forbidden City is the largest palace in the whole world. There are 980 buildings in total. There are nearly 9,000 rooms (8,700).
This is many, many, more rooms than other palaces or important buildings. In Buckingham Palace there are 775 rooms. In Versailles (where the French Kings and Queens used to live), there are 700 rooms.
In the White House in America, where the President lives, there are 132 rooms. Istana Nurul Iman is the largest single-family palace in the world, but this still has fewer rooms than the Forbidden City.
Istana Nurul Iman (where the Sultan of Brunei lives) has 1,788 rooms.
The way the walls were built means it was impossible to climb them or for anyone to get in. The palace is surrounded by a very tall wall (7.9 metres), so nobody could see inside.
Its design is very grand. Yellow is the symbol of the royal family so this colour was used a lot, for example on the roofs.
There were also very important symbols to show everyone the royal status of the emperors that lived there.
Treasures of China
Today, the palaces can be visited by tourists. They are not just empty rooms inside. The palaces also hold lots of important and valuable art.
For example, there are around 50,000 paintings. Some of these are extremely old. It is thought that at least 400 come from before the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368).
Although many important paintings were sold off or were stolen over time, the palace still holds one of the most important collections in China.
China is well known for its fine ceramics and porcelain. There are around 320,000 pieces in the palaces. The palace also has bronze figures and many have the dates they were made on them.
These are some of the oldest objects in the world. They are dated at 221 BC.
Clues about history
If you visited the Palaces, you would get a good idea of how the emperors and their families lived. The palace still has some of the objects that these rulers would have used.
They are a great record for historians to learn more about the past during this era.
The size and elaborate decoration of the Forbidden City also tell us about the importance and wealth of the Emperors of China at this time. | <urn:uuid:aa75ada8-b56b-45a7-b90a-4b6b9ea7bf3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.savvyleo.com/world-history/ancient-china/forbidden-city/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.984562 | 737 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.512919008731... | 1 | The Forbidden City was the name given to the complex of palaces that only the Emperors of Ancient China were allowed to go inside. It is the biggest palace in the world.
Entry was forbidden without permission from the emperor. This is how the palaces got their name. There are many palaces and buildings surrounded by a really high wall.
The Forbidden City is located in Beijing. 24 emperors lived here during the Ming and Qing Dynasties between 1368 and 1911.
A long time to build
This palace was built by Emperor Chenzu during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). It was started in 1407 and finished in 1420. It was not an easy or cheap project. It took fourteen years to build.
There are rumours that over 100,000 craftspeople worked on the buildings and elaborate decoration of the palaces. It is said that there were 1 million workers in total that built it. This is no surprise.
The Forbidden City is very big. It is 961 meters north to south, and 753 meters east to west. It has 200,000 m2 of floor space.
The biggest palace in the world
The Forbidden City is the largest palace in the whole world. There are 980 buildings in total. There are nearly 9,000 rooms (8,700).
This is many, many, more rooms than other palaces or important buildings. In Buckingham Palace there are 775 rooms. In Versailles (where the French Kings and Queens used to live), there are 700 rooms.
In the White House in America, where the President lives, there are 132 rooms. Istana Nurul Iman is the largest single-family palace in the world, but this still has fewer rooms than the Forbidden City.
Istana Nurul Iman (where the Sultan of Brunei lives) has 1,788 rooms.
The way the walls were built means it was impossible to climb them or for anyone to get in. The palace is surrounded by a very tall wall (7.9 metres), so nobody could see inside.
Its design is very grand. Yellow is the symbol of the royal family so this colour was used a lot, for example on the roofs.
There were also very important symbols to show everyone the royal status of the emperors that lived there.
Treasures of China
Today, the palaces can be visited by tourists. They are not just empty rooms inside. The palaces also hold lots of important and valuable art.
For example, there are around 50,000 paintings. Some of these are extremely old. It is thought that at least 400 come from before the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368).
Although many important paintings were sold off or were stolen over time, the palace still holds one of the most important collections in China.
China is well known for its fine ceramics and porcelain. There are around 320,000 pieces in the palaces. The palace also has bronze figures and many have the dates they were made on them.
These are some of the oldest objects in the world. They are dated at 221 BC.
Clues about history
If you visited the Palaces, you would get a good idea of how the emperors and their families lived. The palace still has some of the objects that these rulers would have used.
They are a great record for historians to learn more about the past during this era.
The size and elaborate decoration of the Forbidden City also tell us about the importance and wealth of the Emperors of China at this time. | 786 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If you wander through most museums, you might get the mistaken idea that only men painted in the 1600s. Nothing is further from the truth. There were many quite talented female painters, both then and now. The challenge was (and is) to have those women’s paintings hang on a wall and be respected.
Artemisia Gentileschi was a woman who pushed up against those barriers.
Born in 1593, Artemisia was fortunate enough to be born to a talented painter. He encouraged her in her pursuits even though she was a mere girl-child. She did have brothers, but she was the one who showed her talent and was recognized for it. Her mother passed away when Artemisia was 12, so this male-oriented world was the one she lived in.
Artemisia’s father was incredibly proud of her, and made sure other painters knew about her. Even in her teen years, she was recognized for her skill with the brush. At this time period Caravaggio was very famous, with his intense use of darks and lights. So it makes sense that her own paintings went in this direction. At the same time, she focused heavily on painting women and their situations. This probably also brought her respect, as people felt it was natural and right for her to be so good with this topic area.
Unfortunately, one of her father’s partners, Agstino Tassi, raped her. At this time period a woman who was raped was “soiled” unless the rapist then married her, at which point it was considered (sadly) fairly normal. So Artemisia waited nine months – and allowed him to keep having sex with her – hoping he’d marry her. But it turns out Tassi was a pretty foul man and had committed many other crimes. So Artemisia and her father took him to court and Tassi was exiled from Rome.
Fortunately, Artemisia did find someone to marry, a fellow painter, and they were encouraging of each other. Artemisia had a daughter and that daughter was also encouraged to paint.
It’s encouraging to think that Artemisia did indeed get acclaim in her lifetime for her great works. It’s sad, though, that she only earned that through the steadfast support of her father, a well-known painter, and through the support of her painter-husband. There were countless other women who were talented painters during this time period whose talents were actively squashed and rejected. We are fortunate to have Artemisia’s works to inspire us. | <urn:uuid:a6c5c969-0fea-4c99-9777-081c065e2b91> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bellaradio.com/artemisia-gentileschi-italian-baroque-painter/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00454.warc.gz | en | 0.994948 | 531 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4798914790153503... | 6 | If you wander through most museums, you might get the mistaken idea that only men painted in the 1600s. Nothing is further from the truth. There were many quite talented female painters, both then and now. The challenge was (and is) to have those women’s paintings hang on a wall and be respected.
Artemisia Gentileschi was a woman who pushed up against those barriers.
Born in 1593, Artemisia was fortunate enough to be born to a talented painter. He encouraged her in her pursuits even though she was a mere girl-child. She did have brothers, but she was the one who showed her talent and was recognized for it. Her mother passed away when Artemisia was 12, so this male-oriented world was the one she lived in.
Artemisia’s father was incredibly proud of her, and made sure other painters knew about her. Even in her teen years, she was recognized for her skill with the brush. At this time period Caravaggio was very famous, with his intense use of darks and lights. So it makes sense that her own paintings went in this direction. At the same time, she focused heavily on painting women and their situations. This probably also brought her respect, as people felt it was natural and right for her to be so good with this topic area.
Unfortunately, one of her father’s partners, Agstino Tassi, raped her. At this time period a woman who was raped was “soiled” unless the rapist then married her, at which point it was considered (sadly) fairly normal. So Artemisia waited nine months – and allowed him to keep having sex with her – hoping he’d marry her. But it turns out Tassi was a pretty foul man and had committed many other crimes. So Artemisia and her father took him to court and Tassi was exiled from Rome.
Fortunately, Artemisia did find someone to marry, a fellow painter, and they were encouraging of each other. Artemisia had a daughter and that daughter was also encouraged to paint.
It’s encouraging to think that Artemisia did indeed get acclaim in her lifetime for her great works. It’s sad, though, that she only earned that through the steadfast support of her father, a well-known painter, and through the support of her painter-husband. There were countless other women who were talented painters during this time period whose talents were actively squashed and rejected. We are fortunate to have Artemisia’s works to inspire us. | 512 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The wine they served the Indians on the said toast, was poisoned resulting in more than 130 Indians getting sick and many were shot or stabbed to death by the soldiers. The meeting was aimed at peaceful negotiations, but owing to a lack of trust and a lack of honest intentions to negotiate in good faith, Captain Williams and his men committed mass murder.
Captain Willam Tucker was leading the group of English soldiers all the from Jamestown. During the war that took place in 1622, the Indian chief Opechancanough organized an attack on the English settlement along the James River. The poisoning attack was therefore in revenge of the attack coordinated by the Indian head, The main goal of serving the poisoned wine was to kill the Indian leader, who actually got away. Chief Opechancanough disappeared for about seven years. He was eventually killed by the English soldiers. Many Indians at the peace meeting lost their lives following the poisoning attack. Another aftermath of the attack was the tremendous decrease in population in Virginia.
The landmark is marked by the Department of Historic Resources Highway Market in Virginia near the west point. The reason for the historic landmark is the fact that the event was considered as an outstanding and shocking event. The poisoning was a shock to everyone since the meeting was meant for a peaceful negotiation (Cave 2013).
The landmark is a historical matter since it was an unexpected turn of event that shocked everyone. The many lives lost at the meeting could only be remembered using a landmark inscribed with what happened at that meeting ( Miller 2011). | <urn:uuid:bf2680ec-e045-4409-9485-ad0a778397ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/55475 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00098.warc.gz | en | 0.984218 | 311 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.23528140783309... | 2 | The wine they served the Indians on the said toast, was poisoned resulting in more than 130 Indians getting sick and many were shot or stabbed to death by the soldiers. The meeting was aimed at peaceful negotiations, but owing to a lack of trust and a lack of honest intentions to negotiate in good faith, Captain Williams and his men committed mass murder.
Captain Willam Tucker was leading the group of English soldiers all the from Jamestown. During the war that took place in 1622, the Indian chief Opechancanough organized an attack on the English settlement along the James River. The poisoning attack was therefore in revenge of the attack coordinated by the Indian head, The main goal of serving the poisoned wine was to kill the Indian leader, who actually got away. Chief Opechancanough disappeared for about seven years. He was eventually killed by the English soldiers. Many Indians at the peace meeting lost their lives following the poisoning attack. Another aftermath of the attack was the tremendous decrease in population in Virginia.
The landmark is marked by the Department of Historic Resources Highway Market in Virginia near the west point. The reason for the historic landmark is the fact that the event was considered as an outstanding and shocking event. The poisoning was a shock to everyone since the meeting was meant for a peaceful negotiation (Cave 2013).
The landmark is a historical matter since it was an unexpected turn of event that shocked everyone. The many lives lost at the meeting could only be remembered using a landmark inscribed with what happened at that meeting ( Miller 2011). | 322 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A. family- a couple and their dependent children
A. It allowed for more productivity,and allowed people to transport raw materials because of the inventions of new machines.provided new job opportunities. Railroads were a cheap way for manufacturers to transport their goods between distant towns. Led to (urbanization) movement of people into cities and city building. Citizens wanted to live closer to the factories that they worked at.
B. Urban areas grew large in size which led to overcrowding in cities. It caused many health problems, living conditions were dirty and unhealthy. Cities were unsanitary and there were no sanitation codes in cities. Factory work was dangerous and unsanitary, workers were underpaid and overworked. There were no regulations established; Child labor was popular since children could do work that required tiny hands.
A. Nuclear family- a couple and their dependent children
Cult of domesticity- The cult of domesticity, (A.K.A cult of true womanhood) an opinion about women in the 1800s; believed that women should stay at home and should not do any work outside of the home.
B. The Government passed a Factory Act to improve conditions for children working in factories. Employers now had to age certificates. | <urn:uuid:d2a846f9-7a95-4441-a6c8-a62264c4ce3c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://farmersfeastmanitoba.com/a-family-a-couple-and-their-dependent-children/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.985227 | 254 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.11604492366313... | 2 | A. family- a couple and their dependent children
A. It allowed for more productivity,and allowed people to transport raw materials because of the inventions of new machines.provided new job opportunities. Railroads were a cheap way for manufacturers to transport their goods between distant towns. Led to (urbanization) movement of people into cities and city building. Citizens wanted to live closer to the factories that they worked at.
B. Urban areas grew large in size which led to overcrowding in cities. It caused many health problems, living conditions were dirty and unhealthy. Cities were unsanitary and there were no sanitation codes in cities. Factory work was dangerous and unsanitary, workers were underpaid and overworked. There were no regulations established; Child labor was popular since children could do work that required tiny hands.
A. Nuclear family- a couple and their dependent children
Cult of domesticity- The cult of domesticity, (A.K.A cult of true womanhood) an opinion about women in the 1800s; believed that women should stay at home and should not do any work outside of the home.
B. The Government passed a Factory Act to improve conditions for children working in factories. Employers now had to age certificates. | 252 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Caesar Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE) was the first emperor of the Roman Empire. He was born with the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus on 23 September 63 BCE and adopted by his great-uncle Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. Consequently, he took the name Gaius Julius Caesar. Later on, in 27 BCE, the Senate proclaimed him the honorific Augustus, which means “the illustrious one,” so he became known as Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus.
Despite the fact of owing many names, he is commonly known as Octavius in the period of events between 63 and 44 BCE, Octavian between 44 and 27 BCE and Augustus between 27 BCE until his death in 14 CE
After the assassination of step father of Augustus, Julius Caesar, in March of 44 BCE, the first emperor created an alliance with Caesar’s close friend and relative, Mark Antony. Also, another supporter of Caesar, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, joined them and it became the reason of formation of the Second Triumvirate in October of 43 BCE. The first objective of the new alliance was to kill all the political rivals and supporters of Caesar’s assassins. It is not clear who was the main responsible among them three for the killings, where some writers and historians call Augustus innocent, while others consider him the most bloodshed. After completion of their first aim, the Triumvirate focused on Caesar’s assassins. At the battle of Phillipi in 42 BCE, the army of Brutus and Cassius was attacked by the forces of the Triumvirate, which forced both assassins to make a suicide.
Octavian and Lepidus attacked Sextus Pompeius (son of Pompey, main rival of Caesar) for the leadership of Rome with the help of Antony from Egypt
Undoubtedly, the Second Trumvirate was successful in battle over Pompeius, so Lepidus pushed Octavian to leave Sicily, the theatre of operations, with his army. However, Octavian proposed a huge amount of money to the troops of Lepidus, so they defected to him. Consequently, Lepidus lost all his titles, except of Pontifex Maximus, and the Second Triumvirate came to an end.
When the Second Triumvirate came to an end, relations between Octavian and Mark Antony became much worse. Later, in 40 BCE, Octavian tried to save their alliance and gave his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony. However, Antony acquired strong relationships with Cleopatra VII of Egypt, who was the former lover of Caesar and mother of his son Caesarion, but with time became a lover of Antony. This romance led to the conflict between Octavian and Antony, where Octavian accused him in use of his sister. Octavia and Antony became divorced.
Octavian started to consider Antony inappropriate leader in political, private and military spheres
The adopted son of Caesar made the priestesses of the temple of Vesta to surrender the will of Antony, which was read by him in the Senate. Consequently, the will passed Roman territories to sons of Antony and included instructions for a great mausoleum to be constructed in Alexandria for Antony and his love Cleopatra. Octavian called his ex-supporter a renegade. At the same time, the worst declaration of Antony was about Caesarion’s true heir of Julius Caesar. However, the Senate rejected Antony’s consulship and started the was on Cleopatra VII. Later on, at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, the army of Octavian with the General Agrippa destructed forces of Antony and Cleopatra and pursued them until 30 BCE. Consequently, Antony and Cleopatra lost Alexandria and made a suicide. Moreover, Octavian strangled Caesarion claiming that “two Caesars are one too many”, while Antony’s eldest son was killed because Octavian considered him as a threat to Rome.
👇👍Our Friends Service👍👇
These events led Octavian to the absolute leadership over Rome
Octavian decided to get rid of the same situation as his father had and immediately after coming to power he characterized his political strategies to the population, thus, making people believe that he wants to make Rome better. In 27 BCE, Octavian denied from his powers knowing that he will receive them back from the Senate, who also gave him the title “Augustus.” He preferred to call himself in public as “Princeps” or the “First Citizen.” People trusted him and Augustus managed to gain an absolute control over Rome and its colonies.
Being already known as Augustus, the month of August was named in honor of the first Emperor. In 19 BC, Augustus received the supreme power over each province of the Roman Empire and started to rule supremely.
By 2 BCE Augustus was proclaimed Pater Patriae, the father of the country
Undoubtedly, the period of his reign was positive for the Empire since he managed to support peace among citizens and to raise the economy, arts and agriculture. In addition, during the leadership of the first emperor, many new buildings were created, where Augustus realized the plans made by Caesar and developed many of his own designs. For instance, he restored 82 buildings in one year, including public baths of Rome with his main supporter Agrippa. Moreover, Augustus was arts lover and inspired many artists, who composed poems about him. For example, poet Virgil composed the Aeneid. Many reforms and new laws were created during the reign of Augustus. His aim was to support stability in marriages and to increase the birth rate. Thus, there were penalties for childless marriages and reduced taxes for families with more than three children.
Augustus died in 14 CE. His last words became famous: “I found Rome a city of clay, but left it a city of marble.” However, his wife Livia and adopted son Tiberius, who became the second emperor in the history of Roman Empire, his last words were: “Have I played the part well? The applaud as I exit.” The body of emperor was buried in Rome.
During his reign, the emperor expanded Roman Forum and today, you can visit remainings of Forum of Augustus in the center of Rome
Author: Kate Zusmann
For the last 6 years I live in the Eternal City. Traveling, exploring new things, writing blogs, shooting vlogs are my main hobbies, but the thing that I like even more is to share my experience and thoughts with you! Explore Rome with Us :)
Rome.us © 2020. All Rights Reserved | <urn:uuid:ae1f5b47-cafa-4a6e-9198-484c8b500d6c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rome.us/roman-emperors/caesar-octavian-augustus.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.982734 | 1,413 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | Caesar Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE) was the first emperor of the Roman Empire. He was born with the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus on 23 September 63 BCE and adopted by his great-uncle Julius Caesar in 44 BCE. Consequently, he took the name Gaius Julius Caesar. Later on, in 27 BCE, the Senate proclaimed him the honorific Augustus, which means “the illustrious one,” so he became known as Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus.
Despite the fact of owing many names, he is commonly known as Octavius in the period of events between 63 and 44 BCE, Octavian between 44 and 27 BCE and Augustus between 27 BCE until his death in 14 CE
After the assassination of step father of Augustus, Julius Caesar, in March of 44 BCE, the first emperor created an alliance with Caesar’s close friend and relative, Mark Antony. Also, another supporter of Caesar, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, joined them and it became the reason of formation of the Second Triumvirate in October of 43 BCE. The first objective of the new alliance was to kill all the political rivals and supporters of Caesar’s assassins. It is not clear who was the main responsible among them three for the killings, where some writers and historians call Augustus innocent, while others consider him the most bloodshed. After completion of their first aim, the Triumvirate focused on Caesar’s assassins. At the battle of Phillipi in 42 BCE, the army of Brutus and Cassius was attacked by the forces of the Triumvirate, which forced both assassins to make a suicide.
Octavian and Lepidus attacked Sextus Pompeius (son of Pompey, main rival of Caesar) for the leadership of Rome with the help of Antony from Egypt
Undoubtedly, the Second Trumvirate was successful in battle over Pompeius, so Lepidus pushed Octavian to leave Sicily, the theatre of operations, with his army. However, Octavian proposed a huge amount of money to the troops of Lepidus, so they defected to him. Consequently, Lepidus lost all his titles, except of Pontifex Maximus, and the Second Triumvirate came to an end.
When the Second Triumvirate came to an end, relations between Octavian and Mark Antony became much worse. Later, in 40 BCE, Octavian tried to save their alliance and gave his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony. However, Antony acquired strong relationships with Cleopatra VII of Egypt, who was the former lover of Caesar and mother of his son Caesarion, but with time became a lover of Antony. This romance led to the conflict between Octavian and Antony, where Octavian accused him in use of his sister. Octavia and Antony became divorced.
Octavian started to consider Antony inappropriate leader in political, private and military spheres
The adopted son of Caesar made the priestesses of the temple of Vesta to surrender the will of Antony, which was read by him in the Senate. Consequently, the will passed Roman territories to sons of Antony and included instructions for a great mausoleum to be constructed in Alexandria for Antony and his love Cleopatra. Octavian called his ex-supporter a renegade. At the same time, the worst declaration of Antony was about Caesarion’s true heir of Julius Caesar. However, the Senate rejected Antony’s consulship and started the was on Cleopatra VII. Later on, at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, the army of Octavian with the General Agrippa destructed forces of Antony and Cleopatra and pursued them until 30 BCE. Consequently, Antony and Cleopatra lost Alexandria and made a suicide. Moreover, Octavian strangled Caesarion claiming that “two Caesars are one too many”, while Antony’s eldest son was killed because Octavian considered him as a threat to Rome.
👇👍Our Friends Service👍👇
These events led Octavian to the absolute leadership over Rome
Octavian decided to get rid of the same situation as his father had and immediately after coming to power he characterized his political strategies to the population, thus, making people believe that he wants to make Rome better. In 27 BCE, Octavian denied from his powers knowing that he will receive them back from the Senate, who also gave him the title “Augustus.” He preferred to call himself in public as “Princeps” or the “First Citizen.” People trusted him and Augustus managed to gain an absolute control over Rome and its colonies.
Being already known as Augustus, the month of August was named in honor of the first Emperor. In 19 BC, Augustus received the supreme power over each province of the Roman Empire and started to rule supremely.
By 2 BCE Augustus was proclaimed Pater Patriae, the father of the country
Undoubtedly, the period of his reign was positive for the Empire since he managed to support peace among citizens and to raise the economy, arts and agriculture. In addition, during the leadership of the first emperor, many new buildings were created, where Augustus realized the plans made by Caesar and developed many of his own designs. For instance, he restored 82 buildings in one year, including public baths of Rome with his main supporter Agrippa. Moreover, Augustus was arts lover and inspired many artists, who composed poems about him. For example, poet Virgil composed the Aeneid. Many reforms and new laws were created during the reign of Augustus. His aim was to support stability in marriages and to increase the birth rate. Thus, there were penalties for childless marriages and reduced taxes for families with more than three children.
Augustus died in 14 CE. His last words became famous: “I found Rome a city of clay, but left it a city of marble.” However, his wife Livia and adopted son Tiberius, who became the second emperor in the history of Roman Empire, his last words were: “Have I played the part well? The applaud as I exit.” The body of emperor was buried in Rome.
During his reign, the emperor expanded Roman Forum and today, you can visit remainings of Forum of Augustus in the center of Rome
Author: Kate Zusmann
For the last 6 years I live in the Eternal City. Traveling, exploring new things, writing blogs, shooting vlogs are my main hobbies, but the thing that I like even more is to share my experience and thoughts with you! Explore Rome with Us :)
Rome.us © 2020. All Rights Reserved | 1,403 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Year 2 The children were intrigued when they returned to school and their classrooms looked like they had been frozen with icicles and even some snow flakes. A lost, lonely penguin was found by each class so we wrote a ‘Found’ poster describing where we thought the penguin lived. They have been captivated by our new topic, ‘Icy Cold’ and have started research on penguins during ITC lessons, enjoying our new computers. We have also learnt more on features of polar regions, increasing our geographical vocabulary. The mixed collage pictures of penguins they have created are charming. During Maths we have focused on using straggles to add and subtract 9 and 11, and also using our new department iPads to do some Maths extension work.
2OS started their new topic with an exciting Science lesson. We conducted a test by placing ice cubes in six locations around the school to see which would melt first, to ensure it was a fair test all the ice cubes were the same size. In the classroom we set up another experiment with three ice-cubes putting sugar on one, salt on one and pepper on another, one of the locations for the six ice cubes was in our classroom so that acted as the ‘control’. We then looked to see which ice cube melted the quickest. We also had ice balloons, we poured salt over the top and listened to the ice ‘crackle’ as the salt ate into the surface and caused fissures to run through the ice. We then poured food colouring in so that we could see where the fissures were and watch the colouring run through! | <urn:uuid:02bbb8b8-f517-4654-a21d-f7a3dc65b453> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.copthorneprep.co.uk/year-2/year-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.98583 | 337 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.23969212174415588... | 8 | Year 2 The children were intrigued when they returned to school and their classrooms looked like they had been frozen with icicles and even some snow flakes. A lost, lonely penguin was found by each class so we wrote a ‘Found’ poster describing where we thought the penguin lived. They have been captivated by our new topic, ‘Icy Cold’ and have started research on penguins during ITC lessons, enjoying our new computers. We have also learnt more on features of polar regions, increasing our geographical vocabulary. The mixed collage pictures of penguins they have created are charming. During Maths we have focused on using straggles to add and subtract 9 and 11, and also using our new department iPads to do some Maths extension work.
2OS started their new topic with an exciting Science lesson. We conducted a test by placing ice cubes in six locations around the school to see which would melt first, to ensure it was a fair test all the ice cubes were the same size. In the classroom we set up another experiment with three ice-cubes putting sugar on one, salt on one and pepper on another, one of the locations for the six ice cubes was in our classroom so that acted as the ‘control’. We then looked to see which ice cube melted the quickest. We also had ice balloons, we poured salt over the top and listened to the ice ‘crackle’ as the salt ate into the surface and caused fissures to run through the ice. We then poured food colouring in so that we could see where the fissures were and watch the colouring run through! | 326 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The theme for English B written by Langston Hughes is a simple poem with deep meaning. The poet Hughes expresses his experience of being colored in America. He says that he is an American like other White Americans but his being colored is somewhat disturbing for him as people do not consider him as an equal. He talks about an assignment given by his instructor in a poetic language where he delivers his views about similarities found between him and the White people around him to indicate that he is just human like them.
The speaker communicates what is inside his mind and is quite true in his expression. The instructor of the speaker of the poem asks him to compose something that is true and comes directly from the heart as he says,
“And let that page come out of you—
Then, it will be true.” (Hughes 5-6)
And Hughes composed the voice of his heart and expressed his sadness for the wrong consideration of his companion Americans. He tells them that he performs all those tasks that are performed by other White Americans. There is no difference in their being human. The only difference is the difference in color. He says that he eats, drinks, sleeps and does everything like other people so who can he be different from other races. The color does not make him unlike those.
The poet is fully aware of his appearance and his position in society. Hughes in the poem acknowledges that he is colored and is the single-colored student in the class when he says,
“I am the only colored student in my class” (Hughes 12).
Hughes says that being colored does not deprive him of his rights to being a human. He is like all the others around him. According to the poet, the instructor and the student are part of each other as both of them learn from each other. The poem highlights human-made differences and criticizes such people for their wrong consideration.
Hughes, Langston. The theme for English B. 1951. Retrieved on June 18, 2011, from http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~keith/poems/English_B.html | <urn:uuid:204036b4-d800-48ae-97ed-231f4821bd97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebookessay.com/free-essay-examples/the-theme-for-english-b-by-langston-hughes-essay-analysis/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.989376 | 436 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.31165248155... | 2 | The theme for English B written by Langston Hughes is a simple poem with deep meaning. The poet Hughes expresses his experience of being colored in America. He says that he is an American like other White Americans but his being colored is somewhat disturbing for him as people do not consider him as an equal. He talks about an assignment given by his instructor in a poetic language where he delivers his views about similarities found between him and the White people around him to indicate that he is just human like them.
The speaker communicates what is inside his mind and is quite true in his expression. The instructor of the speaker of the poem asks him to compose something that is true and comes directly from the heart as he says,
“And let that page come out of you—
Then, it will be true.” (Hughes 5-6)
And Hughes composed the voice of his heart and expressed his sadness for the wrong consideration of his companion Americans. He tells them that he performs all those tasks that are performed by other White Americans. There is no difference in their being human. The only difference is the difference in color. He says that he eats, drinks, sleeps and does everything like other people so who can he be different from other races. The color does not make him unlike those.
The poet is fully aware of his appearance and his position in society. Hughes in the poem acknowledges that he is colored and is the single-colored student in the class when he says,
“I am the only colored student in my class” (Hughes 12).
Hughes says that being colored does not deprive him of his rights to being a human. He is like all the others around him. According to the poet, the instructor and the student are part of each other as both of them learn from each other. The poem highlights human-made differences and criticizes such people for their wrong consideration.
Hughes, Langston. The theme for English B. 1951. Retrieved on June 18, 2011, from http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~keith/poems/English_B.html | 427 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Oklahoma Land Rush
In 1889, President Benjamin Harrison agreed to take back control of most of the Native American occupied land in the Indian Territory and decided to open 1.9 million acres of land that were not assigned to any specific tribes and future land openings that were assigned to Native American tribes, were taken back by the government and opened to white settlers was made possible because of the Dawes Act of 1887, which allows whites to own large parcels of land that were previously assigned to Native American tribes.
When news of the land rush was going to happen, people from all over the country converged to all the borders of Indian Territory. Thousands of people signed up for the big race and everyone got ready for the big day. It was illegal for anyone to go in and claim land before the race started and if they were caught, they were not allowed to participate in the race. Just before noon, people lined up on horses, buggies, wagons and even bicycles and prepared to get their free land. They had seven weeks to get ready from the time of the land rush proclamation to the day of the race. Approximately 50,000 people formed tent cities on all four borders of the Indian Territory and waited. These people were called “boomers”
Fort Reno was on the western border and at ten minutes or so before the race started, soldiers told the boomers to line up and get ready. At the stroke of 12, the fort cannon fired, signaling the start of the race. Whips cracked and people shouted as the race was underway. By nightfall, land was staked out for homesteads, ranches and towns.
Of course, there was greed and people did jump the gun and tried to claim land before the race. Theses people were called “Sooners”.
Legal cases of these Sooners would burden the court system for many years to come.
The government tried to hold future land rushes here with more control and by starting a lottery system of sorts. By 1905, the Indian Territory was predominately white now and in 1907, Oklahoma was admitted into the Union.
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Content copyright © 2019 by Vance Rowe. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Vance Rowe. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Clare Stubbs for details. | <urn:uuid:34584f4a-ce84-4ee0-8798-c90e804cbd17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art181865.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00401.warc.gz | en | 0.983291 | 485 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.24800997972... | 1 | Oklahoma Land Rush
In 1889, President Benjamin Harrison agreed to take back control of most of the Native American occupied land in the Indian Territory and decided to open 1.9 million acres of land that were not assigned to any specific tribes and future land openings that were assigned to Native American tribes, were taken back by the government and opened to white settlers was made possible because of the Dawes Act of 1887, which allows whites to own large parcels of land that were previously assigned to Native American tribes.
When news of the land rush was going to happen, people from all over the country converged to all the borders of Indian Territory. Thousands of people signed up for the big race and everyone got ready for the big day. It was illegal for anyone to go in and claim land before the race started and if they were caught, they were not allowed to participate in the race. Just before noon, people lined up on horses, buggies, wagons and even bicycles and prepared to get their free land. They had seven weeks to get ready from the time of the land rush proclamation to the day of the race. Approximately 50,000 people formed tent cities on all four borders of the Indian Territory and waited. These people were called “boomers”
Fort Reno was on the western border and at ten minutes or so before the race started, soldiers told the boomers to line up and get ready. At the stroke of 12, the fort cannon fired, signaling the start of the race. Whips cracked and people shouted as the race was underway. By nightfall, land was staked out for homesteads, ranches and towns.
Of course, there was greed and people did jump the gun and tried to claim land before the race. Theses people were called “Sooners”.
Legal cases of these Sooners would burden the court system for many years to come.
The government tried to hold future land rushes here with more control and by starting a lottery system of sorts. By 1905, the Indian Territory was predominately white now and in 1907, Oklahoma was admitted into the Union.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Vance Rowe. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Vance Rowe. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Clare Stubbs for details. | 501 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Years ago, Roman legions built roads and highways. It was controlled by fierce Muslims. Greeks influenced Rome's architecture. .
Pompeii was a great city. In 79 AD, thousands of people died from an erupting volcano. The eruption was so strong, that no one could outrun from the flowing lava. Everything was buried in ash and everyone was burned to death. Excavations of this site started about 1600 years later, where they found out that the lava had hardened and cemented everything that was there into its place and was preserved so scientists were able to dig it up. Remains of Roman cities were found across three continents.
Romulus and Remus were the founders of Rome. Rome built its empire through alliances, treaties, and military conquests. The empire collapsed around 400 AD. Cities were the center of Roman culture. They were all built the same, and this made it easy to control. .
Building structures were built to last and show the character of the land. All cities began with their layout or grid. Major public buildings were placed in the center of the city, like the forum, theaters, baths, gyms, aqueducts, and markets. Surrounding this was the residential areas. The forum is where people would hold court cases, social events, and voting's. A wall surrounded the city to set geographic limit and a protection of the gods. It was the dividing line between culture and chaos. There were four gates to get in. These gates were the starting points for all the main roads. All Roman cities were built as a square. Rome had a right angle street plan. Aqueducts were built on a slope on a series of arches. This carried water into a city.
The theater was a place where shows and plays were performed. The amphitheater was where sports were performed like gladiators and wild animals. It was all built on semi-circular arches. The amphitheater could fit twenty-four thousand spectators. .
Rome invented concrete. They even made a form of hydraulic concrete, which could form underwater. | <urn:uuid:235d278f-d65d-4ec2-8ca7-5b47ee72f40e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/36788.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00384.warc.gz | en | 0.993447 | 430 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.4090818762779236... | 4 | Years ago, Roman legions built roads and highways. It was controlled by fierce Muslims. Greeks influenced Rome's architecture. .
Pompeii was a great city. In 79 AD, thousands of people died from an erupting volcano. The eruption was so strong, that no one could outrun from the flowing lava. Everything was buried in ash and everyone was burned to death. Excavations of this site started about 1600 years later, where they found out that the lava had hardened and cemented everything that was there into its place and was preserved so scientists were able to dig it up. Remains of Roman cities were found across three continents.
Romulus and Remus were the founders of Rome. Rome built its empire through alliances, treaties, and military conquests. The empire collapsed around 400 AD. Cities were the center of Roman culture. They were all built the same, and this made it easy to control. .
Building structures were built to last and show the character of the land. All cities began with their layout or grid. Major public buildings were placed in the center of the city, like the forum, theaters, baths, gyms, aqueducts, and markets. Surrounding this was the residential areas. The forum is where people would hold court cases, social events, and voting's. A wall surrounded the city to set geographic limit and a protection of the gods. It was the dividing line between culture and chaos. There were four gates to get in. These gates were the starting points for all the main roads. All Roman cities were built as a square. Rome had a right angle street plan. Aqueducts were built on a slope on a series of arches. This carried water into a city.
The theater was a place where shows and plays were performed. The amphitheater was where sports were performed like gladiators and wild animals. It was all built on semi-circular arches. The amphitheater could fit twenty-four thousand spectators. .
Rome invented concrete. They even made a form of hydraulic concrete, which could form underwater. | 430 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Before the lesson spend some time thinking about what pictures you could have in the photo frames. You don’t have to put photos in, just imagine that they are there.
Ask the students if they would like to see your photos. ‘Show’ them your photos. Example: ‘This is my Dad. We all went to his house on his Birthday. He’s holding the book I gave him. He looks really happy, maybe because he had a really nice meal and a few glasses of wine! This is a picture of my house in the snow. Look at my son! He looks so happy. He didn’t have to go to school that day. etc.’
Give each student a frame and a little time to think about what photos they have in the album. They then sit in groups and ‘show’ each other. Some student may prefer to draw or write something in the blanks. That’s fine!
You could choose to do this activity in a ‘goldfish bowl’. (See another table for an explanation of this.)
Caution: This activity can be quite emotional as many students include pictures of lost relatives or places from their past. | <urn:uuid:00e1badd-fa7d-4d7b-9bc4-6e244593eb59> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://forum.daffodilvarsity.edu.bd/index.php/topic,52826.0.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.987765 | 253 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.6529283523559... | 11 | Before the lesson spend some time thinking about what pictures you could have in the photo frames. You don’t have to put photos in, just imagine that they are there.
Ask the students if they would like to see your photos. ‘Show’ them your photos. Example: ‘This is my Dad. We all went to his house on his Birthday. He’s holding the book I gave him. He looks really happy, maybe because he had a really nice meal and a few glasses of wine! This is a picture of my house in the snow. Look at my son! He looks so happy. He didn’t have to go to school that day. etc.’
Give each student a frame and a little time to think about what photos they have in the album. They then sit in groups and ‘show’ each other. Some student may prefer to draw or write something in the blanks. That’s fine!
You could choose to do this activity in a ‘goldfish bowl’. (See another table for an explanation of this.)
Caution: This activity can be quite emotional as many students include pictures of lost relatives or places from their past. | 231 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. (October 2015)
Pepin was the second son of Emperor Louis the Pious and his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye. When his father assigned to each of his sons a kingdom (within the Empire) in August 817, he received Aquitaine, which had been Louis's own subkingdom during his father Charlemagne's reign. Ermoldus Nigellus was his court poet and accompanied him on a campaign into Brittany in 824.
Pepin rebelled in 830 at the insistence of his brother Lothair's advisor Wala. He took an army of Gascons with him and marched all the way to Paris, with the support of the Neustrians. His father marched back from a campaign in Brittany all the way to Compiègne, where Pepin surrounded his forces and captured him. The rebellion, however, broke up.
In 832, Pepin rebelled again and his brother Louis the German soon followed. Louis the Pious was in Aquitaine to subdue any revolt, but was drawn off by the Bavarian insurrection of the younger Louis. Pepin took Limoges and other Imperial territories. The next year, Lothair joined the rebellion and, with the assistance of Ebbo, archbishop of Reims, the rebel sons deposed their father in 833. Lothair's later behaviour alienated Pepin, and the latter was at his father's side when Louis the Pious was reinstated on 1 March 834. Pepin was restored to his former status.
Both were minors when Pepin died, so Louis the Pious awarded Aquitaine to his own youngest son, Pepin's half-brother Charles the Bald. The Aquitainians, however, elected Pepin's son as Pepin II. His brother Charles also briefly claimed the kingdom. Both died childless. Pepin also had two daughters, one of whom married Gerard, Count of Auvergne. | <urn:uuid:418cb08c-8b7a-43d1-a580-f61db514f89b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Pepin_I_of_Aquitaine | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.992548 | 420 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.158903107... | 1 | This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. (October 2015)
Pepin was the second son of Emperor Louis the Pious and his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye. When his father assigned to each of his sons a kingdom (within the Empire) in August 817, he received Aquitaine, which had been Louis's own subkingdom during his father Charlemagne's reign. Ermoldus Nigellus was his court poet and accompanied him on a campaign into Brittany in 824.
Pepin rebelled in 830 at the insistence of his brother Lothair's advisor Wala. He took an army of Gascons with him and marched all the way to Paris, with the support of the Neustrians. His father marched back from a campaign in Brittany all the way to Compiègne, where Pepin surrounded his forces and captured him. The rebellion, however, broke up.
In 832, Pepin rebelled again and his brother Louis the German soon followed. Louis the Pious was in Aquitaine to subdue any revolt, but was drawn off by the Bavarian insurrection of the younger Louis. Pepin took Limoges and other Imperial territories. The next year, Lothair joined the rebellion and, with the assistance of Ebbo, archbishop of Reims, the rebel sons deposed their father in 833. Lothair's later behaviour alienated Pepin, and the latter was at his father's side when Louis the Pious was reinstated on 1 March 834. Pepin was restored to his former status.
Both were minors when Pepin died, so Louis the Pious awarded Aquitaine to his own youngest son, Pepin's half-brother Charles the Bald. The Aquitainians, however, elected Pepin's son as Pepin II. His brother Charles also briefly claimed the kingdom. Both died childless. Pepin also had two daughters, one of whom married Gerard, Count of Auvergne. | 436 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Roger Lewis reviews A House in the Mountains : The Women Who Liberated Italy from Fascism by Caroline Moorehead
When Mussolini was first deposed, in July 1943, “ordinary Italians greeted it with an explosion of joy,” according to Caroline Moorehead. But it was a phantom dawn. The Nazis, as “bony and green as lizards” (in the words of the poet Cesare Pavese), immediately fell upon their former allies with a sadistic glee, resulting in what is described in this harrowing book as “the most confused, dramatic, controversial, remembered and misremembered” period in Italian history.
The peninsula was systematically plundered, as Germany expected to be supplied with rice, tobacco, cheese, fruit and vegetables. The Italians themselves suffered such shortages that “when food stocks were low, they ate the horses taken from the abandoned barracks”. There was no leather for shoes, which were made of cardboard, and socks froze on the feet. Half a million Italian men were “sent to German labour camps to contribute to its war economy” – farms, mines, heavy industry. “They were humiliated, beaten up, starved.”
What was left of the Italian army was detained: 8,790 officers and 339,000 soldiers; 1,138 pieces of artillery, 536 armoured cars and 236 tanks were commandeered, along with 4,053 mules. All weapons, including hunting pieces, were confiscated. Martial law was imposed. Strikes were forbidden. The Germans, who quickly occupied the telephone exchanges, electricity plants and munition stores, opened fire with machine guns on civilian crowds. Pregnant women were shot dead. A six-year-old girl “was casually shot as she played. A 17-year-old, washing clothes at a well, was crushed by a lorry full of soldiers.”
The Germans were “wild animals, intent on destruction,” dousing priests in petrol and burning them alive, firing at women queueing for bread, pillaging villages. Jewish children were drowned in Lake Maggiore, oars being used to keep them under the water. There was an official reward of 9,000 lire “for every Jew turned in”. To Hermann Goering, the Italians in any event were no more than “a gypsy people who will end up putrefying,” and Hitler came to concur, agreeing that the whole lot should be “massacred, killed, annihilated”.
Faced with complete desolation, Italy’s salvation was its womenfolk, who were “neither cowed nor fearful of the consequences”, as Moorehead writes in this gripping study of women’s role in the Resistance. It put me in mind of Alan Bennett, who has a line to the effect that, the events and upheavals of history being the responsibility of the heedless men, it is the fate of women always to be following behind, “with a bucket”.
This had been particularly so in Italy, where traditional Catholic orthodoxy, as codified by Mussolini, meant that Italian women were confined to the kitchens, looking after babies and practicing “obedience with joy”. Such was the official misogyny, women “could own nothing and decide nothing”. They were not permitted to enter the professions at any senior level. If they went to a university, they had to pay double the fees. Career women were labelled by the Fascists as “brazen, libertine, sensual, materialistic, egotistic and irreligious”.
The paradox at the passionate heart of A House in the Mountains is that the Second World War offered Italian women emancipation and fulfilment, as if suddenly here was an end to “years of suppressed fury and submissiveness”. Given the chance “to die like men and to live like men,” women had a unique, if terrible, opportunity to decide their own fates. The numerous characters Moorehead names – Teresa, Libera, Vera, Rosa, Ada, Bianca, Freida, Silvia – demonstrated immense bravery and resource, and many were only in their teens.
They served the partisans, acting as look-outs, carrying messages between the secret headquarters and escaping through the Turin sewers. The girls visited and fed POWs hiding in mountain caves. They obtained maps, drew and printed false papers. These women operated like generals, building up “an enormous network of contacts,” taking decisions, issuing orders.
By joining the Resistance, fighting to liberate their country, the women were to experience first hand “a war of extreme brutality.” For not only were there the German invaders to be faced, but following the establishment in September 1943 of an Italian Social Republic in Salo there was also a ghoulish resurgence of Mussolini’s Fascist thugs, who’d long been known for their “corruption, brutality, greed and eventual anti-Semitism,” and who thought nothing of torturing women for information.
It is sobering to discover that many of Moorehead’s heroines perished, after being arrested and incarcerated and raped. (Ninety-eight were executed in Piedmont alone.) Their teeth would be knocked out and drilled down to the nerve. The more the partisans blew up bridges, derailed trains and looted German supplies, the heavier the penalties. Attacks on German soldiers “would be revenged at a ratio of a hundred to one,” as occurred in Rome. Bodies were “left hanging on trees as warnings”. This would become “a horrible and familiar sight” – and another duty performed by the women was to collect and wash the bodies of executed comrades, preparing them for burial, even if “some were too disfigured to identify”.
With the British and Americans advancing up the peninsula from Sicily and Salerno, and also moving south from Normandy, the Germans, in retreat, were more evil than ever, destroying everything as they went, evacuating and blowing up cities (Naples to this day hasn’t fully recovered), forcing villagers, even children, to watch executions. “The rooms used by the Germans to hold their prisoners were covered in blood.” Moorehead tells the horrific tale of hostages buried alive: “for several hours faint cries could be heard coming from the ground.”
The reader lets out a sort of strangled cheer when we reach the moment in April 1945 when Mussolini is shot and strung up in Milan. But the madness didn’t end there. There was a frenzy of retribution and score-settling amongst the victors. I hadn’t known before that, as Il Duce’s corpse was about to be hoisted aloft, somebody rushed forward and stuffed a dead mouse in its mouth.
This book is as replete with atrocities as any Jacobean play. The women it highlights might belong in classic drama or opera. The most moving scene involves Matilda de Pietrantonio, aged 21. In the final hours of the conflict she and an armed associate came across seven young Fascists, who raised their hands in surrender. Her companion raised his gun. “No,” said Matilda, “the war is over. You are not going to kill anyone in cold blood. Go home. Go. Run.”
A House in the Mountains is published by Chatto & Windus at £29. To order your copy call 0844 871 1514 or visit the Telegraph Bookshop | <urn:uuid:d070c163-476d-4e69-b4f0-d954e6220ce3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/what-to-read/incredible-story-italian-women-defied-mussolini-hitler/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00282.warc.gz | en | 0.98071 | 1,588 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.7353804707527... | 3 | Roger Lewis reviews A House in the Mountains : The Women Who Liberated Italy from Fascism by Caroline Moorehead
When Mussolini was first deposed, in July 1943, “ordinary Italians greeted it with an explosion of joy,” according to Caroline Moorehead. But it was a phantom dawn. The Nazis, as “bony and green as lizards” (in the words of the poet Cesare Pavese), immediately fell upon their former allies with a sadistic glee, resulting in what is described in this harrowing book as “the most confused, dramatic, controversial, remembered and misremembered” period in Italian history.
The peninsula was systematically plundered, as Germany expected to be supplied with rice, tobacco, cheese, fruit and vegetables. The Italians themselves suffered such shortages that “when food stocks were low, they ate the horses taken from the abandoned barracks”. There was no leather for shoes, which were made of cardboard, and socks froze on the feet. Half a million Italian men were “sent to German labour camps to contribute to its war economy” – farms, mines, heavy industry. “They were humiliated, beaten up, starved.”
What was left of the Italian army was detained: 8,790 officers and 339,000 soldiers; 1,138 pieces of artillery, 536 armoured cars and 236 tanks were commandeered, along with 4,053 mules. All weapons, including hunting pieces, were confiscated. Martial law was imposed. Strikes were forbidden. The Germans, who quickly occupied the telephone exchanges, electricity plants and munition stores, opened fire with machine guns on civilian crowds. Pregnant women were shot dead. A six-year-old girl “was casually shot as she played. A 17-year-old, washing clothes at a well, was crushed by a lorry full of soldiers.”
The Germans were “wild animals, intent on destruction,” dousing priests in petrol and burning them alive, firing at women queueing for bread, pillaging villages. Jewish children were drowned in Lake Maggiore, oars being used to keep them under the water. There was an official reward of 9,000 lire “for every Jew turned in”. To Hermann Goering, the Italians in any event were no more than “a gypsy people who will end up putrefying,” and Hitler came to concur, agreeing that the whole lot should be “massacred, killed, annihilated”.
Faced with complete desolation, Italy’s salvation was its womenfolk, who were “neither cowed nor fearful of the consequences”, as Moorehead writes in this gripping study of women’s role in the Resistance. It put me in mind of Alan Bennett, who has a line to the effect that, the events and upheavals of history being the responsibility of the heedless men, it is the fate of women always to be following behind, “with a bucket”.
This had been particularly so in Italy, where traditional Catholic orthodoxy, as codified by Mussolini, meant that Italian women were confined to the kitchens, looking after babies and practicing “obedience with joy”. Such was the official misogyny, women “could own nothing and decide nothing”. They were not permitted to enter the professions at any senior level. If they went to a university, they had to pay double the fees. Career women were labelled by the Fascists as “brazen, libertine, sensual, materialistic, egotistic and irreligious”.
The paradox at the passionate heart of A House in the Mountains is that the Second World War offered Italian women emancipation and fulfilment, as if suddenly here was an end to “years of suppressed fury and submissiveness”. Given the chance “to die like men and to live like men,” women had a unique, if terrible, opportunity to decide their own fates. The numerous characters Moorehead names – Teresa, Libera, Vera, Rosa, Ada, Bianca, Freida, Silvia – demonstrated immense bravery and resource, and many were only in their teens.
They served the partisans, acting as look-outs, carrying messages between the secret headquarters and escaping through the Turin sewers. The girls visited and fed POWs hiding in mountain caves. They obtained maps, drew and printed false papers. These women operated like generals, building up “an enormous network of contacts,” taking decisions, issuing orders.
By joining the Resistance, fighting to liberate their country, the women were to experience first hand “a war of extreme brutality.” For not only were there the German invaders to be faced, but following the establishment in September 1943 of an Italian Social Republic in Salo there was also a ghoulish resurgence of Mussolini’s Fascist thugs, who’d long been known for their “corruption, brutality, greed and eventual anti-Semitism,” and who thought nothing of torturing women for information.
It is sobering to discover that many of Moorehead’s heroines perished, after being arrested and incarcerated and raped. (Ninety-eight were executed in Piedmont alone.) Their teeth would be knocked out and drilled down to the nerve. The more the partisans blew up bridges, derailed trains and looted German supplies, the heavier the penalties. Attacks on German soldiers “would be revenged at a ratio of a hundred to one,” as occurred in Rome. Bodies were “left hanging on trees as warnings”. This would become “a horrible and familiar sight” – and another duty performed by the women was to collect and wash the bodies of executed comrades, preparing them for burial, even if “some were too disfigured to identify”.
With the British and Americans advancing up the peninsula from Sicily and Salerno, and also moving south from Normandy, the Germans, in retreat, were more evil than ever, destroying everything as they went, evacuating and blowing up cities (Naples to this day hasn’t fully recovered), forcing villagers, even children, to watch executions. “The rooms used by the Germans to hold their prisoners were covered in blood.” Moorehead tells the horrific tale of hostages buried alive: “for several hours faint cries could be heard coming from the ground.”
The reader lets out a sort of strangled cheer when we reach the moment in April 1945 when Mussolini is shot and strung up in Milan. But the madness didn’t end there. There was a frenzy of retribution and score-settling amongst the victors. I hadn’t known before that, as Il Duce’s corpse was about to be hoisted aloft, somebody rushed forward and stuffed a dead mouse in its mouth.
This book is as replete with atrocities as any Jacobean play. The women it highlights might belong in classic drama or opera. The most moving scene involves Matilda de Pietrantonio, aged 21. In the final hours of the conflict she and an armed associate came across seven young Fascists, who raised their hands in surrender. Her companion raised his gun. “No,” said Matilda, “the war is over. You are not going to kill anyone in cold blood. Go home. Go. Run.”
A House in the Mountains is published by Chatto & Windus at £29. To order your copy call 0844 871 1514 or visit the Telegraph Bookshop | 1,529 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 06-07-2019)
Also known as the Sons of Israel, the Jewish community
of Bene Israel was formerly known as the Shanivar Teli caste, which meant the Saturday oil presser caste. Eventually later, the Bene Israelis were known as the Native Jew Caste and as per historic records, it was said that they were the descendants of one of the disputed Lost Tribes. The community
of Bene Israelis can be predominantly found in the cities
Origin of Bene Israel
Known to be descended from one of the Lost Tribes, the Bene Israelis are the sole survivors of a shipwreck off the Konkan coast near Navagaon, which is about 48 km south of Mumbai. There are plenty of theories speculating the origin of the Bene Israel community in India. And as per one of these theories, it is said that the ancestors of the Bene Israelis had been tarrying in Persia and Yemen before finally ending up shipwrecked on the coast of Konkan. Their arrival in the Konkan coast has been estimated sometime in the period from 8th century BCE to 6th century CE.
History of Bene Israel
The community of Bene Israel was discovered by a Kochi Jew
named David Rahabi, who recognized their vestigial Jewish customs
and taught the people about normative Judaism
. He even trained some young men among them to be the religious preceptors of the community, who were later known as kajis. They eventually became recognized as judges and settlers of disputes within the community.
In the 1830s, it was estimated that there were 6,000 Bene Israel, which increased to 10,000 by the turn of the 20th century. And by 1948, the population of Bene Israelis had peaked to 20,000 but soon that number decreased as most of the population immigrated to Israel, which was their new Jewish homeland.
During the period of British
colonialism, the Jewish community of Bene Israel thrived as they gained better paying posts in the British Indian Army
when compared with their non Jewish counterparts. Some of them even joined the British in the British Protectorate of Aden but all these privileges changed when they had to face discrimination and hostility from the anglicized Baghdadi Jews.
The Baghdadi Jews questioned the authenticity of the Jewishness of the Bene Israelis and in response they tried to portray themselves as a totally foreign community in India. They divided the community into two endogamous groups, white or gora and black or kala. The Bene Israelis claimed the whites had pure blood and the blacks were the progeny of Indian women
and therefore impure.
The Bene Israel community had gained a fair amount of success under the reign of the British East India Company
but prepared to leave the country after India gained independence in 1947. They believed that nationalism and the emphasis on indigenous religions would mean fewer opportunities for them; as a result most of them migrated to Israel.
Notable People of Bene Israel
In the early 20th century, numerous Bene Israel became known personalities in the new film
industry in India. Actors
like Ezra Mir, who was also known as Edwin Myers became the first chief of India's Film Division, and Solomon Moses was head of the Bombay Film Lab Private Limited from the 1940s to 1990s. Then there was Ennoch Isaac Satamkar, who was a film actor and an assistant director to Mehboob Khan
, a prominent director
of Hindi films
. Other famous personalities of Bene Israel descent was Nissim Ezekiel
, David Abraham Cheulkar, Eban Hyams and Esther David. | <urn:uuid:63c59d6f-0a98-4e2d-a39f-20ecb76660cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/81/bene_israel.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00421.warc.gz | en | 0.981457 | 734 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.5382803678512... | 2 | (Last Updated on : 06-07-2019)
Also known as the Sons of Israel, the Jewish community
of Bene Israel was formerly known as the Shanivar Teli caste, which meant the Saturday oil presser caste. Eventually later, the Bene Israelis were known as the Native Jew Caste and as per historic records, it was said that they were the descendants of one of the disputed Lost Tribes. The community
of Bene Israelis can be predominantly found in the cities
Origin of Bene Israel
Known to be descended from one of the Lost Tribes, the Bene Israelis are the sole survivors of a shipwreck off the Konkan coast near Navagaon, which is about 48 km south of Mumbai. There are plenty of theories speculating the origin of the Bene Israel community in India. And as per one of these theories, it is said that the ancestors of the Bene Israelis had been tarrying in Persia and Yemen before finally ending up shipwrecked on the coast of Konkan. Their arrival in the Konkan coast has been estimated sometime in the period from 8th century BCE to 6th century CE.
History of Bene Israel
The community of Bene Israel was discovered by a Kochi Jew
named David Rahabi, who recognized their vestigial Jewish customs
and taught the people about normative Judaism
. He even trained some young men among them to be the religious preceptors of the community, who were later known as kajis. They eventually became recognized as judges and settlers of disputes within the community.
In the 1830s, it was estimated that there were 6,000 Bene Israel, which increased to 10,000 by the turn of the 20th century. And by 1948, the population of Bene Israelis had peaked to 20,000 but soon that number decreased as most of the population immigrated to Israel, which was their new Jewish homeland.
During the period of British
colonialism, the Jewish community of Bene Israel thrived as they gained better paying posts in the British Indian Army
when compared with their non Jewish counterparts. Some of them even joined the British in the British Protectorate of Aden but all these privileges changed when they had to face discrimination and hostility from the anglicized Baghdadi Jews.
The Baghdadi Jews questioned the authenticity of the Jewishness of the Bene Israelis and in response they tried to portray themselves as a totally foreign community in India. They divided the community into two endogamous groups, white or gora and black or kala. The Bene Israelis claimed the whites had pure blood and the blacks were the progeny of Indian women
and therefore impure.
The Bene Israel community had gained a fair amount of success under the reign of the British East India Company
but prepared to leave the country after India gained independence in 1947. They believed that nationalism and the emphasis on indigenous religions would mean fewer opportunities for them; as a result most of them migrated to Israel.
Notable People of Bene Israel
In the early 20th century, numerous Bene Israel became known personalities in the new film
industry in India. Actors
like Ezra Mir, who was also known as Edwin Myers became the first chief of India's Film Division, and Solomon Moses was head of the Bombay Film Lab Private Limited from the 1940s to 1990s. Then there was Ennoch Isaac Satamkar, who was a film actor and an assistant director to Mehboob Khan
, a prominent director
of Hindi films
. Other famous personalities of Bene Israel descent was Nissim Ezekiel
, David Abraham Cheulkar, Eban Hyams and Esther David. | 776 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of Native Americans was for many years, untold and in some cases omitted. the trail of tears is just one example of the systematic process of relocation enforced by the United States Government as America continued to expand. The natives were seen as uncivilized in comparison to their American and European counterparts. The natives would readily say their lives were uncomplicated and simple. Many resisted the influence of soldiers on their land and fought to the death to preserve their homes. Others did not resist and accepted the lifestyle and religion of the white man. Dr. Charles Alexander Eastman (1858-1939) was one of those who migrated from one world to another and in this short but interesting autobiography, he recalls his life and his path from the deep woods to civilization.
Eastman was a member of the Sioux tribe in Minnesota and explains his early life in Minnesota. From the beginning, he mentions the relationship between the Sioux Indians and white settlers. And while there are a few acts of violence discussed, the book does not contain a lot of text devoted to it. In fact, his story is mainly about his development as a person. There are White Americans who enter the story, but in a peaceful role and their actions help propel him to his next destination. That is not to say that all in the book is glorious and without incident. In fact, Eastman is fully aware of the plight of Sioux people and the deceit used by the American government in prior agreements with Native American tribes. There are a couple of people who are not exactly “friendly” but in the end do him no harm.
About midway through the book, he makes the fateful decision to go to Dartmouth College. And it is here that his life changes completely. In time he met and married Elaine Goodale and the couple would go on to have six children. The book ends before the fourth child is born but not before he accomplishes many things first as a doctor and then later as a representative on behalf of private business before the Indian Bureau, the President, and Congress. His time in Washington, afforded him the opportunity to meet several presidents and scores of congressmen. His observations about Washington are still relevant today.
Eastman possessed a very radical and freethinking mind for his era. His ability to have empathy and see things from all sides is on display and I found myself nodding in agreement at many of his thoughts. As an Indian and American, he was forced to navigate two worlds yet he never forgets his position in either. And that is a true mark of maturity and character. I have yet to read the other books he has published but have now added them to the list. Good read. | <urn:uuid:823ad996-c03e-4b5f-a570-e4112cf1e0b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freethinkingbibliophile.com/tag/charles-alexander-eastman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.988125 | 542 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.337173819541931... | 11 | The history of Native Americans was for many years, untold and in some cases omitted. the trail of tears is just one example of the systematic process of relocation enforced by the United States Government as America continued to expand. The natives were seen as uncivilized in comparison to their American and European counterparts. The natives would readily say their lives were uncomplicated and simple. Many resisted the influence of soldiers on their land and fought to the death to preserve their homes. Others did not resist and accepted the lifestyle and religion of the white man. Dr. Charles Alexander Eastman (1858-1939) was one of those who migrated from one world to another and in this short but interesting autobiography, he recalls his life and his path from the deep woods to civilization.
Eastman was a member of the Sioux tribe in Minnesota and explains his early life in Minnesota. From the beginning, he mentions the relationship between the Sioux Indians and white settlers. And while there are a few acts of violence discussed, the book does not contain a lot of text devoted to it. In fact, his story is mainly about his development as a person. There are White Americans who enter the story, but in a peaceful role and their actions help propel him to his next destination. That is not to say that all in the book is glorious and without incident. In fact, Eastman is fully aware of the plight of Sioux people and the deceit used by the American government in prior agreements with Native American tribes. There are a couple of people who are not exactly “friendly” but in the end do him no harm.
About midway through the book, he makes the fateful decision to go to Dartmouth College. And it is here that his life changes completely. In time he met and married Elaine Goodale and the couple would go on to have six children. The book ends before the fourth child is born but not before he accomplishes many things first as a doctor and then later as a representative on behalf of private business before the Indian Bureau, the President, and Congress. His time in Washington, afforded him the opportunity to meet several presidents and scores of congressmen. His observations about Washington are still relevant today.
Eastman possessed a very radical and freethinking mind for his era. His ability to have empathy and see things from all sides is on display and I found myself nodding in agreement at many of his thoughts. As an Indian and American, he was forced to navigate two worlds yet he never forgets his position in either. And that is a true mark of maturity and character. I have yet to read the other books he has published but have now added them to the list. Good read. | 544 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Since the mid 1940s, fluoride has been added to tap water in American communities in an effort to reduce the incidence of dental caries in the population. When the levels of fluoride in drinking water were tested and set, water was the only measurable source of fluoride for most communities. Now, adults and children ingest fluoride with foods and beverages prepared with fluoridated water, and they are exposed to fluoride-containing dental products. As a result, exposure to fluoride is greater than had been anticipated. In the early 1990s, the existing reproductive studies were reviewed in several reports and were considered to be inadequate to determine potential reproductive or developmental hazards. The effects of sodium fluoride ingestion at 0, 25, 100, 175 or 250 ppm in drinking water measured in rats throughout three generations are reported here. Feed and fluid consumption, body weights and clinical signs were recorded at regular intervals. Decreased fluid consumption observed at 175 and 250 ppm was attributed to decreased palatability and did not affect reproduction. No cumulative effects were observed in the three generations. Mating, fertility and survival indices were not affected. Organ-to-body-weight ratios and organ-to-brain weight ratios were not affected. Sodium fluoride up to 250 ppm did not affect reproduction in rats. | <urn:uuid:fd804126-e035-4fbd-8d36-fb84650db253> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://fluoridealert.org/studytracker/15847/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.985162 | 250 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.0443805940449... | 3 | Since the mid 1940s, fluoride has been added to tap water in American communities in an effort to reduce the incidence of dental caries in the population. When the levels of fluoride in drinking water were tested and set, water was the only measurable source of fluoride for most communities. Now, adults and children ingest fluoride with foods and beverages prepared with fluoridated water, and they are exposed to fluoride-containing dental products. As a result, exposure to fluoride is greater than had been anticipated. In the early 1990s, the existing reproductive studies were reviewed in several reports and were considered to be inadequate to determine potential reproductive or developmental hazards. The effects of sodium fluoride ingestion at 0, 25, 100, 175 or 250 ppm in drinking water measured in rats throughout three generations are reported here. Feed and fluid consumption, body weights and clinical signs were recorded at regular intervals. Decreased fluid consumption observed at 175 and 250 ppm was attributed to decreased palatability and did not affect reproduction. No cumulative effects were observed in the three generations. Mating, fertility and survival indices were not affected. Organ-to-body-weight ratios and organ-to-brain weight ratios were not affected. Sodium fluoride up to 250 ppm did not affect reproduction in rats. | 275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the 19th Century, several agricultural co-ops, including cotton and rubber, were tried in Fiji. But none, except sugar cane survived. The Colonial Sugar Refining Company (CSR) and the Australian Sugar Company took interest in Fiji during that time and endeavored to grow cane in several places. There were some 36 sugar mills located at several places in Fiji. The CSR built its first mill at Nausori in 1882. The second CSR mill was built at Rarawai in 1886. Then the Labasa mill was built in 1894. Lautoka was the last mill to be built by the CSR in Fiji, and it was built between 1902 and 1903.
Cane planting for the Lautoka mill began in 1902, and some 10 thousand acres were planted that year. The Lautoka Railway system was established together with the Rarawai rail system by 1908. The railway line to Sigatoka was built around 1912. The first crushing season for the mill was 1903, when it crushed 134,246 tonnes of cane in twenty six and a half weeks and produced 14,500 tonnes of sugar. The crushing rate achieved was 42 tonnes per hour. The first one million tonne crop for Lautoka was achieved in 1959. That time the mill was crushing at about 200 tonnes an hour and the cane crop for that year was 1,660,271 tonnes, which produced 160,220 tonnes of sugar.
Until 1909, CSR grew cane on its own plantations using indentured Indian Labourers. The abolishment of the indenture system in 1916 created a severe labour scarcity, and by 1924 the sugar industry faced the problem of labour shortage which required new initiative.
Over the years millions of dollars have been spent on upgrading the tramlines and the transport system. Upgrading of the mill, the sugar sheds and the terminal and loading systems, including the expansion of the cane belt.
The Corporation owns and operates four sugar mills located at Lautoka, Ba and Rakiraki on the main island of Viti Levu while Labasa mill is located on the second largest island of Vanua Levu. The mills are strategically located on the drier side of the two larger islands where conditions are more suited to cane growing. | <urn:uuid:482c15c6-b332-4cd2-85c7-e05fe5621121> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sugarcanegrowerscouncilfiji.com/mills | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00527.warc.gz | en | 0.983378 | 462 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.371394693851... | 3 | During the 19th Century, several agricultural co-ops, including cotton and rubber, were tried in Fiji. But none, except sugar cane survived. The Colonial Sugar Refining Company (CSR) and the Australian Sugar Company took interest in Fiji during that time and endeavored to grow cane in several places. There were some 36 sugar mills located at several places in Fiji. The CSR built its first mill at Nausori in 1882. The second CSR mill was built at Rarawai in 1886. Then the Labasa mill was built in 1894. Lautoka was the last mill to be built by the CSR in Fiji, and it was built between 1902 and 1903.
Cane planting for the Lautoka mill began in 1902, and some 10 thousand acres were planted that year. The Lautoka Railway system was established together with the Rarawai rail system by 1908. The railway line to Sigatoka was built around 1912. The first crushing season for the mill was 1903, when it crushed 134,246 tonnes of cane in twenty six and a half weeks and produced 14,500 tonnes of sugar. The crushing rate achieved was 42 tonnes per hour. The first one million tonne crop for Lautoka was achieved in 1959. That time the mill was crushing at about 200 tonnes an hour and the cane crop for that year was 1,660,271 tonnes, which produced 160,220 tonnes of sugar.
Until 1909, CSR grew cane on its own plantations using indentured Indian Labourers. The abolishment of the indenture system in 1916 created a severe labour scarcity, and by 1924 the sugar industry faced the problem of labour shortage which required new initiative.
Over the years millions of dollars have been spent on upgrading the tramlines and the transport system. Upgrading of the mill, the sugar sheds and the terminal and loading systems, including the expansion of the cane belt.
The Corporation owns and operates four sugar mills located at Lautoka, Ba and Rakiraki on the main island of Viti Levu while Labasa mill is located on the second largest island of Vanua Levu. The mills are strategically located on the drier side of the two larger islands where conditions are more suited to cane growing. | 531 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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