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Science club is officially back on for 2020 and the children got off to a flying start by building balloon rockets! Before they started, they reflected on their Science Capital- whether they saw themselves as future scientists. Following this, they began to construct their rockets. They were given a balloon, masking tape and a straw to create a rocket that would fly through a piece of string attached to two separate ends of the room. They had a lot of fun while they tested each rocket to see how far it could go. The children then discussed why they thought the balloon moved forward. They knew it was something to do with the air. They then learnt about THRUST, the pushing force that forces the balloon to go forward when the air of the balloon is let out. | <urn:uuid:30cc19c6-9ecf-4201-9662-61047339af0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://lansburylawrence.towerhamlets.sch.uk/a-flying-start-in-science-club/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00095.warc.gz | en | 0.983866 | 153 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.288940161... | 6 | Science club is officially back on for 2020 and the children got off to a flying start by building balloon rockets! Before they started, they reflected on their Science Capital- whether they saw themselves as future scientists. Following this, they began to construct their rockets. They were given a balloon, masking tape and a straw to create a rocket that would fly through a piece of string attached to two separate ends of the room. They had a lot of fun while they tested each rocket to see how far it could go. The children then discussed why they thought the balloon moved forward. They knew it was something to do with the air. They then learnt about THRUST, the pushing force that forces the balloon to go forward when the air of the balloon is let out. | 156 | ENGLISH | 1 |
BRICK-making was once a sizeable industry in the Woking area and one that has mostly been forgotten.
In past centuries, where clay was abundant, brickworks were set up when there was a demand locally for building materials. It was usually dug by hand in the summer and autumn and left in heaps over winter for frost, wind and rain to break it down into manageable pieces.
The winter months were also time for the gathering of fuel to fire the burning process. Once the weather had warmed up during springtime, the bricks were formed by hand in wooden moulds. The shaped ‘green’ bricks were then left to dry in the open air in rows known as hacks. They were then fired in the summer in large piles known as a clamps.
Up to 100,000 bricks could be fired in a single clamp. A number of flues would be left around the clamp, which were packed tight with brushwood and fagots. Once lit and burning well the flues would be blocked up and the clamp allowed to burn for several weeks.
Towards the end of the 19th century the process was improved with the introduction of kilns with chimneys that resulted in much less wastage. And in the larger brickworks mechanical digging machines were introduced to dig out the clay.
Eminent Woking historian Iain Wakeford has written of brick-making taking place in the 1780s and 90s in the St Johns area for use in the construction of the Basingstoke Canal. The Kiln Bridge is a reminder of that.
Also known as brickyards, bricks were made at a site off Robin Hood Road in the late 1850s for the building of the Woking Invalid Convict Prison, and there was another site off Anchor Hill. In the 1920s it was estimated there were around 21 brick-making businesses in Woking. But soon these were to close, owing to a depression in the building trade and also probably due to cheaper bricks being imported from elsewhere in Britain and even from abroad.
In 1920 Tarrant bought an existing brickworks at Rowlands Castle in Hampshire. In 1927 he floated the business on the stock market stating its annual output as being five million 500 thousand hand-made bricks and tiles and three million wire cut and pressed bricks.
The photo here shows a display of his company’s products, it being named the Associated Facing Brick & Tile Works Ltd, Rowlands Castle and Chobham. It is likely the photo was taken by Woking photographer Sidney Francis at an exhibition staged by the Woking Chamber of Trade in 1927, held at the Sorbo rubber factory in Woking.
The other two photos, one outside a brickworks and the other inside, are also thought to have been taken by Sidney Francis. But where? They might be Chobham, although my hunch is Rowlands Castle. Details on a website by the Rowlands Castle Heritage Centre about its brickworks (in use until 1968) show a picture of the works and a chimney that looks very similar.
If you have some memories or old pictures relating to the Woking area, call me, David Rose, on 01483 838960, or drop a line to the News & Mail.
David Rose is a local historian and writer who specialises in what he calls “the history within living memory” of people, places and events in the west Surrey area covering towns such as Woking and Guildford. He collects old photos and memorabilia relating to the area and the subject, and regularly gives illustrated local history talks to groups and societies. For enquiries and bookings please phone or email him at: email@example.com
For the full story get the 28 November edition of the News & Mail | <urn:uuid:b2a48535-caf2-4968-b0f7-f6e0233fdb79> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.wokingnewsandmail.co.uk/looking-back-at-how-the-brick-industry-was-built/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.98056 | 773 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.422894686460... | 1 | BRICK-making was once a sizeable industry in the Woking area and one that has mostly been forgotten.
In past centuries, where clay was abundant, brickworks were set up when there was a demand locally for building materials. It was usually dug by hand in the summer and autumn and left in heaps over winter for frost, wind and rain to break it down into manageable pieces.
The winter months were also time for the gathering of fuel to fire the burning process. Once the weather had warmed up during springtime, the bricks were formed by hand in wooden moulds. The shaped ‘green’ bricks were then left to dry in the open air in rows known as hacks. They were then fired in the summer in large piles known as a clamps.
Up to 100,000 bricks could be fired in a single clamp. A number of flues would be left around the clamp, which were packed tight with brushwood and fagots. Once lit and burning well the flues would be blocked up and the clamp allowed to burn for several weeks.
Towards the end of the 19th century the process was improved with the introduction of kilns with chimneys that resulted in much less wastage. And in the larger brickworks mechanical digging machines were introduced to dig out the clay.
Eminent Woking historian Iain Wakeford has written of brick-making taking place in the 1780s and 90s in the St Johns area for use in the construction of the Basingstoke Canal. The Kiln Bridge is a reminder of that.
Also known as brickyards, bricks were made at a site off Robin Hood Road in the late 1850s for the building of the Woking Invalid Convict Prison, and there was another site off Anchor Hill. In the 1920s it was estimated there were around 21 brick-making businesses in Woking. But soon these were to close, owing to a depression in the building trade and also probably due to cheaper bricks being imported from elsewhere in Britain and even from abroad.
In 1920 Tarrant bought an existing brickworks at Rowlands Castle in Hampshire. In 1927 he floated the business on the stock market stating its annual output as being five million 500 thousand hand-made bricks and tiles and three million wire cut and pressed bricks.
The photo here shows a display of his company’s products, it being named the Associated Facing Brick & Tile Works Ltd, Rowlands Castle and Chobham. It is likely the photo was taken by Woking photographer Sidney Francis at an exhibition staged by the Woking Chamber of Trade in 1927, held at the Sorbo rubber factory in Woking.
The other two photos, one outside a brickworks and the other inside, are also thought to have been taken by Sidney Francis. But where? They might be Chobham, although my hunch is Rowlands Castle. Details on a website by the Rowlands Castle Heritage Centre about its brickworks (in use until 1968) show a picture of the works and a chimney that looks very similar.
If you have some memories or old pictures relating to the Woking area, call me, David Rose, on 01483 838960, or drop a line to the News & Mail.
David Rose is a local historian and writer who specialises in what he calls “the history within living memory” of people, places and events in the west Surrey area covering towns such as Woking and Guildford. He collects old photos and memorabilia relating to the area and the subject, and regularly gives illustrated local history talks to groups and societies. For enquiries and bookings please phone or email him at: email@example.com
For the full story get the 28 November edition of the News & Mail | 792 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today Year 3 and Year 4 visited the Selly Manor Museum in Birmingham to learn even more about the Tudors and how life was very different to what it is now.
We started the day looking around the house and noticing the differences in day-to-day life. We learnt about different types of foods, gifts, medicines and clothes that would have been around in the Tudor times and how this would be different for the rich and poor. We found out Selly Manor would have been a house that many people would have lived in together, however servants would not have been able to live there.
We spent the afternoon playing traditional Tudor games and dressing up. We also learnt how men and women would have greeted each other before dinner.
We all thoroughly enjoyed learning about Tudor life although we did find that we would not have liked many aspects of their lives, including the steep staircases that we had to climb to get to the next floors. | <urn:uuid:8a6da3a3-71f3-4253-87e5-167b247d9fc3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://y32019.rushallict.co.uk/2019/11/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00189.warc.gz | en | 0.992648 | 193 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.165585860... | 3 | Today Year 3 and Year 4 visited the Selly Manor Museum in Birmingham to learn even more about the Tudors and how life was very different to what it is now.
We started the day looking around the house and noticing the differences in day-to-day life. We learnt about different types of foods, gifts, medicines and clothes that would have been around in the Tudor times and how this would be different for the rich and poor. We found out Selly Manor would have been a house that many people would have lived in together, however servants would not have been able to live there.
We spent the afternoon playing traditional Tudor games and dressing up. We also learnt how men and women would have greeted each other before dinner.
We all thoroughly enjoyed learning about Tudor life although we did find that we would not have liked many aspects of their lives, including the steep staircases that we had to climb to get to the next floors. | 190 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Matter. We know that everything around us which has mass and occupies space is called matter. Bottle is a matter. Water is matter. Air is matter. Everything around as mostly called matter. We also know that everything that is matter is made up of very tiny particles. These tiny particles are called atoms and molecules. Till many centuries, it was known that anything that is matter is made up of very tiny particles which are indivisible. These are called atoms. Atoms were believed to be the smallest particle of matter which you cannot divide further. Let us go back to the 6th century where it all started. Around 500 BC, that is the 6th century, there was an Indian philosopher Maharishi Kannad. Now, I said philosopher because during that time, there were great personalities who used to lay down their philosophies and these philosophies proved to be very important for the modern day scientists. So, that time these personalities are known as philosophers. So, in 6th century there was a philosopher Maharishi Kannad. He was Indian. He was a Sanskrit teacher and he had many Sanskrit schools. One day, he was walking in a school with the rice grains in his hand. He chewed those rice grains and threw it back. Again, he chewed those rice grains and threw it back. He wanted to know how he can divide the rice grains into smaller smaller particles. He realized that, there comes a point that, the rice grains have been divided into such small particles which you cannot divide further. So, he told that everything that is matter is made up of tiny tiny particles. If you go on dividing matter, you will find that these tiny particles at one point of time cannot be divided further and he named these tiny indivisible particles as ‘Parmanu’. Parmanu is a Sanskrit word. So, according to Maharishi Kannad, everything that is matter and matter in Sanskrit is known as ‘Padarth’. So, everything that is Padarth is made up of individual particles called Parmanu. Around the same era, there were Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus. Democritus was a student of Leucippus. Both of them suggested that if we go on dividing anything that is matter, there comes a stage where we will find that the particles of matter are not further getting divided and Democritus call these individual particles atoms. Atom is a Greek word that means indivisible. All these were philosophically considerations and not much of experimental work was done to validate these philosophies till the 18th century. But by the end of 18th century, scientists could identify the difference between an element and a compound. They found out that elements chemically combined to form compound. They were very interested to know what happens during a chemical combination of elements. So, there was one of the scientists called Antoine Lavoisier. He was the first one to establish two laws of chemical combination. | <urn:uuid:ff00d7ba-2b0d-4805-9c8a-e90209b6f0c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://revistadeartesmarciales.com/history-of-atoms-and-molecules-chemistry/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00132.warc.gz | en | 0.988486 | 606 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.308199703693... | 1 | Matter. We know that everything around us which has mass and occupies space is called matter. Bottle is a matter. Water is matter. Air is matter. Everything around as mostly called matter. We also know that everything that is matter is made up of very tiny particles. These tiny particles are called atoms and molecules. Till many centuries, it was known that anything that is matter is made up of very tiny particles which are indivisible. These are called atoms. Atoms were believed to be the smallest particle of matter which you cannot divide further. Let us go back to the 6th century where it all started. Around 500 BC, that is the 6th century, there was an Indian philosopher Maharishi Kannad. Now, I said philosopher because during that time, there were great personalities who used to lay down their philosophies and these philosophies proved to be very important for the modern day scientists. So, that time these personalities are known as philosophers. So, in 6th century there was a philosopher Maharishi Kannad. He was Indian. He was a Sanskrit teacher and he had many Sanskrit schools. One day, he was walking in a school with the rice grains in his hand. He chewed those rice grains and threw it back. Again, he chewed those rice grains and threw it back. He wanted to know how he can divide the rice grains into smaller smaller particles. He realized that, there comes a point that, the rice grains have been divided into such small particles which you cannot divide further. So, he told that everything that is matter is made up of tiny tiny particles. If you go on dividing matter, you will find that these tiny particles at one point of time cannot be divided further and he named these tiny indivisible particles as ‘Parmanu’. Parmanu is a Sanskrit word. So, according to Maharishi Kannad, everything that is matter and matter in Sanskrit is known as ‘Padarth’. So, everything that is Padarth is made up of individual particles called Parmanu. Around the same era, there were Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus. Democritus was a student of Leucippus. Both of them suggested that if we go on dividing anything that is matter, there comes a stage where we will find that the particles of matter are not further getting divided and Democritus call these individual particles atoms. Atom is a Greek word that means indivisible. All these were philosophically considerations and not much of experimental work was done to validate these philosophies till the 18th century. But by the end of 18th century, scientists could identify the difference between an element and a compound. They found out that elements chemically combined to form compound. They were very interested to know what happens during a chemical combination of elements. So, there was one of the scientists called Antoine Lavoisier. He was the first one to establish two laws of chemical combination. | 612 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery is a human invention and not found in nature.
Many institutions were set up to settle legal disputes, and Roman law appeared in every town governed by the empire. The influence of Roman law would long outlast the empire. The basis of Roman society, as proclaimed by the laws, was the family, headed by a pater familias, who had power over his dependents.
However, Roman women were quite free and had greater control over their wealth and property than preceding states in the Mediterranean. One key difference from the Han was an extensive institution of slavery, in which slave laborers were used in large numbers to produce goods .
Roman society was a relatively hierarchical society. Each social group had well-defined roles. Birth was an important indicator of social position. While the elite could enjoy a relatively wealthy life and could expect to become officials and hold high positions, Slavery in rome and china classes could not expect such luxury.
In trials, the Roman elite was better privileged; they received preferential treatment from imperial courts. They could not be subject to cruel punishments. For the lower classes, the fastest way to advance socially was the army or trade .
Han society was divided into a number of classes, all played a role within this complex society. The basis of this society were free peasants, who formed the base of the tax revenues of the state and who produced most of the agricultural crop.
These men also helped link the central government with local society. Merchants were also a class, but they were subject to controls by the state and often forced to partner with the state, who also took monopolies in salt, steel and wine, further restricting merchants.
At the bottom of society were convicts, beggars and slaves, who formed a small part of the population. For wealthy families, life was good; they displayed their wealth in lavish meals, and lived in large homes in which women lived in the inner quarters.
Poorer farmers and tenant laborers worked on their fields.
Women in poorer families did not have such luxury and often worked in the fields with their husbands or acted as entertainers. Silk clothes were abundant and worn by all classes. Music and entertainment were separated from rituals, with the exception of funeral rites which were taken very seriously.
The legalist thought believed at least in theory that everyone was equal under the emperor. Therefore, punishments for the same crimes were the same in writing, though this was not always carried out.
Social mobility was also relatively great, especially in the military. Confucianism also asserted that "A man, even though he may be poor, can by his acts be a gentleman.
A rich nobleman, even though he may been born well, can by his acts be called shameful. This thought had the effect of weakening the nobility and strengthening the emperor.
The influence of the nobility was also weaker as the new merchant class asserted its presence and wealth energetically; the Han abolished hereditary positions. In theory, everyone could become an official .
Hereditary positions came back later, as evidenced by the fact that the founder of the Tang dynasty was the hereditary duke of Tang, and regional governors were allowed to pass titles on.Jan 02, · Slavery was less important in China than in Rome.
A reason for this is that is the philosophies of the society. In rome, slaves were an essential aspect to the economy, but not in China.
Mar 10, · Slaves, a sad group of people in the ancient world, occupied a large portion of the population in ancient China since 2, BC, when Xia Dynasty started. Slavery society last for about 1, years in China, with minor groups of slaves existed to s in remote mountain areas in China.
In ancient Rome slavery became the indispensable foundation of the economy, and social status was a way to have political privilege and was praised upon in society. But in ancient China, they didn’t have as many slaves as the Romans, the had more of peasants contributing to society by working in fields, laboring on imperial estates, and .
Slavery: Slavery, condition in which one human being was owned by another. A slave was considered by law as property, or chattel, and was deprived of most of the rights ordinarily held by free persons. Learn more about the history, legality, and sociology of slavery in this article.
Sep 11, · Differences: Rome and Han were different because Rome had LOTS of gold, and the Han had luxury items. September 13, at PM Difference: Romans had a patritian and plebeian society and they relied on slavery where as China had peasants working the lands but didn't consider them property.
Comparison between Roman and Han Empires.
From Wikiversity. One key difference from the Han was an extensive institution of slavery, in which slave laborers were used in large numbers to produce goods.
China and Rome; Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia;. | <urn:uuid:b2b2d71a-7459-423a-afaa-f5c258944a30> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://faqurehuxumisowo.rutadeltambor.com/slavery-in-rome-and-china-21573rv.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.989135 | 1,017 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.34654724597... | 1 | Slavery is a human invention and not found in nature.
Many institutions were set up to settle legal disputes, and Roman law appeared in every town governed by the empire. The influence of Roman law would long outlast the empire. The basis of Roman society, as proclaimed by the laws, was the family, headed by a pater familias, who had power over his dependents.
However, Roman women were quite free and had greater control over their wealth and property than preceding states in the Mediterranean. One key difference from the Han was an extensive institution of slavery, in which slave laborers were used in large numbers to produce goods .
Roman society was a relatively hierarchical society. Each social group had well-defined roles. Birth was an important indicator of social position. While the elite could enjoy a relatively wealthy life and could expect to become officials and hold high positions, Slavery in rome and china classes could not expect such luxury.
In trials, the Roman elite was better privileged; they received preferential treatment from imperial courts. They could not be subject to cruel punishments. For the lower classes, the fastest way to advance socially was the army or trade .
Han society was divided into a number of classes, all played a role within this complex society. The basis of this society were free peasants, who formed the base of the tax revenues of the state and who produced most of the agricultural crop.
These men also helped link the central government with local society. Merchants were also a class, but they were subject to controls by the state and often forced to partner with the state, who also took monopolies in salt, steel and wine, further restricting merchants.
At the bottom of society were convicts, beggars and slaves, who formed a small part of the population. For wealthy families, life was good; they displayed their wealth in lavish meals, and lived in large homes in which women lived in the inner quarters.
Poorer farmers and tenant laborers worked on their fields.
Women in poorer families did not have such luxury and often worked in the fields with their husbands or acted as entertainers. Silk clothes were abundant and worn by all classes. Music and entertainment were separated from rituals, with the exception of funeral rites which were taken very seriously.
The legalist thought believed at least in theory that everyone was equal under the emperor. Therefore, punishments for the same crimes were the same in writing, though this was not always carried out.
Social mobility was also relatively great, especially in the military. Confucianism also asserted that "A man, even though he may be poor, can by his acts be a gentleman.
A rich nobleman, even though he may been born well, can by his acts be called shameful. This thought had the effect of weakening the nobility and strengthening the emperor.
The influence of the nobility was also weaker as the new merchant class asserted its presence and wealth energetically; the Han abolished hereditary positions. In theory, everyone could become an official .
Hereditary positions came back later, as evidenced by the fact that the founder of the Tang dynasty was the hereditary duke of Tang, and regional governors were allowed to pass titles on.Jan 02, · Slavery was less important in China than in Rome.
A reason for this is that is the philosophies of the society. In rome, slaves were an essential aspect to the economy, but not in China.
Mar 10, · Slaves, a sad group of people in the ancient world, occupied a large portion of the population in ancient China since 2, BC, when Xia Dynasty started. Slavery society last for about 1, years in China, with minor groups of slaves existed to s in remote mountain areas in China.
In ancient Rome slavery became the indispensable foundation of the economy, and social status was a way to have political privilege and was praised upon in society. But in ancient China, they didn’t have as many slaves as the Romans, the had more of peasants contributing to society by working in fields, laboring on imperial estates, and .
Slavery: Slavery, condition in which one human being was owned by another. A slave was considered by law as property, or chattel, and was deprived of most of the rights ordinarily held by free persons. Learn more about the history, legality, and sociology of slavery in this article.
Sep 11, · Differences: Rome and Han were different because Rome had LOTS of gold, and the Han had luxury items. September 13, at PM Difference: Romans had a patritian and plebeian society and they relied on slavery where as China had peasants working the lands but didn't consider them property.
Comparison between Roman and Han Empires.
From Wikiversity. One key difference from the Han was an extensive institution of slavery, in which slave laborers were used in large numbers to produce goods.
China and Rome; Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia;. | 1,005 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Voting has evolved in many ways throughout American History. From the very first colonists at Jamestown, to women’s voting rights, the election system has changed quite a bit!
The First Vote:
One of the very first actions taken by colonists in their New World was to institute leaders by way of elections. After escaping the vicious rule of monarchies, the new American people were eager to set in place a series of voting rituals that would take place to elect ruling officials. Just days after landing, the colonists elected a President from a list of six predetermined men. President Edward Maria Wingfield was chosen by the small group to represent the 105 colonists. He was given the task of choosing the location of Jamestown, and overseeing the construction of its Fort and the planting of the first crops.
The voting system evolved gradually from the six men who chose President Wingfield at Jamestown, to the system used at the birth of the United States. Colonial elections were similar to those of today. Sheriffs were given the task of posting election notifications in high traffic public areas for the people to see. On the determined Election Day, men traveled to the local courthouse to cast their votes. Elections were an exciting time for the public to gather and provided the opportunity to trade goods. Most colonies used ballots to cast votes; however it wasn’t uncommon to host public voice votes.
Declaration of Independence:
Up until 1776, America was a cluster of disembodied colonies. However with the issue of the Declaration of Independence, the colonies became the United States. In its youth, the U.S. democracy wasn’t completely fair as we think of it today. Voters were white, male property owners who were over the age of twenty-one. African Americans, Native Americans, women, and males who did not own property were not permitted to vote.
Between 1776 and the adoption of the Constitution, many organized reforms for the voting system took place. There was concern over the definition of ‘property’ and its ability to determine a worthy voter. Benjamin Franklin spoke out against this by arguing that if a man owned a donkey, he was a rightful voter. However, if the donkey died before the next election, the man was hindered unable to vote despite his worthwhile experience with voting.
Gradually, restriction disappeared during the 19th century. By the 1850’s, economic restrictions had mostly disappeared. During the 20th century, more restrictions were lifted and the system that we know today was set into place.
Voting has evolved quite a bit. Today we view voting as a right; but it wasn’t always that way. We’re lucky to have easy access to elections of all kinds. If you are hosting an election and need assistance, visit our website. | <urn:uuid:2fb9e0bf-c4be-4979-8a47-8813495b25e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.honestballot.com/history-of-voting-in-america/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.986952 | 572 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.0694816857576370... | 6 | Voting has evolved in many ways throughout American History. From the very first colonists at Jamestown, to women’s voting rights, the election system has changed quite a bit!
The First Vote:
One of the very first actions taken by colonists in their New World was to institute leaders by way of elections. After escaping the vicious rule of monarchies, the new American people were eager to set in place a series of voting rituals that would take place to elect ruling officials. Just days after landing, the colonists elected a President from a list of six predetermined men. President Edward Maria Wingfield was chosen by the small group to represent the 105 colonists. He was given the task of choosing the location of Jamestown, and overseeing the construction of its Fort and the planting of the first crops.
The voting system evolved gradually from the six men who chose President Wingfield at Jamestown, to the system used at the birth of the United States. Colonial elections were similar to those of today. Sheriffs were given the task of posting election notifications in high traffic public areas for the people to see. On the determined Election Day, men traveled to the local courthouse to cast their votes. Elections were an exciting time for the public to gather and provided the opportunity to trade goods. Most colonies used ballots to cast votes; however it wasn’t uncommon to host public voice votes.
Declaration of Independence:
Up until 1776, America was a cluster of disembodied colonies. However with the issue of the Declaration of Independence, the colonies became the United States. In its youth, the U.S. democracy wasn’t completely fair as we think of it today. Voters were white, male property owners who were over the age of twenty-one. African Americans, Native Americans, women, and males who did not own property were not permitted to vote.
Between 1776 and the adoption of the Constitution, many organized reforms for the voting system took place. There was concern over the definition of ‘property’ and its ability to determine a worthy voter. Benjamin Franklin spoke out against this by arguing that if a man owned a donkey, he was a rightful voter. However, if the donkey died before the next election, the man was hindered unable to vote despite his worthwhile experience with voting.
Gradually, restriction disappeared during the 19th century. By the 1850’s, economic restrictions had mostly disappeared. During the 20th century, more restrictions were lifted and the system that we know today was set into place.
Voting has evolved quite a bit. Today we view voting as a right; but it wasn’t always that way. We’re lucky to have easy access to elections of all kinds. If you are hosting an election and need assistance, visit our website. | 568 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Art has changed a great deal since it began many centuries ago.Centuries don'tnotice the small changes that are shown even between cultures of alike times. Greeks and Romans both have beautiful pieces of art, but they were very different from each other.The amazing thing about art is that no matter how differences they are it is still beautiful in its own way. There are also alike in some ways. Theythat are unique with these two cultures as well, but the point that will be focused on is the differences that are found between Greek and Roman art.The pieces that will be focused on from the Greeks are Black-Figured Psykter and Red-Figured Kylix Depicting a Young Athelete, and from the Romans are Mummy Portrait of a Man and Mummy Portrait of a Young Woman.
The Menil Collection in Houston holds the Roman Portraits.The Mummy Portrait of a Man is from the Fayum area in Egypt.It was painted about 150-200 B.C. It is painted in encaustic on wood, and is a Fayum portrait.The Mummy Portrait of a Young Woman is also from the Fayum area and painted in encaustic on wood.This portrait was painted about 150-200 B.C.The term Fayum portrait is actually derived from a Coptic word meaning " The land of the lake," which refers to the artificial Lake Qarun.This lake was a project of the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty, and it was this lake that made a desert area of about 100 kilometers into one of the most fruitful areas in Egypt.It was such an amazing achievement that the lake still to this day gives this region water keeping it fruitful.
The purpose of the Mummy Portrait of a Man as well as the Mummy Portrait of a Young Woman was to identify the mummy.These portraits were paintings of the person that they identified.The edges of the paintings have paint missing, due to the fact that these portraits were placed over the face of the mummies.The fact that both the artists of these portra | <urn:uuid:18e54249-25db-40d5-b717-252d8bea42a2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/roman-art/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00021.warc.gz | en | 0.984076 | 430 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.28372028... | 1 | Art has changed a great deal since it began many centuries ago.Centuries don'tnotice the small changes that are shown even between cultures of alike times. Greeks and Romans both have beautiful pieces of art, but they were very different from each other.The amazing thing about art is that no matter how differences they are it is still beautiful in its own way. There are also alike in some ways. Theythat are unique with these two cultures as well, but the point that will be focused on is the differences that are found between Greek and Roman art.The pieces that will be focused on from the Greeks are Black-Figured Psykter and Red-Figured Kylix Depicting a Young Athelete, and from the Romans are Mummy Portrait of a Man and Mummy Portrait of a Young Woman.
The Menil Collection in Houston holds the Roman Portraits.The Mummy Portrait of a Man is from the Fayum area in Egypt.It was painted about 150-200 B.C. It is painted in encaustic on wood, and is a Fayum portrait.The Mummy Portrait of a Young Woman is also from the Fayum area and painted in encaustic on wood.This portrait was painted about 150-200 B.C.The term Fayum portrait is actually derived from a Coptic word meaning " The land of the lake," which refers to the artificial Lake Qarun.This lake was a project of the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty, and it was this lake that made a desert area of about 100 kilometers into one of the most fruitful areas in Egypt.It was such an amazing achievement that the lake still to this day gives this region water keeping it fruitful.
The purpose of the Mummy Portrait of a Man as well as the Mummy Portrait of a Young Woman was to identify the mummy.These portraits were paintings of the person that they identified.The edges of the paintings have paint missing, due to the fact that these portraits were placed over the face of the mummies.The fact that both the artists of these portra | 423 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While Christian tradition often refers to the apostles as being twelve in number, different gospel writers give different names for the same individual, and apostles mentioned in one gospel are not mentioned in others. There is also an Eastern Christian tradition derived from the Gospel of Luke of there having been as many as 70 apostles during the time of Jesus' ministry. Paul is often referred to as an apostle, because he was directly taught and commissioned by a vision of Christ (Acts 9:4–9) during his journey to Damascus. The commissioning of the Twelve Apostles during the ministry of Jesus is recorded in the Synoptic Gospels. After his resurrection, Jesus sent eleven of them (minus Judas Iscariot, who by then had died) by the Great Commission to spread his teachings to all nations. This event has been called the Dispersion of the Apostles. | <urn:uuid:609e81d4-6b4d-471b-8ebe-6aeea5bc3ea1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://yomoya.info/3436/02815-12-disciples-of-jesus.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00008.warc.gz | en | 0.991365 | 173 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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-0.058537188... | 1 | While Christian tradition often refers to the apostles as being twelve in number, different gospel writers give different names for the same individual, and apostles mentioned in one gospel are not mentioned in others. There is also an Eastern Christian tradition derived from the Gospel of Luke of there having been as many as 70 apostles during the time of Jesus' ministry. Paul is often referred to as an apostle, because he was directly taught and commissioned by a vision of Christ (Acts 9:4–9) during his journey to Damascus. The commissioning of the Twelve Apostles during the ministry of Jesus is recorded in the Synoptic Gospels. After his resurrection, Jesus sent eleven of them (minus Judas Iscariot, who by then had died) by the Great Commission to spread his teachings to all nations. This event has been called the Dispersion of the Apostles. | 180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William the Conqueror
William The Conqueror (1028 – September 9, 1087) ruled as William II Duke of Normandy from 1035 to 1087 and as William I King of England from 1066 to 1087. He is commonly referred to as William, 'The Conqueror' (Guillaume le Conquérant).
In support of his claims to the English crown, William invaded England in 1066, leading an army of Normans to victory over the Anglo-Saxon forces of the usurper Harold Godwinson (whose sister Eadgyth or Edith had married Edward the Confessor) at the Battle of Hastings, in what has become known as the Norman Conquest.
His reign brought Norman culture and the feudal system to England, which had an enormous impact on the subsequent course of England in the Middle Ages. A new, Norman, aristocracy was also introduced. In addition to these political changes, his reign also saw changes to English law, a programme of building and fortifications, and some changes and additions to the English language.
William was born in 1028 in Falaise Castle, Normandy (now Northern France), the illegitimate and only son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy by his mistress Herleva (or Arlette), who following Robert's death married Herluin de Burgh, Vicomte de Centeville (to whom she had a daughter and two sons). She was the daughter of Fulbert, a rich tanner in Guilbray, Falaise, by his wife Doda. Fulbert is said to have been a Walloon, and was born in Chaumont, near Liéges. He had been made Chamberlain to the Duke of Normandy after his daughter became the Duke's mistress.
William was well-connected paternally. His uncle Richard, who had preceded his father as Duke of Normandy, was married to Princess Adelaide of France. His aunt Eleanor was married to two successive Counts of Flanders. His grand-aunt Emma of Normandy, was firstly the wife of the Anglo-Saxon King Ethelred the Unready, and after his death in 1016, of the Danish King Canute the Great (d.1035). This meant that William's father Robert was a first cousin of Edward the Confessor, the last Anglo-Saxon King of England, who died on January 6, 1066.
William's father died in July 1035 at Nicaea, Asia Minor, returning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and William succeeded him as Duke of Normandy at the young age of seven and was known as Duke William II of Normandy (French: Guillaume II, duc de Normandie). Plots to usurp his place cost William three guardians, though not Alan Count of Brittany, who was a later guardian. William was knighted by King Henry I of France at the age of 15. By the time he turned 19 he was successfully dealing with threats of rebellion and invasion. With the assistance of Henry, William finally secured control of Normandy by defeating the rebel Danish-Norman barons at Caen in the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes in 1047.
Against the wishes of Pope Leo IX, William married his first cousin Matilda of Flanders in 1053 in the Cathedral of Notre Dame at Eu, Normandy (in Seine-Maritime). At the time, William was aged about 26 and Matilda aged 22. Their marriage produced four sons and six daughters. In repentance for what was a consanguine marriage, William founded St-Stephen's church (l'Abbaye-aux-Hommes) and Matilda founded Sainte-Trinité church (Abbaye aux Dames).
William's half-brothers Odo de Burgh, Bishop of Bayeux, later Earl of Kent, and Robert de Burgh, Count of Mortain, later played significant roles in his life; William's half sister Emma married Richard Vicomte d'Avranches, in Normandy. He also had a full sister, Adelaide of Normandy, who married Lambert, Count de Lens.
Conquest of England
William believed that once Edward the Confessor was dead, he would be the rightful king of England. It is probable that Edward had promised him the throne, and it is known that in 1064, Harold Godwinson had pledged his allegiance to William while he was his guest after being shipwrecked on the coast of Ponthieu.
Upon the death of Edward the Confessor in January 1066, Harold Godwinson was crowned King of England. Harold raised a large fleet of ships and mobilized a force of militia. He then arranged these around the coasts, anticipating attack from several directions. During this time, William submitted his claim to the English throne to Pope Alexander II, who sent him a consecrated banner in support, and openly began assembling an army in Normandy, consisting of his own army, French mercenaries, and numerous foreign knights anticipating plunder or English land.
Once the harvest season arrived, Harold ordered the militia-men home due to falling morale and supplies, and consolidated his ships in the port of London, leaving the channel unguarded. Then came the news that Harald III of Norway had landed ten miles from York with Tostig, Harold's notorious younger brother, which forced Harold and his army to head north. After a victory against the forces of Earls Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria at the Battle of Fulford, Harald and Tostig were defeated by Harold's army at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Tostig falling in battle.
Three days after this battle, William Duke of Normandy arrived with his army in Pevensey Bay, Sussex, and then moved to Hastings, a few miles to the East, where he built a fort. On October 13, he received news that an army led by Harold Godwinson was approaching from London, and at dawn the next day, William left the fort with his army and advanced towards the English army, who had taken a defensive position atop a ridge around seven miles from Hastings. The Battle of Hastings lasted all day on October 14th. At dusk, the English army made their last stand. By that night, the battle was over, and the English army was defeated. Harold and two of his brothers, Gyrth and Leofwine Godwinson, had fallen in battle.
William's next target was London, which he approached via Dover and Canterbury. However, London was under the control of supporters of Edgar Ætheling. Despite William's advance guard beating back a sortie on London Bridge, William marched westward, crossing the Thames at Wallingford and forcing the surrender of Archbishop Stigand, one of Prince Edgar's leading supporters. When William reached Berkhamstead a few days later, the city authorities in London had surrendered, and William was crowned King of England on Christmas day, December 25, 1066.
Although the south of England submitted quickly to Norman rule, resistance continued in the North for six more years until 1072. Harold's illegitimate sons attempted an invasion of the south-west peninsula. Uprisings occurred in the Welsh Marches and at Stafford. Separate attempts at invasion by the Danes and the Scots also occurred. William's defeat of all these led to what became known as the harrying of the North, in which Northumbria was laid waste as revenge and to deny his enemies its resources. The last serious resistance came with the Revolt of the Earls in 1075.
Reign of William
William initiated many major changes. In 1085, in order to ascertain the extent of his new dominions and maximize taxation, William commissioned the compilation of Domesday Book, a survey of England's productive capacity similar to a modern census. He also ordered many castles, keeps, and mottes, among them the Tower of London, to be built across England to ensure that the rebellions by the English people or his own followers would not succeed. His conquest also led to Norman (and French) replacing English as the language of the ruling classes for nearly 300 years.
William is said to have eliminated the native aristocracy in as little as four years. While many fled to Flanders and Scotland, others may have been sold into slavery, as their properties and titles were given to Normans. By 1070, the indigenous nobility had ceased to be an integral part of the English landscape, and by 1086, it maintained control of just 8 percent of its original land-holdings.
William died at the age of 59, at the Convent of St Gervais, near Rouen, France, on 9 September 1087 from abdominal injuries received from his saddle pommel when he fell off a horse at the Siege of Mantes. William was buried in the church of St. Stephen in Caen, Normandy.
According to some sources, a fire broke out during the funeral; the original owner of the land on which the church was built claimed he had not been paid yet, demanding 60 shillings, which William's son Henry (later Henry I King of England) had to pay on the spot; and, in a most unregal postmortem, William's now corpulent body would not fit in the stone sarcophagus.
William's grave is currently marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription, the slab dates from the early 19th century. The grave was defiled twice, once during the French Wars of Religion, when his bones were scattered across the town of Caen and again during the French Revolution. Following those events, only William's left femur remains in the tomb.
William was succeeded in 1087 as King of England by his younger son William II; and as Duke of Normandy by his elder son Robert 'Curthose', which led to the Rebellion of 1088. His youngest son Henry also became King after William II died without issue.
Every English monarch down to Queen Elizabeth II is a direct descendant of William the Conqueror.
- Barlow, Professor Frank, The Feudal Kingdom of England 1012 - 1216, London,1955, p.65.
- The Earl of Onslow, F.S.A., F.R.Hist.Soc., The Dukes of Normandy and their Origin, London, 1945, p.116-7.
- The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
- The rightful Anglo-Saxon heir to the English Crown. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says he was still living in 1072/3, 1097; and 1106 when it has him captured by William 'The Conqueror' during the siege of Tinchebrai Castle, belonging to the Count of Mortain. Edgar was said to be in the ranks of the supporters of Robert, Duke of Normandy, and the Count of Mortain. King William "afterwards let him go unmolested". | <urn:uuid:cc512f3f-73a0-42a2-91cf-9f79d8b1f616> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.metapedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_England | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00278.warc.gz | en | 0.982515 | 2,243 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.05483139306... | 1 | William the Conqueror
William The Conqueror (1028 – September 9, 1087) ruled as William II Duke of Normandy from 1035 to 1087 and as William I King of England from 1066 to 1087. He is commonly referred to as William, 'The Conqueror' (Guillaume le Conquérant).
In support of his claims to the English crown, William invaded England in 1066, leading an army of Normans to victory over the Anglo-Saxon forces of the usurper Harold Godwinson (whose sister Eadgyth or Edith had married Edward the Confessor) at the Battle of Hastings, in what has become known as the Norman Conquest.
His reign brought Norman culture and the feudal system to England, which had an enormous impact on the subsequent course of England in the Middle Ages. A new, Norman, aristocracy was also introduced. In addition to these political changes, his reign also saw changes to English law, a programme of building and fortifications, and some changes and additions to the English language.
William was born in 1028 in Falaise Castle, Normandy (now Northern France), the illegitimate and only son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy by his mistress Herleva (or Arlette), who following Robert's death married Herluin de Burgh, Vicomte de Centeville (to whom she had a daughter and two sons). She was the daughter of Fulbert, a rich tanner in Guilbray, Falaise, by his wife Doda. Fulbert is said to have been a Walloon, and was born in Chaumont, near Liéges. He had been made Chamberlain to the Duke of Normandy after his daughter became the Duke's mistress.
William was well-connected paternally. His uncle Richard, who had preceded his father as Duke of Normandy, was married to Princess Adelaide of France. His aunt Eleanor was married to two successive Counts of Flanders. His grand-aunt Emma of Normandy, was firstly the wife of the Anglo-Saxon King Ethelred the Unready, and after his death in 1016, of the Danish King Canute the Great (d.1035). This meant that William's father Robert was a first cousin of Edward the Confessor, the last Anglo-Saxon King of England, who died on January 6, 1066.
William's father died in July 1035 at Nicaea, Asia Minor, returning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and William succeeded him as Duke of Normandy at the young age of seven and was known as Duke William II of Normandy (French: Guillaume II, duc de Normandie). Plots to usurp his place cost William three guardians, though not Alan Count of Brittany, who was a later guardian. William was knighted by King Henry I of France at the age of 15. By the time he turned 19 he was successfully dealing with threats of rebellion and invasion. With the assistance of Henry, William finally secured control of Normandy by defeating the rebel Danish-Norman barons at Caen in the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes in 1047.
Against the wishes of Pope Leo IX, William married his first cousin Matilda of Flanders in 1053 in the Cathedral of Notre Dame at Eu, Normandy (in Seine-Maritime). At the time, William was aged about 26 and Matilda aged 22. Their marriage produced four sons and six daughters. In repentance for what was a consanguine marriage, William founded St-Stephen's church (l'Abbaye-aux-Hommes) and Matilda founded Sainte-Trinité church (Abbaye aux Dames).
William's half-brothers Odo de Burgh, Bishop of Bayeux, later Earl of Kent, and Robert de Burgh, Count of Mortain, later played significant roles in his life; William's half sister Emma married Richard Vicomte d'Avranches, in Normandy. He also had a full sister, Adelaide of Normandy, who married Lambert, Count de Lens.
Conquest of England
William believed that once Edward the Confessor was dead, he would be the rightful king of England. It is probable that Edward had promised him the throne, and it is known that in 1064, Harold Godwinson had pledged his allegiance to William while he was his guest after being shipwrecked on the coast of Ponthieu.
Upon the death of Edward the Confessor in January 1066, Harold Godwinson was crowned King of England. Harold raised a large fleet of ships and mobilized a force of militia. He then arranged these around the coasts, anticipating attack from several directions. During this time, William submitted his claim to the English throne to Pope Alexander II, who sent him a consecrated banner in support, and openly began assembling an army in Normandy, consisting of his own army, French mercenaries, and numerous foreign knights anticipating plunder or English land.
Once the harvest season arrived, Harold ordered the militia-men home due to falling morale and supplies, and consolidated his ships in the port of London, leaving the channel unguarded. Then came the news that Harald III of Norway had landed ten miles from York with Tostig, Harold's notorious younger brother, which forced Harold and his army to head north. After a victory against the forces of Earls Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria at the Battle of Fulford, Harald and Tostig were defeated by Harold's army at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Tostig falling in battle.
Three days after this battle, William Duke of Normandy arrived with his army in Pevensey Bay, Sussex, and then moved to Hastings, a few miles to the East, where he built a fort. On October 13, he received news that an army led by Harold Godwinson was approaching from London, and at dawn the next day, William left the fort with his army and advanced towards the English army, who had taken a defensive position atop a ridge around seven miles from Hastings. The Battle of Hastings lasted all day on October 14th. At dusk, the English army made their last stand. By that night, the battle was over, and the English army was defeated. Harold and two of his brothers, Gyrth and Leofwine Godwinson, had fallen in battle.
William's next target was London, which he approached via Dover and Canterbury. However, London was under the control of supporters of Edgar Ætheling. Despite William's advance guard beating back a sortie on London Bridge, William marched westward, crossing the Thames at Wallingford and forcing the surrender of Archbishop Stigand, one of Prince Edgar's leading supporters. When William reached Berkhamstead a few days later, the city authorities in London had surrendered, and William was crowned King of England on Christmas day, December 25, 1066.
Although the south of England submitted quickly to Norman rule, resistance continued in the North for six more years until 1072. Harold's illegitimate sons attempted an invasion of the south-west peninsula. Uprisings occurred in the Welsh Marches and at Stafford. Separate attempts at invasion by the Danes and the Scots also occurred. William's defeat of all these led to what became known as the harrying of the North, in which Northumbria was laid waste as revenge and to deny his enemies its resources. The last serious resistance came with the Revolt of the Earls in 1075.
Reign of William
William initiated many major changes. In 1085, in order to ascertain the extent of his new dominions and maximize taxation, William commissioned the compilation of Domesday Book, a survey of England's productive capacity similar to a modern census. He also ordered many castles, keeps, and mottes, among them the Tower of London, to be built across England to ensure that the rebellions by the English people or his own followers would not succeed. His conquest also led to Norman (and French) replacing English as the language of the ruling classes for nearly 300 years.
William is said to have eliminated the native aristocracy in as little as four years. While many fled to Flanders and Scotland, others may have been sold into slavery, as their properties and titles were given to Normans. By 1070, the indigenous nobility had ceased to be an integral part of the English landscape, and by 1086, it maintained control of just 8 percent of its original land-holdings.
William died at the age of 59, at the Convent of St Gervais, near Rouen, France, on 9 September 1087 from abdominal injuries received from his saddle pommel when he fell off a horse at the Siege of Mantes. William was buried in the church of St. Stephen in Caen, Normandy.
According to some sources, a fire broke out during the funeral; the original owner of the land on which the church was built claimed he had not been paid yet, demanding 60 shillings, which William's son Henry (later Henry I King of England) had to pay on the spot; and, in a most unregal postmortem, William's now corpulent body would not fit in the stone sarcophagus.
William's grave is currently marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription, the slab dates from the early 19th century. The grave was defiled twice, once during the French Wars of Religion, when his bones were scattered across the town of Caen and again during the French Revolution. Following those events, only William's left femur remains in the tomb.
William was succeeded in 1087 as King of England by his younger son William II; and as Duke of Normandy by his elder son Robert 'Curthose', which led to the Rebellion of 1088. His youngest son Henry also became King after William II died without issue.
Every English monarch down to Queen Elizabeth II is a direct descendant of William the Conqueror.
- Barlow, Professor Frank, The Feudal Kingdom of England 1012 - 1216, London,1955, p.65.
- The Earl of Onslow, F.S.A., F.R.Hist.Soc., The Dukes of Normandy and their Origin, London, 1945, p.116-7.
- The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
- The rightful Anglo-Saxon heir to the English Crown. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says he was still living in 1072/3, 1097; and 1106 when it has him captured by William 'The Conqueror' during the siege of Tinchebrai Castle, belonging to the Count of Mortain. Edgar was said to be in the ranks of the supporters of Robert, Duke of Normandy, and the Count of Mortain. King William "afterwards let him go unmolested". | 2,349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rosalind Franklin is one of the most controversial female figures in the field of science. Her X-ray diffraction work played a vital role in the discovery of the DNA double helix, yet she did not receive the acknowledgement that she deserved at the time. Her life was tragically cut short, and she was never nominated for a Nobel Prize, the honours instead being granted to Watson, Crick and Wilkins, and it is only recently that she has gained posthumous recognition of her incredible discovery.
Early life and studies
Rosalind Elsie Franklin was born in Notting Hill, London on 25th July 1920. Her father, Ellis Arthur Franklin, was an affluent London merchant banker, who taught at the city’s Working Men’s College. She displayed outstanding intellect from early childhood, and by the age of 15, she had already decided that she wanted to pursue a career in science and become a chemist.
She passed her matriculation with six distinctions in 1938, earning a place to study chemistry at Cambridge University. In 1941, she was awarded Second Class Honours in her finals. After graduating she worked for a short while at Cambridge, before accepting a job in the coal industry, where she spent time investigating the structure of coal. It was this work upon which her PhD thesis was based – “The physical chemistry of solid organic colloids with special reference to coal.”
In 1946 Franklin relocated to Paris and began working at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l’Etat in Paris. It was here that she met the X-ray crystallographer Jacques Mering, who would become a mentor to her in this field. He taught her the practical aspects of X-ray crystallography, and it was these skills that would later play a vital role in the discovery of DNA.
In 1950, Franklin was awarded a three-year Tuner & Newall Fellowship to work at King’s College London. She began working in the biophysics unit there in January 1951, directed by John Randall. The laboratory was unusual for the time, with 8 of the 31 researchers working there being female, and some of them occupying senior positions.
Initially, Franklin had been appointed to work on the 3-dimensional structure of proteins, but Randall redirected her to work on DNA fibres instead, following some recent developments in the field. This recruitment to the DNA project resulted in unforeseen friction between Franklin and another research scientist, Maurice Wilkins. Wilkins was away from the laboratory at the time of her appointment, and when he returned he misunderstood her role, treating her like an assistant instead of a peer. Although Wilkins eventually acknowledged his mistake, the relationship between the two would never recover and would always remain strained.
The most important photograph ever taken?
Working with her student Raymond Gosling, Franklin applied her expertise in X-ray diffraction techniques to the structure of DNA. Using a machine that Franklin herself had modified the pair managed to take extraordinary photographs of DNA and discovered that there were two forms of it; a dry “A” form and a wet “B’ form. One of the photographs of the “B” form became known as “Photograph 51”.
John Desmond Bernal, a renowned expert in the field of X-ray crystallography, described Franklin’s DNA photographs as being among the most beautiful X-ray photographs of any substance ever taken, and “Photograph 51” has been described by some as the most important photograph ever taken because of the role it played in identifying the structure of DNA.
In November 1951, Franklin presented her findings at a lecture at King’s College of London. As part of her talk she stated the following:
“The results suggest a helical structure (which must be very closely packed) containing 2, 3 or 4 co–axial nucleic acid chains per helical unit, and having the phosphate groups near the outside.”
Watson, Crick and Wilkins
Franklin’s personality conflict with Wilkins would prove to be very costly to her, and in January 1953, Wilkins showed “Photograph 51” to two competing scientists in the field of DNA research without her permission. These two scientists were James Watson and Francis Crick. Upon seeing the photograph, Watson allegedly stated: “my mouth fell open, and my pulse began to race.”
Watson and Crick would go on to use what they saw in the photograph as the basis of their famous model of DNA. On March 7th 1953 they finished building the model, and they published their findings in Nature magazine a few weeks later on 25th April 1953. They included a footnote acknowledging that they had been “stimulated by a general knowledge” of her work, but not the extent to which it had assisted their progress.
Final years and legacy
During a trip to the United States in 1956, Franklin noticed that her stomach was bulging and she was having difficulties in zipping up her skirt. Upon returning to London, she sought medical attention and was scheduled for surgery on 4th September. The operation revealed tumours in her abdomen, and she was subsequently diagnosed with ovarian cancer.
She commenced cancer treatment, but decided to continue working and remained productive even when confronted with these difficult circumstances. She would publish thirteen more papers between her diagnosis and 1957. She continued to fight the cancer, but her condition deteriorated, and she tragically passed away from complications of the cancer, aged just 37, on 16th April 1958.
In 1962, four years after her death, the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine was awarded to Watson, Crick and Wilkins for their work on nucleic acids, including the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA. Nobel rules prohibit the awarding of posthumous nomination or splitting or the prizes more than three ways. Franklin received no mention for her contribution.
A close friend and colleague of Franklin’s, Aaron Klug, was the principal beneficiary in her will. Klug was introduced to the field of X-ray crystallography by Franklin, and he continued with her work after her death. In 1982 Klug was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, “for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes.” This work was precisely what Franklin had started, and had she not died it is very likely she would have shared the Nobel Prize with him. | <urn:uuid:24d15086-de4d-4ba7-a9fe-aef41379c616> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pastmedicalhistory.co.uk/rosalind-franklin-forgotten-pioneer-of-dna/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.984438 | 1,337 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2289415895938... | 15 | Rosalind Franklin is one of the most controversial female figures in the field of science. Her X-ray diffraction work played a vital role in the discovery of the DNA double helix, yet she did not receive the acknowledgement that she deserved at the time. Her life was tragically cut short, and she was never nominated for a Nobel Prize, the honours instead being granted to Watson, Crick and Wilkins, and it is only recently that she has gained posthumous recognition of her incredible discovery.
Early life and studies
Rosalind Elsie Franklin was born in Notting Hill, London on 25th July 1920. Her father, Ellis Arthur Franklin, was an affluent London merchant banker, who taught at the city’s Working Men’s College. She displayed outstanding intellect from early childhood, and by the age of 15, she had already decided that she wanted to pursue a career in science and become a chemist.
She passed her matriculation with six distinctions in 1938, earning a place to study chemistry at Cambridge University. In 1941, she was awarded Second Class Honours in her finals. After graduating she worked for a short while at Cambridge, before accepting a job in the coal industry, where she spent time investigating the structure of coal. It was this work upon which her PhD thesis was based – “The physical chemistry of solid organic colloids with special reference to coal.”
In 1946 Franklin relocated to Paris and began working at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l’Etat in Paris. It was here that she met the X-ray crystallographer Jacques Mering, who would become a mentor to her in this field. He taught her the practical aspects of X-ray crystallography, and it was these skills that would later play a vital role in the discovery of DNA.
In 1950, Franklin was awarded a three-year Tuner & Newall Fellowship to work at King’s College London. She began working in the biophysics unit there in January 1951, directed by John Randall. The laboratory was unusual for the time, with 8 of the 31 researchers working there being female, and some of them occupying senior positions.
Initially, Franklin had been appointed to work on the 3-dimensional structure of proteins, but Randall redirected her to work on DNA fibres instead, following some recent developments in the field. This recruitment to the DNA project resulted in unforeseen friction between Franklin and another research scientist, Maurice Wilkins. Wilkins was away from the laboratory at the time of her appointment, and when he returned he misunderstood her role, treating her like an assistant instead of a peer. Although Wilkins eventually acknowledged his mistake, the relationship between the two would never recover and would always remain strained.
The most important photograph ever taken?
Working with her student Raymond Gosling, Franklin applied her expertise in X-ray diffraction techniques to the structure of DNA. Using a machine that Franklin herself had modified the pair managed to take extraordinary photographs of DNA and discovered that there were two forms of it; a dry “A” form and a wet “B’ form. One of the photographs of the “B” form became known as “Photograph 51”.
John Desmond Bernal, a renowned expert in the field of X-ray crystallography, described Franklin’s DNA photographs as being among the most beautiful X-ray photographs of any substance ever taken, and “Photograph 51” has been described by some as the most important photograph ever taken because of the role it played in identifying the structure of DNA.
In November 1951, Franklin presented her findings at a lecture at King’s College of London. As part of her talk she stated the following:
“The results suggest a helical structure (which must be very closely packed) containing 2, 3 or 4 co–axial nucleic acid chains per helical unit, and having the phosphate groups near the outside.”
Watson, Crick and Wilkins
Franklin’s personality conflict with Wilkins would prove to be very costly to her, and in January 1953, Wilkins showed “Photograph 51” to two competing scientists in the field of DNA research without her permission. These two scientists were James Watson and Francis Crick. Upon seeing the photograph, Watson allegedly stated: “my mouth fell open, and my pulse began to race.”
Watson and Crick would go on to use what they saw in the photograph as the basis of their famous model of DNA. On March 7th 1953 they finished building the model, and they published their findings in Nature magazine a few weeks later on 25th April 1953. They included a footnote acknowledging that they had been “stimulated by a general knowledge” of her work, but not the extent to which it had assisted their progress.
Final years and legacy
During a trip to the United States in 1956, Franklin noticed that her stomach was bulging and she was having difficulties in zipping up her skirt. Upon returning to London, she sought medical attention and was scheduled for surgery on 4th September. The operation revealed tumours in her abdomen, and she was subsequently diagnosed with ovarian cancer.
She commenced cancer treatment, but decided to continue working and remained productive even when confronted with these difficult circumstances. She would publish thirteen more papers between her diagnosis and 1957. She continued to fight the cancer, but her condition deteriorated, and she tragically passed away from complications of the cancer, aged just 37, on 16th April 1958.
In 1962, four years after her death, the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine was awarded to Watson, Crick and Wilkins for their work on nucleic acids, including the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA. Nobel rules prohibit the awarding of posthumous nomination or splitting or the prizes more than three ways. Franklin received no mention for her contribution.
A close friend and colleague of Franklin’s, Aaron Klug, was the principal beneficiary in her will. Klug was introduced to the field of X-ray crystallography by Franklin, and he continued with her work after her death. In 1982 Klug was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, “for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes.” This work was precisely what Franklin had started, and had she not died it is very likely she would have shared the Nobel Prize with him. | 1,369 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the death of Jesus there were two distinct factions of his followers in Jerusalem—the Aramaic-speaking Christian Jews and the Hellenized, Greek-speaking Christian Jews. The Aramaic-speaking Christian Jews were confined largely to Jerusalem; they were conservative, legalistic, and exclusive, still practicing Jews in all ways except that they believed that Jesus was the Messiah. They did not seek wider missionary activity but worshipped in the Temple and in each other's houses. The Greek-speaking Hellenized Christian Jews considered themselves part of the intellectual and cultural environment of the larger Greco-Roman world. They met in the synagogues throughout Jerusalem and they read the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures. Paul, the Greek-speaking Pharisee who later became a Christian missionary to the Dispersion Jews and to the gentiles (from the Latin gens, "people," which to the Jews meant anyone who was not a Jew), initially harassed those early Hellenized Christian Jews. He zealously persecuted uncircumcised converts, and he was present at the stoning in 35 C.E. of the proto-martyr Stephen, a Hellenized Christian Jew who claimed that Jesus was the prophet of Moses. After a dramatic conversion on the road to Damascus in 37 C.E. (Acts 9.119), however, Paul traveled through the cities of Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece to preach the message of Jesus to Jews and gentiles. It was just after the early Christian churches had been established there in 40 C.E. that Paul and his followers at Antioch were first called Christianoi, "men of Christ."
By 40 C.E., the Christian movement had expanded and not only did these two distinct groups of Christian Jews disagree on several practical and theological issues but the Jews more generally were at odds with the Romans. The Hellenized Christian Jews following Paul did not think that conversion should require the traditional Jewish practices of circumcision, the observance of the Sabbath, and dietary laws. According to Acts 15, this argument about circumcision between Paul and the Aramaic-speaking Christian Jews was settled in 50 C.E. at the Apostolic Council in Jerusalem. Gentiles who converted to Christian Judaism no longer had to be circumcised. In a short time and largely through the missionary work of Paul and his followers, Christianity became a separate form of Judaism. Morality and ethical conduct, if not circumcision, still bound Jews and converts alike to the Torah. But the central shared Christian rite of the Eucharist (from the Greek eucharistia, "thanksgiving"), "communion," which represented Jesus' death, was now the only sacrifice necessary in their worship of God.
Despite the decision of the Apostolic Council to allow uncircumcised gentiles to become Christians, Paul's proselytizing continued to offend some Jews in the synagogues where he preached. He had replaced the Torah with faith in Jesus whom his followers now called the Christ. Many Jews felt that if Paul was right then Moses and the scriptures were wrong and so they were hostile to his teaching. Herod Agrippa I, who ruled in Jerusalem from 41-44 C.E., persecuted Christians in an effort to appease the traditional Jews who were not followers of Jesus and who were suffering under the increasing hostility and religious intolerance of local Roman governors. Often when Paul preached, local Jews rioted and stoned him, to force him to leave their synagogues and their cities. Both at Philippi in Greece and in Judea, Roman officials had to step in when the rioting became too serious. In Judea, fellow Christians feared for Paul's life and he was spirited away and brought before the Roman governor in Caesarea. There he was kept under house arrest for over two years. At that time he appealed his case to the emperor, a privilege reserved for Roman citizens, rather than stand trial against his accusers in Jerusalem. In 58 C.E., just before leaving Caesarea to go to Rome, Paul had an audience with Agrippa II, King of the Jews, and his sister Berenice at which Agrippa is reputed to have interrupted Paul's discourse to concede that he would soon make a Christian of him if he kept up his preaching. En route to Rome, where his case had been transferred, Paul was shipwrecked on Malta. Upon arriving in Rome, he was under house arrest but seems to have continued preaching until at least 64 C.E. This was the period of the great fire in Rome under Nero for which Christians have sometimes been blamed; Paul is traditionally considered to have been martyred then along with other Christians charged with starting the fire.
The impact of Paul's organized ministries in synagogues throughout the Diaspora was strengthened by the destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70 C.E., under the Flavian emperors Vespasian and his son Titus. This war is considered by many to be the clear break between Judaism and Christianity: while the destruction of the Temple profoundly altered the nature of Judaism, Paul's message that salvation was possible without the law simultaneously hastened Christianity's transformation from a reform movement within Judaism into an adversus Judaeos, "against the Jews," religion. Christianity was a challenge to Judaism. For example, Christians conceived of Jesus as God and they believed that the prophecies of scripture were fulfilled in him, but this was something no Jew could accept; and although Jews and Christians both awaited the Messiah, the Christians considered Jesus the Messiah and expected his return. By the early second century, Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, had written a series of letters while traveling to his martyrdom in Rome in which he drew a clear line of separation between Christians and Jews, claiming that it was monstrous to talk of Jesus Christ and to practice Judaism.
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:531cf7c5-07e8-49dc-8ee3-b9fddeeab2f3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wilmingtonfavs.com/religious-practices/rise-of-christianity.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00048.warc.gz | en | 0.984031 | 1,193 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.1685618907... | 1 | After the death of Jesus there were two distinct factions of his followers in Jerusalem—the Aramaic-speaking Christian Jews and the Hellenized, Greek-speaking Christian Jews. The Aramaic-speaking Christian Jews were confined largely to Jerusalem; they were conservative, legalistic, and exclusive, still practicing Jews in all ways except that they believed that Jesus was the Messiah. They did not seek wider missionary activity but worshipped in the Temple and in each other's houses. The Greek-speaking Hellenized Christian Jews considered themselves part of the intellectual and cultural environment of the larger Greco-Roman world. They met in the synagogues throughout Jerusalem and they read the Septuagint, the Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures. Paul, the Greek-speaking Pharisee who later became a Christian missionary to the Dispersion Jews and to the gentiles (from the Latin gens, "people," which to the Jews meant anyone who was not a Jew), initially harassed those early Hellenized Christian Jews. He zealously persecuted uncircumcised converts, and he was present at the stoning in 35 C.E. of the proto-martyr Stephen, a Hellenized Christian Jew who claimed that Jesus was the prophet of Moses. After a dramatic conversion on the road to Damascus in 37 C.E. (Acts 9.119), however, Paul traveled through the cities of Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece to preach the message of Jesus to Jews and gentiles. It was just after the early Christian churches had been established there in 40 C.E. that Paul and his followers at Antioch were first called Christianoi, "men of Christ."
By 40 C.E., the Christian movement had expanded and not only did these two distinct groups of Christian Jews disagree on several practical and theological issues but the Jews more generally were at odds with the Romans. The Hellenized Christian Jews following Paul did not think that conversion should require the traditional Jewish practices of circumcision, the observance of the Sabbath, and dietary laws. According to Acts 15, this argument about circumcision between Paul and the Aramaic-speaking Christian Jews was settled in 50 C.E. at the Apostolic Council in Jerusalem. Gentiles who converted to Christian Judaism no longer had to be circumcised. In a short time and largely through the missionary work of Paul and his followers, Christianity became a separate form of Judaism. Morality and ethical conduct, if not circumcision, still bound Jews and converts alike to the Torah. But the central shared Christian rite of the Eucharist (from the Greek eucharistia, "thanksgiving"), "communion," which represented Jesus' death, was now the only sacrifice necessary in their worship of God.
Despite the decision of the Apostolic Council to allow uncircumcised gentiles to become Christians, Paul's proselytizing continued to offend some Jews in the synagogues where he preached. He had replaced the Torah with faith in Jesus whom his followers now called the Christ. Many Jews felt that if Paul was right then Moses and the scriptures were wrong and so they were hostile to his teaching. Herod Agrippa I, who ruled in Jerusalem from 41-44 C.E., persecuted Christians in an effort to appease the traditional Jews who were not followers of Jesus and who were suffering under the increasing hostility and religious intolerance of local Roman governors. Often when Paul preached, local Jews rioted and stoned him, to force him to leave their synagogues and their cities. Both at Philippi in Greece and in Judea, Roman officials had to step in when the rioting became too serious. In Judea, fellow Christians feared for Paul's life and he was spirited away and brought before the Roman governor in Caesarea. There he was kept under house arrest for over two years. At that time he appealed his case to the emperor, a privilege reserved for Roman citizens, rather than stand trial against his accusers in Jerusalem. In 58 C.E., just before leaving Caesarea to go to Rome, Paul had an audience with Agrippa II, King of the Jews, and his sister Berenice at which Agrippa is reputed to have interrupted Paul's discourse to concede that he would soon make a Christian of him if he kept up his preaching. En route to Rome, where his case had been transferred, Paul was shipwrecked on Malta. Upon arriving in Rome, he was under house arrest but seems to have continued preaching until at least 64 C.E. This was the period of the great fire in Rome under Nero for which Christians have sometimes been blamed; Paul is traditionally considered to have been martyred then along with other Christians charged with starting the fire.
The impact of Paul's organized ministries in synagogues throughout the Diaspora was strengthened by the destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70 C.E., under the Flavian emperors Vespasian and his son Titus. This war is considered by many to be the clear break between Judaism and Christianity: while the destruction of the Temple profoundly altered the nature of Judaism, Paul's message that salvation was possible without the law simultaneously hastened Christianity's transformation from a reform movement within Judaism into an adversus Judaeos, "against the Jews," religion. Christianity was a challenge to Judaism. For example, Christians conceived of Jesus as God and they believed that the prophecies of scripture were fulfilled in him, but this was something no Jew could accept; and although Jews and Christians both awaited the Messiah, the Christians considered Jesus the Messiah and expected his return. By the early second century, Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, had written a series of letters while traveling to his martyrdom in Rome in which he drew a clear line of separation between Christians and Jews, claiming that it was monstrous to talk of Jesus Christ and to practice Judaism.
Was this article helpful? | 1,211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Diary of Anne Frank is completely true. Although people have been accusing it of being a fictional tale for several decades, all of the facts are true as seen through the eyes of and as have been written by Anne Frank between the ages of 13 and 15. However, some of the rumors about the book’s authenticity started when it was discovered it had been edited before it was published for mass release.
The Diary of Anne Frank is probably the best-known book in the world about the holocaust. The book was published using the diary Anne began to keep at the age of 13. Anne and her family were of Jewish descent, but not exceptionally religious people. They lived for quite some time in Germany before moving to the Netherlands when the Nazis came into power. In 1940, Germany invaded the Netherlands and began to prosecute Jews living there.
When Anne’s older sister was called to report for emigration to a work camp, it was decided the family would go into hiding. The diary is about their two years of hiding in secret rooms. After their capture, the family was separated. Otto Frank, Anne’s father, survived. The rest of the family did not.
After the war, Otto returned to the Netherlands to meet with friends. One of the friends who knew about the family’s hiding had found Anne’s diary after their capture, and he gave it to Otto. Otto, wishing for his daughter to become the author she had wanted to be, submitted the diaries and supplemental notebooks to an historical archivist named Gerrit Bolkestein.
Bolkestein created fictional names for the other people in hiding with the Franks. She also edited the diaries for spelling and grammar, but made no major changes in the information presented. Otto then began his own editing process, using excerpts from Bolkestein’s version and the original version.
What is known about the final version is that Otto removed parts of the diary, but he did not make up any new stories, thoughts or situations. The parts he omitted dealt with disagreements Anne had with her parents and semi-explicit thoughts Anne had about her emerging sexuality.
A controversy began in 1980 when a German magazine purported that changes to the diary had been made in ballpoint pen, which was supposed to have been unavailable at the time. After Otto’s death in 1980, his will placed the diary in the hands of the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation (NIOD). The NIOD conducted a thorough analysis, including forensic examination, and published all versions of the diary and the analysis in a 700-page book subtitled The Critical Edition.
Finally, in 1998, the five pages of material omitted by Otto were released by the NIOD, making the diary once again complete. Below is the only known video footage of Anne Frank. She is watching a wedding from the window of her home in 1941.
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0.238341122... | 1 | The Diary of Anne Frank is completely true. Although people have been accusing it of being a fictional tale for several decades, all of the facts are true as seen through the eyes of and as have been written by Anne Frank between the ages of 13 and 15. However, some of the rumors about the book’s authenticity started when it was discovered it had been edited before it was published for mass release.
The Diary of Anne Frank is probably the best-known book in the world about the holocaust. The book was published using the diary Anne began to keep at the age of 13. Anne and her family were of Jewish descent, but not exceptionally religious people. They lived for quite some time in Germany before moving to the Netherlands when the Nazis came into power. In 1940, Germany invaded the Netherlands and began to prosecute Jews living there.
When Anne’s older sister was called to report for emigration to a work camp, it was decided the family would go into hiding. The diary is about their two years of hiding in secret rooms. After their capture, the family was separated. Otto Frank, Anne’s father, survived. The rest of the family did not.
After the war, Otto returned to the Netherlands to meet with friends. One of the friends who knew about the family’s hiding had found Anne’s diary after their capture, and he gave it to Otto. Otto, wishing for his daughter to become the author she had wanted to be, submitted the diaries and supplemental notebooks to an historical archivist named Gerrit Bolkestein.
Bolkestein created fictional names for the other people in hiding with the Franks. She also edited the diaries for spelling and grammar, but made no major changes in the information presented. Otto then began his own editing process, using excerpts from Bolkestein’s version and the original version.
What is known about the final version is that Otto removed parts of the diary, but he did not make up any new stories, thoughts or situations. The parts he omitted dealt with disagreements Anne had with her parents and semi-explicit thoughts Anne had about her emerging sexuality.
A controversy began in 1980 when a German magazine purported that changes to the diary had been made in ballpoint pen, which was supposed to have been unavailable at the time. After Otto’s death in 1980, his will placed the diary in the hands of the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation (NIOD). The NIOD conducted a thorough analysis, including forensic examination, and published all versions of the diary and the analysis in a 700-page book subtitled The Critical Edition.
Finally, in 1998, the five pages of material omitted by Otto were released by the NIOD, making the diary once again complete. Below is the only known video footage of Anne Frank. She is watching a wedding from the window of her home in 1941.
Posted 3039 day ago | 604 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Great Zimbabwe facts for kids
|Great Zimbabwe National Monument *|
|Inscription||1986 (10th Session)|
Greater Zimbabwe was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s later Iron Age. The monument first began to be built in the 11th century, and work continued until the 14th century. It covered an area of 722 hectares (1,780 acres) which might have housed up to 18,000 people. It was a royal city for the Zimbabwean monarch. One of its most prominent features were its walls, some of which were over five metres high and which were constructed without mortar. Eventually the city was abandoned and fell into ruin.
The Kingdom of Zimbabwe included the River Zambezi in the north, the Transvaal in the south and Botswana in the east. The people who lived at Great Zimbabwe controlled trade between the coast and inland Africa. The modern country of Zimbabwe is named after it.
Archaeologists have found goods from as far as China that were used by the people. This shows they bought and sold things over great distances. The city had stopped growing when traders from Portugal came to southern Africa 500 years ago, but nobody is sure why this happened. Europeans at first thought that Great Zimbabwe had been built by foreigners. Now we know it was built by the local people. People who have studied the site have learned much about old Africa.
The earliest known written mention of the ruins was in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala, who recorded it as Symbaoe. The first visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871.
Images for kids
Great Zimbabwe Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:c691b8e1-123a-4802-961d-f0591adc5f92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Great_Zimbabwe | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.98577 | 360 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.8186631202... | 1 | Great Zimbabwe facts for kids
|Great Zimbabwe National Monument *|
|Inscription||1986 (10th Session)|
Greater Zimbabwe was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the country’s later Iron Age. The monument first began to be built in the 11th century, and work continued until the 14th century. It covered an area of 722 hectares (1,780 acres) which might have housed up to 18,000 people. It was a royal city for the Zimbabwean monarch. One of its most prominent features were its walls, some of which were over five metres high and which were constructed without mortar. Eventually the city was abandoned and fell into ruin.
The Kingdom of Zimbabwe included the River Zambezi in the north, the Transvaal in the south and Botswana in the east. The people who lived at Great Zimbabwe controlled trade between the coast and inland Africa. The modern country of Zimbabwe is named after it.
Archaeologists have found goods from as far as China that were used by the people. This shows they bought and sold things over great distances. The city had stopped growing when traders from Portugal came to southern Africa 500 years ago, but nobody is sure why this happened. Europeans at first thought that Great Zimbabwe had been built by foreigners. Now we know it was built by the local people. People who have studied the site have learned much about old Africa.
The earliest known written mention of the ruins was in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala, who recorded it as Symbaoe. The first visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871.
Images for kids
Great Zimbabwe Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 381 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first European person to explore Maryland was John Cabot in 1498. At the time he found only Native American tribes within the area.
Maryland was not settled by Europeans until the 1600s. At that time the main tribes included the Nanticoke on the Eastern Shore and the Shawnee inland. People of the Cherokee Tribe were also known to come into the mountainous regions of Maryland.
George Calvert became 1st Baron Baltimore in 1625, when he resigned from English politics, announced his Catholicism publicly, and left for the new world to seek some religious freedom. His intent was to form a colony of political freedom for English Catholics.
Calvert first settled on the island of Newfoundland but found the climate and the settlements there disagreeable. Looking for a better climate, he found the area that is today the state of Maryland and applied for a royal charter. This was granted to him, but unfortunately he had died just prior to receiving the royal seal. His sons took over establishing a colony in Maryland and Leonard Calvert became the first colonial governor of Maryland. However, his father was given the credit as being the founder of Maryland.
The colony was named for the Mary, the Blessed Mother of Jesus, and did become a haven for Catholics. Under the leadership of John Calvert’s sons, Cæcilius and Leonard, thousands of British Catholics were able to emigrate to Maryland creating some of the oldest Catholic communities in the country.
Tobacco growing flourished in Maryland and became a major crop with many large tobacco plantations evolving, creating a colony of wealthy land owners.
Although Catholic rule in Maryland was eventually nullified by the re-assertion of royal control over the colony, only a few decades later Maryland joined twelve other British colonies along the Atlantic coast in declaring their independence from British rule and the right to freedom of religion for all citizens in the new Unites States.
Maryland is the 7 th state to join the Union of the United States of America on Monday, April 28, 1788. | <urn:uuid:97c987f7-5eae-4508-8d7a-354500963fd8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vintage-american.com/state-history/history-of-maryland/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00401.warc.gz | en | 0.983952 | 412 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.1730095893144... | 2 | The first European person to explore Maryland was John Cabot in 1498. At the time he found only Native American tribes within the area.
Maryland was not settled by Europeans until the 1600s. At that time the main tribes included the Nanticoke on the Eastern Shore and the Shawnee inland. People of the Cherokee Tribe were also known to come into the mountainous regions of Maryland.
George Calvert became 1st Baron Baltimore in 1625, when he resigned from English politics, announced his Catholicism publicly, and left for the new world to seek some religious freedom. His intent was to form a colony of political freedom for English Catholics.
Calvert first settled on the island of Newfoundland but found the climate and the settlements there disagreeable. Looking for a better climate, he found the area that is today the state of Maryland and applied for a royal charter. This was granted to him, but unfortunately he had died just prior to receiving the royal seal. His sons took over establishing a colony in Maryland and Leonard Calvert became the first colonial governor of Maryland. However, his father was given the credit as being the founder of Maryland.
The colony was named for the Mary, the Blessed Mother of Jesus, and did become a haven for Catholics. Under the leadership of John Calvert’s sons, Cæcilius and Leonard, thousands of British Catholics were able to emigrate to Maryland creating some of the oldest Catholic communities in the country.
Tobacco growing flourished in Maryland and became a major crop with many large tobacco plantations evolving, creating a colony of wealthy land owners.
Although Catholic rule in Maryland was eventually nullified by the re-assertion of royal control over the colony, only a few decades later Maryland joined twelve other British colonies along the Atlantic coast in declaring their independence from British rule and the right to freedom of religion for all citizens in the new Unites States.
Maryland is the 7 th state to join the Union of the United States of America on Monday, April 28, 1788. | 425 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 16/07/2012)
Early life of B.R. Ambedkar
was spent in a small family. He was born in the town and military cantonment of Mhow in the Central Provinces (now in the Indian state
of Madhya Pradesh
). Ambedkar was the 14th and last child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal and Bhimabai. He belonged to a family of Marathi background, from a town of Ambavade (Mandangad taluka) in the Ratnagiri district of modern-day Maharashtra
. They also belonged to the Mahar Caste, who were basically treated as untouchables and subjected to socio-economic discrimination.
Ancestors of B.R. Amdedkar had, for a long time, been employed in the Army of the British East India Company
. And his father also served in the Indian army
at the Mhow cantonment. His parents had little formal education in English and Marathi. But they encouraged their children to learn and work hard at school. His parents encouraged him to read the classic of Hindu religion and know about the religion, from a very young age.
B.R. Ambedkar's father used his position in the army to lobby for his children to study at the government school, as they faced resistance owing to their caste. Even when Ambedkar reached his age to join school, he and other untouchable children were separated and given slight consideration or help by the teachers. They were forbidden to enter the classroom.
Even when they were thirsty or hungry, somebody from the higher caste would have to pour that water from a height as they were not allowed to touch either the water or vessel that contained it. This task was usually performed for the young Ambedkar by school peons and if that peon was not available then he had to go without water, Ambedkar states this situation as "No peon, No Water".
His father, Ramji Sakpal retired in the year 1894 and the family moved to Satara two years later. Shortly after this his mother died. The children were taken care of by their parental aunt and also lived in the hard situations. Three sons - Balaram, Anandrao and Bhimrao - and two daughters - Manjula and Tulasa - of the Ambedkars would go on to survive them. Of his siblings, only Ambedkar succeeded in passing his examinations and finally graduated to high school. Bhimrao Sakpal Ambavadekar the surname comes from his native village 'Ambavade' in Ratnagiri District
. His Brahmin teacher, Mahadev Ambedkar, who was fond of him, changed his surname from 'Ambavadekar' to his own surname 'Ambedkar' in school records | <urn:uuid:9d159969-313e-4f89-b578-6c8f0dd24bb9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/61/early_life_b_r_ambedkar.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00554.warc.gz | en | 0.988752 | 587 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.27888166904... | 1 | (Last Updated on : 16/07/2012)
Early life of B.R. Ambedkar
was spent in a small family. He was born in the town and military cantonment of Mhow in the Central Provinces (now in the Indian state
of Madhya Pradesh
). Ambedkar was the 14th and last child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal and Bhimabai. He belonged to a family of Marathi background, from a town of Ambavade (Mandangad taluka) in the Ratnagiri district of modern-day Maharashtra
. They also belonged to the Mahar Caste, who were basically treated as untouchables and subjected to socio-economic discrimination.
Ancestors of B.R. Amdedkar had, for a long time, been employed in the Army of the British East India Company
. And his father also served in the Indian army
at the Mhow cantonment. His parents had little formal education in English and Marathi. But they encouraged their children to learn and work hard at school. His parents encouraged him to read the classic of Hindu religion and know about the religion, from a very young age.
B.R. Ambedkar's father used his position in the army to lobby for his children to study at the government school, as they faced resistance owing to their caste. Even when Ambedkar reached his age to join school, he and other untouchable children were separated and given slight consideration or help by the teachers. They were forbidden to enter the classroom.
Even when they were thirsty or hungry, somebody from the higher caste would have to pour that water from a height as they were not allowed to touch either the water or vessel that contained it. This task was usually performed for the young Ambedkar by school peons and if that peon was not available then he had to go without water, Ambedkar states this situation as "No peon, No Water".
His father, Ramji Sakpal retired in the year 1894 and the family moved to Satara two years later. Shortly after this his mother died. The children were taken care of by their parental aunt and also lived in the hard situations. Three sons - Balaram, Anandrao and Bhimrao - and two daughters - Manjula and Tulasa - of the Ambedkars would go on to survive them. Of his siblings, only Ambedkar succeeded in passing his examinations and finally graduated to high school. Bhimrao Sakpal Ambavadekar the surname comes from his native village 'Ambavade' in Ratnagiri District
. His Brahmin teacher, Mahadev Ambedkar, who was fond of him, changed his surname from 'Ambavadekar' to his own surname 'Ambedkar' in school records | 589 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Welcome to day 18.
Matthias Grunewald was a contemporary of Albrecht Durer. Both men were important Northern Renaissance painters, both became embroiled in the turbulent politics and religious conflicts that dominated the era, and both expressed themselves in unique and arresting ways. Some of Grunewald’s paintings had originally been attributed to Durer, what is odd about that is that as artists, they were the antithesis of each other.
Durer was an intense naturalist who was interested in the scientific Renaissance that emphasized empirical observation. His art made use of reasoned proportions and mathematical precision in terms of perspective. Grunewald largely rejected the classicism of the Renaissance and his paintings continue, with their own twist, the Gothic traditions. There is an underlying current of Medieval German mysticism to his works, a highly emotional charge that is often disturbing in its intensity.
We will be examining the Annunciation panel on his most famous work, the Isenheim Altarpiece. I plan on doing an expanded series on the Altarpiece, as there is so much contained with it. Each element needs careful examination, and taken as a whole it’s effect is to stretch the viewers understanding of what it means to believe, what it cost Christ to save us.
The Isenheim Altarpiece was made for the chapel in a hospital dedicated to Saint Anthony. This hospital served as a hospice for those afflicted with leprosy, syphyllis, and a fungal disease that was carried by rye. These patients were relegated to the edges of society, the hospital did not function as a place to come for healing, as there were no cures, but a place to come to die; it was a hospice facility.
The altarpiece ordered for the chapel would be seen by patients and by those who worked within the hospital, a pretty dismal place. The work is monumental and opens in layers. When the final panels are raised there is a shrine that houses extraordinary sculptures by Nikolaus Hagenauer. There were 4 different views that were offered by the layered panels.
We will be focused on just one of the panels, the Annunciation to Mary by the angel Gabriel.
The Annunciation takes place in a Gothic church. This had been done many times by Northern artists in this time period and would not have appeared unusual. What was also commonly understood was that Mary represented the Church. Embracing this imagery that the church, like Mary, was to carry Christ and deliver him to a broken, sinful world in need of a savior might have given strength to the monks who worked in the hospital, dealing with those who had been cast out of society.
We are given the moment of the angel entering Mary’s space, as she pulls away from the sudden intrusion. The angel’s robes are billowing around him, floating in the air. It’s not as if he’s rushed in and they are flowing behind him as we would expect…it feels like he has just appeared and is hovering in the air speaking. His clothing announces him as a messenger of heaven with it’s rich golden hues.
Mary has once again been interrupted in her reading. She is reading (in Latin) from the prophet Isaiah, “Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, and shall call His name Immanuel.” Then, the angel is there telling her the prophecy speaks of her.
As I looked at Mary I was struck by the color of her dress. Generally, Mary is robed in blue, as the intermediary between heaven and earth, and as her future role will be the Queen of Heaven, it is traditionally her color. After some research I discovered that the blue paint that was used, depending on how it was mixed would occasionally, over time, darken to a near black. I’m going to assume that that is what has happened here, as painting Mary in black, the color of Satan, is just not a possibility. Although, not having a Medieval prejudice against black, I have to say the fabric looks like a rich velvet.
Along with the blue color of Mary’s dress and the connection to the sky, blue was also the color of the cloth that was hung over the Ark of the Covenant. It is believed that the wooden box on the floor between Mary and Gabriel is meant to be the Ark. As the Ark was where God was believed to have dwelled during the time of Moses, Mary is referred to as the New Ark, as God now dwells in her.
There are three arched windows in the background, a reference to the Trinity, and in front of the one to the left we see the Dove of the Holy Spirit coming into the scene.
The red and green curtains that hang seem to reference the veil in the temple, behind which the ark would have been hidden from the eyes of the people of Israel. In the Old
Testament we learned that only one person under very special circumstances entered the Holy of Holies each year. The Ark was hidden behind the Temple veil. When Christ was crucified, the veil was torn from top to bottom, indicating it had been torn by God, and that with Christ death a new era had begun, with all men having access to God.
In this painting the veil/curtain has been pushed to one side, not fully opened, but with the incarnation we have begun the journey to the cross that will end in the veil being torn down. With the veils pushed aside the light enters the church. Or put more plainly, the light (Christ is the light of the world) enters Mary.
There is one more detail I want to point out. Up in the top left corner we have a painting of the prophet Isaiah. He is holding his prophecy and on the page facing us, written in Hebrew is the same verse from his prophecy that Mary was reading when the angel entered her chamber.
Continue the Advent in Art Journey – Day 19 Titian
E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art. (New York, Phaidon Press, 2016)
Professor Sharon Latchaw Hirsh, How to Look at and Understand Great Art, Lecture series, Great Courses
Professor William Koss, History of European Art Lecture series, Great Courses
Sister Wendy Beckett, The Story of Painting (London, Dorsey Kindersley, 2000)
Marilyn Stokstad, Art History. (New Jersey, Pearson Education, 2005)
National Gallery of Art website www.nga.gov
Metropolitan Museum of Art website www.metmuseum.org
The Getty Center www.getty.edu
And thanks to the Met and Wiki commons quality images for public domain art is now much more easily accessible. | <urn:uuid:f40eb33c-45a5-4a16-a7d0-bed335e68824> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kellybagdanov.com/2017/12/18/day-18-grunewald/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.980617 | 1,403 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.526408076286315... | 3 | Welcome to day 18.
Matthias Grunewald was a contemporary of Albrecht Durer. Both men were important Northern Renaissance painters, both became embroiled in the turbulent politics and religious conflicts that dominated the era, and both expressed themselves in unique and arresting ways. Some of Grunewald’s paintings had originally been attributed to Durer, what is odd about that is that as artists, they were the antithesis of each other.
Durer was an intense naturalist who was interested in the scientific Renaissance that emphasized empirical observation. His art made use of reasoned proportions and mathematical precision in terms of perspective. Grunewald largely rejected the classicism of the Renaissance and his paintings continue, with their own twist, the Gothic traditions. There is an underlying current of Medieval German mysticism to his works, a highly emotional charge that is often disturbing in its intensity.
We will be examining the Annunciation panel on his most famous work, the Isenheim Altarpiece. I plan on doing an expanded series on the Altarpiece, as there is so much contained with it. Each element needs careful examination, and taken as a whole it’s effect is to stretch the viewers understanding of what it means to believe, what it cost Christ to save us.
The Isenheim Altarpiece was made for the chapel in a hospital dedicated to Saint Anthony. This hospital served as a hospice for those afflicted with leprosy, syphyllis, and a fungal disease that was carried by rye. These patients were relegated to the edges of society, the hospital did not function as a place to come for healing, as there were no cures, but a place to come to die; it was a hospice facility.
The altarpiece ordered for the chapel would be seen by patients and by those who worked within the hospital, a pretty dismal place. The work is monumental and opens in layers. When the final panels are raised there is a shrine that houses extraordinary sculptures by Nikolaus Hagenauer. There were 4 different views that were offered by the layered panels.
We will be focused on just one of the panels, the Annunciation to Mary by the angel Gabriel.
The Annunciation takes place in a Gothic church. This had been done many times by Northern artists in this time period and would not have appeared unusual. What was also commonly understood was that Mary represented the Church. Embracing this imagery that the church, like Mary, was to carry Christ and deliver him to a broken, sinful world in need of a savior might have given strength to the monks who worked in the hospital, dealing with those who had been cast out of society.
We are given the moment of the angel entering Mary’s space, as she pulls away from the sudden intrusion. The angel’s robes are billowing around him, floating in the air. It’s not as if he’s rushed in and they are flowing behind him as we would expect…it feels like he has just appeared and is hovering in the air speaking. His clothing announces him as a messenger of heaven with it’s rich golden hues.
Mary has once again been interrupted in her reading. She is reading (in Latin) from the prophet Isaiah, “Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, and shall call His name Immanuel.” Then, the angel is there telling her the prophecy speaks of her.
As I looked at Mary I was struck by the color of her dress. Generally, Mary is robed in blue, as the intermediary between heaven and earth, and as her future role will be the Queen of Heaven, it is traditionally her color. After some research I discovered that the blue paint that was used, depending on how it was mixed would occasionally, over time, darken to a near black. I’m going to assume that that is what has happened here, as painting Mary in black, the color of Satan, is just not a possibility. Although, not having a Medieval prejudice against black, I have to say the fabric looks like a rich velvet.
Along with the blue color of Mary’s dress and the connection to the sky, blue was also the color of the cloth that was hung over the Ark of the Covenant. It is believed that the wooden box on the floor between Mary and Gabriel is meant to be the Ark. As the Ark was where God was believed to have dwelled during the time of Moses, Mary is referred to as the New Ark, as God now dwells in her.
There are three arched windows in the background, a reference to the Trinity, and in front of the one to the left we see the Dove of the Holy Spirit coming into the scene.
The red and green curtains that hang seem to reference the veil in the temple, behind which the ark would have been hidden from the eyes of the people of Israel. In the Old
Testament we learned that only one person under very special circumstances entered the Holy of Holies each year. The Ark was hidden behind the Temple veil. When Christ was crucified, the veil was torn from top to bottom, indicating it had been torn by God, and that with Christ death a new era had begun, with all men having access to God.
In this painting the veil/curtain has been pushed to one side, not fully opened, but with the incarnation we have begun the journey to the cross that will end in the veil being torn down. With the veils pushed aside the light enters the church. Or put more plainly, the light (Christ is the light of the world) enters Mary.
There is one more detail I want to point out. Up in the top left corner we have a painting of the prophet Isaiah. He is holding his prophecy and on the page facing us, written in Hebrew is the same verse from his prophecy that Mary was reading when the angel entered her chamber.
Continue the Advent in Art Journey – Day 19 Titian
E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art. (New York, Phaidon Press, 2016)
Professor Sharon Latchaw Hirsh, How to Look at and Understand Great Art, Lecture series, Great Courses
Professor William Koss, History of European Art Lecture series, Great Courses
Sister Wendy Beckett, The Story of Painting (London, Dorsey Kindersley, 2000)
Marilyn Stokstad, Art History. (New Jersey, Pearson Education, 2005)
National Gallery of Art website www.nga.gov
Metropolitan Museum of Art website www.metmuseum.org
The Getty Center www.getty.edu
And thanks to the Met and Wiki commons quality images for public domain art is now much more easily accessible. | 1,367 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wikijunior:World War II/The Winter War
The Winter War began in November 1939 when the Soviet Union attacked Finland. The Soviet army was much larger than the Finnish army with four times as many soldiers and 200 times as many tanks. But the Finns were fighting to defend their own homes and the Soviet army had many new soldiers who were still learning. This meant the Finns were able to keep the fight going for longer than anyone thought possible. The war didn't end until March 1940 and even then Finland wasn't completely beaten.
Before the warEdit
The Soviet Union had been trying to take some of Finland for its own use, where it wanted to build a base for its warships. Finland said, "No." So the Soviets wanted to fight the Finns for the land. They decided to lie. The Soviets fired their artillery (very large guns) at one of their own towns and said that the Finns had done it. They did this so that they would have an excuse for fighting the Finns. The Soviet Union was much, much bigger than Finland, and nobody thought Finland would last long in a war. Soviet army leaders estimated, that Helsinki (capital of Finland) would be taken in two weeks.
The war startsEdit
In the first attack, nearly three-quarters of a million Soviet soldiers fought the Finns, who had less than one-quarter of a million men in their army. The Soviets thought they would win easily, but they were surprised! They found it really hard to beat the Finns. The country was covered with snow, and the Finns were brilliant skiers. They would ski into battle, shoot at the Soviets, then ski away before the Soviets got a chance to fight back. They also attacked camps and kitchens so that the Soviets had no hot food and no warm place to sleep. At the time of the war, it was winter, and the temperature in Finland was -40 degrees Celsius. That's as cold as the North Pole!
The Finns wore white clothes so they were hard to see in the snow, but the Soviet clothes were all black and brown so they were easy to see and shoot.
Instead of the Soviets winning easily, it began to look like the Finns might win. In one amazing battle the Soviets lost nearly 25,000 soldiers as well as 43 tanks, 260 lorries and loads of guns. The Finns only lost 800 men!
Because the war was going so well for Finland, other countries started thinking about helping. Some of these countries were Sweden, Norway, Britain and France. Some brave men volunteered to help, but the rulers of the other countries couldn't make up their minds whether or not to send their armies.
End of the warEdit
As winter ended, the Finnish army was becoming really tired. Although the Soviets had lost far more soldiers than the Finns, they still had many more they could send. The Finns began to lose hope. They'd even begun to run out of bullets for their guns. At this time Sweden, which is next door to Finland, said it wouldn't help. So the Finns decided to discuss giving up with the Soviets, and the Soviets agreed.
Finland had to give up the land the Soviet Union wanted in order to end the Winter War. In the war, the Soviet Union had sent over one and a half million men to Finland. Some people think one million of them were killed, although some other people think it could have been a lot less. The Finns also destroyed 1,000 aircraft and more than 2,000 tanks. Finland lost about 20,000 men. Because the Finns did not easily give up, they were able to defend their country for a long time. The Finns were brave, but unfortunately they lacked the resources to win the war. | <urn:uuid:f0ac9e5b-dfe1-4a8c-a22a-2749387d4684> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:World_War_II/The_Winter_War | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00208.warc.gz | en | 0.991645 | 779 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.81029856204986... | 2 | Wikijunior:World War II/The Winter War
The Winter War began in November 1939 when the Soviet Union attacked Finland. The Soviet army was much larger than the Finnish army with four times as many soldiers and 200 times as many tanks. But the Finns were fighting to defend their own homes and the Soviet army had many new soldiers who were still learning. This meant the Finns were able to keep the fight going for longer than anyone thought possible. The war didn't end until March 1940 and even then Finland wasn't completely beaten.
Before the warEdit
The Soviet Union had been trying to take some of Finland for its own use, where it wanted to build a base for its warships. Finland said, "No." So the Soviets wanted to fight the Finns for the land. They decided to lie. The Soviets fired their artillery (very large guns) at one of their own towns and said that the Finns had done it. They did this so that they would have an excuse for fighting the Finns. The Soviet Union was much, much bigger than Finland, and nobody thought Finland would last long in a war. Soviet army leaders estimated, that Helsinki (capital of Finland) would be taken in two weeks.
The war startsEdit
In the first attack, nearly three-quarters of a million Soviet soldiers fought the Finns, who had less than one-quarter of a million men in their army. The Soviets thought they would win easily, but they were surprised! They found it really hard to beat the Finns. The country was covered with snow, and the Finns were brilliant skiers. They would ski into battle, shoot at the Soviets, then ski away before the Soviets got a chance to fight back. They also attacked camps and kitchens so that the Soviets had no hot food and no warm place to sleep. At the time of the war, it was winter, and the temperature in Finland was -40 degrees Celsius. That's as cold as the North Pole!
The Finns wore white clothes so they were hard to see in the snow, but the Soviet clothes were all black and brown so they were easy to see and shoot.
Instead of the Soviets winning easily, it began to look like the Finns might win. In one amazing battle the Soviets lost nearly 25,000 soldiers as well as 43 tanks, 260 lorries and loads of guns. The Finns only lost 800 men!
Because the war was going so well for Finland, other countries started thinking about helping. Some of these countries were Sweden, Norway, Britain and France. Some brave men volunteered to help, but the rulers of the other countries couldn't make up their minds whether or not to send their armies.
End of the warEdit
As winter ended, the Finnish army was becoming really tired. Although the Soviets had lost far more soldiers than the Finns, they still had many more they could send. The Finns began to lose hope. They'd even begun to run out of bullets for their guns. At this time Sweden, which is next door to Finland, said it wouldn't help. So the Finns decided to discuss giving up with the Soviets, and the Soviets agreed.
Finland had to give up the land the Soviet Union wanted in order to end the Winter War. In the war, the Soviet Union had sent over one and a half million men to Finland. Some people think one million of them were killed, although some other people think it could have been a lot less. The Finns also destroyed 1,000 aircraft and more than 2,000 tanks. Finland lost about 20,000 men. Because the Finns did not easily give up, they were able to defend their country for a long time. The Finns were brave, but unfortunately they lacked the resources to win the war. | 803 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We are officially into February, the second month of 2019. Relationship experts and the commercial market get a chance to be creative in getting as much money out of us, under the guise of ‘love’, as possible. But, the lingering question is, why exactly does February have 28 days?
Why does February have 28 days?
February is the only month in the calendar that has less than 30 days in a year. The reason for this, according to Britannica, can be placed with the Romans and their superstition.
We use the Gregorian calendar, which is the latest derivative of the first Roman calendar that was developed by Roman king, Numa Pompilius.
In it, there were only ten months and what would be January, the beginning of the year, then was March.
However, Pompilius included January and February into the Roman calendar to fall in line with the lunar year.
February in a lunar year
The lunar year was based upon the monthly cycles of the moon’s phases and accumulated to 354.367 days. Pompilius rounded it off to 355 days because Romans have always believed in the superstition of even numbers being the bearer of bad luck.
Therefore, February basically drew the shortest end of the stick and had the least amount of days in a month. It was a balanced mathematical sum. It can’t be refuted that the sum of two odd numbers will always equal an even number.
How we got to 365 days
With February consisting of 28 days, it allowed for the rest of the months to be divided into periods of 30 and 31 days.
The lunar year had 355 days until Julius Cesar, in 45 BC, introduced a variant of the Gregorian calendar and added a further ten days, with February awarded an extra day but only during the leap year
Romans also used February to honor the dead by hosting a string of rituals throughout the month. | <urn:uuid:61676a11-da96-4adb-b97f-451439e31252> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thesouthafrican.com/lifestyle/this-is-why-february-only-has-28-days/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.981544 | 398 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1761754602193... | 2 | We are officially into February, the second month of 2019. Relationship experts and the commercial market get a chance to be creative in getting as much money out of us, under the guise of ‘love’, as possible. But, the lingering question is, why exactly does February have 28 days?
Why does February have 28 days?
February is the only month in the calendar that has less than 30 days in a year. The reason for this, according to Britannica, can be placed with the Romans and their superstition.
We use the Gregorian calendar, which is the latest derivative of the first Roman calendar that was developed by Roman king, Numa Pompilius.
In it, there were only ten months and what would be January, the beginning of the year, then was March.
However, Pompilius included January and February into the Roman calendar to fall in line with the lunar year.
February in a lunar year
The lunar year was based upon the monthly cycles of the moon’s phases and accumulated to 354.367 days. Pompilius rounded it off to 355 days because Romans have always believed in the superstition of even numbers being the bearer of bad luck.
Therefore, February basically drew the shortest end of the stick and had the least amount of days in a month. It was a balanced mathematical sum. It can’t be refuted that the sum of two odd numbers will always equal an even number.
How we got to 365 days
With February consisting of 28 days, it allowed for the rest of the months to be divided into periods of 30 and 31 days.
The lunar year had 355 days until Julius Cesar, in 45 BC, introduced a variant of the Gregorian calendar and added a further ten days, with February awarded an extra day but only during the leap year
Romans also used February to honor the dead by hosting a string of rituals throughout the month. | 415 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Shire Horse Breed
The Shire horse, developed in England, traces its history back to the days of the Roman Conquest and is one of the oldest of the draft breeds. The name "Shire" also comes from England, derived from the Saxon word "schyran," which means to shear or divide. The name "Shire," means “county.” King Henry VIII first applied the name "Shire" to the horse early in the 16th century.
The Shire horse breed began over 1,000 years ago and includes blood from Belgians, Horses of Flanders and in the 18th Century, Friesians. Like the other standard draft breeds, the Shire was improved by the infusion of outside blood at various times in history. Records exist, dating back nearly 1000 years. During this time outside blood continued to influence the breed since a breed registry did not hamper breeders and no limits were imposed.
The Shire horse was the warhorse of England, used by knights in the middle ages. The Shire horse is the purest survivor of an early type that was spoken of as “The Great Horse.” A large, athletic, powerful horse with plenty of stamina was needed to carry the weight of mounted soldiers wearing their heavy battle armor. These horses’ riders could weigh in excess of 400 pounds.
For the past centuries, Shire horses have delivered beer daily in the City Streets of London and performed agricultural tasks on farms throughout the English countryside. They are gentle giants, docile and kind, and have a strong desire to form a bond with the people who handle them. They easily weigh 1800 to 2,000 pounds or more and some stand well over 18 hands. (A “hand” is four inches, the span of a man’s hand, and is measured from the highest point on the horse’s withers, the top of its shoulders, to the ground. That computes to an 18.2 hand high horse will be 6 feet, 2 inches tall at the withers)
Shires come in several different colors. Some may be black, bay, or gray. They usually have a blaze face and some white markings on their lower legs and feet. A characteristic feature of the Shire breed is abundant hair (called feathers) below the knees and hocks. Their foals will weigh 125-150 pounds at birth.
Shires have been used for every discipline from warhorse, farming, commercial carriage and wagon driving, commercial logging, dressage, trail riding and breeding.
The Shire horse registry of England was established in 1878. The first Shires were imported from England to the United States around the middle of the 18th century. The American Shire-Horse Registry was established in 1888.
There are approximately 4,000 registered English Shire horses left in the world today. If they were not domesticated animals, they well could be on the endangered species list.
The Diamond Z Shire Ranch;
Ree and Renn Zaphiropoulos are the owners of the Diamond Z English Shire-Horse Ranch, located 15 miles west of Cedar City, in Iron County, southwestern Utah.
Renn grew up in the Suez Canal area in North Africa, where his Greek father was a sea captain piloting vessels in the International Canal Zone. Renn joined the Greek Navy. After his discharge, he attended a Greek University then immigrated to the United States in 1945. He attended Lehi University majoring in physics. In 1969, Renn started his own business called Hi-Tech Imagery. He later sold this business and became a senior vice –president of Xerox Corporation. During his time in the high-tech world, he met his wife Ree, who was from California, and they married. They built a home in the Bay Area, and planned to spend the rest of their lives in California.
Ree and Renn came to Cedar City, Utah for the first time in 1988 to visit Ree’s sister who was living in the area. At that time, they were living in California
While visiting in the Cedar City in 1988, Renn began to think seriously about moving to the area. Renn liked what he saw in the Cedar City countryside: no traffic, clean air, and horses, cows, and sheep grazing contentedly in pasture lands along Cedar Mountain. When he mentioned that he would like to look into moving to this area, his wife thought he had lost his mind. His wife, Ree, said, ”What are we going to do in Cedar City, Utah?” Ree had grown up with horses when she was a young girl in California and had always loved being around them. Renn said, “We could move to Cedar City and you could have your own horse to ride.” Renn knew how to get his wife’s attention. He looked around and asked Ree’s sister if there was any land for sale.
In that same year, the Zaphiropoulos made a trip to England and happened to go by the Basque Museum. These people make great beer in England, and use Shire horses. While visiting this museum, they came upon their first live English Shire Horse. When Renn saw this horse up close he said, ” Now that is real horse!” This trip to England and seeing the English Shire horses changed the Zaphiropoulos’ lives forever.
The couple returned to the United States. Renn had retired from Xerox, and was still doing some part-time consulting work for companies around the United States. They found some land west of Cedar City for sale, sold their home in the Bay Area of California, and moved to Utah. They began by building a house, barn, and corrals.
At first, they had only quarter horses since Ree liked to barrel race. However, Renn kept thinking about the Shire Horses he had seen in England. They contacted Thomas Smrt, a Shire horse breeder who had more English Shire Horses in America than any other person.. He and his horses lived outside of Chicago, Illinois. The Zaphiropoulos’ traveled to Illinois and purchased their first Shire horses from this source.
Chris Hone, Shire Hitch Driver/Trainer:
Now that they had their Shire horses, what were they going to do with them?
Renn said, “We found out you get these animals that are pulling animals, you don’t ride them. That got us interested in carriages and wagons. Since I have done a lot of working with wood in the past, I got very interested in building and restoring old wagons and it has been a wonderful and enjoyable time of my life.”
They also decided that they needed to hire a trainer/driver who could handle these magnificent draft horses. They tried several men and then Chris Hone came into their world.
Chris Hone is a native of Utah. He moved to the Cedar City area when he was a youngster and started to gallop racehorses on the track for local racehorse owners. He also cowboyed around the country and was always around horses. He later became a jockey and raced horses on the track. As he grew older and his weight began to increase, he became a racehorse trainer and trained horses full-time on the track for a number of years.
Chris then went to work for a sheet metal company in Cedar City and was raising a family. One day he was working at the Diamond Z Ranch doing sheet metal work on the Zaphiropoulos house,
The fellow who was taking care of The Diamond Z horses at this time was moving to Oregon. He told Chris that the owners of the Diamond Z Shire horses were looking for someone to take over his job.
Chris had no previous experience with driving or harnessing draft horse teams. He talked with Renn and Ree and they said that they would give him a try. The fellow who was leaving gave him one harnessing lesson, handed him the driving reins and said” Good luck.”
Chris went to work for the Diamond Z. At the time Chris took over, there were four English Shire Horses on the ranch. He looked at photos and read everything he could about draft horses. He talked with men who had driven draft horse teams around the Cedar City area. He began to experiment with the four Shire horses at the ranch.
He hooked up the horses on a training cart and began to learn to harness and drive. He spent days in the corral by himself “reading” these horses and began to understand their body language. He found that the sound of his voice was very important in getting these horses to step out, turn, stop and back up.. His driving and harnessing skills were improving each day. He began to take the horses outside on the back roads of the ranch and began to really learn to drive a draft horse team.
Chris Hone is one of those special people who was meant to be around horses. He has what is called in the horse world “horse sense” and can read horse’s personalities. Chris Hone is a real horse hand!
Renn, Ree, and Chris decided it was time to put their Shire horses out where the public could see and enjoy them. The first parade they remember being in was the Iron County Fair, in Cedar City, Utah. The horses worked great, the parade spectators loved them, and from then on, they were on their way.
They expanded their Shire horse herd and upgraded their equipment. They bought bigger horse trailers and bigger trucks to pull them. They ordered a set of custom-made collars and show harness from a harness maker in Wisconsin. They then went back to the Mr. Smrt in Illinois and bought a couple of Shire geldings and a Shire stud. They began to raise Shire colts of their own.
They were then invited to drive their team in the Day’s of 47 Parade in Salt Lake City, Utah. This parade is the sixth largest parade in the United States and they only allow twenty horse entries. By this time, they were hooking up six horses. They had the stud, geldings, and mares all hooked together. These horses all got along fine with no problems.
Since then, the Diamond Z Shire hitch has appeared in many national parades, rodeos, and many educational endeavors. The Shires have appeared in Nevada, Arizona, Wyoming, Utah, Idaho, and Canada. Some of the bigger events they have attended were: Flagstaff PRCA rodeo and parade, Flagstaff, Arizona; Ute Stampede PRCA rodeo, Nephi, Utah; Ketchum, Idaho’s Wagon Days Parade; Calgary Stampede Parade, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Cheyenne Frontier Days Parade, Cheyenne, Wyoming; Snake River Stampede Rodeo Parade, in Idaho; National Basque Festival Parade, Elko, Nevada; Silver State PRCA Rodeo, Elko, Nevada; Jackson Hole Parade, Jackson Hole, Wyoming; and other rodeos and parades around the west.
The Diamond Z ranch personnel and horses also participate in many educational programs, including Future Farmers of America, community functions, grammar, and high school and university field trips to the Diamond Z Ranch.
Starting Colts and Training:
Now that the Diamond Z was in the colt raising business, someone needed to start these Shire Draft colts to drive. Chris took to these colts. He had started a number of racehorses and ranch-horse colts in the past so he tried some of his colt training methods on these Shires.
He began by moving the horses around the pen, then catching and putting a halter on them. He tried, at first, to use an alleyway then a round pen made out of livestock panels. These horses were so athletic he could not keep them from jumping out of the panel round pen. So he got the owners to purchase a real round pen where the walls slope out to keep the horse from rubbing the rider’s leg on the inside wall and the walls are high enough to keep the horses inside the round pen. He began to pick up the colts’ feet and climb on their backs. Soon he had the colts gentle enough that he could get a harness on. Then he hooked up the colts with a older Shire horse that was well-broke and began to drive the colts using a driving training cart.
He had to put shoes on these horses. Chris’s brother, Ron Hone, who lives in Rawlins, Wyoming is a horseshoer and, between these two men, they began to experiment how to put horse shoes on these large animals. The shoes needed to be heated and shaped as the feet on these animals were too large to buy commercial horseshoes that would fit. Chris teaches the horses to stand, untied, when they are being shod and harnessed. All shoes are barium treated on the bottoms to keep the horses from slipping on the pavement and asphalt in parades.
After driving these draft colts in the arena, he hooked up and went outside. He would put the colt on the inside next to the shoulder of the road and go down the highway meeting trucks, haying equipment and anything else that used the busy highway outside the ranch. The colts would soon pay no attention to traffic and noise along the highway. All of this driving and pre-conditioning work was very important if you are taking your team and wagon to parades. Ree says, “To do parades safely, you must have, horses and a driver you can trust, first class harness and wagons with good brakes.” It also helps, I may add, if you are fearless in doing all this, as driver Chris Hone appears to be.
The Shire Hitch:
The Shire hitch horses are between five and fourteen years old. The Diamond Z horses are hitched in a variety of ways. Chris has trained these Shire horses, to be interchangeable in the hitch, which is very unusual. They do not often use the traditional six-horse, same horses in the same place configuration. Chris and Renn have come up with some unusual hitch combinations. They prefer doing unusual hook ups with their horses. They do a three on the wheel, two and three, or three and three. They also do a unicorn hitch with a single horse out in front, two next and then three as the wheel team. (The wheel team is the set of horses that are hooked up nearest to the wagon in a traditional horse hitch). They do use “out-walkers” or “out-riders” at some parades. These people walk or ride alongside the hitch for safety in case of an emergency with the horses, harness, and wagon.
Renn is a master at working with wood and has built and restored many wagons and carriages on the ranch. The hitch wagon that is used in most parades was commissioned and built in Ash Grove, Missouri in 1989. A special set of tugs in the middle allows three horses to be hitched up on the wheel. This special hitch wagon weighs 2500 pounds.
At the present time there are 15 English Shire Horses that Chris is working with at the Diamond Z Ranch.
The ranch began a crossbreeding program around 1997. They crossed the Shire with a Thoroughbred horse. This cross produced some excellent horses.
In May of 2002, the Zaphiropoulos’ donated four Shire/ Thoroughbred-cross horses to the United States Army, 3rd Infantry (Old Guard) Caisson Platoon at Fort Meyer, Virginia. This unit pulls the caissons that are used to put our nation’s heroes to rest. Another Shire/thoroughbred-cross horse was donated to the Washington, D.C. police force to be used for crowd control. All of these horses have worked out well at their new homes.
The Future The Zaphiropoulos’ goal with their Shire Horses is to expose the public and their children to these magnificent horses. Renn says, "Don’t try to make a business out of a hobby. It is not something that is efficient and the emphasis is not in finishing it. One cannot charge enough money to pay for the time spent. In life, it is not the end, but the journey you have that counts."
The Diamond Z hitch is always well received and the owners and driver love to discuss these wonderful English Shire Horses with anyone that is interested.
Lee and I wish to thank the Diamond Z personnel for their gracious hospitality and friendship during our visit to their ranch.
Renn Zaphiropoulos passed away August 19, 2013, at the age of 87, in Cedar City, Utah. He was born September 20, 1925, in Port Said, Egypt, to Leonides and Galatia Michalopoulos Zaphiropoulos. He immigrated to the United States in 1945 at age 19. He held a BS Degree in Engineering, and a MS Degree in Engineering Physics. He received three honorary doctorates, had 29 patents, and was the author of Entrepreneurial Wisdom.
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0.23666998744010... | 2 | The Shire Horse Breed
The Shire horse, developed in England, traces its history back to the days of the Roman Conquest and is one of the oldest of the draft breeds. The name "Shire" also comes from England, derived from the Saxon word "schyran," which means to shear or divide. The name "Shire," means “county.” King Henry VIII first applied the name "Shire" to the horse early in the 16th century.
The Shire horse breed began over 1,000 years ago and includes blood from Belgians, Horses of Flanders and in the 18th Century, Friesians. Like the other standard draft breeds, the Shire was improved by the infusion of outside blood at various times in history. Records exist, dating back nearly 1000 years. During this time outside blood continued to influence the breed since a breed registry did not hamper breeders and no limits were imposed.
The Shire horse was the warhorse of England, used by knights in the middle ages. The Shire horse is the purest survivor of an early type that was spoken of as “The Great Horse.” A large, athletic, powerful horse with plenty of stamina was needed to carry the weight of mounted soldiers wearing their heavy battle armor. These horses’ riders could weigh in excess of 400 pounds.
For the past centuries, Shire horses have delivered beer daily in the City Streets of London and performed agricultural tasks on farms throughout the English countryside. They are gentle giants, docile and kind, and have a strong desire to form a bond with the people who handle them. They easily weigh 1800 to 2,000 pounds or more and some stand well over 18 hands. (A “hand” is four inches, the span of a man’s hand, and is measured from the highest point on the horse’s withers, the top of its shoulders, to the ground. That computes to an 18.2 hand high horse will be 6 feet, 2 inches tall at the withers)
Shires come in several different colors. Some may be black, bay, or gray. They usually have a blaze face and some white markings on their lower legs and feet. A characteristic feature of the Shire breed is abundant hair (called feathers) below the knees and hocks. Their foals will weigh 125-150 pounds at birth.
Shires have been used for every discipline from warhorse, farming, commercial carriage and wagon driving, commercial logging, dressage, trail riding and breeding.
The Shire horse registry of England was established in 1878. The first Shires were imported from England to the United States around the middle of the 18th century. The American Shire-Horse Registry was established in 1888.
There are approximately 4,000 registered English Shire horses left in the world today. If they were not domesticated animals, they well could be on the endangered species list.
The Diamond Z Shire Ranch;
Ree and Renn Zaphiropoulos are the owners of the Diamond Z English Shire-Horse Ranch, located 15 miles west of Cedar City, in Iron County, southwestern Utah.
Renn grew up in the Suez Canal area in North Africa, where his Greek father was a sea captain piloting vessels in the International Canal Zone. Renn joined the Greek Navy. After his discharge, he attended a Greek University then immigrated to the United States in 1945. He attended Lehi University majoring in physics. In 1969, Renn started his own business called Hi-Tech Imagery. He later sold this business and became a senior vice –president of Xerox Corporation. During his time in the high-tech world, he met his wife Ree, who was from California, and they married. They built a home in the Bay Area, and planned to spend the rest of their lives in California.
Ree and Renn came to Cedar City, Utah for the first time in 1988 to visit Ree’s sister who was living in the area. At that time, they were living in California
While visiting in the Cedar City in 1988, Renn began to think seriously about moving to the area. Renn liked what he saw in the Cedar City countryside: no traffic, clean air, and horses, cows, and sheep grazing contentedly in pasture lands along Cedar Mountain. When he mentioned that he would like to look into moving to this area, his wife thought he had lost his mind. His wife, Ree, said, ”What are we going to do in Cedar City, Utah?” Ree had grown up with horses when she was a young girl in California and had always loved being around them. Renn said, “We could move to Cedar City and you could have your own horse to ride.” Renn knew how to get his wife’s attention. He looked around and asked Ree’s sister if there was any land for sale.
In that same year, the Zaphiropoulos made a trip to England and happened to go by the Basque Museum. These people make great beer in England, and use Shire horses. While visiting this museum, they came upon their first live English Shire Horse. When Renn saw this horse up close he said, ” Now that is real horse!” This trip to England and seeing the English Shire horses changed the Zaphiropoulos’ lives forever.
The couple returned to the United States. Renn had retired from Xerox, and was still doing some part-time consulting work for companies around the United States. They found some land west of Cedar City for sale, sold their home in the Bay Area of California, and moved to Utah. They began by building a house, barn, and corrals.
At first, they had only quarter horses since Ree liked to barrel race. However, Renn kept thinking about the Shire Horses he had seen in England. They contacted Thomas Smrt, a Shire horse breeder who had more English Shire Horses in America than any other person.. He and his horses lived outside of Chicago, Illinois. The Zaphiropoulos’ traveled to Illinois and purchased their first Shire horses from this source.
Chris Hone, Shire Hitch Driver/Trainer:
Now that they had their Shire horses, what were they going to do with them?
Renn said, “We found out you get these animals that are pulling animals, you don’t ride them. That got us interested in carriages and wagons. Since I have done a lot of working with wood in the past, I got very interested in building and restoring old wagons and it has been a wonderful and enjoyable time of my life.”
They also decided that they needed to hire a trainer/driver who could handle these magnificent draft horses. They tried several men and then Chris Hone came into their world.
Chris Hone is a native of Utah. He moved to the Cedar City area when he was a youngster and started to gallop racehorses on the track for local racehorse owners. He also cowboyed around the country and was always around horses. He later became a jockey and raced horses on the track. As he grew older and his weight began to increase, he became a racehorse trainer and trained horses full-time on the track for a number of years.
Chris then went to work for a sheet metal company in Cedar City and was raising a family. One day he was working at the Diamond Z Ranch doing sheet metal work on the Zaphiropoulos house,
The fellow who was taking care of The Diamond Z horses at this time was moving to Oregon. He told Chris that the owners of the Diamond Z Shire horses were looking for someone to take over his job.
Chris had no previous experience with driving or harnessing draft horse teams. He talked with Renn and Ree and they said that they would give him a try. The fellow who was leaving gave him one harnessing lesson, handed him the driving reins and said” Good luck.”
Chris went to work for the Diamond Z. At the time Chris took over, there were four English Shire Horses on the ranch. He looked at photos and read everything he could about draft horses. He talked with men who had driven draft horse teams around the Cedar City area. He began to experiment with the four Shire horses at the ranch.
He hooked up the horses on a training cart and began to learn to harness and drive. He spent days in the corral by himself “reading” these horses and began to understand their body language. He found that the sound of his voice was very important in getting these horses to step out, turn, stop and back up.. His driving and harnessing skills were improving each day. He began to take the horses outside on the back roads of the ranch and began to really learn to drive a draft horse team.
Chris Hone is one of those special people who was meant to be around horses. He has what is called in the horse world “horse sense” and can read horse’s personalities. Chris Hone is a real horse hand!
Renn, Ree, and Chris decided it was time to put their Shire horses out where the public could see and enjoy them. The first parade they remember being in was the Iron County Fair, in Cedar City, Utah. The horses worked great, the parade spectators loved them, and from then on, they were on their way.
They expanded their Shire horse herd and upgraded their equipment. They bought bigger horse trailers and bigger trucks to pull them. They ordered a set of custom-made collars and show harness from a harness maker in Wisconsin. They then went back to the Mr. Smrt in Illinois and bought a couple of Shire geldings and a Shire stud. They began to raise Shire colts of their own.
They were then invited to drive their team in the Day’s of 47 Parade in Salt Lake City, Utah. This parade is the sixth largest parade in the United States and they only allow twenty horse entries. By this time, they were hooking up six horses. They had the stud, geldings, and mares all hooked together. These horses all got along fine with no problems.
Since then, the Diamond Z Shire hitch has appeared in many national parades, rodeos, and many educational endeavors. The Shires have appeared in Nevada, Arizona, Wyoming, Utah, Idaho, and Canada. Some of the bigger events they have attended were: Flagstaff PRCA rodeo and parade, Flagstaff, Arizona; Ute Stampede PRCA rodeo, Nephi, Utah; Ketchum, Idaho’s Wagon Days Parade; Calgary Stampede Parade, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Cheyenne Frontier Days Parade, Cheyenne, Wyoming; Snake River Stampede Rodeo Parade, in Idaho; National Basque Festival Parade, Elko, Nevada; Silver State PRCA Rodeo, Elko, Nevada; Jackson Hole Parade, Jackson Hole, Wyoming; and other rodeos and parades around the west.
The Diamond Z ranch personnel and horses also participate in many educational programs, including Future Farmers of America, community functions, grammar, and high school and university field trips to the Diamond Z Ranch.
Starting Colts and Training:
Now that the Diamond Z was in the colt raising business, someone needed to start these Shire Draft colts to drive. Chris took to these colts. He had started a number of racehorses and ranch-horse colts in the past so he tried some of his colt training methods on these Shires.
He began by moving the horses around the pen, then catching and putting a halter on them. He tried, at first, to use an alleyway then a round pen made out of livestock panels. These horses were so athletic he could not keep them from jumping out of the panel round pen. So he got the owners to purchase a real round pen where the walls slope out to keep the horse from rubbing the rider’s leg on the inside wall and the walls are high enough to keep the horses inside the round pen. He began to pick up the colts’ feet and climb on their backs. Soon he had the colts gentle enough that he could get a harness on. Then he hooked up the colts with a older Shire horse that was well-broke and began to drive the colts using a driving training cart.
He had to put shoes on these horses. Chris’s brother, Ron Hone, who lives in Rawlins, Wyoming is a horseshoer and, between these two men, they began to experiment how to put horse shoes on these large animals. The shoes needed to be heated and shaped as the feet on these animals were too large to buy commercial horseshoes that would fit. Chris teaches the horses to stand, untied, when they are being shod and harnessed. All shoes are barium treated on the bottoms to keep the horses from slipping on the pavement and asphalt in parades.
After driving these draft colts in the arena, he hooked up and went outside. He would put the colt on the inside next to the shoulder of the road and go down the highway meeting trucks, haying equipment and anything else that used the busy highway outside the ranch. The colts would soon pay no attention to traffic and noise along the highway. All of this driving and pre-conditioning work was very important if you are taking your team and wagon to parades. Ree says, “To do parades safely, you must have, horses and a driver you can trust, first class harness and wagons with good brakes.” It also helps, I may add, if you are fearless in doing all this, as driver Chris Hone appears to be.
The Shire Hitch:
The Shire hitch horses are between five and fourteen years old. The Diamond Z horses are hitched in a variety of ways. Chris has trained these Shire horses, to be interchangeable in the hitch, which is very unusual. They do not often use the traditional six-horse, same horses in the same place configuration. Chris and Renn have come up with some unusual hitch combinations. They prefer doing unusual hook ups with their horses. They do a three on the wheel, two and three, or three and three. They also do a unicorn hitch with a single horse out in front, two next and then three as the wheel team. (The wheel team is the set of horses that are hooked up nearest to the wagon in a traditional horse hitch). They do use “out-walkers” or “out-riders” at some parades. These people walk or ride alongside the hitch for safety in case of an emergency with the horses, harness, and wagon.
Renn is a master at working with wood and has built and restored many wagons and carriages on the ranch. The hitch wagon that is used in most parades was commissioned and built in Ash Grove, Missouri in 1989. A special set of tugs in the middle allows three horses to be hitched up on the wheel. This special hitch wagon weighs 2500 pounds.
At the present time there are 15 English Shire Horses that Chris is working with at the Diamond Z Ranch.
The ranch began a crossbreeding program around 1997. They crossed the Shire with a Thoroughbred horse. This cross produced some excellent horses.
In May of 2002, the Zaphiropoulos’ donated four Shire/ Thoroughbred-cross horses to the United States Army, 3rd Infantry (Old Guard) Caisson Platoon at Fort Meyer, Virginia. This unit pulls the caissons that are used to put our nation’s heroes to rest. Another Shire/thoroughbred-cross horse was donated to the Washington, D.C. police force to be used for crowd control. All of these horses have worked out well at their new homes.
The Future The Zaphiropoulos’ goal with their Shire Horses is to expose the public and their children to these magnificent horses. Renn says, "Don’t try to make a business out of a hobby. It is not something that is efficient and the emphasis is not in finishing it. One cannot charge enough money to pay for the time spent. In life, it is not the end, but the journey you have that counts."
The Diamond Z hitch is always well received and the owners and driver love to discuss these wonderful English Shire Horses with anyone that is interested.
Lee and I wish to thank the Diamond Z personnel for their gracious hospitality and friendship during our visit to their ranch.
Renn Zaphiropoulos passed away August 19, 2013, at the age of 87, in Cedar City, Utah. He was born September 20, 1925, in Port Said, Egypt, to Leonides and Galatia Michalopoulos Zaphiropoulos. He immigrated to the United States in 1945 at age 19. He held a BS Degree in Engineering, and a MS Degree in Engineering Physics. He received three honorary doctorates, had 29 patents, and was the author of Entrepreneurial Wisdom.
Search Cowboy Showcase | 3,587 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why was Rosa Parks any different from other black people who wouldn't give up their seat?
She wasn't the first black person to refuse to get up for a white person, so why was it when she did it, a movement started. I'm glad it did, but what was it about her that made her any different than the many others before her that just got arrested for it, with nothing significant ever coming from it?
- USAFisnumber1Lv 75 months agoFavorite Answer
One girl fought the cops and they charged her with resisting arrest. The NAACP could not very well defend that. Another one had a father who was a well known drunk. That would not have played well to the press. So they sent in their shill, Rosa, with clear instructions not to fight the cops. Since she had a clean record (and a history of working for the NAACP) she was used as the test case. Good that you know she was not the first....keep up on the facts.
- xyzzyLv 75 months ago
Rosa Parks was not just some black lady who would not give up her seat on a bus.The whole thing was planed. At the time, Parks was secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. She had recently attended the Highlander Folk School, a Tennessee center for training activists for workers' rights and racial equality. She acted as a private citizen "tired of giving in" Black activists had begun to build a case to challenge state bus segregation laws around the arrest of a 15-year-old girl, Claudette Colvin, a student at Booker T. Washington High School in Montgomery. On March 2, 1955, Colvin was handcuffed, arrested and forcibly removed from a public bus when she refused to give up her seat to a white man. At the time, Colvin was an active member in the NAACP Youth Council; Rosa Parks was an advisor. f E. D. Nixon, president of the local NAACP chapter and a member of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. Nixon intended that her arrest be a test case to allow Montgomery's black citizens to challenge segregation on the city's public buses. With this goal, community leaders had been waiting for the right person to be arrested, a person who would anger the black community into action, who would agree to test the segregation laws in court, and who, most importantly, was "above reproach". When Colvin was arrested in March 1955, Nixon thought he had found the perfect person, but the teenager turned out to be pregnant. Nixon later explained, "I had to be sure that I had somebody I could win with." Parks was a good candidate because of her employment and marital status, along with her good standing in the community.
- AthenaLv 75 months ago
She just chose to take a stand, get arrested, and force the issue.
Civil disobedience is an important tool but it must be used right.
You have to choose the right victim for "THE MAN" to come down on.
It has to be sympathetic for the rest of the world to get upset about it.
- 5 months ago
Because the blacks have never rallied around other members of the black community to boycott the bus corporation that was deemed responsible for Parks humiliation. It was the first time ever that the blacks have taken concerted action against the perceived institutional racism of the American South.
This marked a turning point in the Black civil rights movement in the USA.
- How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer.
- geraldLv 75 months ago
like the young lady advocating climate change there is something about them that inspires people like Trump the other way and Hitler
- Anonymous5 months ago
Because she was friends with (among others) Martin Luther King and other black activists.
She wasn't the first black person to give up her seat, and the boycott that followed was not the first one in the US, or in Montgomery.
What made her case different was it came after a landmark ruling in the case of Brown v Board of Education, where the court outlawed segregation in schools and thereby undermined its legal legitimacy in other areas. That case was brought by National Association for the Advancement of Colored People who took up Park's case and the rest is history.
It was more a matter of the time having come and it could have been anyone, but Rosa was a sympathetic figure in contrast to the white bus driver, Fred Blake
- The First DragonLv 75 months ago
First she was a member of the NAACP, which was a lot more intelligent in those days than it is now. So she was well aware of the political and social issues involved, as well as the legal implications, and how to behave during an act of civil disobedience. She was smart and calm, yet assertive. In other words, she was a good litigant.
She had no criminal record, and did not lose her temper. And she had the connections to get the legal help she needed in order to fight this unjust law.
- rustbucketLv 65 months ago
She put her life on the line and paid dearly for it. | <urn:uuid:96a12fdb-77a6-4e7e-bfcc-d16eab63e56f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20190823032640AAosHev | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00081.warc.gz | en | 0.985938 | 1,052 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0.020525885745... | 1 | Why was Rosa Parks any different from other black people who wouldn't give up their seat?
She wasn't the first black person to refuse to get up for a white person, so why was it when she did it, a movement started. I'm glad it did, but what was it about her that made her any different than the many others before her that just got arrested for it, with nothing significant ever coming from it?
- USAFisnumber1Lv 75 months agoFavorite Answer
One girl fought the cops and they charged her with resisting arrest. The NAACP could not very well defend that. Another one had a father who was a well known drunk. That would not have played well to the press. So they sent in their shill, Rosa, with clear instructions not to fight the cops. Since she had a clean record (and a history of working for the NAACP) she was used as the test case. Good that you know she was not the first....keep up on the facts.
- xyzzyLv 75 months ago
Rosa Parks was not just some black lady who would not give up her seat on a bus.The whole thing was planed. At the time, Parks was secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. She had recently attended the Highlander Folk School, a Tennessee center for training activists for workers' rights and racial equality. She acted as a private citizen "tired of giving in" Black activists had begun to build a case to challenge state bus segregation laws around the arrest of a 15-year-old girl, Claudette Colvin, a student at Booker T. Washington High School in Montgomery. On March 2, 1955, Colvin was handcuffed, arrested and forcibly removed from a public bus when she refused to give up her seat to a white man. At the time, Colvin was an active member in the NAACP Youth Council; Rosa Parks was an advisor. f E. D. Nixon, president of the local NAACP chapter and a member of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. Nixon intended that her arrest be a test case to allow Montgomery's black citizens to challenge segregation on the city's public buses. With this goal, community leaders had been waiting for the right person to be arrested, a person who would anger the black community into action, who would agree to test the segregation laws in court, and who, most importantly, was "above reproach". When Colvin was arrested in March 1955, Nixon thought he had found the perfect person, but the teenager turned out to be pregnant. Nixon later explained, "I had to be sure that I had somebody I could win with." Parks was a good candidate because of her employment and marital status, along with her good standing in the community.
- AthenaLv 75 months ago
She just chose to take a stand, get arrested, and force the issue.
Civil disobedience is an important tool but it must be used right.
You have to choose the right victim for "THE MAN" to come down on.
It has to be sympathetic for the rest of the world to get upset about it.
- 5 months ago
Because the blacks have never rallied around other members of the black community to boycott the bus corporation that was deemed responsible for Parks humiliation. It was the first time ever that the blacks have taken concerted action against the perceived institutional racism of the American South.
This marked a turning point in the Black civil rights movement in the USA.
- How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer.
- geraldLv 75 months ago
like the young lady advocating climate change there is something about them that inspires people like Trump the other way and Hitler
- Anonymous5 months ago
Because she was friends with (among others) Martin Luther King and other black activists.
She wasn't the first black person to give up her seat, and the boycott that followed was not the first one in the US, or in Montgomery.
What made her case different was it came after a landmark ruling in the case of Brown v Board of Education, where the court outlawed segregation in schools and thereby undermined its legal legitimacy in other areas. That case was brought by National Association for the Advancement of Colored People who took up Park's case and the rest is history.
It was more a matter of the time having come and it could have been anyone, but Rosa was a sympathetic figure in contrast to the white bus driver, Fred Blake
- The First DragonLv 75 months ago
First she was a member of the NAACP, which was a lot more intelligent in those days than it is now. So she was well aware of the political and social issues involved, as well as the legal implications, and how to behave during an act of civil disobedience. She was smart and calm, yet assertive. In other words, she was a good litigant.
She had no criminal record, and did not lose her temper. And she had the connections to get the legal help she needed in order to fight this unjust law.
- rustbucketLv 65 months ago
She put her life on the line and paid dearly for it. | 1,066 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Miss Pitchford: September 2017
What a busy week it has been in Base 1! We have started looking at the book Stuck by Oliver Jeffers in literacy. We started by looking just at the front cover and making predictions about what we thought the story might be about. There were some lovely ideas about what the little boy might get stuck up the tree and the children were able to link their ideas to personal experiences! When we eventually got to peek inside the book we discovered it was a kite that got stuck in the tree. Amazingly we found some kites stuck in the trees in our woodland area and so after rescuing them we were able to write down some advice for Floyd, the character in the story.
In maths we have made a great start on our place value work. We are practising counting forwards and backwards everyday and making sure we can do this starting from any given number. We have worked on representing numbers in different ways this week as well as filling in some missing number sequences. The Y1 children are becoming really confident with there numbers 0-20 whilst the reception children are working on numbers 0-5.
We have had our first PE session this week (thank you for labelling all of your children's clothes so clearly, it is a huge help!) as well as a session of gymnastics. The children really enjoyed both of these activities and listened really well to instructions throughout. We have also worked to develop our class charter this week. I was really proud of how the children worked together to come up with rules for our classroom that will make it a lovely place to be. It was very clear how important it was to the children to make sure that everyone in our classroom knows that they matter. We all 'signed' our charter with a colourful handprint to say that we agree to try our very best all year — including myself and Mrs Griffin!
I hope you have all had a lovely weekend!
popular recent articlesAlso in the news
Busy bees again in Base 5. In English we have been learning about the etymology of words- we discovered that many words stemmed from the Ancient Greeks! In maths we have really been developing our knowledge of decimals and fractions- we are becoming experts! We have also had great fun in our music lessons, learning new songs and singing in two parts- well done everyone. We have also be en...
A huge effort from all of our pupils this week. Everyone has been working hard to show our achieve behaviours. Very well done to all our achieve, star learner and reading award winners.Congratulations to Red Team for earning the most house points and Base 1 for winning the golden ticket with 98.5 %...
What a wonderful first week back we had in Base 4!We've been studying Viking and Anglo-Saxon artwork, learning how most of it was found on tools, clothes, armour and everyday objects. We studied the different designs, including some of the important shapes and symbols used to design our own printing blocks. We even had a go at cutting lino using special tools.We've started to look... | <urn:uuid:019004d8-25c1-4c9e-9b1d-febc0c066639> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wrenburyschool.org.uk/school-news/base-1-news-september.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00519.warc.gz | en | 0.981975 | 629 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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What a busy week it has been in Base 1! We have started looking at the book Stuck by Oliver Jeffers in literacy. We started by looking just at the front cover and making predictions about what we thought the story might be about. There were some lovely ideas about what the little boy might get stuck up the tree and the children were able to link their ideas to personal experiences! When we eventually got to peek inside the book we discovered it was a kite that got stuck in the tree. Amazingly we found some kites stuck in the trees in our woodland area and so after rescuing them we were able to write down some advice for Floyd, the character in the story.
In maths we have made a great start on our place value work. We are practising counting forwards and backwards everyday and making sure we can do this starting from any given number. We have worked on representing numbers in different ways this week as well as filling in some missing number sequences. The Y1 children are becoming really confident with there numbers 0-20 whilst the reception children are working on numbers 0-5.
We have had our first PE session this week (thank you for labelling all of your children's clothes so clearly, it is a huge help!) as well as a session of gymnastics. The children really enjoyed both of these activities and listened really well to instructions throughout. We have also worked to develop our class charter this week. I was really proud of how the children worked together to come up with rules for our classroom that will make it a lovely place to be. It was very clear how important it was to the children to make sure that everyone in our classroom knows that they matter. We all 'signed' our charter with a colourful handprint to say that we agree to try our very best all year — including myself and Mrs Griffin!
I hope you have all had a lovely weekend!
popular recent articlesAlso in the news
Busy bees again in Base 5. In English we have been learning about the etymology of words- we discovered that many words stemmed from the Ancient Greeks! In maths we have really been developing our knowledge of decimals and fractions- we are becoming experts! We have also had great fun in our music lessons, learning new songs and singing in two parts- well done everyone. We have also be en...
A huge effort from all of our pupils this week. Everyone has been working hard to show our achieve behaviours. Very well done to all our achieve, star learner and reading award winners.Congratulations to Red Team for earning the most house points and Base 1 for winning the golden ticket with 98.5 %...
What a wonderful first week back we had in Base 4!We've been studying Viking and Anglo-Saxon artwork, learning how most of it was found on tools, clothes, armour and everyday objects. We studied the different designs, including some of the important shapes and symbols used to design our own printing blocks. We even had a go at cutting lino using special tools.We've started to look... | 631 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rosa Parks was a very important figure in the Civil Rights Movement even though she really did not mean to be so important. She basically just stood up for herself when she was tired of being treated wrongly just because of the color of her skin. She refused a simple request by a bus driver to give up her seat on a bus after she had put in a long day of work. Sometimes it only takes one person to stand up for herself to make other people take notice of how wrong things are. Rosa’s had important qualities that made her special. She was humble, hard-working and determined. What made Rosa Parks humble has a lot to do with her background. She was brought up during a time when black people were not treated fairly. She had to learn how to read from her mother, and she went to a segregated school that did not have all the supplies that it would have had if it were a white school.. The white schools had transportation provided to them, but the segregated black school kids had to walk to school. This made going to school even harder for them. She had to quit school at a young age to take care of her sick grandmother. So she did not have it easy as a young girl and she learned to be humble, but she knew she deserved better treatment and that it was not fair for her to be treated different just because she was not white. She was someone who was hare-working. She went to school regularly until she was forced to quit in order to take care of her sick grandmother and then her sick mother. She had to go to work at a factory in Montgomery. She earned her high school diploma later which shows her commitment to education. She co-founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for self-development. Here she works with 11 to 17 year olds to help them understand the history of civil rights. She worked for Congressman, John Conyers, and she also wrote an autobiography. She was also a determined person. She spent a lifetime of being treated different because she was black and she saw that separate but equal was still not fair. She had to live with the daily frustrations of not having the same access to things. She had to drink from separate water fountains, she had to go to school that did not have as many supplies, and she didn’t have access to the same libraries as white people. She also showed that she was determined by joining the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (the NAACP) even th ough her husband didn’t think it was a safe thing for her to do. He was worried that she wouldn’t be safe if she joined, but she did it anyway. Her big move was when she refused to give up her seat to a white person. She was willing to go to jail for this cause. An what she did began the Montgomery Bus Boycott which was very important to help black Americans gain civil rights. It was a brave move for her to be stand up for herself and be willing to get in legal trouble. So many other people just did what was expected of them, but she stood up for herself. Rosa Parks did so much for the advancement of black Americans with one small act of bravery. She could have stopped there but she did not. She used her experience on the bus along with her experiences living as a black American to continue making a difference for the rest of her life. She work in the government. She worked to help young people learn more about the Underground Railroad, and she wrote about her personal experiences so people would know where she was coming from. All of these things together made her a person who made a difference in U.S. History. She is someone worth admiring and remembering. What she did on the bus was just a part of a very important legacy that changed things for many people. | <urn:uuid:c8d38032-e693-4083-845d-e9a77a4143e8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://shakespearecomputer.com/rosa-of-her-skin-she-refused-a-simple/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.997078 | 781 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.1959615... | 3 | Rosa Parks was a very important figure in the Civil Rights Movement even though she really did not mean to be so important. She basically just stood up for herself when she was tired of being treated wrongly just because of the color of her skin. She refused a simple request by a bus driver to give up her seat on a bus after she had put in a long day of work. Sometimes it only takes one person to stand up for herself to make other people take notice of how wrong things are. Rosa’s had important qualities that made her special. She was humble, hard-working and determined. What made Rosa Parks humble has a lot to do with her background. She was brought up during a time when black people were not treated fairly. She had to learn how to read from her mother, and she went to a segregated school that did not have all the supplies that it would have had if it were a white school.. The white schools had transportation provided to them, but the segregated black school kids had to walk to school. This made going to school even harder for them. She had to quit school at a young age to take care of her sick grandmother. So she did not have it easy as a young girl and she learned to be humble, but she knew she deserved better treatment and that it was not fair for her to be treated different just because she was not white. She was someone who was hare-working. She went to school regularly until she was forced to quit in order to take care of her sick grandmother and then her sick mother. She had to go to work at a factory in Montgomery. She earned her high school diploma later which shows her commitment to education. She co-founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for self-development. Here she works with 11 to 17 year olds to help them understand the history of civil rights. She worked for Congressman, John Conyers, and she also wrote an autobiography. She was also a determined person. She spent a lifetime of being treated different because she was black and she saw that separate but equal was still not fair. She had to live with the daily frustrations of not having the same access to things. She had to drink from separate water fountains, she had to go to school that did not have as many supplies, and she didn’t have access to the same libraries as white people. She also showed that she was determined by joining the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (the NAACP) even th ough her husband didn’t think it was a safe thing for her to do. He was worried that she wouldn’t be safe if she joined, but she did it anyway. Her big move was when she refused to give up her seat to a white person. She was willing to go to jail for this cause. An what she did began the Montgomery Bus Boycott which was very important to help black Americans gain civil rights. It was a brave move for her to be stand up for herself and be willing to get in legal trouble. So many other people just did what was expected of them, but she stood up for herself. Rosa Parks did so much for the advancement of black Americans with one small act of bravery. She could have stopped there but she did not. She used her experience on the bus along with her experiences living as a black American to continue making a difference for the rest of her life. She work in the government. She worked to help young people learn more about the Underground Railroad, and she wrote about her personal experiences so people would know where she was coming from. All of these things together made her a person who made a difference in U.S. History. She is someone worth admiring and remembering. What she did on the bus was just a part of a very important legacy that changed things for many people. | 771 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is a series on the Saints and Martyrs who lived close to Jesus.
We are starting with Saint Crispoldus and Saint Joanna.
Saint Crispoldus was the first Bishop of Bettona in Italy, and he was a native of Jerusalem. According to a legendary story, he was one of the chosen disciples who would save the world (according to Luke 10). Therefore, as one of Jesus’s disciples, he is known for the miracles he did. For example, it is said that he cured a man possessed by a demon. On a different occasion, he cured Valerius, and after that many people turned to Christianity. He is also known to kill a wolf that daunted people, which earned him favor among others.Saint Crispoldus refused to honor and worship idols; therefore, he was arrested. He persistently refused to offer sacrifice to pagan gods and was finally executed together with his friend. His sister and 12 other women were also arrested when they attempted to give Crispoldus a proper Christian burial
. Unfortunately, they were executed.His memorial is observed on May 12.
Saint Joanna was Chuza’s wife, King Herod Antipa’s steward. Along with Mary and other women, they provided for Jesus and his disciples. Joanna and the other women used their personal resources and connections in different cities and villages in the Holy Land, while Jesus and his disciples travelled and preached.St. Joanna was also one of the women who came to the tomb with spices to prepare his body for burial. However, by the time she and the other women arrived, they found that the stone had been moved and that the body was missing.Her feast day is observed on May 24. | <urn:uuid:47c27483-f147-4e4d-9c13-b3bc22fad67d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thesalvationgarden.org/jerusalems-saints/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00444.warc.gz | en | 0.990523 | 360 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.03203718364238739... | 1 | This is a series on the Saints and Martyrs who lived close to Jesus.
We are starting with Saint Crispoldus and Saint Joanna.
Saint Crispoldus was the first Bishop of Bettona in Italy, and he was a native of Jerusalem. According to a legendary story, he was one of the chosen disciples who would save the world (according to Luke 10). Therefore, as one of Jesus’s disciples, he is known for the miracles he did. For example, it is said that he cured a man possessed by a demon. On a different occasion, he cured Valerius, and after that many people turned to Christianity. He is also known to kill a wolf that daunted people, which earned him favor among others.Saint Crispoldus refused to honor and worship idols; therefore, he was arrested. He persistently refused to offer sacrifice to pagan gods and was finally executed together with his friend. His sister and 12 other women were also arrested when they attempted to give Crispoldus a proper Christian burial
. Unfortunately, they were executed.His memorial is observed on May 12.
Saint Joanna was Chuza’s wife, King Herod Antipa’s steward. Along with Mary and other women, they provided for Jesus and his disciples. Joanna and the other women used their personal resources and connections in different cities and villages in the Holy Land, while Jesus and his disciples travelled and preached.St. Joanna was also one of the women who came to the tomb with spices to prepare his body for burial. However, by the time she and the other women arrived, they found that the stone had been moved and that the body was missing.Her feast day is observed on May 24. | 353 | ENGLISH | 1 |
F. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE AMERICAS
There were three great civilizations in what is now Central America and South America that developed before the arrival of the Europeans. One of the civilizations, the Maya, actually began around the time of the major classical civilizations and were discussed in the previous chapter. The other two civilizations, the Incas and Aztecs, were conquered by the Europeans after 1450. They will be discussed again in the next chapter. That said, we are including all three of them in this chapter so that you can review the cultural characteristics of these three civilizations in one place. We’ll talk about their conquests in the next chapter.
Mayan Decline: Where Did They Go?
As a review, the Maya were organized in city-states ruled by a single king. Their largely agricultural peasant population was bound to nobility by ties of loyalty and religion. They occupied poorly drained lowlands in Central America and adapted by building terraces to trap the silt drained by numerous rivers. Some of these cities grew to be quite sizable—10,000 to 40,000 inhabitants, and engaged in long-distance trade as far north as central Mexico. But the cities were often at odds with one another and in Mayan territory, war was about capturing slaves or sacrificial victims.
The decline of the Maya remains a source of debate. They began to abandon their cities around 800 C.E. Environmental degradation and overuse of land, political dissension and social unrest, natural disaster, and outside invaders have all been proposed as causes of their decline.
The Aztecs: Trade and Sacrifice
The Aztecs, also known as the Mexica, arrived in central Mexico in the mid-1200s and built their capital at Tenochtitlan (modern-day Mexico City). More than anything else, the Aztecs are known for their expansionist policy and professional army, which allowed them to dominate nearby states and demand heavy taxes and captives. Warriors were the elite in the Aztec social structure (the majority of the people were peasants and slaves). Through conquest and alliances, the Aztecs built an empire of some 12 million people. But despite the huge size, they didn’t use a bureaucratic form of government. The conquered areas were generally allowed to govern themselves, as long as they paid the tribute demanded of them. Roads were built to link the far-flung areas of the huge empire, and trade flourished.
Aztec women had a subordinate public role but could inherit property. Like women in most all other traditional civilizations, Aztec women were primarily charged with running the household, but they were also involved in skilled crafts, especially weaving, and—to some extent—in commerce.
Notably, the Aztec religious system was tied to the military because one of the purposes of the military was to obtain victims for human sacrifice. Tens of thousands of men and women were killed annually; many would be sacrificed simultaneously for an important religious occasion, such as the dedication of a new temple.
Compare Them: The Aztec Civilization and the Roman Empire
Although the Aztecs and Romans developed large civilizations, continents and centuries apart, they were similar in at least two major respects. First, they tied together their vast empires by building roads. Second, they generally allowed the people they conquered to govern themselves, as long as they paid their taxes or tributes. Because of the improved transportation systems (roads) and the diversity of cultures under their control, both the Aztecs and the Romans were able to adapt ideas from the people they conquered and use them for their own purposes. In other words, the Aztecs and the Romans were conquerors, but also borrowers.
The Incas: My Land Is Your Land
The Inca Empire, set in the Andes Mountains in Peru, was also expansionist in nature. At its zenith, it is thought to have controlled more than 2,000 miles of South American coastline. The Incas controlled this territory using a professional army, an established bureaucracy, a unified language, and a complex system of roads and tunnels.
Like the Maya (and the Aztecs), the Incas had no large animals, so the prime source of labor was human. A large proportion of the population was peasants, who worked the land or on construction projects. They were expected to give a proportion of their harvest to support the ruling classes and to provide famine relief. These surpluses eventually became large enough to support large cities. The capital at Cuzco may have had as many as 300,000 people in the late 1400s.
Incan women were expected to help work the fields, weave cloth, and care for the household. They could pass property on to their daughters and even played a role in religion. The Incas were polytheistic, but the sun god was the most important and was at the center of the state religion. Like the Aztecs, the Incas practiced human sacrifice, but in much smaller numbers, usually choosing instead to sacrifice material goods or animals. Incan religion also had a very strong moral quality, emphasizing rewards for good behavior and punishments for bad. Like the Egyptians, Incan rulers were mummified after death and became intermediaries between the gods and the people.
For the Incas, the concept of private property didn’t exist. Rather, the ruler was viewed as having descended from the sun and therefore owning everything on Earth. The military was very important because each new ruler needed to ensure his place in eternity by securing new land, and that meant conquest. There was a state bureaucracy, manned by the nobility, which controlled the empire by traveling on a complex system of roads.
The Inca were excellent builders, stone cutters, and miners. Their skills are evident from the ruins of the Temple of the Sun in Cuzco and the temples of Machu Picchu. They never developed a system of writing. However, they were able to record census data and keep an accounting of harvests on quipu, a set of knotted strings. | <urn:uuid:602e0808-fc66-464e-8d2e-fd61f7ce8f9c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://erenow.net/exams/ap2013wh/32.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00187.warc.gz | en | 0.98534 | 1,242 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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There were three great civilizations in what is now Central America and South America that developed before the arrival of the Europeans. One of the civilizations, the Maya, actually began around the time of the major classical civilizations and were discussed in the previous chapter. The other two civilizations, the Incas and Aztecs, were conquered by the Europeans after 1450. They will be discussed again in the next chapter. That said, we are including all three of them in this chapter so that you can review the cultural characteristics of these three civilizations in one place. We’ll talk about their conquests in the next chapter.
Mayan Decline: Where Did They Go?
As a review, the Maya were organized in city-states ruled by a single king. Their largely agricultural peasant population was bound to nobility by ties of loyalty and religion. They occupied poorly drained lowlands in Central America and adapted by building terraces to trap the silt drained by numerous rivers. Some of these cities grew to be quite sizable—10,000 to 40,000 inhabitants, and engaged in long-distance trade as far north as central Mexico. But the cities were often at odds with one another and in Mayan territory, war was about capturing slaves or sacrificial victims.
The decline of the Maya remains a source of debate. They began to abandon their cities around 800 C.E. Environmental degradation and overuse of land, political dissension and social unrest, natural disaster, and outside invaders have all been proposed as causes of their decline.
The Aztecs: Trade and Sacrifice
The Aztecs, also known as the Mexica, arrived in central Mexico in the mid-1200s and built their capital at Tenochtitlan (modern-day Mexico City). More than anything else, the Aztecs are known for their expansionist policy and professional army, which allowed them to dominate nearby states and demand heavy taxes and captives. Warriors were the elite in the Aztec social structure (the majority of the people were peasants and slaves). Through conquest and alliances, the Aztecs built an empire of some 12 million people. But despite the huge size, they didn’t use a bureaucratic form of government. The conquered areas were generally allowed to govern themselves, as long as they paid the tribute demanded of them. Roads were built to link the far-flung areas of the huge empire, and trade flourished.
Aztec women had a subordinate public role but could inherit property. Like women in most all other traditional civilizations, Aztec women were primarily charged with running the household, but they were also involved in skilled crafts, especially weaving, and—to some extent—in commerce.
Notably, the Aztec religious system was tied to the military because one of the purposes of the military was to obtain victims for human sacrifice. Tens of thousands of men and women were killed annually; many would be sacrificed simultaneously for an important religious occasion, such as the dedication of a new temple.
Compare Them: The Aztec Civilization and the Roman Empire
Although the Aztecs and Romans developed large civilizations, continents and centuries apart, they were similar in at least two major respects. First, they tied together their vast empires by building roads. Second, they generally allowed the people they conquered to govern themselves, as long as they paid their taxes or tributes. Because of the improved transportation systems (roads) and the diversity of cultures under their control, both the Aztecs and the Romans were able to adapt ideas from the people they conquered and use them for their own purposes. In other words, the Aztecs and the Romans were conquerors, but also borrowers.
The Incas: My Land Is Your Land
The Inca Empire, set in the Andes Mountains in Peru, was also expansionist in nature. At its zenith, it is thought to have controlled more than 2,000 miles of South American coastline. The Incas controlled this territory using a professional army, an established bureaucracy, a unified language, and a complex system of roads and tunnels.
Like the Maya (and the Aztecs), the Incas had no large animals, so the prime source of labor was human. A large proportion of the population was peasants, who worked the land or on construction projects. They were expected to give a proportion of their harvest to support the ruling classes and to provide famine relief. These surpluses eventually became large enough to support large cities. The capital at Cuzco may have had as many as 300,000 people in the late 1400s.
Incan women were expected to help work the fields, weave cloth, and care for the household. They could pass property on to their daughters and even played a role in religion. The Incas were polytheistic, but the sun god was the most important and was at the center of the state religion. Like the Aztecs, the Incas practiced human sacrifice, but in much smaller numbers, usually choosing instead to sacrifice material goods or animals. Incan religion also had a very strong moral quality, emphasizing rewards for good behavior and punishments for bad. Like the Egyptians, Incan rulers were mummified after death and became intermediaries between the gods and the people.
For the Incas, the concept of private property didn’t exist. Rather, the ruler was viewed as having descended from the sun and therefore owning everything on Earth. The military was very important because each new ruler needed to ensure his place in eternity by securing new land, and that meant conquest. There was a state bureaucracy, manned by the nobility, which controlled the empire by traveling on a complex system of roads.
The Inca were excellent builders, stone cutters, and miners. Their skills are evident from the ruins of the Temple of the Sun in Cuzco and the temples of Machu Picchu. They never developed a system of writing. However, they were able to record census data and keep an accounting of harvests on quipu, a set of knotted strings. | 1,249 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay Early River Valley Civilizations BY rkellY9331 Some of the earliest civilizations on Earth were the Early River Valley Civilizations. All of these civilizations existed between 3500 and 1500 BCE. Three of these civilizations, China, Sumer, and Egypt shared many characteristics. Among these common characteristics were the development of agriculture through irrigation, the importance of religion in society, and the form of government they shared. The first characteristic these civilizations shared was the development of agriculture in their society through irrigation.
The use of irrigation is most obvious in Ancient China here they would use various canals and water systems to flood fields, allowing them to farm rice. In Sumer the land was extremely fertile, but during the dry summers agriculture would have never been possible. Irrigation allowed the Sumerians to use the land to its fullest potential. The development of basin irrigation, a way of controlling the rise and fall of the Nile, allowed the Egyptians to prosper by farming crops such as barley and wheat.
The development of agriculture through irrigation had a profound effect on these early civilizations and on the world as a whole. Another characteristic these civilizations shared was the importance of religion in all facets of their society. An example in Chinese society of religion was the debate of Daoism versus Confucianism, and how it constantly affected society. The debate affected everything in the society from gender relations to the way the Chinese were governed. You can see how religiously centered the people of Sumer were as each city-state had their own patron god.
The civilization that was most easily recognized as having heavy religious influence was Egypt. In Egypt the pharaoh, their version of king, was treated as an earthly god and was constantly worshipped as such. Religion shaped the ways many of these societies functioned. The final characteristic these societies shared was a monarchy form of government, which was believed to have power from divine sources. In ancient China the importance of dynasties led by an emperor is very clear, a dynasty is when rule is passed down through a family.
Chinese dynasties kept their rule by the Mandate of Heaven, which said an emperor’s reign, would be blessed if the gods were pleased. However, if heaven was not pleased disasters such as floods occurred and the people quickly dethroned the mperor. Sumer is famous for its city-states, which were areas that consisted ofa city and the surrounding countryside, which were ruled by an independent king. In Egypt perhaps the most famous rulers of all time reigned, the pharaohs. The pharaohs lived lives of extravagance and were treated as earthly gods.
The government of these early civilizations made an impact on government that can still be seen today throughout the world. The civilizations of China, Sumer, and Egypt certainly have many differences, but their similarities are most important. Many of the similarities such as the development of agriculture through irrigation, the mportance of religion to societies, and the form of government have lingered through history and some still continue to affect areas of the world today.
Irrigation is still crucial to agriculture even in the United States today. Religions are Just as important in countries today, most notably in the Middle East. Monarchy is still a form of government in Saudi Arabia and other countries throughout the world. Although the world is very different today from when the Early River Valley Civilizations existed their similarities have left a lasting impression on the way life is today. | <urn:uuid:4b29ca2b-76ff-49e0-ae6d-51d695061094> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://indybedbugpros.com/essay-early-river-valley-civilizations-299/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00482.warc.gz | en | 0.984874 | 704 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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-0.030926765... | 1 | Essay Early River Valley Civilizations BY rkellY9331 Some of the earliest civilizations on Earth were the Early River Valley Civilizations. All of these civilizations existed between 3500 and 1500 BCE. Three of these civilizations, China, Sumer, and Egypt shared many characteristics. Among these common characteristics were the development of agriculture through irrigation, the importance of religion in society, and the form of government they shared. The first characteristic these civilizations shared was the development of agriculture in their society through irrigation.
The use of irrigation is most obvious in Ancient China here they would use various canals and water systems to flood fields, allowing them to farm rice. In Sumer the land was extremely fertile, but during the dry summers agriculture would have never been possible. Irrigation allowed the Sumerians to use the land to its fullest potential. The development of basin irrigation, a way of controlling the rise and fall of the Nile, allowed the Egyptians to prosper by farming crops such as barley and wheat.
The development of agriculture through irrigation had a profound effect on these early civilizations and on the world as a whole. Another characteristic these civilizations shared was the importance of religion in all facets of their society. An example in Chinese society of religion was the debate of Daoism versus Confucianism, and how it constantly affected society. The debate affected everything in the society from gender relations to the way the Chinese were governed. You can see how religiously centered the people of Sumer were as each city-state had their own patron god.
The civilization that was most easily recognized as having heavy religious influence was Egypt. In Egypt the pharaoh, their version of king, was treated as an earthly god and was constantly worshipped as such. Religion shaped the ways many of these societies functioned. The final characteristic these societies shared was a monarchy form of government, which was believed to have power from divine sources. In ancient China the importance of dynasties led by an emperor is very clear, a dynasty is when rule is passed down through a family.
Chinese dynasties kept their rule by the Mandate of Heaven, which said an emperor’s reign, would be blessed if the gods were pleased. However, if heaven was not pleased disasters such as floods occurred and the people quickly dethroned the mperor. Sumer is famous for its city-states, which were areas that consisted ofa city and the surrounding countryside, which were ruled by an independent king. In Egypt perhaps the most famous rulers of all time reigned, the pharaohs. The pharaohs lived lives of extravagance and were treated as earthly gods.
The government of these early civilizations made an impact on government that can still be seen today throughout the world. The civilizations of China, Sumer, and Egypt certainly have many differences, but their similarities are most important. Many of the similarities such as the development of agriculture through irrigation, the mportance of religion to societies, and the form of government have lingered through history and some still continue to affect areas of the world today.
Irrigation is still crucial to agriculture even in the United States today. Religions are Just as important in countries today, most notably in the Middle East. Monarchy is still a form of government in Saudi Arabia and other countries throughout the world. Although the world is very different today from when the Early River Valley Civilizations existed their similarities have left a lasting impression on the way life is today. | 702 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The role of the First Lady has been around since Martha Washington’s husband, George Washington was sworn into office. Although the title was not yet established, the role was largely the same. They are the hostess of the White House and typically the wife of the president. But over the centuries, the position has grown and evolved. Today, the First Lady has much more power than ever before — and much more responsibility. Take a look back to see the women who have held the position of First Lady, how they influenced the role, and how others depicted them.
Martha Jefferson Never Saw Her Husband Become President
Born October 30, 1748, Martha Jefferson was the wife to Thomas Jefferson, which would have made her the third First Lady of the United States. Together, the two shared six children although only two daughters made it to adulthood and one surviving until 25. Weakened from the childbirth of their last child, she passed away in 1782, decades before her husband took office.
Although she was never officially the First Lady, she is still considered to be one since Jefferson kept his promise that he would never remarry. Although this portrait may seem appropriate in a contemporary art museum, it’s unlikely that you’ll find it in the White House.
Frances Cleveland Was The First To Be Married In The White House
Frances Cleveland was First Lady to Grover Cleveland from 1886 to 1889 and again from 1893 to 1897. She became First Lady at 21-years-old, making her the youngest wife ever of a sitting president. She was married to Grover on June 2, 1886, at the White House, the only time that a president has been married inside of the Executive Mansion. Frances becoming First Lady was a huge ordeal for the press, with her charm winning the popularity of the people.
She was known to host two receptions each week for the women who had jobs to come and relax. Although she earned the reputation of a great First Lady, this portrait makes it seem that she didn’t enjoy the job as much as she appeared to.
Edith Roosevelt Was A Force To Be Reckoned With
Wife to Theodore Roosevelt, Edith was the Second Lady of the United States in 1901. Then, that same year, Theodore came into the Presidency, in which she became the First Lady. Edith was the first in her position to employ a full-time, salaried social secretary. She also went on to create an office staff, and her formal ceremonial precession and dinners helped to elevate the position of the First Lady.
She is also rumored to have had a lot of influence over Theodore’s decisions and he respected her opinion. Considering all of the things that Edith did as First Lady, this portrait seems incredibly appropriate. She looks confident, regal, ambitious, ready to take on the world.
Betty Ford Was A Huge Advocate On Political Issues
Betty Ford was the First Lady of the United States from 1974 to 1977 as the wife of Gerald Ford, the 38th president. However, being a figure in the White House was not new to her, as she was Second Lady from 1973 to 1974. As First Lady, she was active in social policy and was well-liked except for some conservatives who thought that she held some overly liberal positions on social issues.
She was a strong advocate of the Equal Rights Amendment and was a leader in the Women’s Movement. In regards to her political views and bravery to speak her mind, this seems to be a fitting picture for Betty and is undoubtedly something that Gerald would have kept on his desk.
Martha Washington Didn’t Want George To Become The First President
Being George Washington’s wife, Martha Washington was the first-ever First Lady of the United States although the term wasn’t coined until after her death. After the Revolutionary War, Martha made it clear that she didn’t want George to take over the position as the first president of the young United States of America. She didn’t even attend the inauguration on April 30, 1789.
However, after George assumed office, she began to host affairs in New York and Philadelphia which became known as “the Republican Court.” Acknowledging that Martha wasn’t thrilled about her husband becoming president, it makes sense that she looks very solemn and almost annoyed in this portrait.
Letitia Tyler Passed Away In The White House
Letitia met John Tyler in 1808, and after five years and three weeks before their wedding, Tyler finally kissed her, on the hand. The two were married on Tyler’s 23rd birthday at her family’s home in Cedar Grove. They were married for 29 years, and she was shyly by his side during his rise in the political sphere even though she preferred to care for the children.
She became the First Lady in 1841 until her untimely death in 1842. She was the first First Lady to die in the White House and passed away peacefully from a stroke. Although she is described as a loving and caring women, it appears that she didn’t like to have people paint her by the looks of this portrait.
Julia Grant Took Her Role Seriously
Before becoming the First lady to Ulysses S. Grant, Julia Grant traveled and stayed with her husband during the American Civil War, covering more than 10,000 miles in four years. She became a huge part of his presidential campaign and upon becoming First Lady, took on the role with pride, hosting lavish dinners as well as informal receptions. Moreover, she added prestige to her role and worked to improve the stature of other wives with powerful husbands.
She was a respected First Lady who took her role seriously. However, when it comes to portraits, you’ll rarely find one of her looking straight forward. She was born with crossed eyes and was self-conscious of it although his husband told her never to get them fixed or he might not love her as much.
Pat Nixon Was The First For A Lot Of Things
Thelma “Pat” Nixon was the 37th First Lady of the United States and wife to Richard Nixon. During her 30 years in the public eye, she served as both the First and Second Lady. She increased the role as Second Lady and insisted on visiting schools, hospitals, and making her presence known to the public. As First Lady, she was well-known for her volunteerism and charitable deeds.
Not only did she do the most renovating in the White House, collecting over 600 historical paintings and furnishing, she is also the first presidential wife to ever go into a combat zone. Since she was First Lady in a time of relative technology, it’s curious why she had a rather old-fashioned portrait done of her when a photograph would have been much more reasonable.
Hilary Clinton Had A Career Before Becoming First Lady
Although a politician herself, Hilary Clinton served as First Lady from 1993 to 2001. She was the only First Lady to have earned a postgraduate degree as well as have her own professional degree before stepping into the White House. During her stay, she had an office in the West Wing, which was never done before as well as the First Lady office in the East Wing.
After Eleanor Roosevelt, she is described as one of the most empowered and influential First Ladies in the history of the United States. Some people found her involvement in the presidency to be inappropriate and even called Bill’s time in the office as a co-presidency. As much as she may have contributed, the artist of this portrait must not have liked her very much.
Mamie Eisenhower Was All Style
Mamie Eisenhower was the wife to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and the First Lady of the United States from 1953 to 1961. While Eisenhower was still active in the military, she would move around the world with him frequently wherever he was assigned. As First, Lady Mamie entertained an impressive amount of world leaders and diplomats. She was known for being extraordinarily well-dressed and was named one of the twelve best-dressed women in the United States by New York Dress Institute every year that she was First Lady.
However, she did not like that the Kennedy’s were moving into the White House the next presidential term and was outright rude to Jacqueline Kennedy. From the portrait, it does seem that Mamie could be capable of doing such a thing.
Bess Truman Didn’t Enjoy The Position
Bess Truman served as the Second and First Lady of the United States for her husband Harry Truman who was president from 1945 to 1953. Unlike some other First Ladies, Bess did not enjoy all of the responsibilities and lack of privacy that come with the position.
By the end of the 1953 term, she couldn’t be happier to return to her normal routine and have some privacy back in her life. She currently holds the record for the longest-lived First Lady and the longest-lived Second Lady at 97 years and 247 days. From her portrait, it’s very clear that she wasn’t enjoying herself at the time.
Florence Harding Was The First Wife Of A President To Vote
While Warren G. Harding was President of the United States between 1921 and 1923, Florence served as the First Lady. She was known as “The Dutchess” and assimilated nicely into life in the White House. She took an active roll in politics and had no problem disciplining Harding. She was not quiet when it came to her opinions but had a special agenda regarding health care and war veterans.
She was also the first First Lady to vote, operate a film camera, own a radio, and even invite film stars to visit the White House. Although it may not appear so, Florence thoroughly enjoyed and took advantage of her time in the White House.
Ellen Wilson Used Her Art To Help
Before marrying President Woodrow Wilson, Ellen studied at the Art Students League of New York, a passion that she would carry with her for the rest of her life. As First Lady, she made an art studio on the third floor of the White House. There, she devoted her time to art and donated much of it to charity. Although she was not fully devoted to her role as the First Lady, her parties were still a success.
She even convinced her husband that it was a good idea to invite influential legislators over to dinner as a way of wooing them. She passed away in the White House in 1914 of Bright’s disease. Since she was an artist, it’s a wonder why this would be her portrait. Maybe there’s more artistic value than we can decipher.
Eliza Johnson Wasn’t Around Much
Married to Andrew Johnson, Eliza was the 17th First Lady of the United States. The two married in 1827 in which Eliza is described as being far more intelligent and even teaching him subjects such as mathematics and how to write. As First Lady, she supported her husband’s political career, yet shied away from making public appearances. After Johnson was sworn in, she couldn’t perform the duties of the First Lady, as she was ill with tuberculosis.
However, when she was in better health, she made only two public appearances. One at the reception for Queen Emma of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the other for the president’s birthday party in 1867.
Abigail Adams Had A Major Influence On Her Husband’s Policies
Abigail Adams was the wife of President John Adams, his closest advisor, and the mother of John Quincey Adams. At times, she has even been described as a Founder of the United States as well. Although the titles did not exist at the time, she has since been recognized as the first Second Lady and the second First Lady of the United States.
Abigail’s time as First Lady was well-documented, with many letters sent and received from John discussing politics, government, and the Revolutionary War. As First Lady, she was known to hold large dinners each week and took an active role in politics. She was also the original First Lady to ever move into the White House, known as the President’s House back then.
Jacqueline Kennedy Set The Bar For Future First Ladies
Wife to president John F. Kennedy, Jacqueline was the 35th First Lady. As First Lady, she was well known for being a fashion trendsetter and was the first presidential wife to ever have her own press secretary. In the media, she was portrayed as the ideal woman, perfect wife, and a great mother who attracted positive attention worldwide. However, she was also described as “creating an unrealistic media expectation for First Ladies that would challenge her successors.”
Considering all of the positive things said about Jacqueline, this particular portrait of her isn’t exactly flattering. It looks like something out of an Edgar Allen Poe story and would be unsettling to have anywhere around the house.
Julia Tyler Was Married During John’s Presidency
Julia Tyler was the tenth First Lady of the United States between 1841 to 1845 and the second wife of John Tyler. Julia and John were married in Philadelphia during John’s presidency and had a reception at the White House. While John Tyler was often exhausted, Julia took it upon herself to make the best of her role as First Lady.
During her stay, she established that “Hail to the Chief” be played to announce the arrival of the President. It finally became a fully-established practice after her successor Sarah Polk enforced the same tradition. In her last month as First Lady, she held a ball for 3,000 guests, a historical number at the time.
Mary Lincoln Was First Lady During The Hardest Time In American History
Mary Lincoln was the wife to President Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States. With the nation embroiled in the Civil War during her time as First Lady, Mary was subjected to the many hardships regarding the breaking of the Union. She firmly supported her husband and his decisions no matter the backlash that the two received from them.
Today, it has been assumed that Mary had bipolar disorder, which is explained by her manic behavior, frivolous spending, and public outbursts. Although she was known to spend a lot of money on White House events, she is credited as being the First Lady in one of the country’s most dire times. This portrait is a look into how Mary must have been feeling during that time.
Lucy Hayes Modernized The White House
Wife of Rutherford B. Hayes, Lucy was the first First Lady ever to have a college degree. She was an advocate for African Americans and even invited the first professional African American musician to the White House. Historians have labeled her as “Lemonade Lady” for her support of the temperance movement. This might also explain the yellow flowers displayed in her portrait.
However, it wasn’t Lucy who banned alcohol from the White House, but her husband. As First Lady, Lucy also made many renovations including the installations of bathrooms with running water and the White House’s first telephone.
Eleanor Roosevelt Changed The Role Of The First Lady
Eleanor Roosevelt was the First lady to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s four terms in the White House. Harry S. Truman described her as the “First Lady of the World” for her human rights achievements. Although she did many great things with her position, she was a controversial First Lady for her outspokenness and policies on radical issues.
After Franklin became sick with polio, Eleanor frequently made appearances in his place. By doing this, she completely revolutionized the role of the First Lady. At times, she even publicly disagreed with her husband’s policies, demonstrating her confidence and her view on the position and responsibility of the First Lady.
Dolley Payne Madison Believed Both Political Parties Could Socialize Together
Dolley Madison, the wife of James Madison, who was president of the United States from 1809 until 1817. She is best known for hosting Washing parties where she invited both political parties. She is even credited for helping to inspire the idea of bipartisan cooperation before the term was ever first used.
Although politics at the time were ruthless, much as they are today, she pushed the idea that they could at least socialize and network cordially with one another in a controlled environment. Her insight on how politics should be and her actions helped to define the role of the First Lady.
Elizabeth Monroe Fell Ill During Her Husband’s Presidency
Following Dolley Madison, Elizabeth was the wife of James Monroe who held the presidency between 1817 and 1825. Since the White House was still under construction during Madison’s presidency, she hosted the inaugural ball at their private residence and resided in the Octogan house at times.
Although she was relatively liked during her husband’s second term, she paled in comparison to her predecessor Dolley Madison who was adored by all. Elizabeth eventually fell too ill to continue with her duties as First Lady and many of the responsibilities were passed to her daughters.
Anna Harrison Was Only First Lady For A Month
Anna Harrison was the wife of William Henry Harrison and grandmother of future President Benjamin Harrison. Technically, she was First Lady for one month, the span of her husband’s presidency in 1841. Although she never even entered the White House, she is the oldest woman to ever become First Lady at the age of 65.
She also has the title of being the First Lady for the shortest amount of time, first to be widowed in the position, and the last First Lady to ever be born in British America. Although she wasn’t in the position for long, she set some impressive records.
Sarah Polk Banned Numerous Things From The White House
Sarah Childress Polk was the wife of the 11th President of the United States James K. Polk. She became First Lady in 1845 and has been described as charming, witty, and very social. President Polk opening discussed political matters with her as she’d been a confidant for the majority of his political career.
However, she was a devout Presbyterian and banned dancing, card games, and hard liquor and official events. Polk was nicknamed “Sahara Sarah” for her dry events although there have been instances when wine was served extensively at some White House events.
Abigail Fillmore was the wife of Millard Fillmore, making her both the Second and First Lady of the United States between 1849 to and 1853. After injuring her ankle that never healed properly, she was unable to stand for extended periods of time. Because of this, she assigned many of the physical duties to her younger daughter Abby who could stand for hours greeting guests and walking around.
After moving into the White House, she learned that there was no library and was approved $2,000 by Congress to create one, which she dedicated much of her life to doing. Her husband valued her opinion greatly and they would often correspond when he wasn’t there.
Louisa Adam’s Health Issues Made Being First Lady A Hard Affair
Louisa Adams was the wife of John Quincey Adams and was the First lady from 1825 to 1829. She was the daughter of the American Consul in London making her the first First Lady to be born outside of the United States or the 13 Colonies. She held that title until Melania Trump became First Lady in 2016.
As First Lady, she was prone to depression and would often be in solitude writing music, reading, and enjoying other quiet activities. Yet, she did take care of the necessary entertainments although she regretted ever marrying into Adam’s family and a life of politics.
Margaret Taylor Wanted Her Husband To Lose The Race For The Presidency
Wife of Zachary Taylor, Margaret was the First Lady of the United States from 1849 to 1850.As Zachary Taylor’s political career began to show serious promise, she prayed that her husband would fail. She dreaded the idea of him becoming president and the kind of toll that would take on the relationship between her and her husband and on Zachary himself.
By the time that Zachary was sworn into office, she was completely drained from following him on his campaign trail and wanted no more of it. So, she mostly remained in seclusion and let their daughter Betty Bliss perform most of the First Lady duties.
Jane Pierce Hated That Her Husband Was President
Wife to President Franklin Pierce, she was First Lady from 1853 to 1857. When the Democratic party nominated Pierce to be their candidate for president, she almost fainted. Although the couple had affection for each other, they were known to fight especially regarding the presidency.
Their young son Benny was killed in a train accident earlier in the year before Pierce’s swearing-in which Jane took as a sign from God that the presidency was the wrong thing to do. She did not attend the inauguration and spent her time as First Lady distancing herself from the presidency altogether.
Lucretia Garfield Had An Impactful Yet Short-Lived Time As First Lady
Lucretia Garfield was the wife of James A. Garfield, the 20th President of the United States. However, she was only the First Lady from March to September in 1881. She is regarded as being highly intelligent and very involved in the workings of the Republican Party.
Unfortunately, at one point, she contracted malaria and was forced to go to Long Branch, New Jersey for some time. During her time as First Lady, she was generally well-liked and also a close advisor to her husband. After her husband was shot in July 1881, he spent two months holding on until he finally passed away.
Wife of Benjamin Harrison, Caroline served as First Lady from 1889 up until her death in 1892. The First Family was joined by other relatives while living in the White House, making her attempt to enlarge the mansion but was unsuccessful. However, she was given $35,000 from Congress to make renovations and made up-to-date improvements as she saw fit.
She was the first to raise a Christmas tree in the White House which is still an ongoing tradition as well as introduced orchids which are also still used during political functions. In 1891, became sick with tuberculosis and passed away in 1892.
Michelle Obama Makes Family History
The former First Lady Michelle Obama had a lot of people to thank when her portrait was revealed. The strong figure that she is was captured in art form perfectly by Baltimore artist Amy Sherald. Children were awestruck after they saw it the first time in person.
“As you may have guessed, I don’t think there is anybody in my family who has ever had a portrait done let alone a portrait that will be hanging in the National Gallery, at least as far as I know,” Michelle said.
George W. Bush and his wife Laura had amazing portraits made for them. Laura was a big fan of hers, as she should be. The artist did an amazing job at rendering the former First Lady. Some call it the Mona Lisa of portraits.
When asked about it, Laura had an interesting response: “Nothing makes a house a home like having portraits of its former occupants staring down at you from the walls. I like it a whole lot better than that bobblehead doll.”
The Other Bush, Barbara
Now, it’s tough to establish if this is a good or bad portrait. If there was one good thing about it that you notice right away, its the dog coming up to her lap. If you want to be hypercritical then things could get bad.
For now, we won’t get into that. We will only appreciate her beautiful sign of aging showing by the color of her hair. The pearls around her neck are also a plus. Some might not like this, whereas others think the world of it.
The Lady In Red, Nancy Reagan
As far as portraits go, this one is for sure a winner. The candid look coupled with the long red dress is picture perfect. She may not be staring at anything in particular, but the painting is done so well it makes you want to look at whatever she sees.
“I was not a great fan of hers, but I admire how steadfast she was,”Janet Roberts said. “I do admire what she did for Alzheimer’s. … As a first lady, she just didn’t disappear into the background,”
It’s time to roll up the sleeves and analyze this one. Whoever the artist was who created this did a subpar job. The color of Rosalynn Carter’s shirt is nice, but that’s about it as far as nice goes.
The face she has isn’t very inspiring at all. Is she going for a half smile, half serious face? Whatever it is, it isn’t getting the job done. If Carter liked it, then that’s all good. If she didn’t we hope she expressed her displeasure.
Lou Hoover Was a Cultivated Scholar and Linguist
Lou Hoover served as the FLOTUS from 1929 to 1933. While Herbert Hoover had an impressive resume, Lou did too. She was a cultivated scholar and linguist and studied Latin, Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, German, Italian, and French.
If Lou looks confident in this portrait, it’s because she was — and rightfully so and she was the first FLOTUS to do a handful of impressive things. Not only was she the first first lady to speak an Asian language, but the first to make regular nationwide radio broadcasts. Today, her portrait hangs in the Vermeil Room of the White House.
Ellen “Nell” Arthur’s Promising Political Career Was Cut Short
Ellen “Nell” Arthur was the wife of the 21st President, Chester A. Arthur — but Nell was never able to live out her full potential as FLOTUS.
Nell died of pneumonia just months before her husband was sworn into office. While she was still living, Chester was serving as Vice President but succeeded to the presidency after James Garfield was assassinated. Before her passing, Nell and Chester were a power couple known for their significant social connections with elite New York City families.
Ida McKinley Suffered a Seizure At Her Husband’s Inaugural Ball
This portrait of first lady Ida McKinley looks serene, but her life was far from it. The wife of president William McKinley, Ida suffered from epilepsy and other illnesses, both physical and mental.
When Ida’s mother and two daughters passed away within a short span of time, her temperament changed. She became fragile and nervous and developed epilepsy causing her to be totally dependant on her husband and others around her. She even suffered a seizure at his inaugural ball as Ohio Governor. She spent the remainder of her life trying to keep busy by crocheting slippers.
Helen Taft Made Numerous Contributions To The White House
If it weren’t for the White House peeking out from behind the shrubs, you might think this was a portrait of a Royal. While she may look like royalty, this is actually Helen Taft, wife of William Taft, the 27th President of the United States.
Contrary to what her portrait might imply, Helen was hard-working and made many lasting contributions to the White House. She was an opponent of the Prohibition movement and entertained White House guests with alcohol. She was also the first lady to drive a car as well as the first to support women’s suffrage.
Edith Wilson Took Over Routine Duties of The Executive Branch
Edith Wilson lived in an interesting life. Formerly known as Edith Galt met, she Woodrow Wilson after both of them were newly widowed. The two married and Edith assumed her duties as FLOTUS — but not before rumors circulated that she had murdered Wilson’s former wife.
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... | 3 | The role of the First Lady has been around since Martha Washington’s husband, George Washington was sworn into office. Although the title was not yet established, the role was largely the same. They are the hostess of the White House and typically the wife of the president. But over the centuries, the position has grown and evolved. Today, the First Lady has much more power than ever before — and much more responsibility. Take a look back to see the women who have held the position of First Lady, how they influenced the role, and how others depicted them.
Martha Jefferson Never Saw Her Husband Become President
Born October 30, 1748, Martha Jefferson was the wife to Thomas Jefferson, which would have made her the third First Lady of the United States. Together, the two shared six children although only two daughters made it to adulthood and one surviving until 25. Weakened from the childbirth of their last child, she passed away in 1782, decades before her husband took office.
Although she was never officially the First Lady, she is still considered to be one since Jefferson kept his promise that he would never remarry. Although this portrait may seem appropriate in a contemporary art museum, it’s unlikely that you’ll find it in the White House.
Frances Cleveland Was The First To Be Married In The White House
Frances Cleveland was First Lady to Grover Cleveland from 1886 to 1889 and again from 1893 to 1897. She became First Lady at 21-years-old, making her the youngest wife ever of a sitting president. She was married to Grover on June 2, 1886, at the White House, the only time that a president has been married inside of the Executive Mansion. Frances becoming First Lady was a huge ordeal for the press, with her charm winning the popularity of the people.
She was known to host two receptions each week for the women who had jobs to come and relax. Although she earned the reputation of a great First Lady, this portrait makes it seem that she didn’t enjoy the job as much as she appeared to.
Edith Roosevelt Was A Force To Be Reckoned With
Wife to Theodore Roosevelt, Edith was the Second Lady of the United States in 1901. Then, that same year, Theodore came into the Presidency, in which she became the First Lady. Edith was the first in her position to employ a full-time, salaried social secretary. She also went on to create an office staff, and her formal ceremonial precession and dinners helped to elevate the position of the First Lady.
She is also rumored to have had a lot of influence over Theodore’s decisions and he respected her opinion. Considering all of the things that Edith did as First Lady, this portrait seems incredibly appropriate. She looks confident, regal, ambitious, ready to take on the world.
Betty Ford Was A Huge Advocate On Political Issues
Betty Ford was the First Lady of the United States from 1974 to 1977 as the wife of Gerald Ford, the 38th president. However, being a figure in the White House was not new to her, as she was Second Lady from 1973 to 1974. As First Lady, she was active in social policy and was well-liked except for some conservatives who thought that she held some overly liberal positions on social issues.
She was a strong advocate of the Equal Rights Amendment and was a leader in the Women’s Movement. In regards to her political views and bravery to speak her mind, this seems to be a fitting picture for Betty and is undoubtedly something that Gerald would have kept on his desk.
Martha Washington Didn’t Want George To Become The First President
Being George Washington’s wife, Martha Washington was the first-ever First Lady of the United States although the term wasn’t coined until after her death. After the Revolutionary War, Martha made it clear that she didn’t want George to take over the position as the first president of the young United States of America. She didn’t even attend the inauguration on April 30, 1789.
However, after George assumed office, she began to host affairs in New York and Philadelphia which became known as “the Republican Court.” Acknowledging that Martha wasn’t thrilled about her husband becoming president, it makes sense that she looks very solemn and almost annoyed in this portrait.
Letitia Tyler Passed Away In The White House
Letitia met John Tyler in 1808, and after five years and three weeks before their wedding, Tyler finally kissed her, on the hand. The two were married on Tyler’s 23rd birthday at her family’s home in Cedar Grove. They were married for 29 years, and she was shyly by his side during his rise in the political sphere even though she preferred to care for the children.
She became the First Lady in 1841 until her untimely death in 1842. She was the first First Lady to die in the White House and passed away peacefully from a stroke. Although she is described as a loving and caring women, it appears that she didn’t like to have people paint her by the looks of this portrait.
Julia Grant Took Her Role Seriously
Before becoming the First lady to Ulysses S. Grant, Julia Grant traveled and stayed with her husband during the American Civil War, covering more than 10,000 miles in four years. She became a huge part of his presidential campaign and upon becoming First Lady, took on the role with pride, hosting lavish dinners as well as informal receptions. Moreover, she added prestige to her role and worked to improve the stature of other wives with powerful husbands.
She was a respected First Lady who took her role seriously. However, when it comes to portraits, you’ll rarely find one of her looking straight forward. She was born with crossed eyes and was self-conscious of it although his husband told her never to get them fixed or he might not love her as much.
Pat Nixon Was The First For A Lot Of Things
Thelma “Pat” Nixon was the 37th First Lady of the United States and wife to Richard Nixon. During her 30 years in the public eye, she served as both the First and Second Lady. She increased the role as Second Lady and insisted on visiting schools, hospitals, and making her presence known to the public. As First Lady, she was well-known for her volunteerism and charitable deeds.
Not only did she do the most renovating in the White House, collecting over 600 historical paintings and furnishing, she is also the first presidential wife to ever go into a combat zone. Since she was First Lady in a time of relative technology, it’s curious why she had a rather old-fashioned portrait done of her when a photograph would have been much more reasonable.
Hilary Clinton Had A Career Before Becoming First Lady
Although a politician herself, Hilary Clinton served as First Lady from 1993 to 2001. She was the only First Lady to have earned a postgraduate degree as well as have her own professional degree before stepping into the White House. During her stay, she had an office in the West Wing, which was never done before as well as the First Lady office in the East Wing.
After Eleanor Roosevelt, she is described as one of the most empowered and influential First Ladies in the history of the United States. Some people found her involvement in the presidency to be inappropriate and even called Bill’s time in the office as a co-presidency. As much as she may have contributed, the artist of this portrait must not have liked her very much.
Mamie Eisenhower Was All Style
Mamie Eisenhower was the wife to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and the First Lady of the United States from 1953 to 1961. While Eisenhower was still active in the military, she would move around the world with him frequently wherever he was assigned. As First, Lady Mamie entertained an impressive amount of world leaders and diplomats. She was known for being extraordinarily well-dressed and was named one of the twelve best-dressed women in the United States by New York Dress Institute every year that she was First Lady.
However, she did not like that the Kennedy’s were moving into the White House the next presidential term and was outright rude to Jacqueline Kennedy. From the portrait, it does seem that Mamie could be capable of doing such a thing.
Bess Truman Didn’t Enjoy The Position
Bess Truman served as the Second and First Lady of the United States for her husband Harry Truman who was president from 1945 to 1953. Unlike some other First Ladies, Bess did not enjoy all of the responsibilities and lack of privacy that come with the position.
By the end of the 1953 term, she couldn’t be happier to return to her normal routine and have some privacy back in her life. She currently holds the record for the longest-lived First Lady and the longest-lived Second Lady at 97 years and 247 days. From her portrait, it’s very clear that she wasn’t enjoying herself at the time.
Florence Harding Was The First Wife Of A President To Vote
While Warren G. Harding was President of the United States between 1921 and 1923, Florence served as the First Lady. She was known as “The Dutchess” and assimilated nicely into life in the White House. She took an active roll in politics and had no problem disciplining Harding. She was not quiet when it came to her opinions but had a special agenda regarding health care and war veterans.
She was also the first First Lady to vote, operate a film camera, own a radio, and even invite film stars to visit the White House. Although it may not appear so, Florence thoroughly enjoyed and took advantage of her time in the White House.
Ellen Wilson Used Her Art To Help
Before marrying President Woodrow Wilson, Ellen studied at the Art Students League of New York, a passion that she would carry with her for the rest of her life. As First Lady, she made an art studio on the third floor of the White House. There, she devoted her time to art and donated much of it to charity. Although she was not fully devoted to her role as the First Lady, her parties were still a success.
She even convinced her husband that it was a good idea to invite influential legislators over to dinner as a way of wooing them. She passed away in the White House in 1914 of Bright’s disease. Since she was an artist, it’s a wonder why this would be her portrait. Maybe there’s more artistic value than we can decipher.
Eliza Johnson Wasn’t Around Much
Married to Andrew Johnson, Eliza was the 17th First Lady of the United States. The two married in 1827 in which Eliza is described as being far more intelligent and even teaching him subjects such as mathematics and how to write. As First Lady, she supported her husband’s political career, yet shied away from making public appearances. After Johnson was sworn in, she couldn’t perform the duties of the First Lady, as she was ill with tuberculosis.
However, when she was in better health, she made only two public appearances. One at the reception for Queen Emma of the Kingdom of Hawaii and the other for the president’s birthday party in 1867.
Abigail Adams Had A Major Influence On Her Husband’s Policies
Abigail Adams was the wife of President John Adams, his closest advisor, and the mother of John Quincey Adams. At times, she has even been described as a Founder of the United States as well. Although the titles did not exist at the time, she has since been recognized as the first Second Lady and the second First Lady of the United States.
Abigail’s time as First Lady was well-documented, with many letters sent and received from John discussing politics, government, and the Revolutionary War. As First Lady, she was known to hold large dinners each week and took an active role in politics. She was also the original First Lady to ever move into the White House, known as the President’s House back then.
Jacqueline Kennedy Set The Bar For Future First Ladies
Wife to president John F. Kennedy, Jacqueline was the 35th First Lady. As First Lady, she was well known for being a fashion trendsetter and was the first presidential wife to ever have her own press secretary. In the media, she was portrayed as the ideal woman, perfect wife, and a great mother who attracted positive attention worldwide. However, she was also described as “creating an unrealistic media expectation for First Ladies that would challenge her successors.”
Considering all of the positive things said about Jacqueline, this particular portrait of her isn’t exactly flattering. It looks like something out of an Edgar Allen Poe story and would be unsettling to have anywhere around the house.
Julia Tyler Was Married During John’s Presidency
Julia Tyler was the tenth First Lady of the United States between 1841 to 1845 and the second wife of John Tyler. Julia and John were married in Philadelphia during John’s presidency and had a reception at the White House. While John Tyler was often exhausted, Julia took it upon herself to make the best of her role as First Lady.
During her stay, she established that “Hail to the Chief” be played to announce the arrival of the President. It finally became a fully-established practice after her successor Sarah Polk enforced the same tradition. In her last month as First Lady, she held a ball for 3,000 guests, a historical number at the time.
Mary Lincoln Was First Lady During The Hardest Time In American History
Mary Lincoln was the wife to President Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States. With the nation embroiled in the Civil War during her time as First Lady, Mary was subjected to the many hardships regarding the breaking of the Union. She firmly supported her husband and his decisions no matter the backlash that the two received from them.
Today, it has been assumed that Mary had bipolar disorder, which is explained by her manic behavior, frivolous spending, and public outbursts. Although she was known to spend a lot of money on White House events, she is credited as being the First Lady in one of the country’s most dire times. This portrait is a look into how Mary must have been feeling during that time.
Lucy Hayes Modernized The White House
Wife of Rutherford B. Hayes, Lucy was the first First Lady ever to have a college degree. She was an advocate for African Americans and even invited the first professional African American musician to the White House. Historians have labeled her as “Lemonade Lady” for her support of the temperance movement. This might also explain the yellow flowers displayed in her portrait.
However, it wasn’t Lucy who banned alcohol from the White House, but her husband. As First Lady, Lucy also made many renovations including the installations of bathrooms with running water and the White House’s first telephone.
Eleanor Roosevelt Changed The Role Of The First Lady
Eleanor Roosevelt was the First lady to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s four terms in the White House. Harry S. Truman described her as the “First Lady of the World” for her human rights achievements. Although she did many great things with her position, she was a controversial First Lady for her outspokenness and policies on radical issues.
After Franklin became sick with polio, Eleanor frequently made appearances in his place. By doing this, she completely revolutionized the role of the First Lady. At times, she even publicly disagreed with her husband’s policies, demonstrating her confidence and her view on the position and responsibility of the First Lady.
Dolley Payne Madison Believed Both Political Parties Could Socialize Together
Dolley Madison, the wife of James Madison, who was president of the United States from 1809 until 1817. She is best known for hosting Washing parties where she invited both political parties. She is even credited for helping to inspire the idea of bipartisan cooperation before the term was ever first used.
Although politics at the time were ruthless, much as they are today, she pushed the idea that they could at least socialize and network cordially with one another in a controlled environment. Her insight on how politics should be and her actions helped to define the role of the First Lady.
Elizabeth Monroe Fell Ill During Her Husband’s Presidency
Following Dolley Madison, Elizabeth was the wife of James Monroe who held the presidency between 1817 and 1825. Since the White House was still under construction during Madison’s presidency, she hosted the inaugural ball at their private residence and resided in the Octogan house at times.
Although she was relatively liked during her husband’s second term, she paled in comparison to her predecessor Dolley Madison who was adored by all. Elizabeth eventually fell too ill to continue with her duties as First Lady and many of the responsibilities were passed to her daughters.
Anna Harrison Was Only First Lady For A Month
Anna Harrison was the wife of William Henry Harrison and grandmother of future President Benjamin Harrison. Technically, she was First Lady for one month, the span of her husband’s presidency in 1841. Although she never even entered the White House, she is the oldest woman to ever become First Lady at the age of 65.
She also has the title of being the First Lady for the shortest amount of time, first to be widowed in the position, and the last First Lady to ever be born in British America. Although she wasn’t in the position for long, she set some impressive records.
Sarah Polk Banned Numerous Things From The White House
Sarah Childress Polk was the wife of the 11th President of the United States James K. Polk. She became First Lady in 1845 and has been described as charming, witty, and very social. President Polk opening discussed political matters with her as she’d been a confidant for the majority of his political career.
However, she was a devout Presbyterian and banned dancing, card games, and hard liquor and official events. Polk was nicknamed “Sahara Sarah” for her dry events although there have been instances when wine was served extensively at some White House events.
Abigail Fillmore was the wife of Millard Fillmore, making her both the Second and First Lady of the United States between 1849 to and 1853. After injuring her ankle that never healed properly, she was unable to stand for extended periods of time. Because of this, she assigned many of the physical duties to her younger daughter Abby who could stand for hours greeting guests and walking around.
After moving into the White House, she learned that there was no library and was approved $2,000 by Congress to create one, which she dedicated much of her life to doing. Her husband valued her opinion greatly and they would often correspond when he wasn’t there.
Louisa Adam’s Health Issues Made Being First Lady A Hard Affair
Louisa Adams was the wife of John Quincey Adams and was the First lady from 1825 to 1829. She was the daughter of the American Consul in London making her the first First Lady to be born outside of the United States or the 13 Colonies. She held that title until Melania Trump became First Lady in 2016.
As First Lady, she was prone to depression and would often be in solitude writing music, reading, and enjoying other quiet activities. Yet, she did take care of the necessary entertainments although she regretted ever marrying into Adam’s family and a life of politics.
Margaret Taylor Wanted Her Husband To Lose The Race For The Presidency
Wife of Zachary Taylor, Margaret was the First Lady of the United States from 1849 to 1850.As Zachary Taylor’s political career began to show serious promise, she prayed that her husband would fail. She dreaded the idea of him becoming president and the kind of toll that would take on the relationship between her and her husband and on Zachary himself.
By the time that Zachary was sworn into office, she was completely drained from following him on his campaign trail and wanted no more of it. So, she mostly remained in seclusion and let their daughter Betty Bliss perform most of the First Lady duties.
Jane Pierce Hated That Her Husband Was President
Wife to President Franklin Pierce, she was First Lady from 1853 to 1857. When the Democratic party nominated Pierce to be their candidate for president, she almost fainted. Although the couple had affection for each other, they were known to fight especially regarding the presidency.
Their young son Benny was killed in a train accident earlier in the year before Pierce’s swearing-in which Jane took as a sign from God that the presidency was the wrong thing to do. She did not attend the inauguration and spent her time as First Lady distancing herself from the presidency altogether.
Lucretia Garfield Had An Impactful Yet Short-Lived Time As First Lady
Lucretia Garfield was the wife of James A. Garfield, the 20th President of the United States. However, she was only the First Lady from March to September in 1881. She is regarded as being highly intelligent and very involved in the workings of the Republican Party.
Unfortunately, at one point, she contracted malaria and was forced to go to Long Branch, New Jersey for some time. During her time as First Lady, she was generally well-liked and also a close advisor to her husband. After her husband was shot in July 1881, he spent two months holding on until he finally passed away.
Wife of Benjamin Harrison, Caroline served as First Lady from 1889 up until her death in 1892. The First Family was joined by other relatives while living in the White House, making her attempt to enlarge the mansion but was unsuccessful. However, she was given $35,000 from Congress to make renovations and made up-to-date improvements as she saw fit.
She was the first to raise a Christmas tree in the White House which is still an ongoing tradition as well as introduced orchids which are also still used during political functions. In 1891, became sick with tuberculosis and passed away in 1892.
Michelle Obama Makes Family History
The former First Lady Michelle Obama had a lot of people to thank when her portrait was revealed. The strong figure that she is was captured in art form perfectly by Baltimore artist Amy Sherald. Children were awestruck after they saw it the first time in person.
“As you may have guessed, I don’t think there is anybody in my family who has ever had a portrait done let alone a portrait that will be hanging in the National Gallery, at least as far as I know,” Michelle said.
George W. Bush and his wife Laura had amazing portraits made for them. Laura was a big fan of hers, as she should be. The artist did an amazing job at rendering the former First Lady. Some call it the Mona Lisa of portraits.
When asked about it, Laura had an interesting response: “Nothing makes a house a home like having portraits of its former occupants staring down at you from the walls. I like it a whole lot better than that bobblehead doll.”
The Other Bush, Barbara
Now, it’s tough to establish if this is a good or bad portrait. If there was one good thing about it that you notice right away, its the dog coming up to her lap. If you want to be hypercritical then things could get bad.
For now, we won’t get into that. We will only appreciate her beautiful sign of aging showing by the color of her hair. The pearls around her neck are also a plus. Some might not like this, whereas others think the world of it.
The Lady In Red, Nancy Reagan
As far as portraits go, this one is for sure a winner. The candid look coupled with the long red dress is picture perfect. She may not be staring at anything in particular, but the painting is done so well it makes you want to look at whatever she sees.
“I was not a great fan of hers, but I admire how steadfast she was,”Janet Roberts said. “I do admire what she did for Alzheimer’s. … As a first lady, she just didn’t disappear into the background,”
It’s time to roll up the sleeves and analyze this one. Whoever the artist was who created this did a subpar job. The color of Rosalynn Carter’s shirt is nice, but that’s about it as far as nice goes.
The face she has isn’t very inspiring at all. Is she going for a half smile, half serious face? Whatever it is, it isn’t getting the job done. If Carter liked it, then that’s all good. If she didn’t we hope she expressed her displeasure.
Lou Hoover Was a Cultivated Scholar and Linguist
Lou Hoover served as the FLOTUS from 1929 to 1933. While Herbert Hoover had an impressive resume, Lou did too. She was a cultivated scholar and linguist and studied Latin, Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, German, Italian, and French.
If Lou looks confident in this portrait, it’s because she was — and rightfully so and she was the first FLOTUS to do a handful of impressive things. Not only was she the first first lady to speak an Asian language, but the first to make regular nationwide radio broadcasts. Today, her portrait hangs in the Vermeil Room of the White House.
Ellen “Nell” Arthur’s Promising Political Career Was Cut Short
Ellen “Nell” Arthur was the wife of the 21st President, Chester A. Arthur — but Nell was never able to live out her full potential as FLOTUS.
Nell died of pneumonia just months before her husband was sworn into office. While she was still living, Chester was serving as Vice President but succeeded to the presidency after James Garfield was assassinated. Before her passing, Nell and Chester were a power couple known for their significant social connections with elite New York City families.
Ida McKinley Suffered a Seizure At Her Husband’s Inaugural Ball
This portrait of first lady Ida McKinley looks serene, but her life was far from it. The wife of president William McKinley, Ida suffered from epilepsy and other illnesses, both physical and mental.
When Ida’s mother and two daughters passed away within a short span of time, her temperament changed. She became fragile and nervous and developed epilepsy causing her to be totally dependant on her husband and others around her. She even suffered a seizure at his inaugural ball as Ohio Governor. She spent the remainder of her life trying to keep busy by crocheting slippers.
Helen Taft Made Numerous Contributions To The White House
If it weren’t for the White House peeking out from behind the shrubs, you might think this was a portrait of a Royal. While she may look like royalty, this is actually Helen Taft, wife of William Taft, the 27th President of the United States.
Contrary to what her portrait might imply, Helen was hard-working and made many lasting contributions to the White House. She was an opponent of the Prohibition movement and entertained White House guests with alcohol. She was also the first lady to drive a car as well as the first to support women’s suffrage.
Edith Wilson Took Over Routine Duties of The Executive Branch
Edith Wilson lived in an interesting life. Formerly known as Edith Galt met, she Woodrow Wilson after both of them were newly widowed. The two married and Edith assumed her duties as FLOTUS — but not before rumors circulated that she had murdered Wilson’s former wife.
Despite the rumors, Edith went to work. After her husband suffered a debilitating stroke while in office, she took over numerous duties of the Executive branch. Following the end of his presidency, she went on to head the Woman’s National Democratic Club. | 5,848 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We were assigned to create a circuit in which you don’t use your hand to flip the switch. I had a lot of difficulty deciding how I would go about doing that, but decided to try to attempt some sort of method using a floating piece of conductive material to complete a circuit. I thought about using washers, some sort of metal plate, or some sort of copper wire weave, but wasn’t sure how effective any of those methods would be. After doing a quick Google search for some conductive materials, I found I could use aluminum foil. After assembling all my components, I tried to actually put together the circuit.
I used the breadboard because I thought it would help me better visualize and organize the flow of electricity through the circuit. Using a resistor was confusing and I had difficulty trying calculate which sort of resistor I should use, and how to determine the function of the resistor. When asking a friend for her opinion, she thought that we were always advised to use the 1k resistor, so that’s the one I ultimately chose. When most of the circuit was set up, I tried figure out the “handless” part of the assignment.
Here, a test was conducted to see if tinfoil would be a reliable conductor for the electricity. It turns out the internet didn’t lie this time around.
In the ITP shop I found a small cup and some tape. The cup was small enough to act as a bit of a guide for the tinfoil, to make sure water poured from above wouldn’t force the tinfoil away from two pieces of exposed wire, which would complete the circuit. The tape was used to attach the wire to the cup, and position the wires to come into contact with the aluminum. When water is poured into the cup, the aluminum foil comes into contact with the wires, completing the circuit and making the LED light shine.
When putting the whole circuit together, I had some difficulty having the light shine. I tried to figure out what the issue was, maybe the positive end of the battery was attached to the black wire, maybe I needed the resistor to be in another place, maybe I had a defective battery. Testing the potential problems resulted with the same dark LED. I decided it could have been the voltage for the LED, I knew the green one I was using was 2 volts, changing to a red one allowed the light to shine dimly. When changing to a blue LED with 3 volts, it shone the way it had in class, I I realised this was the proper LED I should use with this battery and resistor. Finally, I was able to put together the circuit. | <urn:uuid:ff19ea3e-2e1e-46a2-9453-893c63c4e9b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://itp.nyu.edu/classes/cc-s17/handless-circuit/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00503.warc.gz | en | 0.980682 | 549 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.00312679167... | 2 | We were assigned to create a circuit in which you don’t use your hand to flip the switch. I had a lot of difficulty deciding how I would go about doing that, but decided to try to attempt some sort of method using a floating piece of conductive material to complete a circuit. I thought about using washers, some sort of metal plate, or some sort of copper wire weave, but wasn’t sure how effective any of those methods would be. After doing a quick Google search for some conductive materials, I found I could use aluminum foil. After assembling all my components, I tried to actually put together the circuit.
I used the breadboard because I thought it would help me better visualize and organize the flow of electricity through the circuit. Using a resistor was confusing and I had difficulty trying calculate which sort of resistor I should use, and how to determine the function of the resistor. When asking a friend for her opinion, she thought that we were always advised to use the 1k resistor, so that’s the one I ultimately chose. When most of the circuit was set up, I tried figure out the “handless” part of the assignment.
Here, a test was conducted to see if tinfoil would be a reliable conductor for the electricity. It turns out the internet didn’t lie this time around.
In the ITP shop I found a small cup and some tape. The cup was small enough to act as a bit of a guide for the tinfoil, to make sure water poured from above wouldn’t force the tinfoil away from two pieces of exposed wire, which would complete the circuit. The tape was used to attach the wire to the cup, and position the wires to come into contact with the aluminum. When water is poured into the cup, the aluminum foil comes into contact with the wires, completing the circuit and making the LED light shine.
When putting the whole circuit together, I had some difficulty having the light shine. I tried to figure out what the issue was, maybe the positive end of the battery was attached to the black wire, maybe I needed the resistor to be in another place, maybe I had a defective battery. Testing the potential problems resulted with the same dark LED. I decided it could have been the voltage for the LED, I knew the green one I was using was 2 volts, changing to a red one allowed the light to shine dimly. When changing to a blue LED with 3 volts, it shone the way it had in class, I I realised this was the proper LED I should use with this battery and resistor. Finally, I was able to put together the circuit. | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas
Frederick Douglas, a slave born in Tuckahoe Maryland, was half white and half black. His mother was a black woman and his father a white man. Though he never knew his father, there was word that it was his master. Douglas wrote this narrative and I felt that it was very compelling. It really showed me the trials and tribulations that a black man went through during times of slavery.
In his early years, Douglas lived on a farm where he watched many slaves receive harsh beatings and whippings. For example, one of his masters whipped his Aunt Hester because she was not there when he desired her presence. At the time she was in the company of another man, which was something that Colonel Lloyd, her master, told her not to do. As Douglas witnessed the whipping, he saw Lloyd take his aunt into the kitchen of the house and strip her naked. He then told her to cross her hands and as he tied them together and hung her on a hook, leaving her body totally open. Lloyd then began whipping her with a cow skin until she began to bleed.Order now
“I was so terrified and horror-stricken at the sight, that I hid myself in a closet, and dare not venture out till long after the bloody transaction was over” (p. 4). As a result of witnessing many beatings such as this, Douglas was able to put much feeling and heart into his works.
Douglas wrote about many whites that he had encountered. Only a handful of which were not cruel to him. The overseers were the ones who seemed to be the most viscous and terrifying.
For example, Mr. Plummer, Mr. Severe, Mr. Hopkins, and Mr. Austin Gore were all cruel overseers. An exception to this was Mr.
Hopkins, who was not a typical overseer. Unlike the others, he did not curse a lot, and bent the rules every now and then. “He was called by the slaves a good overseer” (p. 7). The typical overseer would have beat a slave the second he stepped out of line. For example, Mr.
Gore, who took Mr. Hopkins place was very cruel and would not take any sort of talking back. He would not communicate with any of the slaves except for giving orders and beating them. “He was, in a word, a man of the most inflexible firmness and stone-like coolness” (p. 13). There were also those white people who encouraged black people to escape, and them catch them to receive rewards.
Slaves could not catch any breaks.
On the other hand, there were some good whites. Douglas wanted to learn how to read, so he made friends with some little white boys on the street. Douglas spoke of running errands, and stopping in with the white children to learn to read in his spare time. As a symbol of his gratitude, Douglas would give the children bread to eat. They, in fact, had a discussion about slavery at one point.
He told the children, “You’ll be free as soon as you’re twenty-one, but I’m a slave for life! Have I not as good a right to be free as you have?” (p. 22). He recalled that this troubled them, but they still showed much sympathy towards him. The presence of sympathetic white people gave him hope that one day he would be free.
At last, Douglas moved to New York when it became a free state. His hopes of being free finally came true.
This, however, did not mean that the racism had ended. Whites acted as if blacks were threats to their jobs. This is because of the skills they had learned during slavery. This was a fantastic narrative that I would recommend to anyone who wants to be uplifted. His pursuits in life showed how much of a leader he really was. This narrative really made his leadership qualities shine as he fought for his freedom.
Along with learning many leadership qualities, this narrative also expanded my knowledge on slavery. It was really uplifting. | <urn:uuid:7d55e43e-13cb-4729-a384-5f36d018ac76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/essays/narrative-of-the-life-of-frederick-douglass-essay-5-111356/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00295.warc.gz | en | 0.993891 | 862 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.160420715808868... | 3 | Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas
Frederick Douglas, a slave born in Tuckahoe Maryland, was half white and half black. His mother was a black woman and his father a white man. Though he never knew his father, there was word that it was his master. Douglas wrote this narrative and I felt that it was very compelling. It really showed me the trials and tribulations that a black man went through during times of slavery.
In his early years, Douglas lived on a farm where he watched many slaves receive harsh beatings and whippings. For example, one of his masters whipped his Aunt Hester because she was not there when he desired her presence. At the time she was in the company of another man, which was something that Colonel Lloyd, her master, told her not to do. As Douglas witnessed the whipping, he saw Lloyd take his aunt into the kitchen of the house and strip her naked. He then told her to cross her hands and as he tied them together and hung her on a hook, leaving her body totally open. Lloyd then began whipping her with a cow skin until she began to bleed.Order now
“I was so terrified and horror-stricken at the sight, that I hid myself in a closet, and dare not venture out till long after the bloody transaction was over” (p. 4). As a result of witnessing many beatings such as this, Douglas was able to put much feeling and heart into his works.
Douglas wrote about many whites that he had encountered. Only a handful of which were not cruel to him. The overseers were the ones who seemed to be the most viscous and terrifying.
For example, Mr. Plummer, Mr. Severe, Mr. Hopkins, and Mr. Austin Gore were all cruel overseers. An exception to this was Mr.
Hopkins, who was not a typical overseer. Unlike the others, he did not curse a lot, and bent the rules every now and then. “He was called by the slaves a good overseer” (p. 7). The typical overseer would have beat a slave the second he stepped out of line. For example, Mr.
Gore, who took Mr. Hopkins place was very cruel and would not take any sort of talking back. He would not communicate with any of the slaves except for giving orders and beating them. “He was, in a word, a man of the most inflexible firmness and stone-like coolness” (p. 13). There were also those white people who encouraged black people to escape, and them catch them to receive rewards.
Slaves could not catch any breaks.
On the other hand, there were some good whites. Douglas wanted to learn how to read, so he made friends with some little white boys on the street. Douglas spoke of running errands, and stopping in with the white children to learn to read in his spare time. As a symbol of his gratitude, Douglas would give the children bread to eat. They, in fact, had a discussion about slavery at one point.
He told the children, “You’ll be free as soon as you’re twenty-one, but I’m a slave for life! Have I not as good a right to be free as you have?” (p. 22). He recalled that this troubled them, but they still showed much sympathy towards him. The presence of sympathetic white people gave him hope that one day he would be free.
At last, Douglas moved to New York when it became a free state. His hopes of being free finally came true.
This, however, did not mean that the racism had ended. Whites acted as if blacks were threats to their jobs. This is because of the skills they had learned during slavery. This was a fantastic narrative that I would recommend to anyone who wants to be uplifted. His pursuits in life showed how much of a leader he really was. This narrative really made his leadership qualities shine as he fought for his freedom.
Along with learning many leadership qualities, this narrative also expanded my knowledge on slavery. It was really uplifting. | 836 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Read the underlying article to know some of the interesting facts about China's Emperor, Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang, widely known as Emperor Qin was the first emperor of China. He was famous for his heartless policies, strong military power, merciless determination, great achievements and valuable legacy. Here are some interesting facts of Emperor Qin.
Emperor Qin’s was born as Zha Zheng.There was an unconfirmed rumor that Qin was not a legitimate son of the king. The rumor said that his mother had an affair with a man named Lu Buwei, Qin’s biological father.
Qin was crowned at the age of 13. Afterwards, he put his mother in a house arrest in order to secure his position and sent Lu Buwei into exile until their deaths.
Qin’s ambition was to bring all kingdoms in China under his foot.To enlarge his military troop, Qin took young boys from villages by force.
A soldier in Qin’s army must kill at least one enemy during a battle. The soldier must decapitate the heads of those he killed to be presented to Qin as proof.
Failure to do this will cost the soldier’s life. The bigger the number of heads delivered by a soldier, the higher his rank will be.
Qin defeated six states. The people of the defeated states were forced to work as slaves or join the army.Qin finally unified China in 221 BC.
During his reign, Qin introduced economic reform. He created a uniform system of measurement and established a single accepted currency. Peoples were assigned particular jobs such as farmers or traders that must be delivered in specific ways. Failure to do the assigned work will end up in death penalty or worse, slavery.
Qin also abolished the feudal system. Land was no longer owned by lords but under the direct control of central government. Appointment for a post in a government office was based on merit not hereditary rights.
Qin established one standard written character and removed all variants.Qin hated scholars. He buried almost 500 scholars alive and burned their book collection.
Qin allowed only his ideology called “legalism” to be followed by his people. Other philosophical thoughts including Confucianism were forbidden.
To maintain stability, Qin enforced his people to spy on each other. Rewards will be given to those who turn in lawbreakers.
Qin constructed Linggu Canal to connect two major waterways used for transporting supplies to his army as well as other massive roads, irrigation systems and bridges projects to encourage trades and elevate the economy.
To recruit workforce for his massive projects, Qin raised the tax. Anyone who cannot pay it, will have to work as slave in the projects.
Qin constructed the Great Wall of China that stretches out for hundreds of kilometers. The wall survives to this day and is one of the world’s wonders.
Qin built a gigantic Epang Palace for his most loved concubine.
Qin was very afraid of death. He spent his entire life trying to find medicine that could make him live forever. When he realized that he could never find such medicine, he instructed more than 700,000 slaves to construct a mausoleum for him in 215 BC.
The mausoleum contains replicas of Qin’s palaces and towers, including replica of river made of mercury.
The mausoleum is guarded by thousands of terracotta army and their horses and chariots made of clay molds.
The mausoleum was intended to be a secret, so all workmen were killed as soon as the project was completed. Traps were put all over the mausoleum to deter breaking and entering.
Emperor Qin ruled for 11 years and his empire lasted for almost two thousand years.
India and China fought battle for the only time in 1962. Read a brief history of the war here..
Bajirao Mastani had won majority of awards including Filmfare Awards in 2016. But it is sad to gain popularity, the historical facts relating to life of Kashibai, Baji Rao 1 and Mastani were distorted to huge extent..
Read the underlying article to know about the first invasion of Greece by the Persian King Xersis. Hope the material will prove to be useful for you.. | <urn:uuid:a68b7a7f-dc12-44bb-add8-115291b5bf6e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/interesting-facts-qin-emperor-china | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.985628 | 884 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.066898129880428... | 2 | Read the underlying article to know some of the interesting facts about China's Emperor, Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang, widely known as Emperor Qin was the first emperor of China. He was famous for his heartless policies, strong military power, merciless determination, great achievements and valuable legacy. Here are some interesting facts of Emperor Qin.
Emperor Qin’s was born as Zha Zheng.There was an unconfirmed rumor that Qin was not a legitimate son of the king. The rumor said that his mother had an affair with a man named Lu Buwei, Qin’s biological father.
Qin was crowned at the age of 13. Afterwards, he put his mother in a house arrest in order to secure his position and sent Lu Buwei into exile until their deaths.
Qin’s ambition was to bring all kingdoms in China under his foot.To enlarge his military troop, Qin took young boys from villages by force.
A soldier in Qin’s army must kill at least one enemy during a battle. The soldier must decapitate the heads of those he killed to be presented to Qin as proof.
Failure to do this will cost the soldier’s life. The bigger the number of heads delivered by a soldier, the higher his rank will be.
Qin defeated six states. The people of the defeated states were forced to work as slaves or join the army.Qin finally unified China in 221 BC.
During his reign, Qin introduced economic reform. He created a uniform system of measurement and established a single accepted currency. Peoples were assigned particular jobs such as farmers or traders that must be delivered in specific ways. Failure to do the assigned work will end up in death penalty or worse, slavery.
Qin also abolished the feudal system. Land was no longer owned by lords but under the direct control of central government. Appointment for a post in a government office was based on merit not hereditary rights.
Qin established one standard written character and removed all variants.Qin hated scholars. He buried almost 500 scholars alive and burned their book collection.
Qin allowed only his ideology called “legalism” to be followed by his people. Other philosophical thoughts including Confucianism were forbidden.
To maintain stability, Qin enforced his people to spy on each other. Rewards will be given to those who turn in lawbreakers.
Qin constructed Linggu Canal to connect two major waterways used for transporting supplies to his army as well as other massive roads, irrigation systems and bridges projects to encourage trades and elevate the economy.
To recruit workforce for his massive projects, Qin raised the tax. Anyone who cannot pay it, will have to work as slave in the projects.
Qin constructed the Great Wall of China that stretches out for hundreds of kilometers. The wall survives to this day and is one of the world’s wonders.
Qin built a gigantic Epang Palace for his most loved concubine.
Qin was very afraid of death. He spent his entire life trying to find medicine that could make him live forever. When he realized that he could never find such medicine, he instructed more than 700,000 slaves to construct a mausoleum for him in 215 BC.
The mausoleum contains replicas of Qin’s palaces and towers, including replica of river made of mercury.
The mausoleum is guarded by thousands of terracotta army and their horses and chariots made of clay molds.
The mausoleum was intended to be a secret, so all workmen were killed as soon as the project was completed. Traps were put all over the mausoleum to deter breaking and entering.
Emperor Qin ruled for 11 years and his empire lasted for almost two thousand years.
India and China fought battle for the only time in 1962. Read a brief history of the war here..
Bajirao Mastani had won majority of awards including Filmfare Awards in 2016. But it is sad to gain popularity, the historical facts relating to life of Kashibai, Baji Rao 1 and Mastani were distorted to huge extent..
Read the underlying article to know about the first invasion of Greece by the Persian King Xersis. Hope the material will prove to be useful for you.. | 871 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pericles and His Influence on Athens
Ancient Greece had many ups and downs in its very long history. As a growing civilization, it earned numerous allies as well as enemies. One of these great enemies was the Persians. Although the Persians were very powerful adversaries, the Greeks defeated them and at that point, the era of classical Greece began. The Delian league, which was created to unite all states and protect them from intruders, had turned into an empire. This empire was governed by Athens.
As peace and harmony was restored in Greece, the city of Athens was about to experience it’s greatest epoch. A time filled with power and great social and political wealth. All of which was the product of a great man’s work. His name was Pericles. Pericles was born in the year 495 B. C. into a very noble family. He was the nephew of Cleisthenes who founded Athenian Democracy. Pericles lived his whole life in a political environment.
When he became involved in Athenian affairs, he received a very good reputation. In 462 B. C. e began to dominate the politics in Athens as a key leader in the democratic movement. Not only was he a great orator, In the history of the ancient Greek civilization, there were many powerful and contributing men and women. Only one could be called the “Greatest Greek” and that man’s name is Pericles. Pericles was a wise and powerful leader of the city of Athens. He was a great supporter of the concept of democracy. Pericles guided Athens almost through the entire Peloponnesian War. Pericles promoted the arts and literature.
This was a main reason Athens held the reputation of being the educational and cultural centre of the ancient Greek world. Pericles’ rule as a political leader in Athens is called the Golden Age of Pericles, and he was an eager supporter of democracy. He wanted all citizens of Athens to take an active part in politics, and he was the first to pay servants to the state. All Athenians chose members of the council, and Pericles restored and built many temples and structures, such as the Parthenon on the Acropolis, employing the poorest citizens. | <urn:uuid:db81ddd1-efce-46b4-a9d8-e5269509d898> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-pericles-and-his-influence-on-athens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.990365 | 460 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.3170683681964874... | 1 | Pericles and His Influence on Athens
Ancient Greece had many ups and downs in its very long history. As a growing civilization, it earned numerous allies as well as enemies. One of these great enemies was the Persians. Although the Persians were very powerful adversaries, the Greeks defeated them and at that point, the era of classical Greece began. The Delian league, which was created to unite all states and protect them from intruders, had turned into an empire. This empire was governed by Athens.
As peace and harmony was restored in Greece, the city of Athens was about to experience it’s greatest epoch. A time filled with power and great social and political wealth. All of which was the product of a great man’s work. His name was Pericles. Pericles was born in the year 495 B. C. into a very noble family. He was the nephew of Cleisthenes who founded Athenian Democracy. Pericles lived his whole life in a political environment.
When he became involved in Athenian affairs, he received a very good reputation. In 462 B. C. e began to dominate the politics in Athens as a key leader in the democratic movement. Not only was he a great orator, In the history of the ancient Greek civilization, there were many powerful and contributing men and women. Only one could be called the “Greatest Greek” and that man’s name is Pericles. Pericles was a wise and powerful leader of the city of Athens. He was a great supporter of the concept of democracy. Pericles guided Athens almost through the entire Peloponnesian War. Pericles promoted the arts and literature.
This was a main reason Athens held the reputation of being the educational and cultural centre of the ancient Greek world. Pericles’ rule as a political leader in Athens is called the Golden Age of Pericles, and he was an eager supporter of democracy. He wanted all citizens of Athens to take an active part in politics, and he was the first to pay servants to the state. All Athenians chose members of the council, and Pericles restored and built many temples and structures, such as the Parthenon on the Acropolis, employing the poorest citizens. | 454 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saint Lazarus was born in Bethany and he had two sisters, Martha and Mary. Jesus was friends with Lazarus and visited often with his family. Saint Lazarus is known as the Patron Saint of the Poor and Sick by the Catholic Church.
The story of Saint Lazarus begins when he gets ill at the age of 30. At the age of 30 Lazarus contracted leprosy an illness that did not have a cure and died shortly after.
Leprosy is a disease that shows up as skin lesions. The lesions grow deeper and deeper and affect the nerve and organs. The word Leprosy comes from the Greek Language and it mean Fish Scales.
Both Mary and Martha Lazarus’s sisters send word to Jesus of Lazarus condition and hoped that he would come and visit. Jesus received word and started his journey to Lazarus. Once Jesus arrived Lazarus had passed away and had been buried for four days. Both Mary and Martha thought that it was too late because Lazarus had passed but Jesus went directly to his grave. When Jesus arrived at Lazarus grave he began to pray. Once he completed his prayer he stood up and said in a loud voice “Lazarus, Come Out!” and Lazarus emerged from his grave. Jesus had performed a resurrection and Lazarus was alive and walking. Both Jesus and Lazarus walked back to his home in the cloth Lazarus had been buried in. This became a testament to the miracles of Jesus.
The devotion and friendship that already existed from Lazarus to Jesus grew. As a faithful follower Lazarus became a prophet and a significant Christian that would have a strong impact with people everywhere he went. Lazarus went to live to the age of 60 and died and was buried Sarcophagus at Kition. His tomb was transferred to Constantinople where is tomb reads “The Four Day Lazarus, Friend of Christ”
In the Catholic tradition all saints are depicted in statues and Saint Lazarus is no different. The statue for Saint Lazarus is usually depicted as a poor man in crutches with dogs around him. His clothing will be minimal and usually in the color purple. Saint Lazarus Feast Day or the day of observation for Saint Lazarus is December 17th. Both od Saint Lazarus sisters are recognized as saints in their own right. Saint Martha is considered the patron Saint of Servants and Cooks. The day of observance or Feast Day for Saint Martha is July 29th. Saint Mary’s feast Day or Day of Observance is July 22nd.
The Catholic Church invokes sick people and people with AIDS to Saint Lazarus for prayer and hope. Prayer to Saint Lazarus can be in a form of a Novena, Rosary Prayers or a specific prayer taken from the bible. Catholic traditions involves presenting the saint of devotion with flowers and candles as well will you invoke them.
Please visit www.stlazarusprayers.com [http://www.stlazarusprayers.com] for more information | <urn:uuid:e11468dd-eaf2-475f-89b9-c09fadbe03f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mediv.dp.ua/st-lazarus-prayers-and-history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00331.warc.gz | en | 0.982341 | 596 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.12014827132225... | 5 | Saint Lazarus was born in Bethany and he had two sisters, Martha and Mary. Jesus was friends with Lazarus and visited often with his family. Saint Lazarus is known as the Patron Saint of the Poor and Sick by the Catholic Church.
The story of Saint Lazarus begins when he gets ill at the age of 30. At the age of 30 Lazarus contracted leprosy an illness that did not have a cure and died shortly after.
Leprosy is a disease that shows up as skin lesions. The lesions grow deeper and deeper and affect the nerve and organs. The word Leprosy comes from the Greek Language and it mean Fish Scales.
Both Mary and Martha Lazarus’s sisters send word to Jesus of Lazarus condition and hoped that he would come and visit. Jesus received word and started his journey to Lazarus. Once Jesus arrived Lazarus had passed away and had been buried for four days. Both Mary and Martha thought that it was too late because Lazarus had passed but Jesus went directly to his grave. When Jesus arrived at Lazarus grave he began to pray. Once he completed his prayer he stood up and said in a loud voice “Lazarus, Come Out!” and Lazarus emerged from his grave. Jesus had performed a resurrection and Lazarus was alive and walking. Both Jesus and Lazarus walked back to his home in the cloth Lazarus had been buried in. This became a testament to the miracles of Jesus.
The devotion and friendship that already existed from Lazarus to Jesus grew. As a faithful follower Lazarus became a prophet and a significant Christian that would have a strong impact with people everywhere he went. Lazarus went to live to the age of 60 and died and was buried Sarcophagus at Kition. His tomb was transferred to Constantinople where is tomb reads “The Four Day Lazarus, Friend of Christ”
In the Catholic tradition all saints are depicted in statues and Saint Lazarus is no different. The statue for Saint Lazarus is usually depicted as a poor man in crutches with dogs around him. His clothing will be minimal and usually in the color purple. Saint Lazarus Feast Day or the day of observation for Saint Lazarus is December 17th. Both od Saint Lazarus sisters are recognized as saints in their own right. Saint Martha is considered the patron Saint of Servants and Cooks. The day of observance or Feast Day for Saint Martha is July 29th. Saint Mary’s feast Day or Day of Observance is July 22nd.
The Catholic Church invokes sick people and people with AIDS to Saint Lazarus for prayer and hope. Prayer to Saint Lazarus can be in a form of a Novena, Rosary Prayers or a specific prayer taken from the bible. Catholic traditions involves presenting the saint of devotion with flowers and candles as well will you invoke them.
Please visit www.stlazarusprayers.com [http://www.stlazarusprayers.com] for more information | 613 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The maple leaf slowly caught on as a national symbol: in 1868, it was included in the coat of arms of Ontario and the coat of arms of Quebec, and was added to the Canadian coat of arms in 1921. Historically, the golden maple leaf had represented Ontario, while the green maple leaf had represented Quebec. In 1867, Alexander Muir composed the patriotic "The Maple Leaf Forever", which became an unofficial anthem in English-speaking Canada. From 1876 until 1901, the leaf appeared on all Canadian coins, and remained on the penny after 1901. During the First World War, badges of the Canadian Expeditionary Force were often based on a maple leaf design. The use of the maple leaf as a regimental symbol extended back to the 1800s, and Canadian soldiers in the Second Boer War were distinguished by a maple leaf on their sun helmets. In 1957 the maple leaf colour on the Canadian arms was changed from green to red - some maple leaves are commonly red even in spring as they bud & no seasonal colouring has been assigned heraldically.
We have many A-Z keywords for this term. We offer them for FREE unlike many other keyword services, however we do require that you are a registered member to view them all so that the costs will remain lower for Us.
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These are some of the images that we found within the public domain for your "Maple" keyword. | <urn:uuid:c82abbae-60f5-4025-9cc3-c03c40a27461> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://dojin-circle.info/free/maple-leaf-drawing.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.982166 | 291 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.1276212483644485... | 1 | The maple leaf slowly caught on as a national symbol: in 1868, it was included in the coat of arms of Ontario and the coat of arms of Quebec, and was added to the Canadian coat of arms in 1921. Historically, the golden maple leaf had represented Ontario, while the green maple leaf had represented Quebec. In 1867, Alexander Muir composed the patriotic "The Maple Leaf Forever", which became an unofficial anthem in English-speaking Canada. From 1876 until 1901, the leaf appeared on all Canadian coins, and remained on the penny after 1901. During the First World War, badges of the Canadian Expeditionary Force were often based on a maple leaf design. The use of the maple leaf as a regimental symbol extended back to the 1800s, and Canadian soldiers in the Second Boer War were distinguished by a maple leaf on their sun helmets. In 1957 the maple leaf colour on the Canadian arms was changed from green to red - some maple leaves are commonly red even in spring as they bud & no seasonal colouring has been assigned heraldically.
We have many A-Z keywords for this term. We offer them for FREE unlike many other keyword services, however we do require that you are a registered member to view them all so that the costs will remain lower for Us.
These are the linked keywords we found.
These are some of the images that we found within the public domain for your "Maple" keyword. | 316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Country music legend Charlie Daniels once said, “We can get rid of red tape.” He was talking about excessive bureaucracy, rigid conformity to formal rules that is considered redundant or bureaucratic, because it hinders or prevents action or decision-making and this is mostly seen in big business or government. Red tape was used to bind official government documents and it resulted in making things more complex and time consuming thus causing delays or inaction. Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, in the early 16th century used red tape to bind his most important administrative dossiers. Red tape acquired its modern meaning after the American Civil War.
Recruits were induced to sign up for the Civil war with assurances that they would earn bonuses and pensions and eventually more than two million veterans received a pension. By the 1890s (when the Civil War commemoration movement was at its height) most veterans were in their 50s and 60s, feeling the effects of both their physical war wounds and the nation’s economic collapse, and desperate for some kind of help from anyone who could supply it. By the end of the Civil War 186,017 black men had served in the Union Army, roughly three-quarters of whom were former slaves. Black soldiers encountered difficulty trying to receive their benefits and they were often required to jump through a lot of hoops to get anything. They were repeatedly asked to come back on another day and wait in line again, a seemingly endless and totally unnecessary process to review their paperwork until the documents that were bound in red tape which held the key to their benefits were finally opened.
Written for Linda G. Hill’s One-Liner Wednesday. | <urn:uuid:ee96a266-233c-439f-a3c9-e5a83763cdd2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jimadamsauthordotcom.wordpress.com/2019/11/13/red-tape/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00098.warc.gz | en | 0.98978 | 338 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.287999361753463... | 4 | Country music legend Charlie Daniels once said, “We can get rid of red tape.” He was talking about excessive bureaucracy, rigid conformity to formal rules that is considered redundant or bureaucratic, because it hinders or prevents action or decision-making and this is mostly seen in big business or government. Red tape was used to bind official government documents and it resulted in making things more complex and time consuming thus causing delays or inaction. Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, in the early 16th century used red tape to bind his most important administrative dossiers. Red tape acquired its modern meaning after the American Civil War.
Recruits were induced to sign up for the Civil war with assurances that they would earn bonuses and pensions and eventually more than two million veterans received a pension. By the 1890s (when the Civil War commemoration movement was at its height) most veterans were in their 50s and 60s, feeling the effects of both their physical war wounds and the nation’s economic collapse, and desperate for some kind of help from anyone who could supply it. By the end of the Civil War 186,017 black men had served in the Union Army, roughly three-quarters of whom were former slaves. Black soldiers encountered difficulty trying to receive their benefits and they were often required to jump through a lot of hoops to get anything. They were repeatedly asked to come back on another day and wait in line again, a seemingly endless and totally unnecessary process to review their paperwork until the documents that were bound in red tape which held the key to their benefits were finally opened.
Written for Linda G. Hill’s One-Liner Wednesday. | 342 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most people associate slavery with the deep South, where the economy until the Civil War relied on enforced labor to pick cotton and tobacco. But slavery was common around New England too -- even in Hopkinton.
While it ended earlier here than it did in the South, slavery was still a part of New England’s early history. Emily Blanck’s 2014 book “Tyrannicide: Forging an American Law of Slavery in Revolutionary South Carolina and Massachusetts,” noted that while a 1641 law prohibited Puritans from keeping slaves, it provided exceptions for “strangers” and “war prisoners.” These two loopholes cleared the way for enslaving Africans and Native Americans. The first slaves from Africa arrived in Massachusetts in 1638.
“As Massachusetts Puritans created a thriving commercial and shipping center, their ships began to partake directly in the Atlantic slave trade, bringing more slaves to their shores,” the book notes. By 1764–1765, according to census records, Massachusetts had 5,779 slaves, about 2.5 percent of the total population, the book reported.
A 1915 paper by Frances Safford to commemorate Hopkinton’s 200th anniversary, published on the Hopkinton Historical Society website, observed that slavery was accepted here, even by men of the cloth. “Rev. Samuel Barrett was the first minister,” she wrote. “His salary was sixty pounds in money and his firewood. Mr. Barrett’s home stood on the site of the present Town Hall and as he lived at a time when the colored people were held as slaves, he had a number of servants.”
Linda Connelly of the Hopkinton Historical Society did extensive research about slavery in Hopkinton, which was presented at a discussion last year. She found a treasure trove of information in the works of Hopkinton historian Elias Nason, who in the mid-1800s began researching the topic of slavery.
Nason wrote that Barrett “received Jackee, a negro” and other slaves; and pointed out that “Brampton Sketches,” an 1890 novel written by Hopkinton resident Mary Claflin and based on her hometown, describes a high gallery where the “colored people sat,” what she described as relics of the slave trade. And a 1906 paper written by Appleton H. Fitch notes that Barrett “spoke with regret at being compelled by circumstances to dispose of [his slaves].”
According to Nason, about 15 slaves older than age 16 lived in Hopkinton in 1765.
Another slave owner was Charles Henry Frankland (the famous Sir Harry Frankland) an English gentleman who moved to Boston in 1739 and worked as a merchant trader. Frankland notoriously consorted with a lowborn teenager, Agnes Surriage (and later married her), but not before he scandalized all of proper Boston society. He built a country home in Hopkinton to get away from the gossip.
James Ward’s 2014 book, “The Common Uncommon,” notes that, “The terraces leading up from Frankland Road were constructed by his slaves.” After Frankland’s death in 1768, his widow Agnes lived in the home for a while. Eventually her sister Mary Swain lived there, along with “three negro slaves, of which one is old and blind,” Ward’s research found.
And from Osbornes' History of Hopkinton, Connelly found that, “a slave was responsible for burning the Frankland estate; a child hunting for a silver spoon and a barrel of something caught fire.”
According to Nason, a Frankland slave named Robert was described as being a “genuine son of Africa” with the letter C imprinted on either side of his body and having “skin as black as ink.” Another Frankland slave named Dinah gave birth to several mixed-race children on the Frankland estate. One was famous magician and performer Richard Potter, the first American-born magician, whose father was allegedly Sir Harry’s son. Dinah’s other children -- Phebe, Sidney and Robert -- “were described as mulattos and very bright,” according to Nason.
Nason’s other notes mention “Scipio,” who worked in the meeting house; “Tobias’ wife,” described as “a negro;” and “Tilda,” who belonged to Agnes Surriage’s sister Mary.
After slavery was outlawed in Massachusetts in the late 1700s, some former slaves appeared to stay with their Hopkinton families. The 1790 Census, (also referred to by Nason,) included categories for “Head of Household,” “Free White females,” “Free white Males Under 16” and “Free White Males Above 16,” and then a separate category called “All Other Free persons,” the implication being former slaves.
“They very likely are house servants; perhaps in some instances farm laborers,” noted Connelly in her paper. “We can only imagine what life was like for them. Treated like family member? Treated like someone from a much lower class? How well were they paid? Certainly they were not treated as equals -- subservient, perhaps viewed in an affectionate but subservient relationship?”
Connelly found something else more troubling: several mentions of mixed-race children being born to servant women. “I would have to assume that…the children were fathered by white men and that the individuals took advantage of black women’s lowly status and lack of power; a gentle way of saying that they probably were raped,” her report notes.
Hopkinton Vital Records to 1850 mention “Sarah, Daughter of Tobias, a servant of Mr. Charles Morris of Boston and Sarah, a free woman” interpreted as: a black baby born in Hopkinton to a father who is a black servant and a black mother who is free.
Other mentions in the Hopkinton records include Jane, “a servant of the late captain Thomas Clarke, and George Gyres, a free negro of Grafton,” who filed intentions to marry in April 1777; Zilpah, "A Mollatto Young Woman, a Servant, baptised Sep 27 1769;” and John Laton, “black, died of Consumption Sep 26, 1810, age 58.”
And Fitch’s 1906 paper noted that he once possessed a bill from a Hopkinton resident for days of work done by one of his slaves at the gristmill dam, in what is now Ashland. Fitch also wrote that he knew the daughter of one of the slaves, who lived to be over 100 years old.
Thanks to Connolly’s research of these records, a picture of slavery in Hopkinton has emerged.
“I was able to piece together many small pieces of info to come up with a list of names of individuals who certainly were slaves, or slaves and their children who later became “servants for life,” she concluded. “I find it amazing to understand that in this town, Hopkinton, where my children grew up and went to school, slaves lived, labored and were owned by individuals,” she said. | <urn:uuid:fe2dfc3a-e8b8-489a-88fb-205fa107940b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hpkmam.wixsite.com/hopkintonma300/single-post/2016/07/20/Slavery-was-alive-and-well-in-Hopkinton | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.980285 | 1,577 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.1623927056... | 1 | Most people associate slavery with the deep South, where the economy until the Civil War relied on enforced labor to pick cotton and tobacco. But slavery was common around New England too -- even in Hopkinton.
While it ended earlier here than it did in the South, slavery was still a part of New England’s early history. Emily Blanck’s 2014 book “Tyrannicide: Forging an American Law of Slavery in Revolutionary South Carolina and Massachusetts,” noted that while a 1641 law prohibited Puritans from keeping slaves, it provided exceptions for “strangers” and “war prisoners.” These two loopholes cleared the way for enslaving Africans and Native Americans. The first slaves from Africa arrived in Massachusetts in 1638.
“As Massachusetts Puritans created a thriving commercial and shipping center, their ships began to partake directly in the Atlantic slave trade, bringing more slaves to their shores,” the book notes. By 1764–1765, according to census records, Massachusetts had 5,779 slaves, about 2.5 percent of the total population, the book reported.
A 1915 paper by Frances Safford to commemorate Hopkinton’s 200th anniversary, published on the Hopkinton Historical Society website, observed that slavery was accepted here, even by men of the cloth. “Rev. Samuel Barrett was the first minister,” she wrote. “His salary was sixty pounds in money and his firewood. Mr. Barrett’s home stood on the site of the present Town Hall and as he lived at a time when the colored people were held as slaves, he had a number of servants.”
Linda Connelly of the Hopkinton Historical Society did extensive research about slavery in Hopkinton, which was presented at a discussion last year. She found a treasure trove of information in the works of Hopkinton historian Elias Nason, who in the mid-1800s began researching the topic of slavery.
Nason wrote that Barrett “received Jackee, a negro” and other slaves; and pointed out that “Brampton Sketches,” an 1890 novel written by Hopkinton resident Mary Claflin and based on her hometown, describes a high gallery where the “colored people sat,” what she described as relics of the slave trade. And a 1906 paper written by Appleton H. Fitch notes that Barrett “spoke with regret at being compelled by circumstances to dispose of [his slaves].”
According to Nason, about 15 slaves older than age 16 lived in Hopkinton in 1765.
Another slave owner was Charles Henry Frankland (the famous Sir Harry Frankland) an English gentleman who moved to Boston in 1739 and worked as a merchant trader. Frankland notoriously consorted with a lowborn teenager, Agnes Surriage (and later married her), but not before he scandalized all of proper Boston society. He built a country home in Hopkinton to get away from the gossip.
James Ward’s 2014 book, “The Common Uncommon,” notes that, “The terraces leading up from Frankland Road were constructed by his slaves.” After Frankland’s death in 1768, his widow Agnes lived in the home for a while. Eventually her sister Mary Swain lived there, along with “three negro slaves, of which one is old and blind,” Ward’s research found.
And from Osbornes' History of Hopkinton, Connelly found that, “a slave was responsible for burning the Frankland estate; a child hunting for a silver spoon and a barrel of something caught fire.”
According to Nason, a Frankland slave named Robert was described as being a “genuine son of Africa” with the letter C imprinted on either side of his body and having “skin as black as ink.” Another Frankland slave named Dinah gave birth to several mixed-race children on the Frankland estate. One was famous magician and performer Richard Potter, the first American-born magician, whose father was allegedly Sir Harry’s son. Dinah’s other children -- Phebe, Sidney and Robert -- “were described as mulattos and very bright,” according to Nason.
Nason’s other notes mention “Scipio,” who worked in the meeting house; “Tobias’ wife,” described as “a negro;” and “Tilda,” who belonged to Agnes Surriage’s sister Mary.
After slavery was outlawed in Massachusetts in the late 1700s, some former slaves appeared to stay with their Hopkinton families. The 1790 Census, (also referred to by Nason,) included categories for “Head of Household,” “Free White females,” “Free white Males Under 16” and “Free White Males Above 16,” and then a separate category called “All Other Free persons,” the implication being former slaves.
“They very likely are house servants; perhaps in some instances farm laborers,” noted Connelly in her paper. “We can only imagine what life was like for them. Treated like family member? Treated like someone from a much lower class? How well were they paid? Certainly they were not treated as equals -- subservient, perhaps viewed in an affectionate but subservient relationship?”
Connelly found something else more troubling: several mentions of mixed-race children being born to servant women. “I would have to assume that…the children were fathered by white men and that the individuals took advantage of black women’s lowly status and lack of power; a gentle way of saying that they probably were raped,” her report notes.
Hopkinton Vital Records to 1850 mention “Sarah, Daughter of Tobias, a servant of Mr. Charles Morris of Boston and Sarah, a free woman” interpreted as: a black baby born in Hopkinton to a father who is a black servant and a black mother who is free.
Other mentions in the Hopkinton records include Jane, “a servant of the late captain Thomas Clarke, and George Gyres, a free negro of Grafton,” who filed intentions to marry in April 1777; Zilpah, "A Mollatto Young Woman, a Servant, baptised Sep 27 1769;” and John Laton, “black, died of Consumption Sep 26, 1810, age 58.”
And Fitch’s 1906 paper noted that he once possessed a bill from a Hopkinton resident for days of work done by one of his slaves at the gristmill dam, in what is now Ashland. Fitch also wrote that he knew the daughter of one of the slaves, who lived to be over 100 years old.
Thanks to Connolly’s research of these records, a picture of slavery in Hopkinton has emerged.
“I was able to piece together many small pieces of info to come up with a list of names of individuals who certainly were slaves, or slaves and their children who later became “servants for life,” she concluded. “I find it amazing to understand that in this town, Hopkinton, where my children grew up and went to school, slaves lived, labored and were owned by individuals,” she said. | 1,530 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When assessing the wars of history, we remember particular individuals from each one. Everyone would say that Abraham Lincoln and Robert E. Lee will forever be remembered when we think about prominent people during the Civil War. Florence Nightingale became known as” the lady with the lamp” during the Crimean War, and no one can separate World War II and the Holocaust from the name of Adolf Hitler.
When we think of war, though, we often think of weapons and camouflage, top secret information and planned missions. By disseminating their cause, those calling others to war strive to raise awareness, and they stand bravely in the face of opposition.
This was certainly true of Frederick Douglass, a man who was born into enslavement and began working at the age of 6. In spite of any pleasure he’d enjoyed as a toddler, he would have grown up fast when, as a young boy, he saw his aunt being cruelly beaten because she had done something she wasn’t supposed to do.
For those of us living in the United States at present, it is hard to fathom that men and women could treat other people the way that most slave owners treated the people they viewed as their property. That notwithstanding, William W. Gwaltney said this: “It was, in many ways, hopelessness condensed; [blacks] could not control where they went, what they did, what they ate, who they could marry, or even how they would conduct their religious lives. And so, for many of these folks, it was truly just a step above the grave.”
He was guided how to read from the Bible, and that skill made it possible for him to study various speeches and work on oration, something he ended up being known for in his adult life when hes poke for the abolitionist cause and worked tirelessly to bring up his voice in favor of equality and liberty for all men.
After his marriage to a woman by the name of Anna Murray, the couple moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts, and it was around this time that Douglass became aware of the work of abolitionists and what they were fighting for. Douglass admired Garrison, who said on one occasion, “On the subject of slavery, I do not wish to think or speak or write with moderation.
Douglass published an autobiography in 1845, though doing so put his personal safety in jeopardy. Thus, when he returned to America, he did soars a free man, and as a man committed to going forward in the abolitionist cause.
He met with Abraham Lincoln, and he also compelled black men to participate in the Union army during the Civil War by saying: “From east to west, from north to south, the sky is written all over,’ Now or never!’ I request you to fly to arms and smite with death the power that would bury the government and your liberty in the same hopeless grave. He who would be free themselves must strike the blow!” In his later years, he was an ambassador for the United States in Haiti with his wife Helen. Hi is an exceptional story of an individual who started out life in servitude, seeing some of the toughest injustices and cruelties humanity can, and died as a free man appreciated for his life’s efforts. He led an exemplary and interesting life that showed courage, dedication to conscience, and a love of freedom.
As a motorcoach company, we praise the men and women who have been brave enough to overcome for a cause like Frederick Douglass. The service men and women who put on the uniform of the United States Armed Forces to safeguard our country these days also have to exemplify bravery and dedication, and these are qualities that we admire. At Bedore Tours, we consider it a privilege to offer transportation for our military whenever we have the opportunity. We know that Bedore Tours is the solution you’re looking for if you have a group transportation need!
The information for this article came from the following source: | <urn:uuid:abb242b3-d50f-4571-bc3e-cc0f4be552dc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bedoretours.com/category/military-transportation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00290.warc.gz | en | 0.982503 | 830 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.3854871988296509,... | 6 | When assessing the wars of history, we remember particular individuals from each one. Everyone would say that Abraham Lincoln and Robert E. Lee will forever be remembered when we think about prominent people during the Civil War. Florence Nightingale became known as” the lady with the lamp” during the Crimean War, and no one can separate World War II and the Holocaust from the name of Adolf Hitler.
When we think of war, though, we often think of weapons and camouflage, top secret information and planned missions. By disseminating their cause, those calling others to war strive to raise awareness, and they stand bravely in the face of opposition.
This was certainly true of Frederick Douglass, a man who was born into enslavement and began working at the age of 6. In spite of any pleasure he’d enjoyed as a toddler, he would have grown up fast when, as a young boy, he saw his aunt being cruelly beaten because she had done something she wasn’t supposed to do.
For those of us living in the United States at present, it is hard to fathom that men and women could treat other people the way that most slave owners treated the people they viewed as their property. That notwithstanding, William W. Gwaltney said this: “It was, in many ways, hopelessness condensed; [blacks] could not control where they went, what they did, what they ate, who they could marry, or even how they would conduct their religious lives. And so, for many of these folks, it was truly just a step above the grave.”
He was guided how to read from the Bible, and that skill made it possible for him to study various speeches and work on oration, something he ended up being known for in his adult life when hes poke for the abolitionist cause and worked tirelessly to bring up his voice in favor of equality and liberty for all men.
After his marriage to a woman by the name of Anna Murray, the couple moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts, and it was around this time that Douglass became aware of the work of abolitionists and what they were fighting for. Douglass admired Garrison, who said on one occasion, “On the subject of slavery, I do not wish to think or speak or write with moderation.
Douglass published an autobiography in 1845, though doing so put his personal safety in jeopardy. Thus, when he returned to America, he did soars a free man, and as a man committed to going forward in the abolitionist cause.
He met with Abraham Lincoln, and he also compelled black men to participate in the Union army during the Civil War by saying: “From east to west, from north to south, the sky is written all over,’ Now or never!’ I request you to fly to arms and smite with death the power that would bury the government and your liberty in the same hopeless grave. He who would be free themselves must strike the blow!” In his later years, he was an ambassador for the United States in Haiti with his wife Helen. Hi is an exceptional story of an individual who started out life in servitude, seeing some of the toughest injustices and cruelties humanity can, and died as a free man appreciated for his life’s efforts. He led an exemplary and interesting life that showed courage, dedication to conscience, and a love of freedom.
As a motorcoach company, we praise the men and women who have been brave enough to overcome for a cause like Frederick Douglass. The service men and women who put on the uniform of the United States Armed Forces to safeguard our country these days also have to exemplify bravery and dedication, and these are qualities that we admire. At Bedore Tours, we consider it a privilege to offer transportation for our military whenever we have the opportunity. We know that Bedore Tours is the solution you’re looking for if you have a group transportation need!
The information for this article came from the following source: | 805 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On December 19, 1732, Benjamin Franklin of Philadelphia first published Poor Richard’s Almanack. The book, filled with proverbs preaching industry and prudence, was published continuously for 25 years and became one of the most popular publications in colonial America, selling an average of 10,000 copies a year.
Franklin was born in Boston in 1706 and was apprenticed to his brother, a printer, at age 12. In 1729, Franklin became the official printer of currency for the colony of Pennsylvania. He began publishing Poor Richard’s, as well as the Pennsylvania Gazette, one of the colonies’ first and best newspapers. By 1748, Franklin had become more interested in inventions and science than publishing. He spent time in London representing Pennsylvania in its dispute with England and later spent time in France. He returned to America in March 1775, with war on the horizon. He served on the Second Continental Congress and helped draft the Declaration of Independence. He was also instrumental in persuading the French to lend military assistance to the colonies. He died in Philadelphia in 1790.
READ MORE: 11 Surprising Facts About Benjamin Franklin | <urn:uuid:5391edac-a2cc-493f-b284-9a78c39f59b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/poor-richards-almanack-is-published | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00117.warc.gz | en | 0.981356 | 235 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.2438738048076... | 15 | On December 19, 1732, Benjamin Franklin of Philadelphia first published Poor Richard’s Almanack. The book, filled with proverbs preaching industry and prudence, was published continuously for 25 years and became one of the most popular publications in colonial America, selling an average of 10,000 copies a year.
Franklin was born in Boston in 1706 and was apprenticed to his brother, a printer, at age 12. In 1729, Franklin became the official printer of currency for the colony of Pennsylvania. He began publishing Poor Richard’s, as well as the Pennsylvania Gazette, one of the colonies’ first and best newspapers. By 1748, Franklin had become more interested in inventions and science than publishing. He spent time in London representing Pennsylvania in its dispute with England and later spent time in France. He returned to America in March 1775, with war on the horizon. He served on the Second Continental Congress and helped draft the Declaration of Independence. He was also instrumental in persuading the French to lend military assistance to the colonies. He died in Philadelphia in 1790.
READ MORE: 11 Surprising Facts About Benjamin Franklin | 257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Undoubtedly one of the most well-known artists of all time, Pablo Picasso’s life had quite the influence on his art from beginning to end. It is believed he began to draw before he could even speak. His earliest surviving works date back to 1890 when the artist would have been just nine years old. Over the span of his life his craft would evolve drastically, and the changes always seemed to parallel with the changes in his life. From the death of a friend to a new muse, Picasso skillfully translated his life, and the world around him, into art.
In his early years, Picasso compares his art to that of the great High Renaissance classicism artist Raphael. He actually was not far off because his early works were much more real than any of his other pieces and more rooted in a classicism style. Kelly Richman-Abdou from My Modern Met stated that his early work, “developed a realist style characterized by naturalistic brushwork, a true-to-life color palette, and everyday subject matter.” When reading that, and thinking about his most popular works, anyone could believe that quote is describing a completely different artist; but Picasso’s ever changing style is what makes him such a master. He learned art from his parents who were both artists as well. His earlier works showed rapid improvement and an immense understanding of classical art fundamentals. He even had a great understanding of human anatomy which is something else one wouldn’t gather from his most popular masterpieces. It could be argued though that Picasso’s knowledge on the human form is what allows him to abstract it in the genius ways he did throughout his life. It could also be argued, by someone who is more of a classicism fan, that his work seemed to backtrack throughout his career. But that opinion doesn’t seem to be a popular one because it is those later abstracted pieces that give him such a household name.
In between Picasso’s realist and cubism styles, from 1901 to 1906 he went through Blue and Rose Periods. These stages in his career are heavily influenced by events in his life. His Blue Period is believed to be initiated by the suicide of his friend Carlos Casagemas. J.S Marcus from The Wall Street Journal stated that in the aftermath of his friends’ tragic death, “Picasso painted a series of depictions of his dead friend. These include ‘The Death of Casagemas,’ with a visible gunshot wound at the temple, and a bluer version… by 1902, the color blue, in all its variations, seemed to take hold of Picasso, becoming dominant in everything from self-portraits to Barcelona cityscapes.” It is clear in this stylistic shift that the death of Casagemas really affected Picasso, his subjects even transitioned to much more “down-and-out” and impoverished people. His Rose Period was initiated by quite the opposite feeling, love. Right before his Rose Period began Picasso met his first muse, Fernande Olivier. J.S Marcus said that, “Picasso’s love affair with Olivier ushered in a change in mood and palette. This new Rose Period, filled with earth tones as well as pink ones, coincided with a whole new subject – circus life – and a signature sexuality.” So Picasso’s mood and life events once again completely changed his style and subjects. It is widely known that Olivier was not his first or last muse; he even drew a lot of inspiration from his children. Picasso’s art visibly evolves with each change in muse and major event in his life, although the Blue and Rose Periods were two of the more extreme stylistic changes before cubism. These periods truly showcase how much he allowed his life experiences to change his work.
It almost seems by his late twenties that Picasso began to grow bored of realistic depictions. He was only a child when impressionist artists like Seurat and Gauguin started to push the limitations of art. As Picasso grew older he began to stray away from the conventions of realist art to also push the limitations of art as well. It is unknown if he changed because he was inspired by these pioneering artists or because of a life event but he managed to do so in a much bolder and riskier way that really paid off. Claudia Kalb from National Geographic stated that, “Picasso charged forward with the intensity of a fighting bull. With his 1907 painting ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon,’ the artist upended traditional composition, perspective, and aesthetic appeal. The canvas’s depiction of five naked women at a brothel—their faces distorted, their bodies jagged—alarmed even Picasso’s closest friends. But the painting would become the cornerstone of a radical art movement, cubism, and vault to the top of the list of the most important paintings of the 20th century.” This sudden intensity could have been brought about by the fact that Picasso was actually pushing himself. He himself said that, “it took me four years to paint like Raphael but a lifetime to paint like a child,” so he believed that his more avant-garde styled art was more challenging than his earlier classical styled pieces. The action of fabricating a viewpoint of a subject from your own mind is the essence of abstract and it could definitely be argued that it is much simpler to paint what is right in front of you. While realism itself does have its own challenges, to create something that cannot be visibly seen takes a very unique creative mindset.
In the later years of his life, Picasso became very interested in engravings and etchings. He even had a machine put into his home so he could make the plates on his own. The etchings he made are considered to be some of the best examples of his proficiency with shadow and shading. Some of his more popular etchings are from his 347 series that he made just years before his death. He collaborated with master printers Piero and Aldo Crommelynck who helped him from Picasso’s own studio to create the 347 diversely themed plates. They range from models being painted to circus and theater depictions. It is obvious from his works that Picasso was indeed creative, but to also have been proficient in styles as technical as realism and etchings is what made him such a master and we have his life to thank for the variety of art he left for the world to enjoy.
Currently on display here at Baterby’s Art Gallery
Here at Baterby’s Art Gallery we have multiple Picasso pieces on display and for purchase for your collection. If you are a Picasso fan we also recommend viewing works by Ferjo who incorporates the popular works by Picasso and other famous artists. We have multiple of his pieces available as well so please visit www.baterbys.com for more details, or contact us at email@example.com / phone: 888-682-9995. | <urn:uuid:f4b994e2-ff00-412c-ae8b-d9e24b18cc95> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://baterbys.com/picasso-influence-masters-life-craft/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.988016 | 1,469 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.4034462571144104,... | 5 | Undoubtedly one of the most well-known artists of all time, Pablo Picasso’s life had quite the influence on his art from beginning to end. It is believed he began to draw before he could even speak. His earliest surviving works date back to 1890 when the artist would have been just nine years old. Over the span of his life his craft would evolve drastically, and the changes always seemed to parallel with the changes in his life. From the death of a friend to a new muse, Picasso skillfully translated his life, and the world around him, into art.
In his early years, Picasso compares his art to that of the great High Renaissance classicism artist Raphael. He actually was not far off because his early works were much more real than any of his other pieces and more rooted in a classicism style. Kelly Richman-Abdou from My Modern Met stated that his early work, “developed a realist style characterized by naturalistic brushwork, a true-to-life color palette, and everyday subject matter.” When reading that, and thinking about his most popular works, anyone could believe that quote is describing a completely different artist; but Picasso’s ever changing style is what makes him such a master. He learned art from his parents who were both artists as well. His earlier works showed rapid improvement and an immense understanding of classical art fundamentals. He even had a great understanding of human anatomy which is something else one wouldn’t gather from his most popular masterpieces. It could be argued though that Picasso’s knowledge on the human form is what allows him to abstract it in the genius ways he did throughout his life. It could also be argued, by someone who is more of a classicism fan, that his work seemed to backtrack throughout his career. But that opinion doesn’t seem to be a popular one because it is those later abstracted pieces that give him such a household name.
In between Picasso’s realist and cubism styles, from 1901 to 1906 he went through Blue and Rose Periods. These stages in his career are heavily influenced by events in his life. His Blue Period is believed to be initiated by the suicide of his friend Carlos Casagemas. J.S Marcus from The Wall Street Journal stated that in the aftermath of his friends’ tragic death, “Picasso painted a series of depictions of his dead friend. These include ‘The Death of Casagemas,’ with a visible gunshot wound at the temple, and a bluer version… by 1902, the color blue, in all its variations, seemed to take hold of Picasso, becoming dominant in everything from self-portraits to Barcelona cityscapes.” It is clear in this stylistic shift that the death of Casagemas really affected Picasso, his subjects even transitioned to much more “down-and-out” and impoverished people. His Rose Period was initiated by quite the opposite feeling, love. Right before his Rose Period began Picasso met his first muse, Fernande Olivier. J.S Marcus said that, “Picasso’s love affair with Olivier ushered in a change in mood and palette. This new Rose Period, filled with earth tones as well as pink ones, coincided with a whole new subject – circus life – and a signature sexuality.” So Picasso’s mood and life events once again completely changed his style and subjects. It is widely known that Olivier was not his first or last muse; he even drew a lot of inspiration from his children. Picasso’s art visibly evolves with each change in muse and major event in his life, although the Blue and Rose Periods were two of the more extreme stylistic changes before cubism. These periods truly showcase how much he allowed his life experiences to change his work.
It almost seems by his late twenties that Picasso began to grow bored of realistic depictions. He was only a child when impressionist artists like Seurat and Gauguin started to push the limitations of art. As Picasso grew older he began to stray away from the conventions of realist art to also push the limitations of art as well. It is unknown if he changed because he was inspired by these pioneering artists or because of a life event but he managed to do so in a much bolder and riskier way that really paid off. Claudia Kalb from National Geographic stated that, “Picasso charged forward with the intensity of a fighting bull. With his 1907 painting ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon,’ the artist upended traditional composition, perspective, and aesthetic appeal. The canvas’s depiction of five naked women at a brothel—their faces distorted, their bodies jagged—alarmed even Picasso’s closest friends. But the painting would become the cornerstone of a radical art movement, cubism, and vault to the top of the list of the most important paintings of the 20th century.” This sudden intensity could have been brought about by the fact that Picasso was actually pushing himself. He himself said that, “it took me four years to paint like Raphael but a lifetime to paint like a child,” so he believed that his more avant-garde styled art was more challenging than his earlier classical styled pieces. The action of fabricating a viewpoint of a subject from your own mind is the essence of abstract and it could definitely be argued that it is much simpler to paint what is right in front of you. While realism itself does have its own challenges, to create something that cannot be visibly seen takes a very unique creative mindset.
In the later years of his life, Picasso became very interested in engravings and etchings. He even had a machine put into his home so he could make the plates on his own. The etchings he made are considered to be some of the best examples of his proficiency with shadow and shading. Some of his more popular etchings are from his 347 series that he made just years before his death. He collaborated with master printers Piero and Aldo Crommelynck who helped him from Picasso’s own studio to create the 347 diversely themed plates. They range from models being painted to circus and theater depictions. It is obvious from his works that Picasso was indeed creative, but to also have been proficient in styles as technical as realism and etchings is what made him such a master and we have his life to thank for the variety of art he left for the world to enjoy.
Currently on display here at Baterby’s Art Gallery
Here at Baterby’s Art Gallery we have multiple Picasso pieces on display and for purchase for your collection. If you are a Picasso fan we also recommend viewing works by Ferjo who incorporates the popular works by Picasso and other famous artists. We have multiple of his pieces available as well so please visit www.baterbys.com for more details, or contact us at email@example.com / phone: 888-682-9995. | 1,411 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Afonso I Henriques of Portugal, known as the Conqueror, was the first king of Portugal, after the independence from Castile. Afonso, born at Guimaraes in July 25 1109 was the son of Count Henry of Burgundy, count of Portugal and princess Teresa of Leon. He was proclaimed king in July 26 1139 and died in December 6 1185 in Coimbra.
In the end of the 11th century, the Iberian Peninsula political agenda was mostly concerned with the Reconquista, the expulsion of Moors communities from the South. This was also the time of the Crusades, when the European nobility was united against the "infidel" enemies. Alfonso VI of Castile found a suitable solution for all his problems: he called for the help of the French nobility to deal with the Moors. In exchange, he was to give the hands of his daughters in marriage to the leaders of the expedition and grant royal privileges to the others. Thus, the heiress Urraca of Castile married Raimond, second son of the Duke of Burgundy, and her half-sister princess Teresa of Leon married his uncle, Henry of Burgundy. Henry was made Count of Portugal, a difficult fiefdom in the south of Castile, where Moorish incursions and attacks were to be expected. With his wife Teresa as co-ruler of Portugal, Henry stood the challenge and held the lands for his father-in-law.
From this marriage several sons were born, but only one, Afonso Henriques (meaning Afonso son of Henry, like Peterson is the son of Peter) thrived. The boy succeeded his father as count of Portugal in 1112, under the tutelage of his mother. The relations between Teresa and her son Afonso were to prove difficult. Only eleven years old, Afonso had already his own political ideas, very different from his mother's. In 1120, the young prince took the side of the archbishop of Braga, a political opponent of Teresa, and both were exiled by her orders. Afonso spent the next years away from his own county, under the supervision of the archbishop. In 1123 Afonso turned fourteen, the adult age in the 12th century. He made himself a knight on his own account, levied an army, and proceeded to take control of his lands. He defeated his mother's troops near Guimaraes, making her at the same time his prisoner and exiling her forever to a Monastery in León. He also vanquished Alphonso Raymond of Castile, his mother's ally, and thus freed the county from political dependence on the crown of León and Castile. He had already a dangerously independent mind.
Afonso then turned his arms against the everlasting problem of the Moors in the South. His campaigns were successful and, on July 26 1139, he obtained an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Ourique, and immediately after was proclaimed king by his soldiers. This meant that Portugal was no longer a fiefdom from Castile, but an independent country in its own right. Next, he assembled the assembly of the kingdom at Lamego, where he received the crown from the archbishop of Bragança, to confirm the independence.
Independence, however, was not a thing a country could decide on their own. Portugal had still to be recognized by the neighbouring countries and, most important, by the Catholic church and the pope. Afonso married Mafalda, daughter of the Amadeo III count of Savoy, and sent ambassadors to Rome to negotiate with the pope. In Portugal, he founded several Monasteries and Convents and granted important privileges to religious orders. In 1143, he declared himself and the kingdom as servants of the Church and promised to pursue the expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, Afonso continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he wrested Santarem in 1146 and Lisbon in 1147. He also conquered an important part of the land south of the Tagus river, although this was lost again to the Moors in the following years.
Meanwhile, King Alfonso VII of Castile (Afonso's direct cousin) was not pleased with the independence of Portugal that, in his view, was nothing more than a rebellion. Conflicts between the two countries were constant and bitter in the following years. Afonso became involved in a war that had broken out among the kings of what was later to become Spain, taking the sides of the Aragonese king, an enemy of Castile. To insure the alliance, his son Sancho was promised to Dulce Berenguer, daughter of the Count of Barcelona and princess of Aragon. In 1167, Afonso was disabled during an engagement near Badajoz by a fall from his horse, and made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of Leon. Portugal was obliged to surrender as his ransom almost all the conquests Afonso had made in Galicia in the previous years.
In 1179 the privileges and favours given to the Catholic Church were compensated. In a papal bull, Pope Alexander III recognized Afonso as king and Portugal as an independent country with the right to conquer lands to the Moors. With this religious blessing, Portugal was finally secured as a country and safe from any Castilian attempts of annexation.
The Portuguese reveres him as a hero, both on account of his personal character and as the founder of their kingdom.
See also: Kings of Portugal family tree
|List of Portuguese monarchs||Succeeded by:
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0.170146733... | 4 | Afonso I Henriques of Portugal, known as the Conqueror, was the first king of Portugal, after the independence from Castile. Afonso, born at Guimaraes in July 25 1109 was the son of Count Henry of Burgundy, count of Portugal and princess Teresa of Leon. He was proclaimed king in July 26 1139 and died in December 6 1185 in Coimbra.
In the end of the 11th century, the Iberian Peninsula political agenda was mostly concerned with the Reconquista, the expulsion of Moors communities from the South. This was also the time of the Crusades, when the European nobility was united against the "infidel" enemies. Alfonso VI of Castile found a suitable solution for all his problems: he called for the help of the French nobility to deal with the Moors. In exchange, he was to give the hands of his daughters in marriage to the leaders of the expedition and grant royal privileges to the others. Thus, the heiress Urraca of Castile married Raimond, second son of the Duke of Burgundy, and her half-sister princess Teresa of Leon married his uncle, Henry of Burgundy. Henry was made Count of Portugal, a difficult fiefdom in the south of Castile, where Moorish incursions and attacks were to be expected. With his wife Teresa as co-ruler of Portugal, Henry stood the challenge and held the lands for his father-in-law.
From this marriage several sons were born, but only one, Afonso Henriques (meaning Afonso son of Henry, like Peterson is the son of Peter) thrived. The boy succeeded his father as count of Portugal in 1112, under the tutelage of his mother. The relations between Teresa and her son Afonso were to prove difficult. Only eleven years old, Afonso had already his own political ideas, very different from his mother's. In 1120, the young prince took the side of the archbishop of Braga, a political opponent of Teresa, and both were exiled by her orders. Afonso spent the next years away from his own county, under the supervision of the archbishop. In 1123 Afonso turned fourteen, the adult age in the 12th century. He made himself a knight on his own account, levied an army, and proceeded to take control of his lands. He defeated his mother's troops near Guimaraes, making her at the same time his prisoner and exiling her forever to a Monastery in León. He also vanquished Alphonso Raymond of Castile, his mother's ally, and thus freed the county from political dependence on the crown of León and Castile. He had already a dangerously independent mind.
Afonso then turned his arms against the everlasting problem of the Moors in the South. His campaigns were successful and, on July 26 1139, he obtained an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Ourique, and immediately after was proclaimed king by his soldiers. This meant that Portugal was no longer a fiefdom from Castile, but an independent country in its own right. Next, he assembled the assembly of the kingdom at Lamego, where he received the crown from the archbishop of Bragança, to confirm the independence.
Independence, however, was not a thing a country could decide on their own. Portugal had still to be recognized by the neighbouring countries and, most important, by the Catholic church and the pope. Afonso married Mafalda, daughter of the Amadeo III count of Savoy, and sent ambassadors to Rome to negotiate with the pope. In Portugal, he founded several Monasteries and Convents and granted important privileges to religious orders. In 1143, he declared himself and the kingdom as servants of the Church and promised to pursue the expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, Afonso continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he wrested Santarem in 1146 and Lisbon in 1147. He also conquered an important part of the land south of the Tagus river, although this was lost again to the Moors in the following years.
Meanwhile, King Alfonso VII of Castile (Afonso's direct cousin) was not pleased with the independence of Portugal that, in his view, was nothing more than a rebellion. Conflicts between the two countries were constant and bitter in the following years. Afonso became involved in a war that had broken out among the kings of what was later to become Spain, taking the sides of the Aragonese king, an enemy of Castile. To insure the alliance, his son Sancho was promised to Dulce Berenguer, daughter of the Count of Barcelona and princess of Aragon. In 1167, Afonso was disabled during an engagement near Badajoz by a fall from his horse, and made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of Leon. Portugal was obliged to surrender as his ransom almost all the conquests Afonso had made in Galicia in the previous years.
In 1179 the privileges and favours given to the Catholic Church were compensated. In a papal bull, Pope Alexander III recognized Afonso as king and Portugal as an independent country with the right to conquer lands to the Moors. With this religious blessing, Portugal was finally secured as a country and safe from any Castilian attempts of annexation.
The Portuguese reveres him as a hero, both on account of his personal character and as the founder of their kingdom.
See also: Kings of Portugal family tree
|List of Portuguese monarchs||Succeeded by:
Initial text from 1911 encyclopedia -- Please update as needed | 1,217 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The section below includes a summary of the novel Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte.
The novel opens early in the 19th Century and continues through five key stages of Jane Eyre’s life: Jane’s childhood at Gateshead Hall, where she is abused by her aunt and cousins; her education at Lowood School, where she makes friends but also suffers oppression; her time as a Governess at Thornfield Hall, where she falls in love with her employer, Edward Fairfax Rochester; her time spent at Moore House, with her cold clergyman cousin, St. John Rivers and finally her reunion and marriage to her beloved Mr. Rochester.
Jane’s Early Childhood
At the start of the novel Jane is 10 years old and living with her maternal Uncle, Aunt and cousins (the Reed Family) at Gateshead Hall. Jane’s parents had died of typhus several years before the start of the novel. At Gateshead Hall, Jane’s Uncle Mr. Reed is the only member of the family who shows her any kindness. Jane’s Aunt Sarah Reed, abuses Jane and treats her as an unwanted burden; she discourages her children from associating with Jane. As a result Jane is lonely and isolated and as a result Jane becomes defensive against her cruel judgment. The family’s nursemaid, Bessie, is Jane’s only ally in the household. Excluded from the family Jane leads a miserable childhood.
As punishment for defending herself against her cousin John Reed, Jane is sent to the Red Room where her late Uncle had died, in the red room Jane faints from panic as she thinks she sees a ghost. She is subsequently attended by Mr. Lloyd an apothecary who shows Jane Kindness, Jane confides in him how unhappy she is at Gateshead Hall. He then recommends to Mrs. Reed that Jane be sent to school. Mrs. Reed readily accepts this as she wants rid of Jane. Mrs. Reed then enlists the aid of the harsh Mr. Brocklehurst, who is the director of Lowood Institution, a charity school for girls, to enroll Jane. Mrs. Reed cautions Mr. Brocklehurst that Jane has a tendency for deceit, which he interprets as her being a "liar". Before Jane leaves, however, she confronts Mrs. Reed and declares that she'll never call her "aunt" again. Jane also tells Mrs. Reed and her daughters, Georgiana and Eliza, that they are the ones who are deceitful, and that she will tell everyone at Lowood how cruelly the Reeds treated her. Mrs. Reed is hurt badly by these words, but does not have the courage or tenacity to show this.
Lowood School Years
At the Lowood Institution, a school for orphaned and poor girls, Jane soon finds that life is harsh; but she attempts to fit in and befriends an older girl, Helen Burns. During a class session, her new friend looks back at Jane and is caught, which earns her a lashing. Mr. Brocklehurst enters just prior to the lashing, then permits it to take place, Jane drops her slate which causes a loud crash and breaks it, thereby drawing attention to herself. She is then forced to stand on a stool with no food nor water and is called a "sinner". The other girls are told not to engage with her as she is a liar. Miss Temple, the caring superintendent, facilitates Jane's self-defence. Helen and Miss Temple are Jane's two main role models who positively guide her development, despite the harsh treatment she has received from many others.
Conditions at the school are appalling the 80 pupils are subjected to cold rooms, poor meals, and thin clothing. Many students fall ill when a typhus epidemic strikes; Helen dies of consumption in Jane's arms. When Mr. Brocklehurst's maltreatment of the students is discovered, several benefactors erect a new building and install a sympathetic management committee to moderate Mr. Brocklehurst's harsh rule. Conditions at the school then improve dramatically.
After eight years at Lowood, 6 as a student and 2 as a teacher Jane decides to leave to pursue a new life. Her friend Miss Temple also leaves the school after getting married.
Time at Thornfield Hall
Jane advertises her services as a governess. A housekeeper at Thornfield Hall, Alice Fairfax, replies to Jane's advertisement. Jane takes the position, teaching Adèle Varens, a young French girl.
One night, while Jane is walking to the nearby town she is passed by a horseman. The horse slips on ice and throws the rider. Despite the rider's surliness, Jane helps him get back onto his horse. Later, back at Thornfield, Jane learns that this man is Edward Fairfax Rochester, master of the house. Adèle was left in his care when her mother abandoned her. It is not immediately apparent whether Adèle is Rochester's daughter or not.
At Jane's first meeting with Mr. Rochester, he teases her, accusing her of bewitching his horse to make him fall. Jane is able to stand up to his initially arrogant manner, despite his strange behaviour. Mr. Rochester and Jane soon come to enjoy each other's company, and spend many evenings together.
Odd things start to happen at the house, such as a strange laugh being heard, a mysterious fire in Mr. Rochester's room (from which Jane saves Rochester by rousing him and throwing water on him and the fire), and an attack on a house-guest named Mr. Mason.
After Jane saves Mr. Rochester from the fire, he thanks her tenderly, and that night Jane feels strange emotions of her own towards him. The next day however he leaves unexpectedly for a distant party gathering, and several days later returns with the whole party, including the beautiful and talented Blanche Ingram. Jane starts to feel jealous when she sees that Blanche and Mr. Rochester favour each other, particularly because she also sees that Blanche is snobbish and heartless.
Jane then receives word that Mrs. Reed has suffered a stroke and is calling for her. Jane returns to Gateshead and remains there for a month to attend her dying aunt. Mrs. Reed confesses to Jane that she wronged her, bringing forth a letter from Jane's paternal uncle, Mr. John Eyre, in which he asks for her to live with him and be his heir. Mrs. Reed admits to telling Mr. Eyre that Jane had died of fever at Lowood. Soon afterward, Mrs. Reed dies, and Jane helps her cousins after the funeral before returning to Thornfield.
Back at Thornfield, Jane broods over Mr. Rochester's rumoured impending marriage to Blanche Ingram. However, one midsummer evening, Rochester baits Jane by saying how much he will miss her after getting married and how she will soon forget him. The normally self-controlled Jane reveals her feelings for him. Rochester then is sure that Jane is sincerely in love with him, and he proposes marriage. Jane is at first skeptical of his sincerity, before accepting his proposal. She then writes to her Uncle John, telling him of her happy news.
As she prepares for her wedding, Jane's forebodings arise when a strange woman sneaks into her room one night and rips her wedding veil in two. As with the previous mysterious events, Mr. Rochester attributes the incident to Grace Poole, one of his servants. During the wedding ceremony however, Mr. Mason and a lawyer declare that Mr. Rochester cannot marry because he is already married to Mr. Mason's sister, Bertha. Mr. Rochester admits this is true but explains that his father tricked him into the marriage for her money. Once they were united, he discovered that she was rapidly descending into congenital madness, and so he eventually locked her away in Thornfield, hiring Grace Poole as a nurse to look after her. When Grace gets drunk, Rochester's wife escapes and causes the strange happenings at Thornfield.
It turns out that Jane's uncle, Mr. John Eyre, is a friend of Mr. Mason's and was visited by him soon after Mr. Eyre received Jane's letter about her impending marriage. After the marriage ceremony is broken off, Mr. Rochester asks Jane to go with him to the south of France, and live with him as husband and wife, even though they cannot be married. Jane is tempted, but must stay true to her Christian values and beliefs. Refusing to go against her principles, and despite her love for him, Jane leaves Thornfield in the middle of the night.
Time at Moore House
Jane travels as far from Thornfield as she can using the little money she had previously saved. She accidentally leaves her bundle of possessions on the coach and is forced to sleep on the moor. She unsuccessfully attempts to trade her handkerchief and gloves for food. Exhausted and starving, she eventually makes her way to the home of Diana and Mary Rivers, but is turned away by the housekeeper. She collapses on the doorstep, preparing for her death. St. John Rivers, Diana and Mary's brother and a clergyman, rescues her. After she regains her health, St. John finds Jane a teaching position at a nearby village school. Jane becomes good friends with the sisters, but St. John remains aloof.
The sisters leave for governess jobs, and St. John becomes somewhat closer to Jane. St. John learns Jane's true identity and astounds her by telling her that her uncle, John Eyre, has died and left her his entire fortune of £20,000. When Jane questions him further, St. John reveals that John Eyre is also his and his sisters' uncle. They had once hoped for a share of the inheritance but were left virtually nothing. Jane, overjoyed by finding that she has living and friendly family members, insists on sharing the money equally with her cousins, and Diana and Mary come back to live at Moor House.
The Novels Ending
Thinking that the pious Jane will make a suitable missionary's wife, St. John asks her to marry him and to go with him to India, out of duty not out of love. Jane initially accepts going to India but rejects the marriage proposal, suggesting they travel as brother and sister. As soon as Jane's resolve against marriage to St. John begins to weaken, she mystically hears Mr. Rochester's voice calling her name.
Jane then returns to Thornfield Hall only to find it as blackened ruins. She learns that Mr. Rochester's wife set the house on fire and committed suicide by jumping from the roof. In his rescue attempts, Mr. Rochester lost a hand and his eyesight. Jane reunites with him, but he fears that she will be repulsed by his condition. "Am I hideous, Jane?", he asks. "Very, sir; you always were, you know", she replies. When Jane assures him of her love and tells him that she will never leave him, Mr. Rochester proposes again, and they are married. He eventually recovers sight enough to see their newborn son. | <urn:uuid:8bdd3b7e-1198-4a18-88d6-95d9b7956e47> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://revisionworld.com/a2-level-level-revision/english-literature-gcse-level/jane-eyre-charlotte-bronte/summary-jane-eyre | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00046.warc.gz | en | 0.98133 | 2,303 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.326284825801849... | 2 | The section below includes a summary of the novel Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte.
The novel opens early in the 19th Century and continues through five key stages of Jane Eyre’s life: Jane’s childhood at Gateshead Hall, where she is abused by her aunt and cousins; her education at Lowood School, where she makes friends but also suffers oppression; her time as a Governess at Thornfield Hall, where she falls in love with her employer, Edward Fairfax Rochester; her time spent at Moore House, with her cold clergyman cousin, St. John Rivers and finally her reunion and marriage to her beloved Mr. Rochester.
Jane’s Early Childhood
At the start of the novel Jane is 10 years old and living with her maternal Uncle, Aunt and cousins (the Reed Family) at Gateshead Hall. Jane’s parents had died of typhus several years before the start of the novel. At Gateshead Hall, Jane’s Uncle Mr. Reed is the only member of the family who shows her any kindness. Jane’s Aunt Sarah Reed, abuses Jane and treats her as an unwanted burden; she discourages her children from associating with Jane. As a result Jane is lonely and isolated and as a result Jane becomes defensive against her cruel judgment. The family’s nursemaid, Bessie, is Jane’s only ally in the household. Excluded from the family Jane leads a miserable childhood.
As punishment for defending herself against her cousin John Reed, Jane is sent to the Red Room where her late Uncle had died, in the red room Jane faints from panic as she thinks she sees a ghost. She is subsequently attended by Mr. Lloyd an apothecary who shows Jane Kindness, Jane confides in him how unhappy she is at Gateshead Hall. He then recommends to Mrs. Reed that Jane be sent to school. Mrs. Reed readily accepts this as she wants rid of Jane. Mrs. Reed then enlists the aid of the harsh Mr. Brocklehurst, who is the director of Lowood Institution, a charity school for girls, to enroll Jane. Mrs. Reed cautions Mr. Brocklehurst that Jane has a tendency for deceit, which he interprets as her being a "liar". Before Jane leaves, however, she confronts Mrs. Reed and declares that she'll never call her "aunt" again. Jane also tells Mrs. Reed and her daughters, Georgiana and Eliza, that they are the ones who are deceitful, and that she will tell everyone at Lowood how cruelly the Reeds treated her. Mrs. Reed is hurt badly by these words, but does not have the courage or tenacity to show this.
Lowood School Years
At the Lowood Institution, a school for orphaned and poor girls, Jane soon finds that life is harsh; but she attempts to fit in and befriends an older girl, Helen Burns. During a class session, her new friend looks back at Jane and is caught, which earns her a lashing. Mr. Brocklehurst enters just prior to the lashing, then permits it to take place, Jane drops her slate which causes a loud crash and breaks it, thereby drawing attention to herself. She is then forced to stand on a stool with no food nor water and is called a "sinner". The other girls are told not to engage with her as she is a liar. Miss Temple, the caring superintendent, facilitates Jane's self-defence. Helen and Miss Temple are Jane's two main role models who positively guide her development, despite the harsh treatment she has received from many others.
Conditions at the school are appalling the 80 pupils are subjected to cold rooms, poor meals, and thin clothing. Many students fall ill when a typhus epidemic strikes; Helen dies of consumption in Jane's arms. When Mr. Brocklehurst's maltreatment of the students is discovered, several benefactors erect a new building and install a sympathetic management committee to moderate Mr. Brocklehurst's harsh rule. Conditions at the school then improve dramatically.
After eight years at Lowood, 6 as a student and 2 as a teacher Jane decides to leave to pursue a new life. Her friend Miss Temple also leaves the school after getting married.
Time at Thornfield Hall
Jane advertises her services as a governess. A housekeeper at Thornfield Hall, Alice Fairfax, replies to Jane's advertisement. Jane takes the position, teaching Adèle Varens, a young French girl.
One night, while Jane is walking to the nearby town she is passed by a horseman. The horse slips on ice and throws the rider. Despite the rider's surliness, Jane helps him get back onto his horse. Later, back at Thornfield, Jane learns that this man is Edward Fairfax Rochester, master of the house. Adèle was left in his care when her mother abandoned her. It is not immediately apparent whether Adèle is Rochester's daughter or not.
At Jane's first meeting with Mr. Rochester, he teases her, accusing her of bewitching his horse to make him fall. Jane is able to stand up to his initially arrogant manner, despite his strange behaviour. Mr. Rochester and Jane soon come to enjoy each other's company, and spend many evenings together.
Odd things start to happen at the house, such as a strange laugh being heard, a mysterious fire in Mr. Rochester's room (from which Jane saves Rochester by rousing him and throwing water on him and the fire), and an attack on a house-guest named Mr. Mason.
After Jane saves Mr. Rochester from the fire, he thanks her tenderly, and that night Jane feels strange emotions of her own towards him. The next day however he leaves unexpectedly for a distant party gathering, and several days later returns with the whole party, including the beautiful and talented Blanche Ingram. Jane starts to feel jealous when she sees that Blanche and Mr. Rochester favour each other, particularly because she also sees that Blanche is snobbish and heartless.
Jane then receives word that Mrs. Reed has suffered a stroke and is calling for her. Jane returns to Gateshead and remains there for a month to attend her dying aunt. Mrs. Reed confesses to Jane that she wronged her, bringing forth a letter from Jane's paternal uncle, Mr. John Eyre, in which he asks for her to live with him and be his heir. Mrs. Reed admits to telling Mr. Eyre that Jane had died of fever at Lowood. Soon afterward, Mrs. Reed dies, and Jane helps her cousins after the funeral before returning to Thornfield.
Back at Thornfield, Jane broods over Mr. Rochester's rumoured impending marriage to Blanche Ingram. However, one midsummer evening, Rochester baits Jane by saying how much he will miss her after getting married and how she will soon forget him. The normally self-controlled Jane reveals her feelings for him. Rochester then is sure that Jane is sincerely in love with him, and he proposes marriage. Jane is at first skeptical of his sincerity, before accepting his proposal. She then writes to her Uncle John, telling him of her happy news.
As she prepares for her wedding, Jane's forebodings arise when a strange woman sneaks into her room one night and rips her wedding veil in two. As with the previous mysterious events, Mr. Rochester attributes the incident to Grace Poole, one of his servants. During the wedding ceremony however, Mr. Mason and a lawyer declare that Mr. Rochester cannot marry because he is already married to Mr. Mason's sister, Bertha. Mr. Rochester admits this is true but explains that his father tricked him into the marriage for her money. Once they were united, he discovered that she was rapidly descending into congenital madness, and so he eventually locked her away in Thornfield, hiring Grace Poole as a nurse to look after her. When Grace gets drunk, Rochester's wife escapes and causes the strange happenings at Thornfield.
It turns out that Jane's uncle, Mr. John Eyre, is a friend of Mr. Mason's and was visited by him soon after Mr. Eyre received Jane's letter about her impending marriage. After the marriage ceremony is broken off, Mr. Rochester asks Jane to go with him to the south of France, and live with him as husband and wife, even though they cannot be married. Jane is tempted, but must stay true to her Christian values and beliefs. Refusing to go against her principles, and despite her love for him, Jane leaves Thornfield in the middle of the night.
Time at Moore House
Jane travels as far from Thornfield as she can using the little money she had previously saved. She accidentally leaves her bundle of possessions on the coach and is forced to sleep on the moor. She unsuccessfully attempts to trade her handkerchief and gloves for food. Exhausted and starving, she eventually makes her way to the home of Diana and Mary Rivers, but is turned away by the housekeeper. She collapses on the doorstep, preparing for her death. St. John Rivers, Diana and Mary's brother and a clergyman, rescues her. After she regains her health, St. John finds Jane a teaching position at a nearby village school. Jane becomes good friends with the sisters, but St. John remains aloof.
The sisters leave for governess jobs, and St. John becomes somewhat closer to Jane. St. John learns Jane's true identity and astounds her by telling her that her uncle, John Eyre, has died and left her his entire fortune of £20,000. When Jane questions him further, St. John reveals that John Eyre is also his and his sisters' uncle. They had once hoped for a share of the inheritance but were left virtually nothing. Jane, overjoyed by finding that she has living and friendly family members, insists on sharing the money equally with her cousins, and Diana and Mary come back to live at Moor House.
The Novels Ending
Thinking that the pious Jane will make a suitable missionary's wife, St. John asks her to marry him and to go with him to India, out of duty not out of love. Jane initially accepts going to India but rejects the marriage proposal, suggesting they travel as brother and sister. As soon as Jane's resolve against marriage to St. John begins to weaken, she mystically hears Mr. Rochester's voice calling her name.
Jane then returns to Thornfield Hall only to find it as blackened ruins. She learns that Mr. Rochester's wife set the house on fire and committed suicide by jumping from the roof. In his rescue attempts, Mr. Rochester lost a hand and his eyesight. Jane reunites with him, but he fears that she will be repulsed by his condition. "Am I hideous, Jane?", he asks. "Very, sir; you always were, you know", she replies. When Jane assures him of her love and tells him that she will never leave him, Mr. Rochester proposes again, and they are married. He eventually recovers sight enough to see their newborn son. | 2,275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rochester Castle, located in Kent, England, was first constructed shortly after 1066 CE by the Normans, was converted into stone between 1087 and 1089 CE, and then added to over subsequent centuries, notably between 1127 and 1136 CE, and again in the mid-14th century CE. The imposing castle keep or donjon seen today was added in the 12th century CE and is one of the best-preserved and tallest of any medieval castle. Odo of Bayeux, half-brother of William the Conqueror (r. 1066-1087 CE), was a famous resident as well as the bishops of Rochester. In 1215 CE Rochester was the scene of a major siege by King John of England (r. 1199-1216 CE) when rebel barons temporarily took over the castle. Today the site is managed by English Heritage and is an important surviving example of 12th-century CE castle architecture.
Rochester Castle is located in the English town of that name in the county of Kent, southern England, some 40 kilometres (25 miles) east of London. The castle lies on the banks of the River Medway, strategically located next to the medieval bridge which crossed the river and so directly on the route between London and Canterbury and Dover.
Rochester castle was first built shortly after the Battle of Hastings in 1066 CE and the subsequent Norman conquest of England and is mentioned in Domesday Book (1086-7 CE). The land on which it was built was acquired from the Bishop of Rochester in exchange for land in Aylesford, Kent. This largely wooden structure, likely a motte and bailey castle, included a curtain wall and dry moat.
The castle came into the hands of Odo of Bayeux (d. 1097 CE) who was the bishop of Bayeux in Normandy and the half-brother of William the Conqueror. Made the Earl of Kent and second most powerful man in England after the king, Odo used Rochester castle as one of his many bases - mighty Dover Castle was another of his residences. The rapacious Odo fell out with his half-brother for a time, and when William’s son William II Rufus, inherited the throne (r. 1087-1100 CE), the new king had no time whatsoever for his scheming uncle, and Odo lost his castle at Rochester to a siege. Shortly after, the castle was then rebuilt in stone between 1087 and 1089 CE (the precise dates are not known), under the orders of Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester (appointed 1077 CE), for its new owner, William Rufus. Gundulf also had the cathedral rebuilt just next door to the castle, using Canterbury as a model, and he is credited with having a hand in the building of the White Tower of the Tower of London.
In 1127 CE Rochester castle was granted to the bishops of Rochester in perpetuity by Henry I of England (r. 1100-1135 CE). The keep seen today was then added under the auspices of the Archbishop, William of Corbeil, between 1127 and 1136 CE. Around 1172 CE Henry II of England (r. 1154-1189 CE) further improved the castle, spending the significant sum of 100 pounds on the project. King John was the next monarch to significantly invest in the castle, spending 115 pounds on upgrades in 1206 CE. Unfortunately for the king, the money was rather wasted as he then had to lay siege to his own castle in 1215 CE (see below).
As was typical of medieval castles, Rochester had a curtain or bailey wall. This no longer survives today except in sections, but the walls were originally an impressive 6.7 metres (22 ft.) high and 1.37 metres (4.5 ft.) thick at the base. Some small stretches of the castle’s original 11th-century CE crenellated outer wall remain on the riverside, some of which were built on top of the city’s ancient Roman walls. In the 13th and 14th century CE sections of the wall were rebuilt on the southeast and eastern sides of the castle; some parts of these are still visible today as the back walls of gardens belonging to housing in Rochester’s High Street. Gundulf added a tower into the eastern side of the curtain walls and the foundations of this were built upon to create a new tower, one of two added in the 14th century CE. As with the Norman original, the later versions of the castle were surrounded by a wide dry moat.
The Castle Keep
Between 1127 and 1136 CE, then, a massive rectangular keep was added in the south corner of the complex. The material used was Kentish rag and dressed stones from Caen in Normandy. The tower, with three floors and a basement, was 34.4 metres (113 ft.) high with smaller corner towers rising above the wall walk by another 3.7 metres (12 ft.). The walls were made especially thick to resist stone missiles, some 3.7 metres thick at the base and tapering to a still-impressive 3 metres (10 ft.) at the top. The thickness allowed for many mural chambers and galleries to be cut into them in the interior at the higher levels. The tower was further strengthened by a massive internal cross-wall, dividing the keep in half from top to bottom. The interior rectangular floor space measured some 14 metres (46 ft.) x 6.4 metres (20 ft.).
For extra protection, the foundations were made extremely deep to deter undermining, there was a drawbridge, and a massive staircase entrance to the first floor of the tower which was entirely enclosed in a fore-building and tower on the north face. The main doorway was protected by a portcullis - its wall grooves are still clearly visible today. The staircase entrance seen today is modern, but it was built on the original entrance ramp. The keep at Rochester had wooden hoardings around the top to act as covered and overhanging firing platforms, as indicated by the presence of holes for beams in the stonework just below the crenellations.
Today, the floors and ceilings are no longer present within the tower following a fire of unknown date, but the impressive windows and arcades are still a reminder of its past grandeur. Spiral staircases in the northeast and southwest corners provided access between floors. Unusually, the tower had the castle’s second chapel on the top floor (the other being in the fore-building), a reflection perhaps of its status as a bishop’s residence. The middle floor had sumptuous private apartments, and these were given grandeur by ornate, carved decoration on the windows, doorways, and fireplaces, and by making the central cross-wall on this floor a columned arcade. The tower had its own well as a protection against a siege, the door can be seen at the base of a covered shaft which rises to the top of the structure within the central cross-wall, allowing each floor to access water using a rope and bucket. The well itself was cut down 18 metres (59 ft.) into the bedrock and the top half of it then lined in stone.
The Great Hall was likely on the first floor of the keep as suggested by the presence of several grand fireplaces. This hall would have hosted audiences with the archbishop, receptions, and impressive feasts. One inventory for supplies in 1266 CE, when the castle was the residence of Roger Leyburn, includes 251 herrings, 50 sheep, 51 salted pigs, and quantities of rice, figs, and raisins. Goods came to the castle from far and wide: fish from Northfleet, oats from Leeds, rye from Colchester, and wine from specialised dealers in London.
The Siege of King John
Rochester castle saw its greatest crisis in 1215 CE as it became the pawn in a complex game of kings, archbishops, and barons. In June 1215 CE the castle had been given to Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury, but then in August of the same year ownership was transferred to Peter des Roches, the Archbishop of Winchester, a friend of King John. Then, in September, a group of rebel barons led by William de Albini claimed to be acting in the name of the castle’s constable, Reginald de Cornhill (an opponent of the king) and seized control of it. King John, then in Dover, reacted swiftly and, leading his troops in person, besieged the castle from 11 October, taking the bridge across the Medway and so isolating the castle from reinforcements. The defenders did not have a great quantity of supplies but they did have the castle’s garrison which numbered between 95 and 140 men (the medieval chroniclers do not agree), including a contingent of knights and crossbowmen.
Unfortunately for the rebels, King John organised a constant barrage, day and night, of heavy missiles from five large catapults and rotating units of archers and crossbowmen. The defenders became low on food and were forced to eat their own horses. The combination of catapults and tunnelling eventually did their job and so the attackers pierced the outer wall, allowing the king’s men to approach the keep. Sappers were then instructed to mine under a corner of the keep, which they did. Next, props in the tunnel and quantities of flammable pig fat and wood were set ablaze causing the collapse of the tunnel and also the partial collapse of the southeast corner of the tower above. However, the defenders did not give up and continued to resist safe behind the cross-wall. Without food, though, they could not survive indefinitely and were obliged to surrender on 30 November.
The badly damaged tower was rebuilt with a new rounded corner section, and this is the form that can be seen today. The keep was further protected by the construction of a protective wall in front of it. Other additions after the siege included better fortifying the southern gate and, around 1225 CE, an extension and deepening of the moat, which then enclosed the rise called Boley Hill which John himself had used as a useful elevation from which to fire his catapults. In 1233 CE a drum tower was added to the now-repaired curtain walls. Significantly, though, the siege had shown the vulnerability of even the strongest castles and that attack was, indeed, the best form of defence.
King John’s siege was not the end of Rochester’s problems as the very next year Prince Louis of France (aka Louis VIII, r. 1223-1226 CE) briefly captured the castle as he launched his claim for the English throne. During more peaceful times, the Queen of Scotland, Marie de Coucy (c. 1218-1285 CE), visited the castle in 1248 CE. Rochester was again besieged, this time only for two weeks, as royalists in support of Henry III of England (r. 1216-1272 CE) took it over in April 1264 CE and they braced themselves to resist the attacking rebel forces led by Earl Simon de Montfort. The siege began on 17 April, once again the curtain wall was breached but the tower keep stood firm until the arrival of an army led by the king persuaded the attackers to withdraw on 26 April. This time, the castle was not repaired for over a century, masonry was even removed and used in other buildings, and the whole complex fell into a state of serious disrepair.
Rochester’s saviour was King Edward III (r. 1327-1377 CE). A survey was carried out on the castle in 1340 CE and again in 1363 CE, both of which studies showed the massive funds needed to bring the castle back to its former glory. Work began in 1367 CE and continued, at a cost of 2262 pounds (equivalent to several million dollars today), until 1370 CE. Work carried on, too, over the next decade as every part of the castle was overhauled. Another major addition was made in the 1380s CE, the tower at the north end of the castle, now in ruins.
After the 14th century CE, the castle was not involved in any military events and James I (r. 1603-1625 CE) granted it to the statesman Sir Anthony Weldon (1583–1648 CE) whose descendants kept possession until the end of the 19th century CE. Various schemes regarding the castle came to no end, including a plan to demolish the whole thing or turn it into an army barracks. In 1965 CE the Corporation of Rochester handed over the lease to the Ministry of Public Buildings and Works, and since 1984 CE the castle has been managed by English Heritage. | <urn:uuid:d4b85c77-3991-4315-b475-0d94c09a74fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ancient.eu/Rochester_Castle/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00247.warc.gz | en | 0.980153 | 2,643 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.331271409... | 6 | Rochester Castle, located in Kent, England, was first constructed shortly after 1066 CE by the Normans, was converted into stone between 1087 and 1089 CE, and then added to over subsequent centuries, notably between 1127 and 1136 CE, and again in the mid-14th century CE. The imposing castle keep or donjon seen today was added in the 12th century CE and is one of the best-preserved and tallest of any medieval castle. Odo of Bayeux, half-brother of William the Conqueror (r. 1066-1087 CE), was a famous resident as well as the bishops of Rochester. In 1215 CE Rochester was the scene of a major siege by King John of England (r. 1199-1216 CE) when rebel barons temporarily took over the castle. Today the site is managed by English Heritage and is an important surviving example of 12th-century CE castle architecture.
Rochester Castle is located in the English town of that name in the county of Kent, southern England, some 40 kilometres (25 miles) east of London. The castle lies on the banks of the River Medway, strategically located next to the medieval bridge which crossed the river and so directly on the route between London and Canterbury and Dover.
Rochester castle was first built shortly after the Battle of Hastings in 1066 CE and the subsequent Norman conquest of England and is mentioned in Domesday Book (1086-7 CE). The land on which it was built was acquired from the Bishop of Rochester in exchange for land in Aylesford, Kent. This largely wooden structure, likely a motte and bailey castle, included a curtain wall and dry moat.
The castle came into the hands of Odo of Bayeux (d. 1097 CE) who was the bishop of Bayeux in Normandy and the half-brother of William the Conqueror. Made the Earl of Kent and second most powerful man in England after the king, Odo used Rochester castle as one of his many bases - mighty Dover Castle was another of his residences. The rapacious Odo fell out with his half-brother for a time, and when William’s son William II Rufus, inherited the throne (r. 1087-1100 CE), the new king had no time whatsoever for his scheming uncle, and Odo lost his castle at Rochester to a siege. Shortly after, the castle was then rebuilt in stone between 1087 and 1089 CE (the precise dates are not known), under the orders of Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester (appointed 1077 CE), for its new owner, William Rufus. Gundulf also had the cathedral rebuilt just next door to the castle, using Canterbury as a model, and he is credited with having a hand in the building of the White Tower of the Tower of London.
In 1127 CE Rochester castle was granted to the bishops of Rochester in perpetuity by Henry I of England (r. 1100-1135 CE). The keep seen today was then added under the auspices of the Archbishop, William of Corbeil, between 1127 and 1136 CE. Around 1172 CE Henry II of England (r. 1154-1189 CE) further improved the castle, spending the significant sum of 100 pounds on the project. King John was the next monarch to significantly invest in the castle, spending 115 pounds on upgrades in 1206 CE. Unfortunately for the king, the money was rather wasted as he then had to lay siege to his own castle in 1215 CE (see below).
As was typical of medieval castles, Rochester had a curtain or bailey wall. This no longer survives today except in sections, but the walls were originally an impressive 6.7 metres (22 ft.) high and 1.37 metres (4.5 ft.) thick at the base. Some small stretches of the castle’s original 11th-century CE crenellated outer wall remain on the riverside, some of which were built on top of the city’s ancient Roman walls. In the 13th and 14th century CE sections of the wall were rebuilt on the southeast and eastern sides of the castle; some parts of these are still visible today as the back walls of gardens belonging to housing in Rochester’s High Street. Gundulf added a tower into the eastern side of the curtain walls and the foundations of this were built upon to create a new tower, one of two added in the 14th century CE. As with the Norman original, the later versions of the castle were surrounded by a wide dry moat.
The Castle Keep
Between 1127 and 1136 CE, then, a massive rectangular keep was added in the south corner of the complex. The material used was Kentish rag and dressed stones from Caen in Normandy. The tower, with three floors and a basement, was 34.4 metres (113 ft.) high with smaller corner towers rising above the wall walk by another 3.7 metres (12 ft.). The walls were made especially thick to resist stone missiles, some 3.7 metres thick at the base and tapering to a still-impressive 3 metres (10 ft.) at the top. The thickness allowed for many mural chambers and galleries to be cut into them in the interior at the higher levels. The tower was further strengthened by a massive internal cross-wall, dividing the keep in half from top to bottom. The interior rectangular floor space measured some 14 metres (46 ft.) x 6.4 metres (20 ft.).
For extra protection, the foundations were made extremely deep to deter undermining, there was a drawbridge, and a massive staircase entrance to the first floor of the tower which was entirely enclosed in a fore-building and tower on the north face. The main doorway was protected by a portcullis - its wall grooves are still clearly visible today. The staircase entrance seen today is modern, but it was built on the original entrance ramp. The keep at Rochester had wooden hoardings around the top to act as covered and overhanging firing platforms, as indicated by the presence of holes for beams in the stonework just below the crenellations.
Today, the floors and ceilings are no longer present within the tower following a fire of unknown date, but the impressive windows and arcades are still a reminder of its past grandeur. Spiral staircases in the northeast and southwest corners provided access between floors. Unusually, the tower had the castle’s second chapel on the top floor (the other being in the fore-building), a reflection perhaps of its status as a bishop’s residence. The middle floor had sumptuous private apartments, and these were given grandeur by ornate, carved decoration on the windows, doorways, and fireplaces, and by making the central cross-wall on this floor a columned arcade. The tower had its own well as a protection against a siege, the door can be seen at the base of a covered shaft which rises to the top of the structure within the central cross-wall, allowing each floor to access water using a rope and bucket. The well itself was cut down 18 metres (59 ft.) into the bedrock and the top half of it then lined in stone.
The Great Hall was likely on the first floor of the keep as suggested by the presence of several grand fireplaces. This hall would have hosted audiences with the archbishop, receptions, and impressive feasts. One inventory for supplies in 1266 CE, when the castle was the residence of Roger Leyburn, includes 251 herrings, 50 sheep, 51 salted pigs, and quantities of rice, figs, and raisins. Goods came to the castle from far and wide: fish from Northfleet, oats from Leeds, rye from Colchester, and wine from specialised dealers in London.
The Siege of King John
Rochester castle saw its greatest crisis in 1215 CE as it became the pawn in a complex game of kings, archbishops, and barons. In June 1215 CE the castle had been given to Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury, but then in August of the same year ownership was transferred to Peter des Roches, the Archbishop of Winchester, a friend of King John. Then, in September, a group of rebel barons led by William de Albini claimed to be acting in the name of the castle’s constable, Reginald de Cornhill (an opponent of the king) and seized control of it. King John, then in Dover, reacted swiftly and, leading his troops in person, besieged the castle from 11 October, taking the bridge across the Medway and so isolating the castle from reinforcements. The defenders did not have a great quantity of supplies but they did have the castle’s garrison which numbered between 95 and 140 men (the medieval chroniclers do not agree), including a contingent of knights and crossbowmen.
Unfortunately for the rebels, King John organised a constant barrage, day and night, of heavy missiles from five large catapults and rotating units of archers and crossbowmen. The defenders became low on food and were forced to eat their own horses. The combination of catapults and tunnelling eventually did their job and so the attackers pierced the outer wall, allowing the king’s men to approach the keep. Sappers were then instructed to mine under a corner of the keep, which they did. Next, props in the tunnel and quantities of flammable pig fat and wood were set ablaze causing the collapse of the tunnel and also the partial collapse of the southeast corner of the tower above. However, the defenders did not give up and continued to resist safe behind the cross-wall. Without food, though, they could not survive indefinitely and were obliged to surrender on 30 November.
The badly damaged tower was rebuilt with a new rounded corner section, and this is the form that can be seen today. The keep was further protected by the construction of a protective wall in front of it. Other additions after the siege included better fortifying the southern gate and, around 1225 CE, an extension and deepening of the moat, which then enclosed the rise called Boley Hill which John himself had used as a useful elevation from which to fire his catapults. In 1233 CE a drum tower was added to the now-repaired curtain walls. Significantly, though, the siege had shown the vulnerability of even the strongest castles and that attack was, indeed, the best form of defence.
King John’s siege was not the end of Rochester’s problems as the very next year Prince Louis of France (aka Louis VIII, r. 1223-1226 CE) briefly captured the castle as he launched his claim for the English throne. During more peaceful times, the Queen of Scotland, Marie de Coucy (c. 1218-1285 CE), visited the castle in 1248 CE. Rochester was again besieged, this time only for two weeks, as royalists in support of Henry III of England (r. 1216-1272 CE) took it over in April 1264 CE and they braced themselves to resist the attacking rebel forces led by Earl Simon de Montfort. The siege began on 17 April, once again the curtain wall was breached but the tower keep stood firm until the arrival of an army led by the king persuaded the attackers to withdraw on 26 April. This time, the castle was not repaired for over a century, masonry was even removed and used in other buildings, and the whole complex fell into a state of serious disrepair.
Rochester’s saviour was King Edward III (r. 1327-1377 CE). A survey was carried out on the castle in 1340 CE and again in 1363 CE, both of which studies showed the massive funds needed to bring the castle back to its former glory. Work began in 1367 CE and continued, at a cost of 2262 pounds (equivalent to several million dollars today), until 1370 CE. Work carried on, too, over the next decade as every part of the castle was overhauled. Another major addition was made in the 1380s CE, the tower at the north end of the castle, now in ruins.
After the 14th century CE, the castle was not involved in any military events and James I (r. 1603-1625 CE) granted it to the statesman Sir Anthony Weldon (1583–1648 CE) whose descendants kept possession until the end of the 19th century CE. Various schemes regarding the castle came to no end, including a plan to demolish the whole thing or turn it into an army barracks. In 1965 CE the Corporation of Rochester handed over the lease to the Ministry of Public Buildings and Works, and since 1984 CE the castle has been managed by English Heritage. | 2,831 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The title of “Pharaoh” actually comes to us from the Greek language and its use in the Old Testament. It originates in the Egyptian Per-Aa, meaning “Great House”, a designation of the palace, which first came to be used as a label for the king around 1450 BC, though it only became common usage some centuries later. For most of the time, the usual word for the king of ancient Egypt was nesu, but a whole range of titles were applicable to any full statement of a king’s names and titulary.
According to Egyptian legend, the first kings of Egypt were later some of Egypt’s most famous gods. We really do not know whether some of these individuals actually existed in human form or what regions of Egypt they may have ruled over. Only at the end of the Predynastic period, prior to the unification of Egypt, can we recognize specific kings who most likely ruled over either northern or southern Egypt. According to many sources, the first real king of Egypt, therefore ruling over the unified land, was Menes, who would have ruled Egypt around 3100 BC, but we have little if any archaeological basis for this name. Most scholars today believe that he may have been a king named Narmer, or more likely still, Aha, two figures that are better attested in the archaeological record.
However, Menes might have also been a legendary composition of several rulers. After these first rulers of a unified Egypt, the Egyptian monarchy lasted in a recognizable form for over three thousand years, basically ending with Cleopatra, though even Roman emperors attempted to style themselves as Egyptian pharaohs. We know of 170 or more specific pharaohs during this period of time. Although many changes occurred during that time, almost all of the fundamentals remained the same.
Kings were not only males, and unlike in modern monarchies, the ruler of ancient Egypt, whether male or female, was always called a king. In fact, Egypt had some very noteworthy female rulers such as Hatshepsut and others.
In many if not most accounts, the king is viewed as an incarnation of Horus, a falcon god, and the posthumous son of Osiris, who himself was a divine king slain by his brother, Seth. Horus fought his uncle for the return of the throne, and part of the accession process of the king was the proper burial of his predecessor, as Horus carrying out the last rites of Osiris. In fact, there are a number of cases where such an act may have been the legal basis for a non-royal figure’s ascent of the throne. However, more usual was the succession of the eldest son, whose status as heir was frequently, if not always, proclaimed during his father’s lifetime. Furthermore, there were a number of instances where this was taken a step further by the heir’s coronation as a co-regent prior to the father’s death. This has actually led to much confusion among scholars, because in some cases, the young heir began to count his regnal years only after the death of his father, while in other instances, he started to do so from the moment of his coronation. The ancient Egyptians did not use era dating as we do today (BC or AD), but rather relied on regnal dating of the king’s rule, and therefore potential difficulties for modern, if not ancient, historians can easily be imagined.
Of course, the king was also subject to some rather grave responsibilities. Through his dealings with the gods, he was tasked with keeping the order, or ma’at of the land, and therefore keeping out chaos, often in the form of the enemies of Egypt from foreign lands. But he was also responsible for making sufficient offerings and otherwise satisfying the gods so that they would bless Egypt with a bountiful Nile flood, and therefore a good enough harvest to feed his people. When he failed at these tasks, he could bear not only blame, but a weakening of the state and thus his power. In drastic cases, such as at the end of the Old Kingdom, this could actually lead to a complete collapse of the Egyptian state.
Basically, Manetho divided up ancient Egyptian history into thirty dynasties, though this division is a bit difficult, and modern scholarship has proven it to be not completely (and sometimes not at all) accurate. Most of the time, a dynasty consisted of a related family of rulers, though sometimes dynasties seem to have been broken up due to the establishment of a new capital. In a number of instances, modern Egyptologists believe that he may have been incorrect about the end of a family line.
Even today, the power that an ancient Egyptian pharaoh commanded in ancient Egypt and the resources under his control can seem staggering. One need only think in terms of the Great Pyramids, the wealth of gold and the grand temples to gain some understanding of their power. They commanded resources that many modern day states would be hard pressed to emulate, and they did so at a time when much of the remainder of the ancient world were struggling for a foothold in history.
See all posts in Glossary
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|Nov 14 — Nov 28, 2020| | <urn:uuid:75e67871-89e8-4f02-9626-63ec1b46076c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://underthefigtree.org/glossary/pharaoh/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00479.warc.gz | en | 0.981272 | 1,109 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.0823254734277... | 1 | The title of “Pharaoh” actually comes to us from the Greek language and its use in the Old Testament. It originates in the Egyptian Per-Aa, meaning “Great House”, a designation of the palace, which first came to be used as a label for the king around 1450 BC, though it only became common usage some centuries later. For most of the time, the usual word for the king of ancient Egypt was nesu, but a whole range of titles were applicable to any full statement of a king’s names and titulary.
According to Egyptian legend, the first kings of Egypt were later some of Egypt’s most famous gods. We really do not know whether some of these individuals actually existed in human form or what regions of Egypt they may have ruled over. Only at the end of the Predynastic period, prior to the unification of Egypt, can we recognize specific kings who most likely ruled over either northern or southern Egypt. According to many sources, the first real king of Egypt, therefore ruling over the unified land, was Menes, who would have ruled Egypt around 3100 BC, but we have little if any archaeological basis for this name. Most scholars today believe that he may have been a king named Narmer, or more likely still, Aha, two figures that are better attested in the archaeological record.
However, Menes might have also been a legendary composition of several rulers. After these first rulers of a unified Egypt, the Egyptian monarchy lasted in a recognizable form for over three thousand years, basically ending with Cleopatra, though even Roman emperors attempted to style themselves as Egyptian pharaohs. We know of 170 or more specific pharaohs during this period of time. Although many changes occurred during that time, almost all of the fundamentals remained the same.
Kings were not only males, and unlike in modern monarchies, the ruler of ancient Egypt, whether male or female, was always called a king. In fact, Egypt had some very noteworthy female rulers such as Hatshepsut and others.
In many if not most accounts, the king is viewed as an incarnation of Horus, a falcon god, and the posthumous son of Osiris, who himself was a divine king slain by his brother, Seth. Horus fought his uncle for the return of the throne, and part of the accession process of the king was the proper burial of his predecessor, as Horus carrying out the last rites of Osiris. In fact, there are a number of cases where such an act may have been the legal basis for a non-royal figure’s ascent of the throne. However, more usual was the succession of the eldest son, whose status as heir was frequently, if not always, proclaimed during his father’s lifetime. Furthermore, there were a number of instances where this was taken a step further by the heir’s coronation as a co-regent prior to the father’s death. This has actually led to much confusion among scholars, because in some cases, the young heir began to count his regnal years only after the death of his father, while in other instances, he started to do so from the moment of his coronation. The ancient Egyptians did not use era dating as we do today (BC or AD), but rather relied on regnal dating of the king’s rule, and therefore potential difficulties for modern, if not ancient, historians can easily be imagined.
Of course, the king was also subject to some rather grave responsibilities. Through his dealings with the gods, he was tasked with keeping the order, or ma’at of the land, and therefore keeping out chaos, often in the form of the enemies of Egypt from foreign lands. But he was also responsible for making sufficient offerings and otherwise satisfying the gods so that they would bless Egypt with a bountiful Nile flood, and therefore a good enough harvest to feed his people. When he failed at these tasks, he could bear not only blame, but a weakening of the state and thus his power. In drastic cases, such as at the end of the Old Kingdom, this could actually lead to a complete collapse of the Egyptian state.
Basically, Manetho divided up ancient Egyptian history into thirty dynasties, though this division is a bit difficult, and modern scholarship has proven it to be not completely (and sometimes not at all) accurate. Most of the time, a dynasty consisted of a related family of rulers, though sometimes dynasties seem to have been broken up due to the establishment of a new capital. In a number of instances, modern Egyptologists believe that he may have been incorrect about the end of a family line.
Even today, the power that an ancient Egyptian pharaoh commanded in ancient Egypt and the resources under his control can seem staggering. One need only think in terms of the Great Pyramids, the wealth of gold and the grand temples to gain some understanding of their power. They commanded resources that many modern day states would be hard pressed to emulate, and they did so at a time when much of the remainder of the ancient world were struggling for a foothold in history.
See all posts in Glossary
|Mar 30 — Apr 08, 2020|
|Jun 28 — Jul 12, 2020|
|Nov 01 — Nov 15, 2020|
|Nov 14 — Nov 28, 2020| | 1,122 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ethan Allen was more than a brand of furniture. He was a prominent early American and one of the first heroes of the nation. Ethan Allen (January 21, 1738-February 12, 1789) was a farmer, businessman, American Revolutionary War hero, land speculator, writer, and politician. In the late 1760s, he became embroiled in land disputes that eventually resulted in blood shed. One significant result of the tension over the land dispute was the formation of a militia known as the Green Mountain Boys, headed by Allen. Territories between the British colonies of New York and New Hampshire were then called the New Hampshire Grants. Later, the New Hampshire Grants became the State of Vermont. Allen and the Green Mountain Boys were instrumental in resisting New York’s attempts to gain control over this territory, which was disputed land with New Hampshire. In 1777, the land was designated the Vermont Republic and the Green Mountain Boys became the state militia.
In the opening months of the American Revolution, Allen and the Green Mountain Boys were influential for the American cause. On May 10, 1775, Allen and his men, along with Benedict Arnold, captured strategically situated Fort Ticonderoga on the shores of Lake Champlain. A few months later, Allen led a failed military expedition against Montreal that resulted in his capture by the British. He remained in captivity until May 14, 1778 when he was exchanged for a British officer who was being held by the Americans.
In the late 1750s and early 1760s, Ethan Allen appears to have changed direction in life. In 1755, his father—Joseph Allen—passed away. Before his father’s death, Ethan had begun studies under a minister in the nearby town of Salisbury with the goal of being admitted to Yale College. Even at a young age, Ethan evidenced an interest in learning. But following his father’s death, his education was no longer through the influence of the church. By 1763, Ethan had married his first wife, Mary Brownson, and had moved to nearby Salisbury with their infant daughter Loraine, who was to pass away after her mother (see anecdote below).
At Salisbury, he came under the influence of a popular form of anti-Christian skepticism known as deism. Deism suggested that God did exist, but after making the universe, God deserted what he had made and allowed it to continue on without his attendance. As a result, the heart of all Christianity taught was denied by deists. While living at Salisbury, Allen became acquainted with Thomas Young, a doctor living across the colonial boundary in New York. Eventually the two men decided to collaborate on a book intended to attack religion. They labored on the manuscript until 1764 when Young moved from the area, taking the manuscript with him. Years later, after Young’s death, Allen recovered the manuscript and revised and published it in 1785 as Reason: The Only Oracle of Man. It was an unbridled attack against the Bible, the deity of Jesus Christ, and Christianity in general. To Allen’s disappointment, the book was a complete failure with only 200 of 1,500 copies being sold. A fire at the publisher’s house consumed the unsold copies.
It is easier to identify the deeds of a man’s hand than it is to determine the desires of a man’s heart, but from all indication, Ethan Allen never disavowed the deism he espoused throughout much of his life. However, the following anecdote does offer some hope that he may have altered his course in life. After his first wife’s death, Allen then was forced to confront the reality of the death of a daughter. This anecdote, recorded by Rev. Solomon Benjamin Shaw, may be more optimistic than the facts warrant, but we may pray that it is closer to Allen’s experience than the evidence would seem to indicate.
Though the following biographic note may be familiar to some, it may yet be useful to many. Ethan Allen was a professed infidel. He wrote a book against the divinity of our blessed Lord. His wife was a Christian, earnest, cheerful and devoted. She died early, leaving an only daughter behind, who became the idol of her father. She was a fragile, sensitive child, and entwined herself about the rugged nature of her father, as the vine entwines itself about the knotty and gnarled limbs of the oak. Consumption marked this fair girl for its own, and she wasted away day by day, until even the grasshopper became a burden.
One day her father came into her room and sat down by her bedside. He took her wan, ethereal hand in his. Looking her father squarely in the face, she said: “My dear father, I’m going to die.”
“Oh! no, my child! Oh! no. The spring is coming and with the birds and breezes and the bloom, your pale cheeks will blush with health.”
“No; the doctor was here to-day. I felt I was nearing the grave, and I asked him to tell me plainly what I had to expect. I told him that it was a great thing to exchange worlds; that I did not wish to be deceived about myself, and if I was going to die I had some preparations I wanted to make. He told me my disease was beyond human skill; that a few more suns would rise and set, and then I would be borne to my burial. You will bury me, father, by the side of my mother, for that was her dying request. But, father, you and mother did not agree on religion. Mother often spoke to me of the blessed Savior who died for us all. She used to pray for both you and me, that the Savior might be our friend, and that we might all see Him as our Savior, when He sits enthroned in His glory. I don’t feel that I can go alone through the dark valley of the shadow of death. Now, tell me, father, whom shall I follow, you or mother? Shall I reject Christ, as you have taught me, or shall I accept Him, as He was my mother’s friend in the hour of her great sorrow?”
There was an honest heart beneath that rough exterior. Though tears nearly choked his utterance, the old soldier said: “My child, cling to your mother’s Savior; she was right. I’ll try to follow you to that blessed abode.”
A serene smile overspread the face of the dying girl, and who can doubt there is an unbroken family in heaven.
A growing number in America have suggested that religion or Christianity should have no place in the political life of the nation. The Founding Fathers, however, never believed nor advocated irreligion. In fact, secularists cannot demonstrate a single occasion in any of the original Thirteen Colonies and subsequent Thirteen United States that irreligion or deism had any impact upon the political life of those individual states or the nation as a Read more...
Samuel Huntington (July 16, 1731 – January 5, 1796) was a jurist, statesman, and Patriot in the American Revolution from Connecticut. As a delegate to the Continental Congress, he signed the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation.Read more...
Leaving the deism of his youth and the immorality it produced, Benjamin Franklin came to realize that the Calvinism of his youth was closer to reality than he had previously imagined. Though never fully returning to this theological tradition in which he was raised, he realized that human government must reflect God's government of the world, and for this reason, secularists, atheists, agnostics, and the irreligious falsely attempt to lay clRead more...
Francis Lightfoot Lee (October 14, 1734 – January 11, 1797) was a member of the House of Burgesses in the Colony of Virginia. As an active protester of issues such as the Stamp Act, Lee helped move the colony in the direction of independence from Britain. Lee was a delegate to the Virginia Conventions and the Continental Congress. He was a signer of the Articles of Confederation and the Declaration of Independence as a representative of Virginia.Read more...
Thomas Paine is often employed by the political left as justification for their false claim that America was established as a secular nation. The facts, however, completely expose their uninformed argument. Click to read the entire article… While Thomas Paine is remembered positively for his contribution to American independence through his book, Common Sense, his contemporary defenders overstate his influence when they credit him as beingRead more...
S. B. Shaw was a minister, editor, evangelist, and publisher. He was associated with the Wesleyan Methodist Church, the Free Methodist Church, and the Christian Missionary Alliance. His works include Touching Incidents and Remarkable Answers to Prayer (1893), God’s Financial Plan (1897), Dying Testimonies of the Saved and Unsaved (1898), and The Great Revivals of Wales (1905).
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0.29451948404... | 1 | Ethan Allen was more than a brand of furniture. He was a prominent early American and one of the first heroes of the nation. Ethan Allen (January 21, 1738-February 12, 1789) was a farmer, businessman, American Revolutionary War hero, land speculator, writer, and politician. In the late 1760s, he became embroiled in land disputes that eventually resulted in blood shed. One significant result of the tension over the land dispute was the formation of a militia known as the Green Mountain Boys, headed by Allen. Territories between the British colonies of New York and New Hampshire were then called the New Hampshire Grants. Later, the New Hampshire Grants became the State of Vermont. Allen and the Green Mountain Boys were instrumental in resisting New York’s attempts to gain control over this territory, which was disputed land with New Hampshire. In 1777, the land was designated the Vermont Republic and the Green Mountain Boys became the state militia.
In the opening months of the American Revolution, Allen and the Green Mountain Boys were influential for the American cause. On May 10, 1775, Allen and his men, along with Benedict Arnold, captured strategically situated Fort Ticonderoga on the shores of Lake Champlain. A few months later, Allen led a failed military expedition against Montreal that resulted in his capture by the British. He remained in captivity until May 14, 1778 when he was exchanged for a British officer who was being held by the Americans.
In the late 1750s and early 1760s, Ethan Allen appears to have changed direction in life. In 1755, his father—Joseph Allen—passed away. Before his father’s death, Ethan had begun studies under a minister in the nearby town of Salisbury with the goal of being admitted to Yale College. Even at a young age, Ethan evidenced an interest in learning. But following his father’s death, his education was no longer through the influence of the church. By 1763, Ethan had married his first wife, Mary Brownson, and had moved to nearby Salisbury with their infant daughter Loraine, who was to pass away after her mother (see anecdote below).
At Salisbury, he came under the influence of a popular form of anti-Christian skepticism known as deism. Deism suggested that God did exist, but after making the universe, God deserted what he had made and allowed it to continue on without his attendance. As a result, the heart of all Christianity taught was denied by deists. While living at Salisbury, Allen became acquainted with Thomas Young, a doctor living across the colonial boundary in New York. Eventually the two men decided to collaborate on a book intended to attack religion. They labored on the manuscript until 1764 when Young moved from the area, taking the manuscript with him. Years later, after Young’s death, Allen recovered the manuscript and revised and published it in 1785 as Reason: The Only Oracle of Man. It was an unbridled attack against the Bible, the deity of Jesus Christ, and Christianity in general. To Allen’s disappointment, the book was a complete failure with only 200 of 1,500 copies being sold. A fire at the publisher’s house consumed the unsold copies.
It is easier to identify the deeds of a man’s hand than it is to determine the desires of a man’s heart, but from all indication, Ethan Allen never disavowed the deism he espoused throughout much of his life. However, the following anecdote does offer some hope that he may have altered his course in life. After his first wife’s death, Allen then was forced to confront the reality of the death of a daughter. This anecdote, recorded by Rev. Solomon Benjamin Shaw, may be more optimistic than the facts warrant, but we may pray that it is closer to Allen’s experience than the evidence would seem to indicate.
Though the following biographic note may be familiar to some, it may yet be useful to many. Ethan Allen was a professed infidel. He wrote a book against the divinity of our blessed Lord. His wife was a Christian, earnest, cheerful and devoted. She died early, leaving an only daughter behind, who became the idol of her father. She was a fragile, sensitive child, and entwined herself about the rugged nature of her father, as the vine entwines itself about the knotty and gnarled limbs of the oak. Consumption marked this fair girl for its own, and she wasted away day by day, until even the grasshopper became a burden.
One day her father came into her room and sat down by her bedside. He took her wan, ethereal hand in his. Looking her father squarely in the face, she said: “My dear father, I’m going to die.”
“Oh! no, my child! Oh! no. The spring is coming and with the birds and breezes and the bloom, your pale cheeks will blush with health.”
“No; the doctor was here to-day. I felt I was nearing the grave, and I asked him to tell me plainly what I had to expect. I told him that it was a great thing to exchange worlds; that I did not wish to be deceived about myself, and if I was going to die I had some preparations I wanted to make. He told me my disease was beyond human skill; that a few more suns would rise and set, and then I would be borne to my burial. You will bury me, father, by the side of my mother, for that was her dying request. But, father, you and mother did not agree on religion. Mother often spoke to me of the blessed Savior who died for us all. She used to pray for both you and me, that the Savior might be our friend, and that we might all see Him as our Savior, when He sits enthroned in His glory. I don’t feel that I can go alone through the dark valley of the shadow of death. Now, tell me, father, whom shall I follow, you or mother? Shall I reject Christ, as you have taught me, or shall I accept Him, as He was my mother’s friend in the hour of her great sorrow?”
There was an honest heart beneath that rough exterior. Though tears nearly choked his utterance, the old soldier said: “My child, cling to your mother’s Savior; she was right. I’ll try to follow you to that blessed abode.”
A serene smile overspread the face of the dying girl, and who can doubt there is an unbroken family in heaven.
A growing number in America have suggested that religion or Christianity should have no place in the political life of the nation. The Founding Fathers, however, never believed nor advocated irreligion. In fact, secularists cannot demonstrate a single occasion in any of the original Thirteen Colonies and subsequent Thirteen United States that irreligion or deism had any impact upon the political life of those individual states or the nation as a Read more...
Samuel Huntington (July 16, 1731 – January 5, 1796) was a jurist, statesman, and Patriot in the American Revolution from Connecticut. As a delegate to the Continental Congress, he signed the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation.Read more...
Leaving the deism of his youth and the immorality it produced, Benjamin Franklin came to realize that the Calvinism of his youth was closer to reality than he had previously imagined. Though never fully returning to this theological tradition in which he was raised, he realized that human government must reflect God's government of the world, and for this reason, secularists, atheists, agnostics, and the irreligious falsely attempt to lay clRead more...
Francis Lightfoot Lee (October 14, 1734 – January 11, 1797) was a member of the House of Burgesses in the Colony of Virginia. As an active protester of issues such as the Stamp Act, Lee helped move the colony in the direction of independence from Britain. Lee was a delegate to the Virginia Conventions and the Continental Congress. He was a signer of the Articles of Confederation and the Declaration of Independence as a representative of Virginia.Read more...
Thomas Paine is often employed by the political left as justification for their false claim that America was established as a secular nation. The facts, however, completely expose their uninformed argument. Click to read the entire article… While Thomas Paine is remembered positively for his contribution to American independence through his book, Common Sense, his contemporary defenders overstate his influence when they credit him as beingRead more...
S. B. Shaw was a minister, editor, evangelist, and publisher. He was associated with the Wesleyan Methodist Church, the Free Methodist Church, and the Christian Missionary Alliance. His works include Touching Incidents and Remarkable Answers to Prayer (1893), God’s Financial Plan (1897), Dying Testimonies of the Saved and Unsaved (1898), and The Great Revivals of Wales (1905).
S. B. Shaw, Dying Testimonies of Saved and Unsaved Gathered from Authentic Sources, 66-67. | 1,940 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As children practice counting, they begin to recognize that one object represents the quantity of one. Rote counting is very different, where the child counts as high as she or he can, but does not necessarily associate a numeral with an amount. For children to count objects accurately, they must slow down and count each object once. This requires organization and focus. Counting with a one to one correspondence is an imperative skill that takes time to master.
The Spindle Box on the Math shelf focuses on this skill of counting objects. A child sat with the spindle box, slowly looking at the number on the box and said softly, “One”. He counted out one spindle into his hand and said “One”. He placed the spindle into the compartment designated “1”. He examined the numeral above the next compartment and said, “Two”. Taking a full handful of spindles, he tried to place one spindle from the handful into the compartment marked “2”, but dropped some spindles on the floor. A friend next to him helped him to pick up the spindles.
“Do one spindle,” she said. She picked up one spindle and said, “One,” and transferred it into her other hand. She picked up a second spindle and transferred this spindle into her other hand. “See, two,” she informed the boy and held out the two spindles to her peer. He placed them into the compartment with the numeral “2” above it. Moving on to the next compartment, he looked at the numeral and looked at the friend. She stood next to him and said, “Three. That’s three.” He grinned and said, “You wanna help me with my work?” She picked up a spindle and began to count out as she transferred one spindle at a time between her hands, “One, two, three….three spindles!” They both giggled and continued on to the next compartment. | <urn:uuid:8e7d5599-116f-419a-8d66-6e518802cfb4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pinegrovecenter.com/single-post/2017/01/17/Pre-Primary-One-two-threethree-spindles | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00471.warc.gz | en | 0.982876 | 440 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.251305639743804... | 4 | As children practice counting, they begin to recognize that one object represents the quantity of one. Rote counting is very different, where the child counts as high as she or he can, but does not necessarily associate a numeral with an amount. For children to count objects accurately, they must slow down and count each object once. This requires organization and focus. Counting with a one to one correspondence is an imperative skill that takes time to master.
The Spindle Box on the Math shelf focuses on this skill of counting objects. A child sat with the spindle box, slowly looking at the number on the box and said softly, “One”. He counted out one spindle into his hand and said “One”. He placed the spindle into the compartment designated “1”. He examined the numeral above the next compartment and said, “Two”. Taking a full handful of spindles, he tried to place one spindle from the handful into the compartment marked “2”, but dropped some spindles on the floor. A friend next to him helped him to pick up the spindles.
“Do one spindle,” she said. She picked up one spindle and said, “One,” and transferred it into her other hand. She picked up a second spindle and transferred this spindle into her other hand. “See, two,” she informed the boy and held out the two spindles to her peer. He placed them into the compartment with the numeral “2” above it. Moving on to the next compartment, he looked at the numeral and looked at the friend. She stood next to him and said, “Three. That’s three.” He grinned and said, “You wanna help me with my work?” She picked up a spindle and began to count out as she transferred one spindle at a time between her hands, “One, two, three….three spindles!” They both giggled and continued on to the next compartment. | 387 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Samuel Morse was American inventor and painter. Following an established reputation as a portrait painter, Morse started working on his greatest invention - the single-wire telegraph structure based on telegraphs in Europe during his middle age. Morse helped co-develop the Morse code and greatly helped in the development of the commercial use of telegraphs as well.
5. Early Life
Samuel Finley Breese Morse was born on April 27th, 1791 in Charlestown, Massachusetts. Morse was the first born child of Jedidiah Morse a pastor and geographer and Elizabeth Ann Finley Breese. Jedidiah Morse was an astounding preacher who practiced Calvinism and staunch supporters of the American Federalist party. Samuel Morse attended Phillips Academy located in Andover Massachusetts. Later on, he was admitted to Yale College where he studied mathematics, the science of horses and religious philosophy. While Morse was at Yale, he also attended lectures on electricity from professors Jeremiah Day and Benjamin Silliman. Morse, who was a member of the Brothers in Unity, supported himself by painting before graduating from Yale College in 1810 attaining Phi Beta Kappa honors.
Since Morse showed interest in painting, he attracted the attention of Washington Allston, a notable artist who offered him a three-year stay in England to study painting and meet with Benjamin West, another painter. Through perseverance and keen guidance of Allston, Morse was admitted to the Royal Academy in late 1811. While he was at the Academy, Morse keenly observed the works of Raphael and Michelangelo. On August 21st, 1815, Morse left England and returned to the US to start a career as a full-time painter. The ten years after his departure from England marked an important era in Morse's artistic growth since he sought to capture the reality of life and the culture of America through his works. Throughout his career, Morse did numerous pieces and was commissioned to paint several prominent historical figures.
3. Major Contributions
Morse created the concept of a single wire telegraph, and later Morse code was developed becoming the world's primary language of telegraphy. Up-to-date the Morse code is still used for rhythmic data transmission. In 1958 Morse was given about $80,000 at that time as recognition by the governments of Russia, Belgium, Turkey, Sweden, Netherlands, Austria, Piedmont, Tuscany, and France each contributing as per the number of Morse instruments used in their respective countries. Morse also invented the machine for cutting marble which could carve marble or stone into 3D sculptors, but he could not patent it because a similar design existed.
Morse faced some challenges in his lifetime, the greatest of which was the lack of proper recognition in his country until he was either old or after his death. Also during his time as an upcoming artist, one of the works in the Hall of Congress did not draw the desired crowd. Another challenge was the death of his wife who had suddenly died without his knowledge since there were no means of quick communication which prompted him to invent a long-distance means of communication. During his Morse code invention is was not easy for Morse to get investors or even government support until later.
1. Death and Legacy
On April 2nd, 1872, Samuel Morse died in New York City and was buried at Green-Wood Cemetery located in Brooklyn, New York. Morse helped establish the National Academy of Designs which is currently headquartered in Manhattan, New York City. He even served as the President of the Academy twice between 1826 to 1845 and 1861 to 1862. Morse is also remembered throughout history for his paintings.
Who Was Samuel Moore?
Samuel Morse was American painter and inventor. His greatest invention was the single-wire telegraph.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
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0.362510681152... | 2 | Samuel Morse was American inventor and painter. Following an established reputation as a portrait painter, Morse started working on his greatest invention - the single-wire telegraph structure based on telegraphs in Europe during his middle age. Morse helped co-develop the Morse code and greatly helped in the development of the commercial use of telegraphs as well.
5. Early Life
Samuel Finley Breese Morse was born on April 27th, 1791 in Charlestown, Massachusetts. Morse was the first born child of Jedidiah Morse a pastor and geographer and Elizabeth Ann Finley Breese. Jedidiah Morse was an astounding preacher who practiced Calvinism and staunch supporters of the American Federalist party. Samuel Morse attended Phillips Academy located in Andover Massachusetts. Later on, he was admitted to Yale College where he studied mathematics, the science of horses and religious philosophy. While Morse was at Yale, he also attended lectures on electricity from professors Jeremiah Day and Benjamin Silliman. Morse, who was a member of the Brothers in Unity, supported himself by painting before graduating from Yale College in 1810 attaining Phi Beta Kappa honors.
Since Morse showed interest in painting, he attracted the attention of Washington Allston, a notable artist who offered him a three-year stay in England to study painting and meet with Benjamin West, another painter. Through perseverance and keen guidance of Allston, Morse was admitted to the Royal Academy in late 1811. While he was at the Academy, Morse keenly observed the works of Raphael and Michelangelo. On August 21st, 1815, Morse left England and returned to the US to start a career as a full-time painter. The ten years after his departure from England marked an important era in Morse's artistic growth since he sought to capture the reality of life and the culture of America through his works. Throughout his career, Morse did numerous pieces and was commissioned to paint several prominent historical figures.
3. Major Contributions
Morse created the concept of a single wire telegraph, and later Morse code was developed becoming the world's primary language of telegraphy. Up-to-date the Morse code is still used for rhythmic data transmission. In 1958 Morse was given about $80,000 at that time as recognition by the governments of Russia, Belgium, Turkey, Sweden, Netherlands, Austria, Piedmont, Tuscany, and France each contributing as per the number of Morse instruments used in their respective countries. Morse also invented the machine for cutting marble which could carve marble or stone into 3D sculptors, but he could not patent it because a similar design existed.
Morse faced some challenges in his lifetime, the greatest of which was the lack of proper recognition in his country until he was either old or after his death. Also during his time as an upcoming artist, one of the works in the Hall of Congress did not draw the desired crowd. Another challenge was the death of his wife who had suddenly died without his knowledge since there were no means of quick communication which prompted him to invent a long-distance means of communication. During his Morse code invention is was not easy for Morse to get investors or even government support until later.
1. Death and Legacy
On April 2nd, 1872, Samuel Morse died in New York City and was buried at Green-Wood Cemetery located in Brooklyn, New York. Morse helped establish the National Academy of Designs which is currently headquartered in Manhattan, New York City. He even served as the President of the Academy twice between 1826 to 1845 and 1861 to 1862. Morse is also remembered throughout history for his paintings.
Who Was Samuel Moore?
Samuel Morse was American painter and inventor. His greatest invention was the single-wire telegraph.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 853 | ENGLISH | 1 |
400 Years Ago Today, The First Ship Carrying African Slaves Arrived in Jamestown, Virginia
If there ever was a real case to be made about African Americans getting reparations, look no further than what happened August 20, 1619.
On this dark day in 1619, 20 Africans were forcibly brought to Jamestown, Virginia- marking the beginning of two and a half centuries of slavery in North America.
At first, Africans had no official place in the American colonies. They were not called slaves, but they were different from indentured servants. Those were people who chose to come to the colonies and work in exchange for the cost of travel. After a given number of years, indentured servants were free to move on from such work.
But captive Africans came against their will. And they did not expect freedom.
In 1662, lawmakers in Virginia officially established slavery. They passed a law that said any child born to an enslaved black woman faced being enslaved forever, too.
Under that system, the number of American slaves grew to almost 4 million.
Here is a known undisputed fact, Slave labor helped build the American colonies and, later, the new nation.
Slavery was so big and so important to the American economy that it was valued at more than all of America’s (other) industries combined. For that alone, a debt is owed. 400 years later, the effects of that day still linger.
From August 20, 1619, until possibly today, the system that is America has always looked at the African American as less than. While African Americans continue to make progress in America, we can’t ever forget how we got here. | <urn:uuid:b734848a-b63f-4f17-a34a-3bb881fa8cc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mixsessiondjs.com/400-years-ago-today-the-first-ship-carrying-african-slaves-arrived-in-jamestown-virginia/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.982477 | 348 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.23653943836... | 1 | 400 Years Ago Today, The First Ship Carrying African Slaves Arrived in Jamestown, Virginia
If there ever was a real case to be made about African Americans getting reparations, look no further than what happened August 20, 1619.
On this dark day in 1619, 20 Africans were forcibly brought to Jamestown, Virginia- marking the beginning of two and a half centuries of slavery in North America.
At first, Africans had no official place in the American colonies. They were not called slaves, but they were different from indentured servants. Those were people who chose to come to the colonies and work in exchange for the cost of travel. After a given number of years, indentured servants were free to move on from such work.
But captive Africans came against their will. And they did not expect freedom.
In 1662, lawmakers in Virginia officially established slavery. They passed a law that said any child born to an enslaved black woman faced being enslaved forever, too.
Under that system, the number of American slaves grew to almost 4 million.
Here is a known undisputed fact, Slave labor helped build the American colonies and, later, the new nation.
Slavery was so big and so important to the American economy that it was valued at more than all of America’s (other) industries combined. For that alone, a debt is owed. 400 years later, the effects of that day still linger.
From August 20, 1619, until possibly today, the system that is America has always looked at the African American as less than. While African Americans continue to make progress in America, we can’t ever forget how we got here. | 357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Between 1865 and 1900. American industry workers experienced both good and difficult times. Labor Unions were organizing. and these new creative activities frequently produced better lives for the workers. However. moving ridges of immigrants were besides coming into America. which resulted in the menace of occupation stableness. Labor Unions and Immigration both had momentous effects upon the industry worker. for better or for worse.
After the Civil War. which killed much of the working population. people began to appreciate their accomplishments more and more due to the deficiency of human resources. Labor Unions began organizing. demanding better wage. hours. and conditions. Labor Unions did have some of what they bargained for. but their greatest addition was the augmented engagement people began to take in showing their strong beliefs.
Some of the outstanding Labor Unions were the National Labor Union. organized in 1866. the Colored National Labor Union. the Knights of Labor. and the American Federation of Labor. Although these brotherhoods targeted different parts of American society ( some included inkinesss. some didn’t. some were elitist. some were lower class… ) . they all had major ends in head ; all fought for reform in the American industrial work force.
The National Labor Union fought for the arbitration of industrial differences and the eight hr working day. They were able to win the eight hr working day. The Knights of Labor. an esoteric. clandestine. group. campaigned for economic and societal reform. They wanted producers’ co-ops and codifications for safety and wellness. They besides fought for the eight hr working day. The American Federation of Labor sought better rewards. hours. and working conditions. They besides wanted the trade understandings. These Labor Unions negotiated with employers and held work stoppages. which bit by bit led employers to allow better life styles to the workers.
The success in these Labor Unions lay non merely in their statements themselves. but in the myriad of work stoppages that occurred. Employers were frequently hurt financially by so many workers. Many employers merely realized that it would be more economical to do understandings with their workers than to prosecute in warfare. By 1900. the populace began to assent the right of workers to form. deal jointly. and to strike. Labor Day was made a legal vacation by act of Congress in 1894. However. there were still many dissensions between the employers and Unions and changeless conflicts were traveling on. Although Labor Unions were non instantly successful during this period. they were a important stepping rock in that they encouraged the working category to go more vocal in their working fortunes. Labor Unions in this era nevertheless did accomplish some alterations. such as better rewards. less hours. and a national vacation. These additions were little compared to the case in point the Unions set for America.
Another facet that had an of import consequence on the Industrial worker was in-migration. After the Civil War. and even during the war itself. the US was progressively going more and more populated. By the eightiess. Immigrants had come chiefly from Western Europe. In the 1850s. the Chinese began to get in America. In the 1880s. the New Immigrants. Italians. Croats. Slovaks. Greeks. and Poles. began to immigrate into America. Workers met these new immigrants with ill will and contempt.
The Chinese settled chiefly in the West. so they were non a major concern for Industry workers at that clip ( Most workers worked in the factors on the East. whereas the Chinese were on the West ) . However. when the New Immigrants came to the state. the Industry workers were ferocious. Particularly with the formation of Labor Unions. these workers claimed that the New Immigrants were willing to take occupations with much less wage. hence taking many of the current occupations occupied by the center and lower categories.
Nativism was revived once more as these New Immigrants came to America. Many people were worried that the US was losing its English influences and was going a mixture of inferior southern Europeans. Hence they upbraided these immigrants for the debasement of the urban authorities. Unions assailed them for their willingness to work for such low pay. Antiforeign organisations were revived. such as the American Protective Association which urged voting against Roman Catholic campaigners for office. Workers argued that if American industry could be protected from foreign industry ( tariffs…etc ) . so American workers ought to be protected from foreign workers ( Immigrants…etc. ) . Congress did go through in-migration Torahs in 1882 due to the increased unfavorable judgment to the authorities. It besides passed a jurisprudence in 1885 which prohibited the importing of foreign workers under contract.
Therefore. the new Immigrants took many occupations off from the old “native” Americans. Because these new immigrants were willing to take any pay. employers were able to offer occupations presently held by workers to the immigrants for lower rewards. Thus the new immigrants were frequently mistreated and struggled to incorporate into American society. However. one highly of import fact to retrieve is that the downpour of immigrants DID assist the affluent category. The employers did bask the inexpensive labour. Immigrants hence. besides helped make tenseness between the workers and their employees.
Between 1865 and 1890. both Labor Unions and Immigration had distinguishable effects upon the American worker. Labor Unions aided the worker because they frequently helped battle for better conditions and rewards. Immigration was bad for the workers. because it meant instability to their occupations. and many immigrants were treated with derision. Both state of affairss increased the tenseness between workers and their employees. In this period. American workers experienced both good and difficult times. due to the rapid alterations in American society. | <urn:uuid:6207426d-135e-486d-bd41-9793b044a04c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://clikngo.com/american-industrial-workers-between-1865-and-1900-essay-3106-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00142.warc.gz | en | 0.986102 | 1,168 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.1597684025... | 3 | Between 1865 and 1900. American industry workers experienced both good and difficult times. Labor Unions were organizing. and these new creative activities frequently produced better lives for the workers. However. moving ridges of immigrants were besides coming into America. which resulted in the menace of occupation stableness. Labor Unions and Immigration both had momentous effects upon the industry worker. for better or for worse.
After the Civil War. which killed much of the working population. people began to appreciate their accomplishments more and more due to the deficiency of human resources. Labor Unions began organizing. demanding better wage. hours. and conditions. Labor Unions did have some of what they bargained for. but their greatest addition was the augmented engagement people began to take in showing their strong beliefs.
Some of the outstanding Labor Unions were the National Labor Union. organized in 1866. the Colored National Labor Union. the Knights of Labor. and the American Federation of Labor. Although these brotherhoods targeted different parts of American society ( some included inkinesss. some didn’t. some were elitist. some were lower class… ) . they all had major ends in head ; all fought for reform in the American industrial work force.
The National Labor Union fought for the arbitration of industrial differences and the eight hr working day. They were able to win the eight hr working day. The Knights of Labor. an esoteric. clandestine. group. campaigned for economic and societal reform. They wanted producers’ co-ops and codifications for safety and wellness. They besides fought for the eight hr working day. The American Federation of Labor sought better rewards. hours. and working conditions. They besides wanted the trade understandings. These Labor Unions negotiated with employers and held work stoppages. which bit by bit led employers to allow better life styles to the workers.
The success in these Labor Unions lay non merely in their statements themselves. but in the myriad of work stoppages that occurred. Employers were frequently hurt financially by so many workers. Many employers merely realized that it would be more economical to do understandings with their workers than to prosecute in warfare. By 1900. the populace began to assent the right of workers to form. deal jointly. and to strike. Labor Day was made a legal vacation by act of Congress in 1894. However. there were still many dissensions between the employers and Unions and changeless conflicts were traveling on. Although Labor Unions were non instantly successful during this period. they were a important stepping rock in that they encouraged the working category to go more vocal in their working fortunes. Labor Unions in this era nevertheless did accomplish some alterations. such as better rewards. less hours. and a national vacation. These additions were little compared to the case in point the Unions set for America.
Another facet that had an of import consequence on the Industrial worker was in-migration. After the Civil War. and even during the war itself. the US was progressively going more and more populated. By the eightiess. Immigrants had come chiefly from Western Europe. In the 1850s. the Chinese began to get in America. In the 1880s. the New Immigrants. Italians. Croats. Slovaks. Greeks. and Poles. began to immigrate into America. Workers met these new immigrants with ill will and contempt.
The Chinese settled chiefly in the West. so they were non a major concern for Industry workers at that clip ( Most workers worked in the factors on the East. whereas the Chinese were on the West ) . However. when the New Immigrants came to the state. the Industry workers were ferocious. Particularly with the formation of Labor Unions. these workers claimed that the New Immigrants were willing to take occupations with much less wage. hence taking many of the current occupations occupied by the center and lower categories.
Nativism was revived once more as these New Immigrants came to America. Many people were worried that the US was losing its English influences and was going a mixture of inferior southern Europeans. Hence they upbraided these immigrants for the debasement of the urban authorities. Unions assailed them for their willingness to work for such low pay. Antiforeign organisations were revived. such as the American Protective Association which urged voting against Roman Catholic campaigners for office. Workers argued that if American industry could be protected from foreign industry ( tariffs…etc ) . so American workers ought to be protected from foreign workers ( Immigrants…etc. ) . Congress did go through in-migration Torahs in 1882 due to the increased unfavorable judgment to the authorities. It besides passed a jurisprudence in 1885 which prohibited the importing of foreign workers under contract.
Therefore. the new Immigrants took many occupations off from the old “native” Americans. Because these new immigrants were willing to take any pay. employers were able to offer occupations presently held by workers to the immigrants for lower rewards. Thus the new immigrants were frequently mistreated and struggled to incorporate into American society. However. one highly of import fact to retrieve is that the downpour of immigrants DID assist the affluent category. The employers did bask the inexpensive labour. Immigrants hence. besides helped make tenseness between the workers and their employees.
Between 1865 and 1890. both Labor Unions and Immigration had distinguishable effects upon the American worker. Labor Unions aided the worker because they frequently helped battle for better conditions and rewards. Immigration was bad for the workers. because it meant instability to their occupations. and many immigrants were treated with derision. Both state of affairss increased the tenseness between workers and their employees. In this period. American workers experienced both good and difficult times. due to the rapid alterations in American society. | 1,196 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Chapter 1/Morant Bay
This will be very much a background chapter detailing what gave rise to the belief that Jamaica was in need of civilising. From my reading it seems that the Morant Bay rebellion of 1865 was the main catalyst. On
October 11 1865 Paul Bogle a small landowner from Stony Gut in the parish of St Thomas in the East led a band of around 400 other Afro-Jamaicans to the parish capital, Morant Bay, to protest about the lack of social justice. Four days earlier a black man had been fined for letting his horse stray onto the land of an unpopular white landlord – some small settlers on his land had been refusing to pay rent claiming that the land belonged to them. There was growing distrust amongst some black Jamaicans in regard to the legal system as in some areas the magistracy was virtually dominated by planters. Since the ending of slavery and the apprenticeship system many former slaves had moved away form the plantations by either buying or leasing land individually or grouping together to buy large plots in which “free villages” were established: others simply squatted. The mid-1860s Jamaica was also a time of a depressed economic climate and severe drought which brought existing tensions to a head.
On one hand the revolt fuelled white fears of a black ascendancy in the colony and led not only to Jamaica relinquishing its Assembly and opting to be ruled by Britain, but also confirmed British ideas that Jamaica was a colony in need of civilising. On the other the severity of the repression of the uprising, over 500 hundreds blacks killed, 100s of others flogged and 1000 homes of black Jamaicans burned, the execution of Gordon on spurious grouonds, led to much criticism of the Jamaica governor both in Jamaica and overseas and contributed to the idea that Jamaica could not be ruled by force alone – instead encouragement was to be tried.
The uprising also fed into racist notions that certain non-white peoples were ungovernable. In the 19th century ideas such as polygenesis, that different races sprang from different initial origins, were prominent in discussions on race Darwin’s theory of evolution was used to back up the idea of a racial hierarchy with white Anglo-Saxons at the top and the black race at the bottom – not entirely surprising as it was white Anglo-Saxons who were writing the racial theories. Blacks were regarded by some racial theorists as inferior not only because of colour but because they had been enslaved, and they seemed to be lacking in culture, or at least western definitions of culture. . The idea also was growing of “superior” and “inferior” races and that certain races were “dying races”; an belief which seemed to be supported by the dwindling of some indigenous peoples in areas colonised by Britain.
Interpretations of Darwinism contributed to contemporary thoughts on how the British Empire should evolve. Just as in the field of racial science there was an obsession with survival of the fittest, there was an obsession amongst imperialists about which would be the next great Power, something which began to concern Britain more and more when economic and industrial/technological growth of Germany and the USA indicated that they could be contenders on the “world power” scene. It was believed by some British imperialists that the way Britain could maintain its strength was through the size of its empire and ideas such as an economic union of Empire to help bring about imperial unity were floated. A shared language and culture were also regarded as important in keeping the Empire united, especially as Britain felt it had more in common with its white Dominions than with its largely non-white colonies.
In North Yorkshire for the summer solstice. Decided to climb Roseberry Topping (322m) on the day – it seemed appropriate to be high up on the longest day of the year. | <urn:uuid:64b900af-8ac6-497d-939c-f2fb1e6dfbf7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.warwick.ac.uk/hilarysparkes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00007.warc.gz | en | 0.983046 | 789 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.12707580... | 3 | Chapter 1/Morant Bay
This will be very much a background chapter detailing what gave rise to the belief that Jamaica was in need of civilising. From my reading it seems that the Morant Bay rebellion of 1865 was the main catalyst. On
October 11 1865 Paul Bogle a small landowner from Stony Gut in the parish of St Thomas in the East led a band of around 400 other Afro-Jamaicans to the parish capital, Morant Bay, to protest about the lack of social justice. Four days earlier a black man had been fined for letting his horse stray onto the land of an unpopular white landlord – some small settlers on his land had been refusing to pay rent claiming that the land belonged to them. There was growing distrust amongst some black Jamaicans in regard to the legal system as in some areas the magistracy was virtually dominated by planters. Since the ending of slavery and the apprenticeship system many former slaves had moved away form the plantations by either buying or leasing land individually or grouping together to buy large plots in which “free villages” were established: others simply squatted. The mid-1860s Jamaica was also a time of a depressed economic climate and severe drought which brought existing tensions to a head.
On one hand the revolt fuelled white fears of a black ascendancy in the colony and led not only to Jamaica relinquishing its Assembly and opting to be ruled by Britain, but also confirmed British ideas that Jamaica was a colony in need of civilising. On the other the severity of the repression of the uprising, over 500 hundreds blacks killed, 100s of others flogged and 1000 homes of black Jamaicans burned, the execution of Gordon on spurious grouonds, led to much criticism of the Jamaica governor both in Jamaica and overseas and contributed to the idea that Jamaica could not be ruled by force alone – instead encouragement was to be tried.
The uprising also fed into racist notions that certain non-white peoples were ungovernable. In the 19th century ideas such as polygenesis, that different races sprang from different initial origins, were prominent in discussions on race Darwin’s theory of evolution was used to back up the idea of a racial hierarchy with white Anglo-Saxons at the top and the black race at the bottom – not entirely surprising as it was white Anglo-Saxons who were writing the racial theories. Blacks were regarded by some racial theorists as inferior not only because of colour but because they had been enslaved, and they seemed to be lacking in culture, or at least western definitions of culture. . The idea also was growing of “superior” and “inferior” races and that certain races were “dying races”; an belief which seemed to be supported by the dwindling of some indigenous peoples in areas colonised by Britain.
Interpretations of Darwinism contributed to contemporary thoughts on how the British Empire should evolve. Just as in the field of racial science there was an obsession with survival of the fittest, there was an obsession amongst imperialists about which would be the next great Power, something which began to concern Britain more and more when economic and industrial/technological growth of Germany and the USA indicated that they could be contenders on the “world power” scene. It was believed by some British imperialists that the way Britain could maintain its strength was through the size of its empire and ideas such as an economic union of Empire to help bring about imperial unity were floated. A shared language and culture were also regarded as important in keeping the Empire united, especially as Britain felt it had more in common with its white Dominions than with its largely non-white colonies.
In North Yorkshire for the summer solstice. Decided to climb Roseberry Topping (322m) on the day – it seemed appropriate to be high up on the longest day of the year. | 800 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Disclaimer: This paper has been submitted by a student. This is not a sample of the work written by professional academic writers.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of StudySaurus.
Thesis: The German immigrants on both the Catholic side and throughout America were and they positively affected it in their way to expand the land by moving east and by adding some of the things that they brought over like Oktoberfest, then they were being welcomed into society and also expanding the Catholic faith through close communities.
The Germans that had come to America gave the country a huge rise in population in both helping the United States grow in a way they have never seen before and also to expand each individual faith that they were a part of. They had also started to support and build communities when they had decided to focus more on the Midwest to live as opposed to the east with the Irish and have their main focus be on agriculture and small communities like back in Germany where many of them were farmers. The German immigrants on both the Catholic side and throughout America, was positively affected in their way, for example on how to expand the land by moving east and by adding some of the things that they brought over like Oktoberfest, then they were being welcomed into society and also expanding the Catholic faith through close communities.
The effect that the Germans had on America was overall a positive one and many of them fit very well back into society and began to participate openly within and around their community. They were welcomed with open arms and they took the society very well in adapting to the American way of living and most of the Germans that made the journey across the Atlantic could afford the trip to the Midwest and start to form a large part of the land or find some sort of work in town. The reason that they moved over to America was to avoid the government that was going through uneasy times with the discrimination that the Catholics were experiencing with the Nazis. The jobs they had greatly varied on how much money they had come over if they did not have much money coming over they generally went out of town and went into the farming business and tried their best at trying to make a new life in America. If they had more money coming over and were not as desperate for their next payday they had tended to stay closer to the main towns in the Midwest and many had opened up small storefronts in the town. To help keep their culture when they had moved to the Midwest and try to keep as many things from home as they can.
Some of the lasting effects of the Germans were the effect on the architecture of some of the buildings I many towns around the Midwest, for example, the cathedral in St. Paul and the Gothic architecture that it exemplifies through the spires facing upwards towards God. It also has left an impact on the Catholic religion and help it to expand and spread throughout the new world and make the realm of Catholic influence even bigger. Thus they then grew their communities to broaden their area of influence for example, my mother’s grandmother who grew up in St. Michael Minnesota and was taught lessons in German at her local Catholic parish.
The German immigrants were very influential in that many of the Catholic Germans went on to become very influential people in the church and helped to spread it through the new world. The Germans influenced the spread of the faith because of the mass number of Catholics that are coming over from Germany to avoid persecution from the Nazis. “The 18th century saw a flood of immigrants from the German-speaking territories of Europe, including present-day Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, arrive in the British American colonies. Recent research indicates that more than 110,000 German-speaking people arrived, changing the complexion of the British American colonies”. They also helped to spread it deeper and deeper into America because of the majority of the deciding to settle in the Midwest as opposed to the east coast where most of the Italians settled. Most of the Germans settled in the Midwest because of the better soil for farming and the ability to own more land as opposed to the cramped land in the east.
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Some of the lasting effects that they had was the bishop of Philadelphia John Nepomucene Neumann as he began the first American diocesan school system and later was canonized a saint in the year 1977 by Pope Paul VI and he was very influential and help the Catholic church in America grow by developing a way for both young and old Catholic scholars to become more educated in the faith and be a more well informed laity to help serve their local communities around the area through service. The Catholics that had affected America in many ways, whether it be through their faith directly like when Bishop John Neumann had begun to pave the way for all Germans wanting to become a bishop or of a higher power role in the church.
Another important German immigrant was a German printer named Christopher Saur who had printed the first Bible in America and that has helped to spread the faith through America by making bibles, more accessible and cheaper for local people to buy and read in their daily lives. He has also helped to spread the reading of the Bible to many people across America and helped to start the movement of the Catholic religion to become one of the largest across the United States and made the Bible easier for everyone to have access to in many homes and in every church across America.
The German immigrant’s religious identity helped to shape their migration to the new world by helping to start communities oriented around a church to help them start to develop in their faith. Many of the Germans that had come over had made the journey to escape religious persecution and that is why the mass a great increase in the amount of Germans that had to escape Germany and the incredibly harsh discrimination by the Nazis and they had felt that there were many opportunities to find work and the democratic ideation at the time that they had promised growth in the economy and in the job market. This had caused the German population to catapult the Catholic population in the largest religious denomination in the country, making them the most influential in America because of the large increase of the German Catholics.
The reason he had a lasting impact on America because they had increased the Catholic religious member numbers to new heights in North America that have never been reached before by a single religious group yet. They had also impacted on some holidays that were adopted into American life, for example, is Oktoberfest and that is why they were very against prohibition and had greatly impacted on their daily lives and had affected almost every aspect of their lifestyle. They had also had developed a very strong presence in where the larger part of the population of America at that time was very highly German or of German influence of some way, shape or form, whether they grew up in a German culture in many communities scattered across the Midwest or if they knew of the German people and what they do.
In conclusion, the German people have left their mark on American history or whether it’s them starting mainly small agricultural towns or cities where they can feel at home because of the many similarities that the Midwest has with the German landscape. Also on how they grew and spread the Catholic faith to be as influential as it is today in America and how it has led to many settlements over many subjects of matter whether that be politics or disputes, but they will still all go to church together as one as the Germans had come to show when they had come to America and stayed and formed communities on their own where they could keep their traditions and not face any persecution like they Catholics would have received if they would’ve stayed in Germany at that time.
Daniels, Roger. Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life. New York: HarperCollins, 1990.
Frost, Helen. German Immigrants, 1820–1920. Mankato, MN: Blue Earth Books, an imprint of Capstone Press, 2002.
“German Immigration.” U.S. Immigration and Migration Reference Library. Ed. Lawrence W. Baker, et al. Vol. 1: Vol. 1: Almanac. Detroit: UXL, 2004. 221-246. U.S. History in Context. Web. 9 May 2016.
“The Germans in America.” Chronology : (European Reading Room, Library of Congress). European Reading Room, 23 Apr. 2014. Web. 09 May 2016.
“Irish and German Immigration.” Ushistory.org. Independence Hall Association, n.d. Web. 09 May 2016. | <urn:uuid:28a6dfaa-4d9e-4347-959e-c88d20f914f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studysaurus.com/essays/german-immigration-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00114.warc.gz | en | 0.988565 | 1,786 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of StudySaurus.
Thesis: The German immigrants on both the Catholic side and throughout America were and they positively affected it in their way to expand the land by moving east and by adding some of the things that they brought over like Oktoberfest, then they were being welcomed into society and also expanding the Catholic faith through close communities.
The Germans that had come to America gave the country a huge rise in population in both helping the United States grow in a way they have never seen before and also to expand each individual faith that they were a part of. They had also started to support and build communities when they had decided to focus more on the Midwest to live as opposed to the east with the Irish and have their main focus be on agriculture and small communities like back in Germany where many of them were farmers. The German immigrants on both the Catholic side and throughout America, was positively affected in their way, for example on how to expand the land by moving east and by adding some of the things that they brought over like Oktoberfest, then they were being welcomed into society and also expanding the Catholic faith through close communities.
The effect that the Germans had on America was overall a positive one and many of them fit very well back into society and began to participate openly within and around their community. They were welcomed with open arms and they took the society very well in adapting to the American way of living and most of the Germans that made the journey across the Atlantic could afford the trip to the Midwest and start to form a large part of the land or find some sort of work in town. The reason that they moved over to America was to avoid the government that was going through uneasy times with the discrimination that the Catholics were experiencing with the Nazis. The jobs they had greatly varied on how much money they had come over if they did not have much money coming over they generally went out of town and went into the farming business and tried their best at trying to make a new life in America. If they had more money coming over and were not as desperate for their next payday they had tended to stay closer to the main towns in the Midwest and many had opened up small storefronts in the town. To help keep their culture when they had moved to the Midwest and try to keep as many things from home as they can.
Some of the lasting effects of the Germans were the effect on the architecture of some of the buildings I many towns around the Midwest, for example, the cathedral in St. Paul and the Gothic architecture that it exemplifies through the spires facing upwards towards God. It also has left an impact on the Catholic religion and help it to expand and spread throughout the new world and make the realm of Catholic influence even bigger. Thus they then grew their communities to broaden their area of influence for example, my mother’s grandmother who grew up in St. Michael Minnesota and was taught lessons in German at her local Catholic parish.
The German immigrants were very influential in that many of the Catholic Germans went on to become very influential people in the church and helped to spread it through the new world. The Germans influenced the spread of the faith because of the mass number of Catholics that are coming over from Germany to avoid persecution from the Nazis. “The 18th century saw a flood of immigrants from the German-speaking territories of Europe, including present-day Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, arrive in the British American colonies. Recent research indicates that more than 110,000 German-speaking people arrived, changing the complexion of the British American colonies”. They also helped to spread it deeper and deeper into America because of the majority of the deciding to settle in the Midwest as opposed to the east coast where most of the Italians settled. Most of the Germans settled in the Midwest because of the better soil for farming and the ability to own more land as opposed to the cramped land in the east.
Earn Up to $500+ by Selling Your Papers
With StudySaurus, earning money couldn't be easier. Make some cash off (up to $500) of old your essays.Sell your Essay
Some of the lasting effects that they had was the bishop of Philadelphia John Nepomucene Neumann as he began the first American diocesan school system and later was canonized a saint in the year 1977 by Pope Paul VI and he was very influential and help the Catholic church in America grow by developing a way for both young and old Catholic scholars to become more educated in the faith and be a more well informed laity to help serve their local communities around the area through service. The Catholics that had affected America in many ways, whether it be through their faith directly like when Bishop John Neumann had begun to pave the way for all Germans wanting to become a bishop or of a higher power role in the church.
Another important German immigrant was a German printer named Christopher Saur who had printed the first Bible in America and that has helped to spread the faith through America by making bibles, more accessible and cheaper for local people to buy and read in their daily lives. He has also helped to spread the reading of the Bible to many people across America and helped to start the movement of the Catholic religion to become one of the largest across the United States and made the Bible easier for everyone to have access to in many homes and in every church across America.
The German immigrant’s religious identity helped to shape their migration to the new world by helping to start communities oriented around a church to help them start to develop in their faith. Many of the Germans that had come over had made the journey to escape religious persecution and that is why the mass a great increase in the amount of Germans that had to escape Germany and the incredibly harsh discrimination by the Nazis and they had felt that there were many opportunities to find work and the democratic ideation at the time that they had promised growth in the economy and in the job market. This had caused the German population to catapult the Catholic population in the largest religious denomination in the country, making them the most influential in America because of the large increase of the German Catholics.
The reason he had a lasting impact on America because they had increased the Catholic religious member numbers to new heights in North America that have never been reached before by a single religious group yet. They had also impacted on some holidays that were adopted into American life, for example, is Oktoberfest and that is why they were very against prohibition and had greatly impacted on their daily lives and had affected almost every aspect of their lifestyle. They had also had developed a very strong presence in where the larger part of the population of America at that time was very highly German or of German influence of some way, shape or form, whether they grew up in a German culture in many communities scattered across the Midwest or if they knew of the German people and what they do.
In conclusion, the German people have left their mark on American history or whether it’s them starting mainly small agricultural towns or cities where they can feel at home because of the many similarities that the Midwest has with the German landscape. Also on how they grew and spread the Catholic faith to be as influential as it is today in America and how it has led to many settlements over many subjects of matter whether that be politics or disputes, but they will still all go to church together as one as the Germans had come to show when they had come to America and stayed and formed communities on their own where they could keep their traditions and not face any persecution like they Catholics would have received if they would’ve stayed in Germany at that time.
Daniels, Roger. Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life. New York: HarperCollins, 1990.
Frost, Helen. German Immigrants, 1820–1920. Mankato, MN: Blue Earth Books, an imprint of Capstone Press, 2002.
“German Immigration.” U.S. Immigration and Migration Reference Library. Ed. Lawrence W. Baker, et al. Vol. 1: Vol. 1: Almanac. Detroit: UXL, 2004. 221-246. U.S. History in Context. Web. 9 May 2016.
“The Germans in America.” Chronology : (European Reading Room, Library of Congress). European Reading Room, 23 Apr. 2014. Web. 09 May 2016.
“Irish and German Immigration.” Ushistory.org. Independence Hall Association, n.d. Web. 09 May 2016. | 1,797 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is self-esteem, and why is it important for our children?
Self-esteem is how much a person values themselves, and their place in their world. As parents, we can help our children develop high self-esteem. A child with high self-esteem is more confident and capable at school. They have a growth mindset, which is beneficial for school learning. A child with a growth mindset will say they may not be able to do something yet, but they will soon!
To help your child develop high self-esteem, you can help them face new challenges and succeed. Their success earns praise from people they care about, which makes them more confident, and more likely to continue to succeed. When kids have positive self-esteem they feel respected, are resilient and can bounce back from making a mistake, are proud of themselves, act independently, take responsibility for their actions, and have the courage to make good decisions, even when faced with peer pressure.
Negative self-esteem, however, can take a toll on a child. Kids with low self-esteem have trouble building and maintaining positive images of themselves. Struggles in school are a large part of low self-esteem for many kids. However, giving a child false praise can cause them to be less trusting of adults and others around them.
Therefore it is important to help kids build positive self-esteem in a realistic manner. Praise your kids for doing well, but don't go overboard. Most kids can figure out when they've done a good job, and when they haven't. Make sure your kids know you're proud of their accomlishments, and their efforts. Sometimes kids don't reach their goal, but they keep working on it. Make sure your child knows you're proud of their continued effort. | <urn:uuid:4bfcc377-1546-45ae-84a3-6050031355fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.marionschools.net/Page/29936 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.980271 | 365 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.431008726358413... | 2 | What is self-esteem, and why is it important for our children?
Self-esteem is how much a person values themselves, and their place in their world. As parents, we can help our children develop high self-esteem. A child with high self-esteem is more confident and capable at school. They have a growth mindset, which is beneficial for school learning. A child with a growth mindset will say they may not be able to do something yet, but they will soon!
To help your child develop high self-esteem, you can help them face new challenges and succeed. Their success earns praise from people they care about, which makes them more confident, and more likely to continue to succeed. When kids have positive self-esteem they feel respected, are resilient and can bounce back from making a mistake, are proud of themselves, act independently, take responsibility for their actions, and have the courage to make good decisions, even when faced with peer pressure.
Negative self-esteem, however, can take a toll on a child. Kids with low self-esteem have trouble building and maintaining positive images of themselves. Struggles in school are a large part of low self-esteem for many kids. However, giving a child false praise can cause them to be less trusting of adults and others around them.
Therefore it is important to help kids build positive self-esteem in a realistic manner. Praise your kids for doing well, but don't go overboard. Most kids can figure out when they've done a good job, and when they haven't. Make sure your kids know you're proud of their accomlishments, and their efforts. Sometimes kids don't reach their goal, but they keep working on it. Make sure your child knows you're proud of their continued effort. | 351 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The League of Nations came into being after the end of World War One. The League of Nation’s task was simple – to ensure that war never broke out again. After the turmoil caused by the Versailles Treaty, many looked to the League to bring stability to the world.
America entered World War One in 1917. The country as a whole and the president – Woodrow Wilson in particular – was horrified by the slaughter that had taken place in what was meant to be a civilised part of the world. The only way to avoid a repetition of such a disaster, was to create an international body whose sole purpose was to maintain world peace and which would sort out international disputes as and when they occurred. This would be the task of the League of Nations.
After the devastation of the war, support for such a good idea was great (except in America where isolationism was taking root).
The organisation of the League of Nations
The League of Nations was to be based in Geneva, Switzerland. This choice was natural as Switzerland was a neutral country and had not fought in World War One. No one could dispute this choice especially as an international organisation such as the Red Cross was already based in Switzerland.
If a dispute did occur, the League, under its Covenant, could do three things – these were known as its sanctions:
It could call on the states in dispute to sit down and discuss the problem in an orderly and peaceful manner. This would be done in the League’s Assembly – which was essentially the League’s parliament which would listen to disputes and come to a decision on how to proceed. If one nation was seen to be the offender, the League could introduce verbalsanctions – warning an aggressor nation that she would need to leave another nation’s territory or face the consequences.
If the states in dispute failed to listen to the Assembly’s decision, the League could introduce economic sanctions. This would be arranged by the League’s Council. The purpose of this sanction was to financially hit the aggressor nation so that she would have to do as the League required. The logic behind it was to push an aggressor nation towards bankruptcy, so that the people in that state would take out their anger on their government forcing them to accept the League’s decision. The League could order League members not to do any trade with an aggressor nation in an effort to bring that aggressor nation to heel.
If this failed, the League could introduce physical sanctions. This meant that military force would be used to put into place the League’s decision. However, the League did not have a military force at its disposal and no member of the League had to provide one under the terms of joining – unlike the current United Nations. Therefore, it could not carry out any threats and any country defying its authority would have been very aware of this weakness. The only two countries in the League that could have provided any military might were Britain and France and both had been severely depleted strength-wise in World War One and could not provide the League with the backing it needed. Also both Britain and France were not in a position to use their finances to pay for an expanded army as both were financially hit very hard by World War One.
The League also had other weaknesses:
The country, whose president, Woodrow Wilson, had dreamt up the idea of the League – America – refused to join it. As America was the world’s most powerful nation, this was a serious blow to the prestige of the League. However, America’s refusal to join the League, fitted in with her desire to have an isolationist policy throughout the world.
Germany was not allowed to join the League in 1919. As Germany had started the war, according to the Treaty of Versailles, one of her punishments was that she was not considered to be a member of the international community and, therefore, she was not invited to join. This was a great blow to Germany but it also meant that the League could not use whatever strength Germany had to support its campaign against aggressor nations.
Russia was also not allowed to join as in 1917, she had a communist government that generated fear in western Europe, and in 1918, the Russian royal family – the Romanovs – was murdered. Such a country could not be allowed to take its place in the League.
Therefore, three of the world’s most powerful nations (potentially for Russia and Germany) played no part in supporting the League. The two most powerful members were Britain and France – both had suffered financially and militarily during the war – and neither was enthusiastic to get involved in disputes that did not affect western Europe.
Therefore, the League had a fine ideal – to end war for good. However, if an aggressor nation was determined enough to ignore the League’s verbal warnings, all the League could do was enforce economic sanctions and hope that these worked as it had no chance or enforcing its decisions using military might.
The successes of the League of Nations
In view of the League’s desire to end war, the only criteria that can be used to classify a success, was whether war was avoided and a peaceful settlement formulated after a crisis between two nations.
The League experienced success in:
The Aaland Islands (1921)
These islands are near enough equal distant between Finland and Sweden. They had traditionally belonged to Finland but most of the islanders wanted to be governed by Sweden. Neither Sweden nor Finland could come to a decision as to who owned the islands and in 1921 they asked the League to adjudicate. The League’s decision was that they should remain with Finland but that no weapons should ever be kept there. Both countries accepted the decision and it remains in force to this day.
Upper Silesia (1921)
The Treaty of Versailles had given the people of Upper Silesia the right to have a referendum on whether they wanted to be part of Germany or part of Poland. In this referendum, 700,000 voted for Germany and 500,000 for Poland. This close result resulted in rioting between those who expected Silesia to be made part of Germany and those who wanted to be part of Poland. The League was asked to settle this dispute. After a six-week inquiry, the League decided to split Upper Silesia between Germany and Poland. The League’s decision was accepted y both countries and by the people in Upper Silesia.
Memel was/is a port in Lithuania. Most people who lived in Memel were Lithuanians and, therefore, the government of Lithuania believed that the port should be governed by it. However, the Treaty of Versailles had put Memel and the land surrounding the port under the control of the League. For three years, a French general acted as a governor of the port but in 1923 the Lithuanians invaded the port. The League intervened and gave the area surrounding Memel to Lithuania but they made the port an “international zone”. Lithuania agreed to this decision. Though this can be seen as a League success – as the issue was settled – a counter argument is that what happened was the result of the use of force and that the League responded in a positive manner to those (the Lithuanians) who had used force.
The League failed to stop a bloody war in Turkey (see League failures) but it did respond to the humanitarian crisis caused by this war. 1,400,000 refugees had been created by this war with 80% of them being women and children. Typhoid and cholera were rampant. The League sent doctors from the Health Organisation to check the spread of disease and it spent £10 million on building farms, homes etc for the refugees. Money was also invested in seeds, wells and digging tools and by 1926, work was found for 600,000 people. A member of the League called this work “the greatest work of mercy which mankind has undertaken.”
Greece and Bulgaria (1925)
Both these nations have a common border. In 1925, sentries patrolling this border fired on one another and a Greek soldier was killed. The Greek army invaded Bulgaria as a result. The Bulgarians asked the League for help and the League ordered both armies to stop fighting and that the Greeks should pull out of Bulgaria. The League then sent experts to the area and decided that Greece was to blame and fined her £45,000. Both nations accepted the decision.
The failures of the League of Nations
Article 11 of the League’s Covenant stated,
‘Any war or threat of war is a matter of concern to the whole League and the League shall take action that may safe guard peace’.
Therefore, any conflict between nations which ended in war and the victor of one over the other must be considered a League failure.
In 1919, Italian nationalists, angered that the “Big Three” had, in their opinion, broken promises to Italy at the Treaty of Versailles, captured the small port of Fiume. This port had been given to Yugoslavia by the Treaty of Versailles. For 15 months, Fiume was governed by an Italian nationalist called d’Annunzio. The newly created League did nothing. The situation was solved by the Italian government who could not accept that d’Annunzio was seemingly more popular than they were – so they bombarded the port of Fiume and enforced a surrender. In all this the League played no part despite the fact that it had just been set up with the specific task of maintaining peace.
Teschen was a small town between Poland and Czechoslovakia. Its main importance was that it had valuable coal mines there which both the Poles and the Czechs wanted. As both were newly created nations, both wanted to make their respective economies as strong as possible and the acquisition of rich coal mines would certainly help in this respect.
In January 1919, Polish and Czech troops fought in the streets of Teschen. Many died. The League was called on to help and decided that the bulk of the town should go to Poland while Czechoslovakia should have one of Teschen’s suburbs. This suburb contained the most valuable coal mines and the Poles refused to accept this decision. Though no more wholesale violence took place, the two countries continued to argue over the issue for the next twenty years.
Many years before 1920, Vilna had been taken over by Russia. Historically, Vilna had been the capital of Lithuania when the state had existed in the Middle Ages. After World War One, Lithuania had been re-established and Vilna seemed the natural choice for its capital.
However, by 1920, 30% of the population was from Poland with Lithuanians only making up 2% of the city’s population. In 1920, the Poles seized Vilna. Lithuania asked for League help but the Poles could not be persuaded to leave the city. Vilna stayed in Polish hands until the outbreak of World War Two. The use of force by the Poles had won.
War between Russia and Poland (1920 to 1921)
In 1920, Poland invaded land held by the Russians. The Poles quickly overwhelmed the Russian army and made a swift advance into Russia. By 1921, the Russians had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Riga which handed over to Poland nearly 80,000 square kilometres of Russian land. This one treaty all but doubled the size of Poland.
What did the League do about this violation of another country by Poland?
The answer is simple – nothing. Russia by 1919 was communist and this “plague from the East” was greatly feared by the West. In fact, Britain, France and America sent troops to attack Russia after the League had been set up. Winston Churchill, the British War Minister, stated openly that the plan was to strangle Communist Russia at birth. Once again, to outsiders, it seemed as if League members were selecting which countries were acceptable and ones which were not. The Allied invasion of Russia was a failure and it only served to make Communist Russia even more antagonistic to the West.
The invasion of the Ruhr (1923)
The Treaty of Versailles had ordered Weimar Germany to pay reparations for war damages. These could either be paid in money or in kind (goods to the value of a set amount) In 1922, the Germans failed to pay an installment. They claimed that they simply could not rather than did not want to. The Allies refused to accept this and the anti-German feeling at this time was still strong. Both the French and the Belgium’s believed that some form of strong action was needed to ‘teach Germany a lesson’.
In 1923, contrary to League rules, the French and the Belgium’s invaded the Ruhr – Germany’s most important industrial zone. Within Europe, France was seen as a senior League member – like Britain – and the anti-German feeling that was felt throughout Europe allowed both France and Belgium to break their own rules as were introduced by the League. Here were two League members clearly breaking League rules and nothing was done about it.
For the League to enforce its will, it needed the support of its major backers in Europe, Britain and France. Yet France was one of the invaders and Britain was a major supporter of her. To other nations, it seemed that if you wanted to break League rules, you could. Few countries criticised what France and Belgium did. But the example they set for others in future years was obvious. The League clearly failed on this occasion, primarily because it was seen to be involved in breaking its own rules.
Italy and Albania (1923)
The border between Italy and Albania was far from clear and the Treaty of Versailles had never really addressed this issue. It was a constant source of irritation between both nations.
In 1923, a mixed nationality survey team was sent out to settle the issue. Whilst travelling to the disputed area, the Italian section of the survey team, became separated from the main party. The five Italians were shot by gunmen who had been in hiding.
Italy accused Greece of planning the whole incident and demanded payment of a large fine. Greece refused to pay up. In response, the Italians sent its navy to the Greek island of Corfu and bombarded the coastline. Greece appealed to the League for help but Italy, lead by Benito Mussolini, persuaded the League via the Conference of Ambassadors, to fine Greece 50 million lire.
To follow up this success, Mussolini invited the Yugoslavian government to discuss ownership of Fiume. The Treaty of Versailles had given Fiume to Yugoslavia but with the evidence of a bombarded Corfu, the Yugoslavs handed over the port to Italy with little argument
The social successes of the League of Nations
At a social level the League did have success and most of this is easily forgotten with its failure at a political level. Many of the groups that work for the United Nations now, grew out of what was established by the League. Teams were sent to the Third World to dig fresh water wells, the Health Organisation started a campaign to wipe out leprosy. This idea – of wiping out from the world a disease – was taken up by the United Nations with its smallpox campaign.
Work was done in the Third World to improve the status of women there and child slave labour was also targeted. Drug addiction and drug smuggling were also attacked.
These problems are still with us in the 21st century so it would be wrong to criticise the League for failing to eradicate them. If we cannot do this now, the League had a far more difficult task then with more limited resources.
The greatest success the League had involving these social issues, was simply informing the world at large that these problems did exist and that they should be tackled. No organisation had done this before the League. These social problems may have continued but the fact that they were now being actively investigated by the League and were then taken onboard by the United Nations must be viewed as a success.
- The successes of the League of Nations are frequently obscured by its failures – especially in the 1930’s when Europe and eventually the world moved…
- League of Nations Failures While the League of Nations could celebrate its successes, the League had every reason to examine its failures and where it…
- The League of Nations was to play a crucial role in Palestine after the League of Nations was created after World War One. The League… | <urn:uuid:0078a8ea-dade-43da-b7fa-1df9482a420d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/league-of-nations/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00439.warc.gz | en | 0.985606 | 3,400 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.46142825484... | 9 | The League of Nations came into being after the end of World War One. The League of Nation’s task was simple – to ensure that war never broke out again. After the turmoil caused by the Versailles Treaty, many looked to the League to bring stability to the world.
America entered World War One in 1917. The country as a whole and the president – Woodrow Wilson in particular – was horrified by the slaughter that had taken place in what was meant to be a civilised part of the world. The only way to avoid a repetition of such a disaster, was to create an international body whose sole purpose was to maintain world peace and which would sort out international disputes as and when they occurred. This would be the task of the League of Nations.
After the devastation of the war, support for such a good idea was great (except in America where isolationism was taking root).
The organisation of the League of Nations
The League of Nations was to be based in Geneva, Switzerland. This choice was natural as Switzerland was a neutral country and had not fought in World War One. No one could dispute this choice especially as an international organisation such as the Red Cross was already based in Switzerland.
If a dispute did occur, the League, under its Covenant, could do three things – these were known as its sanctions:
It could call on the states in dispute to sit down and discuss the problem in an orderly and peaceful manner. This would be done in the League’s Assembly – which was essentially the League’s parliament which would listen to disputes and come to a decision on how to proceed. If one nation was seen to be the offender, the League could introduce verbalsanctions – warning an aggressor nation that she would need to leave another nation’s territory or face the consequences.
If the states in dispute failed to listen to the Assembly’s decision, the League could introduce economic sanctions. This would be arranged by the League’s Council. The purpose of this sanction was to financially hit the aggressor nation so that she would have to do as the League required. The logic behind it was to push an aggressor nation towards bankruptcy, so that the people in that state would take out their anger on their government forcing them to accept the League’s decision. The League could order League members not to do any trade with an aggressor nation in an effort to bring that aggressor nation to heel.
If this failed, the League could introduce physical sanctions. This meant that military force would be used to put into place the League’s decision. However, the League did not have a military force at its disposal and no member of the League had to provide one under the terms of joining – unlike the current United Nations. Therefore, it could not carry out any threats and any country defying its authority would have been very aware of this weakness. The only two countries in the League that could have provided any military might were Britain and France and both had been severely depleted strength-wise in World War One and could not provide the League with the backing it needed. Also both Britain and France were not in a position to use their finances to pay for an expanded army as both were financially hit very hard by World War One.
The League also had other weaknesses:
The country, whose president, Woodrow Wilson, had dreamt up the idea of the League – America – refused to join it. As America was the world’s most powerful nation, this was a serious blow to the prestige of the League. However, America’s refusal to join the League, fitted in with her desire to have an isolationist policy throughout the world.
Germany was not allowed to join the League in 1919. As Germany had started the war, according to the Treaty of Versailles, one of her punishments was that she was not considered to be a member of the international community and, therefore, she was not invited to join. This was a great blow to Germany but it also meant that the League could not use whatever strength Germany had to support its campaign against aggressor nations.
Russia was also not allowed to join as in 1917, she had a communist government that generated fear in western Europe, and in 1918, the Russian royal family – the Romanovs – was murdered. Such a country could not be allowed to take its place in the League.
Therefore, three of the world’s most powerful nations (potentially for Russia and Germany) played no part in supporting the League. The two most powerful members were Britain and France – both had suffered financially and militarily during the war – and neither was enthusiastic to get involved in disputes that did not affect western Europe.
Therefore, the League had a fine ideal – to end war for good. However, if an aggressor nation was determined enough to ignore the League’s verbal warnings, all the League could do was enforce economic sanctions and hope that these worked as it had no chance or enforcing its decisions using military might.
The successes of the League of Nations
In view of the League’s desire to end war, the only criteria that can be used to classify a success, was whether war was avoided and a peaceful settlement formulated after a crisis between two nations.
The League experienced success in:
The Aaland Islands (1921)
These islands are near enough equal distant between Finland and Sweden. They had traditionally belonged to Finland but most of the islanders wanted to be governed by Sweden. Neither Sweden nor Finland could come to a decision as to who owned the islands and in 1921 they asked the League to adjudicate. The League’s decision was that they should remain with Finland but that no weapons should ever be kept there. Both countries accepted the decision and it remains in force to this day.
Upper Silesia (1921)
The Treaty of Versailles had given the people of Upper Silesia the right to have a referendum on whether they wanted to be part of Germany or part of Poland. In this referendum, 700,000 voted for Germany and 500,000 for Poland. This close result resulted in rioting between those who expected Silesia to be made part of Germany and those who wanted to be part of Poland. The League was asked to settle this dispute. After a six-week inquiry, the League decided to split Upper Silesia between Germany and Poland. The League’s decision was accepted y both countries and by the people in Upper Silesia.
Memel was/is a port in Lithuania. Most people who lived in Memel were Lithuanians and, therefore, the government of Lithuania believed that the port should be governed by it. However, the Treaty of Versailles had put Memel and the land surrounding the port under the control of the League. For three years, a French general acted as a governor of the port but in 1923 the Lithuanians invaded the port. The League intervened and gave the area surrounding Memel to Lithuania but they made the port an “international zone”. Lithuania agreed to this decision. Though this can be seen as a League success – as the issue was settled – a counter argument is that what happened was the result of the use of force and that the League responded in a positive manner to those (the Lithuanians) who had used force.
The League failed to stop a bloody war in Turkey (see League failures) but it did respond to the humanitarian crisis caused by this war. 1,400,000 refugees had been created by this war with 80% of them being women and children. Typhoid and cholera were rampant. The League sent doctors from the Health Organisation to check the spread of disease and it spent £10 million on building farms, homes etc for the refugees. Money was also invested in seeds, wells and digging tools and by 1926, work was found for 600,000 people. A member of the League called this work “the greatest work of mercy which mankind has undertaken.”
Greece and Bulgaria (1925)
Both these nations have a common border. In 1925, sentries patrolling this border fired on one another and a Greek soldier was killed. The Greek army invaded Bulgaria as a result. The Bulgarians asked the League for help and the League ordered both armies to stop fighting and that the Greeks should pull out of Bulgaria. The League then sent experts to the area and decided that Greece was to blame and fined her £45,000. Both nations accepted the decision.
The failures of the League of Nations
Article 11 of the League’s Covenant stated,
‘Any war or threat of war is a matter of concern to the whole League and the League shall take action that may safe guard peace’.
Therefore, any conflict between nations which ended in war and the victor of one over the other must be considered a League failure.
In 1919, Italian nationalists, angered that the “Big Three” had, in their opinion, broken promises to Italy at the Treaty of Versailles, captured the small port of Fiume. This port had been given to Yugoslavia by the Treaty of Versailles. For 15 months, Fiume was governed by an Italian nationalist called d’Annunzio. The newly created League did nothing. The situation was solved by the Italian government who could not accept that d’Annunzio was seemingly more popular than they were – so they bombarded the port of Fiume and enforced a surrender. In all this the League played no part despite the fact that it had just been set up with the specific task of maintaining peace.
Teschen was a small town between Poland and Czechoslovakia. Its main importance was that it had valuable coal mines there which both the Poles and the Czechs wanted. As both were newly created nations, both wanted to make their respective economies as strong as possible and the acquisition of rich coal mines would certainly help in this respect.
In January 1919, Polish and Czech troops fought in the streets of Teschen. Many died. The League was called on to help and decided that the bulk of the town should go to Poland while Czechoslovakia should have one of Teschen’s suburbs. This suburb contained the most valuable coal mines and the Poles refused to accept this decision. Though no more wholesale violence took place, the two countries continued to argue over the issue for the next twenty years.
Many years before 1920, Vilna had been taken over by Russia. Historically, Vilna had been the capital of Lithuania when the state had existed in the Middle Ages. After World War One, Lithuania had been re-established and Vilna seemed the natural choice for its capital.
However, by 1920, 30% of the population was from Poland with Lithuanians only making up 2% of the city’s population. In 1920, the Poles seized Vilna. Lithuania asked for League help but the Poles could not be persuaded to leave the city. Vilna stayed in Polish hands until the outbreak of World War Two. The use of force by the Poles had won.
War between Russia and Poland (1920 to 1921)
In 1920, Poland invaded land held by the Russians. The Poles quickly overwhelmed the Russian army and made a swift advance into Russia. By 1921, the Russians had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Riga which handed over to Poland nearly 80,000 square kilometres of Russian land. This one treaty all but doubled the size of Poland.
What did the League do about this violation of another country by Poland?
The answer is simple – nothing. Russia by 1919 was communist and this “plague from the East” was greatly feared by the West. In fact, Britain, France and America sent troops to attack Russia after the League had been set up. Winston Churchill, the British War Minister, stated openly that the plan was to strangle Communist Russia at birth. Once again, to outsiders, it seemed as if League members were selecting which countries were acceptable and ones which were not. The Allied invasion of Russia was a failure and it only served to make Communist Russia even more antagonistic to the West.
The invasion of the Ruhr (1923)
The Treaty of Versailles had ordered Weimar Germany to pay reparations for war damages. These could either be paid in money or in kind (goods to the value of a set amount) In 1922, the Germans failed to pay an installment. They claimed that they simply could not rather than did not want to. The Allies refused to accept this and the anti-German feeling at this time was still strong. Both the French and the Belgium’s believed that some form of strong action was needed to ‘teach Germany a lesson’.
In 1923, contrary to League rules, the French and the Belgium’s invaded the Ruhr – Germany’s most important industrial zone. Within Europe, France was seen as a senior League member – like Britain – and the anti-German feeling that was felt throughout Europe allowed both France and Belgium to break their own rules as were introduced by the League. Here were two League members clearly breaking League rules and nothing was done about it.
For the League to enforce its will, it needed the support of its major backers in Europe, Britain and France. Yet France was one of the invaders and Britain was a major supporter of her. To other nations, it seemed that if you wanted to break League rules, you could. Few countries criticised what France and Belgium did. But the example they set for others in future years was obvious. The League clearly failed on this occasion, primarily because it was seen to be involved in breaking its own rules.
Italy and Albania (1923)
The border between Italy and Albania was far from clear and the Treaty of Versailles had never really addressed this issue. It was a constant source of irritation between both nations.
In 1923, a mixed nationality survey team was sent out to settle the issue. Whilst travelling to the disputed area, the Italian section of the survey team, became separated from the main party. The five Italians were shot by gunmen who had been in hiding.
Italy accused Greece of planning the whole incident and demanded payment of a large fine. Greece refused to pay up. In response, the Italians sent its navy to the Greek island of Corfu and bombarded the coastline. Greece appealed to the League for help but Italy, lead by Benito Mussolini, persuaded the League via the Conference of Ambassadors, to fine Greece 50 million lire.
To follow up this success, Mussolini invited the Yugoslavian government to discuss ownership of Fiume. The Treaty of Versailles had given Fiume to Yugoslavia but with the evidence of a bombarded Corfu, the Yugoslavs handed over the port to Italy with little argument
The social successes of the League of Nations
At a social level the League did have success and most of this is easily forgotten with its failure at a political level. Many of the groups that work for the United Nations now, grew out of what was established by the League. Teams were sent to the Third World to dig fresh water wells, the Health Organisation started a campaign to wipe out leprosy. This idea – of wiping out from the world a disease – was taken up by the United Nations with its smallpox campaign.
Work was done in the Third World to improve the status of women there and child slave labour was also targeted. Drug addiction and drug smuggling were also attacked.
These problems are still with us in the 21st century so it would be wrong to criticise the League for failing to eradicate them. If we cannot do this now, the League had a far more difficult task then with more limited resources.
The greatest success the League had involving these social issues, was simply informing the world at large that these problems did exist and that they should be tackled. No organisation had done this before the League. These social problems may have continued but the fact that they were now being actively investigated by the League and were then taken onboard by the United Nations must be viewed as a success.
- The successes of the League of Nations are frequently obscured by its failures – especially in the 1930’s when Europe and eventually the world moved…
- League of Nations Failures While the League of Nations could celebrate its successes, the League had every reason to examine its failures and where it…
- The League of Nations was to play a crucial role in Palestine after the League of Nations was created after World War One. The League… | 3,420 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How did the first manned Moon mission spacesuits block the deadly radiation of both Van Allen belts and direct sunlight?
The Van Allen belt radiation was primarily shielded by the hull of the spacecraft, not the space suits. The electrons were mostly absorbed by the aluminium. Of the protons, however, some would penetrate the hull, and the flight path was chosen in such a way as to avoid the most intense radiation.
On the Moon, there's no Van Allen belt radiation, so only solar and cosmic radiation had to be dealt with, plus a small dose of secondary radiation produced by absorption processes in the regolith. A space suit cannot protect against all of this radiation, but it was good enough to not be of major concern.
There was however a constant danger of solar coronal mass ejections while a mission was flown, which would create huge amounts of high energy radiation. This was a risk that simply was accepted. This is one of the major obstacles for a manned mission to Mars. While the probability of a CME during a one week mission is acceptably low, it's almost a certainty for a one year mission. | <urn:uuid:9a8c81b8-b104-4298-8a14-bf77936cc4e2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://space.stackexchange.com/questions/14187/how-did-the-first-us-manned-moon-mission-suits-block-radiation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.981766 | 228 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.3359858095... | 5 | How did the first manned Moon mission spacesuits block the deadly radiation of both Van Allen belts and direct sunlight?
The Van Allen belt radiation was primarily shielded by the hull of the spacecraft, not the space suits. The electrons were mostly absorbed by the aluminium. Of the protons, however, some would penetrate the hull, and the flight path was chosen in such a way as to avoid the most intense radiation.
On the Moon, there's no Van Allen belt radiation, so only solar and cosmic radiation had to be dealt with, plus a small dose of secondary radiation produced by absorption processes in the regolith. A space suit cannot protect against all of this radiation, but it was good enough to not be of major concern.
There was however a constant danger of solar coronal mass ejections while a mission was flown, which would create huge amounts of high energy radiation. This was a risk that simply was accepted. This is one of the major obstacles for a manned mission to Mars. While the probability of a CME during a one week mission is acceptably low, it's almost a certainty for a one year mission. | 226 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This section is from the "Economics In Two Volumes: Volume I. Economic Principles" book, by Frank A. Fetter. Also available from Amazon: Economic
Suppose, now, that in a similar way, we were to take a number of things, X, Y, M, N, O, P, and Q (taking, of course, a definite amount and grade of each) and were to make an exact estimate of their respective degrees of importance. The accompanying diagram may be used to express in a graphic way the mathematical relations of the importance of any one expressed in terms of any one of the others. As a matter of convenience we may settle upon a particular one, Q, as a common unit for expressing or measuring the importance of each of the others in turn. This, in fact, is exactly what the fur-traders did. And we do the same in our use of a monetary unit as our standard for the expression and comparison of the relative importance of things.
* The dotted valuation line ab drawn through x and above y indicates that the valuation of x is greater than that of y, but the degree of the difference is left indefinite.
FIG. 1. ChoicE Between Two Objects.*
FIG. 2. Order or ChoicE Among Several Objects.
Viewed as the reflection of an act of choice, a valuation of goods appears to be a very simple fact. Yet underlying this simplicity would be found ordinarily a number of complex motives. Each valuation is a focus of many influences, a resultant of many conditions, some in the environment, and some in the nature and in the feeling of man. According as there is more or less of the various things to choose, and according as the person is more or less hungry or tired or cold or elated or downcast, any particular object may appear to be more or less important, may thus have a greater or less valuation.
§ 5. One's own labor as a valuation unit. A valuation involves more than a comparison between external objects. Often one's own labor is brought into the comparison. Choice frequently has to be made with reference to the limited strength and time of the subject, his laboring force. Here there is a twofold comparison; a good is compared with the labor required to secure it as well as with another good. When we are face to face with nature, and goods are to be secured only through our own labor applied to various materials, we are likely to estimate things habitually in terms of our own labor. Labor may under these circumstances become a common unit for the valuation of external things.
§ 6. Crusoe's scale of valuations. The economy of Robinson Crusoe serves to illustrate the problems which the individual has to solve when the relation is between man and nature, and not between man and man.
The unfailing interest which old and young find in the story of Crusoe is largely due to the convincing naturalness of the tale. Each reader feels that he would have done just the same things in just the same order, if he were in the same plight and had been cast ashore as the story relates.
I was wet and cold, and had no dry clothes to put on, no food to eat, not a friend to help me. ... I had but a knife and a pipe. . . . Where was I to go for the night? ... I went to a tree and made a kind of nest to sleep in. Then I cut a stick to keep off the beasts of prey in case they should come. . . . The next day ... I swam up to the wreck which was in a sand bank. My first thought was to look around for some food . . . and I ate some of it as I went to and fro, as there was no time to lose. There was, too, some rum, of which I took a good draught, and this gave me heart. ... I fell to work to make a raft. I found some bread and rice, a Dutch cheese, and some dried goat's flesh, . . . some fresh clothes and four guns, . . . with these I put to sea . . . and brought the raft safe to land with all her freight. . . .
The next day, as there was still a great store of things left in the ship, which would be of use to me, I thought I ought to bring them to land at once, for I knew that the first storm would break up the ship. . . . The first thing I sought was the tool-chest; and in it were some bags of nails, spikes, saws, knives, and such things; but best of all I found a stone to grind my tools on. There were two or three flasks, some large bags of shot, and a roll of lead. There were some spare sails too, which I brought to the shore.
Now that I had two freight of goods on hand, I made a tent with the ship's sails, to stow them in, and cut the poles for it from the wood.
The next day I had no great wish for work, but there was too much to be done for me to dwell long on my sad lot. Each day, as it came, I went off to the wreck to fetch more things and I brought back as much as the raft would hold. . . .
The last time I swam to the wreck I found some tea and some gold coin; but as to the gold it made me laugh to look at it. " O drug," said I; " thou art no use to me! I care not to save thee. Stay where thou art till the ship goes down; then go thou with it." Still I thought I might as well just take it. . . .
I have said not a word of my pets. You may guess how fond I was of them, as they were all the friends left to me. I brought a dog and two cats from the ship. - (Adapted from the abridged edition, published by H. Altemus, Philadelphia.)
Crusoe knew not at what moment the waves would sweep into the sea whatever was left. He had scant strength and time for the task. His labor was to be so distributed that he might save from the wrecked ship the most valuable contents. Did he choose well? First, to preserve his life he found a tree to sleep in, and a stick to ward off wild beasts. Then at the ship he took food, clothing, weapons and tools, and made a place to store them safe; and finally came gold and pets. We see how he ranks them then and there, and how different is the scale from that he. had before. His remark about the gold is whimsically suggestive of the old lingering standards of choice, and of the dim hope that he might return to live among men, and thus resume his old scale of values.
§ 7. Choice before and after valuation. It is usual to speak of the valuation which a person has (or holds or makes) of an object as preceding choice; but evidently this is not so in the case of instinctive choice, and many choices have in a measure this impulsive character. In case of a choice of a thing by a person for his own use the valuation is simply the resultant of choice; it is the arithmetic expression necessarily involved in the action and reveals to the person himself what he has done, how he values the object, rather than determines his action.
In a great many business transactions, however, one is not choosing for his own desires, but is trying to forecast the valuations of others to whom he will sell. There is often, in such cases, a long and careful attempt to express in exact figures the relative importance of different objects before a choice is finally made. In other cases the valuations precede the choice, when a conscious calculation is made of the relative effectiveness of things (heating power, food-value, etc.) and the relative difficulty of getting them (cost in money, distance to carry, etc.). In this sense of a careful estimate of the importance of a thing for business purposes, we speak of an assessor's valuation of property for purposes of taxation, an appraiser's valuation of imports, and a merchant's valuation of his stock-in-trade. This kind of commercial valuation usu-ally precedes choice by merchants.3 | <urn:uuid:2ac26aff-7104-463c-bf33-a06629c84db9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chestofbooks.com/finance/economics/Economics1-Economic-Principles/Choice-And-Value-Part-2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00173.warc.gz | en | 0.982411 | 1,724 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.2521484792... | 3 | This section is from the "Economics In Two Volumes: Volume I. Economic Principles" book, by Frank A. Fetter. Also available from Amazon: Economic
Suppose, now, that in a similar way, we were to take a number of things, X, Y, M, N, O, P, and Q (taking, of course, a definite amount and grade of each) and were to make an exact estimate of their respective degrees of importance. The accompanying diagram may be used to express in a graphic way the mathematical relations of the importance of any one expressed in terms of any one of the others. As a matter of convenience we may settle upon a particular one, Q, as a common unit for expressing or measuring the importance of each of the others in turn. This, in fact, is exactly what the fur-traders did. And we do the same in our use of a monetary unit as our standard for the expression and comparison of the relative importance of things.
* The dotted valuation line ab drawn through x and above y indicates that the valuation of x is greater than that of y, but the degree of the difference is left indefinite.
FIG. 1. ChoicE Between Two Objects.*
FIG. 2. Order or ChoicE Among Several Objects.
Viewed as the reflection of an act of choice, a valuation of goods appears to be a very simple fact. Yet underlying this simplicity would be found ordinarily a number of complex motives. Each valuation is a focus of many influences, a resultant of many conditions, some in the environment, and some in the nature and in the feeling of man. According as there is more or less of the various things to choose, and according as the person is more or less hungry or tired or cold or elated or downcast, any particular object may appear to be more or less important, may thus have a greater or less valuation.
§ 5. One's own labor as a valuation unit. A valuation involves more than a comparison between external objects. Often one's own labor is brought into the comparison. Choice frequently has to be made with reference to the limited strength and time of the subject, his laboring force. Here there is a twofold comparison; a good is compared with the labor required to secure it as well as with another good. When we are face to face with nature, and goods are to be secured only through our own labor applied to various materials, we are likely to estimate things habitually in terms of our own labor. Labor may under these circumstances become a common unit for the valuation of external things.
§ 6. Crusoe's scale of valuations. The economy of Robinson Crusoe serves to illustrate the problems which the individual has to solve when the relation is between man and nature, and not between man and man.
The unfailing interest which old and young find in the story of Crusoe is largely due to the convincing naturalness of the tale. Each reader feels that he would have done just the same things in just the same order, if he were in the same plight and had been cast ashore as the story relates.
I was wet and cold, and had no dry clothes to put on, no food to eat, not a friend to help me. ... I had but a knife and a pipe. . . . Where was I to go for the night? ... I went to a tree and made a kind of nest to sleep in. Then I cut a stick to keep off the beasts of prey in case they should come. . . . The next day ... I swam up to the wreck which was in a sand bank. My first thought was to look around for some food . . . and I ate some of it as I went to and fro, as there was no time to lose. There was, too, some rum, of which I took a good draught, and this gave me heart. ... I fell to work to make a raft. I found some bread and rice, a Dutch cheese, and some dried goat's flesh, . . . some fresh clothes and four guns, . . . with these I put to sea . . . and brought the raft safe to land with all her freight. . . .
The next day, as there was still a great store of things left in the ship, which would be of use to me, I thought I ought to bring them to land at once, for I knew that the first storm would break up the ship. . . . The first thing I sought was the tool-chest; and in it were some bags of nails, spikes, saws, knives, and such things; but best of all I found a stone to grind my tools on. There were two or three flasks, some large bags of shot, and a roll of lead. There were some spare sails too, which I brought to the shore.
Now that I had two freight of goods on hand, I made a tent with the ship's sails, to stow them in, and cut the poles for it from the wood.
The next day I had no great wish for work, but there was too much to be done for me to dwell long on my sad lot. Each day, as it came, I went off to the wreck to fetch more things and I brought back as much as the raft would hold. . . .
The last time I swam to the wreck I found some tea and some gold coin; but as to the gold it made me laugh to look at it. " O drug," said I; " thou art no use to me! I care not to save thee. Stay where thou art till the ship goes down; then go thou with it." Still I thought I might as well just take it. . . .
I have said not a word of my pets. You may guess how fond I was of them, as they were all the friends left to me. I brought a dog and two cats from the ship. - (Adapted from the abridged edition, published by H. Altemus, Philadelphia.)
Crusoe knew not at what moment the waves would sweep into the sea whatever was left. He had scant strength and time for the task. His labor was to be so distributed that he might save from the wrecked ship the most valuable contents. Did he choose well? First, to preserve his life he found a tree to sleep in, and a stick to ward off wild beasts. Then at the ship he took food, clothing, weapons and tools, and made a place to store them safe; and finally came gold and pets. We see how he ranks them then and there, and how different is the scale from that he. had before. His remark about the gold is whimsically suggestive of the old lingering standards of choice, and of the dim hope that he might return to live among men, and thus resume his old scale of values.
§ 7. Choice before and after valuation. It is usual to speak of the valuation which a person has (or holds or makes) of an object as preceding choice; but evidently this is not so in the case of instinctive choice, and many choices have in a measure this impulsive character. In case of a choice of a thing by a person for his own use the valuation is simply the resultant of choice; it is the arithmetic expression necessarily involved in the action and reveals to the person himself what he has done, how he values the object, rather than determines his action.
In a great many business transactions, however, one is not choosing for his own desires, but is trying to forecast the valuations of others to whom he will sell. There is often, in such cases, a long and careful attempt to express in exact figures the relative importance of different objects before a choice is finally made. In other cases the valuations precede the choice, when a conscious calculation is made of the relative effectiveness of things (heating power, food-value, etc.) and the relative difficulty of getting them (cost in money, distance to carry, etc.). In this sense of a careful estimate of the importance of a thing for business purposes, we speak of an assessor's valuation of property for purposes of taxation, an appraiser's valuation of imports, and a merchant's valuation of his stock-in-trade. This kind of commercial valuation usu-ally precedes choice by merchants.3 | 1,712 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Asteroid 99 Dike was the first of many asteroids (and the occasional comet) to be discovered by Alphonse Borrelly (1842-1926) from his Marseilles observatory. This one was spotted on May 28th 1868. I have very little to say about it, except that I think it should be pronounced die-kee rather than dyke or decay.
99 Dike has been shown, like three-quarters of all known asteroids, to be a carbonaceous “C-type”, meaning it has a high carbon content, which also means it is dark in colour. According to the JPL Small Body Database, Dike is about 67km across, takes 1,589 days to orbit the Sun, and has an absolute magnitude of 9.43.
Dike Astrea was a daughter of Zeus and Themis, and was the goddess in charge of justice and fair judgement in the mortal world (her mother had the same responsibility over the immortals). | <urn:uuid:596836d7-1ec1-4fb9-9027-4ed47e0be55d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://iagout.wordpress.com/2019/05/28/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00310.warc.gz | en | 0.980884 | 205 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.4607022702693... | 3 | Asteroid 99 Dike was the first of many asteroids (and the occasional comet) to be discovered by Alphonse Borrelly (1842-1926) from his Marseilles observatory. This one was spotted on May 28th 1868. I have very little to say about it, except that I think it should be pronounced die-kee rather than dyke or decay.
99 Dike has been shown, like three-quarters of all known asteroids, to be a carbonaceous “C-type”, meaning it has a high carbon content, which also means it is dark in colour. According to the JPL Small Body Database, Dike is about 67km across, takes 1,589 days to orbit the Sun, and has an absolute magnitude of 9.43.
Dike Astrea was a daughter of Zeus and Themis, and was the goddess in charge of justice and fair judgement in the mortal world (her mother had the same responsibility over the immortals). | 219 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“The tragic figure is usually constructed according to a paradox: a king who is a fool and a brilliant mind whose intelligence is fatal. Tragic heroes are powerful, charismatic men whose uncompromising faith is themselves is coupled with an indomitable will. They are devoted to their own subjective vision of the world and their place in it, and this commitment, reinforced with pride or what the Greeks called hubris, bestows upon them both great strength and great vulnerability (Shakespeare xxxix).” Tragic figures may be described as idealists, adhering to an elevated standard of conduct both admirable and impossible to sustain, and expecting such commitment from those around them. Always, these men are absolutists, unwilling to bend their principles. “The tragic hero usurps the function of the gods and attempts to remake the world.”
Othello’s distinctive vision is both a product and a guarantor of his military career: he is the veteran leader impatient with failure, unwilling to waver between alternatives, accustomed to seeing things in black and white. Othello was flawed with his irrational jealousy
Oedipus was obstinate, and would not listen to the sage advice of Tiresias and his wife and at the same time mother, Jocasta.. They are flawed because they are human, too. But Oedipus is a king out to cure the curse that is afflicting the people. Oedipus will cleanse Thebes by finding and punishing the murderer within the gates. His obstinacy might be better described as perseverance.
The tragic heroes Oedipus and Othello let the pride they own to control their own downfall by placing too much importance on the existence they have shaped for themselves. Oedipus, who blinded himself after discovering that he has murdered his birth father and wedded his birth mother, repudiates to accept the reality: he has truly accomplished his destiny because he is so swollen with pride of what he has achieved since he left Corinth.
Othello showed his pride by trusting the individuals closest to him and on no account would ever be disloyal to him because of his influential title as a General of the armies in Venice. Both characters example of hubris, or excessive pride, causes the fall of their lives, which ultimately leads to life-long sightlessness for Oedipus and mortality for Othello.
Unlike Oedipus, Othello is incapable to live with his tragic downfall. Not only does Othello’s hubris tolerated him to put trust on the only deceitful character in the play kill, but it also slaughters himself, and it rooted him to execute his innocent wife with his own hands. Othello believes that nobody would ever deceive him, until his lieutenant, Iago, starts introducing different views in his mind regarding his wife’s unfaithfulness.
Oedipus, on the other hand, is regarded as ironic since Oedipus is letting fate make game of him. It is difficult to see in what way Shakespeare was not allowing Iago to make game of Othello, if we say that Sophocles was making game of Oedipus. It is true that in Othello, there is not so much emphatic verbal irony as in Oedipus, but verbal irony is not essential, nor does it propose of this distinction suggest that is it. It is true that there is a difference between the natural situation of Oedipus and the artificial situation of Othello; but elsewhere the same critic finds the equally artificial situation highly ironical. Like Oedipus, Othello’s stubborn personality forbids him to see the reality. He unleashes savagery and is the victim of his own arrogance, blind to unfolding events.
Instead of trusting the woman who is closest to Desdemona, he trusts the man who is his next in line of command. Othello is unsighted by the covetousness Iago has plunked in his mind and this distrust is permitting him to look at the circumstances irrationally. Yet, even when Othello is set to kill himself, he is more disturbed with how others will give the impression of him once his life is over.
Because of hubris, he never wanted people to know that he murdered his spouse out of suspicion that was made-up by a green-eyed man. He desires people to judge that it was his affection and adoration that caused the unlawful death; that he loved excessively and not because he was certainly attempting to get even with his pride and rescue himself from apprehending he has lost all he labored so difficult to work for.
Oedipus becoming blind and having to live with the faults he did is a doom worse than death. A tragic flaw witness in both personalities is the quantity of hubris each one owns. Both characters had the chance to be a normal person not subjected to too much pride, and to be able to get by, but it was never good enough for both of them. Oedipus and Othello believed they could accomplish more than what was put in front of them and in the progression of becoming great men; they unluckily converged with death.
Oedipus and Othello showed by being a tragic hero that pride is not a dreadful and awful virtue when it is used in the right way. However, too much pride can destroy not only a life, but also the many breaths that bounded an individual. By placing too much importance on their existence, Othello and Oedipus are accountable for their personal downfall. | <urn:uuid:462b3e07-e4fb-461e-8959-b1ec8ee90810> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://webgamesday.com/comparison-between-sophocles-oedipus-the-king-and-shakespeares-othello/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00511.warc.gz | en | 0.984264 | 1,165 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.3190751969814... | 5 | “The tragic figure is usually constructed according to a paradox: a king who is a fool and a brilliant mind whose intelligence is fatal. Tragic heroes are powerful, charismatic men whose uncompromising faith is themselves is coupled with an indomitable will. They are devoted to their own subjective vision of the world and their place in it, and this commitment, reinforced with pride or what the Greeks called hubris, bestows upon them both great strength and great vulnerability (Shakespeare xxxix).” Tragic figures may be described as idealists, adhering to an elevated standard of conduct both admirable and impossible to sustain, and expecting such commitment from those around them. Always, these men are absolutists, unwilling to bend their principles. “The tragic hero usurps the function of the gods and attempts to remake the world.”
Othello’s distinctive vision is both a product and a guarantor of his military career: he is the veteran leader impatient with failure, unwilling to waver between alternatives, accustomed to seeing things in black and white. Othello was flawed with his irrational jealousy
Oedipus was obstinate, and would not listen to the sage advice of Tiresias and his wife and at the same time mother, Jocasta.. They are flawed because they are human, too. But Oedipus is a king out to cure the curse that is afflicting the people. Oedipus will cleanse Thebes by finding and punishing the murderer within the gates. His obstinacy might be better described as perseverance.
The tragic heroes Oedipus and Othello let the pride they own to control their own downfall by placing too much importance on the existence they have shaped for themselves. Oedipus, who blinded himself after discovering that he has murdered his birth father and wedded his birth mother, repudiates to accept the reality: he has truly accomplished his destiny because he is so swollen with pride of what he has achieved since he left Corinth.
Othello showed his pride by trusting the individuals closest to him and on no account would ever be disloyal to him because of his influential title as a General of the armies in Venice. Both characters example of hubris, or excessive pride, causes the fall of their lives, which ultimately leads to life-long sightlessness for Oedipus and mortality for Othello.
Unlike Oedipus, Othello is incapable to live with his tragic downfall. Not only does Othello’s hubris tolerated him to put trust on the only deceitful character in the play kill, but it also slaughters himself, and it rooted him to execute his innocent wife with his own hands. Othello believes that nobody would ever deceive him, until his lieutenant, Iago, starts introducing different views in his mind regarding his wife’s unfaithfulness.
Oedipus, on the other hand, is regarded as ironic since Oedipus is letting fate make game of him. It is difficult to see in what way Shakespeare was not allowing Iago to make game of Othello, if we say that Sophocles was making game of Oedipus. It is true that in Othello, there is not so much emphatic verbal irony as in Oedipus, but verbal irony is not essential, nor does it propose of this distinction suggest that is it. It is true that there is a difference between the natural situation of Oedipus and the artificial situation of Othello; but elsewhere the same critic finds the equally artificial situation highly ironical. Like Oedipus, Othello’s stubborn personality forbids him to see the reality. He unleashes savagery and is the victim of his own arrogance, blind to unfolding events.
Instead of trusting the woman who is closest to Desdemona, he trusts the man who is his next in line of command. Othello is unsighted by the covetousness Iago has plunked in his mind and this distrust is permitting him to look at the circumstances irrationally. Yet, even when Othello is set to kill himself, he is more disturbed with how others will give the impression of him once his life is over.
Because of hubris, he never wanted people to know that he murdered his spouse out of suspicion that was made-up by a green-eyed man. He desires people to judge that it was his affection and adoration that caused the unlawful death; that he loved excessively and not because he was certainly attempting to get even with his pride and rescue himself from apprehending he has lost all he labored so difficult to work for.
Oedipus becoming blind and having to live with the faults he did is a doom worse than death. A tragic flaw witness in both personalities is the quantity of hubris each one owns. Both characters had the chance to be a normal person not subjected to too much pride, and to be able to get by, but it was never good enough for both of them. Oedipus and Othello believed they could accomplish more than what was put in front of them and in the progression of becoming great men; they unluckily converged with death.
Oedipus and Othello showed by being a tragic hero that pride is not a dreadful and awful virtue when it is used in the right way. However, too much pride can destroy not only a life, but also the many breaths that bounded an individual. By placing too much importance on their existence, Othello and Oedipus are accountable for their personal downfall. | 1,135 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hearing impairment is by its very nature not only disabling but isolating as communication is compromised. Prior to advances in technology many profoundly deaf children were also mute, unable to speak, making them among the most vulnerable in society. The idea that anyone might take advantage of this disability is repugnant however historical child abuse in its many forms has been perpetrated by a minority of staff in residential care settings. This is increasingly being revealed as an international problem, a sad commentary on society as a whole.
Saint Josephs School for the Deaf opened in Dublin Ireland in 1845, run by the Catholic Christian Brothers, a teaching Order known for its strict and sometimes harsh discipline. The school gained a reputation for a high standard of education and vocational skills training boys as cobblers and tailors as preparation for financial independence.
Language is the foundation of culture, historically used, knowingly or unknowingly as a powerful tool of abuse. ISL ( Irish Sign Language) is believed to have developed at St. Josephs enhancing a rich cultural heritage. As advances in sign language progressed, the American system of sign language was introduced but resisted by the Christian Brothers. Boys continued to be taught ISL while girls with hearing impairment at the neighbouring St Mary’s school were taught American Sign Language. The two systems were entirely different making communication between boys and girls attending the two schools almost impossible. This deliberate segregation by language, minimised interaction and the possibility of intermarriage between deaf couples as at that time it was widely believed that deafness was inherited. The significance of gender equality here should not be overlooked.
Post war advances in technology facilitated Oralism, using lip reading, speech, and mimicking the mouth shapes and breathing patterns of speech instead of sign language. In 1957 Oralism replaced signing which was banned almost overnight, extreme punishment was applied to children using signing. Prior to this the boys were taught as one integrated group, under this new system they were separated according to their level of hearing impairment. Three groups were formed, profoundly deaf, partially deaf and children who had no speech ie deaf and mute. This segregation applied to all aspects of the school, meals, socialising and sports, a kind of apartheid which resulted in animosity and division. Boys who could only sign were taught in a separate building and not allowed to mix with former classmates. This further segregation isolated boys who were all profoundly deaf and mute, unintentionally providing opportunities for pedophile priests and lay staff to gain access to the most vulnerable…those unable to speak.
A later Commission of Enquiry into abuse at St Josephs confirmed physical and sexual abuse had been perpetrated by a number of Christian Brothers and lay staff. The following testimonies provide a glimpse of prolonged and torturous sexual abuse.
“I would scream at nights, but everyone was deaf, so no one would hear me…. ‘It could be three or four times a week, then the next week nothing would happen, the following week it would start all over again, I’d say it went on for nearly seven years. He used to come to my bed at 1 or 2 in the morning, he always carried a torch and would shine it on me when I was asleep. He began by rubbing his hands over my body. One night, what he did to me…. I screamed… he had the torch in his right hand and he hit me with the torch. The next day I had a black eye, a few boys asked me how I got it… I had to say that I slipped in the toilet. I was always thinking to myself – What’s he going to do to me this week, maybe he’ll do the same as last week..maybe he’ll do something different..he might hurt me more’. “I sleep with the lamp on because I’m afraid of the dark”
“Saint Josephs to me was like Auschwitz… like a prison camp…it was not a house of God..they were evil people… 5 years of abuse just because I’m deaf”: ‘I’ll never forget the first time it happened.. A Christian Brother came up to me in the Play Hall, he said he had a letter from my mother..he told me to meet me in his bedroom upstairs. I went to his bedroom and he put me sitting on his knee. I remember him opening the letter and there was an old pink ten shilling note in it, he said I could keep it for sweets. Then he started reading the letter, I was wearing short trousers at the time and he put his hand up my trouser leg and started molesting me…Some of the brothers were good… there were an awful lot of them bad. I remember one night a Brother came into my dormitory drunk..put his hand under my blankets and molested me…there was a bad smell of drink often… I didn’t tell anyone because I was afraid.’ While I was still at school I tried to kill myself.. . It ruined my life… I left school and went home and I became an alcoholic….I tried to kill myself a second time but my brother caught me…it still plays upon my mind you see”
These Walls Can Talk: Documentary https://vimeo.com/186336558
Follow this series: ‘Letters to priests’ | <urn:uuid:35371ca6-febb-4d14-9c9f-4b96148fc49b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.spiritualalchemy.co.uk/blog/?p=3098 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.986691 | 1,093 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.236246317625... | 2 | Hearing impairment is by its very nature not only disabling but isolating as communication is compromised. Prior to advances in technology many profoundly deaf children were also mute, unable to speak, making them among the most vulnerable in society. The idea that anyone might take advantage of this disability is repugnant however historical child abuse in its many forms has been perpetrated by a minority of staff in residential care settings. This is increasingly being revealed as an international problem, a sad commentary on society as a whole.
Saint Josephs School for the Deaf opened in Dublin Ireland in 1845, run by the Catholic Christian Brothers, a teaching Order known for its strict and sometimes harsh discipline. The school gained a reputation for a high standard of education and vocational skills training boys as cobblers and tailors as preparation for financial independence.
Language is the foundation of culture, historically used, knowingly or unknowingly as a powerful tool of abuse. ISL ( Irish Sign Language) is believed to have developed at St. Josephs enhancing a rich cultural heritage. As advances in sign language progressed, the American system of sign language was introduced but resisted by the Christian Brothers. Boys continued to be taught ISL while girls with hearing impairment at the neighbouring St Mary’s school were taught American Sign Language. The two systems were entirely different making communication between boys and girls attending the two schools almost impossible. This deliberate segregation by language, minimised interaction and the possibility of intermarriage between deaf couples as at that time it was widely believed that deafness was inherited. The significance of gender equality here should not be overlooked.
Post war advances in technology facilitated Oralism, using lip reading, speech, and mimicking the mouth shapes and breathing patterns of speech instead of sign language. In 1957 Oralism replaced signing which was banned almost overnight, extreme punishment was applied to children using signing. Prior to this the boys were taught as one integrated group, under this new system they were separated according to their level of hearing impairment. Three groups were formed, profoundly deaf, partially deaf and children who had no speech ie deaf and mute. This segregation applied to all aspects of the school, meals, socialising and sports, a kind of apartheid which resulted in animosity and division. Boys who could only sign were taught in a separate building and not allowed to mix with former classmates. This further segregation isolated boys who were all profoundly deaf and mute, unintentionally providing opportunities for pedophile priests and lay staff to gain access to the most vulnerable…those unable to speak.
A later Commission of Enquiry into abuse at St Josephs confirmed physical and sexual abuse had been perpetrated by a number of Christian Brothers and lay staff. The following testimonies provide a glimpse of prolonged and torturous sexual abuse.
“I would scream at nights, but everyone was deaf, so no one would hear me…. ‘It could be three or four times a week, then the next week nothing would happen, the following week it would start all over again, I’d say it went on for nearly seven years. He used to come to my bed at 1 or 2 in the morning, he always carried a torch and would shine it on me when I was asleep. He began by rubbing his hands over my body. One night, what he did to me…. I screamed… he had the torch in his right hand and he hit me with the torch. The next day I had a black eye, a few boys asked me how I got it… I had to say that I slipped in the toilet. I was always thinking to myself – What’s he going to do to me this week, maybe he’ll do the same as last week..maybe he’ll do something different..he might hurt me more’. “I sleep with the lamp on because I’m afraid of the dark”
“Saint Josephs to me was like Auschwitz… like a prison camp…it was not a house of God..they were evil people… 5 years of abuse just because I’m deaf”: ‘I’ll never forget the first time it happened.. A Christian Brother came up to me in the Play Hall, he said he had a letter from my mother..he told me to meet me in his bedroom upstairs. I went to his bedroom and he put me sitting on his knee. I remember him opening the letter and there was an old pink ten shilling note in it, he said I could keep it for sweets. Then he started reading the letter, I was wearing short trousers at the time and he put his hand up my trouser leg and started molesting me…Some of the brothers were good… there were an awful lot of them bad. I remember one night a Brother came into my dormitory drunk..put his hand under my blankets and molested me…there was a bad smell of drink often… I didn’t tell anyone because I was afraid.’ While I was still at school I tried to kill myself.. . It ruined my life… I left school and went home and I became an alcoholic….I tried to kill myself a second time but my brother caught me…it still plays upon my mind you see”
These Walls Can Talk: Documentary https://vimeo.com/186336558
Follow this series: ‘Letters to priests’ | 1,066 | ENGLISH | 1 |
SECTION A COMPREHENSION
Read the following passages carefully and answer the questions which follow
The persistent sound of the big bell at that time of the day surprised everybody. What could the matter be? The pupils, bumping into each other, raced to the assembly hall. In less than a minute, Mr Amoh, the
headmaster, stood with a grim face before them. He raised his hand and everybody was quiet.
“Children,” he began. “The reason why I have summoned you here is to tell you that, at long last, we have
found the students who stole the school‟s microphones. Bring them here!” he commanded.
Necks craned to catch a glimpse of the thieves. There was Kofi Smith, the best footballer in the school. Eyes popped out. “Shiee!” exclaimed the students, completely surprised. Next was Akwesi Ameko. “What…!” blurted out someone from the back. “Is he not the Form Two Class Prefect?” As if that was not enough, Akwasi Osei appeared last, his withered leg dangling on a crutch. The students exploded into uncontrollable laughter. The Senior Prefect had to shout his head off before silence was restored. Everybody was at a loss as to what came over the trio to commit such a crime.
In a clear voice, the headmaster handed down the punishment – two weeks‟ suspension.
1. Why was everybody surprised when the bell rang?
A. the students bumped into each other
B. they ran to the assembly hall
C. the students saw the headmaster standing before them
D. they did not expect the bell to ring at that time
2. The students raced to the assembly hall because the
A. headmaster was annoyed
B. headmaster asked them to come
C. bell rang many times
D. bell rang at the normal time
3. There was laughter in the assembly hall because
A. Mr Amoh stood before them with a grim face
B. Kofi Smith the footballer was involved
C. Akwesi Ameko surprised them
D. Akwasi Osei the cripple was also involved
4. The expression at a loss means
5. What did the headmaster do to the thieves? He A. warned them not to repeat the offence B. asked a teacher to cane them
C. sent them home to call their parents
D. asked them to stay away from school
Before Obu left the house that morning for the Christmas service, he tried on his brand new clothes together with a cap which was beautifully embroidered with yellow thread. He wore the cap at various angles, using a hand mirror to choose the most suitable.
During the service, Obu caught himself several times admiring his clothes. Whenever the congregation sat down, he switched his attention from the clothes to his shoes, nicknamed “stand by”, his first pair ever. He was not alone. Even the choristers who should have joined the procession preferred to sit with the rest of the congregation in order to show off their new clothes. The church itself was in a festive mood, beautifully decorated with palm fronds and flowers.
Obu‟s only problem was that he could not wear his cap inside the church. Outside, the harmattan wind was dry and dusty, making one thirsty. One could not even smile without bleeding since one‟s lips were so dry. Despite this, Obu preferred staying outside to being inside the church where he could not display his cap. Therefore, when the catechist was on his way to the pulpit for the sermon, Obu lied to the Warden that he wanted to relieve himself outside.
6. Obu was inattentive in church because of………….
A. the Christmas
B. the harmattan
C. his new dress
D. his embroidery
7. Obu‟s shoes were special to him because they…………
A. were called “stand by”
B. were his first
C. made noise
D. looked very beautiful
8. According to the passage the choristers………..
A. disliked their robes
B. did not like singing
C. wanted to display their dresses
D. preferred sitting to standing
9. Obu went outside the church……….
A. since it was so warm inside
B. because he did not like the catechist
C. in order to relieve himself
D. so that he could wear his cap
10. He was not alone tells us that Obu was not the only one who was……..
A. in church that day
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0.087558142840... | 10 | SECTION A COMPREHENSION
Read the following passages carefully and answer the questions which follow
The persistent sound of the big bell at that time of the day surprised everybody. What could the matter be? The pupils, bumping into each other, raced to the assembly hall. In less than a minute, Mr Amoh, the
headmaster, stood with a grim face before them. He raised his hand and everybody was quiet.
“Children,” he began. “The reason why I have summoned you here is to tell you that, at long last, we have
found the students who stole the school‟s microphones. Bring them here!” he commanded.
Necks craned to catch a glimpse of the thieves. There was Kofi Smith, the best footballer in the school. Eyes popped out. “Shiee!” exclaimed the students, completely surprised. Next was Akwesi Ameko. “What…!” blurted out someone from the back. “Is he not the Form Two Class Prefect?” As if that was not enough, Akwasi Osei appeared last, his withered leg dangling on a crutch. The students exploded into uncontrollable laughter. The Senior Prefect had to shout his head off before silence was restored. Everybody was at a loss as to what came over the trio to commit such a crime.
In a clear voice, the headmaster handed down the punishment – two weeks‟ suspension.
1. Why was everybody surprised when the bell rang?
A. the students bumped into each other
B. they ran to the assembly hall
C. the students saw the headmaster standing before them
D. they did not expect the bell to ring at that time
2. The students raced to the assembly hall because the
A. headmaster was annoyed
B. headmaster asked them to come
C. bell rang many times
D. bell rang at the normal time
3. There was laughter in the assembly hall because
A. Mr Amoh stood before them with a grim face
B. Kofi Smith the footballer was involved
C. Akwesi Ameko surprised them
D. Akwasi Osei the cripple was also involved
4. The expression at a loss means
5. What did the headmaster do to the thieves? He A. warned them not to repeat the offence B. asked a teacher to cane them
C. sent them home to call their parents
D. asked them to stay away from school
Before Obu left the house that morning for the Christmas service, he tried on his brand new clothes together with a cap which was beautifully embroidered with yellow thread. He wore the cap at various angles, using a hand mirror to choose the most suitable.
During the service, Obu caught himself several times admiring his clothes. Whenever the congregation sat down, he switched his attention from the clothes to his shoes, nicknamed “stand by”, his first pair ever. He was not alone. Even the choristers who should have joined the procession preferred to sit with the rest of the congregation in order to show off their new clothes. The church itself was in a festive mood, beautifully decorated with palm fronds and flowers.
Obu‟s only problem was that he could not wear his cap inside the church. Outside, the harmattan wind was dry and dusty, making one thirsty. One could not even smile without bleeding since one‟s lips were so dry. Despite this, Obu preferred staying outside to being inside the church where he could not display his cap. Therefore, when the catechist was on his way to the pulpit for the sermon, Obu lied to the Warden that he wanted to relieve himself outside.
6. Obu was inattentive in church because of………….
A. the Christmas
B. the harmattan
C. his new dress
D. his embroidery
7. Obu‟s shoes were special to him because they…………
A. were called “stand by”
B. were his first
C. made noise
D. looked very beautiful
8. According to the passage the choristers………..
A. disliked their robes
B. did not like singing
C. wanted to display their dresses
D. preferred sitting to standing
9. Obu went outside the church……….
A. since it was so warm inside
B. because he did not like the catechist
C. in order to relieve himself
D. so that he could wear his cap
10. He was not alone tells us that Obu was not the only one who was……..
A. in church that day
C. wearing new clothes | 960 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
One or more rāwīs attached themselves to a particular poet and learned his works by heart. They then recited and explained the poet’s verse before a wider audience. Such an attachment often became an apprenticeship, and, after mastering the poetic technique, some rāwīs became poets in their own right. The rāwīs, with reputations for phenomenal memories, eventually came to form an independent class. When the great philological schools of Basra and al-Kūfah in Iraq were formed in the 8th century, the rāwīs were sought out by scholars as preservers of an ancient language and poetic style that was falling into disuse.
The method of preserving poetry through rāwīs, relying as it did on memory, however, was imperfect, and the poetry of the pre-Islāmic period was subject to mutations, omissions, unauthorized additions, and the transposition of lines and verses. Early poems recorded in more than one version show great textual divergences, and parts of different poems are often found pieced together.
Some of the most famous rāwīs, especially two who first wrote down poems, Ḥammād ar-Rāwiyah and Khalaf al-Aḥmar, are thought to have dealt freely with their originals and have even been called clever forgers. It is thus necessary to consider carefully the evidence for authenticity of any verse attributed to a particular pre-Islāmic poet.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Islamic arts: Poetry…in its formation, and the
rāwīs (reciters) were equally vital to its preservation. A rāwīwas associated with some famous bard and, having learned his master’s techniques, might afterward become a poet himself. This kind of apprenticeship to a master whose poetic style was thus continued became a common practice…
shāʿir…famous poets were surrounded by
rāwīs (reciters) who memorized their verses.…
Oral literature, the standard forms (or genres) of literature found in societies without writing. The term oral literatureis also used to describe the tradition in written civilizations in which certain genres are transmitted by word of mouth or are confined to the so-called folk (i.e., those who are “unlettered,”… | <urn:uuid:c3328af1-643c-4541-8415-841d97369d40> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/topic/rawi | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00197.warc.gz | en | 0.980231 | 545 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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One or more rāwīs attached themselves to a particular poet and learned his works by heart. They then recited and explained the poet’s verse before a wider audience. Such an attachment often became an apprenticeship, and, after mastering the poetic technique, some rāwīs became poets in their own right. The rāwīs, with reputations for phenomenal memories, eventually came to form an independent class. When the great philological schools of Basra and al-Kūfah in Iraq were formed in the 8th century, the rāwīs were sought out by scholars as preservers of an ancient language and poetic style that was falling into disuse.
The method of preserving poetry through rāwīs, relying as it did on memory, however, was imperfect, and the poetry of the pre-Islāmic period was subject to mutations, omissions, unauthorized additions, and the transposition of lines and verses. Early poems recorded in more than one version show great textual divergences, and parts of different poems are often found pieced together.
Some of the most famous rāwīs, especially two who first wrote down poems, Ḥammād ar-Rāwiyah and Khalaf al-Aḥmar, are thought to have dealt freely with their originals and have even been called clever forgers. It is thus necessary to consider carefully the evidence for authenticity of any verse attributed to a particular pre-Islāmic poet.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Islamic arts: Poetry…in its formation, and the
rāwīs (reciters) were equally vital to its preservation. A rāwīwas associated with some famous bard and, having learned his master’s techniques, might afterward become a poet himself. This kind of apprenticeship to a master whose poetic style was thus continued became a common practice…
shāʿir…famous poets were surrounded by
rāwīs (reciters) who memorized their verses.…
Oral literature, the standard forms (or genres) of literature found in societies without writing. The term oral literatureis also used to describe the tradition in written civilizations in which certain genres are transmitted by word of mouth or are confined to the so-called folk (i.e., those who are “unlettered,”… | 517 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Presentation on theme: "Review What were some of the problems caused by urbanization and what were some ways that cities sought to remedy them?"— Presentation transcript:
Review What were some of the problems caused by urbanization and what were some ways that cities sought to remedy them?
E Pluribus Unum (From Many, One) A short history of American Immigration 1607-1920
Today’s Objectives Learn the history of immigration to the U.S. Learn the commonalities of the “old” immigrants. Learn the characteristics of the “New” immigrants.
Preview What are some reasons (throughout history) that people have wanted to immigrate to the U.S.? What are some reasons that people are hostile towards immigrants?
Original Inhabitants Except for Native Americans, all other types of people that live in the U.S. were immigrants at one time or another.
Colonial Immigration From the 1600s to the 1820’s, the following types of people made up most of those that immigrated to the Americas: A. English B. Africans C. Scots-Irish D. Dutch E. Swedes F. Germans This groups of Immigrants is usually refereed to as the “Old Immigrants.”
Commonalities of “Old Immigrants” Aside from the people from Africa who were forced to come here against their will, the “Old Immigrants” tended to have the following things in common: A. They were from Northern or Western Europe. B. They were mostly Protestant Christians. There were, however, small amounts of Catholics and Jews. The dominant culture was that of the English —language, politics— because they were the majority and for 170 years, the U.S. was ruled by England.
The Irish The first immigrants who came to this country willingly that faced widespread hostility were the Irish. –The Irish came mainly from 1840-1860 (1.7 million). –They came because the situation in Ireland was bad—Most Irish were very poor and then a potato famine in the 1840s caused mass starvation. –The reasons that they faced discrimination were: A. They were Catholic. B. Ireland had been conquered by the English and the English had always considered the Irish to be an inferior, uncivilized people.
Common Stereotype of the Irish They were seen as hard- drinking, ill-tempered, and half-civilized.
“Irish Need Not Apply” Because of the discrimination they faced (and due to the fact most were not skilled workers), the Irish immigrants worked as laborers or domestic servants for low pay.
The Chinese Started coming mainly after the Civil War to do the labor on the West Coast side of the transcontinental railroad. Suffered from terrible prejudice and violence. Were victims of anti-Chinese immigration laws that were passed in the 1880s. These laws were the first to limit immigration to America.
The “New Immigrants” Came primarily from Eastern and Southern Europe. Start Coming to U.S. at end of 1800s. Brought different languages, customs, and religious beliefs that were different than most “native-born” Americans at the time. Most of the “new” immigrants were Catholics and Jews. Most were unskilled workers who settled in Northeastern cities in ethnic neighborhoods.
Attitudes towards the “New Immigrants” Many Americans subscribed to social Darwinistic theories that held that the descendents of the Nordic race (people from Northern and Western Europe) were superior to everyone else. This was evidenced by their domination of other people throughout the world. People who held this view worried that intermixing with the “New immigrants” would bring the American people to a lower level. This view, and the fear of competition for jobs, resulted in restrictive immigration acts in 1917, 1921, and 1924.
More reasons why people were hostile to “new” Immigrants Thought they were the “garbage” of the countries that they were leaving. People complained that they were taking jobs from people already here. People felt that many of the “new” immigrants were political radicals that were into socialism.
The New Colossus Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame, With conquering limbs astride from land to land; Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame. "Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!" cries she With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"the brazen giant of Greek fame Emma Lazarus, 1883
Nativism Term used to refer to anti-immigrant attitude. Nativists.
Review 1. What were the commonalities of the “old” immigrants? 2. Why was their hostility to the Irish when they began arriving in the US? 3. Where were the “New” immigrants from and why was there hostility to them? 4. Who was the first ethnic group that the US tried to restrict from coming to this country? | <urn:uuid:919aac69-ea1b-4785-93f8-6a6c7f6678a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://slideplayer.com/slide/7519777/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.984874 | 1,121 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.1800517141... | 1 | Presentation on theme: "Review What were some of the problems caused by urbanization and what were some ways that cities sought to remedy them?"— Presentation transcript:
Review What were some of the problems caused by urbanization and what were some ways that cities sought to remedy them?
E Pluribus Unum (From Many, One) A short history of American Immigration 1607-1920
Today’s Objectives Learn the history of immigration to the U.S. Learn the commonalities of the “old” immigrants. Learn the characteristics of the “New” immigrants.
Preview What are some reasons (throughout history) that people have wanted to immigrate to the U.S.? What are some reasons that people are hostile towards immigrants?
Original Inhabitants Except for Native Americans, all other types of people that live in the U.S. were immigrants at one time or another.
Colonial Immigration From the 1600s to the 1820’s, the following types of people made up most of those that immigrated to the Americas: A. English B. Africans C. Scots-Irish D. Dutch E. Swedes F. Germans This groups of Immigrants is usually refereed to as the “Old Immigrants.”
Commonalities of “Old Immigrants” Aside from the people from Africa who were forced to come here against their will, the “Old Immigrants” tended to have the following things in common: A. They were from Northern or Western Europe. B. They were mostly Protestant Christians. There were, however, small amounts of Catholics and Jews. The dominant culture was that of the English —language, politics— because they were the majority and for 170 years, the U.S. was ruled by England.
The Irish The first immigrants who came to this country willingly that faced widespread hostility were the Irish. –The Irish came mainly from 1840-1860 (1.7 million). –They came because the situation in Ireland was bad—Most Irish were very poor and then a potato famine in the 1840s caused mass starvation. –The reasons that they faced discrimination were: A. They were Catholic. B. Ireland had been conquered by the English and the English had always considered the Irish to be an inferior, uncivilized people.
Common Stereotype of the Irish They were seen as hard- drinking, ill-tempered, and half-civilized.
“Irish Need Not Apply” Because of the discrimination they faced (and due to the fact most were not skilled workers), the Irish immigrants worked as laborers or domestic servants for low pay.
The Chinese Started coming mainly after the Civil War to do the labor on the West Coast side of the transcontinental railroad. Suffered from terrible prejudice and violence. Were victims of anti-Chinese immigration laws that were passed in the 1880s. These laws were the first to limit immigration to America.
The “New Immigrants” Came primarily from Eastern and Southern Europe. Start Coming to U.S. at end of 1800s. Brought different languages, customs, and religious beliefs that were different than most “native-born” Americans at the time. Most of the “new” immigrants were Catholics and Jews. Most were unskilled workers who settled in Northeastern cities in ethnic neighborhoods.
Attitudes towards the “New Immigrants” Many Americans subscribed to social Darwinistic theories that held that the descendents of the Nordic race (people from Northern and Western Europe) were superior to everyone else. This was evidenced by their domination of other people throughout the world. People who held this view worried that intermixing with the “New immigrants” would bring the American people to a lower level. This view, and the fear of competition for jobs, resulted in restrictive immigration acts in 1917, 1921, and 1924.
More reasons why people were hostile to “new” Immigrants Thought they were the “garbage” of the countries that they were leaving. People complained that they were taking jobs from people already here. People felt that many of the “new” immigrants were political radicals that were into socialism.
The New Colossus Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame, With conquering limbs astride from land to land; Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame. "Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!" cries she With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"the brazen giant of Greek fame Emma Lazarus, 1883
Nativism Term used to refer to anti-immigrant attitude. Nativists.
Review 1. What were the commonalities of the “old” immigrants? 2. Why was their hostility to the Irish when they began arriving in the US? 3. Where were the “New” immigrants from and why was there hostility to them? 4. Who was the first ethnic group that the US tried to restrict from coming to this country? | 1,123 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As you can see from the WR dictionary definitions, "solder" isn't used as an occupation name, so you can't say someone is a "solder" in the same way as you could say he/she is a "welder".
Soldering and welding two items together are quite separate techniques. To solder two things together is to join or fuse them using an alloy solder. To weld two things together is to soften the two ends by heating and then fuse or hammer them together.
I think where you were getting confused was with the base verbs. You don't "sold" things together, so someone who does that wouldn't be a "solder". You "solder" things together, so it has to be a "solderer". | <urn:uuid:c3ffc4ed-f6e2-41f5-b1e4-d15f0b75c46e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://forum.wordreference.com/threads/solder-welder.538770/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.982403 | 155 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.13260990381... | 2 | As you can see from the WR dictionary definitions, "solder" isn't used as an occupation name, so you can't say someone is a "solder" in the same way as you could say he/she is a "welder".
Soldering and welding two items together are quite separate techniques. To solder two things together is to join or fuse them using an alloy solder. To weld two things together is to soften the two ends by heating and then fuse or hammer them together.
I think where you were getting confused was with the base verbs. You don't "sold" things together, so someone who does that wouldn't be a "solder". You "solder" things together, so it has to be a "solderer". | 154 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From the very beginning, Christianity has had a complicated relationship with slavery. Many of the early Christians in the first centuries of the Church were slaves, including bishops, martyrs, evangelists, and even popes. Celsus, a 2nd Century pagan, even ridiculed Christianity as the religion fit only for women and slaves.
Throughout history, Christians were sometimes complicit in slavery and sometimes fought against it. The lives of these slaves who became Catholic saints show just how complex and nuanced that history really is.
10 Venerable Pierre Toussaint
Venerable Pierre Toussaint was born in 1766 in Haiti as a house slave to the French aristocratic Berard family. At the age of 21, he witnessed the slave revolt in Haiti which would become the Haitian Revolution. The Berard family fled the country, taking Toussaint with them to New York.
Toussaint remained with the family in New York even after they lost their fortune. He became a famous coiffeur, designing fabulous hairstyles for New York’s elite. He became wealthy enough to support himself, buy the freedom of other slaves, and even support the Berard family.
After Mrs Berard’s death, Toussaint was granted his freedom and married a fellow Haitian. He supported many charities and was renowned for his generosity. He died in 1853.
Toussaint is a controversial saint. A hero to Catholics for his faith, he was a devout believer who attended daily Mass at St Patrick’s Cathedral for 66 years. Unfortunately in our modern time others have taken a far more cynical view of him, believing that he should have fought harder against slavery.
9 Saint Patrick
Patrick was born into a Romano-British Christian family but, by his own account, never had much time for the religion of his parents. When he was 16, he was captured by Irish slave-traders. He was taken to Ireland and worked as a shepherd until eventually, he was able to escape. When he returned home, Patrick decided to become a priest.
According to his Confessions written later in life, Patrick heard the voice of the Irish calling him back to evangelize them. He did just that, returning to convert the people who had enslaved him as a teenager. He fought against slavery in Ireland and condemned the fearsome slave-trader Coroticus.
8 Saint Seraphia
Saint Serapia was a Christian slave who lived in the Second Century. The accounts of her life were written much later and the exact details are difficult to determine.
The story is that she was born in Antioch at the end of the First Century and fled with her parents to Rome. She sold herself into slavery, giving away all her possessions. Her mistress was a Roman noblewoman, Sabina, whom Serapia managed to convert to Christianity.
Being a Christian was illegal at the time and Serapia was tried and sentenced to death. One year later, Sabina was also killed her being a Christian and the two women were buried together.
In 425, a church was built over the site of their martyrdom and dedicated to Saints Sabina and Serapina. By the thirteenth century, the church, which now known simply as Santa Sabina, increasing the importance of St. Serapia. It became the international headquarters of the Dominican order.
7 Saint Josephine Bakhita
Saint Josephine Bakhita was born around 1869 in Darfur, Sudan. She was captured by slave-traders at the age of nine and sold many times in the slave markets of Sudan. She was enslaved to a brutal family who would beat her every day until she bled and bore the scars for the rest of her life.
Bakhita, as she was known, was sold to the Italian vice-counsel Callisto Legnani. Unrest in Sudan forced Legnani to escape back to Italy and Josephine went with him. When they arrived in Italy in 1884, she was then “sold” to a family friend, Turina Michieli from Venice. There in Venice, she stayed with the Cannossian Sisters for a few months while her “mistress” travelled.
When she returned, Bakhita refused to leave the convent. She described discovering the love of God amongst the sisters. Eventually, an Italian court declared that she had never been legally enslaved under English, Italian, or Ethiopian law. Bakhita was free. She was baptized by the Patriarch of Venice, the future Pope Pius X, and joined the Cannossian Sisters as Sister Josephine Fortuna. She died in 1947 and was canonized in 2000.
6 Saint Isaac Jogues
Saint Isaac Jogues was a French missionary priest. Born in 1607, he joined the Jesuits as a young man filled with zeal for the missions. In 1636, he travelled to the New World and was assigned to the First Nations of the Iroquois.
In 1642, Jogues was travelling with a group of Christian Hurons when they were attacked by the members of the Mohawk Nation. He was captured and tortured, beaten and his thumbs cut off. For two years, he was held in captivity, only able to collect sticks because his body was so broken.
Finally, he managed to escape and returned to France. There, the pope gave him special dispensation to celebrate Mass without his thumb or index finger. After a few years, Jogues begged to return to New France. The Jesuits’ relationship with the Iroquois had only gotten worse and they were blamed for bringing disease, famine and drought. In 1646, Jogues was again attacked and killed with a tomahawk to the head on 18 October.
5 Saints Exuperius and Zoe of Pamphylia
Another early church martyr we know little about is St Exuperius. He, his wife st Zoe and their two sons Cyriacus and Theodulus were martyred in the mid-second century.
What makes them remarkable is that they were a family of slaves who were martyred. Their master commanded them to participate in pagan rituals but they all refused. In retaliation, they were burned to death in approximately 140 AD. Their feast day is the 2nd May.
4 Saint Raymond Nonnatus
Saint Raymond Nonnatus was a Catalan saint born in 1204. He was nicknamed Nonnatus (“not born” in Latin) because he was delivered by caesarean section. He joined the Mercedarian Order, a religious order founded in 1218, with the special intention of ransoming Christians who had been captured and enslaved by Moorish pirates in the Mediterranean.
He travelled to North Africa where he ransomed enslaved Christians with the Order’s funds. When he ran out of money, he offered himself in exchange. Nonnatus continued to preach as a captive and infuriated his captors. As one form of torture, his lips were reportedly seared through with a hot iron and his mouth was padlocked. He was eventually rescued but died soon after in 1240.
3 Saint Onesimus
Saint Onesimus is the only ex-slave who appears in the New Testament. He was the slave of Philemon but ran away from him, became a Christian, and started serving the Apostle Paul. Paul wrote a short letter to his master Philemon imploring him to receive Onesimus back without punishment and even to set him free, recognizing him as a brother in Christ.
Although there is no firm evidence of what happened to Onesimus after the letter, it appears that he was free. He may be the same Onesimus who accompanied Paul on his missionary journeys and whom Paul called, “Onesimus, our faithful and dear brother.”
In one traditional account, Onesimus was ordained and became the bishop of Ephesus.
2 Pope Saint Calixstus
During his reign as pope, the Church witnessed its first antipope when Hippolytus formed his own Christian community against Calixtus. Calixtus, he believed, was too lenient on sinners.
The pope is listed as a martyr. One tradition states that he was killed and then thrown into a well. His body was rescued and today the relics of the sainted pope are located in Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome.
1 Blessed Francisco de Paula Victor
Blessed Francisco de Paula Victor was born in 1827 as a slave in Brazil. He trained as a tailor but always dreamed of being a priest. Special permission was granted to Victor so he could attend seminary but there, he faced much discrimination and persecution. At his first parish as an ordained priest, his parishioners refused to receive Holy Communion from him because he was a black slave.
The postulator, or promoter, of his canonization cause explained that “with his love, embodying the Gospel in his own life, he was capable of winning over the people.” He set up a large school for all students, regardless of their race or status.
Brazil finally abolished slavery in 1888. Fr Victor died in 1905, widely mourned by his community. He was beatified in 2015 and is the first ex-slave priest to be on the road to canonization.
+ The Process Of Canonization
Canonization is considered an infallible decree by the reigning pope that a particular person is in Heaven (Catholics believe that all people in Heaven are saints). The process is not thought of as sending a person to heaven, but rather declaring with certainty that they are already there.
The reason for this? So that the faithful can pray for the intercession of that person (it is generally frowned on to pray publicly for the help of those who are not certainly in Heaven—privately it is fine though). The three steps of the process are Venerable, then Blessed, then Saint.
The video above is archival footage of the arrival of (now Venerable) Pope Pius XII being carried aloft on his throne to make the declaration of sainthood for Pope Saint Pius X. Such pomp is not seen much these days, though Pope Benedict XVI came close in his restoration of many traditional items of Papal regalia. The same may be true when the current Pope is replaced by a man more traditionally minded.
Read more about saints and slaves on Top 10 Truly Badass Saints, and 10 Interesting Facts You Never Knew About Slavery.
About The Author: Laura McAlister is an Australian writer and history lover. She studied an M.Phil in Medieval Studies at Trinity College Dublin and an M.A. in Theological Studies at the University of Notre Dame Australia. She lives in Sydney, Australia and loves discussing Jane Austen, mysticism, and gender roles over tea and biscuits. She blogs at www.cravinggraces.com on prayer, perfectionism, and the Catholic Faith. | <urn:uuid:24f710a8-5351-42b3-8fab-2000b496fec1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://listverse.com/2019/09/27/10-slaves-who-became-roman-catholic-saints/amp/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00046.warc.gz | en | 0.988478 | 2,267 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.2973800... | 1 | From the very beginning, Christianity has had a complicated relationship with slavery. Many of the early Christians in the first centuries of the Church were slaves, including bishops, martyrs, evangelists, and even popes. Celsus, a 2nd Century pagan, even ridiculed Christianity as the religion fit only for women and slaves.
Throughout history, Christians were sometimes complicit in slavery and sometimes fought against it. The lives of these slaves who became Catholic saints show just how complex and nuanced that history really is.
10 Venerable Pierre Toussaint
Venerable Pierre Toussaint was born in 1766 in Haiti as a house slave to the French aristocratic Berard family. At the age of 21, he witnessed the slave revolt in Haiti which would become the Haitian Revolution. The Berard family fled the country, taking Toussaint with them to New York.
Toussaint remained with the family in New York even after they lost their fortune. He became a famous coiffeur, designing fabulous hairstyles for New York’s elite. He became wealthy enough to support himself, buy the freedom of other slaves, and even support the Berard family.
After Mrs Berard’s death, Toussaint was granted his freedom and married a fellow Haitian. He supported many charities and was renowned for his generosity. He died in 1853.
Toussaint is a controversial saint. A hero to Catholics for his faith, he was a devout believer who attended daily Mass at St Patrick’s Cathedral for 66 years. Unfortunately in our modern time others have taken a far more cynical view of him, believing that he should have fought harder against slavery.
9 Saint Patrick
Patrick was born into a Romano-British Christian family but, by his own account, never had much time for the religion of his parents. When he was 16, he was captured by Irish slave-traders. He was taken to Ireland and worked as a shepherd until eventually, he was able to escape. When he returned home, Patrick decided to become a priest.
According to his Confessions written later in life, Patrick heard the voice of the Irish calling him back to evangelize them. He did just that, returning to convert the people who had enslaved him as a teenager. He fought against slavery in Ireland and condemned the fearsome slave-trader Coroticus.
8 Saint Seraphia
Saint Serapia was a Christian slave who lived in the Second Century. The accounts of her life were written much later and the exact details are difficult to determine.
The story is that she was born in Antioch at the end of the First Century and fled with her parents to Rome. She sold herself into slavery, giving away all her possessions. Her mistress was a Roman noblewoman, Sabina, whom Serapia managed to convert to Christianity.
Being a Christian was illegal at the time and Serapia was tried and sentenced to death. One year later, Sabina was also killed her being a Christian and the two women were buried together.
In 425, a church was built over the site of their martyrdom and dedicated to Saints Sabina and Serapina. By the thirteenth century, the church, which now known simply as Santa Sabina, increasing the importance of St. Serapia. It became the international headquarters of the Dominican order.
7 Saint Josephine Bakhita
Saint Josephine Bakhita was born around 1869 in Darfur, Sudan. She was captured by slave-traders at the age of nine and sold many times in the slave markets of Sudan. She was enslaved to a brutal family who would beat her every day until she bled and bore the scars for the rest of her life.
Bakhita, as she was known, was sold to the Italian vice-counsel Callisto Legnani. Unrest in Sudan forced Legnani to escape back to Italy and Josephine went with him. When they arrived in Italy in 1884, she was then “sold” to a family friend, Turina Michieli from Venice. There in Venice, she stayed with the Cannossian Sisters for a few months while her “mistress” travelled.
When she returned, Bakhita refused to leave the convent. She described discovering the love of God amongst the sisters. Eventually, an Italian court declared that she had never been legally enslaved under English, Italian, or Ethiopian law. Bakhita was free. She was baptized by the Patriarch of Venice, the future Pope Pius X, and joined the Cannossian Sisters as Sister Josephine Fortuna. She died in 1947 and was canonized in 2000.
6 Saint Isaac Jogues
Saint Isaac Jogues was a French missionary priest. Born in 1607, he joined the Jesuits as a young man filled with zeal for the missions. In 1636, he travelled to the New World and was assigned to the First Nations of the Iroquois.
In 1642, Jogues was travelling with a group of Christian Hurons when they were attacked by the members of the Mohawk Nation. He was captured and tortured, beaten and his thumbs cut off. For two years, he was held in captivity, only able to collect sticks because his body was so broken.
Finally, he managed to escape and returned to France. There, the pope gave him special dispensation to celebrate Mass without his thumb or index finger. After a few years, Jogues begged to return to New France. The Jesuits’ relationship with the Iroquois had only gotten worse and they were blamed for bringing disease, famine and drought. In 1646, Jogues was again attacked and killed with a tomahawk to the head on 18 October.
5 Saints Exuperius and Zoe of Pamphylia
Another early church martyr we know little about is St Exuperius. He, his wife st Zoe and their two sons Cyriacus and Theodulus were martyred in the mid-second century.
What makes them remarkable is that they were a family of slaves who were martyred. Their master commanded them to participate in pagan rituals but they all refused. In retaliation, they were burned to death in approximately 140 AD. Their feast day is the 2nd May.
4 Saint Raymond Nonnatus
Saint Raymond Nonnatus was a Catalan saint born in 1204. He was nicknamed Nonnatus (“not born” in Latin) because he was delivered by caesarean section. He joined the Mercedarian Order, a religious order founded in 1218, with the special intention of ransoming Christians who had been captured and enslaved by Moorish pirates in the Mediterranean.
He travelled to North Africa where he ransomed enslaved Christians with the Order’s funds. When he ran out of money, he offered himself in exchange. Nonnatus continued to preach as a captive and infuriated his captors. As one form of torture, his lips were reportedly seared through with a hot iron and his mouth was padlocked. He was eventually rescued but died soon after in 1240.
3 Saint Onesimus
Saint Onesimus is the only ex-slave who appears in the New Testament. He was the slave of Philemon but ran away from him, became a Christian, and started serving the Apostle Paul. Paul wrote a short letter to his master Philemon imploring him to receive Onesimus back without punishment and even to set him free, recognizing him as a brother in Christ.
Although there is no firm evidence of what happened to Onesimus after the letter, it appears that he was free. He may be the same Onesimus who accompanied Paul on his missionary journeys and whom Paul called, “Onesimus, our faithful and dear brother.”
In one traditional account, Onesimus was ordained and became the bishop of Ephesus.
2 Pope Saint Calixstus
During his reign as pope, the Church witnessed its first antipope when Hippolytus formed his own Christian community against Calixtus. Calixtus, he believed, was too lenient on sinners.
The pope is listed as a martyr. One tradition states that he was killed and then thrown into a well. His body was rescued and today the relics of the sainted pope are located in Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome.
1 Blessed Francisco de Paula Victor
Blessed Francisco de Paula Victor was born in 1827 as a slave in Brazil. He trained as a tailor but always dreamed of being a priest. Special permission was granted to Victor so he could attend seminary but there, he faced much discrimination and persecution. At his first parish as an ordained priest, his parishioners refused to receive Holy Communion from him because he was a black slave.
The postulator, or promoter, of his canonization cause explained that “with his love, embodying the Gospel in his own life, he was capable of winning over the people.” He set up a large school for all students, regardless of their race or status.
Brazil finally abolished slavery in 1888. Fr Victor died in 1905, widely mourned by his community. He was beatified in 2015 and is the first ex-slave priest to be on the road to canonization.
+ The Process Of Canonization
Canonization is considered an infallible decree by the reigning pope that a particular person is in Heaven (Catholics believe that all people in Heaven are saints). The process is not thought of as sending a person to heaven, but rather declaring with certainty that they are already there.
The reason for this? So that the faithful can pray for the intercession of that person (it is generally frowned on to pray publicly for the help of those who are not certainly in Heaven—privately it is fine though). The three steps of the process are Venerable, then Blessed, then Saint.
The video above is archival footage of the arrival of (now Venerable) Pope Pius XII being carried aloft on his throne to make the declaration of sainthood for Pope Saint Pius X. Such pomp is not seen much these days, though Pope Benedict XVI came close in his restoration of many traditional items of Papal regalia. The same may be true when the current Pope is replaced by a man more traditionally minded.
Read more about saints and slaves on Top 10 Truly Badass Saints, and 10 Interesting Facts You Never Knew About Slavery.
About The Author: Laura McAlister is an Australian writer and history lover. She studied an M.Phil in Medieval Studies at Trinity College Dublin and an M.A. in Theological Studies at the University of Notre Dame Australia. She lives in Sydney, Australia and loves discussing Jane Austen, mysticism, and gender roles over tea and biscuits. She blogs at www.cravinggraces.com on prayer, perfectionism, and the Catholic Faith. | 2,276 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I was there.
In 1941 Oskar and his brother Aba escaped the Nazis and went eastward to Soviet-controlled areas. They found work at a state farm and later Oskar was called in to the army and ended up at a military facility in the Ural Mountains.
Back home in Dabrowica the Germans took over the area. Shortly afterwards the mass killings of Jews began.
Oskar Tojzner (1923-2019), Poland (current Ukraine)
Escape to the Soviet Union
Oskar talks about his escape from the Nazis.
1) Listen to Oskar when he talks about his escape to the Soviet Union and onwards to different republics. Answer the questions.
Oskar, his older brother Aba and younger brother Beitzalel tried to flee to the east even before the German soldiers had captured Dabrowica, but they were stopped at the border and forced to return home.
1a. Why were the brothers not allowed to continue?
1b. What was the situation like in 1941 when Oskar and Aba tried to flee again?
1c. Study the brothers’ escape route.
Open the link in your browser or search for the town of Dabrowica (Dubrovystya in Ukrainian) in Google Maps and follow the escape route from Dabrowica to Kiev, Dnipropetrovsk and Kharkiv. Open map >>
1d. Oskar was separated from his little brother Aba and his friend Alexander in Kharkiv when they were called up for military service. When and how did Oskar find out what had happened to Aba?
Work at State and Collective Farms
Oskar talks about his time in the Soviet Union.
2) Listen to Oskar as he talks about his time in the Soviet Union. Answer the questions.
2a. Follow Oskar’s escape route.
2b. Many of those who survived the Holocaust talk about how luck was needed to survive as well as “rescuers” who gave bread or helped to find hiding places. Who helped Oskar and his friends?
Military Service at the Ural Mountains
Oskar talks about his military service.
3) Listen to Oskar as he talks about his military service.
The German Occupation
A slideshow about the German occupation.
4) Watch the slideshow about how the German occupation affected the Jews’ situation in Dabrowica. Answer the question.
4a. People tend to say that the Holocaust was carried out through a number of steps. It started with the Jews being identified and segregated. How did this take place in Dąbrowica? | <urn:uuid:a71eacba-0291-4cdb-a493-3bf19aaf682b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.eternalechoes.org/gb/testimonies/oskar-tojzner/the-escape-eastward-1941-1945 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.983092 | 572 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.13224916160... | 13 | I was there.
In 1941 Oskar and his brother Aba escaped the Nazis and went eastward to Soviet-controlled areas. They found work at a state farm and later Oskar was called in to the army and ended up at a military facility in the Ural Mountains.
Back home in Dabrowica the Germans took over the area. Shortly afterwards the mass killings of Jews began.
Oskar Tojzner (1923-2019), Poland (current Ukraine)
Escape to the Soviet Union
Oskar talks about his escape from the Nazis.
1) Listen to Oskar when he talks about his escape to the Soviet Union and onwards to different republics. Answer the questions.
Oskar, his older brother Aba and younger brother Beitzalel tried to flee to the east even before the German soldiers had captured Dabrowica, but they were stopped at the border and forced to return home.
1a. Why were the brothers not allowed to continue?
1b. What was the situation like in 1941 when Oskar and Aba tried to flee again?
1c. Study the brothers’ escape route.
Open the link in your browser or search for the town of Dabrowica (Dubrovystya in Ukrainian) in Google Maps and follow the escape route from Dabrowica to Kiev, Dnipropetrovsk and Kharkiv. Open map >>
1d. Oskar was separated from his little brother Aba and his friend Alexander in Kharkiv when they were called up for military service. When and how did Oskar find out what had happened to Aba?
Work at State and Collective Farms
Oskar talks about his time in the Soviet Union.
2) Listen to Oskar as he talks about his time in the Soviet Union. Answer the questions.
2a. Follow Oskar’s escape route.
2b. Many of those who survived the Holocaust talk about how luck was needed to survive as well as “rescuers” who gave bread or helped to find hiding places. Who helped Oskar and his friends?
Military Service at the Ural Mountains
Oskar talks about his military service.
3) Listen to Oskar as he talks about his military service.
The German Occupation
A slideshow about the German occupation.
4) Watch the slideshow about how the German occupation affected the Jews’ situation in Dabrowica. Answer the question.
4a. People tend to say that the Holocaust was carried out through a number of steps. It started with the Jews being identified and segregated. How did this take place in Dąbrowica? | 555 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Once you get to know about Ada Lovelace (1815-1852) and her life and work, it’s difficult not to become more or less obsessed with her. She was a truly remarkable woman; unquestionably one of the most important women in science history.
She was born in 1815, the daughter to Lord Byron and Lady Byron, who were married for just a year – when Ada only five weeks old Lady Byron left her lord and never saw him again. They eventually separated and Byron died in 1824.
When Ada was born her parents were extremely poor; one of the reasons for the separation was that Lady Byron could no longer stand the stress of bailiffs regularly knocking on the door and in some cases camping out in the front room.
But, curiously enough, Byron was poverty-stricken by choice; he had a strange, almost neurotic belief, that he shouldn’t make money from his poetry even though he was highly successful at it and his poems were all best-sellers.
On one occasion, for example, he gave a thousand guineas to his publisher John Murray as a gift, a sum worth about £100,000 back in the early 19th Century. I don’t think many writers would do that nowadays.
When Ada was a girl, her mother inherited a substantial fortune and for the rest of Lady Byron’s life she was one of the wealthiest women in Britain, owning, for example, numerous coal mines in the north of England.
Lady Byron was herself obsessed with the idea that if she didn’t educate Ada properly, Ada’s mind might, as Lady Byron perceived it, go to ruin like Lord Byron’s had.
Lady Byron believed that if she could tame Ada’s imagination, this would prevent Ada from going down the line of imaginative self-indulgence that Byron himself had, as she saw it, gone down.
Lady Byron set out to use mathematics as the method of taming Ada’s imagination, figuring that if she could arrange for Ada to educated in mathematics above all, the taming of the girl’s imagination would be successful.
Ironically, what actually happened was that Ada fell head over heels in love with mathematics. While she never became a great mathematician – my research suggests that she reached about the standard of about a third-year university graduate by modern standards – that was no trivial feat for a girl in the early 19th Century, who was being educated at home by governesses and tutors who regularly were changed because Lady Byron tended to fall out with them as with most other people.
Lovelace as a child © Getty Images.
Ada eventually evolved a kind of personal philosophy which she called, to use her own words, ‘poetical science’.
She never defined precisely what she meant by that but it’s clear that Ada saw poetical science as a dynamic combination of science and the imagination. So, far from quelling Ada’s imagination, Lady Byron succeeded simply in transforming it into something else.
Posterity should be grateful for the something else into which Ada’s imagination was transformed. It is this that really explains my own personal obsession with Ada Lovelace, which derives from her professional brilliance, although I would certainly have liked to have met her too.
Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace’s life was unfortunately short: she was born on 10 December 1815 and passed away on 27 November 1852 from an unfortunately and tragically very painful uterine cancer, at a time when the only palliative available to lessen her pain was laudanum.
This was a mixture of brandy and morphine, which had only limited effect as it was taken orally and much of it was broken down by stomach acid: the hypodermic syringe would invented in 1853, a year after her death.
Ada packed a great deal into those 36 years.
Lovelace and Babbage
She was initially educated by those governesses and tutors for as long, or as short, as they were employed by Lady Byron. Then, when Ada was only 17 years old, and on the evening of 5 June 1833, she met a man who would become arguably her most important friend.
His name was Charles Babbage. He was 24 years older than her, and she very quickly became fascinated, after talking to him, with his plans for building a calculating machine called a ‘Difference Engine’. The purpose of this, although Babbage never managed to complete it, was to calculate mathematical tables automatically without error.
In today’s world, with our instant access to calculation on our computers, mobile phones, our watches and on many other devices, we don’t regard accurate calculation as something especially important. More to the point, perhaps, we quite rightly regard it as a done deal, which indeed it is.
But that certainly wasn’t the case in Ada and Babbage’s days. Then, complex calculations could only be completed by referring to tables of logarithms or trigonometrical functions, unless the person wanting to make the calculation was willing to spend hours on the most complex mental arithmetic.
So these mathematical tables were an important consumer product in the 19th Century. They were compiled by clerks who, ironically, were actually called ‘computers’: it’s not generally realised that that the word used so regularly today actually meant a person in the 18th and 19th Centuries.
Charles Babbage © Getty Images.
These clerks were remarkably expert at mental arithmetic, and to be honest one of the most remarkable aspects of their work was how often they got it right.
But the problem was that, even if they got it right most of the time, they sometimes made mistakes and this led to the dire situation that one never knew where the mistakes might be.
John Herschel, son of astronomer William Herschel, one of Babbage’s closest friends, and a mathematician himself, once observed that the problem with the errors which cropped up in mathematical tables was that they were like, as he put it, ‘sunken rocks at sea’: you never knew when they were going to crop up.
Babbage himself was working with Herschel in the summer of 1821 at Babbage’s then London house at 5 Devonshire Street, carrying out some voluntary work for the London offices of the Astronomical Society of London, now known as the Royal Astronomical Society.
That summer, Babbage and Herschel had joined a committee responsible for providing the Astronomical Society with calculations that could be used for compiling mathematical tables.
Babbage and Herschel were checking other people’s working, a job which they found, not surprisingly, ultra-laborious and full. A significant problem was that when they found an error, or thought they had, they had no way of knowing whether they might have made a mistake themselves in their working or if the human computer pad: as Babbage later recalled:
Mr Herschel and myself having been appointed by the Astronomical Society on a committee for the purpose of procuring certain calculations, we first agreed on the proper formulae, and then employed two independent computers to reduce them to numbers, ourselves comparing the manuscript results.
On the first of these occasions my friend [Herschel] brought with him the calculations of both computers, and we commenced the tedious process of verification. After a time many discrepancies occurred, and at one point these discordances were so numerous that I exclaimed, ‘I wish to God these calculations had been executed by steam!’
This was an epiphany for Babbage and he devoted much of the rest of his life trying to build a steam-powered calculating machine that would do precisely that.
He was fortunately extremely rich: when his banker father Benjamin Babbage died in 1827, Benjamin left his only son a fortune worth about £100,000 in 1827, which is equivalent to about £10 million today.
This legacy kept Charles Babbage financially secure for the rest of his life. Babbage spent much of his own money on his calculating machine ambitions, although he realised that he would never have enough to build the most ambitious of the machines he had designed.
This was called the Analytical Engine and was an extremely remarkable idea. Babbage planned it out in suitable detail, though it is currently arguable whether his plans, which are being studied by a modern team to see if an Analytical Engine could be built today, did leave enough information for a machine to be realised in a modern reincarnation.
But certainly the Analytical Engine was the world’s first digital computer, having a store, a processor, a memory, a sub-routing function and all the other essential features of a modern digital computer.
One of the problems was that Babbage abandoned his work on the Difference Engine – for which the British Government had paid £17,000, which was approximately the cost of two major naval warships.
In fact, it is known today that Babbage could indeed have completed the machine. A modern project to build a full-size Difference Engine, and the printing mechanism Babbage also designed to go with it, was successfully completed in the year 2000, the calculation part of the machine having been completed in 1991.
The modern project, under the leadership of museum curator Doron Swade, took care not to use any materials or levels of precision to which Babbage would not himself have had access.
Doron Swade with the completed printing mechanism © Getty Images.
But Babbage did indeed abandon his work on the Difference Engine, although not before leaving behind plans for the device built by Swade and his team, which he called Difference Engine Number Two.
He abandoned the Difference Engine because he fell in love with the idea of building a much more complex machine which the Analytical Engine would have been.
Babbage was ingenuous enough, when he met with British Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel on 11 November 1842 to tell Peel he had abandoned the Difference Engine because the Analytical Engine was much more interesting and would be much more useful. This, naturally, didn’t impress Peel, let alone make him want to advance any more money to Babbage.
As he pointed out to Babbage, reasonably enough, during the interview, Babbage had been given £17,000 to build a machine which he had not completed and now wanted more from the government without any assurance that the Analytical Engine would be completed either.
Babbage’s attitude towards things like finance, diplomacy and government was ultimately the reason why Ada herself believed she could make a substantial, possibly decisive, contribution to his work.
She knew that he was a genius in designing and planning machines but she also knew that he was hopeless at dealing with influential people and in effect being what in modern terms we would describe as a salesperson of the product.
There is an analogy, for example, with the hugely successful organisation Apple, where Steve Wozniak was to some extent the back-room boffin and the late Steve Jobs went out into the world to sell the product. Babbage desperately needed a Steve Jobs, but tragically he didn’t realise this.
The first computer programmer
The late 19th Century was not a good time to be alive if you wanted to find men blessed with humility and a sense of the contribution women could make to their success.
Nowadays we take for granted that women are just as skilled as men at many tasks, and women quite rightly play major roles in all kinds of organisations, not only in the front office but also the back office.
But Babbage had the most ridiculous and old-fashioned attitude towards women, even to Ada who was a close friend of his. He never saw her as anything more than, as he put it in his own words, ‘interpretress’ of his work, meaning that he was happy for her to write articles about what he was trying to do but the idea of her helping him to make it all happen was anathema to him.
Ada did her best and a wonderful essay she wrote about the Analytical Engine is justly regarded as one of the most important documents in what Swade calls the ‘prehistory’ of a computer.
Ada Lovelace in 1840 © Getty Images.
Ada’s essay, which is known in the computer history fraternity as her ‘Notes’ is extremely readable and gives numerous insights of her own into the Analytical Engine and its potential.
It is absolutely clear that Ada Lovelace saw the Analytical Engine, quite rightly as a general-purpose machine which could be used to carry out not only mathematical calculations, but a wide range of other functions including even, as she saw, being able to compose music.
This, of course, is exactly how we use computers today and it is a tragedy that Babbage did not accept an extremely important proposal which Ada made to him on 14 August 1843 in a letter of more than 2,000 words, in which she offered to be in effect the public face of the machine and to discuss Babbage plans and the need for finance with influential people.
Babbage tersely rejected her offer the following day, on 15 August 1843, and the computer evolution had to wait for a century before it finally took place.
Strangely enough, even after Ada’s help was rejected, she remained friendly with Babbage, and he was a great help to her when she was ill, becoming the executor of her will, although eventually Lady Byron, who had never liked Babbage much, banned him from visiting Ada during her final illness.
Postface: James Essinger's comments for UX Magazine readers
In addition to my new book mentioned above, Charles and Ada: The Computer's Most Passionate Partnership, my obsession with Ada Lovelace has also led to my biography of Ada, Ada's Algorithm, which was published in the UK in 2013 and in the US in 2014, and which has as well as this been published in Spanish-language and Finnish-language editions.
My novel-in-progress, The Ada Lovelace Project, is a result of the same obsession. As of December 2019, I have nearly finished this book, which when it's completed will be about 170,000 words long. It's an ambitious historical novel, designed to immerse the reader in a world-changing adventure that takes place in 1843 and which has science-fiction elements, though these are throttled back compared to the historical aspects. It's about a woman called Lucy who comes back from the year 2095 to 1843 to meet Charles Dickens, polymath Charles Babbage and Lord Byron's daughter Ada Lovelace. Lucy becomes the closest of friends with Ada, and works with her to try to make an 1840s computer revolution that never actually happened, happen. Lucy knows that if she and Ada can't make the computer revolution take place, Lucy's future world, a matriarchal one run by highly effective and efficient women - known as 'Fems' – will never exist, as that world depended on the 1843 high-tech revolution happening. But gradually, and partly influenced by being surprised in 1843 by Sebastian Dunn, the head of the Male Liberation League, who has also managed to travel back to 1843 from 2095, Lucy realises that the world of the Fems was not as perfect as she believed.
As well as being a writer, I also run a publishing firm called The Conrad Press, which publishes novels, general narrative non-fiction, memoirs, poetry collections, plays and screenplays. We are by the way always looking for new writers. We have writers in the UK, the US, Australia and Italy.
One of The Conrad Press's writers is Shanee Edwards, a screenwriter and journalist based in the US. Shanee's own fascination with Ada Lovelace has itself resulted in a novel entitled Ada Lovelace, the Countess who Dreamed in Numbers, which was published by The Conrad Press on March 1 2019.
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-0.021811751648783... | 2 | Once you get to know about Ada Lovelace (1815-1852) and her life and work, it’s difficult not to become more or less obsessed with her. She was a truly remarkable woman; unquestionably one of the most important women in science history.
She was born in 1815, the daughter to Lord Byron and Lady Byron, who were married for just a year – when Ada only five weeks old Lady Byron left her lord and never saw him again. They eventually separated and Byron died in 1824.
When Ada was born her parents were extremely poor; one of the reasons for the separation was that Lady Byron could no longer stand the stress of bailiffs regularly knocking on the door and in some cases camping out in the front room.
But, curiously enough, Byron was poverty-stricken by choice; he had a strange, almost neurotic belief, that he shouldn’t make money from his poetry even though he was highly successful at it and his poems were all best-sellers.
On one occasion, for example, he gave a thousand guineas to his publisher John Murray as a gift, a sum worth about £100,000 back in the early 19th Century. I don’t think many writers would do that nowadays.
When Ada was a girl, her mother inherited a substantial fortune and for the rest of Lady Byron’s life she was one of the wealthiest women in Britain, owning, for example, numerous coal mines in the north of England.
Lady Byron was herself obsessed with the idea that if she didn’t educate Ada properly, Ada’s mind might, as Lady Byron perceived it, go to ruin like Lord Byron’s had.
Lady Byron believed that if she could tame Ada’s imagination, this would prevent Ada from going down the line of imaginative self-indulgence that Byron himself had, as she saw it, gone down.
Lady Byron set out to use mathematics as the method of taming Ada’s imagination, figuring that if she could arrange for Ada to educated in mathematics above all, the taming of the girl’s imagination would be successful.
Ironically, what actually happened was that Ada fell head over heels in love with mathematics. While she never became a great mathematician – my research suggests that she reached about the standard of about a third-year university graduate by modern standards – that was no trivial feat for a girl in the early 19th Century, who was being educated at home by governesses and tutors who regularly were changed because Lady Byron tended to fall out with them as with most other people.
Lovelace as a child © Getty Images.
Ada eventually evolved a kind of personal philosophy which she called, to use her own words, ‘poetical science’.
She never defined precisely what she meant by that but it’s clear that Ada saw poetical science as a dynamic combination of science and the imagination. So, far from quelling Ada’s imagination, Lady Byron succeeded simply in transforming it into something else.
Posterity should be grateful for the something else into which Ada’s imagination was transformed. It is this that really explains my own personal obsession with Ada Lovelace, which derives from her professional brilliance, although I would certainly have liked to have met her too.
Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace’s life was unfortunately short: she was born on 10 December 1815 and passed away on 27 November 1852 from an unfortunately and tragically very painful uterine cancer, at a time when the only palliative available to lessen her pain was laudanum.
This was a mixture of brandy and morphine, which had only limited effect as it was taken orally and much of it was broken down by stomach acid: the hypodermic syringe would invented in 1853, a year after her death.
Ada packed a great deal into those 36 years.
Lovelace and Babbage
She was initially educated by those governesses and tutors for as long, or as short, as they were employed by Lady Byron. Then, when Ada was only 17 years old, and on the evening of 5 June 1833, she met a man who would become arguably her most important friend.
His name was Charles Babbage. He was 24 years older than her, and she very quickly became fascinated, after talking to him, with his plans for building a calculating machine called a ‘Difference Engine’. The purpose of this, although Babbage never managed to complete it, was to calculate mathematical tables automatically without error.
In today’s world, with our instant access to calculation on our computers, mobile phones, our watches and on many other devices, we don’t regard accurate calculation as something especially important. More to the point, perhaps, we quite rightly regard it as a done deal, which indeed it is.
But that certainly wasn’t the case in Ada and Babbage’s days. Then, complex calculations could only be completed by referring to tables of logarithms or trigonometrical functions, unless the person wanting to make the calculation was willing to spend hours on the most complex mental arithmetic.
So these mathematical tables were an important consumer product in the 19th Century. They were compiled by clerks who, ironically, were actually called ‘computers’: it’s not generally realised that that the word used so regularly today actually meant a person in the 18th and 19th Centuries.
Charles Babbage © Getty Images.
These clerks were remarkably expert at mental arithmetic, and to be honest one of the most remarkable aspects of their work was how often they got it right.
But the problem was that, even if they got it right most of the time, they sometimes made mistakes and this led to the dire situation that one never knew where the mistakes might be.
John Herschel, son of astronomer William Herschel, one of Babbage’s closest friends, and a mathematician himself, once observed that the problem with the errors which cropped up in mathematical tables was that they were like, as he put it, ‘sunken rocks at sea’: you never knew when they were going to crop up.
Babbage himself was working with Herschel in the summer of 1821 at Babbage’s then London house at 5 Devonshire Street, carrying out some voluntary work for the London offices of the Astronomical Society of London, now known as the Royal Astronomical Society.
That summer, Babbage and Herschel had joined a committee responsible for providing the Astronomical Society with calculations that could be used for compiling mathematical tables.
Babbage and Herschel were checking other people’s working, a job which they found, not surprisingly, ultra-laborious and full. A significant problem was that when they found an error, or thought they had, they had no way of knowing whether they might have made a mistake themselves in their working or if the human computer pad: as Babbage later recalled:
Mr Herschel and myself having been appointed by the Astronomical Society on a committee for the purpose of procuring certain calculations, we first agreed on the proper formulae, and then employed two independent computers to reduce them to numbers, ourselves comparing the manuscript results.
On the first of these occasions my friend [Herschel] brought with him the calculations of both computers, and we commenced the tedious process of verification. After a time many discrepancies occurred, and at one point these discordances were so numerous that I exclaimed, ‘I wish to God these calculations had been executed by steam!’
This was an epiphany for Babbage and he devoted much of the rest of his life trying to build a steam-powered calculating machine that would do precisely that.
He was fortunately extremely rich: when his banker father Benjamin Babbage died in 1827, Benjamin left his only son a fortune worth about £100,000 in 1827, which is equivalent to about £10 million today.
This legacy kept Charles Babbage financially secure for the rest of his life. Babbage spent much of his own money on his calculating machine ambitions, although he realised that he would never have enough to build the most ambitious of the machines he had designed.
This was called the Analytical Engine and was an extremely remarkable idea. Babbage planned it out in suitable detail, though it is currently arguable whether his plans, which are being studied by a modern team to see if an Analytical Engine could be built today, did leave enough information for a machine to be realised in a modern reincarnation.
But certainly the Analytical Engine was the world’s first digital computer, having a store, a processor, a memory, a sub-routing function and all the other essential features of a modern digital computer.
One of the problems was that Babbage abandoned his work on the Difference Engine – for which the British Government had paid £17,000, which was approximately the cost of two major naval warships.
In fact, it is known today that Babbage could indeed have completed the machine. A modern project to build a full-size Difference Engine, and the printing mechanism Babbage also designed to go with it, was successfully completed in the year 2000, the calculation part of the machine having been completed in 1991.
The modern project, under the leadership of museum curator Doron Swade, took care not to use any materials or levels of precision to which Babbage would not himself have had access.
Doron Swade with the completed printing mechanism © Getty Images.
But Babbage did indeed abandon his work on the Difference Engine, although not before leaving behind plans for the device built by Swade and his team, which he called Difference Engine Number Two.
He abandoned the Difference Engine because he fell in love with the idea of building a much more complex machine which the Analytical Engine would have been.
Babbage was ingenuous enough, when he met with British Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel on 11 November 1842 to tell Peel he had abandoned the Difference Engine because the Analytical Engine was much more interesting and would be much more useful. This, naturally, didn’t impress Peel, let alone make him want to advance any more money to Babbage.
As he pointed out to Babbage, reasonably enough, during the interview, Babbage had been given £17,000 to build a machine which he had not completed and now wanted more from the government without any assurance that the Analytical Engine would be completed either.
Babbage’s attitude towards things like finance, diplomacy and government was ultimately the reason why Ada herself believed she could make a substantial, possibly decisive, contribution to his work.
She knew that he was a genius in designing and planning machines but she also knew that he was hopeless at dealing with influential people and in effect being what in modern terms we would describe as a salesperson of the product.
There is an analogy, for example, with the hugely successful organisation Apple, where Steve Wozniak was to some extent the back-room boffin and the late Steve Jobs went out into the world to sell the product. Babbage desperately needed a Steve Jobs, but tragically he didn’t realise this.
The first computer programmer
The late 19th Century was not a good time to be alive if you wanted to find men blessed with humility and a sense of the contribution women could make to their success.
Nowadays we take for granted that women are just as skilled as men at many tasks, and women quite rightly play major roles in all kinds of organisations, not only in the front office but also the back office.
But Babbage had the most ridiculous and old-fashioned attitude towards women, even to Ada who was a close friend of his. He never saw her as anything more than, as he put it in his own words, ‘interpretress’ of his work, meaning that he was happy for her to write articles about what he was trying to do but the idea of her helping him to make it all happen was anathema to him.
Ada did her best and a wonderful essay she wrote about the Analytical Engine is justly regarded as one of the most important documents in what Swade calls the ‘prehistory’ of a computer.
Ada Lovelace in 1840 © Getty Images.
Ada’s essay, which is known in the computer history fraternity as her ‘Notes’ is extremely readable and gives numerous insights of her own into the Analytical Engine and its potential.
It is absolutely clear that Ada Lovelace saw the Analytical Engine, quite rightly as a general-purpose machine which could be used to carry out not only mathematical calculations, but a wide range of other functions including even, as she saw, being able to compose music.
This, of course, is exactly how we use computers today and it is a tragedy that Babbage did not accept an extremely important proposal which Ada made to him on 14 August 1843 in a letter of more than 2,000 words, in which she offered to be in effect the public face of the machine and to discuss Babbage plans and the need for finance with influential people.
Babbage tersely rejected her offer the following day, on 15 August 1843, and the computer evolution had to wait for a century before it finally took place.
Strangely enough, even after Ada’s help was rejected, she remained friendly with Babbage, and he was a great help to her when she was ill, becoming the executor of her will, although eventually Lady Byron, who had never liked Babbage much, banned him from visiting Ada during her final illness.
Postface: James Essinger's comments for UX Magazine readers
In addition to my new book mentioned above, Charles and Ada: The Computer's Most Passionate Partnership, my obsession with Ada Lovelace has also led to my biography of Ada, Ada's Algorithm, which was published in the UK in 2013 and in the US in 2014, and which has as well as this been published in Spanish-language and Finnish-language editions.
My novel-in-progress, The Ada Lovelace Project, is a result of the same obsession. As of December 2019, I have nearly finished this book, which when it's completed will be about 170,000 words long. It's an ambitious historical novel, designed to immerse the reader in a world-changing adventure that takes place in 1843 and which has science-fiction elements, though these are throttled back compared to the historical aspects. It's about a woman called Lucy who comes back from the year 2095 to 1843 to meet Charles Dickens, polymath Charles Babbage and Lord Byron's daughter Ada Lovelace. Lucy becomes the closest of friends with Ada, and works with her to try to make an 1840s computer revolution that never actually happened, happen. Lucy knows that if she and Ada can't make the computer revolution take place, Lucy's future world, a matriarchal one run by highly effective and efficient women - known as 'Fems' – will never exist, as that world depended on the 1843 high-tech revolution happening. But gradually, and partly influenced by being surprised in 1843 by Sebastian Dunn, the head of the Male Liberation League, who has also managed to travel back to 1843 from 2095, Lucy realises that the world of the Fems was not as perfect as she believed.
As well as being a writer, I also run a publishing firm called The Conrad Press, which publishes novels, general narrative non-fiction, memoirs, poetry collections, plays and screenplays. We are by the way always looking for new writers. We have writers in the UK, the US, Australia and Italy.
One of The Conrad Press's writers is Shanee Edwards, a screenwriter and journalist based in the US. Shanee's own fascination with Ada Lovelace has itself resulted in a novel entitled Ada Lovelace, the Countess who Dreamed in Numbers, which was published by The Conrad Press on March 1 2019.
The fascination which Ada Lovelace inspires in posterity seems destined to continue indefinitely… | 3,361 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Film & TV
Lesson time 12:51 min
Martin teaches you his approach to sound design: enter the editing room with the intention of cutting away sound instead of adding it. Learn how to create atmosphere with sound design, as well as how to use sound to solve editing problems.
Topics include: Sometimes Simple Is Best • Stand by What You Want • Don't Underestimate the Importance of the Mix • Create Mood and Atmosphere With Sound Design • Using Sound to Solve Problems • Low-Budget Sound Design
When films were first created, two things, actually three things were expected and looked forward to and experimented with. That was sound, color, and 3-D. And you can go back to the very beginnings of film and you'll see examples of that, people trying constantly. So sound is something that's very natural, of course. And that compliments the medium, right? Compliments it. Sound, or lack thereof, you know? And so the sound design could be anything. And again, has to come from I think, one vision or-- and best as possible. Combined with those around that vision who adhere to it, who feel similarly about it, and are all on the right track to expressing it. [MUSIC PLAYING] The sound of design has developed into a situation where because the technology is there, because there are so many choices, because there's so many things you could do in the mixing room, people use it. And I think they are using it because they could use it, rather than it should be used. And so you know, I'm always told that a 5.1 then there's a 7.1. I said, how many-- how much more sound could you have in a film in a theater? But there are certain films, I would think, or the majority of the films that are being made in the big budget pictures have a sound design that an audience, kind of now, in a theater, I would think, expects in a way. I find that when I go into the mixing room with Tom Fleischman and our crew, I find that I start stripping away the sounds for many films that we worked on. And I find that group I worked with, Tom Fleischman and everybody, do an incredible job. But technically, at times, I know that I'm told, yes, that dialogue is clear. It may be clear, but it's not registering. And it's being covered or being kind of immersed in a sense of sound. And so I try to clear away as much as possible. But again, films that are spectacles, so to speak, or the fantasy films or the films that are in 3-D, and IMAX-- and yeah, the sound is a-- sound has always been a very special part of a presentation of a film or a play or anything in history to an audience, you know? But we're in danger, here, of expecting a certain kind of treatment of sound that isn't necessary. Let's just go with what's necessary. [MUSIC PLAYING] Everything is set up to go against you, so to speak, because there are ways that people do things. And there are ways that the system works or there are ways that the technology works. And you know, if you are new and you come into a situation and say, I want this or I want that, they kind of know more than you do in terms of the technology. So there is a fine line where, even if they want to help, you may find that you have to be very firm about standing by what you want because sometimes people say, it just isn't done. Well, that's a good reason to do it. I think in Orson Welles and Greg Tolan, in Citizen Kane, I think he told-- I may be par...
Martin Scorsese drew his first storyboard when he was eight. Today he’s a legendary director whose films from Mean Streets to The Wolf of Wall Street have shaped movie history. In his first-ever online film class, the Oscar winner teaches his approach, from storytelling to editing to working with actors. He deconstructs films and breaks down his craft, changing how you make and watch movies.
Outstanding anecdotes and observations, suggestions and reminders, and encouragement to press ahead despite the inevitable challenges and because of your desire to make film. Bravo!
This was my favourite Masterclass thus far. Martin is sitting there talking to you as if he was sharing stories after dinner. Cosy and relax, in control. He tells you, even if it's scary... get up and do it anyways. Find your own way. I love it.
It is such and honor to learn from a master like Martin Scorsese. His insight and wisdom is so valuable yet his humility is a great testimony to every artist. Thank you Masterclass for giving me an opportunity to learn from a legendary filmmaker.
More than anything else it was inspiring and motivating. Makes me think that the most important asset to have is passion. it is very interesting to watch his masterclass along with Ron Howard's more practical class on how to actually make a fil | <urn:uuid:7eeb6484-2c0e-42a4-aad8-46b5d106451b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.masterclass.com/classes/martin-scorsese-teaches-filmmaking/chapters/the-importance-of-sound-design | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00514.warc.gz | en | 0.98036 | 1,064 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.2206978350877761... | 1 | Film & TV
Lesson time 12:51 min
Martin teaches you his approach to sound design: enter the editing room with the intention of cutting away sound instead of adding it. Learn how to create atmosphere with sound design, as well as how to use sound to solve editing problems.
Topics include: Sometimes Simple Is Best • Stand by What You Want • Don't Underestimate the Importance of the Mix • Create Mood and Atmosphere With Sound Design • Using Sound to Solve Problems • Low-Budget Sound Design
When films were first created, two things, actually three things were expected and looked forward to and experimented with. That was sound, color, and 3-D. And you can go back to the very beginnings of film and you'll see examples of that, people trying constantly. So sound is something that's very natural, of course. And that compliments the medium, right? Compliments it. Sound, or lack thereof, you know? And so the sound design could be anything. And again, has to come from I think, one vision or-- and best as possible. Combined with those around that vision who adhere to it, who feel similarly about it, and are all on the right track to expressing it. [MUSIC PLAYING] The sound of design has developed into a situation where because the technology is there, because there are so many choices, because there's so many things you could do in the mixing room, people use it. And I think they are using it because they could use it, rather than it should be used. And so you know, I'm always told that a 5.1 then there's a 7.1. I said, how many-- how much more sound could you have in a film in a theater? But there are certain films, I would think, or the majority of the films that are being made in the big budget pictures have a sound design that an audience, kind of now, in a theater, I would think, expects in a way. I find that when I go into the mixing room with Tom Fleischman and our crew, I find that I start stripping away the sounds for many films that we worked on. And I find that group I worked with, Tom Fleischman and everybody, do an incredible job. But technically, at times, I know that I'm told, yes, that dialogue is clear. It may be clear, but it's not registering. And it's being covered or being kind of immersed in a sense of sound. And so I try to clear away as much as possible. But again, films that are spectacles, so to speak, or the fantasy films or the films that are in 3-D, and IMAX-- and yeah, the sound is a-- sound has always been a very special part of a presentation of a film or a play or anything in history to an audience, you know? But we're in danger, here, of expecting a certain kind of treatment of sound that isn't necessary. Let's just go with what's necessary. [MUSIC PLAYING] Everything is set up to go against you, so to speak, because there are ways that people do things. And there are ways that the system works or there are ways that the technology works. And you know, if you are new and you come into a situation and say, I want this or I want that, they kind of know more than you do in terms of the technology. So there is a fine line where, even if they want to help, you may find that you have to be very firm about standing by what you want because sometimes people say, it just isn't done. Well, that's a good reason to do it. I think in Orson Welles and Greg Tolan, in Citizen Kane, I think he told-- I may be par...
Martin Scorsese drew his first storyboard when he was eight. Today he’s a legendary director whose films from Mean Streets to The Wolf of Wall Street have shaped movie history. In his first-ever online film class, the Oscar winner teaches his approach, from storytelling to editing to working with actors. He deconstructs films and breaks down his craft, changing how you make and watch movies.
Outstanding anecdotes and observations, suggestions and reminders, and encouragement to press ahead despite the inevitable challenges and because of your desire to make film. Bravo!
This was my favourite Masterclass thus far. Martin is sitting there talking to you as if he was sharing stories after dinner. Cosy and relax, in control. He tells you, even if it's scary... get up and do it anyways. Find your own way. I love it.
It is such and honor to learn from a master like Martin Scorsese. His insight and wisdom is so valuable yet his humility is a great testimony to every artist. Thank you Masterclass for giving me an opportunity to learn from a legendary filmmaker.
More than anything else it was inspiring and motivating. Makes me think that the most important asset to have is passion. it is very interesting to watch his masterclass along with Ron Howard's more practical class on how to actually make a fil | 1,053 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Brrr it's icy cold!
What an exciting learning opportunity this morning to find a thick layer of ice in the tuff spot outdoors!
The children were delighted to see that the water that had been in the tuff spot had turned to ice overnight. They were fascinated by the tiny bubbles trapped within the ice.
Through touching the sheet of ice they used words such as smooth, cold, frozen, icy, shiny, sparkly, spotty, bubbles, to describe the ice. There was a great discussion about how the ice got there;
Elsa freezed all the water and make it so cold
The water got too cold and then it was frozen. It's all hard and ice now.
Once we had established that water had frozen to form the ice, we also talked about whether the ice would ever be water again.
If the sun shines on the ice then it will make it go to water again. The sun is a bit shining and make the ice sparkly and then melt. It goes to water when it melts.
The children had great fun exploring how to break up the ice and then scoop it up in their little nets. They watched as the water started to drain through as it was melting or from the water that was trapped underneath the sheet of ice. | <urn:uuid:cf779cb5-ad06-49d4-83f3-e4e0c1dfeefa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bishopcreightonacademy.org/blog/?pid=562&nid=31&storyid=2655 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00436.warc.gz | en | 0.986526 | 262 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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... | 6 | Brrr it's icy cold!
What an exciting learning opportunity this morning to find a thick layer of ice in the tuff spot outdoors!
The children were delighted to see that the water that had been in the tuff spot had turned to ice overnight. They were fascinated by the tiny bubbles trapped within the ice.
Through touching the sheet of ice they used words such as smooth, cold, frozen, icy, shiny, sparkly, spotty, bubbles, to describe the ice. There was a great discussion about how the ice got there;
Elsa freezed all the water and make it so cold
The water got too cold and then it was frozen. It's all hard and ice now.
Once we had established that water had frozen to form the ice, we also talked about whether the ice would ever be water again.
If the sun shines on the ice then it will make it go to water again. The sun is a bit shining and make the ice sparkly and then melt. It goes to water when it melts.
The children had great fun exploring how to break up the ice and then scoop it up in their little nets. They watched as the water started to drain through as it was melting or from the water that was trapped underneath the sheet of ice. | 257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It's widely accepted today that Tecumseh—among the most influential Native Americans in history—was born in Ohio, but a handful of historians contend he was born in West Virginia where a statue, now missing, was once raised in his honor.
"There's evidence he was born here in what's now Lewis County, West Virginia," says Travis Henline, an adjunct professor of Native American Studies at West Virginia University and of history at West Liberty University.
"He reportedly came through the Lewis County area in the late 1790s after the 1794 Treaty of Greenville—after the peace," Henline says. "During the visit, he reportedly commented that he was 'born in this country'."
A native village once stood on Hacker's Creek at present-day Jane Lew, and it may have existed in 1768 when Tecumseh was born, Henline said.
Though historians may not agree on the place of his birth—most propose that he was born at Chillicothe, now in southern Ohio—few dispute the remarkable role he played in U.S. history.
Rather than reacting with aggression, he worked assertively to protect native interests, often engaging William Henry Harrison, then governor of the Indiana Territory and later president.
With his brother Tenskwatawa, Tecumseh gathered an inter-tribal following to deter hostile European expansion, though many members lost faith after Tenskwatawa rejected Tecumseh's advice and engaged the U.S. in the ill-fated Battle of Tippecanoe.
Tecumseh and his remaining forces then allied with the British in the War of 1812, during which Tecumseh was killed and the movement lost all force, though he won the respect of many through his deliberate, heroic actions.
"Tecumseh is certainly among the best known Native Americans in history," Henline says.
The late historian Shirley Donnelly was also among those who acknowledged that Tecumseh was born in West Virginia.
"This celebrated Indian chief is said to have been born on Hacker's Creek, most likely in the Indian village at the mouth of Jesse's Run in Lewis County," Donnelly wrote while recounting one of the chieftain's earliest known visits to West Virginia.
In 1792, when Tecumseh was 24, he traveled with a band of Shawnee to raid a settlement by John Waggoner on Hacker's Creek.
"Waggoner had been burning some logs and was sitting on a log with a big handspike in his hand, resting from his labors," Donnelly wrote in a 1962 column in The Beckley Post-Herald.
"Tecumseh, who had been lying in wait for a shot, was nervous when he fired because he took the handspike in the hands of the huge Waggoner to be a gun. Although only 30 paces from Waggoner when he shot at him, Tecumseh's aim went bad. The bullet passed through the sleeve of Waggoner's shirt."
Tecumseh's recollection of his birth was conveyed several years after the Waggoner raid, during which much of the family were killed or captured.
In any case, his birth—"His name means 'panther passing across' which is a reference to a shooting star that crossed the sky when he was born," Henline says—has become a tradition in Lewis County.
"This assertion by him is the reason they put a statue of him near Jackson's Mill," Henline says.
Yet, another mystery yet to be solved, the removal of the statue has never been publicized.
"There are photos of the statue in which he is wearing a plains Indian headdress—which is not correct," Henline says, referring to an elaboration not customary in the eastern woodlands.
"The base is still there on the hill, but the statue is gone." | <urn:uuid:c70e6e53-e997-4e9e-b5f1-c403d1899355> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wvexplorer.com/2019/10/04/tecumseh-born-in-west-virginia-lewis-county-wv/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00331.warc.gz | en | 0.987813 | 818 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.084814786911... | 8 | It's widely accepted today that Tecumseh—among the most influential Native Americans in history—was born in Ohio, but a handful of historians contend he was born in West Virginia where a statue, now missing, was once raised in his honor.
"There's evidence he was born here in what's now Lewis County, West Virginia," says Travis Henline, an adjunct professor of Native American Studies at West Virginia University and of history at West Liberty University.
"He reportedly came through the Lewis County area in the late 1790s after the 1794 Treaty of Greenville—after the peace," Henline says. "During the visit, he reportedly commented that he was 'born in this country'."
A native village once stood on Hacker's Creek at present-day Jane Lew, and it may have existed in 1768 when Tecumseh was born, Henline said.
Though historians may not agree on the place of his birth—most propose that he was born at Chillicothe, now in southern Ohio—few dispute the remarkable role he played in U.S. history.
Rather than reacting with aggression, he worked assertively to protect native interests, often engaging William Henry Harrison, then governor of the Indiana Territory and later president.
With his brother Tenskwatawa, Tecumseh gathered an inter-tribal following to deter hostile European expansion, though many members lost faith after Tenskwatawa rejected Tecumseh's advice and engaged the U.S. in the ill-fated Battle of Tippecanoe.
Tecumseh and his remaining forces then allied with the British in the War of 1812, during which Tecumseh was killed and the movement lost all force, though he won the respect of many through his deliberate, heroic actions.
"Tecumseh is certainly among the best known Native Americans in history," Henline says.
The late historian Shirley Donnelly was also among those who acknowledged that Tecumseh was born in West Virginia.
"This celebrated Indian chief is said to have been born on Hacker's Creek, most likely in the Indian village at the mouth of Jesse's Run in Lewis County," Donnelly wrote while recounting one of the chieftain's earliest known visits to West Virginia.
In 1792, when Tecumseh was 24, he traveled with a band of Shawnee to raid a settlement by John Waggoner on Hacker's Creek.
"Waggoner had been burning some logs and was sitting on a log with a big handspike in his hand, resting from his labors," Donnelly wrote in a 1962 column in The Beckley Post-Herald.
"Tecumseh, who had been lying in wait for a shot, was nervous when he fired because he took the handspike in the hands of the huge Waggoner to be a gun. Although only 30 paces from Waggoner when he shot at him, Tecumseh's aim went bad. The bullet passed through the sleeve of Waggoner's shirt."
Tecumseh's recollection of his birth was conveyed several years after the Waggoner raid, during which much of the family were killed or captured.
In any case, his birth—"His name means 'panther passing across' which is a reference to a shooting star that crossed the sky when he was born," Henline says—has become a tradition in Lewis County.
"This assertion by him is the reason they put a statue of him near Jackson's Mill," Henline says.
Yet, another mystery yet to be solved, the removal of the statue has never been publicized.
"There are photos of the statue in which he is wearing a plains Indian headdress—which is not correct," Henline says, referring to an elaboration not customary in the eastern woodlands.
"The base is still there on the hill, but the statue is gone." | 811 | ENGLISH | 1 |
بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِ
Sumerians maybe not the first but the first recorded civilisation, though claims have been made that indus valley is older but much of a debated topic.
Sumerians one in past considered as a legend as depicted in bible and ancient manuscripts but after research are between tigris and Euphrates and near them more advance than we could expect from a civilisation which is said to be setteled more than 6000 years ago and end by near 4000 years ago. Numbers can be complicated to think but we know how we think about people of the past.
Sumerians were based on the organisation of City states like that of ancient Greece and the city of Uruk is said to be first true city with an approximate of 40000-80000 people living within 6 mile of wall, though all cities is said to be surrounded by wall and villages were known by thier beliefs in local deities. Sumerian culture was first to have records of writing system, the first known records are of 3100 B.C. Sumerians culture has a variety of Art and architecture as it remained on earth for a long period of time ranging from mud huts to sophisticated bricks built houses, temples and palaces and also pyramids. Ziggurats having sloping sides and terraces with gardens were also built one of them is hanging gardens of babylon.
The most fascinating thing about Sumerian is their advancement in Science and maths that is shown in their architecture also. There medicines were based on herbalism, magic was also used although not scientifically proved. They had advanced knowledge of Anotomy as surgical instruments have also been excavated. Sumerians were great at hydraulic engineering, ditches and canals were made for canals were made to control flooding and irrigation facilities. Sixty seconds in a minute and sixty minute in an hour is attributed to Sumerians. They also contributed in written records of poetry and stories like that of great flood, garden of Eden and tower of Babel. Schools were common aspect of Sumer culture.
Sumerian civilisation came to an end as it was captured in 2004 B.C by Elamites, Amorite soon took over Sumer culture and later the people were soon known as the Babylonians, it marked the end of Sumer culture.
Theory and conclusion-
Sumerians are the perfect example of how civilisations grow and end no matter how strong they are.
Sumerian invented a lot so much so that they are linked to conspiracy theories. They were so much advance that can not be imagined when we check there time when they were present.
Sumerian lived in harsh climate but still they were able to cope up with there living and then proper too is an amazing thing to consider.
Sumerian achievements in many fields were adopted later by Greek and Roman civilisation.
In upcoming blog post i will post about Dryas theory. Although said to be conspiracy theory but still can answer the secrets of Mankind on earth.
Note:- All history records are precise and not 100% accurate. | <urn:uuid:ff9ee702-129b-472c-96b9-8b90dca20c4a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://recordedhistoryaccounts.wordpress.com/2019/10/04/the-sumerians/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.987857 | 656 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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Sumerians maybe not the first but the first recorded civilisation, though claims have been made that indus valley is older but much of a debated topic.
Sumerians one in past considered as a legend as depicted in bible and ancient manuscripts but after research are between tigris and Euphrates and near them more advance than we could expect from a civilisation which is said to be setteled more than 6000 years ago and end by near 4000 years ago. Numbers can be complicated to think but we know how we think about people of the past.
Sumerians were based on the organisation of City states like that of ancient Greece and the city of Uruk is said to be first true city with an approximate of 40000-80000 people living within 6 mile of wall, though all cities is said to be surrounded by wall and villages were known by thier beliefs in local deities. Sumerian culture was first to have records of writing system, the first known records are of 3100 B.C. Sumerians culture has a variety of Art and architecture as it remained on earth for a long period of time ranging from mud huts to sophisticated bricks built houses, temples and palaces and also pyramids. Ziggurats having sloping sides and terraces with gardens were also built one of them is hanging gardens of babylon.
The most fascinating thing about Sumerian is their advancement in Science and maths that is shown in their architecture also. There medicines were based on herbalism, magic was also used although not scientifically proved. They had advanced knowledge of Anotomy as surgical instruments have also been excavated. Sumerians were great at hydraulic engineering, ditches and canals were made for canals were made to control flooding and irrigation facilities. Sixty seconds in a minute and sixty minute in an hour is attributed to Sumerians. They also contributed in written records of poetry and stories like that of great flood, garden of Eden and tower of Babel. Schools were common aspect of Sumer culture.
Sumerian civilisation came to an end as it was captured in 2004 B.C by Elamites, Amorite soon took over Sumer culture and later the people were soon known as the Babylonians, it marked the end of Sumer culture.
Theory and conclusion-
Sumerians are the perfect example of how civilisations grow and end no matter how strong they are.
Sumerian invented a lot so much so that they are linked to conspiracy theories. They were so much advance that can not be imagined when we check there time when they were present.
Sumerian lived in harsh climate but still they were able to cope up with there living and then proper too is an amazing thing to consider.
Sumerian achievements in many fields were adopted later by Greek and Roman civilisation.
In upcoming blog post i will post about Dryas theory. Although said to be conspiracy theory but still can answer the secrets of Mankind on earth.
Note:- All history records are precise and not 100% accurate. | 669 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Vortigern was legendary 5th century King of the Britons featured in the work of early British writers such as Gildas, Nennius, Bede, Geoffrey of Monmouth and others. There is a debate over whether Vortigern was a term for a high king who was chosen by a form of consensus to rule or whether it was the name of a person such as a warlord, lesser king, or political leader. This work takes it as the name of a person of high status who through his ruthless cunning and experience took over the rule of the Britons during dangerous times.
Vortigern is usually presented in a bad light, as a man of immoral and selfish character who used duplicity and deception to rise to the top of the British establishment of his day. He is usually blamed for encouraging the arrival of the Saxon and Germanic invaders to Britain. At first, these were employed as his mercenaries to support his own power and to fight against the Picts and Scots but later he was to find he could not control them. Some scholars say the ruling elite of the Britons may deserve at least an equal share of the blame through their own weakness and disarray in facing their enemies. It may be that as far as the defence of realm was concerned, he did the best he could with the resources he had available to him which had been seriously depleted by the actions of earlier rulers. Yet questions are posed by some of the early writers about his morality and behaviour. Indeed, acts of lust, intrigue, murder, duplicity, and treachery are usually seen to be the hallmarks of his reign. This work presents a brief overview of the rule of Vortigern, looking at some of these alleged acts and incidents some of which resonate through the ages to the present and are the very stuff of legends.
Vortigern Takes the Crown
According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Vortigern set up Constans, the eldest of the sons of King Constantine II who had been assassinated, to rule the Britons because he rightly believed he could control him and eventually take over the crown. After arranging for his murder, he usurps the crown to find that one day a cleverer and more ruthless man would appear on the scene. That man was Hengist, the leader of the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes in Britain.
After the assassination of Constans by Pict mercenaries controlled by Vortigern, there was no one of suitable status, experience or age to take his place. The rightful heirs to the throne of the Briton were Aurelius Ambrosius and his younger brother Uther, who were the sons of King Constantine II and the younger brothers of Constans, but they were just children and deemed too young to take the throne. Vortigern was the most experienced political figure of the Britons at the time and very ambitious. Insidiously, he had wormed his way into becoming the chief advisor of Constans, while all the time working secretly to promote his own ambitions and quietly gaining power, authority, and the king’s trust.
With the murder of Constans that he carefully and covertly set up, he stepped forward and seized the crown for himself. Not all of the British lords were friends of Vortigern, and some of these, fearing for the safety of the two young heirs, sent them into exile to Armorica for their own safekeeping. There they grew up safely and were taught the arts of royalty and leadership while all the time preparing to return one day and claim back the crown of the Britons.
Having seized the throne, Vortigern would find the rule of the kingdom was far from an easy task. In the north, Picts and Scots made frequent raids into his realm, but there was also another impending and growing threat that he feared. As the years passed by, he was aware of the maturing and coming of age of the royal brothers. He received reports of the building of a vast fleet and the mustering of a great army, and his spies confirmed his fears that they were intent on taking back their rightful inheritance. Taking stock of the situation, he found he was desperately short of men at arms to defend the kingdom.
Hengist and Horsa
While Aurelius and Uther had been growing up in Armorica, the kingdom of the Britons had faced many threats from the neighbouring Picts and Scots, who frequently raided the borders and made encroachments further into his kingdom. To deal with these invasions, he employed Saxon and other Germanic mercenaries to fight for him. To begin with, this worked well. The Saxons, led by two brothers named Hengist and Horsa, were fierce warriors and defeated the Picts and Scots whenever they encountered them.
Hengist asked permission of Vortigern to bring more of his countrymen from Germany to help fight Britain’s enemies. Vortigern was pleased with the success of the Saxons and readily agreed, allowing Hengist to send to Germany for more warriors. Next, Hengist asked for a small portion of land where he could build a stronghold for him and his people. All he asked for was a site of a size to be encircled by a leather thong from the hide of a bull. Again Vortigern granted his request. Taking the hide of a bull, Hengist made a thin thong from the whole of it, sufficiently long enough to completely encircle a site of his choosing. There he built his stronghold, which became known as Kaercorrei to the Britons and Thancastre, or Thong Castle to the Saxons. Hengist was quietly pleased with what had been granted and asked Vortigern for permission to bring in more Saxon warriors which was also granted.
The Arrival of Rowena
More ships from Germany arrived, and with them came someone that Hengist had said nothing to Vortigern about. As well as men at arms, they brought a Saxon princess named Rowena, who was the daughter of Hengist. She was one of the most beautiful and desirable of the German princesses of the time, and her arrival would enthral and captivate Vortigern. She would become an important, though covert, player in Hengist’s creeping influence over the King of the Britons.
With the arrival of Rowena and the new contingent of German fighters, Hengist invited Vortigern to a great banquet at his newly constructed stronghold of Thong Castle. Vortigern was pleased to accept the invitation and after being shown around the castle and welcoming the warriors into his service he was given a banquet in his honour. The wine flowed freely, and towards the end of the evening, Rowena appeared from her bedchamber carrying a golden cup of wine. Curtseying before Vortigern she said, “Lauerd king wacht heil!”
Vortigern was surprised and delighted. He was completely taken by the grace and beauty of the girl and he became enamoured by her. Turning to his interpreter he asked what she had said and what his response should be. His interpreter told him she had called him “Lord King” and that she had offered to drink to his health. He must answer by saying, “Drinc heil!”. Taking the cup from her, he kissed her and drained it. According to Geoffrey, this was how the tradition of toasting became popular in Britain. The person drinks to the health of someone saying “Wacht heil!” with the answer being “Drinc heil!”.This was an important moment for the destiny of the Britons. With the help of vast quantities of beer and wine, and the beauty of this young Saxon princess, Vortigern was well and truly smitten. It was said at that moment the devil entered into him and he wanted her for his wife. For Vortigern, as a Christian, marriage to a pagan would have been a serious taboo. The wily Hengist was well aware of this and consulted with his brother Horsa and the others of his wise men present. Unanimously they advised that he should give Rowena to Vortigern in marriage and, because of her royal lineage, demand the British province of Kent. Vortigern, without consulting his own wise men or nobles, agreed to this and Kent was given to Hengist without the knowledge or consent of Gorangan, the noble who had ruled it. Although it may be said that Rowena was given to Vortigern, it became apparent that it was really Vortigern who was possessed by her.
This, and his marriage to a pagan princess and the giving away of Kent, fuelled animosity in his own nobles, for he already had a wife, three sons named Vortimer, Catigern, and Pascentius, and a daughter. Nevertheless, the marriage of Vortigern and Rowena took place that night. Although he was well pleased with his new wife, this was to cause unrest against him from his own sons and nobles, but a further threat was also drawing near. Despite his love and marriage to Rowena, he caused further hostility when he fathered a child with his own daughter, further alienating the clergy and his nobles and setting the church against him.
With the ever-increasing number of Saxons arriving, the Britons became uneasy and resented the favour shown to them by the king. Vortimer, the son of Vortigern, rebelled against his father, taking the crown and leading the Britons against the Saxons. His brother Catigurn duelled with Horsa in battle where they killed each other in the fight.
After being deposed, Vortigern had remained with Rowena and her father among the Saxons, while Vortimer had fought against them. In a series of battles, Vortimer drove Hengist and the Saxons from mainland Britain to the Isle of Thanet, where he besieged them with his ships making regularly attacks upon them. Hengist could not match Vortimer, and knowing he was defeated, sent Vortigern to his son to plead for peaceful passage out of Britain for him and his Saxons. While a conference was being held on this proposal, with the Britons distracted, the Saxons left their women and children behind and took to their ships and escaped, sailing back to their homeland.
Even though Hengist was gone, Rowena was secretly keeping in touch with her father in their homeland. She allegedly poisoned Vortimer, who fell ill and died leaving a power vacuum, and once again Vortigern claimed the crown. With Vortimer dead, Rowena persuaded her husband to send a message to her father inviting him back in a private capacity, which would allow him to bring a small retinue with him. Hengist, on hearing that Vortimer was dead, saw his chance and raised an army of three hundred thousand, wasting no time in building a fleet of ships to transport his men to the shores of Britain. When the news of such a vast army reached Vortigern, the British nobles were furious at the betrayal of goodwill and resolved to fight. Rowena sent word of this to her father, who came up with a different plan. He sent messengers to Vortigern saying that he had only brought such a large army as he feared being attacked by Vortimer, claiming not to know of the man’s death. He suggested that when he arrived, Vortigern should pick and choose those of his army who should stay and those to be sent home. If Vortigern agreed, he should propose a time and place where they could meet with each other unarmed and make a peace treaty.
The Treachery of the Long Knives
Vortigern was pleased to accept this, as he was reluctant to let Hengist leave, both for the sake of Rowena and because of his usefulness in battle. He set the date for the Kalends of May, which was drawing near, and the meeting place would be the monastery of Ambrius. Hengist readily agreed but had formulated a secret plan. He ordered all of his Saxon soldiers who would accompany him to conceal a long knife in their clothing. They were to act friendly and peacefully towards the Britons, encouraging them to drink heavily. When he deemed the time was right, he would cry out “Nemet oure Saxas”, meaning “get your knives”, and they were to seize their knives and slay the Briton nearest to them, relying on the fact that the Britons would not have understood their language. The only Briton to be spared was to be Vortigern, who Hengist wanted alive. The plan worked, and four hundred and sixty of Britain’s barons and nobles were assassinated, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, and Vortigern was taken hostage. This murderous event became known as The Night of the Long Knives, and became synonymous with Saxon treachery and looked upon by the Britons thereafter with great anger. Only one intended victim escaped that night and his name was Eldol who was the Earl of Gloucester. It would be Eldol who was to help to defeat Vortigern and capture Hengist in battle, and it would be he who would carry out his execution.
Hengist Takes Control
Meanwhile, Hengist now had Vortigern firmly in his power, and with him the kingdom of the Britons. Nevertheless, he would not kill him until he had wrung from him everything he needed. He demanded Vortigern give to him all of his fortified cities and fortresses in return for his life. With no other choice, Vortigern agreed, and he was set free to watch as Hengist and his Saxons took London and then York, Lincoln and Winchester, leaving a trail of devastation in their wake. Not knowing what else to do, Vortigern took what little followers remained and went to Cambria where he was to seek counsel from his wise men.
Dinas Emrys: Merlin and the Two Dragons
Vortigern at last realized he had been dangerously outmanoeuvred by Hengist. He consulted his wise men, and they advised he should find a strategic and defensible place and there build a new stronghold as Hengist now had command of all the fortified places. After searching what remained of his kingdom, he finally settled on a place now named Dinas Emrys. His builders set to work and, on the first day, they had made good progress. When evening came, they went home expecting to continue building on the progress they had made when they returned the next day. However, when they arrived the next morning, they found all the walls they had built the previous day in a heap on the ground. Bemused, they rebuilt what had come down, and again broke off from work in the evening thinking they had set their work to rights. In the morning, when they arrived expecting to make progress with their work, they discovered once more it had become a heap of rubble on the ground. Day after day, this pattern went on, and the building work was making no progress. The exasperated Vortigern asked his wise men for guidance and they advised him he must seek out one who was not born from man. They must then be sacrificed and his blood sprinkled on the foundations. He sent out his servants to find such a person, and after a long search, they came back with a boy named Merlin Emrys, who was destined to become the prophet and counsellor of the kings of Britain.
Vortigern told Merlin he would be sacrificed, but Merlin demanded Vortigern bring him his wise men for questioning first. Vortigern agreed, and on questioning by Merlin, it becomes clear that they actually had no idea why the walls kept falling down. Merlin told Vortigern that under the hill there was a subterranean pool that held two stone vessels that contained two sleeping dragons. One dragon was red and the other was white. It was the pool of water making the foundations unstable.
Merlin instructed Vortigern to dig below the foundations, and sure enough, a pool was revealed. He then instructed Vortigern to drain the pool, and two stone containers holding two sleeping dragons were found, much to the amazement of all. When the dragons awoke, they immediately set about fighting each other. After a long and vicious struggle, the red dragon drove away the white dragon.
The Prophecies of Merlin
Merlin asked the wise men what this meant but none of them had any idea. He then interpreted the scene for Vortigern telling him that the red dragon represented the Britons, and the white dragon was the Saxons. After a hard struggle, the red dragon would eventually succeed in driving out the white dragon, but he warned the white dragon would return centuries later to rule Britain. Then he made a long series of prophecies which impressed and awed Vortigern, who asked him about his own death.
Merlin told him he saw two possible deaths for him. He told him that as he spoke, Aurelius Ambrosius and his brother Uther had set sail for Britain at the head of a vast fleet carrying an invasion force and were disembarking at Totnes. The remaining Britons would flock to their banner, and they would seek him out and burn him in his tower in revenge for the death of their brother Constans, and because he brought the Saxons to the shores of Britain. When they had finished with him, they would attack Hengist and drive the Saxons from Britain. The next day, in proof of Merlin’s words, messages arrived telling of the arrival of Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther, and an invasion army that had landed at Totnes.
Then Merlin told Vortigern the second death would be at the hands of the Saxons who were now, thanks to him, at work laying waste to the country. However Merlin emphasized that he did not know who would get to him first. He told him Hengist would be killed and Aurelius Ambrosius would be crowned king. Aurelius would right the wrongs that had been done by the Saxons and bring peace to the country, but his days would be cut short by poison. After him, Uther would be king but he too would die of poisoning. He then foretold of the arrival of a king, believed to be Arthur, who would bring peace and unify Britain and build a great empire. Merlin then advised him to seek out another site for his stronghold and seek it fast.
News of the arrival of the two brothers and rightful heirs had spread like wildfire across Britain. The war leaders and nobles that were left after the Treachery of the Long Knives had been scattered and were leaderless. Eldol, the Earl of Gloucester who had survived the treachery of Hengist joined up with the brothers, as did the remaining warlords and nobles who had not attended the terrible event. They brought together the clergy, and crowned Aurelius Ambrosius as the King of the Britons. Although there was a clamour from these lords and clergy for the king to battle the Saxons immediately, Aurelius refused. He told them Vortigern would be brought to justice for the murder of Constans, and for bringing the Saxons to Britain. With this vengeance in mind, he marched his army to Caer Guorthegirn – the city or fortress of Vortigern, now known as Little Doward – where Vortigern had sought refuge from the Saxons.
The Burning of Vortigern
There are conflicting accounts of the death of Vortigern, but according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Aurelius and Uther, with Eldol in assistance, attacked Vortigern’s last stronghold but could not breach the walls after several attempts. Aurelius then ordered that his archers rain burning arrows upon the fortress, turning it into a fiery inferno and killing all inside, including Vortigern and Rowena.
So it was that a man who had become the King of the Britons through treachery and murder was undone first by Hengist the Saxon leader, who proved more treacherous, ruthless and cunning, and then finished off by Aurelius Ambrosius in revenge for the deaths of his father and brother, and for bringing the Saxons Britain’s shores. With the legendary Vortigern dead, King Aurelius Ambrosius turned his attention to Hengist and the Saxons, writing a new chapter in the legends and folklore of the Britons of the island of Britain.
To read all the articles in this series, visit the British Legends Series page or select from the list below:
- British Legends: The Quest for the Holy Grail
- British Legends: The Founding of Britain: Brutus of Troy and the Prophecy of Diana
- British Legends: The Mabinogion – The Dream of Macsen Wledig
- British Legends: Gogmagog and the Giants of Albion
- British Legends: Treachery, Murder, Lust and Rowena: The Rule of Vortigern
- British Legends: The Origin of Albion and the Bloodlust of Albina and Her Sisters
- British Legends: The Lust of Uther Pendragon, Merlin’s Prophecy and the Making of a King
- British Legends: Aurelius Ambrosius, Legendary King of the Britons
- British Legends: Elen of the Hosts – Saint, Warrior Queen, Goddess of Sovereignty
- British Legends: Beowulf and the Great Flame Dragon
- British Legends: The Divine Tragedy of Guinevere
- British Legends: The Tragic Romance of Tristan and Isolde
- British Legends: Morgan le Fay – Magical Healer or Renegade Witch?
- British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 1)
- British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 2)
- British Legends: Warrior Women — The Battle of Britomart and Radigund the Amazon Queen
- Mythical Beasts: The Griffin, the Legendary King of All Creatures
- British Legends: King Lear and Cordelia – A Tale of Love and Foolishness
- British Legends: Wild Edric, the Wild Hunt and the Bride from the Otherworld
- British Legends: The Outlaws of Inglewood and the Feminine Influence
Recommended Books from #FolkloreThursday
References and Further Reading
[PDF] Nennius – History Of The Britons (Historia Brittonum – York University
[PDF] History of the Kings of Britain – York University
Vortigern? Name, background, sources. – Vortigern Studies
Dinas Emrys Gwynedd, Wales. – Vortigern Studies
Under the influence! – Vortigern’s Rule: The Treachery of the Long Knives
Under the influence! – The Prophecy of Merlin: The Two Dragons
Latest posts by zteve t evans (see all)
- Top 5 Winter Solstice Celebrations Around the World - December 19, 2019
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- Bat Myths and Folktales from Around the World - October 31, 2019 | <urn:uuid:5a43eb45-99d5-44c5-995e-4f49391b191c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://folklorethursday.com/legends/british-legends-treachery-murder-lust-and-rowena-the-rule-of-vortigern/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.985308 | 4,891 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.322172105312347... | 1 | Vortigern was legendary 5th century King of the Britons featured in the work of early British writers such as Gildas, Nennius, Bede, Geoffrey of Monmouth and others. There is a debate over whether Vortigern was a term for a high king who was chosen by a form of consensus to rule or whether it was the name of a person such as a warlord, lesser king, or political leader. This work takes it as the name of a person of high status who through his ruthless cunning and experience took over the rule of the Britons during dangerous times.
Vortigern is usually presented in a bad light, as a man of immoral and selfish character who used duplicity and deception to rise to the top of the British establishment of his day. He is usually blamed for encouraging the arrival of the Saxon and Germanic invaders to Britain. At first, these were employed as his mercenaries to support his own power and to fight against the Picts and Scots but later he was to find he could not control them. Some scholars say the ruling elite of the Britons may deserve at least an equal share of the blame through their own weakness and disarray in facing their enemies. It may be that as far as the defence of realm was concerned, he did the best he could with the resources he had available to him which had been seriously depleted by the actions of earlier rulers. Yet questions are posed by some of the early writers about his morality and behaviour. Indeed, acts of lust, intrigue, murder, duplicity, and treachery are usually seen to be the hallmarks of his reign. This work presents a brief overview of the rule of Vortigern, looking at some of these alleged acts and incidents some of which resonate through the ages to the present and are the very stuff of legends.
Vortigern Takes the Crown
According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Vortigern set up Constans, the eldest of the sons of King Constantine II who had been assassinated, to rule the Britons because he rightly believed he could control him and eventually take over the crown. After arranging for his murder, he usurps the crown to find that one day a cleverer and more ruthless man would appear on the scene. That man was Hengist, the leader of the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes in Britain.
After the assassination of Constans by Pict mercenaries controlled by Vortigern, there was no one of suitable status, experience or age to take his place. The rightful heirs to the throne of the Briton were Aurelius Ambrosius and his younger brother Uther, who were the sons of King Constantine II and the younger brothers of Constans, but they were just children and deemed too young to take the throne. Vortigern was the most experienced political figure of the Britons at the time and very ambitious. Insidiously, he had wormed his way into becoming the chief advisor of Constans, while all the time working secretly to promote his own ambitions and quietly gaining power, authority, and the king’s trust.
With the murder of Constans that he carefully and covertly set up, he stepped forward and seized the crown for himself. Not all of the British lords were friends of Vortigern, and some of these, fearing for the safety of the two young heirs, sent them into exile to Armorica for their own safekeeping. There they grew up safely and were taught the arts of royalty and leadership while all the time preparing to return one day and claim back the crown of the Britons.
Having seized the throne, Vortigern would find the rule of the kingdom was far from an easy task. In the north, Picts and Scots made frequent raids into his realm, but there was also another impending and growing threat that he feared. As the years passed by, he was aware of the maturing and coming of age of the royal brothers. He received reports of the building of a vast fleet and the mustering of a great army, and his spies confirmed his fears that they were intent on taking back their rightful inheritance. Taking stock of the situation, he found he was desperately short of men at arms to defend the kingdom.
Hengist and Horsa
While Aurelius and Uther had been growing up in Armorica, the kingdom of the Britons had faced many threats from the neighbouring Picts and Scots, who frequently raided the borders and made encroachments further into his kingdom. To deal with these invasions, he employed Saxon and other Germanic mercenaries to fight for him. To begin with, this worked well. The Saxons, led by two brothers named Hengist and Horsa, were fierce warriors and defeated the Picts and Scots whenever they encountered them.
Hengist asked permission of Vortigern to bring more of his countrymen from Germany to help fight Britain’s enemies. Vortigern was pleased with the success of the Saxons and readily agreed, allowing Hengist to send to Germany for more warriors. Next, Hengist asked for a small portion of land where he could build a stronghold for him and his people. All he asked for was a site of a size to be encircled by a leather thong from the hide of a bull. Again Vortigern granted his request. Taking the hide of a bull, Hengist made a thin thong from the whole of it, sufficiently long enough to completely encircle a site of his choosing. There he built his stronghold, which became known as Kaercorrei to the Britons and Thancastre, or Thong Castle to the Saxons. Hengist was quietly pleased with what had been granted and asked Vortigern for permission to bring in more Saxon warriors which was also granted.
The Arrival of Rowena
More ships from Germany arrived, and with them came someone that Hengist had said nothing to Vortigern about. As well as men at arms, they brought a Saxon princess named Rowena, who was the daughter of Hengist. She was one of the most beautiful and desirable of the German princesses of the time, and her arrival would enthral and captivate Vortigern. She would become an important, though covert, player in Hengist’s creeping influence over the King of the Britons.
With the arrival of Rowena and the new contingent of German fighters, Hengist invited Vortigern to a great banquet at his newly constructed stronghold of Thong Castle. Vortigern was pleased to accept the invitation and after being shown around the castle and welcoming the warriors into his service he was given a banquet in his honour. The wine flowed freely, and towards the end of the evening, Rowena appeared from her bedchamber carrying a golden cup of wine. Curtseying before Vortigern she said, “Lauerd king wacht heil!”
Vortigern was surprised and delighted. He was completely taken by the grace and beauty of the girl and he became enamoured by her. Turning to his interpreter he asked what she had said and what his response should be. His interpreter told him she had called him “Lord King” and that she had offered to drink to his health. He must answer by saying, “Drinc heil!”. Taking the cup from her, he kissed her and drained it. According to Geoffrey, this was how the tradition of toasting became popular in Britain. The person drinks to the health of someone saying “Wacht heil!” with the answer being “Drinc heil!”.This was an important moment for the destiny of the Britons. With the help of vast quantities of beer and wine, and the beauty of this young Saxon princess, Vortigern was well and truly smitten. It was said at that moment the devil entered into him and he wanted her for his wife. For Vortigern, as a Christian, marriage to a pagan would have been a serious taboo. The wily Hengist was well aware of this and consulted with his brother Horsa and the others of his wise men present. Unanimously they advised that he should give Rowena to Vortigern in marriage and, because of her royal lineage, demand the British province of Kent. Vortigern, without consulting his own wise men or nobles, agreed to this and Kent was given to Hengist without the knowledge or consent of Gorangan, the noble who had ruled it. Although it may be said that Rowena was given to Vortigern, it became apparent that it was really Vortigern who was possessed by her.
This, and his marriage to a pagan princess and the giving away of Kent, fuelled animosity in his own nobles, for he already had a wife, three sons named Vortimer, Catigern, and Pascentius, and a daughter. Nevertheless, the marriage of Vortigern and Rowena took place that night. Although he was well pleased with his new wife, this was to cause unrest against him from his own sons and nobles, but a further threat was also drawing near. Despite his love and marriage to Rowena, he caused further hostility when he fathered a child with his own daughter, further alienating the clergy and his nobles and setting the church against him.
With the ever-increasing number of Saxons arriving, the Britons became uneasy and resented the favour shown to them by the king. Vortimer, the son of Vortigern, rebelled against his father, taking the crown and leading the Britons against the Saxons. His brother Catigurn duelled with Horsa in battle where they killed each other in the fight.
After being deposed, Vortigern had remained with Rowena and her father among the Saxons, while Vortimer had fought against them. In a series of battles, Vortimer drove Hengist and the Saxons from mainland Britain to the Isle of Thanet, where he besieged them with his ships making regularly attacks upon them. Hengist could not match Vortimer, and knowing he was defeated, sent Vortigern to his son to plead for peaceful passage out of Britain for him and his Saxons. While a conference was being held on this proposal, with the Britons distracted, the Saxons left their women and children behind and took to their ships and escaped, sailing back to their homeland.
Even though Hengist was gone, Rowena was secretly keeping in touch with her father in their homeland. She allegedly poisoned Vortimer, who fell ill and died leaving a power vacuum, and once again Vortigern claimed the crown. With Vortimer dead, Rowena persuaded her husband to send a message to her father inviting him back in a private capacity, which would allow him to bring a small retinue with him. Hengist, on hearing that Vortimer was dead, saw his chance and raised an army of three hundred thousand, wasting no time in building a fleet of ships to transport his men to the shores of Britain. When the news of such a vast army reached Vortigern, the British nobles were furious at the betrayal of goodwill and resolved to fight. Rowena sent word of this to her father, who came up with a different plan. He sent messengers to Vortigern saying that he had only brought such a large army as he feared being attacked by Vortimer, claiming not to know of the man’s death. He suggested that when he arrived, Vortigern should pick and choose those of his army who should stay and those to be sent home. If Vortigern agreed, he should propose a time and place where they could meet with each other unarmed and make a peace treaty.
The Treachery of the Long Knives
Vortigern was pleased to accept this, as he was reluctant to let Hengist leave, both for the sake of Rowena and because of his usefulness in battle. He set the date for the Kalends of May, which was drawing near, and the meeting place would be the monastery of Ambrius. Hengist readily agreed but had formulated a secret plan. He ordered all of his Saxon soldiers who would accompany him to conceal a long knife in their clothing. They were to act friendly and peacefully towards the Britons, encouraging them to drink heavily. When he deemed the time was right, he would cry out “Nemet oure Saxas”, meaning “get your knives”, and they were to seize their knives and slay the Briton nearest to them, relying on the fact that the Britons would not have understood their language. The only Briton to be spared was to be Vortigern, who Hengist wanted alive. The plan worked, and four hundred and sixty of Britain’s barons and nobles were assassinated, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, and Vortigern was taken hostage. This murderous event became known as The Night of the Long Knives, and became synonymous with Saxon treachery and looked upon by the Britons thereafter with great anger. Only one intended victim escaped that night and his name was Eldol who was the Earl of Gloucester. It would be Eldol who was to help to defeat Vortigern and capture Hengist in battle, and it would be he who would carry out his execution.
Hengist Takes Control
Meanwhile, Hengist now had Vortigern firmly in his power, and with him the kingdom of the Britons. Nevertheless, he would not kill him until he had wrung from him everything he needed. He demanded Vortigern give to him all of his fortified cities and fortresses in return for his life. With no other choice, Vortigern agreed, and he was set free to watch as Hengist and his Saxons took London and then York, Lincoln and Winchester, leaving a trail of devastation in their wake. Not knowing what else to do, Vortigern took what little followers remained and went to Cambria where he was to seek counsel from his wise men.
Dinas Emrys: Merlin and the Two Dragons
Vortigern at last realized he had been dangerously outmanoeuvred by Hengist. He consulted his wise men, and they advised he should find a strategic and defensible place and there build a new stronghold as Hengist now had command of all the fortified places. After searching what remained of his kingdom, he finally settled on a place now named Dinas Emrys. His builders set to work and, on the first day, they had made good progress. When evening came, they went home expecting to continue building on the progress they had made when they returned the next day. However, when they arrived the next morning, they found all the walls they had built the previous day in a heap on the ground. Bemused, they rebuilt what had come down, and again broke off from work in the evening thinking they had set their work to rights. In the morning, when they arrived expecting to make progress with their work, they discovered once more it had become a heap of rubble on the ground. Day after day, this pattern went on, and the building work was making no progress. The exasperated Vortigern asked his wise men for guidance and they advised him he must seek out one who was not born from man. They must then be sacrificed and his blood sprinkled on the foundations. He sent out his servants to find such a person, and after a long search, they came back with a boy named Merlin Emrys, who was destined to become the prophet and counsellor of the kings of Britain.
Vortigern told Merlin he would be sacrificed, but Merlin demanded Vortigern bring him his wise men for questioning first. Vortigern agreed, and on questioning by Merlin, it becomes clear that they actually had no idea why the walls kept falling down. Merlin told Vortigern that under the hill there was a subterranean pool that held two stone vessels that contained two sleeping dragons. One dragon was red and the other was white. It was the pool of water making the foundations unstable.
Merlin instructed Vortigern to dig below the foundations, and sure enough, a pool was revealed. He then instructed Vortigern to drain the pool, and two stone containers holding two sleeping dragons were found, much to the amazement of all. When the dragons awoke, they immediately set about fighting each other. After a long and vicious struggle, the red dragon drove away the white dragon.
The Prophecies of Merlin
Merlin asked the wise men what this meant but none of them had any idea. He then interpreted the scene for Vortigern telling him that the red dragon represented the Britons, and the white dragon was the Saxons. After a hard struggle, the red dragon would eventually succeed in driving out the white dragon, but he warned the white dragon would return centuries later to rule Britain. Then he made a long series of prophecies which impressed and awed Vortigern, who asked him about his own death.
Merlin told him he saw two possible deaths for him. He told him that as he spoke, Aurelius Ambrosius and his brother Uther had set sail for Britain at the head of a vast fleet carrying an invasion force and were disembarking at Totnes. The remaining Britons would flock to their banner, and they would seek him out and burn him in his tower in revenge for the death of their brother Constans, and because he brought the Saxons to the shores of Britain. When they had finished with him, they would attack Hengist and drive the Saxons from Britain. The next day, in proof of Merlin’s words, messages arrived telling of the arrival of Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther, and an invasion army that had landed at Totnes.
Then Merlin told Vortigern the second death would be at the hands of the Saxons who were now, thanks to him, at work laying waste to the country. However Merlin emphasized that he did not know who would get to him first. He told him Hengist would be killed and Aurelius Ambrosius would be crowned king. Aurelius would right the wrongs that had been done by the Saxons and bring peace to the country, but his days would be cut short by poison. After him, Uther would be king but he too would die of poisoning. He then foretold of the arrival of a king, believed to be Arthur, who would bring peace and unify Britain and build a great empire. Merlin then advised him to seek out another site for his stronghold and seek it fast.
News of the arrival of the two brothers and rightful heirs had spread like wildfire across Britain. The war leaders and nobles that were left after the Treachery of the Long Knives had been scattered and were leaderless. Eldol, the Earl of Gloucester who had survived the treachery of Hengist joined up with the brothers, as did the remaining warlords and nobles who had not attended the terrible event. They brought together the clergy, and crowned Aurelius Ambrosius as the King of the Britons. Although there was a clamour from these lords and clergy for the king to battle the Saxons immediately, Aurelius refused. He told them Vortigern would be brought to justice for the murder of Constans, and for bringing the Saxons to Britain. With this vengeance in mind, he marched his army to Caer Guorthegirn – the city or fortress of Vortigern, now known as Little Doward – where Vortigern had sought refuge from the Saxons.
The Burning of Vortigern
There are conflicting accounts of the death of Vortigern, but according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Aurelius and Uther, with Eldol in assistance, attacked Vortigern’s last stronghold but could not breach the walls after several attempts. Aurelius then ordered that his archers rain burning arrows upon the fortress, turning it into a fiery inferno and killing all inside, including Vortigern and Rowena.
So it was that a man who had become the King of the Britons through treachery and murder was undone first by Hengist the Saxon leader, who proved more treacherous, ruthless and cunning, and then finished off by Aurelius Ambrosius in revenge for the deaths of his father and brother, and for bringing the Saxons Britain’s shores. With the legendary Vortigern dead, King Aurelius Ambrosius turned his attention to Hengist and the Saxons, writing a new chapter in the legends and folklore of the Britons of the island of Britain.
To read all the articles in this series, visit the British Legends Series page or select from the list below:
- British Legends: The Quest for the Holy Grail
- British Legends: The Founding of Britain: Brutus of Troy and the Prophecy of Diana
- British Legends: The Mabinogion – The Dream of Macsen Wledig
- British Legends: Gogmagog and the Giants of Albion
- British Legends: Treachery, Murder, Lust and Rowena: The Rule of Vortigern
- British Legends: The Origin of Albion and the Bloodlust of Albina and Her Sisters
- British Legends: The Lust of Uther Pendragon, Merlin’s Prophecy and the Making of a King
- British Legends: Aurelius Ambrosius, Legendary King of the Britons
- British Legends: Elen of the Hosts – Saint, Warrior Queen, Goddess of Sovereignty
- British Legends: Beowulf and the Great Flame Dragon
- British Legends: The Divine Tragedy of Guinevere
- British Legends: The Tragic Romance of Tristan and Isolde
- British Legends: Morgan le Fay – Magical Healer or Renegade Witch?
- British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 1)
- British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 2)
- British Legends: Warrior Women — The Battle of Britomart and Radigund the Amazon Queen
- Mythical Beasts: The Griffin, the Legendary King of All Creatures
- British Legends: King Lear and Cordelia – A Tale of Love and Foolishness
- British Legends: Wild Edric, the Wild Hunt and the Bride from the Otherworld
- British Legends: The Outlaws of Inglewood and the Feminine Influence
Recommended Books from #FolkloreThursday
References and Further Reading
[PDF] Nennius – History Of The Britons (Historia Brittonum – York University
[PDF] History of the Kings of Britain – York University
Vortigern? Name, background, sources. – Vortigern Studies
Dinas Emrys Gwynedd, Wales. – Vortigern Studies
Under the influence! – Vortigern’s Rule: The Treachery of the Long Knives
Under the influence! – The Prophecy of Merlin: The Two Dragons
Latest posts by zteve t evans (see all)
- Top 5 Winter Solstice Celebrations Around the World - December 19, 2019
- The Owl of Cwm Cowlyd and the Oldest Animals in the World - November 28, 2019
- Bat Myths and Folktales from Around the World - October 31, 2019 | 4,882 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slave laborers were not merely used by Jefferson on his plantation as we have found, what with some working on Mount Vernon as well as the fabled White House. Though Jefferson once referred to slavery as an “assemblage of horrors,” he was not to be the last President to be a slave owner. James Madison, James Monroe and Andrew Jackson also participated in the institution, as well as eighth President Martin Van Buren.
These Presidents often noted they opposed the expansion of slavery yet could hardly be considered abolitionists; perhaps they enjoyed the benefits of owning slaves to further their prospects. Surprisingly, the last two Presidents to own slaves were both men associated with Abraham Lincoln. Let’s have a final look at who these men were! | <urn:uuid:7a1001d7-3b33-4533-89c2-43586f5b763c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://aseanews.net/2019/09/04/the-thomas-jefferson-mystery-presidents-after-jefferson-next-part-41-before-lincoln/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00014.warc.gz | en | 0.990156 | 152 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.40348666906... | 2 | Slave laborers were not merely used by Jefferson on his plantation as we have found, what with some working on Mount Vernon as well as the fabled White House. Though Jefferson once referred to slavery as an “assemblage of horrors,” he was not to be the last President to be a slave owner. James Madison, James Monroe and Andrew Jackson also participated in the institution, as well as eighth President Martin Van Buren.
These Presidents often noted they opposed the expansion of slavery yet could hardly be considered abolitionists; perhaps they enjoyed the benefits of owning slaves to further their prospects. Surprisingly, the last two Presidents to own slaves were both men associated with Abraham Lincoln. Let’s have a final look at who these men were! | 147 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Supreme Court last term resurrected “separate but equal” in our schools. Because of the Court’s ruling in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 and Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education, schools risk becoming more segregated, and children of all races will likely have fewer opportunities to learn together and become prepared to live and work in a diverse world.
Parents Involved in Community Schools involved a challenge to student admission plans in school districts in both Seattle, Washington and Louisville, Kentucky. Concerned about how racial isolation was affecting their own children and community, locally-elected school boards in Louisville and Seattle had adopted student assignment measures to foster integrated, diverse schools. The voluntary plans used modest measures to promote integration while prioritizing parental choice and community schools. As part of the plans, the school districts looked at race as a factor in determining whether or not to transfer a student. The programs in both Seattle and Louisville had been upheld by lower courts and were similar to programs in many school districts across the country.
But in a 5-4 decision, the Court held that the programs were unconstitutional because they violated the Constitution’s Equal Protection Clause in the 14th Amendment. The Court held that using race as a factor in assigning children to schools was discriminatory and could not be justified. The Court’s decision went against the tradition of Brown v. Board of Education, which declared ‘separate but equal’ unconstitutional and held that all students have a right to attend integrated schools. As a result, school districts will find it incredibly difficult, if not impossible, to assign children to schools in a way that ensures diversity. Schools are once again becoming segregated by race as they were before Brown. | <urn:uuid:8d0fe635-fffe-4cad-a806-c31fb3765142> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rollbackcampaign.org/parents-involved-community-schools-v-seattle-school-district-no-1-meredith-v-jefferson-county-board-education-2007/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.981396 | 353 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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-0.08238524943... | 1 | The Supreme Court last term resurrected “separate but equal” in our schools. Because of the Court’s ruling in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 and Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education, schools risk becoming more segregated, and children of all races will likely have fewer opportunities to learn together and become prepared to live and work in a diverse world.
Parents Involved in Community Schools involved a challenge to student admission plans in school districts in both Seattle, Washington and Louisville, Kentucky. Concerned about how racial isolation was affecting their own children and community, locally-elected school boards in Louisville and Seattle had adopted student assignment measures to foster integrated, diverse schools. The voluntary plans used modest measures to promote integration while prioritizing parental choice and community schools. As part of the plans, the school districts looked at race as a factor in determining whether or not to transfer a student. The programs in both Seattle and Louisville had been upheld by lower courts and were similar to programs in many school districts across the country.
But in a 5-4 decision, the Court held that the programs were unconstitutional because they violated the Constitution’s Equal Protection Clause in the 14th Amendment. The Court held that using race as a factor in assigning children to schools was discriminatory and could not be justified. The Court’s decision went against the tradition of Brown v. Board of Education, which declared ‘separate but equal’ unconstitutional and held that all students have a right to attend integrated schools. As a result, school districts will find it incredibly difficult, if not impossible, to assign children to schools in a way that ensures diversity. Schools are once again becoming segregated by race as they were before Brown. | 345 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As much as pigs were the epitome of good omen in Asia, the year of the pig was relatively peaceful during the turbulent course history.
The year 1899 went unblemished when the destiny of the Joseon Dynasty was perilous. There was an inflow of modern culture such as the opening of Korea’s first railway, the Gyeongin Line, which connected the Jemulpo of Incheon and Noryangjin as well as a long-distance call between Seoul and Incheon. The Independence Newspaper, however, was discontinued in four years since its establishment for publishing an article that criticized Korean Empire. Large-scaled wars steered by the year of the golden pig. The year 1599 was rather peaceful after six year of wars inflicted by Japan’s invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597.
This does not mean that there was no event. 1893 was the year when persecution against Catholic was extreme. The whole country was disturbed due to persecution in the year of the pig, when 119 Catholics including three Western priests were executed or imprisoned. This was an event incurred by the Cho family of Pungyang who desired to acquire power from the Kims of Andong, who were the family with power and tolerant towards Catholic. The power of the government moved to the Chos of Pungyang after that event.
The year 1659 is famous for the "etiquette controversy." After King Hyojong of Joseon passed away, the government was in conflict over how many years Queen Cho, stepmother of the diseased king, should wear mourning clothes. The argument of the Seoin members who claimed that Queen Cho should wear her mourning clothes for one year by considering that King Hyojong became the king as King Injo’s second son and the argument of the Namin members who claimed that it is necessary for the queen to wear the mourning clothes for three years as King Hyojong was recognized as a legitimate child as he succeeded the lineage of the first-born son even though he was not the first-born son were in a fierce standoff.
1419 was the year when Joseon invaded another country and started a war for the first and last time during the 500 years of Joseon Dynasty. While Joseon was suffering from sporadic loots of Japan, Gen. Lee Jong-moo led the military in attacking Daema Island with 227 fleets and some 17,000 naval forces. He anchored the vessels in the front sea of Daema Island, engaged in war for two weeks and went back home after gaining the submission of the official of Daema Island Sadamori.
The year when the protagonist of old Korean folk song "Cheoyongga," Cheoyong, appeared in the Silla Dynasty was 879, also the year of the pig. Friedrich Hayek, magnate of liberalistic economy, Earnest Hemmingway, an American writer, and Alfred Hitchcock, a movie director, were born in 1899. It was also the year the Spain soccer club FC Barcelona and Italy’s AC Milan was established.
Kyu-Jin Shin email@example.com | <urn:uuid:c24a3f6e-def5-4111-8653-dbd7ec650539> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20190102/1596642/1/The-Year-of-the-Golden-Pig | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.982134 | 639 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.4486671686172... | 1 | As much as pigs were the epitome of good omen in Asia, the year of the pig was relatively peaceful during the turbulent course history.
The year 1899 went unblemished when the destiny of the Joseon Dynasty was perilous. There was an inflow of modern culture such as the opening of Korea’s first railway, the Gyeongin Line, which connected the Jemulpo of Incheon and Noryangjin as well as a long-distance call between Seoul and Incheon. The Independence Newspaper, however, was discontinued in four years since its establishment for publishing an article that criticized Korean Empire. Large-scaled wars steered by the year of the golden pig. The year 1599 was rather peaceful after six year of wars inflicted by Japan’s invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597.
This does not mean that there was no event. 1893 was the year when persecution against Catholic was extreme. The whole country was disturbed due to persecution in the year of the pig, when 119 Catholics including three Western priests were executed or imprisoned. This was an event incurred by the Cho family of Pungyang who desired to acquire power from the Kims of Andong, who were the family with power and tolerant towards Catholic. The power of the government moved to the Chos of Pungyang after that event.
The year 1659 is famous for the "etiquette controversy." After King Hyojong of Joseon passed away, the government was in conflict over how many years Queen Cho, stepmother of the diseased king, should wear mourning clothes. The argument of the Seoin members who claimed that Queen Cho should wear her mourning clothes for one year by considering that King Hyojong became the king as King Injo’s second son and the argument of the Namin members who claimed that it is necessary for the queen to wear the mourning clothes for three years as King Hyojong was recognized as a legitimate child as he succeeded the lineage of the first-born son even though he was not the first-born son were in a fierce standoff.
1419 was the year when Joseon invaded another country and started a war for the first and last time during the 500 years of Joseon Dynasty. While Joseon was suffering from sporadic loots of Japan, Gen. Lee Jong-moo led the military in attacking Daema Island with 227 fleets and some 17,000 naval forces. He anchored the vessels in the front sea of Daema Island, engaged in war for two weeks and went back home after gaining the submission of the official of Daema Island Sadamori.
The year when the protagonist of old Korean folk song "Cheoyongga," Cheoyong, appeared in the Silla Dynasty was 879, also the year of the pig. Friedrich Hayek, magnate of liberalistic economy, Earnest Hemmingway, an American writer, and Alfred Hitchcock, a movie director, were born in 1899. It was also the year the Spain soccer club FC Barcelona and Italy’s AC Milan was established.
Kyu-Jin Shin email@example.com | 662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although Americans are justly proud of the heroic way President Lincoln kept the South in the United States, it is interesting to speculate on what would the nation look like today if he had let the rebels secede from the Union? Think of this as a thought experiment that attempts to explore an alternate path of US development.
The first difference would be that the lives of many millions of men who died in the Civil War would be spared.
Yes, the Southern slaves would not have been freed. But how much longer could slavery persist after seeing the North free their slaves and with the nation modernizing in the Industrial Age that was taking off then?
The major difference would be to divide the United States into two very different nations stressing very different values. The “Northern States of America” (NSA) would likely have been distinguished by their adherence to democratic ideals of community, human welfare, and the role of government, much like the Democratic Party today. The “Southern States of America” (SSA) would have valued the right of property, free markets, and limited government, like the Republican Party. These 2 cultures may not be quite so neatly divided, but please bear with me as I use this distinction to make an important point.
The two nations could have worked together on common issues, possibly, and they might have fought occasionally, but they could have co-existed rather nicely out of necessity.
The interesting question is, how would the paths taken by the NSA and the SSA have taken these nations in different directions and to different places?
The NSA could have created a more equitable and just society that works together well. They probably would have taken better care of women, the young, and other needy groups, and they would have addressed the climate change crisis. Favoring the use of government to pursue these goals, would the NSA have grown over controlled by Federal regulations and mounting debt, as conservatives warn? Or would they learn to temper the need for control to allow enterprise to thrive?
The SSA would have thrived economically for some time with cheap slave labor, and they likely would have been inventive in their freedom to be entrepreneurial with minimal government restrictions. The social costs of this laissez-faire capitalism would likely have fomented slave rebellions, and social decay would have taken a heavy toll. With no interest in dealing with climate change, the South would likely have become near uninhabitable due to drought, sea level rise, and extreme weather.
There are other paths that could be explored, but I suggest this little thought experiment illustrates the perils of ignoring the concerns of either the left or the right wings of politics. Both positions alone would lead to extremism, and they need each other to provide balance and tempered policy. When we become tired of the endless debate, the specter of either an extreme NSA or SSA would be a valuable lesson to remember. | <urn:uuid:cd0ee55c-3324-4bb2-87b6-1cc587b18e73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.billhalal.com/blog/what-if-lincoln-had-let-the-south-go-a-counterfactual-thought-experiment/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00132.warc.gz | en | 0.980856 | 590 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.424291014671... | 14 | Although Americans are justly proud of the heroic way President Lincoln kept the South in the United States, it is interesting to speculate on what would the nation look like today if he had let the rebels secede from the Union? Think of this as a thought experiment that attempts to explore an alternate path of US development.
The first difference would be that the lives of many millions of men who died in the Civil War would be spared.
Yes, the Southern slaves would not have been freed. But how much longer could slavery persist after seeing the North free their slaves and with the nation modernizing in the Industrial Age that was taking off then?
The major difference would be to divide the United States into two very different nations stressing very different values. The “Northern States of America” (NSA) would likely have been distinguished by their adherence to democratic ideals of community, human welfare, and the role of government, much like the Democratic Party today. The “Southern States of America” (SSA) would have valued the right of property, free markets, and limited government, like the Republican Party. These 2 cultures may not be quite so neatly divided, but please bear with me as I use this distinction to make an important point.
The two nations could have worked together on common issues, possibly, and they might have fought occasionally, but they could have co-existed rather nicely out of necessity.
The interesting question is, how would the paths taken by the NSA and the SSA have taken these nations in different directions and to different places?
The NSA could have created a more equitable and just society that works together well. They probably would have taken better care of women, the young, and other needy groups, and they would have addressed the climate change crisis. Favoring the use of government to pursue these goals, would the NSA have grown over controlled by Federal regulations and mounting debt, as conservatives warn? Or would they learn to temper the need for control to allow enterprise to thrive?
The SSA would have thrived economically for some time with cheap slave labor, and they likely would have been inventive in their freedom to be entrepreneurial with minimal government restrictions. The social costs of this laissez-faire capitalism would likely have fomented slave rebellions, and social decay would have taken a heavy toll. With no interest in dealing with climate change, the South would likely have become near uninhabitable due to drought, sea level rise, and extreme weather.
There are other paths that could be explored, but I suggest this little thought experiment illustrates the perils of ignoring the concerns of either the left or the right wings of politics. Both positions alone would lead to extremism, and they need each other to provide balance and tempered policy. When we become tired of the endless debate, the specter of either an extreme NSA or SSA would be a valuable lesson to remember. | 573 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is said that there lived a Negro slave. His master was very cruel and often tortured him without any excuse. Getting tired of his master’s cruelties, the slave fled in the darkness of night. He ran and ran until he reached a forest. He sat under a tree to catch his breath when suddenly he was taken aback on hearing the loud roars of a lion. He could not run away because the animal was very near to him. He was surprised that the lion did not jump at him; instead, it was striking its paw on the ground. He approached the lion and saw one of its paws swollen and bleeding. He held its paw in one of his hands and found a thorn in it. He took out that thorn. The lion licked his hands and went away. Soon he heard voices of people and before he could run away, he found himself surrounded and arrested by soldiers. They put him into prison. The authorities decided to throw him in front of a hungry lion in order to make him an example for the other slaves. On the day of execution, the soldiers brought him to the arena built for such purposes, and they pushed him into the cage of a big hungry lion. As soon as the lion saw him, it rushed roaring towards him. But soon it stopped short and begar of its benefactor to the surprise of the spectators. It was the same lion whom the slave had helped in the forest. After hearing the story of the slave the authorities were greatly moved and pardoned him. It is rightly said, “Kindness begets kindness”.
- Do Good, Have Good
- Virtue/Kindness never goes unrewarded
- Kindness has its own reward
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... | 9 | It is said that there lived a Negro slave. His master was very cruel and often tortured him without any excuse. Getting tired of his master’s cruelties, the slave fled in the darkness of night. He ran and ran until he reached a forest. He sat under a tree to catch his breath when suddenly he was taken aback on hearing the loud roars of a lion. He could not run away because the animal was very near to him. He was surprised that the lion did not jump at him; instead, it was striking its paw on the ground. He approached the lion and saw one of its paws swollen and bleeding. He held its paw in one of his hands and found a thorn in it. He took out that thorn. The lion licked his hands and went away. Soon he heard voices of people and before he could run away, he found himself surrounded and arrested by soldiers. They put him into prison. The authorities decided to throw him in front of a hungry lion in order to make him an example for the other slaves. On the day of execution, the soldiers brought him to the arena built for such purposes, and they pushed him into the cage of a big hungry lion. As soon as the lion saw him, it rushed roaring towards him. But soon it stopped short and begar of its benefactor to the surprise of the spectators. It was the same lion whom the slave had helped in the forest. After hearing the story of the slave the authorities were greatly moved and pardoned him. It is rightly said, “Kindness begets kindness”.
- Do Good, Have Good
- Virtue/Kindness never goes unrewarded
- Kindness has its own reward
- Do unto others as you would be done by | 360 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1485 During this year, in Medellin, Extremadura Provence, Kingdom of Castile, Spain, Hernan Cortes or Hernando Cortes was born, within a poor family. He was a Spanish explorer who led a small army and together they conquered the Aztec Empire from Mexico. His courage and daring inspired other people to conquer territories in Central and Southern America to search new riches. He studied the Law within Salamanca University but he left school before graduating and decided, like many other Spanish young adventurer, to search his luck in the New World.
1504 Cortes was only 19 when he boarded towards Hispaniola Island (Santo Domingo nowadays) of the New World where he got land and Indian slaves and was called a notary.
1511 He took part in Cuba’s conquer under the command of Diego Velasquez, an influent soldier, who became governor of Cuba. Cortes was elected mayor of the capital, Santiago of Cuba, for the second time.
1518 Cortes convinced Velasquez to appoint him for an expedition’s leading to continental Mexico, that had been discovered short time before.
1519 On February, Cortes left Cuba with 11 ships, 600-soldier army and 16 horses. He landed to Yucatan Island and conquered Tabasco City. Primitive Indians who were living on the peninsula’s coasts thought that the ships were “floating mountains” and were terrified to see the white people. The arrival of Cortes coincided with their prophecy, terrified the natives and Cortes exploited their belief; he was considered their god’s reincarnation and they peacefully accepted him and his people. Tabasco’s citizens told to Cortes about the amazing and the rich Aztec Empire and about the great king-warrior Montemuza. They gave food and women to Spanish people and one of them, Malinche, was baptized and became the lover of Cortes. Her services as a guide and a translator and also the duplicity she proved, were crucial for the expedition’s success.
The Spanish went toward the North from Tabasco and Cortes founded the fortified port called Vera Cruz. Here, as an act of courage, Cortes sank the entire fleet excepting only one ship; his men must have followed him or had to die.
Aztecs were strong owners but they had not done anything to assimilate people of the conquered provinces. Cortes ruthless exploited these dissensions inside Aztec Empire. He forged alliances with different peoples who hated Aztecs or were afraid of them, especially Tlaxcalans, wining thousand of local allied.
1519 On the 8th of November, ignoring the threatens he had got from Montemuza, Cortes led his army and the local allied to the capital, Tenochtitlan, a city built on floating island (Mexico City nowadays). Montemuza peacefully received the Spanish, but Cortes, anticipating his following intentions, took him hostage and obliged him to oath loyalty to King of Spain. During this time, governor Velasquez, jealous on Cortes’ success, sent a small army to Mexico, under the command of Narvaez in order to recall Cortes, accusing him of insubordination. Cortes let Pedro of Alvarado to lead Tenochtitlan because he left to meet the army of Narvaez, army that was bigger than Cortes’ at that time. Creeping into Spanish camp during night, Cortes captured Narvaez and forced his soldiers to join his army.
1520 He came back to Aztec capital that was in a chaos. Alvarado’s small garrison had been attacked. He had killed hundreds of Aztecs during a festival, fact that got birth to a bloody uprising. Montemuza was killed – probably stoned to death; information about the way he died are various – and Spanish people and their allies were driven away of the city during the night of July, 30th (“Pain Night”), but Cortes joined the army that was withdrawing, crushed the Aztec counterattack and returned to siege the city few days later.
1521 On the 13th of August, Aztecs were conquered. This time Cortes used brigantines, attacking the city directly from the lake it was built on. After long and bloody fights, Tenochtitlan fell prey to the gunpowder, to steel and Cortes’ horses; Aztecs’ heroic resistance was finished.
On the former Aztec capital’s ruins Mexico City was built and Mexico’s colonization went on very quickly. Cortes was now the absolute leader of these wide territories and was appointed Governor and General Captain of the new Spain, as Mexico was called at that time.
But his great power had started its decline; Spanish Court had started to be afraid that he would declare himself independent ruler and in this way Cortes made strong enemies, especially Velasquez who organized a political campaign against him in Spain. Cortes counterattacked sending to Spanish King, Charles V, five letters. He continued to lead expeditions, but none of them had such a success like Aztecs’ conquest.
1524 He led the expedition from Honduras.
1528 He returned to Spain in order to defend himself in front of the King for all accusations of cruelty against natives.
1530 He came back to Mexico retiring on his estate near Mexico City.
1540 A new Viceroy was sent to rule Mexico; disappointed, Cortes moved again to Spain.
1547 On the 2nd of December, Fernando Cortes died at Sevilla, Spain.
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0.36019209027290... | 1 | 1485 During this year, in Medellin, Extremadura Provence, Kingdom of Castile, Spain, Hernan Cortes or Hernando Cortes was born, within a poor family. He was a Spanish explorer who led a small army and together they conquered the Aztec Empire from Mexico. His courage and daring inspired other people to conquer territories in Central and Southern America to search new riches. He studied the Law within Salamanca University but he left school before graduating and decided, like many other Spanish young adventurer, to search his luck in the New World.
1504 Cortes was only 19 when he boarded towards Hispaniola Island (Santo Domingo nowadays) of the New World where he got land and Indian slaves and was called a notary.
1511 He took part in Cuba’s conquer under the command of Diego Velasquez, an influent soldier, who became governor of Cuba. Cortes was elected mayor of the capital, Santiago of Cuba, for the second time.
1518 Cortes convinced Velasquez to appoint him for an expedition’s leading to continental Mexico, that had been discovered short time before.
1519 On February, Cortes left Cuba with 11 ships, 600-soldier army and 16 horses. He landed to Yucatan Island and conquered Tabasco City. Primitive Indians who were living on the peninsula’s coasts thought that the ships were “floating mountains” and were terrified to see the white people. The arrival of Cortes coincided with their prophecy, terrified the natives and Cortes exploited their belief; he was considered their god’s reincarnation and they peacefully accepted him and his people. Tabasco’s citizens told to Cortes about the amazing and the rich Aztec Empire and about the great king-warrior Montemuza. They gave food and women to Spanish people and one of them, Malinche, was baptized and became the lover of Cortes. Her services as a guide and a translator and also the duplicity she proved, were crucial for the expedition’s success.
The Spanish went toward the North from Tabasco and Cortes founded the fortified port called Vera Cruz. Here, as an act of courage, Cortes sank the entire fleet excepting only one ship; his men must have followed him or had to die.
Aztecs were strong owners but they had not done anything to assimilate people of the conquered provinces. Cortes ruthless exploited these dissensions inside Aztec Empire. He forged alliances with different peoples who hated Aztecs or were afraid of them, especially Tlaxcalans, wining thousand of local allied.
1519 On the 8th of November, ignoring the threatens he had got from Montemuza, Cortes led his army and the local allied to the capital, Tenochtitlan, a city built on floating island (Mexico City nowadays). Montemuza peacefully received the Spanish, but Cortes, anticipating his following intentions, took him hostage and obliged him to oath loyalty to King of Spain. During this time, governor Velasquez, jealous on Cortes’ success, sent a small army to Mexico, under the command of Narvaez in order to recall Cortes, accusing him of insubordination. Cortes let Pedro of Alvarado to lead Tenochtitlan because he left to meet the army of Narvaez, army that was bigger than Cortes’ at that time. Creeping into Spanish camp during night, Cortes captured Narvaez and forced his soldiers to join his army.
1520 He came back to Aztec capital that was in a chaos. Alvarado’s small garrison had been attacked. He had killed hundreds of Aztecs during a festival, fact that got birth to a bloody uprising. Montemuza was killed – probably stoned to death; information about the way he died are various – and Spanish people and their allies were driven away of the city during the night of July, 30th (“Pain Night”), but Cortes joined the army that was withdrawing, crushed the Aztec counterattack and returned to siege the city few days later.
1521 On the 13th of August, Aztecs were conquered. This time Cortes used brigantines, attacking the city directly from the lake it was built on. After long and bloody fights, Tenochtitlan fell prey to the gunpowder, to steel and Cortes’ horses; Aztecs’ heroic resistance was finished.
On the former Aztec capital’s ruins Mexico City was built and Mexico’s colonization went on very quickly. Cortes was now the absolute leader of these wide territories and was appointed Governor and General Captain of the new Spain, as Mexico was called at that time.
But his great power had started its decline; Spanish Court had started to be afraid that he would declare himself independent ruler and in this way Cortes made strong enemies, especially Velasquez who organized a political campaign against him in Spain. Cortes counterattacked sending to Spanish King, Charles V, five letters. He continued to lead expeditions, but none of them had such a success like Aztecs’ conquest.
1524 He led the expedition from Honduras.
1528 He returned to Spain in order to defend himself in front of the King for all accusations of cruelty against natives.
1530 He came back to Mexico retiring on his estate near Mexico City.
1540 A new Viceroy was sent to rule Mexico; disappointed, Cortes moved again to Spain.
1547 On the 2nd of December, Fernando Cortes died at Sevilla, Spain.
1 - Hernando Cortés (1485-1547), ro.biography.name
- Created on .
- Last updated on .
- Hits: 1055 | 1,207 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jesus of Nazareth: The False Messiah
For almost two thousand years, the Christian Church has taught that Jesus was crucified, died, and was resurrected three days later. This has long been one of the church's foundational beliefs, along with the virgin birth, atonement, and future second coming of Jesus.
In the year 325 CE, Constantine (a non-baptized Pagan) convened the Council of Nicea to settle disputes in the Church. The council changed Jesus from man to God in the flesh, they changed the Sabbath from Saturday to Sunday, and the Passover was changed to Easter. Among the nearly 200 Gospels circulating in the first three hundred years of this era, the Catholic Church canonized only four. Origen, the great Catholic father, confirms this fact: "And not four Gospels, but very many, out of which these we have chosen."
A partial list of the different books considered by the Church for inclusion were a gospel written by Jesus’ own hand; letters and other correspondences written by Jesus; letters written by the "virgin" Mary; Pilate’s official report to the emperor of the trial and crucifixion of Jesus, with Pilate’s confession of faith; the reply to this from Tiberius, and the trial of Pilate; official documents of the Roman Senate about Jesus; Gospels, epistles, acts, by every single one of the twelve apostles; and official documents of church law and government, written in Greek by the apostles. In his book, Answering Christianity's Most Puzzling Questions, Christian apologist Richard Sisson states:
"In fact, after the death of Jesus a whole flood of books that claimed to be inspired appeared.... Disputes over which ones were true were so intense that the debate continued for centuries. Finally in the fourth century a group of church leaders called a council and took a vote. The 66 books that comprised our cherished Bible were declared to be Scripture by a vote of 568 to 563."
Paul and the writers of all four canonical Gospels described the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus, as they understood it had happened. There is a acknowledged consensus among academic Christian theologians that:
The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John were not written by Jesus' disciples but by a person or persons whose names are unknown.
Neither Paul nor any of the Gospel writers had been an eyewitness to Jesus' ministry or death.
The Gospels record the beliefs and memories of various Christian groups as they had evolved at the time they were written.
Their Hollow Inheritance: A Comprehensive Refutation of Christian Missionaries cites additional discrepancies. Matthew 1:20 and Luke 1:31 describe "angels" appearing to Jesus’ mother and her husband informing them of her forthcoming "immaculate conception" and "virgin birth" to the "Son of God," the "Messiah." When compared with the way Jesus’ family and neighbors treated him, it is absurd to believe that "angels" really visited them:
Mark 3:21: Upon hearing of it, his family went out to seize him, for they said, "He is beside himself."
To offset the startling fact that Jesus’ family thought that he was insane, some New Testament editions replace "they" with "people," although "they" is in the original Greek text.
John 7:5: For even his brothers did not believe in him.
Luke 4:16: And Jesus came to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, and he went to the synagogue, as his custom was, on the Sabbath day…
There, Jesus hinted to his friends and neighbors that he was the Messiah, however:
Luke 4:28: When they heard this, all in the synagogue were filled with wrath. And they rose up, and put him out of the city, and led him to the brow of the hill on which their city was built, that they might throw him down headlong.
How very strange it is, that during all the years in which Yeshu grew up with them, his brothers, friends, and neighbors did not notice that he was a "divine being." And could it have been that his parents forgot or didn’t tell anyone what they experienced? This stretches one’s imagination.
[link to www.messiahtruth.com | <urn:uuid:bb359de3-5ee3-49f8-ba6c-15c3b9be6d3d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.godlikeproductions.com/forum1/message1422823/reply23440694/copyright | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00101.warc.gz | en | 0.982613 | 901 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.0102428... | 3 | Jesus of Nazareth: The False Messiah
For almost two thousand years, the Christian Church has taught that Jesus was crucified, died, and was resurrected three days later. This has long been one of the church's foundational beliefs, along with the virgin birth, atonement, and future second coming of Jesus.
In the year 325 CE, Constantine (a non-baptized Pagan) convened the Council of Nicea to settle disputes in the Church. The council changed Jesus from man to God in the flesh, they changed the Sabbath from Saturday to Sunday, and the Passover was changed to Easter. Among the nearly 200 Gospels circulating in the first three hundred years of this era, the Catholic Church canonized only four. Origen, the great Catholic father, confirms this fact: "And not four Gospels, but very many, out of which these we have chosen."
A partial list of the different books considered by the Church for inclusion were a gospel written by Jesus’ own hand; letters and other correspondences written by Jesus; letters written by the "virgin" Mary; Pilate’s official report to the emperor of the trial and crucifixion of Jesus, with Pilate’s confession of faith; the reply to this from Tiberius, and the trial of Pilate; official documents of the Roman Senate about Jesus; Gospels, epistles, acts, by every single one of the twelve apostles; and official documents of church law and government, written in Greek by the apostles. In his book, Answering Christianity's Most Puzzling Questions, Christian apologist Richard Sisson states:
"In fact, after the death of Jesus a whole flood of books that claimed to be inspired appeared.... Disputes over which ones were true were so intense that the debate continued for centuries. Finally in the fourth century a group of church leaders called a council and took a vote. The 66 books that comprised our cherished Bible were declared to be Scripture by a vote of 568 to 563."
Paul and the writers of all four canonical Gospels described the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus, as they understood it had happened. There is a acknowledged consensus among academic Christian theologians that:
The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John were not written by Jesus' disciples but by a person or persons whose names are unknown.
Neither Paul nor any of the Gospel writers had been an eyewitness to Jesus' ministry or death.
The Gospels record the beliefs and memories of various Christian groups as they had evolved at the time they were written.
Their Hollow Inheritance: A Comprehensive Refutation of Christian Missionaries cites additional discrepancies. Matthew 1:20 and Luke 1:31 describe "angels" appearing to Jesus’ mother and her husband informing them of her forthcoming "immaculate conception" and "virgin birth" to the "Son of God," the "Messiah." When compared with the way Jesus’ family and neighbors treated him, it is absurd to believe that "angels" really visited them:
Mark 3:21: Upon hearing of it, his family went out to seize him, for they said, "He is beside himself."
To offset the startling fact that Jesus’ family thought that he was insane, some New Testament editions replace "they" with "people," although "they" is in the original Greek text.
John 7:5: For even his brothers did not believe in him.
Luke 4:16: And Jesus came to Nazareth, where he had been brought up, and he went to the synagogue, as his custom was, on the Sabbath day…
There, Jesus hinted to his friends and neighbors that he was the Messiah, however:
Luke 4:28: When they heard this, all in the synagogue were filled with wrath. And they rose up, and put him out of the city, and led him to the brow of the hill on which their city was built, that they might throw him down headlong.
How very strange it is, that during all the years in which Yeshu grew up with them, his brothers, friends, and neighbors did not notice that he was a "divine being." And could it have been that his parents forgot or didn’t tell anyone what they experienced? This stretches one’s imagination.
[link to www.messiahtruth.com | 902 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kumashiro talks about common sense and the role that it plays in not only everyday life, but also common sense in the school setting. He defines it as something that is different depending on settings like schools, and even within everyday life like how to cook (an example given in the text). They are also defined as social expectations that are unspoken words that people are expected to know without any formal learning in these expectations and practices. These are expectations that are accumulated from parents, upbringing, school, and many other things that we are exposed to on an everyday basis.
Common sense is something that is important in our everyday lives in the sense that without common sense, we would be quite lost socially and we would not be able to understand what is “okay” according to society and the people around you. In the article he mentions that he conforms to the way that the school system in Nepal runs their schools and teaches their children instead of continuing to push his western beliefs that are deeply engrained in him. This is important to understand and respect that other cultures and people have their own common sense, views, and beliefs that do not always have to be changed. | <urn:uuid:7dbec39f-0d28-4816-bf7c-f330dcf4468e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://oliviacaswell47022839.wordpress.com/2020/01/08/first-reading-response-kumashiro/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00333.warc.gz | en | 0.986611 | 238 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.3497585952281952... | 1 | Kumashiro talks about common sense and the role that it plays in not only everyday life, but also common sense in the school setting. He defines it as something that is different depending on settings like schools, and even within everyday life like how to cook (an example given in the text). They are also defined as social expectations that are unspoken words that people are expected to know without any formal learning in these expectations and practices. These are expectations that are accumulated from parents, upbringing, school, and many other things that we are exposed to on an everyday basis.
Common sense is something that is important in our everyday lives in the sense that without common sense, we would be quite lost socially and we would not be able to understand what is “okay” according to society and the people around you. In the article he mentions that he conforms to the way that the school system in Nepal runs their schools and teaches their children instead of continuing to push his western beliefs that are deeply engrained in him. This is important to understand and respect that other cultures and people have their own common sense, views, and beliefs that do not always have to be changed. | 233 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 13/06/2012)
The Princely State of Chorangla was one of the well known princely states of India
that was administered by a native prince under the guidance of the British authorities. The princely state was under the indirect control of the British Empire in India
. The region covered a total area of 16 sq miles and comprised of a total population of 3,203 in the year 1941. The region of Chorangla was one of the 27 states which created the Sankheda Mehvassi, located on the banks of the Narbada (Narmada
) River, in eastern Gujarat
. Chorangla state was incorporated as a part of the previous Rewa Kantha Agency
. The territory was situated towards the north of the other parts of the Sankheda Mehvassi region and constituted of 2 separate blocks of territory. The major area, which included Chorangla, was enclaved in Baroda, located slightly to the east of the Sankheda city.
The other block was a remote island, which was located 2 miles to the east; and comprised of the Bhelpur village. The region was bordered by Chhota Udepur (Udaipur
) in the east and by Baroda on all other sides. The Princely State of Chorangla was incorporated as a part of the Baroda Agency, which was a sub division of the Western India States Agency
. After the Indian independence, the state was merged with the modern Indian state of Gujarat
The Rathor (Rathod) Rajputs were the ruling family of the state of Chorangla. During the latter half of the 19th century, the region of Chorangla was segmented into 6 parts, namely Chorangla (included 8 villages); Sarsauda (included 3 villages); Bhelpur (included 1 village); Time (included 2 villages); Vardle (included 2 villages); and Deroli (included 1 village). The succession of the royal throne of Chorangla state was governed by the rule of male primogeniture.
The Princely State of Chorangla was a non- jurisdictionary native state. The native ruler of the area held the title of Thakor and was invested with restricted personal jurisdictional authority. The territory paid and even received some amounts from the princely state of Chhota Udaipur
. Further more, the princely state of Chorangla paid annual tribute to Baroda. The state of Chorangla was attached to Baroda according the plans set under the Attachment Scheme of 1943.
After the withdrawal of the British and the independence of India on 15th August 1947, the last native ruler of Chorangla, acceded his state to the newly formed Union of India
, also known as the Dominion of India. | <urn:uuid:73233132-8b4a-4001-90b3-e573440f0a11> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/61/princely_state_chorangla.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00404.warc.gz | en | 0.980514 | 608 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.051031854003... | 3 | (Last Updated on : 13/06/2012)
The Princely State of Chorangla was one of the well known princely states of India
that was administered by a native prince under the guidance of the British authorities. The princely state was under the indirect control of the British Empire in India
. The region covered a total area of 16 sq miles and comprised of a total population of 3,203 in the year 1941. The region of Chorangla was one of the 27 states which created the Sankheda Mehvassi, located on the banks of the Narbada (Narmada
) River, in eastern Gujarat
. Chorangla state was incorporated as a part of the previous Rewa Kantha Agency
. The territory was situated towards the north of the other parts of the Sankheda Mehvassi region and constituted of 2 separate blocks of territory. The major area, which included Chorangla, was enclaved in Baroda, located slightly to the east of the Sankheda city.
The other block was a remote island, which was located 2 miles to the east; and comprised of the Bhelpur village. The region was bordered by Chhota Udepur (Udaipur
) in the east and by Baroda on all other sides. The Princely State of Chorangla was incorporated as a part of the Baroda Agency, which was a sub division of the Western India States Agency
. After the Indian independence, the state was merged with the modern Indian state of Gujarat
The Rathor (Rathod) Rajputs were the ruling family of the state of Chorangla. During the latter half of the 19th century, the region of Chorangla was segmented into 6 parts, namely Chorangla (included 8 villages); Sarsauda (included 3 villages); Bhelpur (included 1 village); Time (included 2 villages); Vardle (included 2 villages); and Deroli (included 1 village). The succession of the royal throne of Chorangla state was governed by the rule of male primogeniture.
The Princely State of Chorangla was a non- jurisdictionary native state. The native ruler of the area held the title of Thakor and was invested with restricted personal jurisdictional authority. The territory paid and even received some amounts from the princely state of Chhota Udaipur
. Further more, the princely state of Chorangla paid annual tribute to Baroda. The state of Chorangla was attached to Baroda according the plans set under the Attachment Scheme of 1943.
After the withdrawal of the British and the independence of India on 15th August 1947, the last native ruler of Chorangla, acceded his state to the newly formed Union of India
, also known as the Dominion of India. | 622 | ENGLISH | 1 |
November 22nd, 2013 in English Grammar
As can be used a subordinating conjunction. As a subordinating conjunction it is used in different ways.
As = when
As can be used as a subordinating conjunction of time. In this case, it means more or less the same as when.
As is used as an alternative to when when we are / were comparing two short actions that happen / happened at the same time.
In this case, we often use as with just.
Ann arrived just as I was about to leave. (= Ann arrived when I was about to leave.)
Just as I sat down to read I started feeling sleepy.
As = because
As can be used as a subordinating conjunction showing cause or reason. As is preferred when the reason is already known to the reader or listener.
As-clauses usually come at the beginning of the sentence.
As Alice was the eldest child, she had to take care of the family after the death of her father. (This is something you can expect.)
On the other hand, because puts greater emphasis on the reason. It may also introduce new information.
Alice has to work hard because her husband has lost his job.
Because-clauses do not usually come at the beginning, but it is possible, though.
As it was raining we didn’t go out.
Susie divorced her husband because he had been cheating on her.
As is also used to talk about two situations which develop or change together.
As I get older I get more tolerant.
As prices rise, the demand for higher wages becomes shriller. | <urn:uuid:7f95b9c5-41ad-4110-8829-a810a1139ccb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.englishpractice.com/2013/11/page/7/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00016.warc.gz | en | 0.986931 | 338 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.18447057902812958,
0.3518450856208... | 2 | November 22nd, 2013 in English Grammar
As can be used a subordinating conjunction. As a subordinating conjunction it is used in different ways.
As = when
As can be used as a subordinating conjunction of time. In this case, it means more or less the same as when.
As is used as an alternative to when when we are / were comparing two short actions that happen / happened at the same time.
In this case, we often use as with just.
Ann arrived just as I was about to leave. (= Ann arrived when I was about to leave.)
Just as I sat down to read I started feeling sleepy.
As = because
As can be used as a subordinating conjunction showing cause or reason. As is preferred when the reason is already known to the reader or listener.
As-clauses usually come at the beginning of the sentence.
As Alice was the eldest child, she had to take care of the family after the death of her father. (This is something you can expect.)
On the other hand, because puts greater emphasis on the reason. It may also introduce new information.
Alice has to work hard because her husband has lost his job.
Because-clauses do not usually come at the beginning, but it is possible, though.
As it was raining we didn’t go out.
Susie divorced her husband because he had been cheating on her.
As is also used to talk about two situations which develop or change together.
As I get older I get more tolerant.
As prices rise, the demand for higher wages becomes shriller. | 325 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Are you aware that both violent and property crime has been steadily declining for decades? It may not seem like it, at least if you watch the news, but it has never been safer to live in America. Part of that is due to our legal system, an adversarial system that makes sure everybody has an avenue to at least make their case in front of a jury of peers. It’s also in part due to our penal system, which though it has a very long way to go, has started to treat prisoners as people rather than chattel. But that wasn’t always the case; throughout history, there used to be serious, often violent punishments for even minor infractions. Luckily, nowadays, these aren’t things criminals need fear. If you need legal help in Kutztown, call Charles Attorney for representation. In the meantime, here are some of the punishments for crimes throughout history.
Bastinado originated in Asia, where it was used as punishment for minor to moderate infractions. The practice involved beating a person with a stick hard on the soles of their feet. While that may not sound as vicious as some of the practices on this list, you have to remember that this is before people had access to decent shoes, and there was no such thing as time off for injuries. A victim of this punishment would feel a resurgence of pain with every step they took.
Everyone has heard of the guillotine, but beheading was a common punishment long before its invention. Reaching its height in England and France, beheading was generally only reserved as punishment for those of noble birth. In England, it was commonly carried out with a sword or axe, and in France with the guillotine. This practice of punishment was common all the way up to the 18th century, with Simon (The Fox, of Outlander and historical fame) Fraser being the last man to be beheaded in Scotland.
This is probably the oldest form of punishment, and was very important for structuring society. Essentially, it was a slow death sentence, as ancient nomadic tribes depended on their group to survive. As with the modern death sentence, the justification for banishment was more to keep the rest of the tribe in line than necessarily any kind of practical way to make the group safer.
Another English punishment, and one that is probably much more painful than the previous entries, was to boil people alive in retribution for assassination attempts using poison. This was a common practice in the 1500s. Two notable historical cooks who received this punishment were Richard Roose in 1532 and Margaret Davy in 1542. The law allowing boiling alive as punishment for poisoning was repealed back in 1547.
A punishment for minor infractions, birching actually still exists in many places today.It is the practice of beating a person on their hind end with a birch stick (nowadays, any type of stick). Luckily, Britain, where this practice was most popular, abolished birching in 1948.
Branding was a form of punishment used to mark a criminal for their actions. Many cultures have made use of this practice over history. On top of outing a person’s criminal status for the rest of their life, branding was of course extremely painful.
Hopefully these entries proved interesting. Stay tuned for our next installment of Punishments for Crimes Throughout History. If you are looking for legal help from a professional law firm in Kutztown, give Charles Dutko a call. We can put an experienced criminal lawyer in your corner, ensuring that you get the best representation possible. Give us a call for more information, we will be happy to provide any answers we can. | <urn:uuid:240a3c37-69b0-47be-b9c5-98df53fa707b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dutkolaw.com/punishments-for-crimes-throughout-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.980488 | 751 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.29913899302... | 5 | Are you aware that both violent and property crime has been steadily declining for decades? It may not seem like it, at least if you watch the news, but it has never been safer to live in America. Part of that is due to our legal system, an adversarial system that makes sure everybody has an avenue to at least make their case in front of a jury of peers. It’s also in part due to our penal system, which though it has a very long way to go, has started to treat prisoners as people rather than chattel. But that wasn’t always the case; throughout history, there used to be serious, often violent punishments for even minor infractions. Luckily, nowadays, these aren’t things criminals need fear. If you need legal help in Kutztown, call Charles Attorney for representation. In the meantime, here are some of the punishments for crimes throughout history.
Bastinado originated in Asia, where it was used as punishment for minor to moderate infractions. The practice involved beating a person with a stick hard on the soles of their feet. While that may not sound as vicious as some of the practices on this list, you have to remember that this is before people had access to decent shoes, and there was no such thing as time off for injuries. A victim of this punishment would feel a resurgence of pain with every step they took.
Everyone has heard of the guillotine, but beheading was a common punishment long before its invention. Reaching its height in England and France, beheading was generally only reserved as punishment for those of noble birth. In England, it was commonly carried out with a sword or axe, and in France with the guillotine. This practice of punishment was common all the way up to the 18th century, with Simon (The Fox, of Outlander and historical fame) Fraser being the last man to be beheaded in Scotland.
This is probably the oldest form of punishment, and was very important for structuring society. Essentially, it was a slow death sentence, as ancient nomadic tribes depended on their group to survive. As with the modern death sentence, the justification for banishment was more to keep the rest of the tribe in line than necessarily any kind of practical way to make the group safer.
Another English punishment, and one that is probably much more painful than the previous entries, was to boil people alive in retribution for assassination attempts using poison. This was a common practice in the 1500s. Two notable historical cooks who received this punishment were Richard Roose in 1532 and Margaret Davy in 1542. The law allowing boiling alive as punishment for poisoning was repealed back in 1547.
A punishment for minor infractions, birching actually still exists in many places today.It is the practice of beating a person on their hind end with a birch stick (nowadays, any type of stick). Luckily, Britain, where this practice was most popular, abolished birching in 1948.
Branding was a form of punishment used to mark a criminal for their actions. Many cultures have made use of this practice over history. On top of outing a person’s criminal status for the rest of their life, branding was of course extremely painful.
Hopefully these entries proved interesting. Stay tuned for our next installment of Punishments for Crimes Throughout History. If you are looking for legal help from a professional law firm in Kutztown, give Charles Dutko a call. We can put an experienced criminal lawyer in your corner, ensuring that you get the best representation possible. Give us a call for more information, we will be happy to provide any answers we can. | 752 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tresco is famed for its natural beauty, mild climate and exotic gardens, but this idyllic island has also been in the front line of Britain’s defences since the 16th century. Due to the threat from the Spanish and the French, two Tudor forts – the Old Blockhouse and King Charles’ Castle – were built to defend the harbours at Old Grimsby and New Grimsby, where enemies might try to land their troops. In the mid-17th century, Tresco had a prominent role in the Civil War and Cromwell’s Castle was built in the early 1650s to strengthen the defences of New Grimsby harbour. From the 18th century onwards government military expenditure in Scilly was devoted to the major fortifications on St Mary’s, but during World War I a seaplane base was established at New Grimsby on the site now occupied by the Flying Boat cottages and restaurant.
The Old Blockhouse
Henry VIII built a series of fortifications along the English coast to defend against his French and Spanish enemies, but Scilly was left unprotected. However, between 1548 and 1550 – during the reign of his youthful successor Edward VI – the Old Blockhouse and King Charles’ Castle were constructed. The Old Blockhouse, which overlooks Old Grimsby harbour, was probably the earliest of the defences on Tresco. It consists of a square, paved platform that could have accommodated three guns. On the south side there are remains of a built-in locker, presumably for gunpowder, and attached to the west side is a small room with two windows and a fireplace which would have offered shelter for the garrison stationed on this exposed site. Around the building there is a shallow bank that could date from the mid-16th century or from the Civil War when the Old Blockhouse was at the heart of the fighting on Scilly.
King Charles' Castle
King Charles’ Castle was built on the west side of Tresco between about 1548 and 1550. It consists of a polygonal gun room with five gun embrasures, though one was abandoned later when a small room was created in the north-east corner. Attached to the east side of it there was a large room, the northern half of which was used as a kitchen for the soldiers manning the castle. At the north and south ends of this room are small, square bedchambers with no fireplaces, but the northern room has a triangular, stone floor in one corner, perhaps for a small brazier. A large porch or guardroom protects the entrance to the building. There is some architectural stonework lying around the outside of the building, though whether there is sufficient to recreate the missing upper storey is uncertain. Around King Charles’ Castle there is a large earthwork, which may date from the 1620s. It is roughly square in plan with a bastion at its north-west corner and a demi-bastion at its north-east corner. A couple of hundred metres to the south-east there is another 400m long earthwork across the plateau. This is very slight, no higher than about 0.3m, and is probably a laying-out preparation rather than a fully-fledged defensive structure, and may well have been constructed at the same time as the castle.
The Civil War and Oliver's Battery
In 1646, the Royalist forces in Scilly initially surrendered to Parliamentary troops but in September 1648 the garrison rebelled against the Governor and declared for the King. Scilly then became a major privateering base preying on British and Dutch vessels. Parliament’s attempts to counter this proved largely ineffective, but in March 1651 a squadron of Dutch ships under Maarten Tromp was sent to obtain the release of captured Dutch ships. Parliament feared that the Dutch might also try to capture the islands, and so an expedition commanded by Robert Blake was sent to retake them from the Royalist garrison and ensure Scilly was firmly back under Parliament's control. Blake’s troops eventually landed on Tresco near the Old Blockhouse after some heavy fighting. They then marched across the island to take King Charles’ Castle. With the island in Parliament’s hands, a gun battery, Oliver’s Battery, was built at Carn Near, overlooking where boats today land visitors to Tresco at low tide. Set in front of the large, rocky outcrop, this earthwork battery had positions for two guns that were able to shell ships in St Mary’s Pool and the Road, forcing the Royalists to surrender in June 1651. You can learn more about Tresco's rich military history here.
Documents suggest there may have been a small fortification at sea level protecting New Grimsby Harbour in the 16th century. Inside Cromwell’s Castle there is a datestone on the inside face of the door onto the gun platform that has the incised legend ‘M1591H’. However, this seems to be a reset stone as its inconspicuous location is at odds with its commemorative contents. After Tresco was retaken by the forces of Parliament in 1651, a ‘new blockhouse’, Cromwell’s Castle, was built and in 1715 the engineer Christian Lilly described it as: “Standing at the Foot of a Steep hill much higher than its Top, and is a Huge Mass of Masonry, consisting of a Round Tower two Storys high, with a Platform for six Gunns upon it, and a Battery before it for Six more at the Watters Edge". Cromwell’s Castle is a tall cylindrical building with a lower gun platform attached to its west side. Inside there was a large heated room beneath the vault and in the jambs of the windows there is a wealth of graffiti including some initials that may have been left by soldiers manning the castle in the 18th century. On top there are gun positions all around allowing artillery to fire at enemy ships trying to enter the harbour.
Tresco Sea Plane Base
During World War I, Scilly remained of strategic significance, but for an entirely new form of warfare. Submarines were a threat to allied shipping and aircraft were used to hunt submarines as the wake of a periscope could be seen from the air from several miles away. In January 1917, a flying boat and seaplane base was created at Porthmellon on St Mary’s, despite warnings that the bay was too exposed. These proved to be well founded and before it became operational the base was transferred to New Grimsby on Tresco. The first patrol was flown on 28 February 1917, and on 18 May 1917 a flying boat from Scilly flew its first escort over a convoy, coming from the Mediterranean. In the last two years of the war aircraft from Scilly made thirteen U-boat sightings and attacked on nine occasions. In one case, a U-boat was thought to have been sunk, although it later emerged that it may have survived the attack.
The base at New Grimsby covered the southern part of the bay and consisted of a slipway, hangars, offices, ratings’ and officers’ quarters, a canteen and a sick bay. Little survives today, but The Bothy, a former potato store used for bomb storage, is extant despite being damaged in an explosion. The Power House, another former agricultural building converted for the use of the air base, also survives. The iron rails on the slipway indicate where the flying boats and seaplanes were launched and recovered on trolleys, and a number of concrete standings for other buildings can still be seen at the south end of New Grimbsy. | <urn:uuid:ce92dbf3-14e9-4467-bf2b-b3f77b35e961> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tresco.co.uk/the-island/historic-monuments | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00518.warc.gz | en | 0.980888 | 1,603 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.35536596179008... | 11 | Tresco is famed for its natural beauty, mild climate and exotic gardens, but this idyllic island has also been in the front line of Britain’s defences since the 16th century. Due to the threat from the Spanish and the French, two Tudor forts – the Old Blockhouse and King Charles’ Castle – were built to defend the harbours at Old Grimsby and New Grimsby, where enemies might try to land their troops. In the mid-17th century, Tresco had a prominent role in the Civil War and Cromwell’s Castle was built in the early 1650s to strengthen the defences of New Grimsby harbour. From the 18th century onwards government military expenditure in Scilly was devoted to the major fortifications on St Mary’s, but during World War I a seaplane base was established at New Grimsby on the site now occupied by the Flying Boat cottages and restaurant.
The Old Blockhouse
Henry VIII built a series of fortifications along the English coast to defend against his French and Spanish enemies, but Scilly was left unprotected. However, between 1548 and 1550 – during the reign of his youthful successor Edward VI – the Old Blockhouse and King Charles’ Castle were constructed. The Old Blockhouse, which overlooks Old Grimsby harbour, was probably the earliest of the defences on Tresco. It consists of a square, paved platform that could have accommodated three guns. On the south side there are remains of a built-in locker, presumably for gunpowder, and attached to the west side is a small room with two windows and a fireplace which would have offered shelter for the garrison stationed on this exposed site. Around the building there is a shallow bank that could date from the mid-16th century or from the Civil War when the Old Blockhouse was at the heart of the fighting on Scilly.
King Charles' Castle
King Charles’ Castle was built on the west side of Tresco between about 1548 and 1550. It consists of a polygonal gun room with five gun embrasures, though one was abandoned later when a small room was created in the north-east corner. Attached to the east side of it there was a large room, the northern half of which was used as a kitchen for the soldiers manning the castle. At the north and south ends of this room are small, square bedchambers with no fireplaces, but the northern room has a triangular, stone floor in one corner, perhaps for a small brazier. A large porch or guardroom protects the entrance to the building. There is some architectural stonework lying around the outside of the building, though whether there is sufficient to recreate the missing upper storey is uncertain. Around King Charles’ Castle there is a large earthwork, which may date from the 1620s. It is roughly square in plan with a bastion at its north-west corner and a demi-bastion at its north-east corner. A couple of hundred metres to the south-east there is another 400m long earthwork across the plateau. This is very slight, no higher than about 0.3m, and is probably a laying-out preparation rather than a fully-fledged defensive structure, and may well have been constructed at the same time as the castle.
The Civil War and Oliver's Battery
In 1646, the Royalist forces in Scilly initially surrendered to Parliamentary troops but in September 1648 the garrison rebelled against the Governor and declared for the King. Scilly then became a major privateering base preying on British and Dutch vessels. Parliament’s attempts to counter this proved largely ineffective, but in March 1651 a squadron of Dutch ships under Maarten Tromp was sent to obtain the release of captured Dutch ships. Parliament feared that the Dutch might also try to capture the islands, and so an expedition commanded by Robert Blake was sent to retake them from the Royalist garrison and ensure Scilly was firmly back under Parliament's control. Blake’s troops eventually landed on Tresco near the Old Blockhouse after some heavy fighting. They then marched across the island to take King Charles’ Castle. With the island in Parliament’s hands, a gun battery, Oliver’s Battery, was built at Carn Near, overlooking where boats today land visitors to Tresco at low tide. Set in front of the large, rocky outcrop, this earthwork battery had positions for two guns that were able to shell ships in St Mary’s Pool and the Road, forcing the Royalists to surrender in June 1651. You can learn more about Tresco's rich military history here.
Documents suggest there may have been a small fortification at sea level protecting New Grimsby Harbour in the 16th century. Inside Cromwell’s Castle there is a datestone on the inside face of the door onto the gun platform that has the incised legend ‘M1591H’. However, this seems to be a reset stone as its inconspicuous location is at odds with its commemorative contents. After Tresco was retaken by the forces of Parliament in 1651, a ‘new blockhouse’, Cromwell’s Castle, was built and in 1715 the engineer Christian Lilly described it as: “Standing at the Foot of a Steep hill much higher than its Top, and is a Huge Mass of Masonry, consisting of a Round Tower two Storys high, with a Platform for six Gunns upon it, and a Battery before it for Six more at the Watters Edge". Cromwell’s Castle is a tall cylindrical building with a lower gun platform attached to its west side. Inside there was a large heated room beneath the vault and in the jambs of the windows there is a wealth of graffiti including some initials that may have been left by soldiers manning the castle in the 18th century. On top there are gun positions all around allowing artillery to fire at enemy ships trying to enter the harbour.
Tresco Sea Plane Base
During World War I, Scilly remained of strategic significance, but for an entirely new form of warfare. Submarines were a threat to allied shipping and aircraft were used to hunt submarines as the wake of a periscope could be seen from the air from several miles away. In January 1917, a flying boat and seaplane base was created at Porthmellon on St Mary’s, despite warnings that the bay was too exposed. These proved to be well founded and before it became operational the base was transferred to New Grimsby on Tresco. The first patrol was flown on 28 February 1917, and on 18 May 1917 a flying boat from Scilly flew its first escort over a convoy, coming from the Mediterranean. In the last two years of the war aircraft from Scilly made thirteen U-boat sightings and attacked on nine occasions. In one case, a U-boat was thought to have been sunk, although it later emerged that it may have survived the attack.
The base at New Grimsby covered the southern part of the bay and consisted of a slipway, hangars, offices, ratings’ and officers’ quarters, a canteen and a sick bay. Little survives today, but The Bothy, a former potato store used for bomb storage, is extant despite being damaged in an explosion. The Power House, another former agricultural building converted for the use of the air base, also survives. The iron rails on the slipway indicate where the flying boats and seaplanes were launched and recovered on trolleys, and a number of concrete standings for other buildings can still be seen at the south end of New Grimbsy. | 1,617 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Year 5 have continued to develop their art topic based around impressionist artists. First we sketched our own landscape image, following that we built up our first layer of paint using different textures and tools.
During our first session back after the Christmas break, we have looked at another scene from Joseph and the Amazing Technicoloured Dream Coat. The children were split into groups of four and asked to choose a part for each member of their group. Then, they practiced the scene within their groups and performed it to the whole group.
Here are some short snippets from some of the groups.
During music today, Year 5 have been learning how to tune a guitar. First the children listened to Mr Innerdale play a guitar that was not in tune with the piano, this sounded very strange. Then, they were introduced to notes that were either too sharp or too flat. After this, the children looked at the parts of the guitar that are used to tune the individual strings which are called pegs. Finally, in partners, the children tried tuning the bottom three strings (E, A and D) on the guitar themselves. The children had to think carefully whether the note was too sharp, or too flat. To test to see if all of the guitars were in tune with one another, each partner took it turn to play a simple melody as part of an ensemble which sounded great! Well done Year 5. | <urn:uuid:3a33d7dc-5960-4e6a-b482-7e2947f2fa31> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.stmaryandthomasaquinas.co.uk/index.php/category/year-5/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00108.warc.gz | en | 0.986773 | 283 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.40365129709243774,... | 1 | Year 5 have continued to develop their art topic based around impressionist artists. First we sketched our own landscape image, following that we built up our first layer of paint using different textures and tools.
During our first session back after the Christmas break, we have looked at another scene from Joseph and the Amazing Technicoloured Dream Coat. The children were split into groups of four and asked to choose a part for each member of their group. Then, they practiced the scene within their groups and performed it to the whole group.
Here are some short snippets from some of the groups.
During music today, Year 5 have been learning how to tune a guitar. First the children listened to Mr Innerdale play a guitar that was not in tune with the piano, this sounded very strange. Then, they were introduced to notes that were either too sharp or too flat. After this, the children looked at the parts of the guitar that are used to tune the individual strings which are called pegs. Finally, in partners, the children tried tuning the bottom three strings (E, A and D) on the guitar themselves. The children had to think carefully whether the note was too sharp, or too flat. To test to see if all of the guitars were in tune with one another, each partner took it turn to play a simple melody as part of an ensemble which sounded great! Well done Year 5. | 283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Excavations started on 28 December 1940 and the first gun arrived on 25 March 1941, although their best-known action came a few months later, on 12 February 1942, when the light battleships Gneisenau, Scharnhorst and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen attempted the Channel Dash from Brest back to Germany. The K band radar at South Foreland started to track the ships of the Brest Group coming up the Channel towards Cap Gris Nez. At 12:19, the first salvo was fired; since maximum visibility was five miles, there was no observation of fall of shot by either sight or radar. The "blips" of the K-set clearly showed the zig-zagging of the ships and full battery salvo firing began without verifying fall-of-shot. 33 rounds were fired at the German ships, which were moving out of range at 30 kn (35 mph; 56 km/h).
Initially it was thought that four hits had been made, but the Germans revealed that all had missed. By the end of the war the four guns had expended 2,248 shells, most in the months before and after the Normandy landings. 28 enemy ships were confirmed sunk between all the coastal batteries around Dover and the deterrent effect was significant | <urn:uuid:93736b46-0009-4161-bea0-9d29cb907df4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.skill-horizons.com/south-foreland-ww2/guns/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.984817 | 261 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.5800186991691... | 14 | Excavations started on 28 December 1940 and the first gun arrived on 25 March 1941, although their best-known action came a few months later, on 12 February 1942, when the light battleships Gneisenau, Scharnhorst and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen attempted the Channel Dash from Brest back to Germany. The K band radar at South Foreland started to track the ships of the Brest Group coming up the Channel towards Cap Gris Nez. At 12:19, the first salvo was fired; since maximum visibility was five miles, there was no observation of fall of shot by either sight or radar. The "blips" of the K-set clearly showed the zig-zagging of the ships and full battery salvo firing began without verifying fall-of-shot. 33 rounds were fired at the German ships, which were moving out of range at 30 kn (35 mph; 56 km/h).
Initially it was thought that four hits had been made, but the Germans revealed that all had missed. By the end of the war the four guns had expended 2,248 shells, most in the months before and after the Normandy landings. 28 enemy ships were confirmed sunk between all the coastal batteries around Dover and the deterrent effect was significant | 288 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Jewish Revolt
How the Jews lost their homeland
Between 47 BC and AD 66, Judea was settling down, more or less, to be part of the Roman empire. In 37 BC Herod was established as a Client King, and though he was a thoroughly nasty person (he killed his wife and his two daughters), he was an effective ruler. On his death he left his kingdom to his three sons who were ineffectual and were replaced by a Roman governor.
Just how far the country could be said to be at peace can be disputed. The Jews it must be said were not altogether blameless. Like all monotheistic religions, if you believe there is only one god, there is a tendency to dispute over the nature of this one god, so there were constant minor disputes, in one of which Jesus Christ was caught up and crucified. But the Roman rulers remained on the whole in the background.
The Jews were indeed a little odd, but their idiosyncrasies could be tolerated. They were exempt from praying to the gods of the Roman society, for they had this belief of only praying to their own god, and this, though strange, could be tolerated. As to their other peculiarities the Romans never knew quite what to make of their habit of taking one day in seven off and celebrating it as the Sabbath. Were they just being lazy? Then not eating pork and circumcising their male children – all rather odd but could be tolerated. So for this period of nearly a hundred years it looked as if Judea was safely part of the Roman Empire.
Then in AD 67 it all began to go wrong. The Roman governor was tactless and tried to clamp down on Jewish eccentricities. A revolt flared up and the governor was not only tactless but incompetent. The Roman army was attacked and a whole legion was defeated, and the eagle was seized. The Roman governor was withdrawn but it was clear that the defeat must be avenged and the eagle must be retrieved. A top general was sent out, Vespasian, who had already won his spurs in the conquest of Britain and was regarded as a safe pair of hands. He arrived and three legions came with him, but before he could begin work, the emperor Nero was assassinated and politics in Rome were in chaos.
The year AD 69 was to become notorious as being the year of the four emperors. Galba and Otho came and went, but then Vitellius was proclaimed as emperor by the armies in Germany. But the armies in the east wanted to have their man as emperor and their choice fell on Vespasian. But was Vespasian really suitable? In rank he was only an equestrian, not even a senator. A good soldier yes: but an emperor? This was solved by a grand battle when the forces of Vitellius were defeated and the armies of the east won out, and Vespasian was confirmed as emperor and hurried to Rome, leaving his son, the future emperor Titus in command in Judea. The situation was chaotic but it soon became clear that from the prestige point of view, the re-conquest of Judea would make or break the new emperor. Fortunately for the Romans, Titus was an extremely competent general. The war was long and fierce as recorded in great detail by Josephus.
Josephus was a Jew who first went to Rome as an ambassador, but when the war broke out he hurried back to Judea to take his place in the Jewish army. However he was a useless soldier and was soon captured by the Romans. He realised that the Romans were going to win so he went over to the Roman side and attempted to reconcile the two parties. But if a poor soldier, Josephus was an excellent writer and a good historian, and his account of the Jewish war provides a remarkable story.
He represents one of the most remarkable aspects of the Roman episode: that Rome seemed to attract so many of its enemies to become historians for Rome. The Greek Polybius led the way with his account of the Punic Wars, then Manetho an Egyptian priest wrote the history of Egypt, now lost though the gist was recorded by Eusebius. Berossus wrote a history of Babylonia, also lost, and Josephus wrote an account of the Antiquities of the Jews and the Jewish War which have survived complete, together with a number of other works.
The re-conquest of Judea was long and protracted. Much of the fighting was something like a civil war – Jews against Jews, or rather a war led by the Zealots against the establishment, who often preferred to make peace while they could. After three attempts the Roman army fought their way into Jerusalem until eventually they captured the Temple and in the melee the Temple was set on fire and burned to the ground. It is not clear whether this was a deliberate act of the Roman army whether this was an accident, but it was a disaster. Not only was the Temple as rebuilt by Herod one of the greatest buildings in the world, but it was also the very centre of Jewish religion, so to the Jews its destruction was the greatest disaster imaginable.
The Roman commander, Titus returned to Rome for a Triumph, but there was still Jewish resistance to be stamped out. Four fortresses were taken without too much difficulty, but the fifth was one of the most difficult projects in Roman history. It was called Masada.
Masada is a great chunk of rock projecting vertically from a rocky landscape, near the southern shores of the Dead Sea. It was well-nigh impregnable but it had a flat top, so Herod the Great decided to make it into a last-ditch fortress. He built a magnificent palace with mosaics, baths and very extensive stores and huge cisterns for water. If anyone tried to depose him, it would make an impregnable hidey-hole..
It had been captured by the Sacarii, the most extreme sect of fanatical Jews who practised hidden assassination, not only on the Romans, but also on the Jewish establishment. If the Romans were to wipe out Jewish resistance, Masada must be captured, whatever the cost. A full legion was brought up, with auxiliaries and a considerable number of Jewish prisoners and it has become the classic example of Roman military prowess. Half a dozen siege camps were erected around the perimeter, and a circumvallation wall 11 kms long was built to prevent food getting in or the besieged getting out. They then proceeded to build an enormous ramp on top of a rocky ridge in order to bring a battering ram to attack the walls.
Eventually, they succeeded, and battered down the walls only to find that the besieged were all dead. The Sacarii, 960 in all, preferred death to slavery and since suicide was forbidden in Jewish law, they picked out 10 men by lot who proceeded to kill all the others, and then the 10 men chose one by lot who killed the other 9, and then proceeded to kill himself. Only two women and five children survived to tell the tale.
The site was excavated in a classic excavation by Yigael Yadin, military commander turned archaeologist, and has since become a major attraction, not only for tourists, but also for the Israelis, who regard it as a monument to Jewish heroism for modern Israelis.
Following the fall of Jerusalem, the town was gutted: houses were demolished, the Temple remained a ruin, and a legion was stationed on the site. Jews continued to flourish in the rest of Judaea, but Jerusalem was empty. The amount of booty was such that it funded the building of the Colosseum, the greatest of all Roman amphitheatres, with a seating capacity of 60,000, similar to that of the major football clubs today. Titus was able to build a grand arch to celebrate his victory, situated on the edge of the Forum with views of the Forum in one direction and the Colosseum in the other.
And for the final ignominy, a new tax was levied on all practicing Jews of two drachmas a year (a drachma was a day’s pay). The Jews had previously voluntary paid a similar tax to the Temple for its upkeep, so the Romans decided to make the tax compulsory to pay for the rebuilding of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, the greatest temple in the Roman world, which had recently been burnt down. For the Jews, this was the ultimate indignity.
The Second Jewish War
For seventy years there was an uneasy truce until a second war broke out headed by one Bar Kokhba. Again a Roman legion was vanquished and for two years Bar Kokhba established himself as the prince of an independent nation, issuing coins with inscriptions not in Aramaic – the standard language but in a primitive form of Hebrew. Eventually Hadrian assembled a very large Roman army – six legions together with auxiliary troops, and the Roman military machine ground down the Jewish rebels.
This time it was clear that since the Jewish religion was so much centred on Jerusalem, Jerusalem must be fully Romanised. Jerusalem was turned into a Roman colony. The old town was eliminated and a new town was ritually marked out by ploughing. The town was renamed Aelia Capitolina (Aelius was the family name of Hadrian and Capitolina was the name of the Capitol Hill in Rome, the very symbol of Roman religion) and a temple to Jupiter was built over the site of the temple. Jews were forbidden to enter Jerusalem, and until the foundation of modern Israel, Jerusalem has never since been Jewish. Finally the province of Judea was renamed Palestina Syria, to wipe out the very name of the Jews.
It was Romanised and then Christianised. When Constantine became emperor and made Christianity into a tolerated and favoured religion, his mother Helena went out to Christianise Jerusalem, carrying out extensive excavations. These were extremely successful. At Bethlehem she discovered the site where Christ was born and erected the Church of the Nativity, which in its 6th century form remains one of the glories of late Roman architecture.
Then in Jerusalem, Ambrose reports that she discovered the True Cross: later sources report that she discovered three crosses, but she then applied archaeological science: she had a sick woman brought who touched the first cross – nothing; she touched the second cross – nothing. But when she touched the third cross she was healed, and by a triumph of archaeological science, the True Cross was finally identified. Thus Helena is celebrated as a saint by the Christian church and more importantly, as the patron saint of archaeologists. Subsequently, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was erected over the site, which in its numerous formats remains the prime church of Christendom. The Jews were kept out of Jerusalem, but for Christians, Jerusalem became the great city of virtue, as contrasted with Rome the great city of wickedness.
Jerusalem flourished, until in 638 the Muslims came along, captured the city, and built the Dome of the Rock over the site of the temple, which frustratingly for the Jews is one of the great triumphs of world architecture. But with the foundation of modern Israel, the Jews have at long last gone some way to retrieving the disasters of Roman rule. | <urn:uuid:76d5657d-1619-4013-a120-a9032cd9c471> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.civilization.org.uk/the-bible-2/jews-and-rome | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00085.warc.gz | en | 0.987789 | 2,312 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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How the Jews lost their homeland
Between 47 BC and AD 66, Judea was settling down, more or less, to be part of the Roman empire. In 37 BC Herod was established as a Client King, and though he was a thoroughly nasty person (he killed his wife and his two daughters), he was an effective ruler. On his death he left his kingdom to his three sons who were ineffectual and were replaced by a Roman governor.
Just how far the country could be said to be at peace can be disputed. The Jews it must be said were not altogether blameless. Like all monotheistic religions, if you believe there is only one god, there is a tendency to dispute over the nature of this one god, so there were constant minor disputes, in one of which Jesus Christ was caught up and crucified. But the Roman rulers remained on the whole in the background.
The Jews were indeed a little odd, but their idiosyncrasies could be tolerated. They were exempt from praying to the gods of the Roman society, for they had this belief of only praying to their own god, and this, though strange, could be tolerated. As to their other peculiarities the Romans never knew quite what to make of their habit of taking one day in seven off and celebrating it as the Sabbath. Were they just being lazy? Then not eating pork and circumcising their male children – all rather odd but could be tolerated. So for this period of nearly a hundred years it looked as if Judea was safely part of the Roman Empire.
Then in AD 67 it all began to go wrong. The Roman governor was tactless and tried to clamp down on Jewish eccentricities. A revolt flared up and the governor was not only tactless but incompetent. The Roman army was attacked and a whole legion was defeated, and the eagle was seized. The Roman governor was withdrawn but it was clear that the defeat must be avenged and the eagle must be retrieved. A top general was sent out, Vespasian, who had already won his spurs in the conquest of Britain and was regarded as a safe pair of hands. He arrived and three legions came with him, but before he could begin work, the emperor Nero was assassinated and politics in Rome were in chaos.
The year AD 69 was to become notorious as being the year of the four emperors. Galba and Otho came and went, but then Vitellius was proclaimed as emperor by the armies in Germany. But the armies in the east wanted to have their man as emperor and their choice fell on Vespasian. But was Vespasian really suitable? In rank he was only an equestrian, not even a senator. A good soldier yes: but an emperor? This was solved by a grand battle when the forces of Vitellius were defeated and the armies of the east won out, and Vespasian was confirmed as emperor and hurried to Rome, leaving his son, the future emperor Titus in command in Judea. The situation was chaotic but it soon became clear that from the prestige point of view, the re-conquest of Judea would make or break the new emperor. Fortunately for the Romans, Titus was an extremely competent general. The war was long and fierce as recorded in great detail by Josephus.
Josephus was a Jew who first went to Rome as an ambassador, but when the war broke out he hurried back to Judea to take his place in the Jewish army. However he was a useless soldier and was soon captured by the Romans. He realised that the Romans were going to win so he went over to the Roman side and attempted to reconcile the two parties. But if a poor soldier, Josephus was an excellent writer and a good historian, and his account of the Jewish war provides a remarkable story.
He represents one of the most remarkable aspects of the Roman episode: that Rome seemed to attract so many of its enemies to become historians for Rome. The Greek Polybius led the way with his account of the Punic Wars, then Manetho an Egyptian priest wrote the history of Egypt, now lost though the gist was recorded by Eusebius. Berossus wrote a history of Babylonia, also lost, and Josephus wrote an account of the Antiquities of the Jews and the Jewish War which have survived complete, together with a number of other works.
The re-conquest of Judea was long and protracted. Much of the fighting was something like a civil war – Jews against Jews, or rather a war led by the Zealots against the establishment, who often preferred to make peace while they could. After three attempts the Roman army fought their way into Jerusalem until eventually they captured the Temple and in the melee the Temple was set on fire and burned to the ground. It is not clear whether this was a deliberate act of the Roman army whether this was an accident, but it was a disaster. Not only was the Temple as rebuilt by Herod one of the greatest buildings in the world, but it was also the very centre of Jewish religion, so to the Jews its destruction was the greatest disaster imaginable.
The Roman commander, Titus returned to Rome for a Triumph, but there was still Jewish resistance to be stamped out. Four fortresses were taken without too much difficulty, but the fifth was one of the most difficult projects in Roman history. It was called Masada.
Masada is a great chunk of rock projecting vertically from a rocky landscape, near the southern shores of the Dead Sea. It was well-nigh impregnable but it had a flat top, so Herod the Great decided to make it into a last-ditch fortress. He built a magnificent palace with mosaics, baths and very extensive stores and huge cisterns for water. If anyone tried to depose him, it would make an impregnable hidey-hole..
It had been captured by the Sacarii, the most extreme sect of fanatical Jews who practised hidden assassination, not only on the Romans, but also on the Jewish establishment. If the Romans were to wipe out Jewish resistance, Masada must be captured, whatever the cost. A full legion was brought up, with auxiliaries and a considerable number of Jewish prisoners and it has become the classic example of Roman military prowess. Half a dozen siege camps were erected around the perimeter, and a circumvallation wall 11 kms long was built to prevent food getting in or the besieged getting out. They then proceeded to build an enormous ramp on top of a rocky ridge in order to bring a battering ram to attack the walls.
Eventually, they succeeded, and battered down the walls only to find that the besieged were all dead. The Sacarii, 960 in all, preferred death to slavery and since suicide was forbidden in Jewish law, they picked out 10 men by lot who proceeded to kill all the others, and then the 10 men chose one by lot who killed the other 9, and then proceeded to kill himself. Only two women and five children survived to tell the tale.
The site was excavated in a classic excavation by Yigael Yadin, military commander turned archaeologist, and has since become a major attraction, not only for tourists, but also for the Israelis, who regard it as a monument to Jewish heroism for modern Israelis.
Following the fall of Jerusalem, the town was gutted: houses were demolished, the Temple remained a ruin, and a legion was stationed on the site. Jews continued to flourish in the rest of Judaea, but Jerusalem was empty. The amount of booty was such that it funded the building of the Colosseum, the greatest of all Roman amphitheatres, with a seating capacity of 60,000, similar to that of the major football clubs today. Titus was able to build a grand arch to celebrate his victory, situated on the edge of the Forum with views of the Forum in one direction and the Colosseum in the other.
And for the final ignominy, a new tax was levied on all practicing Jews of two drachmas a year (a drachma was a day’s pay). The Jews had previously voluntary paid a similar tax to the Temple for its upkeep, so the Romans decided to make the tax compulsory to pay for the rebuilding of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, the greatest temple in the Roman world, which had recently been burnt down. For the Jews, this was the ultimate indignity.
The Second Jewish War
For seventy years there was an uneasy truce until a second war broke out headed by one Bar Kokhba. Again a Roman legion was vanquished and for two years Bar Kokhba established himself as the prince of an independent nation, issuing coins with inscriptions not in Aramaic – the standard language but in a primitive form of Hebrew. Eventually Hadrian assembled a very large Roman army – six legions together with auxiliary troops, and the Roman military machine ground down the Jewish rebels.
This time it was clear that since the Jewish religion was so much centred on Jerusalem, Jerusalem must be fully Romanised. Jerusalem was turned into a Roman colony. The old town was eliminated and a new town was ritually marked out by ploughing. The town was renamed Aelia Capitolina (Aelius was the family name of Hadrian and Capitolina was the name of the Capitol Hill in Rome, the very symbol of Roman religion) and a temple to Jupiter was built over the site of the temple. Jews were forbidden to enter Jerusalem, and until the foundation of modern Israel, Jerusalem has never since been Jewish. Finally the province of Judea was renamed Palestina Syria, to wipe out the very name of the Jews.
It was Romanised and then Christianised. When Constantine became emperor and made Christianity into a tolerated and favoured religion, his mother Helena went out to Christianise Jerusalem, carrying out extensive excavations. These were extremely successful. At Bethlehem she discovered the site where Christ was born and erected the Church of the Nativity, which in its 6th century form remains one of the glories of late Roman architecture.
Then in Jerusalem, Ambrose reports that she discovered the True Cross: later sources report that she discovered three crosses, but she then applied archaeological science: she had a sick woman brought who touched the first cross – nothing; she touched the second cross – nothing. But when she touched the third cross she was healed, and by a triumph of archaeological science, the True Cross was finally identified. Thus Helena is celebrated as a saint by the Christian church and more importantly, as the patron saint of archaeologists. Subsequently, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was erected over the site, which in its numerous formats remains the prime church of Christendom. The Jews were kept out of Jerusalem, but for Christians, Jerusalem became the great city of virtue, as contrasted with Rome the great city of wickedness.
Jerusalem flourished, until in 638 the Muslims came along, captured the city, and built the Dome of the Rock over the site of the temple, which frustratingly for the Jews is one of the great triumphs of world architecture. But with the foundation of modern Israel, the Jews have at long last gone some way to retrieving the disasters of Roman rule. | 2,342 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As a packed and tearful gallery of spectators watched, Mississippi senator Jefferson Davis rose on the Senate floor to offer his final remarks before withdrawing from the body. Davis, his face drawn with pain and illness, explained that Mississippi had voted to secede from the Union because "we are about to be deprived in the Union of the rights which our fathers bequeathed to us." In his address he warned that interference with southern secession would be disastrous. Within weeks, Davis would become president of the Confederate States of America, a position he held throughout the Civil War.
For the first time in the nation's history, a president of the United States came to the Senate Chamber to formally address its members. President Woodrow Wilson thought the Senate Chamber an ideal stage from which to proclaim his intentions to lay the foundations for a lasting "peace without victory" among the nations engaged in World War I. Subsequent military actions quickly erased that hope, but Wilson pressed on in his desire to serve as peacemaker, even after the United States entered the conflict 11 weeks later. Wilson addressed the Senate again in 1919 when he urged members to support his peace treaty.
One of the most momentous debates in Senate history entered its final stage on this date. In a packed chamber, Daniel Webster (MA), using his organ-like voice to great effect, began a two-day speech–known as his "Second Reply to Hayne." In response to Senator Robert Hayne's (SC) argument that the nation was simply an association of sovereign states, from which individual states could withdraw at will, Webster thundered that it was instead a "popular government, erected by the people; those who administer it are responsible to the people; and itself capable of being amended and modified, just as the people may choose it should be." | <urn:uuid:2a2460ec-7351-42da-b6ce-fd4d9a077fca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/history/g_three_sections_with_teasers/ThisWeekinSenateHistory.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.980184 | 366 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.6009365320205... | 1 | As a packed and tearful gallery of spectators watched, Mississippi senator Jefferson Davis rose on the Senate floor to offer his final remarks before withdrawing from the body. Davis, his face drawn with pain and illness, explained that Mississippi had voted to secede from the Union because "we are about to be deprived in the Union of the rights which our fathers bequeathed to us." In his address he warned that interference with southern secession would be disastrous. Within weeks, Davis would become president of the Confederate States of America, a position he held throughout the Civil War.
For the first time in the nation's history, a president of the United States came to the Senate Chamber to formally address its members. President Woodrow Wilson thought the Senate Chamber an ideal stage from which to proclaim his intentions to lay the foundations for a lasting "peace without victory" among the nations engaged in World War I. Subsequent military actions quickly erased that hope, but Wilson pressed on in his desire to serve as peacemaker, even after the United States entered the conflict 11 weeks later. Wilson addressed the Senate again in 1919 when he urged members to support his peace treaty.
One of the most momentous debates in Senate history entered its final stage on this date. In a packed chamber, Daniel Webster (MA), using his organ-like voice to great effect, began a two-day speech–known as his "Second Reply to Hayne." In response to Senator Robert Hayne's (SC) argument that the nation was simply an association of sovereign states, from which individual states could withdraw at will, Webster thundered that it was instead a "popular government, erected by the people; those who administer it are responsible to the people; and itself capable of being amended and modified, just as the people may choose it should be." | 367 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thales, better known as Thales of Miletus, was an ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and businessman, born in the seventh century BCE in the area now known as Asia Minor. Recognized as one of the Seven Sages of Greece, his main contribution lies in trying to provide scientific explanation behind worldly phenomenon that had been hitherto explained by mythological beliefs. For this, Aristotle had called him the first philosopher in Greek tradition. Unfortunately, neither his works nor any contemporary source has survived. Available information about this pre-Socratic philosopher comes mainly from the writings of Greek historian Diogenes Laërtius, who flourished in the 3rd century AD and had quoted Apollodorus of Athens, who lived around 140 BCE. Because of the time gap, it is very difficult to assess his works or give any personal details about him. Indeed, modern scholars have now started casting doubts on numerous acts and sayings that had been attributed to Thales. All said and done, there is no doubt that Thales was a multi-dimension figure, much revered in his own time and thereafter.
- According to Apollodorus of Athens, a Greek scholar belonging to the 2nd century BCE, Thales was born in 624 BCE in the ancient Greek city of Miletus, located on western coast of Anatolia near the mouth of the River Maeander. Presently, it falls under the Aydın Province of Turkey.Although the date has been corroborated by current historians, who place the year of his birth in the middle of 620s BCE, there is a controversy about the place. While most scholars accept Apollodorus’ views some claim that he was born in Phoenicia, later immigrating to Miletus with his parents.Thales’ biographer, Diogenes Laërtius, writing in the 3rd century AD, informs us that Thales' parents, Examyes and Cleobuline, were wealthy and distinguished Phoenicians. But there is a controversy about this as well.According to many scholars, his father’s name, Examyes, was distinctly Carian rather than Semitic. Since by then the Carians have been completely assimilated by the Ionians, many believe they were actually of Milesian descent. However, nobody refutes the fact that they were wealthy and distinguished.That Thales had at least one sibling is evident from the fact that in later years he adopted his nephew, Cybisthus. Otherwise, nothing is known about Thales’ formative years.It is possible that he joined the family business early in his life, visiting Egypt and Babylonia in course of trading. At that time, both Egypt and Babylonia were intellectually more advanced than the Greek, being masters in mathematics and astronomy.Thales must have come in contact with the teachers in Egypt and Babylonia because we find him returning to Egypt to study geometry with the Egyptian priests. Later, he traveled to Babylonia to study mathematics. Other sources assume that, coming from rich family, he was automatically sent to study abroad.Continue Reading BelowAcademic Life
- Proclus, the fifth century Greek philosopher, tells us that on his return from Egypt, Thales introduced geometry into Greece. From his writings, we can assume that he began his career as a teacher and a thinker, subsequently discovering many propositions, instructing his ‘successors’ in many others.Although he was a thinker, his knowledge was not at all bookish. In those days, when problems were explained with the help of mythology, he applied the method of deduction and reasoning, using his knowledge for practical purposes.Thus unknowingly, he became a pioneer in discovering new scientific method in mathematics and allied fields, such as astronomy and engineering. Measuring the height of a pyramid with the help of its shadow is believed to be one of his early achievements.In Business
- In a trading city like Miletus, it was unthinkable that anyone should spend so much time in ‘thinking’. As a result of this, although Thales became famous as a philosopher he was mocked by one and all.One day, while walking down the street with his gaze fixed at the sky, he fell into a ditch. Seeing this, a servant girl began to laugh, saying that if he did not know what lay at his feet how he could expect to know what was in the sky.Others mockingly said if he was so clever how come he earned so little. At last, he decided to take up the challenge and went into business. His intention was not to earn money, but to show that one could become rich simply by using knowledge.By correctly predicting the weather, he predicted a large olive crop in a particular year. According to one version, he then bought all the olive presses in the city, making a lot of money when the fruit was finally harvested.Aristotle offers us another version of the same story. According to him, Thales did not buy the presses, but booked all of them in advance and when the olive was harvested he hired them out at a high rate, thus making his riches.Continue Reading BelowPolitical Advisor
- It is natural that a man as wise as Thales would be invited by the king to act as an advisor. It happened during the five-year long war, which broke out between King Cyaxares of Media and King Alyattes of neighbouring Lydia.As the war continued into the sixth year, Thales predicted the solar eclipse of May 28, 585 BCE. In those days eclipses were taken as an omen and as a near total eclipse occurred as predicted by Thales, the war immediately came to a halt.The event has been recounted by Xenophanes, a poet and philosopher who lived in the same century as Thales. However, modern scholars cast doubt on the incident, claiming Thales could not have predicted its locality, time or nature so accurately. Nonetheless after this event, the two states became an ally.Lydia now joined Media in their fight against Persia. As Lydia’s army marched towards present day Iran, Thales accompanied them, possibly on the invitation of the king. As they came to the bank of River Kızılırmak, also known as the Halys River, they had to stop.Thales advised the king to dig canal upstream, which on diverting most of the water, made the river crossable downstream. However, Herodotus, who had mentioned this incident, was himself skeptical about it.The war between Lydia and Persia ended in Lydia’s defeat. As Miletus did not take part in the conflict, they were spared by the Persians. On returning home, Thales advocated a confederation of the Ionians, with individual states becoming its demoi or districts. All states except Miletus joined the confederation.Major Contributions
- Although none of his original writings have survived, some of the ancient scholars claim that Thales had written two books, ‘On the Solstice’ and ‘On the Equinox’. While many are skeptical about this, most credit him with discovery of five geometrical theorems.The fives theorems ascribed to him are: a circle is bisected by its diameter; angles in a triangle opposite two sides of equal length are equal; opposite angles formed by intersecting straight lines are equal; the angle inscribed inside a semicircle is a right angle; a triangle is determined if its base and the two angles at the base are given.While the ancient people ascribed divine fury behind earthquakes, Thales tried to give it a more rational base. According to him the earth floated on an expanse of water and earthquakes occur when the water becomes turbulent. Thales also declared that everything on earth had originated from water.Personal Life & Legacy
- There is a contradiction about Thales’ marital status. According one source, Thales never got married. When he was younger, he used to say that it was too early to get married, later reversing his statement to say that it was too late. For a family, he adopted his nephew Cybisthus.According to some other sources, Thales did get married, fathering Cybisthus. But it does not seem to be true. According to Plutarch, when Solon, on a visit to Thales, asked him why he did not get married Thales told him that he did not want to worry about raising children.According to the chronicle of Apollodorus of Athens, Thales suffered a heat stroke while he was watching the 58th Olympiad (548–545 BC) and died from it at the age 78.Today, he is remembered as the first person in Western civilization to engage in scientific philosophy, trying to explain the worldly phenomenon through science rather than by mythological beliefs.Thales is believed to have founded the Milesian school of thought.Trivia
- It is traditionally believed that Thales advised navigators to steer by Ursa Minor, rather than by Ursa Major.Thales believed that magnets were living things, possessing souls, by virtue of which they are capable of attracting iron.
How To CiteArticle Title- Thales BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/thales-263.phpLast Updated- April 19, 2018
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0.455166488... | 1 | Thales, better known as Thales of Miletus, was an ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and businessman, born in the seventh century BCE in the area now known as Asia Minor. Recognized as one of the Seven Sages of Greece, his main contribution lies in trying to provide scientific explanation behind worldly phenomenon that had been hitherto explained by mythological beliefs. For this, Aristotle had called him the first philosopher in Greek tradition. Unfortunately, neither his works nor any contemporary source has survived. Available information about this pre-Socratic philosopher comes mainly from the writings of Greek historian Diogenes Laërtius, who flourished in the 3rd century AD and had quoted Apollodorus of Athens, who lived around 140 BCE. Because of the time gap, it is very difficult to assess his works or give any personal details about him. Indeed, modern scholars have now started casting doubts on numerous acts and sayings that had been attributed to Thales. All said and done, there is no doubt that Thales was a multi-dimension figure, much revered in his own time and thereafter.
- According to Apollodorus of Athens, a Greek scholar belonging to the 2nd century BCE, Thales was born in 624 BCE in the ancient Greek city of Miletus, located on western coast of Anatolia near the mouth of the River Maeander. Presently, it falls under the Aydın Province of Turkey.Although the date has been corroborated by current historians, who place the year of his birth in the middle of 620s BCE, there is a controversy about the place. While most scholars accept Apollodorus’ views some claim that he was born in Phoenicia, later immigrating to Miletus with his parents.Thales’ biographer, Diogenes Laërtius, writing in the 3rd century AD, informs us that Thales' parents, Examyes and Cleobuline, were wealthy and distinguished Phoenicians. But there is a controversy about this as well.According to many scholars, his father’s name, Examyes, was distinctly Carian rather than Semitic. Since by then the Carians have been completely assimilated by the Ionians, many believe they were actually of Milesian descent. However, nobody refutes the fact that they were wealthy and distinguished.That Thales had at least one sibling is evident from the fact that in later years he adopted his nephew, Cybisthus. Otherwise, nothing is known about Thales’ formative years.It is possible that he joined the family business early in his life, visiting Egypt and Babylonia in course of trading. At that time, both Egypt and Babylonia were intellectually more advanced than the Greek, being masters in mathematics and astronomy.Thales must have come in contact with the teachers in Egypt and Babylonia because we find him returning to Egypt to study geometry with the Egyptian priests. Later, he traveled to Babylonia to study mathematics. Other sources assume that, coming from rich family, he was automatically sent to study abroad.Continue Reading BelowAcademic Life
- Proclus, the fifth century Greek philosopher, tells us that on his return from Egypt, Thales introduced geometry into Greece. From his writings, we can assume that he began his career as a teacher and a thinker, subsequently discovering many propositions, instructing his ‘successors’ in many others.Although he was a thinker, his knowledge was not at all bookish. In those days, when problems were explained with the help of mythology, he applied the method of deduction and reasoning, using his knowledge for practical purposes.Thus unknowingly, he became a pioneer in discovering new scientific method in mathematics and allied fields, such as astronomy and engineering. Measuring the height of a pyramid with the help of its shadow is believed to be one of his early achievements.In Business
- In a trading city like Miletus, it was unthinkable that anyone should spend so much time in ‘thinking’. As a result of this, although Thales became famous as a philosopher he was mocked by one and all.One day, while walking down the street with his gaze fixed at the sky, he fell into a ditch. Seeing this, a servant girl began to laugh, saying that if he did not know what lay at his feet how he could expect to know what was in the sky.Others mockingly said if he was so clever how come he earned so little. At last, he decided to take up the challenge and went into business. His intention was not to earn money, but to show that one could become rich simply by using knowledge.By correctly predicting the weather, he predicted a large olive crop in a particular year. According to one version, he then bought all the olive presses in the city, making a lot of money when the fruit was finally harvested.Aristotle offers us another version of the same story. According to him, Thales did not buy the presses, but booked all of them in advance and when the olive was harvested he hired them out at a high rate, thus making his riches.Continue Reading BelowPolitical Advisor
- It is natural that a man as wise as Thales would be invited by the king to act as an advisor. It happened during the five-year long war, which broke out between King Cyaxares of Media and King Alyattes of neighbouring Lydia.As the war continued into the sixth year, Thales predicted the solar eclipse of May 28, 585 BCE. In those days eclipses were taken as an omen and as a near total eclipse occurred as predicted by Thales, the war immediately came to a halt.The event has been recounted by Xenophanes, a poet and philosopher who lived in the same century as Thales. However, modern scholars cast doubt on the incident, claiming Thales could not have predicted its locality, time or nature so accurately. Nonetheless after this event, the two states became an ally.Lydia now joined Media in their fight against Persia. As Lydia’s army marched towards present day Iran, Thales accompanied them, possibly on the invitation of the king. As they came to the bank of River Kızılırmak, also known as the Halys River, they had to stop.Thales advised the king to dig canal upstream, which on diverting most of the water, made the river crossable downstream. However, Herodotus, who had mentioned this incident, was himself skeptical about it.The war between Lydia and Persia ended in Lydia’s defeat. As Miletus did not take part in the conflict, they were spared by the Persians. On returning home, Thales advocated a confederation of the Ionians, with individual states becoming its demoi or districts. All states except Miletus joined the confederation.Major Contributions
- Although none of his original writings have survived, some of the ancient scholars claim that Thales had written two books, ‘On the Solstice’ and ‘On the Equinox’. While many are skeptical about this, most credit him with discovery of five geometrical theorems.The fives theorems ascribed to him are: a circle is bisected by its diameter; angles in a triangle opposite two sides of equal length are equal; opposite angles formed by intersecting straight lines are equal; the angle inscribed inside a semicircle is a right angle; a triangle is determined if its base and the two angles at the base are given.While the ancient people ascribed divine fury behind earthquakes, Thales tried to give it a more rational base. According to him the earth floated on an expanse of water and earthquakes occur when the water becomes turbulent. Thales also declared that everything on earth had originated from water.Personal Life & Legacy
- There is a contradiction about Thales’ marital status. According one source, Thales never got married. When he was younger, he used to say that it was too early to get married, later reversing his statement to say that it was too late. For a family, he adopted his nephew Cybisthus.According to some other sources, Thales did get married, fathering Cybisthus. But it does not seem to be true. According to Plutarch, when Solon, on a visit to Thales, asked him why he did not get married Thales told him that he did not want to worry about raising children.According to the chronicle of Apollodorus of Athens, Thales suffered a heat stroke while he was watching the 58th Olympiad (548–545 BC) and died from it at the age 78.Today, he is remembered as the first person in Western civilization to engage in scientific philosophy, trying to explain the worldly phenomenon through science rather than by mythological beliefs.Thales is believed to have founded the Milesian school of thought.Trivia
- It is traditionally believed that Thales advised navigators to steer by Ursa Minor, rather than by Ursa Major.Thales believed that magnets were living things, possessing souls, by virtue of which they are capable of attracting iron.
How To CiteArticle Title- Thales BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/thales-263.phpLast Updated- April 19, 2018
People Also Viewed | 1,933 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Baseball has been considered by many to be America’s past time but not all people in America were allowed to partake in the game on equal grounds. Modern Baseball has been around since 1845. The game has been played on the continent since the late 1700s in various forms that seem alien to us today. However, the concept of segregated leagues did not begin until 1885 after the infamous The Anson-Walker incident of 1884.
Moses Fleetwood Walker
Before there was Jackie Robinson in 1947, there was Moses Walker, who was the only Black player on an all white team in the 1880s. According to MLB.com, on July 20, 1884, Anson’s National League Chicago White Sox were to play an exhibition against Toledo of the American Association. Toledo had one Black player, Walker, who played catcher. Chicago let it be known ahead of time that Anson would not play on the same field with Black ballplayers. However, with the support of the Toledo team, Walker played anyway, despite Anson’s objections. After the incident, many racist “gentlemen ballers” came to Anson’s side and Black players were forced out of the minor leagues. | <urn:uuid:d71cae4b-c871-439b-8f5f-cd2a15ec17af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://atlantablackstar.com/2015/11/10/8-little-known-facts-about-the-negro-leagues-you-probably-dont-know/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.991641 | 252 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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-0.0195760... | 7 | Baseball has been considered by many to be America’s past time but not all people in America were allowed to partake in the game on equal grounds. Modern Baseball has been around since 1845. The game has been played on the continent since the late 1700s in various forms that seem alien to us today. However, the concept of segregated leagues did not begin until 1885 after the infamous The Anson-Walker incident of 1884.
Moses Fleetwood Walker
Before there was Jackie Robinson in 1947, there was Moses Walker, who was the only Black player on an all white team in the 1880s. According to MLB.com, on July 20, 1884, Anson’s National League Chicago White Sox were to play an exhibition against Toledo of the American Association. Toledo had one Black player, Walker, who played catcher. Chicago let it be known ahead of time that Anson would not play on the same field with Black ballplayers. However, with the support of the Toledo team, Walker played anyway, despite Anson’s objections. After the incident, many racist “gentlemen ballers” came to Anson’s side and Black players were forced out of the minor leagues. | 266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,270 pages of information and 220,098 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
Robert Boyle (25 January 1627 – 31 December 1691) was an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor, also noted for his writings in theology. He is best known for Boyle's law.
Boyle was born in Lismore Castle, in County Waterford, Ireland, the seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork. Richard Boyle had arrived in Ireland in 1588 as an entrepreneur, and had amassed enormous landholdings by the time Robert was born.
While still a child, Robert learned to speak Latin, Greek and French. He was not yet eight years old when, following the death of his mother, he was sent to Eton College in England, at which his father's friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then the provost.
After spending over three years at Eton, Robert travelled abroad with a French tutor. They visited Italy in 1641, and remained in Florence during the winter of that year, studying the "paradoxes of the great star-gazer" Galileo Galilei — Galileo was elderly, but still alive in Florence in 1641.
Boyle returned to England from the Continent in mid-1644 with a keen interest for scientific research. His father had died the previous year and had left him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorset, together with some estates in Ireland. From that time, he devoted his life to scientific research, and soon took a prominent place in the band of inquirers, known as the "Invisible College", who devoted themselves to the cultivation of the "new philosophy". They met frequently in London, often at Gresham College; some of the members also had meetings at Oxford where Boyle went to reside in 1654.
Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke's air-pump, he set himself with the assistance of Robert Hooke to devise improvements in its construction, and with the result, the "machina Boyleana" or "Pneumatical Engine", finished in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of air.
An account of Boyle's work with the air pump was published in 1660 under the title New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects.... Among the critics of the views put forward in this book was a Jesuit, Franciscus Linus (1595–1675), and it was while answering his objections that Boyle made his first mention of the law that the volume of a gas varies inversely to the pressure of the gas, which among English-speaking people is usually called after his name.
However, the person that originally formulated the hypothesis was Henry Power in 1661. Boyle included a reference to a paper written by Power, but mistakenly attributed it to Richard Townley. In continental Europe the hypothesis is sometimes attributed to Edme Mariotte, although he did not publish it until 1676 and was likely aware of Boyle's work at the time.
In 1663 the Invisible College became the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, and the charter of incorporation granted by Charles II of England, named Boyle a member of the council.
In 1680 he was elected president of the society, but declined the honour from a scruple about oaths.
It was during his time at Oxford that Boyle was a Chevalier. The Chevaliers are thought to have been established by royal order a few years before Boyle's time at Oxford. The period of Boyle's residence was marked by the reactionary actions of the victorious parliamentarian forces, consequently this period marked the most secretive period of Chevalier movements and thus little is known about Boyle's involvement beyond his membership.
In 1668 he left Oxford for London where he resided at the house of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall Mall.
In 1689 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously and he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing his communications to the Royal Society, and advertising his desire to be excused from receiving guests, "unless upon occasions very extraordinary", on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and Wednesday and Saturday afternoon. In the leisure thus gained he wished to "recruit his spirits, range his papers", and prepare some important chemical investigations which he proposed to leave "as a kind of Hermetic legacy to the studious disciples of that art", but of which he did not make known the nature.
His health became still worse in 1691, and he died on 30 December that year, just a week after that of the sister with whom he had lived for more than twenty years. Robert Boyle died from paralysis. He was buried in the churchyard of St Martin in the Fields, his funeral sermon being preached by his friend Bishop Gilbert Burnet. In his will, Boyle endowed a series of Lectures which came to be known as the Boyle Lectures. | <urn:uuid:c9e617c9-508e-4bad-bd3d-92e2bfd5f978> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Robert_Boyle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00339.warc.gz | en | 0.988204 | 1,061 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2393095493... | 1 | Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,270 pages of information and 220,098 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
Robert Boyle (25 January 1627 – 31 December 1691) was an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor, also noted for his writings in theology. He is best known for Boyle's law.
Boyle was born in Lismore Castle, in County Waterford, Ireland, the seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork. Richard Boyle had arrived in Ireland in 1588 as an entrepreneur, and had amassed enormous landholdings by the time Robert was born.
While still a child, Robert learned to speak Latin, Greek and French. He was not yet eight years old when, following the death of his mother, he was sent to Eton College in England, at which his father's friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then the provost.
After spending over three years at Eton, Robert travelled abroad with a French tutor. They visited Italy in 1641, and remained in Florence during the winter of that year, studying the "paradoxes of the great star-gazer" Galileo Galilei — Galileo was elderly, but still alive in Florence in 1641.
Boyle returned to England from the Continent in mid-1644 with a keen interest for scientific research. His father had died the previous year and had left him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorset, together with some estates in Ireland. From that time, he devoted his life to scientific research, and soon took a prominent place in the band of inquirers, known as the "Invisible College", who devoted themselves to the cultivation of the "new philosophy". They met frequently in London, often at Gresham College; some of the members also had meetings at Oxford where Boyle went to reside in 1654.
Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke's air-pump, he set himself with the assistance of Robert Hooke to devise improvements in its construction, and with the result, the "machina Boyleana" or "Pneumatical Engine", finished in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of air.
An account of Boyle's work with the air pump was published in 1660 under the title New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects.... Among the critics of the views put forward in this book was a Jesuit, Franciscus Linus (1595–1675), and it was while answering his objections that Boyle made his first mention of the law that the volume of a gas varies inversely to the pressure of the gas, which among English-speaking people is usually called after his name.
However, the person that originally formulated the hypothesis was Henry Power in 1661. Boyle included a reference to a paper written by Power, but mistakenly attributed it to Richard Townley. In continental Europe the hypothesis is sometimes attributed to Edme Mariotte, although he did not publish it until 1676 and was likely aware of Boyle's work at the time.
In 1663 the Invisible College became the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, and the charter of incorporation granted by Charles II of England, named Boyle a member of the council.
In 1680 he was elected president of the society, but declined the honour from a scruple about oaths.
It was during his time at Oxford that Boyle was a Chevalier. The Chevaliers are thought to have been established by royal order a few years before Boyle's time at Oxford. The period of Boyle's residence was marked by the reactionary actions of the victorious parliamentarian forces, consequently this period marked the most secretive period of Chevalier movements and thus little is known about Boyle's involvement beyond his membership.
In 1668 he left Oxford for London where he resided at the house of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall Mall.
In 1689 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously and he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing his communications to the Royal Society, and advertising his desire to be excused from receiving guests, "unless upon occasions very extraordinary", on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and Wednesday and Saturday afternoon. In the leisure thus gained he wished to "recruit his spirits, range his papers", and prepare some important chemical investigations which he proposed to leave "as a kind of Hermetic legacy to the studious disciples of that art", but of which he did not make known the nature.
His health became still worse in 1691, and he died on 30 December that year, just a week after that of the sister with whom he had lived for more than twenty years. Robert Boyle died from paralysis. He was buried in the churchyard of St Martin in the Fields, his funeral sermon being preached by his friend Bishop Gilbert Burnet. In his will, Boyle endowed a series of Lectures which came to be known as the Boyle Lectures. | 1,116 | ENGLISH | 1 |
« 上一頁繼續 »
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION.
Previous to the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, steps for the formation of a confederated government, by and between the colonies, were taken. A common danger seems to have impressed them with the necessity of a union for the common defense. On the 11th of June, 1176, some three weeks prior to the adoption of the Declaration, a committee of one from each colony was raised for the purpose of preparing a plan of government. The committee soon after made a report, but it was not finally adopted by Congress till the 15th of November, 1111.
It was at the same time resolved by Congress that the Articles of Confederation, as they were called, should be presented to the legislature of each colony; and, if ratified, then their Delegates in Congress should, in that body, approve the same. The colonies seem to have been singularly tardy in ratifying the articles. They were not ratified by Maryland till the 30th of January, 1781; New Jersey and Delaware also withheld their consent till some time during the year 1779; and it was not till after a circular-letter by Congress had been sent to the legislatures of the several colonies, appealing in the most patriotic terms to their love of country and to their sense of common danger, that the Articles of Confederation were adopted by the whole of the thirteen colonies. From that time they took the name of States, a name more sovereign and independent in signification. They were no longer colonies—dependencies of Great Britain.
JEFFERSON'S NOTES OF DEBATE ON CON-
On Friday, July 12, 1777, the committee appointed to draw the Articles of Confederation reported them, and on the 22d, the house resolved themselves into a committee to take them into consideration. On the 30th and 31st of that month, and 1st of the ensuing, those articles were debated which determined the proportion or quota of money which each State should furnish to the common treasury, and the manner of voting in Congress. The first of these articles was expressed, in the original draft, in these words:
"art. XL All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defense or general welfare, and allowed by the United States assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several colonies in proportion to the number of inhabitants of every age, sex, and quality, except Indians not paying taxes, in each colony—a true account of which, distinguishing the white inhabitants, shall be triennially taken, and transmitted to the Assembly of the United States."
Mr. Chase moved that the quotas should be fixed, not by the number of inhabitants of every condition, but by that of the "white inhabitants." He admitted that taxation should be always in proportion to property; that this was, in theory, the true rule; but that, from a variety of difficulties, it was a rule which could never be adopted in practice. The value of the property in every State could never be estimated justly and equally. Some other measures for the wealth of the State must therefore be devised, some standard referred to, which would be more simple. He considered the number of inhabitants as a tolerably good criterion of property, and that this might always be obtained. He therefore thought it the best mode which we could adopt, with one exception only; be observed that negroes are property, and as such, cannot be distinguished from the lands or personalties held in those States where there are few slaves; that the surplus of profit which a Northern farmer is able to lay by, he invests in cattle, horses, &c, whereas a Southern farmer lays out the same surplus in slaves. There is no more reason, therefore, for taxing the Southern States on the farmer's head, and on his slave's head, than the Northern ones on their farmer's heads and the heads of their cattle; that the method proposed would therefore tax the Southern States according to their numbers and their wealth conjunctly, while the Northern would be taxed on numbers only; that negroes, in fact, should not be considered as members of the State more than cattle, and that they have no more interest in it.
Mr. John Adams observed, that the numbers of people are taken, by this Article, as an index of the wealth of the State, and not as subjects of taxation; that, as to this matter, it was of no consequence by what name you called your people, whether by that of freemen or slaves; that in some countries, the laboring poor are called freemen, in others they are called slaves, but that the difference as to the State was imaginary only. What matters it whether a landlord, employing ten laborers on his farm, give them annually as much money as will buy them the necessaries of life, or give them those necessaries at short hand? The ten laborers add as much wealth to the State, increase its exports as much, in the one case as the other. Certainly five hundred freemen produce no more profits, no greater surplus for the payment of taxes, than five hundred slaves. Therefore, the State in which are the laborers called freemen should be taxed no more than that in which are those called slaves. Suppose, by an extraordinary operation of nature or of law, one-half the laborers of a State could, in the course of one night, be transformed into slaves, would the State be made the poorer, or the less able to pay taxes ?. That the condition of the laboring poor in most countries—that of the fishermen, particularly of the Northern States—is as abject as that of slaves. It is the number of laborers which produce the surplus for taxation; and numbers, therefore, indiscriminately, are the fair index to wealth; that it is the use of the word "property" here, and its application to some of the people of the State, which produce the fallacy. How does the Southern farmer procure slaves? Either by importation, or by purchase from his neighbor. If he imports a slave, he adds one to the number of laborers in his country, and, proportionably, to its profits and ability to pay taxes. If he buys from his neighbor, it is only a transfer of a laborer from one farm to another, which does not change the annual produce of the State, and therefore should not change its tax; that if a Northern farmer works ten laborers on his farm, he can, it is true, invest the surplus of ten men's labor in cattle; but so may the Southern farmer, working ten slaves; that a State of one hundred thousand freemen can maintain no more cattle than one of one hundred thousand slaves. Therefore, they have no more of that kind of property. That a slave may, indeed, from the custom of speech, be more properly called the wealth of his master, than the free laborer might be called the wealth of his employers; but as to the State, both were equally its wealth, and should therefore equally add to the quota of its tax.
Mr. Harrison proposed, as a compromise, that two slaves should be counted as one freeman. He affirmed that slaves did not do as much work as freemen, and doubted if two effected more than one; that this was proved by the price of labor—the hire of a laborer in the Southern colonies being from £8 to £12, while in the Northern it was generally £24.
Mr. Wilson said that, if this amendment should take place, the Southern colonies would have all the benefit of slaves, whilst the Northern ones would bear the burden; that slaves increase the profits of a State, which the | <urn:uuid:257e9ba5-89a1-48cb-83ae-a02d5231aa4f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=jevZzbnMmQQC&pg=PA21&dq=editions:UOM39015012867878&hl=zh-TW&output=html_text&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.982819 | 1,598 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.0112513881176... | 3 | « 上一頁繼續 »
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION.
Previous to the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, steps for the formation of a confederated government, by and between the colonies, were taken. A common danger seems to have impressed them with the necessity of a union for the common defense. On the 11th of June, 1176, some three weeks prior to the adoption of the Declaration, a committee of one from each colony was raised for the purpose of preparing a plan of government. The committee soon after made a report, but it was not finally adopted by Congress till the 15th of November, 1111.
It was at the same time resolved by Congress that the Articles of Confederation, as they were called, should be presented to the legislature of each colony; and, if ratified, then their Delegates in Congress should, in that body, approve the same. The colonies seem to have been singularly tardy in ratifying the articles. They were not ratified by Maryland till the 30th of January, 1781; New Jersey and Delaware also withheld their consent till some time during the year 1779; and it was not till after a circular-letter by Congress had been sent to the legislatures of the several colonies, appealing in the most patriotic terms to their love of country and to their sense of common danger, that the Articles of Confederation were adopted by the whole of the thirteen colonies. From that time they took the name of States, a name more sovereign and independent in signification. They were no longer colonies—dependencies of Great Britain.
JEFFERSON'S NOTES OF DEBATE ON CON-
On Friday, July 12, 1777, the committee appointed to draw the Articles of Confederation reported them, and on the 22d, the house resolved themselves into a committee to take them into consideration. On the 30th and 31st of that month, and 1st of the ensuing, those articles were debated which determined the proportion or quota of money which each State should furnish to the common treasury, and the manner of voting in Congress. The first of these articles was expressed, in the original draft, in these words:
"art. XL All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defense or general welfare, and allowed by the United States assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several colonies in proportion to the number of inhabitants of every age, sex, and quality, except Indians not paying taxes, in each colony—a true account of which, distinguishing the white inhabitants, shall be triennially taken, and transmitted to the Assembly of the United States."
Mr. Chase moved that the quotas should be fixed, not by the number of inhabitants of every condition, but by that of the "white inhabitants." He admitted that taxation should be always in proportion to property; that this was, in theory, the true rule; but that, from a variety of difficulties, it was a rule which could never be adopted in practice. The value of the property in every State could never be estimated justly and equally. Some other measures for the wealth of the State must therefore be devised, some standard referred to, which would be more simple. He considered the number of inhabitants as a tolerably good criterion of property, and that this might always be obtained. He therefore thought it the best mode which we could adopt, with one exception only; be observed that negroes are property, and as such, cannot be distinguished from the lands or personalties held in those States where there are few slaves; that the surplus of profit which a Northern farmer is able to lay by, he invests in cattle, horses, &c, whereas a Southern farmer lays out the same surplus in slaves. There is no more reason, therefore, for taxing the Southern States on the farmer's head, and on his slave's head, than the Northern ones on their farmer's heads and the heads of their cattle; that the method proposed would therefore tax the Southern States according to their numbers and their wealth conjunctly, while the Northern would be taxed on numbers only; that negroes, in fact, should not be considered as members of the State more than cattle, and that they have no more interest in it.
Mr. John Adams observed, that the numbers of people are taken, by this Article, as an index of the wealth of the State, and not as subjects of taxation; that, as to this matter, it was of no consequence by what name you called your people, whether by that of freemen or slaves; that in some countries, the laboring poor are called freemen, in others they are called slaves, but that the difference as to the State was imaginary only. What matters it whether a landlord, employing ten laborers on his farm, give them annually as much money as will buy them the necessaries of life, or give them those necessaries at short hand? The ten laborers add as much wealth to the State, increase its exports as much, in the one case as the other. Certainly five hundred freemen produce no more profits, no greater surplus for the payment of taxes, than five hundred slaves. Therefore, the State in which are the laborers called freemen should be taxed no more than that in which are those called slaves. Suppose, by an extraordinary operation of nature or of law, one-half the laborers of a State could, in the course of one night, be transformed into slaves, would the State be made the poorer, or the less able to pay taxes ?. That the condition of the laboring poor in most countries—that of the fishermen, particularly of the Northern States—is as abject as that of slaves. It is the number of laborers which produce the surplus for taxation; and numbers, therefore, indiscriminately, are the fair index to wealth; that it is the use of the word "property" here, and its application to some of the people of the State, which produce the fallacy. How does the Southern farmer procure slaves? Either by importation, or by purchase from his neighbor. If he imports a slave, he adds one to the number of laborers in his country, and, proportionably, to its profits and ability to pay taxes. If he buys from his neighbor, it is only a transfer of a laborer from one farm to another, which does not change the annual produce of the State, and therefore should not change its tax; that if a Northern farmer works ten laborers on his farm, he can, it is true, invest the surplus of ten men's labor in cattle; but so may the Southern farmer, working ten slaves; that a State of one hundred thousand freemen can maintain no more cattle than one of one hundred thousand slaves. Therefore, they have no more of that kind of property. That a slave may, indeed, from the custom of speech, be more properly called the wealth of his master, than the free laborer might be called the wealth of his employers; but as to the State, both were equally its wealth, and should therefore equally add to the quota of its tax.
Mr. Harrison proposed, as a compromise, that two slaves should be counted as one freeman. He affirmed that slaves did not do as much work as freemen, and doubted if two effected more than one; that this was proved by the price of labor—the hire of a laborer in the Southern colonies being from £8 to £12, while in the Northern it was generally £24.
Mr. Wilson said that, if this amendment should take place, the Southern colonies would have all the benefit of slaves, whilst the Northern ones would bear the burden; that slaves increase the profits of a State, which the | 1,616 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The census was a count of citizens by one-hundred and the census helped decide the voting rights for the citizens of Rome and how many soldiers each area of Rome had to give to the Roman army. He was an evil ruler that he was driven out of Rome by the people and he decided to go to the Estruscans to gather an army and try to regain his throne. He failed to regain the throne and Rome did not have a king after that.
Roman History B. These people were shepherds and farmers. In the hill country to the west lived the Sabines, distant kinsmen of the Latins.
They had moved into the peninsula from central Europe before BC and had vanquished the original inhabitants, a dark people. The people conquered by the Sabines had probably begun to move from Africa about 10, BC as the Sahara gradually turned to desert.
On the left bank of the Tiber River rise seven low hills. At this point the river is shallow and easy to cross. Settlements were later built on the other hills also. The towns on the seven hills finally joined to make one city, Rome.
The Kings of Early Rome - B. The early Romans kept no written records. Their history is so mixed with fables and myths that histo- rians have difficulty distinguishing truth from fiction. There are only two existing works which give the continuous early history of Rome. Both of these works were written long after the events they tell of, and neither is complete.
These men used inaccurate literary works for their information about early Rome. The old legends say that Romulus founded the city in BC when the settlements on the seven hills were united.
This date is probably too late for the actual founding of the city. Romulus was a mythical person, but there is some evidence that the kings who are said to have followed him actually existed.
Legend says that Numa Pompilius succeeded Romulus. He is described as a wise and pious ruler. One of his accomplishments is supposed to have been the adding of two months to the ten-month calendar.
There is a legend that Tullus was killed by lightning when he was "meddling" with the weather. During the reign of Ancus Martius, the next king, a number of troublesome Latin cities were conquered, and their inhabitants were brought to Rome.
Ancus Martius is said to have built Rome's seaport Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. Dating from this period of time information about Roman history is slightly more reliable, though it is still mixed with myth and legend.
Tarquinius Priscus, the first of the Etruscan kings, drained the city's marshes. He improved the Forum, which was the commercial and political center of the town.
He also founded a temple to Jupiter and carried on many wars with neighboring people. Under Servius Tullius, the second Etruscan king, a treaty was made with the Latin cities which acknowledged Rome as the head of all Latium.
Early historians said that Servius Tullius enlarged the city and built a wall around all seven hills. The last of the kings of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus Tarquin the Proudwas a tyrant who opposed the people.
Tradition says, however, that he was persuaded to buy the famous Sibylline Books which thereafter served as a guide for Rome in times of trouble.
Under the rule of the Etruscans Rome grew in importance and power. Great temples and impressive public works were constructed. The most notable of these public works is the huge sewer Cloaca Maxima, which is still in use.
Trade prospered, and by the end of the 6th century BC. Rome had become the largest and richest city in Italy. The Latin Aristocracy Revolts B. In spite of Rome's progress and development, the old Latin aristocracy resented the Etruscan kings.
The Etruscans were expelled from the city, and Rome became a republic.The Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths, or thermae, built in Rome between and AD, during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla. The extensive ruins of the baths have become a popular tourist attraction.
The bath complex covered approximately 13 hectares (33 ac). Aureus was the first gold coin of Rome.
It was used for most of Rome's trade in the 1st and 2nd century. Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire ( BCE – CE) The Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths, or thermae, built in Rome between and AD, during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla. The Roman city of Ratae Corieltauvorum was founded around AD 50 as a military settlement upon the Fosse Way Roman road.
Learn history of rome 7 dates with free interactive flashcards. Choose from different sets of history of rome 7 dates flashcards on Quizlet. Died in: BCE The fourth king of Rome had some legendary accomplishments.
For example, he was responsible for the first expansion of Rome from the Tiber river to Janiculum Hill, for the settlement of Aventine Hill, and he also founded Ostia a port at the mouth of the Tiber. The Kingdom of Rome grew rapidly from a trading town to a prosperous city between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE.
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0.19323268532752... | 2 | The census was a count of citizens by one-hundred and the census helped decide the voting rights for the citizens of Rome and how many soldiers each area of Rome had to give to the Roman army. He was an evil ruler that he was driven out of Rome by the people and he decided to go to the Estruscans to gather an army and try to regain his throne. He failed to regain the throne and Rome did not have a king after that.
Roman History B. These people were shepherds and farmers. In the hill country to the west lived the Sabines, distant kinsmen of the Latins.
They had moved into the peninsula from central Europe before BC and had vanquished the original inhabitants, a dark people. The people conquered by the Sabines had probably begun to move from Africa about 10, BC as the Sahara gradually turned to desert.
On the left bank of the Tiber River rise seven low hills. At this point the river is shallow and easy to cross. Settlements were later built on the other hills also. The towns on the seven hills finally joined to make one city, Rome.
The Kings of Early Rome - B. The early Romans kept no written records. Their history is so mixed with fables and myths that histo- rians have difficulty distinguishing truth from fiction. There are only two existing works which give the continuous early history of Rome. Both of these works were written long after the events they tell of, and neither is complete.
These men used inaccurate literary works for their information about early Rome. The old legends say that Romulus founded the city in BC when the settlements on the seven hills were united.
This date is probably too late for the actual founding of the city. Romulus was a mythical person, but there is some evidence that the kings who are said to have followed him actually existed.
Legend says that Numa Pompilius succeeded Romulus. He is described as a wise and pious ruler. One of his accomplishments is supposed to have been the adding of two months to the ten-month calendar.
There is a legend that Tullus was killed by lightning when he was "meddling" with the weather. During the reign of Ancus Martius, the next king, a number of troublesome Latin cities were conquered, and their inhabitants were brought to Rome.
Ancus Martius is said to have built Rome's seaport Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. Dating from this period of time information about Roman history is slightly more reliable, though it is still mixed with myth and legend.
Tarquinius Priscus, the first of the Etruscan kings, drained the city's marshes. He improved the Forum, which was the commercial and political center of the town.
He also founded a temple to Jupiter and carried on many wars with neighboring people. Under Servius Tullius, the second Etruscan king, a treaty was made with the Latin cities which acknowledged Rome as the head of all Latium.
Early historians said that Servius Tullius enlarged the city and built a wall around all seven hills. The last of the kings of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus Tarquin the Proudwas a tyrant who opposed the people.
Tradition says, however, that he was persuaded to buy the famous Sibylline Books which thereafter served as a guide for Rome in times of trouble.
Under the rule of the Etruscans Rome grew in importance and power. Great temples and impressive public works were constructed. The most notable of these public works is the huge sewer Cloaca Maxima, which is still in use.
Trade prospered, and by the end of the 6th century BC. Rome had become the largest and richest city in Italy. The Latin Aristocracy Revolts B. In spite of Rome's progress and development, the old Latin aristocracy resented the Etruscan kings.
The Etruscans were expelled from the city, and Rome became a republic.The Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths, or thermae, built in Rome between and AD, during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla. The extensive ruins of the baths have become a popular tourist attraction.
The bath complex covered approximately 13 hectares (33 ac). Aureus was the first gold coin of Rome.
It was used for most of Rome's trade in the 1st and 2nd century. Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire ( BCE – CE) The Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths, or thermae, built in Rome between and AD, during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla. The Roman city of Ratae Corieltauvorum was founded around AD 50 as a military settlement upon the Fosse Way Roman road.
Learn history of rome 7 dates with free interactive flashcards. Choose from different sets of history of rome 7 dates flashcards on Quizlet. Died in: BCE The fourth king of Rome had some legendary accomplishments.
For example, he was responsible for the first expansion of Rome from the Tiber river to Janiculum Hill, for the settlement of Aventine Hill, and he also founded Ostia a port at the mouth of the Tiber. The Kingdom of Rome grew rapidly from a trading town to a prosperous city between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE.
When the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed in BCE, his rival for power, Lucius Junius Brutus, reformed the system of government and established the Roman Republic. | 1,146 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Introduction In the sixth century before the Christian era, religion was forgotten in India.
He is the founder of Buddhism. Lord Buddha is often described as a yogi or saint. He is supposed to be incarnated in order to bring mankind closer to the dharma. Buddhist teachings are based on the principles of nonviolence, atheism and complete faith in Dharma. In almost all the major puranas, Lord Buddha is depicted as a preacher of atheistic Vedic views in order to restore the Dharma and a critic of animal sacrifice.
Lord Buddha was a compassionate teacher who preached the path of non-violence. Lord Buddha is known as the prince who renounced his throne in order to lead the path of peace. He is the founder of the Buddhist religion which is now famous across the world.
He was born as Siddhartha, the crown prince of the Kapilavastu. Since childhood, Lord Buddha was saddened by death of living beings and felt anguish and pain in learning the fact that humans can kill each other.
He wasn't satisfied with the answers that were provided to him by the learned masters of his court. So, one day, at dawn he decided to find out the answers and the meaning of life.
In search of absolute truth, he abandoned his wife and child. After years of wanderings, he became the enlightened one. He spread his knowledge and wisdom across and was soon followed by many disciples that lay a strong foundation of Buddhism. Buddhism is a spiritual way to end human sufferings and attain liberation by meditation and following a certain lifestyle of vegetarian, alcohol free, honest living.The life story of the Buddha begins in Lumbini, near the border of Nepal and India, about 2, years ago, where the man Siddharta Gautama was born.
Although born a prince, he realized that conditioned experiences could not provide lasting happiness or protection from suffering. Biography of Lord Buddha.
Siddhartha, who later became known as the Buddha – or The Enlightened One – was a prince who forsook the comforts of a palace to seek enlightenment. He realised the essential unreality of the world and experienced the bliss of Nirvana.
Buddha's Life Gautama Buddha (approximately BC - BC) (1) was born Siddhartha Gautama (Sanskrit form, or Siddhatta Gotama, Prakrit form); the title Buddha (enlightened one) was later bestowed upon him by his followers.
Buddha Childhood Shakyamuni Buddha, the founder and creator of Buddhism is one of the few individuals who are worshipped greatly even though they are born as human beings. Lord Buddha who was born in the great palace of Shakya King of Kapilvastu, Lumbini, Nepal, later created the great religion in order to teach all human beings the.
Gautama Buddha (c. / – c. / BCE), also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni (ie "Sage of the Shakyas") Buddha, or simply the Buddha, after the title of Buddha, was an ascetic and sage, on whose teachings Buddhism was iridis-photo-restoration.com: Yasodharā.
Buddha “The Enlightened” or “Awakened One” Siddhartha Gautama, or better know as Buddha, was born a Prince to King of the Shakyas tribe in BCE in Nepal (formerly Northern India).Siddhartha’s mother died seven days after giving birth, but it was prophesized that her son would become a great King, military leader or spiritual leader. | <urn:uuid:bba8a5d0-259f-4e28-9e58-625a707efd84> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://widytugucomunyq.iridis-photo-restoration.com/childhood-of-lord-buddha-319hw.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.980247 | 752 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.41905856132507... | 1 | Introduction In the sixth century before the Christian era, religion was forgotten in India.
He is the founder of Buddhism. Lord Buddha is often described as a yogi or saint. He is supposed to be incarnated in order to bring mankind closer to the dharma. Buddhist teachings are based on the principles of nonviolence, atheism and complete faith in Dharma. In almost all the major puranas, Lord Buddha is depicted as a preacher of atheistic Vedic views in order to restore the Dharma and a critic of animal sacrifice.
Lord Buddha was a compassionate teacher who preached the path of non-violence. Lord Buddha is known as the prince who renounced his throne in order to lead the path of peace. He is the founder of the Buddhist religion which is now famous across the world.
He was born as Siddhartha, the crown prince of the Kapilavastu. Since childhood, Lord Buddha was saddened by death of living beings and felt anguish and pain in learning the fact that humans can kill each other.
He wasn't satisfied with the answers that were provided to him by the learned masters of his court. So, one day, at dawn he decided to find out the answers and the meaning of life.
In search of absolute truth, he abandoned his wife and child. After years of wanderings, he became the enlightened one. He spread his knowledge and wisdom across and was soon followed by many disciples that lay a strong foundation of Buddhism. Buddhism is a spiritual way to end human sufferings and attain liberation by meditation and following a certain lifestyle of vegetarian, alcohol free, honest living.The life story of the Buddha begins in Lumbini, near the border of Nepal and India, about 2, years ago, where the man Siddharta Gautama was born.
Although born a prince, he realized that conditioned experiences could not provide lasting happiness or protection from suffering. Biography of Lord Buddha.
Siddhartha, who later became known as the Buddha – or The Enlightened One – was a prince who forsook the comforts of a palace to seek enlightenment. He realised the essential unreality of the world and experienced the bliss of Nirvana.
Buddha's Life Gautama Buddha (approximately BC - BC) (1) was born Siddhartha Gautama (Sanskrit form, or Siddhatta Gotama, Prakrit form); the title Buddha (enlightened one) was later bestowed upon him by his followers.
Buddha Childhood Shakyamuni Buddha, the founder and creator of Buddhism is one of the few individuals who are worshipped greatly even though they are born as human beings. Lord Buddha who was born in the great palace of Shakya King of Kapilvastu, Lumbini, Nepal, later created the great religion in order to teach all human beings the.
Gautama Buddha (c. / – c. / BCE), also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni (ie "Sage of the Shakyas") Buddha, or simply the Buddha, after the title of Buddha, was an ascetic and sage, on whose teachings Buddhism was iridis-photo-restoration.com: Yasodharā.
Buddha “The Enlightened” or “Awakened One” Siddhartha Gautama, or better know as Buddha, was born a Prince to King of the Shakyas tribe in BCE in Nepal (formerly Northern India).Siddhartha’s mother died seven days after giving birth, but it was prophesized that her son would become a great King, military leader or spiritual leader. | 733 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most people call Separatists Pilgrims, since the name Pilgrim means anyone who travels far away from where they live, for a religious reason. Separatists were people from England who came to America because they wanted to pray to God in their own ways, not the King's way.
The Separatists, when living in England, spoke English, but moved to Holland for religious freedom. There everyone from Holland spoke Dutch. The Separatists wanted their children to learn their original language, so about 12 years after they came to Holland they moved to America (a part "owned" by England). There they learned and spoke English. Everyone that wrote and spoke English back in those days wrote in cursive or a fancy way of writing print.
The Separatists ate corn, corn bread, plain bread, turkey, wild geese, and berries. The Native Americans taught the Separatists how to grow corn, find berries, how to hunt better, and where good fishing places were. Separatists made houses mostly out of the wood from the trees in the forests. Most people around the time of the 1620's walked or rode on horseback, and that is just what the Separatists did. For toys most of the kids would make dolls from their mother's clothes scraps.
The Separatists were Christians, but they did not like the ways the King made them worship to God so they moved to Holland. A little while later they moved to America where people spoke English, but they still could pray their own way. The Separatists would pray before meals to thank God for their food, and before they went to bed thanking him for anything that was wonderful that happened that day.
The government the Separatists started was called the Mayflower Compact. It was an agreement. In this agreement it said all the laws Plymouth would have would be fair to all. They would not have a king to rule you, but they would have a governor to make decisions and to run things, but he couldn't boss people around like a king. This governor was William Bradford. This was the first government in America to say you couldn't rule others.
The way people would choose jobs is they would have a town meeting and talk about jobs there or, they would just do what they do best. The common jobs a person could do are a farmer, a cook, a doctor, or someone who tends to the animals.
The main holiday the Separatists celebrated is now called Thanksgiving. This holiday started around Nov. 9 1621 (and we still celebrate this holiday today). It was a feast between the Separatists and Chief Massasoit and his tribe. This holiday was to be thankful for the harvest and to have a good and healthy life.
The Books I Used For This Report are:
Vivian Bernstein, America's Story, 1995
R. Conrad Stein , The Pilgrims, 1995
Herbert H. Gross, Follett Social Studies ,1980
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0.0090962508693... | 1 | Most people call Separatists Pilgrims, since the name Pilgrim means anyone who travels far away from where they live, for a religious reason. Separatists were people from England who came to America because they wanted to pray to God in their own ways, not the King's way.
The Separatists, when living in England, spoke English, but moved to Holland for religious freedom. There everyone from Holland spoke Dutch. The Separatists wanted their children to learn their original language, so about 12 years after they came to Holland they moved to America (a part "owned" by England). There they learned and spoke English. Everyone that wrote and spoke English back in those days wrote in cursive or a fancy way of writing print.
The Separatists ate corn, corn bread, plain bread, turkey, wild geese, and berries. The Native Americans taught the Separatists how to grow corn, find berries, how to hunt better, and where good fishing places were. Separatists made houses mostly out of the wood from the trees in the forests. Most people around the time of the 1620's walked or rode on horseback, and that is just what the Separatists did. For toys most of the kids would make dolls from their mother's clothes scraps.
The Separatists were Christians, but they did not like the ways the King made them worship to God so they moved to Holland. A little while later they moved to America where people spoke English, but they still could pray their own way. The Separatists would pray before meals to thank God for their food, and before they went to bed thanking him for anything that was wonderful that happened that day.
The government the Separatists started was called the Mayflower Compact. It was an agreement. In this agreement it said all the laws Plymouth would have would be fair to all. They would not have a king to rule you, but they would have a governor to make decisions and to run things, but he couldn't boss people around like a king. This governor was William Bradford. This was the first government in America to say you couldn't rule others.
The way people would choose jobs is they would have a town meeting and talk about jobs there or, they would just do what they do best. The common jobs a person could do are a farmer, a cook, a doctor, or someone who tends to the animals.
The main holiday the Separatists celebrated is now called Thanksgiving. This holiday started around Nov. 9 1621 (and we still celebrate this holiday today). It was a feast between the Separatists and Chief Massasoit and his tribe. This holiday was to be thankful for the harvest and to have a good and healthy life.
The Books I Used For This Report are:
Vivian Bernstein, America's Story, 1995
R. Conrad Stein , The Pilgrims, 1995
Herbert H. Gross, Follett Social Studies ,1980
Dwight W. Follett, Robert E. Gabler, William L. Burton, Ben F. Ahlschwede, The Americans | 652 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Penn may be best known for establishing the Pennsylvania Colony, but his remains lie in an unassuming grave in the English countryside at the Old Jordans Cemetery near the experimental Quaker town of Jordans in Buckinghamshire, England.
The son of a prominent naval officer, Penn attended Oxford University and studied the classics and law. At the age of 22, he converted to the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), which created tension with his father and eventually led Admiral Penn to disown his son. The younger Penn soon befriended the founder of the Religious Society of Friends, George Fox, who became his mentor.
Upon his father’s death, Penn received a large inheritance from the family’s estate. In 1681, he accepted a grant from King Charles II for the land that would become the Pennsylvania Colony. The grant covered a debt of 16,000 pounds the Crown had owed to Penn’s father. William Penn used the land as a sanctuary for his persecuted sect, the Religious Society of Friends. Penn traveled to the New World in 1682, along with other religious dissidents, to establish the Pennsylvania colony and the city of Philadelphia, laying out a grid for the city himself.
After founding the colony, Penn traveled back and forth between the New World and England twice, living in Pennsylvania only from 1682 through 84 and 1699 through 1701. Between these visits, Penn returned to England to defend his grant against those who would place it under direct royal control instead of under an individual land grant.
Under King James II’s Declaration of Indulgence in 1687, local Friends built Jordans Meeting House, one of the oldest Quaker Meeting Houses. Penn and his family returned to the colony in 1699 then back to England in 1701, never to see his colony again.
The threat that sent Penn back to England in 1701 was the Royal Board of Trade, which was addressing concerns that the Quakers were dominating Pennsylvania’s legislature and due to their pacifist beliefs, refused to create a militia to defend the colony by land or sea. They were also concerned with ongoing trade with pirates that were being conducted from the port of Philadelphia. Several counties that would later make up the state of Delaware were also calling for their independence from Pennsylvania.
While Penn was able to navigate these choppy waters, his final years in England were difficult, including multiple attempts to end his ownership of Pennsylvania due to administrative and financial concerns. Penn’s efforts to retain the Pennsylvania colony included the sale of his family home, a nearly 10-month stint in Fleet Prison (a London jail for debtors), and finally, an increased debt load due to mortgaging the colony in secret to his accountant in Ireland, Philip Ford. This essentially made Ford the colony’s legal proprietor. In 1712, Penn suffered a stroke, severely limiting his abilities until he quietly died in July 1718.
Penn’s gravestone is plain and carved with only his name and death year. He is buried with his second wife Hannah Callowhill directly above him and his first wife Gulielma Springett and her mother Margaret Penington lie to his right. Additionally, 10 Penn children are buried in the cemetery.
The tombstones date from the mid-1800s as the first stones were removed in 1766, when in an attempt to equalize the dead, the local Quaker group removed all markers. In 1881, the Pennsylvania State Government requested his remains be moved to Philadelphia, but the request was refused in keeping with Quaker values due to the pomp and circumstance it would entail. | <urn:uuid:558c2969-dc56-47a2-b542-ddbb467bfad1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/william-penn-s-final-resting-place | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.98315 | 736 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.101504236... | 1 | William Penn may be best known for establishing the Pennsylvania Colony, but his remains lie in an unassuming grave in the English countryside at the Old Jordans Cemetery near the experimental Quaker town of Jordans in Buckinghamshire, England.
The son of a prominent naval officer, Penn attended Oxford University and studied the classics and law. At the age of 22, he converted to the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), which created tension with his father and eventually led Admiral Penn to disown his son. The younger Penn soon befriended the founder of the Religious Society of Friends, George Fox, who became his mentor.
Upon his father’s death, Penn received a large inheritance from the family’s estate. In 1681, he accepted a grant from King Charles II for the land that would become the Pennsylvania Colony. The grant covered a debt of 16,000 pounds the Crown had owed to Penn’s father. William Penn used the land as a sanctuary for his persecuted sect, the Religious Society of Friends. Penn traveled to the New World in 1682, along with other religious dissidents, to establish the Pennsylvania colony and the city of Philadelphia, laying out a grid for the city himself.
After founding the colony, Penn traveled back and forth between the New World and England twice, living in Pennsylvania only from 1682 through 84 and 1699 through 1701. Between these visits, Penn returned to England to defend his grant against those who would place it under direct royal control instead of under an individual land grant.
Under King James II’s Declaration of Indulgence in 1687, local Friends built Jordans Meeting House, one of the oldest Quaker Meeting Houses. Penn and his family returned to the colony in 1699 then back to England in 1701, never to see his colony again.
The threat that sent Penn back to England in 1701 was the Royal Board of Trade, which was addressing concerns that the Quakers were dominating Pennsylvania’s legislature and due to their pacifist beliefs, refused to create a militia to defend the colony by land or sea. They were also concerned with ongoing trade with pirates that were being conducted from the port of Philadelphia. Several counties that would later make up the state of Delaware were also calling for their independence from Pennsylvania.
While Penn was able to navigate these choppy waters, his final years in England were difficult, including multiple attempts to end his ownership of Pennsylvania due to administrative and financial concerns. Penn’s efforts to retain the Pennsylvania colony included the sale of his family home, a nearly 10-month stint in Fleet Prison (a London jail for debtors), and finally, an increased debt load due to mortgaging the colony in secret to his accountant in Ireland, Philip Ford. This essentially made Ford the colony’s legal proprietor. In 1712, Penn suffered a stroke, severely limiting his abilities until he quietly died in July 1718.
Penn’s gravestone is plain and carved with only his name and death year. He is buried with his second wife Hannah Callowhill directly above him and his first wife Gulielma Springett and her mother Margaret Penington lie to his right. Additionally, 10 Penn children are buried in the cemetery.
The tombstones date from the mid-1800s as the first stones were removed in 1766, when in an attempt to equalize the dead, the local Quaker group removed all markers. In 1881, the Pennsylvania State Government requested his remains be moved to Philadelphia, but the request was refused in keeping with Quaker values due to the pomp and circumstance it would entail. | 767 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Welcome to Year 6!
This term, we are looking into World War Two and diving into the archives to find out what life was really like between 1939 and 1945. We will be completing research, carry out rationing activities and even see what it was like to be in an air raid. Later in the term, we will see how difficult it was to cook during the war years and the influence propaganda had on the Home Front.
To help support your child at home, please hear them read as much as possible and encourage them to practise their times tables. ‘Times Tables Rockstars’ has recently been launched in all Year 6 Maths groups and the children are already completing this at home…hopefully with the music turned down!
Below are some useful websites to help your child with their topic work and prep for their SATs.
www.bbc.com/bitesize (please click on KS2)
This is an exciting and busy year for you child so please come and talk to us if you have any concerns or worries. Thank you. | <urn:uuid:b79ca91f-417b-4163-bda0-c7f460e0a206> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nyewood-jun.w-sussex.sch.uk/year-6/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00081.warc.gz | en | 0.982494 | 218 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4396994... | 1 | Welcome to Year 6!
This term, we are looking into World War Two and diving into the archives to find out what life was really like between 1939 and 1945. We will be completing research, carry out rationing activities and even see what it was like to be in an air raid. Later in the term, we will see how difficult it was to cook during the war years and the influence propaganda had on the Home Front.
To help support your child at home, please hear them read as much as possible and encourage them to practise their times tables. ‘Times Tables Rockstars’ has recently been launched in all Year 6 Maths groups and the children are already completing this at home…hopefully with the music turned down!
Below are some useful websites to help your child with their topic work and prep for their SATs.
www.bbc.com/bitesize (please click on KS2)
This is an exciting and busy year for you child so please come and talk to us if you have any concerns or worries. Thank you. | 216 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the interesting things that interested me in this class was how slave and factory workers were treated. One group was treated fairly and the other wasn’t. I thought it was unfair. It was unfair how factory workers were treated unlike slaves they were somewhat treated fair. I believe it should have been the opposite for slaves because being a slave is worse than being a factory worker. Factory and Slave workers have many differences with each other but both were untreated unfairly at times. Samuel Slater was known as the “Father of the Factory System” he made a machine called the cotton gin he had no clue what he created it wouldn’t be a place for make but also a place to work.
Essay due? We'll write it for you!
During the 1800’s when slavery was increasing southerners justified their actions by declaring that factory workers of the North had terrible lives than slaves in the south. Northerners would dismiss the thought of it but it was true. Northerners felt like that because of the way slaves were treated. What they did not understand was factory workers had long times of not seeing friends and families. They were exhausted people they would work horrifying hours and work with in unsafe places. In a letter from a women worker in the lowell mills wrote to a friend stating “”You wish to know minutely of our hours of labor. We go in [to the mill] at five o’clock; at seven we come out to breakfast; at half-past seven we return to our work, and stay until half- past twelve. At one, or quarter-past one four months in the year, we return to our work, and stay until seven at night. Then the evening is all our own, which is more than some laboring girls can say, who think nothing is more tedious than a factory life ( The Brief American Pageant).”
Northern Factory workers had no extra time to spend time with family or friends. On the other hand the slaves got to be with their friends and family everyday. While slaves were enjoying spending time with family and friends the factory workers had few time with family and friends with was unfair. Since the factory workers were really tired if by chance they had a time away from the factory they would sleep. The boss off the factory can take blame of that to invest energy with family and friends but at the same time they were required to rest to habve the alertness required for the next day.
Th the South slaves were viewed as significant property. The owner needed to pay a cost for the slave they didn’t want them to get ill or injured. It is a result of this that slaves regularly just worked amid the day hours and rested during the evening. On the other hand owners didn’t care if factory workers were ill or injured. They were forced to work for long hours at times they would only catch a few hours of sleep.
At the same time both groups were mistreated unfairly. Factory workers and slaves were treated very poorly. Food wasn’t the best many were to work in disgusting places. Slaves didn’t have the right to vote even after they were given the right to vote they still didn’t really have the right to vote. Factory workers were limited by not being able to form labor unions. There was many young slaves hat included children they were to put to work. Many factory workers started working at young ages as well they were treated very badly adults weren’t treated as bad. Factory work was very dangerous death and injuries were common. Factory workers would work long hours and got payed minimum wage. They would have to ask their boss if they needed anything.
Something that can be compared between the slave and factory workers were that they both work in different conditions both did suffer. Factory workers and slaves were treated very poorly. Food wasn’t the best many were to work in disgusting places. Slaves didn’t have the right to vote even after they were given the right to vote they still didn’t really have the right to vote. Factory workers were limited by not being able to form labor unions. There was many young slaves hat included children they were to put to work. Many factory workers started working at young ages as well they were treated very badly adults weren’t treated as bad. Slave conditions were horrible they were the poorest of society, they were abused by owners and also they were denied to earn money. Many factory workers were getting paid but slaves weren’t they weren’t even feed a meal.
There was many underage children who worked very young. They were under the age of 10 many got whipped inside rooms factories provided. Slave conditions were different than factory workers south slaves worked outside in the cotton fields. Slaves that work in the fields worked from sunrise to sunset every year they would get new clothes they were given punishment is they broke any rules. By the time children were 8 slave children had to work on plantation. During the harvest season they would work a lot.
Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here.
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Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now | <urn:uuid:a00fd327-acf5-43ce-b667-0024a1233e06> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eduzaurus.com/free-essay-samples/slaves-and-factory-workers-during-the-1800s/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00444.warc.gz | en | 0.99526 | 1,138 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.1517018... | 2 | One of the interesting things that interested me in this class was how slave and factory workers were treated. One group was treated fairly and the other wasn’t. I thought it was unfair. It was unfair how factory workers were treated unlike slaves they were somewhat treated fair. I believe it should have been the opposite for slaves because being a slave is worse than being a factory worker. Factory and Slave workers have many differences with each other but both were untreated unfairly at times. Samuel Slater was known as the “Father of the Factory System” he made a machine called the cotton gin he had no clue what he created it wouldn’t be a place for make but also a place to work.
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During the 1800’s when slavery was increasing southerners justified their actions by declaring that factory workers of the North had terrible lives than slaves in the south. Northerners would dismiss the thought of it but it was true. Northerners felt like that because of the way slaves were treated. What they did not understand was factory workers had long times of not seeing friends and families. They were exhausted people they would work horrifying hours and work with in unsafe places. In a letter from a women worker in the lowell mills wrote to a friend stating “”You wish to know minutely of our hours of labor. We go in [to the mill] at five o’clock; at seven we come out to breakfast; at half-past seven we return to our work, and stay until half- past twelve. At one, or quarter-past one four months in the year, we return to our work, and stay until seven at night. Then the evening is all our own, which is more than some laboring girls can say, who think nothing is more tedious than a factory life ( The Brief American Pageant).”
Northern Factory workers had no extra time to spend time with family or friends. On the other hand the slaves got to be with their friends and family everyday. While slaves were enjoying spending time with family and friends the factory workers had few time with family and friends with was unfair. Since the factory workers were really tired if by chance they had a time away from the factory they would sleep. The boss off the factory can take blame of that to invest energy with family and friends but at the same time they were required to rest to habve the alertness required for the next day.
Th the South slaves were viewed as significant property. The owner needed to pay a cost for the slave they didn’t want them to get ill or injured. It is a result of this that slaves regularly just worked amid the day hours and rested during the evening. On the other hand owners didn’t care if factory workers were ill or injured. They were forced to work for long hours at times they would only catch a few hours of sleep.
At the same time both groups were mistreated unfairly. Factory workers and slaves were treated very poorly. Food wasn’t the best many were to work in disgusting places. Slaves didn’t have the right to vote even after they were given the right to vote they still didn’t really have the right to vote. Factory workers were limited by not being able to form labor unions. There was many young slaves hat included children they were to put to work. Many factory workers started working at young ages as well they were treated very badly adults weren’t treated as bad. Factory work was very dangerous death and injuries were common. Factory workers would work long hours and got payed minimum wage. They would have to ask their boss if they needed anything.
Something that can be compared between the slave and factory workers were that they both work in different conditions both did suffer. Factory workers and slaves were treated very poorly. Food wasn’t the best many were to work in disgusting places. Slaves didn’t have the right to vote even after they were given the right to vote they still didn’t really have the right to vote. Factory workers were limited by not being able to form labor unions. There was many young slaves hat included children they were to put to work. Many factory workers started working at young ages as well they were treated very badly adults weren’t treated as bad. Slave conditions were horrible they were the poorest of society, they were abused by owners and also they were denied to earn money. Many factory workers were getting paid but slaves weren’t they weren’t even feed a meal.
There was many underage children who worked very young. They were under the age of 10 many got whipped inside rooms factories provided. Slave conditions were different than factory workers south slaves worked outside in the cotton fields. Slaves that work in the fields worked from sunrise to sunset every year they would get new clothes they were given punishment is they broke any rules. By the time children were 8 slave children had to work on plantation. During the harvest season they would work a lot.
Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here.
Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you.
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Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now | 1,093 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Muscle Development in Children's Legs
Your baby is born with leg muscles, but the muscles are soft and need to be built upon throughout his life. To help encourage your child’s leg muscle development, understand when he will be able to master certain skills and how muscles are most effectively strengthened.
Although your child is unable to do much during the first few months of life, you might notice that she kicks her legs around while lying down. She will start walking before her second birthday, and her leg muscles will only continue to build from there as she adds running, jumping and skipping to her list of achievements, all before she turns 5 years old.
The best way to encourage your child’s leg muscle development is to provide him with plenty of options to play, according to KidsHealth.org 1. Instead of specific and targeted exercises, just give him opportunities to explore his environment and gradually learn to use his legs, beginning in infancy. As he gets older, encourage him to participate in physical activities such as bike riding, jumping, running and climbing.
In addition to physical activity, your child’s muscles need nutritious foods to grow. Foods rich in protein such as:
- red meat
- leafy greens
- can provide your child with the energy she needs to build her muscles
However, KidsHealth.org indicates that a balanced diet full of a variety of nutrients is needed to build strong muscles 1.
Your child will likely seem wobbly and unsure of himself as he starts learning to use his legs. This is normal behavior as he takes time to develop his motor skills. You might even notice that his legs appear bowed from being cramped in the womb, which will go away as he begins learning to walk. However, talk to your child’s doctor about muscle development issues if you notice that your child is favoring one side, falls excessively, or if his legs seem extremely stiff.
- BananaStock/BananaStock/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:f1dc187e-894e-4e90-84b5-abdef4f24ed5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://howtoadult.com/muscle-development-childrens-legs-12696.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00229.warc.gz | en | 0.980341 | 402 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.4047564566... | 4 | Muscle Development in Children's Legs
Your baby is born with leg muscles, but the muscles are soft and need to be built upon throughout his life. To help encourage your child’s leg muscle development, understand when he will be able to master certain skills and how muscles are most effectively strengthened.
Although your child is unable to do much during the first few months of life, you might notice that she kicks her legs around while lying down. She will start walking before her second birthday, and her leg muscles will only continue to build from there as she adds running, jumping and skipping to her list of achievements, all before she turns 5 years old.
The best way to encourage your child’s leg muscle development is to provide him with plenty of options to play, according to KidsHealth.org 1. Instead of specific and targeted exercises, just give him opportunities to explore his environment and gradually learn to use his legs, beginning in infancy. As he gets older, encourage him to participate in physical activities such as bike riding, jumping, running and climbing.
In addition to physical activity, your child’s muscles need nutritious foods to grow. Foods rich in protein such as:
- red meat
- leafy greens
- can provide your child with the energy she needs to build her muscles
However, KidsHealth.org indicates that a balanced diet full of a variety of nutrients is needed to build strong muscles 1.
Your child will likely seem wobbly and unsure of himself as he starts learning to use his legs. This is normal behavior as he takes time to develop his motor skills. You might even notice that his legs appear bowed from being cramped in the womb, which will go away as he begins learning to walk. However, talk to your child’s doctor about muscle development issues if you notice that your child is favoring one side, falls excessively, or if his legs seem extremely stiff.
- BananaStock/BananaStock/Getty Images | 389 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William the Conqueror—The Story of Hereward the Wake
W ILLIAM of Normandy had won the battle of Hastings, but he had not won England. Harold was dead, but the people would not call William king. For five days after the battle he waited, expecting the English lords to come to do homage to him, as their new master. But not one came. The people were full of grief and anger at the death of Harold, and of sullen hate for the conqueror. They would not own him as king.
After five days, William waited no longer. More soldiers had come from Normandy to replace those who had been killed at the battle of Hastings. With these new soldiers William marched through the land, and so fierce and terrible was he, that he forced the people to own him as king. By December all the south of England was in William's power, and on Christmas Day he was crowned at Westminster.
Scarcely a year before, the people had crowded to the same place to see Harold, and to cheer and welcome him as their king. Now all was changed. The people were sullen and silent, the way was lined with Norman soldiers, and Norman faces and Norman costumes were everywhere to be seen.
Stigand, the archbishop who had crowned Harold, refused to crown William, and William in wrath retorted that he was no true bishop, and that he did not wish to be crowned by him. Yet William forced Stigand to be present at the coronation.
Once again, as so short a time before, the voice of the bishop rang through the great church, "Do you take William of Normandy to be your king?" Once again the answer came, "We do." But this time the question was asked and answered in French, and the English voices were silent. So the question was asked again in English, and the answer came from unwilling English lips, but not from English hearts, "We do." Then an echoing cry was heard without—not the shout of a glad people, but a cry of agony and despair. The Norman soldiers, instead of keeping order, had begun to fight and kill. They had set fire to the houses near the church, and were slaying and robbing. Those within the church rushed out, some in fear, others eager to join the robbers. William was left alone with only the bishops and the priests.
Then for the first time in his life the great William was afraid. Through the windows of the church he could see the flicker of flames, and could hear the savage yells of soldiers and the shrieks of frightened women and children. Yet he did not know whether the English had risen in revolt, or whether it was only his own wild soldiers who were attacking the people.
But whatever it might be William meant to be King of England—a king crowned and anointed. So although his cheek was pale and his voice shook, he forced the archbishop to go on with the ceremony.
With trembling hands the archbishop placed the crown upon William's head—not Harold's crown, but a new one glittering with splendid gems—and in a hurried and mumbling voice he finished the service. Then William, kneeling at the altar, promised to fear God, to rule the people well, and to keep the laws of Alfred and Edward, "so that the people be true to me," he added.
As he stood up no shout greeted him, the church was silent and empty. He passed down the aisle in lonely splendour, followed only by the trembling priests, while without was heard the sound of the crackling flames mingled with fierce yells and curses.
William was crowned, but the English rejected him as king. They wanted an English king. But alas! there was no strong man whom they could choose. Harold's brave brothers had all died with him at Hastings. There, too, had fallen the noblest and the best of the English lords. There was no one left who seemed to have any right to the throne, except the little boy Edgar the Ætheling, Edmund Ironside's grandson. Even he did not seem to be English, for he had lived nearly all his life in Hungary, and could hardly speak his own language. But at least he was not Norman, so the English chose him to be king.
The people of Northumberland rose in fierce rebellion against William, and he in as fierce anger marched against them with his soldiers. From north to south he laid waste to the country, burning towns, destroying farms, killing cattle, murdering the people, till the whole of Northumberland was one dreary desert. So fierce and terrible was his wrath that even the ploughs and farming tools were destroyed, and the land lay untilled and desolate. Those of the people who were not killed in battle died miserably of cold and hunger. When William marched south again, he left only blackened ruins and dismal waste, where happy homes and smiling fields had been. From very need, most of the English lords now bowed to William and owned him master. Even Edgar came to him to do homage and strange to say William treated him kindly. Perhaps he felt that he was so strong and Edgar so weak, that he had no need to fear him.
Still the English were not all conquered. In the Isle of Ely, in what is called the Fen country, the people made one last stand. There, under the leadership of a brave Englishman called Hereward, they held out against William.
In the time of Edward the Confessor, Hereward had been banished for some reason, perhaps because he had quarrelled with one of Edward's Norman friends. He had lived for many years across the sea in a country called Flanders. But when he heard that Edward was dead, that Harold was also dead, and that William the Norman had seized the crown of England, Hereward came back determined to fight for his own land.
All the noblest and bravest of the English who still resisted William gathered to Hereward and they made their camp in the Isle of Ely. The monks who already lived there shared their monastery with the soldiers. So in the great hall peaceful monks and warlike men sat side by side at meals, and the walls which had been hung with holy relics and pictures of saints were now covered with weapons and armour.
Hereward built a castle at Ely, but it was a wooden one, while all through England the Normans were building strong fortresses of stone, such as the English had never seen before.
Hereward hoped that, from his castle at Ely, he would gradually win all England again. But the hope was vain, for William was too strong. Yet it took him a long time to conquer Hereward. Like Harold, Hereward was a good general, and he was both clever and brave.
After trying vainly to find a way through the marshes and fens to Hereward's camp, William decided at last to build a road strong enough and broad enough to carry his army over. So the soldiers set to work at once with stones, wood, and skins of animals, to make a strong, broad, solid road. When it was finished William's men marched over it to attack Hereward's men in their own camp, but the English fought desperately, and the Normans were driven back.
In those days people believed in witches. So William next found a poor old woman who was supposed to be a witch. He built a wooden tower, placed it on wheels, and with the witch inside, pushed it along the road, at the head of the Norman army. This poor old woman was meant to cast a spell over the English soldiers, so that they would not be able to fight any more. Of course she could really do them no harm, and Hereward and his men captured the tower and burned it up, witch and all. Again William had failed.
Hereward had brought large stores of food into the camp, and he and his men hunted wild animals, so that there was always enough to eat, although the fare was plain. But the monks who were used to living a very easy life and to having fine things to eat and drink, grew tired of fighting and of plain food, and they sent a message to William telling him of a secret way through the fens to the camp.
So Hereward who could not be conquered was betrayed.
One evening the Norman soldiers, led by the wicked monks, came stealthily through the thick woods among the marshes. In the gathering dusk they came creeping, silent and eager. Then, when they were close upon the camp, they burst with wild cries upon the unsuspecting English, and, when the sun had set, the sky was red with the flames from burning English homes.
Many lay dead, many were taken prisoners. To the prisoners William was very cruel. He put out their eyes, cut off their hands, and treated them so dreadfully that they cried aloud, "It is better to fall into the hands of God than into those of the Norman tyrant."
Hereward escaped, and with some of his bravest followers continued to fight, although all hope of freedom for England was gone. But he, too, yielded at length and bowed his proud head to the conqueror. William of Normandy was at last master of all England. He was indeed William the Conqueror. | <urn:uuid:00aa682e-0ff8-48cb-b45b-ca798f72f4db> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=hereward | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.991251 | 1,928 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.004897228... | 7 | William the Conqueror—The Story of Hereward the Wake
W ILLIAM of Normandy had won the battle of Hastings, but he had not won England. Harold was dead, but the people would not call William king. For five days after the battle he waited, expecting the English lords to come to do homage to him, as their new master. But not one came. The people were full of grief and anger at the death of Harold, and of sullen hate for the conqueror. They would not own him as king.
After five days, William waited no longer. More soldiers had come from Normandy to replace those who had been killed at the battle of Hastings. With these new soldiers William marched through the land, and so fierce and terrible was he, that he forced the people to own him as king. By December all the south of England was in William's power, and on Christmas Day he was crowned at Westminster.
Scarcely a year before, the people had crowded to the same place to see Harold, and to cheer and welcome him as their king. Now all was changed. The people were sullen and silent, the way was lined with Norman soldiers, and Norman faces and Norman costumes were everywhere to be seen.
Stigand, the archbishop who had crowned Harold, refused to crown William, and William in wrath retorted that he was no true bishop, and that he did not wish to be crowned by him. Yet William forced Stigand to be present at the coronation.
Once again, as so short a time before, the voice of the bishop rang through the great church, "Do you take William of Normandy to be your king?" Once again the answer came, "We do." But this time the question was asked and answered in French, and the English voices were silent. So the question was asked again in English, and the answer came from unwilling English lips, but not from English hearts, "We do." Then an echoing cry was heard without—not the shout of a glad people, but a cry of agony and despair. The Norman soldiers, instead of keeping order, had begun to fight and kill. They had set fire to the houses near the church, and were slaying and robbing. Those within the church rushed out, some in fear, others eager to join the robbers. William was left alone with only the bishops and the priests.
Then for the first time in his life the great William was afraid. Through the windows of the church he could see the flicker of flames, and could hear the savage yells of soldiers and the shrieks of frightened women and children. Yet he did not know whether the English had risen in revolt, or whether it was only his own wild soldiers who were attacking the people.
But whatever it might be William meant to be King of England—a king crowned and anointed. So although his cheek was pale and his voice shook, he forced the archbishop to go on with the ceremony.
With trembling hands the archbishop placed the crown upon William's head—not Harold's crown, but a new one glittering with splendid gems—and in a hurried and mumbling voice he finished the service. Then William, kneeling at the altar, promised to fear God, to rule the people well, and to keep the laws of Alfred and Edward, "so that the people be true to me," he added.
As he stood up no shout greeted him, the church was silent and empty. He passed down the aisle in lonely splendour, followed only by the trembling priests, while without was heard the sound of the crackling flames mingled with fierce yells and curses.
William was crowned, but the English rejected him as king. They wanted an English king. But alas! there was no strong man whom they could choose. Harold's brave brothers had all died with him at Hastings. There, too, had fallen the noblest and the best of the English lords. There was no one left who seemed to have any right to the throne, except the little boy Edgar the Ætheling, Edmund Ironside's grandson. Even he did not seem to be English, for he had lived nearly all his life in Hungary, and could hardly speak his own language. But at least he was not Norman, so the English chose him to be king.
The people of Northumberland rose in fierce rebellion against William, and he in as fierce anger marched against them with his soldiers. From north to south he laid waste to the country, burning towns, destroying farms, killing cattle, murdering the people, till the whole of Northumberland was one dreary desert. So fierce and terrible was his wrath that even the ploughs and farming tools were destroyed, and the land lay untilled and desolate. Those of the people who were not killed in battle died miserably of cold and hunger. When William marched south again, he left only blackened ruins and dismal waste, where happy homes and smiling fields had been. From very need, most of the English lords now bowed to William and owned him master. Even Edgar came to him to do homage and strange to say William treated him kindly. Perhaps he felt that he was so strong and Edgar so weak, that he had no need to fear him.
Still the English were not all conquered. In the Isle of Ely, in what is called the Fen country, the people made one last stand. There, under the leadership of a brave Englishman called Hereward, they held out against William.
In the time of Edward the Confessor, Hereward had been banished for some reason, perhaps because he had quarrelled with one of Edward's Norman friends. He had lived for many years across the sea in a country called Flanders. But when he heard that Edward was dead, that Harold was also dead, and that William the Norman had seized the crown of England, Hereward came back determined to fight for his own land.
All the noblest and bravest of the English who still resisted William gathered to Hereward and they made their camp in the Isle of Ely. The monks who already lived there shared their monastery with the soldiers. So in the great hall peaceful monks and warlike men sat side by side at meals, and the walls which had been hung with holy relics and pictures of saints were now covered with weapons and armour.
Hereward built a castle at Ely, but it was a wooden one, while all through England the Normans were building strong fortresses of stone, such as the English had never seen before.
Hereward hoped that, from his castle at Ely, he would gradually win all England again. But the hope was vain, for William was too strong. Yet it took him a long time to conquer Hereward. Like Harold, Hereward was a good general, and he was both clever and brave.
After trying vainly to find a way through the marshes and fens to Hereward's camp, William decided at last to build a road strong enough and broad enough to carry his army over. So the soldiers set to work at once with stones, wood, and skins of animals, to make a strong, broad, solid road. When it was finished William's men marched over it to attack Hereward's men in their own camp, but the English fought desperately, and the Normans were driven back.
In those days people believed in witches. So William next found a poor old woman who was supposed to be a witch. He built a wooden tower, placed it on wheels, and with the witch inside, pushed it along the road, at the head of the Norman army. This poor old woman was meant to cast a spell over the English soldiers, so that they would not be able to fight any more. Of course she could really do them no harm, and Hereward and his men captured the tower and burned it up, witch and all. Again William had failed.
Hereward had brought large stores of food into the camp, and he and his men hunted wild animals, so that there was always enough to eat, although the fare was plain. But the monks who were used to living a very easy life and to having fine things to eat and drink, grew tired of fighting and of plain food, and they sent a message to William telling him of a secret way through the fens to the camp.
So Hereward who could not be conquered was betrayed.
One evening the Norman soldiers, led by the wicked monks, came stealthily through the thick woods among the marshes. In the gathering dusk they came creeping, silent and eager. Then, when they were close upon the camp, they burst with wild cries upon the unsuspecting English, and, when the sun had set, the sky was red with the flames from burning English homes.
Many lay dead, many were taken prisoners. To the prisoners William was very cruel. He put out their eyes, cut off their hands, and treated them so dreadfully that they cried aloud, "It is better to fall into the hands of God than into those of the Norman tyrant."
Hereward escaped, and with some of his bravest followers continued to fight, although all hope of freedom for England was gone. But he, too, yielded at length and bowed his proud head to the conqueror. William of Normandy was at last master of all England. He was indeed William the Conqueror. | 1,913 | ENGLISH | 1 |
East India Company
East India Company (EIC) was a joint-stock company. Its headquarters were in London. It was started for trading with the East Indies, but mostly traded with India and China. It was given a charter in 1600. It traded many things in India. In the middle 18th century, the company built up its own presidency armies and won the Battle of Plassey. This brought it from from trading with India to ruling India. It was dissolved in 1874.
The Company had armed forces and armed ships. It fought against various Indian rulers and struggled against the Dutch East India Company and other European nations. It was ruled by one governor and 24 directors. It became a monopoly in most parts of India.
The company was dissolved in 1874. Its role was taken over by the Government of India (the British Raj). At its height, the Raj covered a huge area from Baluchistan in the west to Burma in the east, plus Ceylon and a number of other islands. | <urn:uuid:0b2bd613-d92f-4d89-ad7b-1ad81b8e1e52> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.988545 | 206 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.254882723093... | 2 | East India Company
East India Company (EIC) was a joint-stock company. Its headquarters were in London. It was started for trading with the East Indies, but mostly traded with India and China. It was given a charter in 1600. It traded many things in India. In the middle 18th century, the company built up its own presidency armies and won the Battle of Plassey. This brought it from from trading with India to ruling India. It was dissolved in 1874.
The Company had armed forces and armed ships. It fought against various Indian rulers and struggled against the Dutch East India Company and other European nations. It was ruled by one governor and 24 directors. It became a monopoly in most parts of India.
The company was dissolved in 1874. Its role was taken over by the Government of India (the British Raj). At its height, the Raj covered a huge area from Baluchistan in the west to Burma in the east, plus Ceylon and a number of other islands. | 218 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Side by side the Sister Churches lie on a lush hill at Gran in Hadeland, one hour north of Oslo. They are known throughout Europe due to their unusual duality. Why were two, large churches built so close to each other? History offers few answers, but a legend unfolds an explanation.
The largest of the two is named Nikolai Church. Erected just before year 1200, it can seat a ward of 250. The smaller church, called the Maria Church, is erected even earlier. It was finished just before year 1150 and is a longchurch with roman and gothic architectural elements, housing a ward of 150 people.
In the south eastern corner of the churchyard a medieval stone tower rises. Possibly it was part of a defense wall protecting a monastery complex that was later torn down. The tower todays functions as a bell tower.
The legend tells that two sisters in the region were so alien towards one another that they had to each build a church to attend service. But from the medieval history one knows that it was not uncommon to build two churches close by, though with different functions.
Throughout the medieval times the Sister Churches laid in the midst of the pilgrimage route form southern Europe and to the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim where the remains of the Catholic saint, Norwegian King Olav the Holy are buried. | <urn:uuid:564831d9-bfba-44e9-904b-46315295520f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rosskolby.com/work/the-sister-churches | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.981892 | 276 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.19204616546... | 10 | Side by side the Sister Churches lie on a lush hill at Gran in Hadeland, one hour north of Oslo. They are known throughout Europe due to their unusual duality. Why were two, large churches built so close to each other? History offers few answers, but a legend unfolds an explanation.
The largest of the two is named Nikolai Church. Erected just before year 1200, it can seat a ward of 250. The smaller church, called the Maria Church, is erected even earlier. It was finished just before year 1150 and is a longchurch with roman and gothic architectural elements, housing a ward of 150 people.
In the south eastern corner of the churchyard a medieval stone tower rises. Possibly it was part of a defense wall protecting a monastery complex that was later torn down. The tower todays functions as a bell tower.
The legend tells that two sisters in the region were so alien towards one another that they had to each build a church to attend service. But from the medieval history one knows that it was not uncommon to build two churches close by, though with different functions.
Throughout the medieval times the Sister Churches laid in the midst of the pilgrimage route form southern Europe and to the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim where the remains of the Catholic saint, Norwegian King Olav the Holy are buried. | 281 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This week when the students walked in, they found a message from our classroom character Lightning. He said that when he walked outside that morning he was welcomed with so many different snowflakes. He told the students that the snowflakes reminded him of all of the students in the class. This was because each child in our class was different and unique. With the New Year, he wondered what unique goals the students had for the upcoming year. With this, each student in the class started working on a self-portrait and a goal for 2020. Stay tuned for these wonderful creations!
In our daily math lessons, the students learned that snowflakes are not only symmetrical but they are formed with radial symmetry. Radial symmetry is when if you cut the object into fractions from a central axis, each fraction would be identical. Students explored this concept in many ways through art and different materials. In one example I presented the students with a circle and proceeded to cut this circle into half (1/2)and then into eighths (1/8). They learned that to be a fraction each piece must be the same size and a fair share. They learned that an eighth meant that it was one out of eight identical pieces.
Students learned to draw a snowflake that used radial symmetry in a circle that was divided into fractions. They made sure that each fraction held the same picture. Students also created snowflakes that used radial symmetry using loose parts.
Students also explored this concept by using colouring pages, 2D pattern blocks and 3D connecting cubes. Many students were very excited when they discovered that the bleyblades they loved creating used radial symmetry.
Students also explored the theme of snow through with our weekly themed sensory bin and playdough.
The highlight of the week though was when Scientist Cathy from Scientists in the School came into our classroom. Here we were able to explore what snowflakes were made of. Which is water! Students then looked at the different properties of water. They learned that water can be formed in three states: solid, liquid and gas. They learned that when water is a liquid it takes the shape of the container that it is in. They learned that solid water is called ice and water as a gas is called vapour.
The students explored how moving water can give energy to objects to make them move and how different currents can steer the direction of these objects. They learned what materials repel and which ones absorb water. The students noticed that if a material has holes in it, it is more likely to absorb water.
Students also explored which objects float and which sink in water. They made sailboats and found that they needed moving air or water to move. When the students uncovered that there was no wind in our class, they blew on the sails of their sailboats or rocked the water to make waves to make their boat move.
While the students explored water as a liquid, they were given a lesson on capacity. Here student observed how when the same amount of water was poured into two different shaped containers, even though the water level appeared higher in one container, the amount stayed the same. | <urn:uuid:4a50b0b1-69fc-42c2-b610-70dd8e3f2099> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mountviewcommunitykindergarten.com/classroom-blog/special-symmetrical-snowflakes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00047.warc.gz | en | 0.981442 | 640 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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-0.0081816241145... | 6 | This week when the students walked in, they found a message from our classroom character Lightning. He said that when he walked outside that morning he was welcomed with so many different snowflakes. He told the students that the snowflakes reminded him of all of the students in the class. This was because each child in our class was different and unique. With the New Year, he wondered what unique goals the students had for the upcoming year. With this, each student in the class started working on a self-portrait and a goal for 2020. Stay tuned for these wonderful creations!
In our daily math lessons, the students learned that snowflakes are not only symmetrical but they are formed with radial symmetry. Radial symmetry is when if you cut the object into fractions from a central axis, each fraction would be identical. Students explored this concept in many ways through art and different materials. In one example I presented the students with a circle and proceeded to cut this circle into half (1/2)and then into eighths (1/8). They learned that to be a fraction each piece must be the same size and a fair share. They learned that an eighth meant that it was one out of eight identical pieces.
Students learned to draw a snowflake that used radial symmetry in a circle that was divided into fractions. They made sure that each fraction held the same picture. Students also created snowflakes that used radial symmetry using loose parts.
Students also explored this concept by using colouring pages, 2D pattern blocks and 3D connecting cubes. Many students were very excited when they discovered that the bleyblades they loved creating used radial symmetry.
Students also explored the theme of snow through with our weekly themed sensory bin and playdough.
The highlight of the week though was when Scientist Cathy from Scientists in the School came into our classroom. Here we were able to explore what snowflakes were made of. Which is water! Students then looked at the different properties of water. They learned that water can be formed in three states: solid, liquid and gas. They learned that when water is a liquid it takes the shape of the container that it is in. They learned that solid water is called ice and water as a gas is called vapour.
The students explored how moving water can give energy to objects to make them move and how different currents can steer the direction of these objects. They learned what materials repel and which ones absorb water. The students noticed that if a material has holes in it, it is more likely to absorb water.
Students also explored which objects float and which sink in water. They made sailboats and found that they needed moving air or water to move. When the students uncovered that there was no wind in our class, they blew on the sails of their sailboats or rocked the water to make waves to make their boat move.
While the students explored water as a liquid, they were given a lesson on capacity. Here student observed how when the same amount of water was poured into two different shaped containers, even though the water level appeared higher in one container, the amount stayed the same. | 637 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine suggests that teaching teenagers about gender equality can greatly affect the way they reason and behave and thus drastically reduce their chances of turning out violent.
About the Survey
The study involves a total of 866 teenage boys from low income neighborhoods in the United States aged between 13 and 19 years.
The survey, as reported by Newsweek, included asking the teenagers questions on violence against their partners or someone they were hooking up with. Th violent acts covered in the survey are in the scope of forceful performance of a sex act with or without the use of threats, and having sex with a person too drunk or high to say no.
The survey revealed one in three of the participants had been abusive while dating in the past nine months. Of the total, 56 percent had sexually harassed someone; and 8.2 percent had had sex with someone who was too drunk to consent. Seventy three percent of the teenagers had bullied someone.
Survey Analysis and Conclusion
In the analysis of the survey, it was noted that the boys who viewed men and women as equal were less likely to say they had been violent. That is, they are less likely to be included in sexual harassment and abusing someone they were dating. Also, teenagers who had experienced their peers being abusive were more likely to perpetrate a range of forms of violence, including abusing a partner.
Ultimately, encouraging boys to see all gender as equal as well as encouraging heterosexual friendship from childhood can help to develop empathy and consequently reduce violence rate generally. | <urn:uuid:e76d0083-8621-40a3-a5fc-d22e466bf123> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.witsprouts.com/2019/12/27/teaching-teenage-boys-about-gender-equality-could-prevent-them-from-being-violent/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00386.warc.gz | en | 0.987916 | 312 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.080721423029899... | 9 | A study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine suggests that teaching teenagers about gender equality can greatly affect the way they reason and behave and thus drastically reduce their chances of turning out violent.
About the Survey
The study involves a total of 866 teenage boys from low income neighborhoods in the United States aged between 13 and 19 years.
The survey, as reported by Newsweek, included asking the teenagers questions on violence against their partners or someone they were hooking up with. Th violent acts covered in the survey are in the scope of forceful performance of a sex act with or without the use of threats, and having sex with a person too drunk or high to say no.
The survey revealed one in three of the participants had been abusive while dating in the past nine months. Of the total, 56 percent had sexually harassed someone; and 8.2 percent had had sex with someone who was too drunk to consent. Seventy three percent of the teenagers had bullied someone.
Survey Analysis and Conclusion
In the analysis of the survey, it was noted that the boys who viewed men and women as equal were less likely to say they had been violent. That is, they are less likely to be included in sexual harassment and abusing someone they were dating. Also, teenagers who had experienced their peers being abusive were more likely to perpetrate a range of forms of violence, including abusing a partner.
Ultimately, encouraging boys to see all gender as equal as well as encouraging heterosexual friendship from childhood can help to develop empathy and consequently reduce violence rate generally. | 317 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Climate change is something that is increasingly become visible within the general population and this is partly due to increased campaigning by pressure groups for the environment such as extinction rebellion and also green peace. But there are many ways in which climate change can be categorised so it is important to have a basic understanding of what it is and how it can affect the environment around us overall.
Understanding Climate Change
One of the key ways in which climate change affects the earth is changing weather patterns across the planet. A number of climate scientists as well as high profile studies have indicated that climate change can have a significant impact on weather patterns overall. There is some evidence to suggest that temperatures around the world may be rising due to the immediate effects of climate change.
In short climate change is thought to be a man made issue that has come about as a result of excess carbon and methane emissions. As these emissions continue to be produced it is thought that this is warming up the earth’s atmosphere which in turn is leading to increasing campaigns and action being called for in order to properly address and tackle this issue overall.
What Are Thought To Be The Main Causes Of Climate Change?
There are a number of different factors that are thought to be the main drivers of climate change overall. One of the biggest culprits of producing harmful emissions is thought to be cars. Although many car manufacturers have been working to reduce carbon emissions from their vehicles overall many want to see cars with traditional engines replaced with all electric ones.
Whilst electric cars don’t require fuel and are zero emissions they still require a new battery pack every four years which are harmful to the environment and can be difficult to dispose of in an environmentally friendly way overall.
Another factor which is thought to add to the effects of climate change overall is peoples consumption of meat. More recently some climate experts have warned that due to the numbers of people eating meat, meat production is leading to far higher emissions overall.
How Is Climate Change Being Tackled?
There are many different ways in which climate change is currently being tackled overall. One of the key ways in which it is being tackled overall is by politicians as well as public figures such as celebrities. Increasingly people are speaking out about climate change and the damage it can do to the environment overall.
This has been spurred on by groups such as extinction rebellion who are also working to pedal change. In addition to this many governments mainly in the EU are offering incentives and grants to encourage people to invest in renewable energy as well as electric vehicles and eco-friendly materials.
Overall to conclude it is clear that climate change is an issue that is developing constantly and action and social change is needed in order to slow and prevent the issue from occurring. In addition to this more reports should be done in order to publish the overall changes that have been recorded as a result of climate change. | <urn:uuid:763eb144-9f28-49d7-b098-27bd63b6e83c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ofcabbages.co.uk/what-threat-does-climate-change-pose-to-our-society/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00462.warc.gz | en | 0.980987 | 577 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.28974121809005... | 5 | Climate change is something that is increasingly become visible within the general population and this is partly due to increased campaigning by pressure groups for the environment such as extinction rebellion and also green peace. But there are many ways in which climate change can be categorised so it is important to have a basic understanding of what it is and how it can affect the environment around us overall.
Understanding Climate Change
One of the key ways in which climate change affects the earth is changing weather patterns across the planet. A number of climate scientists as well as high profile studies have indicated that climate change can have a significant impact on weather patterns overall. There is some evidence to suggest that temperatures around the world may be rising due to the immediate effects of climate change.
In short climate change is thought to be a man made issue that has come about as a result of excess carbon and methane emissions. As these emissions continue to be produced it is thought that this is warming up the earth’s atmosphere which in turn is leading to increasing campaigns and action being called for in order to properly address and tackle this issue overall.
What Are Thought To Be The Main Causes Of Climate Change?
There are a number of different factors that are thought to be the main drivers of climate change overall. One of the biggest culprits of producing harmful emissions is thought to be cars. Although many car manufacturers have been working to reduce carbon emissions from their vehicles overall many want to see cars with traditional engines replaced with all electric ones.
Whilst electric cars don’t require fuel and are zero emissions they still require a new battery pack every four years which are harmful to the environment and can be difficult to dispose of in an environmentally friendly way overall.
Another factor which is thought to add to the effects of climate change overall is peoples consumption of meat. More recently some climate experts have warned that due to the numbers of people eating meat, meat production is leading to far higher emissions overall.
How Is Climate Change Being Tackled?
There are many different ways in which climate change is currently being tackled overall. One of the key ways in which it is being tackled overall is by politicians as well as public figures such as celebrities. Increasingly people are speaking out about climate change and the damage it can do to the environment overall.
This has been spurred on by groups such as extinction rebellion who are also working to pedal change. In addition to this many governments mainly in the EU are offering incentives and grants to encourage people to invest in renewable energy as well as electric vehicles and eco-friendly materials.
Overall to conclude it is clear that climate change is an issue that is developing constantly and action and social change is needed in order to slow and prevent the issue from occurring. In addition to this more reports should be done in order to publish the overall changes that have been recorded as a result of climate change. | 562 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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