text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
John Bunyan ( baptised on November 30, 1628 – August 31, 1688) was an English writer and Puritan preacher best remembered as the author of the Christian allegory The Pilgrim's Progress. In addition to The Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan wrote nearly sixty titles, many of them expanded sermons.
Bunyan came from the village of Elstow, near Bedford. He had some schooling and at the age of sixteen joined the Parliamentary army during the first stage of the English Civil War. After three years in the army he returned to Elstow and took up the trade of tinker, which he had learned from his father. He became interested in religion after his marriage, attending first the parish church and then joining the Bedford Meeting, a nonconformist group in Bedford, and becoming a preacher. After the restoration of the monarch, when the freedom of nonconformists was curtailed, Bunyan was arrested and spent the next twelve years in jail as he refused to give up preaching. During this time he wrote a spiritual autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, and began work on his most famous book, The Pilgrim's Progress, which was not published until some years after his release. | <urn:uuid:bd6d5a0f-1a9d-4931-8f4f-2eacf000c5a4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bol.com/nl/p/life-and-death-of-mr-badam/9200000102907512/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00313.warc.gz | en | 0.991367 | 251 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.09496022760868... | 2 | John Bunyan ( baptised on November 30, 1628 – August 31, 1688) was an English writer and Puritan preacher best remembered as the author of the Christian allegory The Pilgrim's Progress. In addition to The Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan wrote nearly sixty titles, many of them expanded sermons.
Bunyan came from the village of Elstow, near Bedford. He had some schooling and at the age of sixteen joined the Parliamentary army during the first stage of the English Civil War. After three years in the army he returned to Elstow and took up the trade of tinker, which he had learned from his father. He became interested in religion after his marriage, attending first the parish church and then joining the Bedford Meeting, a nonconformist group in Bedford, and becoming a preacher. After the restoration of the monarch, when the freedom of nonconformists was curtailed, Bunyan was arrested and spent the next twelve years in jail as he refused to give up preaching. During this time he wrote a spiritual autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, and began work on his most famous book, The Pilgrim's Progress, which was not published until some years after his release. | 264 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Subject: mousquetaire musketeer
Culture: Bourbon French
Setting: France mid-late 17thc
Context (Event Photos, Period Sources, Secondary Sources)
* Vuksic & Grbasic 1993 p132
"King Henry of IV of Navarre established France's regular army in 1597. In the 1600 reforms, he founded a company of his personal guard. These were gentlemen armed with carbines, and they were called Carabiniers du Roi. In 1622, Louis XII changed their carbines for the lighter muskets, and their name also changed, to Mousquetaires du Roi.
"Louis XIV ascended the throne of France in 1643, when he was only five; until his coming of age, the country was ruled by Cardinal Mazarin, who had the musketeers under his patronage. In 1661, after the cardinal's death, Louis formed another company of 300 musketeers. The older ones were called the Mousquetaires Gris (grey), and the new troop the Mousquetaires Noirs (black), the colours corresponding to those of their horses' saddle-cloths."
* Maund & Nanson 2005 p106
"This new musketeer company [the King's Musketeers] became one of a number of guard companies which formed part of the King's household. The King's musketeers were trained to fight both on foot and on horseback, and were considered a light cavalry unit, even though, at that period, most musket-armed troops were infantry. This was due both to their origins in the Carabins, a cavalry unit, and to the fact that nearly all musketeers were members of the gentry. The martial traditions of the gentry emphasised riding skills as well as swordsmanship, and while infantry officers were gentry, cavalry carried higher prestige. Gentlemen very rarely found themselves fighting as common infantrymen.
"The musketeers were an elite unit. In peacetime, their primary duty was to act as the King's escort when he travelled, whether between the various royal residences, or on progress. They always formed the van of the royal cortège, a jealously guarded privilege, but one which required mobility and stamina. They also took part in regular military reviews and in the mock battles that formed part of the entertainment of the royal court. In times of war, they would accompany the King when he was with an army, but were also frequently entrusted with particularly hazardous operations. With their speed and manoeuvrability, they could reach any part of the front where they were needed. They rapidly gained a reputation for acts of conspicuous, if sometimes foolhardy bravery, a status they worked hard at maintaining, from the captain down to the newest recruit. At sieges, they often led the assault, the position of greatest danger, and seem to have made a point of being the first into any fortress or city."
* Maund & Nanson 2005 p109-110
"The musketeers did not wear armour for military service, and the unit did not have an official uniform until 1673. Prior to that, they were identified by their cassocks. These were essentially a sort of sleeved tabard, which fastened down the back. Under Louis XIII, these cassocks were blue with a cross in white on the front, back and each sleeve. Initially, they were relatively short, but over time they lengthened to around knee-length. Underneath these cassocks, musketeers could and did wear what they chose -- an element used for satirical purposes by Courtilz de Sandras in his depiction of Besmaux, and taken over by Alexandre Dumas for his characterisations both of Porthos and Aramis. In the 1660s, after the creation of the second company, some distinctions were made in the cassocks: those of the first company were decorated with gold braid, while, for the second company, the braid was silver. In 1673, Louis XIV introduced a standard outfit for the company: thereafter their uniform consisted of a coat with large double pockets, which was lined and decorated in scarlet, with fringing, buttons and button-holes in gold; breeches and stockings in red; and a hat edged with gold and adorned with a white plume. Their horse trappings were once again scarlet with gold trimmings.
"The use of the distinctive cassock continued, but its increased length had proved impractical in warfare, as it impeded movement. It was replaced in 1683 by the famous blue tabard. This retained the colour and emblem of the cassock (although the latter in a more elaborate form), but, being looser and shorter, was far more practical. The cross device was still white, and the arms of the cross ended in fleurs de lys, with flames in the corner angles. The two companies were distinguished by the form and colour of these flames. For the first company, the flames were red and ended in three points; those of the second company were dark orange and ended in five points. The tabards were lined in red and trimmed with silver braid."
* Maund & Nanson 2005 p110-111
"...[R]apiers ... were probably used at least as much as the firearms in war (and more in peacetime, if their reputation for duelling can be believed).
"... The rapier is a sword which is wielded with one hand, and is designed primarily for thrusting at an opponent rather than slashing or cutting. It has a long, thin blade, around a metre in length and less than 3cm wide. The blade is usually a diamond shape in cross-section, though this is often flattened slightly to produce a slightly hexagonal shape. As the rapier is a thrusting weapon, commonly only the last 15cms or so are sharpened to any great degree. The length of the blade means that it can be used effectively from horseback, acting almost as a lance. The blade is normally edged to within a few inches of the hilt, where there is a flat area, the ricasso. This can be used as an extension of the hilt, to give the swordsman greater control. The hilt consists of the grip, guard and pommel. The grip is shaped slightly to fit the hand and would have been wrapped in wire or fish skin (normally ray or shark) to reduce the chance of it slipping in the hand. The pommel is a metal ball at the end of the grip, which adds some extra weight to the hilt, thereby improving the balance of the sword. A thin extension of the blade, known as the tang, passes through the grip and pommel and is secured by a nut. The guard protects the hand from the opponent's sword. There are two main forms: the swept hilt, which consists of a series of thick wire rings, which curve up round the hand towards the pommel, or the cup hilt, where a metal cup covers the hand entirely from the front. "The rapier is normally seen as a gentleman's weapon, to be worn as a badge of honour and used in duels, while the sabre, a curved sword more suited to slashing from horseback, takes the military role. However, this distinction between military and civilian swords was not complete in the seventeenth century, and thus the musketeers would have used the same sorts of blades in both contexts. When Charles Castelmore d'Artagnan died in 1673, he had two swords -- one with a gold-adorned guard and a brass grip, the other of blackened steel. One sword was for court and dress occasions, the other, very probably, for battle. The details are preserved in the inventory of his possessions made after his death, and the only distinctions drawn between the two swords relates to this decorative aspect, not to form." | <urn:uuid:aa94ea66-8780-4aee-97df-23d4ab802c6b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.forensicfashion.com/1661FrenchMusketeer.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00535.warc.gz | en | 0.981011 | 1,631 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.18515375... | 3 | Subject: mousquetaire musketeer
Culture: Bourbon French
Setting: France mid-late 17thc
Context (Event Photos, Period Sources, Secondary Sources)
* Vuksic & Grbasic 1993 p132
"King Henry of IV of Navarre established France's regular army in 1597. In the 1600 reforms, he founded a company of his personal guard. These were gentlemen armed with carbines, and they were called Carabiniers du Roi. In 1622, Louis XII changed their carbines for the lighter muskets, and their name also changed, to Mousquetaires du Roi.
"Louis XIV ascended the throne of France in 1643, when he was only five; until his coming of age, the country was ruled by Cardinal Mazarin, who had the musketeers under his patronage. In 1661, after the cardinal's death, Louis formed another company of 300 musketeers. The older ones were called the Mousquetaires Gris (grey), and the new troop the Mousquetaires Noirs (black), the colours corresponding to those of their horses' saddle-cloths."
* Maund & Nanson 2005 p106
"This new musketeer company [the King's Musketeers] became one of a number of guard companies which formed part of the King's household. The King's musketeers were trained to fight both on foot and on horseback, and were considered a light cavalry unit, even though, at that period, most musket-armed troops were infantry. This was due both to their origins in the Carabins, a cavalry unit, and to the fact that nearly all musketeers were members of the gentry. The martial traditions of the gentry emphasised riding skills as well as swordsmanship, and while infantry officers were gentry, cavalry carried higher prestige. Gentlemen very rarely found themselves fighting as common infantrymen.
"The musketeers were an elite unit. In peacetime, their primary duty was to act as the King's escort when he travelled, whether between the various royal residences, or on progress. They always formed the van of the royal cortège, a jealously guarded privilege, but one which required mobility and stamina. They also took part in regular military reviews and in the mock battles that formed part of the entertainment of the royal court. In times of war, they would accompany the King when he was with an army, but were also frequently entrusted with particularly hazardous operations. With their speed and manoeuvrability, they could reach any part of the front where they were needed. They rapidly gained a reputation for acts of conspicuous, if sometimes foolhardy bravery, a status they worked hard at maintaining, from the captain down to the newest recruit. At sieges, they often led the assault, the position of greatest danger, and seem to have made a point of being the first into any fortress or city."
* Maund & Nanson 2005 p109-110
"The musketeers did not wear armour for military service, and the unit did not have an official uniform until 1673. Prior to that, they were identified by their cassocks. These were essentially a sort of sleeved tabard, which fastened down the back. Under Louis XIII, these cassocks were blue with a cross in white on the front, back and each sleeve. Initially, they were relatively short, but over time they lengthened to around knee-length. Underneath these cassocks, musketeers could and did wear what they chose -- an element used for satirical purposes by Courtilz de Sandras in his depiction of Besmaux, and taken over by Alexandre Dumas for his characterisations both of Porthos and Aramis. In the 1660s, after the creation of the second company, some distinctions were made in the cassocks: those of the first company were decorated with gold braid, while, for the second company, the braid was silver. In 1673, Louis XIV introduced a standard outfit for the company: thereafter their uniform consisted of a coat with large double pockets, which was lined and decorated in scarlet, with fringing, buttons and button-holes in gold; breeches and stockings in red; and a hat edged with gold and adorned with a white plume. Their horse trappings were once again scarlet with gold trimmings.
"The use of the distinctive cassock continued, but its increased length had proved impractical in warfare, as it impeded movement. It was replaced in 1683 by the famous blue tabard. This retained the colour and emblem of the cassock (although the latter in a more elaborate form), but, being looser and shorter, was far more practical. The cross device was still white, and the arms of the cross ended in fleurs de lys, with flames in the corner angles. The two companies were distinguished by the form and colour of these flames. For the first company, the flames were red and ended in three points; those of the second company were dark orange and ended in five points. The tabards were lined in red and trimmed with silver braid."
* Maund & Nanson 2005 p110-111
"...[R]apiers ... were probably used at least as much as the firearms in war (and more in peacetime, if their reputation for duelling can be believed).
"... The rapier is a sword which is wielded with one hand, and is designed primarily for thrusting at an opponent rather than slashing or cutting. It has a long, thin blade, around a metre in length and less than 3cm wide. The blade is usually a diamond shape in cross-section, though this is often flattened slightly to produce a slightly hexagonal shape. As the rapier is a thrusting weapon, commonly only the last 15cms or so are sharpened to any great degree. The length of the blade means that it can be used effectively from horseback, acting almost as a lance. The blade is normally edged to within a few inches of the hilt, where there is a flat area, the ricasso. This can be used as an extension of the hilt, to give the swordsman greater control. The hilt consists of the grip, guard and pommel. The grip is shaped slightly to fit the hand and would have been wrapped in wire or fish skin (normally ray or shark) to reduce the chance of it slipping in the hand. The pommel is a metal ball at the end of the grip, which adds some extra weight to the hilt, thereby improving the balance of the sword. A thin extension of the blade, known as the tang, passes through the grip and pommel and is secured by a nut. The guard protects the hand from the opponent's sword. There are two main forms: the swept hilt, which consists of a series of thick wire rings, which curve up round the hand towards the pommel, or the cup hilt, where a metal cup covers the hand entirely from the front. "The rapier is normally seen as a gentleman's weapon, to be worn as a badge of honour and used in duels, while the sabre, a curved sword more suited to slashing from horseback, takes the military role. However, this distinction between military and civilian swords was not complete in the seventeenth century, and thus the musketeers would have used the same sorts of blades in both contexts. When Charles Castelmore d'Artagnan died in 1673, he had two swords -- one with a gold-adorned guard and a brass grip, the other of blackened steel. One sword was for court and dress occasions, the other, very probably, for battle. The details are preserved in the inventory of his possessions made after his death, and the only distinctions drawn between the two swords relates to this decorative aspect, not to form." | 1,708 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to myths and legends, the history of Guwahati goes back to thousands of years. The city has references in the ancient Hindu texts such as the Puranas. It was believed to be the capital of many kingdoms during ancient times. According to Mahabharata, it was the capital of kings Narakasura and Bhagadatta. The ancient temple of Goddess Kamakhya is located in Guwahati. The city was under the Hindu kingdoms of Shunga-Kushana period, between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD, according to Ambari excavations. Earlier, the city was known as Pragjyotishpura and served as the capital of Assam under the Varman Dynasty of the Kamarupa kingdom. Under the rule of the Pala dynasty, Guwahati was the capital until the 10th-11th century. Under the Ahom kings, the city was the seat of the Borphukan. The Mughals tried to invade Assam seventeen times but were defeated by the Ahoms. The city was under Burmese rule from 1817 to 1826. Following the First Anglo-Burmese War, the city became a part of the British empire. It played an active role during the independence struggle of India and was the birthplace of activists such as Tarun Ram Phukan.
Take a Look
Theme of Guwahati[Pilgrimage, Adventure]
You'll love Guwahati for[Brahmaputra river, Peacock Island] | <urn:uuid:04ea2d44-d308-467d-9bd2-0b7a11f29322> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.yatra.com/india-tourism/guwahati/history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00077.warc.gz | en | 0.981305 | 324 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.443553417921... | 2 | According to myths and legends, the history of Guwahati goes back to thousands of years. The city has references in the ancient Hindu texts such as the Puranas. It was believed to be the capital of many kingdoms during ancient times. According to Mahabharata, it was the capital of kings Narakasura and Bhagadatta. The ancient temple of Goddess Kamakhya is located in Guwahati. The city was under the Hindu kingdoms of Shunga-Kushana period, between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD, according to Ambari excavations. Earlier, the city was known as Pragjyotishpura and served as the capital of Assam under the Varman Dynasty of the Kamarupa kingdom. Under the rule of the Pala dynasty, Guwahati was the capital until the 10th-11th century. Under the Ahom kings, the city was the seat of the Borphukan. The Mughals tried to invade Assam seventeen times but were defeated by the Ahoms. The city was under Burmese rule from 1817 to 1826. Following the First Anglo-Burmese War, the city became a part of the British empire. It played an active role during the independence struggle of India and was the birthplace of activists such as Tarun Ram Phukan.
Take a Look
Theme of Guwahati[Pilgrimage, Adventure]
You'll love Guwahati for[Brahmaputra river, Peacock Island] | 326 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Female warriors' tomb suggests basis for Amazons of Greek mythology
The Amazons, a mythical race of female warriors that inspired fictional heroes such as Wonder Woman and Xena the Warrior Princess, may have been more than ancient Greek lore.
The Institute of Archaeology at the Russian Academy of Sciences announced the discovery of a tomb where four women were buried alongside a slew of battle weapons about 2,500 years ago. The findings were published by the Akson Russian Science Communication Association last Wednesday.
The Scythian women represented three generations of female warriors. The eldest was buried with a ceremonial headdress consistent with Amazon myths.
Valerii Guliaev led the archaeological expedition at a burial ground in the Russian village of Devitsa. She said in a news release that other Amazons have been discovered, but this is the first time the women ranged so widely in age.
The youngest was a girl researchers estimated was 12 or 13. Two women were 20 to 29 and 25 to 35 years old. The eldest woman was 45 to 50 years old. The average life expectancy for a woman during that time was 30 to 35 years.
The cemetery consisted of 19 mounds, which researchers said were broken into by robbers during ancient times. Archaeologists found 30 iron arrowheads, an iron hook, fragments of horse harness, iron knives and jewelry that was 65% to 70% gold.
The burial ground was found in 2000, and work for the expedition has been ongoing since 2010. Since then, researchers have discovered about 11 burials of young armed women.
Follow Adrianna Rodriguez on Twitter: @AdriannaUSAT. | <urn:uuid:c34cb32d-a078-405a-8888-e0f740f7120f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2020/01/02/russian-expedition-finds-burial-ground-ancient-female-warriors/2794493001/?utm_source=feedblitz&utm_medium=FeedBlitzRss&utm_campaign=usatodaycomworld-topstories | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.980424 | 334 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2851081192493438... | 4 | Female warriors' tomb suggests basis for Amazons of Greek mythology
The Amazons, a mythical race of female warriors that inspired fictional heroes such as Wonder Woman and Xena the Warrior Princess, may have been more than ancient Greek lore.
The Institute of Archaeology at the Russian Academy of Sciences announced the discovery of a tomb where four women were buried alongside a slew of battle weapons about 2,500 years ago. The findings were published by the Akson Russian Science Communication Association last Wednesday.
The Scythian women represented three generations of female warriors. The eldest was buried with a ceremonial headdress consistent with Amazon myths.
Valerii Guliaev led the archaeological expedition at a burial ground in the Russian village of Devitsa. She said in a news release that other Amazons have been discovered, but this is the first time the women ranged so widely in age.
The youngest was a girl researchers estimated was 12 or 13. Two women were 20 to 29 and 25 to 35 years old. The eldest woman was 45 to 50 years old. The average life expectancy for a woman during that time was 30 to 35 years.
The cemetery consisted of 19 mounds, which researchers said were broken into by robbers during ancient times. Archaeologists found 30 iron arrowheads, an iron hook, fragments of horse harness, iron knives and jewelry that was 65% to 70% gold.
The burial ground was found in 2000, and work for the expedition has been ongoing since 2010. Since then, researchers have discovered about 11 burials of young armed women.
Follow Adrianna Rodriguez on Twitter: @AdriannaUSAT. | 368 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From 1500 to 1800, China and Japan tried to politically and economically established their countries in very different ways. Japan fought war after war for a century before they changed their ways. China on the other hand slowly established a government and used education as a tool to be politically and economically strong. Japan would later do the same. China was one of the most politically and economically strong countries during 1500 ? 1800. The state was identified as family. It brought unity and integration. The political system was an expanded role of Confucianism.
From 1500 ? 1800, China was the most highly commercialized non-industrial society in the world. China had what is known as the perfected late imperial system. The two Dynasties that ruled China during this time period were Ming (1368 ? 1644) and Ch'ing (1644 ? 1911). They both had the same type of government, good familial and good educational system. The emperor was stronger than ever during Ming - Ch'ing. It made all-important and UN-important decisions. Below him were the Grand Secretaries. They made all decisions the Emperor did not want to make.
The Ming and Ch'ing had an organization of offices, at the top was the military, censorate, and administrative branch, below them were six ministries. They ran a Confucianism political system. These were also Chinas last Dynasties. During the ruling of Ming, population doubled from 60 million to 125 million. Food supply was on the same pace. They had their fare share of epidemics. The great plague of 1586 ? 1589 and 1639 ? 1644 killed 20% - 30% of the most populated areas. Ming re-populated open lands by re-settling villages and expanding water supply like the re-opening of the Grand Canal in 1415.
Silk and cotton dominated the local markets. Silver was a dominate market in the mid 1600's. It was imported from mines in Western Japan. Spanish Galleons brought Peruvian silver into China. This led to the opening of the private "Shensi Bank" branches to accommodate the transfer of funds. Rather than paying taxes in grain or labor, farmers would sell grain and cash crops and pay taxes in silver. Ming collapsed in 1644. In the late 16th century, a Leader unified the Manchurian tribes, proclaimed a new Dynasty, and established a government. After the collapse of the Ming Dynasty, they took over and are know as the Ch'ing Dynasty or Manchu.
They ran the same style of government as Ming. In the late 16th century, Ch'ing took over south China with the help of Ming's generals that allied with Ch'ing after the collapse and moved the capital from Mukden to Peking. Manchu appointed two people, one Manchu, and one Chinese, to each key post in the central government. It was called Dyarchy. In 1683, Emperor K'ang Hsi took over Taiwan. The Ming Ch'ing was known as the perfected late imperial system. They had a stronger emperor, better government finances and used Confucianism as an ideology.
They had more academies to prepare people for the civil service exams, more bookstores, publishing flourished, and literacy outpaced population. Some of Chinas major markets were grain, salt, timber, iron, and cotton. Silk was a major market that was spread all over the world. China used education and political growth to establish themselves. They grew slowly and were on of the strongest countries of their time. They were the strongest countries in international trade. They would stop growing in the late 19th century due to lack of technology at that time. Japan had two different eras's from 1500 to 1800.
The Warring State's era was an all out war inside Japan from 1467 to 1600. The other was the Tokugawa era from 1600 to 1868. The wars came to an end and Japan established Government control and unity under Tokugawa Ieyasu's command. The Warring States era started in 1467 when a dispute over the next Ashika Shogun arrised. It led to war between two lords who supported Bakufu. Other lords took the opportunity to gain territory from the weaker. Wars raged though out Japan for eleven years. This ended in 1477 but fighting though out Japan continued for the next century.
100's of local states would give way to 10's of regional states. Then the regional states fought it out until in the late 16th century all of Japan came under control of one lord, Oda Nobunaga. He started the initial unification of central Honshu. He was assassinated in 1582. Toyotomi Hideyoshi completed unification in 1590. Then he died in 1598. After his death, wars started again until 1600 when Tokugawa Ieyasu won the battle of Sekigahara and established permanent unity. This was the start of the Tokugawa era. The Tokugawa era was the end of the wars.
Japan had established unity though out the country. The leaders sought peace and a stable society. In the mid 16th century, Japan had vigorous demographic and economic growth. The Tokugawa control involved strict military housing for soldiers. The soldiers were called Samurai. Wives and children of soldiers were held hostage. They could not leave and the husbands could not see them. In 1854 Japan was secluded. No one could enter and no one could leave. The taxes were based on land. Most were paid in grain only 1/3 were paid in money. Commence grew in the late 16th century due to taxes.
Peasants would pay appoximently 33% of their annual income towards taxes. In return they would get military protection. In the 17th century, Japan's economy grew. The resources previously used for war were now used for land reclamation. This doubled agricultural production and doubled population from 12 million to 24 million. Some of the by products produced were, cotton, silk, indigo, and lumber. After the growth of the economy, commence also grew. Townsmen governed districts and Samurai watched over the cities. Services such as schools, police, and Firefighter companies were provided.
Merchants provided moneychangers, pawn brokers, peddlers, small shops retail establishments, and wholesale merchants. In the early 18th century, Japan adopted Confucianism, which would put schools in every district. In conclusion, China and Japan started out differently. Japan used war to establish unity and China use education and political growth. China was very strong in international trade; Japan was a secluded country. China grew slow and strong and Japan grew fast after the Warring States era. In the late 1800's both countries were strong politically and economically. | <urn:uuid:2f79614d-0865-4331-9771-c095d95d09af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lawaspect.com/china-and-japan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00519.warc.gz | en | 0.98488 | 1,387 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.413892239332199... | 1 | From 1500 to 1800, China and Japan tried to politically and economically established their countries in very different ways. Japan fought war after war for a century before they changed their ways. China on the other hand slowly established a government and used education as a tool to be politically and economically strong. Japan would later do the same. China was one of the most politically and economically strong countries during 1500 ? 1800. The state was identified as family. It brought unity and integration. The political system was an expanded role of Confucianism.
From 1500 ? 1800, China was the most highly commercialized non-industrial society in the world. China had what is known as the perfected late imperial system. The two Dynasties that ruled China during this time period were Ming (1368 ? 1644) and Ch'ing (1644 ? 1911). They both had the same type of government, good familial and good educational system. The emperor was stronger than ever during Ming - Ch'ing. It made all-important and UN-important decisions. Below him were the Grand Secretaries. They made all decisions the Emperor did not want to make.
The Ming and Ch'ing had an organization of offices, at the top was the military, censorate, and administrative branch, below them were six ministries. They ran a Confucianism political system. These were also Chinas last Dynasties. During the ruling of Ming, population doubled from 60 million to 125 million. Food supply was on the same pace. They had their fare share of epidemics. The great plague of 1586 ? 1589 and 1639 ? 1644 killed 20% - 30% of the most populated areas. Ming re-populated open lands by re-settling villages and expanding water supply like the re-opening of the Grand Canal in 1415.
Silk and cotton dominated the local markets. Silver was a dominate market in the mid 1600's. It was imported from mines in Western Japan. Spanish Galleons brought Peruvian silver into China. This led to the opening of the private "Shensi Bank" branches to accommodate the transfer of funds. Rather than paying taxes in grain or labor, farmers would sell grain and cash crops and pay taxes in silver. Ming collapsed in 1644. In the late 16th century, a Leader unified the Manchurian tribes, proclaimed a new Dynasty, and established a government. After the collapse of the Ming Dynasty, they took over and are know as the Ch'ing Dynasty or Manchu.
They ran the same style of government as Ming. In the late 16th century, Ch'ing took over south China with the help of Ming's generals that allied with Ch'ing after the collapse and moved the capital from Mukden to Peking. Manchu appointed two people, one Manchu, and one Chinese, to each key post in the central government. It was called Dyarchy. In 1683, Emperor K'ang Hsi took over Taiwan. The Ming Ch'ing was known as the perfected late imperial system. They had a stronger emperor, better government finances and used Confucianism as an ideology.
They had more academies to prepare people for the civil service exams, more bookstores, publishing flourished, and literacy outpaced population. Some of Chinas major markets were grain, salt, timber, iron, and cotton. Silk was a major market that was spread all over the world. China used education and political growth to establish themselves. They grew slowly and were on of the strongest countries of their time. They were the strongest countries in international trade. They would stop growing in the late 19th century due to lack of technology at that time. Japan had two different eras's from 1500 to 1800.
The Warring State's era was an all out war inside Japan from 1467 to 1600. The other was the Tokugawa era from 1600 to 1868. The wars came to an end and Japan established Government control and unity under Tokugawa Ieyasu's command. The Warring States era started in 1467 when a dispute over the next Ashika Shogun arrised. It led to war between two lords who supported Bakufu. Other lords took the opportunity to gain territory from the weaker. Wars raged though out Japan for eleven years. This ended in 1477 but fighting though out Japan continued for the next century.
100's of local states would give way to 10's of regional states. Then the regional states fought it out until in the late 16th century all of Japan came under control of one lord, Oda Nobunaga. He started the initial unification of central Honshu. He was assassinated in 1582. Toyotomi Hideyoshi completed unification in 1590. Then he died in 1598. After his death, wars started again until 1600 when Tokugawa Ieyasu won the battle of Sekigahara and established permanent unity. This was the start of the Tokugawa era. The Tokugawa era was the end of the wars.
Japan had established unity though out the country. The leaders sought peace and a stable society. In the mid 16th century, Japan had vigorous demographic and economic growth. The Tokugawa control involved strict military housing for soldiers. The soldiers were called Samurai. Wives and children of soldiers were held hostage. They could not leave and the husbands could not see them. In 1854 Japan was secluded. No one could enter and no one could leave. The taxes were based on land. Most were paid in grain only 1/3 were paid in money. Commence grew in the late 16th century due to taxes.
Peasants would pay appoximently 33% of their annual income towards taxes. In return they would get military protection. In the 17th century, Japan's economy grew. The resources previously used for war were now used for land reclamation. This doubled agricultural production and doubled population from 12 million to 24 million. Some of the by products produced were, cotton, silk, indigo, and lumber. After the growth of the economy, commence also grew. Townsmen governed districts and Samurai watched over the cities. Services such as schools, police, and Firefighter companies were provided.
Merchants provided moneychangers, pawn brokers, peddlers, small shops retail establishments, and wholesale merchants. In the early 18th century, Japan adopted Confucianism, which would put schools in every district. In conclusion, China and Japan started out differently. Japan used war to establish unity and China use education and political growth. China was very strong in international trade; Japan was a secluded country. China grew slow and strong and Japan grew fast after the Warring States era. In the late 1800's both countries were strong politically and economically. | 1,523 | ENGLISH | 1 |
People - Ancient Egypt: Ptolemy II Philadelphus GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD Ptolemaic Dynasty (282-246) This period is confusing due to all of the co-regencies. Scholars are not
always in agreement on the order of reigns and, in some case, the reigns themselves, from Ptolemy VI through Ptolemy XI.
In any event, Egypt's authority and wealth was intact until the death of Cleopatra, at which time, Egypt was overpowered
Ptolemy II Philadelphus in Tour Egypt
PTOLEMY II PHILADELPHUS,
THE SECOND KING OF EGYPT'S GREEK PERIOD
by Jimmy Dunn --
In about 285 BC, Ptolemy I Soter probably took as his co-ruler one of his sons by Berenice, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who became
the sole ruler of Egypt and the rest of his father's empire upon the elder king's death in about 282 BC. He took the Egyptian
name, Meryamun Setepenre, which means "Beloved of Amun, Chosen of Re". His reign can only be described as successful,
considering the expansion of his possessions around the Mediterranean, the internal stability in Egypt, and the fulfillment of
many of his father's imaginative projects, such as the Pharos Lighthouse and the Alexandrian University and Library.
However, it is important to put into perspective many of these accomplishments, and to understand the basis for the future of
the Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt that flowed from this early period.
Ptolemy II was actually not born in Egypt but in Cos in about 309 BC. As a youth, he enjoyed the best tutors. The practice of
getting the best scholars or poets available to educate the crown prince was something that Ptolemy I had the occasion to
observe in Macedonia, where the young Alexander was taught by no less a figure than Aristotle himself. Ptolemy II would need
this training, as well as the natural attributes of his family, in order to rule during an age of intrigue amidst international
ambitions. Indeed, the Ptolemies were known for their seemingly natural ability to live in greed, luxury and intrigue while
other members of the diadochi (the followers) of Alexander the Great, who split his empire amongst themselves, suffered from
these follies. When he took the throne of Egypt, he was known as Ptolemy II Philadelphus was, like his father before him, not
simply the ruler of Egypt. Indeed, he specifically wanted control over the Aegean, the eastern Mediterranean trade routes and
the sea passage through the Black Sea. He was in fact making headway on his ambitions in this regard when Macedonia made a
resurgence under Antigonus Gonatas. Greece and the Aegean had been Macedonia's natural sphere of influence ever since the days
of Philip II, and Gonatas showed no signs of abandoning that role. When Gonatas began to restore the naval supremacy that
Macedonia had once enjoyed, nothing could have been more alarming to Ptolemy II. Therefore, the Egyptian king began to actively
subsidize any and all of Macedonia's enemies in the area.
Athens, under Macedonian control, was one such enemy. Ptolemy II was already supplying much of Athens' wheat, and he
concentrated his efforts there. He knew that most Athenians longed for freedom and autonomy from Macedonia, and that they had a
dream of regaining control of Piraeus. However, he also worked anti-Macedonian allies, such as the Sparetan king Areus, into a
coalition. Eventually, when he felt the time was ripe, Ptolemy II, through his agents, encouraged the Athenian to declare war on
Antigonus. The patriotic notion of war was made in Athens by an idealistic and handsome Athenian citizen named Chremonides, who
also gave his name to the war.
However, this war backfired on Ptolemy II and the Greeks. Ptolemy actually did very little to support the efforts of the
Athenians, even though Chremonidean had claimed that Ptolemy "conspicuously shows his zeal for the common freedom of the
Greeks". When the Spartan king Areus met Antigonus outside Corinth during this war, he died on the battlefield, leaving
Antigonus to lay siege to Athens. There was no rescue by Ptolemy II, and in the end, the Greeks were much worse off than before.
However, it must be said that, through all of this, Ptolemy seems to have been gaining ground in the region, and he continued to
spark conflicts between Macedonia and its enemies. This was a time of intrigue amongst all parties, and sometimes Ptolemy II
expanded his region of control, only to lose it again and these types of conflicts outside of Egypt appear to have been ongoing
through his reign.
At home, this was a period of considerable achievement for Egypt's new capital, Alexandria, which grew so fast during the reign
of Ptolemy II and his predecessor that it had to be divided into three governable districts. By the end of his reign, it
consisted of Rhakotis, the native Egyptian quarter, Bruchium, the royal Greek-Macedonian quarter and the Jewish Quarter, that
was almost as large as the Greek.
However, Alexandria did not only grow quantitatively, but in quality as well. It was Ptolemy II who called upon the most learned
men in all fields to come to Alexandria and to the new university to lecture. He managed to integrate them into the Alexandrian
society and provided these scholars with a life free from want and from taxes, allowing them to study write, collate
manuscripts, research lecture and theorize in their respective disciplines. Together with is father, the new king of Egypt
established the foundations upon which Alexandria's fame would be based. Not that all of this arose completely from Ptolemy II's
pure passion for intellectualism. Much of his policy was one of cultural ostentation and self-advertisement.
To a certain extent, offering patronage to Hellenistic scholars such as poets was a brilliant step, not unlike the powerful men
of today that harness the power of print and television. These scholars were well cared for by Ptolemy II, but in return, at
intervals, were also expected to glorify their patrons with palpable flattery and hints of divine status. In his first hymn,
Callimachus associates, indeed virtually equates Ptolemy II with Zeus, and with the second, Apollo. He writes, "From Zeus come
kings, for than Zeus's princes nothing is more divine... We can judge this from our lord (Ptolemy II) since he has outstripped
the rest by a wide margin. What he thinks in the morning he accomplishes by evening - by evening the greatest projects, but the
lesser one the moment he thinks of them." Thus, through Callimachus and many others that he supported, there arose a viable
catalog of works exhorting the king. Manetho even dedicated his history of Egypt to him, though it was Ptolemy II who had
ordered him to write the history in the first place.
Of course, this sort of advertisement did not very well reach the Egyptian people outside of those in Alexandria. Egypt was
really two lands at this point, and through much of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Many of the Greeks never bothered to even learn the
local language, and indeed it is claimed that the famous and last Ptolemy, Cleopatra, was the only Ptolemaic ruler ever to learn
the Egyptian. Therefore, the Greeks worked through an army of translators to communicate with the priests and bureaucracy that
actually ran the remainder of Egypt. Ptolemy ran Egypt as a private estate, and much of the bureaucracy, which had a
stranglehold on Egypt, was simply to insure that he received what was due him.
The dynastic cult of the Ptolemies was a Greek cult with a Greek hierarchy, and with worshippers drawn from the Greek speaking
population of the country. Though they borrowed from pharaonic cult practices, this made no fundamental difference to this basic
fact. The nearest the Ptolemies came to any kind of integration was the imposition of themselves, and their cult, for political
reasons, on the native theocracy. They treated Egyptian priests with some amount of respect, and in return they enjoyed
pharaonic privileges and honors. Nevertheless, it is clear that the priests, particularly of Upper Egypt, still regarded them
privately as foreign interlopers, not unlike the Hyksos, to be expelled when the time was right. That never happened.
Nevertheless, Egypt is said to have attained its greatest height under Ptolemy II Philadelphus.
Though perhaps most famous for completing his father's great works in Alexandria, he is also credited with other
accomplishments. For example, he completing the canal from the Pelusiac branch of the Nile River. The construction of this canal
was begun under Necho and continued by Darius who abandoned it when he was told that the Red Sea was at a higher level than
Egypt. Ptolemy II provided the canal with a lock and after its completion, the canal was named the Ptolemy River in his honor.
And even though Ptolemy II's buildings and many of his accomplishments have been lost to us through time, one of his most
enduring contributes to Egypt is readily visible to us today. He was the first to import camels to Egypt.
Interestingly, one of Ptolemy II's claims to fame was his marriage to his full sister. At first, he made a dynastic marriage
with Arsinoe, the daughter of the powerful Lysimachus of Thrace, who had been one of Alexander the Great's foremost generals. By
her, he had three children. However, when his sister, another Arsinoe, who was bored with sanctuary on Samorthrace, finally
returned to Egypt, she cultivated her brother who was her junior by eight years. Ptolemy II ended up repudiating his existing
wife, after some rumors of treason associated with her arose and she was banished to Coptos in Southern Egypt. He then married
his full sister. She promptly adopted his first wife's children, and began to appear with her brother and now husband on his
gold and silver coinage. In fact, by some sexist oddity, it was his sister and wife, who while they both lived, and not Ptolemy
II who was known as Philadelphus. The date of this marriage is uncertain, but it must have taken place before 274/3 BC, when
Arsinoe appears as regnant queen on the Pithom stele.
It is not always certain that the more ancient Egyptian pharaohs who also married their sisters had sexual relations with them,
but Arsinoe was undeniably beautiful, as well as determined, and therefore her incestuous marriage to her brother seems to have
been more than a mere act of calculated policy. Nevertheless, calculation undoubtedly entered into it. Ptolemy I had already
been deified, and the more divinity that hedged the royal succession the better. Ptolemy II probably figured on playing Osiris
to Arsinoe's Isis for the benefit of his Egyptian subjects, and Zeus to her Hera for the Greeks.
Sailors were already praying to Arsinoe during her lifetime, a sign that she was regarded in some sense as the avatar of Isis,
and she was promptly deified after her death. It has often been thought that she held considerable influence over Ptolemy,
though her role as the political power behind the throne has probably been exaggerated. Ptolemy could be a forceful enough ruler
when force was called for.
All was not perfect, though. By now, the very intellectualism in Alexandria established by the first two Ptolemies had created
satirists in the city, and no great man seems to have escaped them. When Ptolemy II married his full sister, the Greek poet
Sotades published a lampoon that included the stinging line, "You are pushing the prong into an unholy fleshpot". This landed
him in prison, and later Ptolemy II had him hunted down by his admiral, Patroclus, who drowned him in a lead coffin.
Ptolemy seems to have died a relatively peaceful death and been buried in Alexandria as was probably his father. he was
succeeded by Ptolemy III Euergetes, a product of his first wife who had been brought up by his stepmother.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus in Wikipedia
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Φιλάδελφος, Ptolemaĩos Philádelphos" 309 BCE–246 BCE), was the king of Ptolemaic Egypt from 283 BCE
to 246 BCE. He was the son of the founder of the Ptolemaic kingdom Ptolemy I Soter and Berenice, and was educated by Philitas of Cos. He had
two half-brothers, Ptolemy Keraunos and Meleager, both of whom became kings of Macedonia (in 281 BCE and 279 BCE respectively). Both died in
the Gallic invasion of 280-279 BCE (see Brennus).
As did the Ptolemies III through V, Ptolemy II erected a commemmorative stele, the Great Mendes Stela.
He began his reign as co-regent with his father Ptolemy I from ca. 290 BCE–ca. 283 BCE, and maintained a splendid court in Alexandria.
Egypt was involved in several wars during his reign. Magas of Cyrene opened war on his half-brother (274 BCE), and the Seleucid king Antiochus
I Soter, desiring Coele-Syria with Judea, attacked soon after in the First Syrian War. Two or three years of war followed. Egypt's victories
solidified the kingdom's position as the undisputed naval power of the eastern Mediterranean; his fleet (112 ships) bore the most powerful
naval siege units of all time, guaranteed the king access to the coastal cities of his empire. The Ptolemaic sphere of power extended over the
Cyclades to Samothrace, and the harbours and coast towns of Cilicia Trachea, Pamphylia, Lycia and Caria.
The victory won by Antigonus II Gonatas, king of Macedonia, over the Egyptian fleet at Cos (between 258 BCE and 256 BCE) did not long
interrupt Ptolemy's command of the Aegean Sea. In a Second Syrian War with the Seleucid kingdom, under Antiochus II Theos (after 260 BCE),
Ptolemy sustained losses on the seaboard of Asia Minor and agreed to a peace by which Antiochus married his daughter Berenice (c. 250 BCE).
Ptolemy's first wife, Arsinoe I, daughter of Lysimachus, was the mother of his legitimate children:
Ptolemy III Euergetes, his successor.
Berenice Phernopherus, married Antiochus II Theos, king of Syria.
After her repudiation he married his full sister Arsinoe II, the widow of Lysimachus-an Egyptian custom-which brought him her Aegean
Ptolemy had several concubines. With a woman named Bilistiche he had an (illegitimate) son named Ptolemy Andromachou
Other mistresses include: Agathoclea (?), Aglais (?) daughter of Megacles, the cupbearer Cleino, Didyme, the Chian harp player Glauce, the
flautist Mnesis, the actress Myrtion, the flautist Pothine and Stratonice.
The material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height under Ptolemy II. Pomp and splendor flourished. Ptolemy deified
his parents and his sister-wife, after her death (270 BCE). Ptolemy staged a procession in Alexandria in honor of Dionysus led by 24 chariots
drawn by elephants and a procession of lions, leopards, panthers, camels, antelopes, wild asses, ostriches, a bear, a giraffe and a
rhinoceros. According to scholars, most of the animals were in pairs - as many as eight pairs of ostriches - and although the ordinary
chariots were likely led by a single elephant, others which carried a 7-foot-tall (2.1 m) golden statue may have been led by four.
Callimachus, keeper of the library, Theocritus, and a host of lesser poets, glorified the Ptolemaic family. Ptolemy himself was eager to
increase the library and to patronize scientific research. He had exotic animals of far off lands sent to Alexandria. Although an enthusiast
for Hellenic culture, he also adopted Egyptian religious concepts, which helped to bolster his image as a sovereign.
The tradition preserved in the pseudepigraphical Letter of Aristeas which connects the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament into Greek
with his patronage is probably overdrawn. However, Walter Kaiser says, "There can be little doubt that the Law was translated in
Philadelphus's time since Greek quotations from Genesis and Exodus appear in Greek literature before 200 B.C. The language of the Septuagint
is more like Egyptian Greek than it is like Jerusalemite Greek, according to some." Ptolemy had many brilliant mistresses, and his court,
magnificent and dissolute, intellectual and artificial, has been compared with the Versailles of Louis XIV.
Ptolemy was of a delicate constitution. Elias Joseph Bickermann (Chronology of the Ancient World, 2nd ed. 1980) gives the date of his death as
Relations with India -
Ptolemy is recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court at Pataliputra in India, probably to
"But [India] has been treated of by several other Greek writers who resided at the courts of Indian kings, such, for instance, as Megasthenes,
and by Dionysius, who was sent thither by Philadelphus, expressly for the purpose: all of whom have enlarged upon the power and vast resources
of these nations." Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21
He is also mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka, although no Western historical record of
this event remain. | <urn:uuid:2fa816c7-664b-41a3-bbe9-eb003418f998> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=46&sub=3517&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Egypt&subcat_name=Ptolemy+II+Philadelphus+ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00080.warc.gz | en | 0.981137 | 4,102 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.24070419371128082... | 1 | People - Ancient Egypt: Ptolemy II Philadelphus GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD Ptolemaic Dynasty (282-246) This period is confusing due to all of the co-regencies. Scholars are not
always in agreement on the order of reigns and, in some case, the reigns themselves, from Ptolemy VI through Ptolemy XI.
In any event, Egypt's authority and wealth was intact until the death of Cleopatra, at which time, Egypt was overpowered
Ptolemy II Philadelphus in Tour Egypt
PTOLEMY II PHILADELPHUS,
THE SECOND KING OF EGYPT'S GREEK PERIOD
by Jimmy Dunn --
In about 285 BC, Ptolemy I Soter probably took as his co-ruler one of his sons by Berenice, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who became
the sole ruler of Egypt and the rest of his father's empire upon the elder king's death in about 282 BC. He took the Egyptian
name, Meryamun Setepenre, which means "Beloved of Amun, Chosen of Re". His reign can only be described as successful,
considering the expansion of his possessions around the Mediterranean, the internal stability in Egypt, and the fulfillment of
many of his father's imaginative projects, such as the Pharos Lighthouse and the Alexandrian University and Library.
However, it is important to put into perspective many of these accomplishments, and to understand the basis for the future of
the Ptolemaic Dynasty in Egypt that flowed from this early period.
Ptolemy II was actually not born in Egypt but in Cos in about 309 BC. As a youth, he enjoyed the best tutors. The practice of
getting the best scholars or poets available to educate the crown prince was something that Ptolemy I had the occasion to
observe in Macedonia, where the young Alexander was taught by no less a figure than Aristotle himself. Ptolemy II would need
this training, as well as the natural attributes of his family, in order to rule during an age of intrigue amidst international
ambitions. Indeed, the Ptolemies were known for their seemingly natural ability to live in greed, luxury and intrigue while
other members of the diadochi (the followers) of Alexander the Great, who split his empire amongst themselves, suffered from
these follies. When he took the throne of Egypt, he was known as Ptolemy II Philadelphus was, like his father before him, not
simply the ruler of Egypt. Indeed, he specifically wanted control over the Aegean, the eastern Mediterranean trade routes and
the sea passage through the Black Sea. He was in fact making headway on his ambitions in this regard when Macedonia made a
resurgence under Antigonus Gonatas. Greece and the Aegean had been Macedonia's natural sphere of influence ever since the days
of Philip II, and Gonatas showed no signs of abandoning that role. When Gonatas began to restore the naval supremacy that
Macedonia had once enjoyed, nothing could have been more alarming to Ptolemy II. Therefore, the Egyptian king began to actively
subsidize any and all of Macedonia's enemies in the area.
Athens, under Macedonian control, was one such enemy. Ptolemy II was already supplying much of Athens' wheat, and he
concentrated his efforts there. He knew that most Athenians longed for freedom and autonomy from Macedonia, and that they had a
dream of regaining control of Piraeus. However, he also worked anti-Macedonian allies, such as the Sparetan king Areus, into a
coalition. Eventually, when he felt the time was ripe, Ptolemy II, through his agents, encouraged the Athenian to declare war on
Antigonus. The patriotic notion of war was made in Athens by an idealistic and handsome Athenian citizen named Chremonides, who
also gave his name to the war.
However, this war backfired on Ptolemy II and the Greeks. Ptolemy actually did very little to support the efforts of the
Athenians, even though Chremonidean had claimed that Ptolemy "conspicuously shows his zeal for the common freedom of the
Greeks". When the Spartan king Areus met Antigonus outside Corinth during this war, he died on the battlefield, leaving
Antigonus to lay siege to Athens. There was no rescue by Ptolemy II, and in the end, the Greeks were much worse off than before.
However, it must be said that, through all of this, Ptolemy seems to have been gaining ground in the region, and he continued to
spark conflicts between Macedonia and its enemies. This was a time of intrigue amongst all parties, and sometimes Ptolemy II
expanded his region of control, only to lose it again and these types of conflicts outside of Egypt appear to have been ongoing
through his reign.
At home, this was a period of considerable achievement for Egypt's new capital, Alexandria, which grew so fast during the reign
of Ptolemy II and his predecessor that it had to be divided into three governable districts. By the end of his reign, it
consisted of Rhakotis, the native Egyptian quarter, Bruchium, the royal Greek-Macedonian quarter and the Jewish Quarter, that
was almost as large as the Greek.
However, Alexandria did not only grow quantitatively, but in quality as well. It was Ptolemy II who called upon the most learned
men in all fields to come to Alexandria and to the new university to lecture. He managed to integrate them into the Alexandrian
society and provided these scholars with a life free from want and from taxes, allowing them to study write, collate
manuscripts, research lecture and theorize in their respective disciplines. Together with is father, the new king of Egypt
established the foundations upon which Alexandria's fame would be based. Not that all of this arose completely from Ptolemy II's
pure passion for intellectualism. Much of his policy was one of cultural ostentation and self-advertisement.
To a certain extent, offering patronage to Hellenistic scholars such as poets was a brilliant step, not unlike the powerful men
of today that harness the power of print and television. These scholars were well cared for by Ptolemy II, but in return, at
intervals, were also expected to glorify their patrons with palpable flattery and hints of divine status. In his first hymn,
Callimachus associates, indeed virtually equates Ptolemy II with Zeus, and with the second, Apollo. He writes, "From Zeus come
kings, for than Zeus's princes nothing is more divine... We can judge this from our lord (Ptolemy II) since he has outstripped
the rest by a wide margin. What he thinks in the morning he accomplishes by evening - by evening the greatest projects, but the
lesser one the moment he thinks of them." Thus, through Callimachus and many others that he supported, there arose a viable
catalog of works exhorting the king. Manetho even dedicated his history of Egypt to him, though it was Ptolemy II who had
ordered him to write the history in the first place.
Of course, this sort of advertisement did not very well reach the Egyptian people outside of those in Alexandria. Egypt was
really two lands at this point, and through much of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Many of the Greeks never bothered to even learn the
local language, and indeed it is claimed that the famous and last Ptolemy, Cleopatra, was the only Ptolemaic ruler ever to learn
the Egyptian. Therefore, the Greeks worked through an army of translators to communicate with the priests and bureaucracy that
actually ran the remainder of Egypt. Ptolemy ran Egypt as a private estate, and much of the bureaucracy, which had a
stranglehold on Egypt, was simply to insure that he received what was due him.
The dynastic cult of the Ptolemies was a Greek cult with a Greek hierarchy, and with worshippers drawn from the Greek speaking
population of the country. Though they borrowed from pharaonic cult practices, this made no fundamental difference to this basic
fact. The nearest the Ptolemies came to any kind of integration was the imposition of themselves, and their cult, for political
reasons, on the native theocracy. They treated Egyptian priests with some amount of respect, and in return they enjoyed
pharaonic privileges and honors. Nevertheless, it is clear that the priests, particularly of Upper Egypt, still regarded them
privately as foreign interlopers, not unlike the Hyksos, to be expelled when the time was right. That never happened.
Nevertheless, Egypt is said to have attained its greatest height under Ptolemy II Philadelphus.
Though perhaps most famous for completing his father's great works in Alexandria, he is also credited with other
accomplishments. For example, he completing the canal from the Pelusiac branch of the Nile River. The construction of this canal
was begun under Necho and continued by Darius who abandoned it when he was told that the Red Sea was at a higher level than
Egypt. Ptolemy II provided the canal with a lock and after its completion, the canal was named the Ptolemy River in his honor.
And even though Ptolemy II's buildings and many of his accomplishments have been lost to us through time, one of his most
enduring contributes to Egypt is readily visible to us today. He was the first to import camels to Egypt.
Interestingly, one of Ptolemy II's claims to fame was his marriage to his full sister. At first, he made a dynastic marriage
with Arsinoe, the daughter of the powerful Lysimachus of Thrace, who had been one of Alexander the Great's foremost generals. By
her, he had three children. However, when his sister, another Arsinoe, who was bored with sanctuary on Samorthrace, finally
returned to Egypt, she cultivated her brother who was her junior by eight years. Ptolemy II ended up repudiating his existing
wife, after some rumors of treason associated with her arose and she was banished to Coptos in Southern Egypt. He then married
his full sister. She promptly adopted his first wife's children, and began to appear with her brother and now husband on his
gold and silver coinage. In fact, by some sexist oddity, it was his sister and wife, who while they both lived, and not Ptolemy
II who was known as Philadelphus. The date of this marriage is uncertain, but it must have taken place before 274/3 BC, when
Arsinoe appears as regnant queen on the Pithom stele.
It is not always certain that the more ancient Egyptian pharaohs who also married their sisters had sexual relations with them,
but Arsinoe was undeniably beautiful, as well as determined, and therefore her incestuous marriage to her brother seems to have
been more than a mere act of calculated policy. Nevertheless, calculation undoubtedly entered into it. Ptolemy I had already
been deified, and the more divinity that hedged the royal succession the better. Ptolemy II probably figured on playing Osiris
to Arsinoe's Isis for the benefit of his Egyptian subjects, and Zeus to her Hera for the Greeks.
Sailors were already praying to Arsinoe during her lifetime, a sign that she was regarded in some sense as the avatar of Isis,
and she was promptly deified after her death. It has often been thought that she held considerable influence over Ptolemy,
though her role as the political power behind the throne has probably been exaggerated. Ptolemy could be a forceful enough ruler
when force was called for.
All was not perfect, though. By now, the very intellectualism in Alexandria established by the first two Ptolemies had created
satirists in the city, and no great man seems to have escaped them. When Ptolemy II married his full sister, the Greek poet
Sotades published a lampoon that included the stinging line, "You are pushing the prong into an unholy fleshpot". This landed
him in prison, and later Ptolemy II had him hunted down by his admiral, Patroclus, who drowned him in a lead coffin.
Ptolemy seems to have died a relatively peaceful death and been buried in Alexandria as was probably his father. he was
succeeded by Ptolemy III Euergetes, a product of his first wife who had been brought up by his stepmother.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus in Wikipedia
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Φιλάδελφος, Ptolemaĩos Philádelphos" 309 BCE–246 BCE), was the king of Ptolemaic Egypt from 283 BCE
to 246 BCE. He was the son of the founder of the Ptolemaic kingdom Ptolemy I Soter and Berenice, and was educated by Philitas of Cos. He had
two half-brothers, Ptolemy Keraunos and Meleager, both of whom became kings of Macedonia (in 281 BCE and 279 BCE respectively). Both died in
the Gallic invasion of 280-279 BCE (see Brennus).
As did the Ptolemies III through V, Ptolemy II erected a commemmorative stele, the Great Mendes Stela.
He began his reign as co-regent with his father Ptolemy I from ca. 290 BCE–ca. 283 BCE, and maintained a splendid court in Alexandria.
Egypt was involved in several wars during his reign. Magas of Cyrene opened war on his half-brother (274 BCE), and the Seleucid king Antiochus
I Soter, desiring Coele-Syria with Judea, attacked soon after in the First Syrian War. Two or three years of war followed. Egypt's victories
solidified the kingdom's position as the undisputed naval power of the eastern Mediterranean; his fleet (112 ships) bore the most powerful
naval siege units of all time, guaranteed the king access to the coastal cities of his empire. The Ptolemaic sphere of power extended over the
Cyclades to Samothrace, and the harbours and coast towns of Cilicia Trachea, Pamphylia, Lycia and Caria.
The victory won by Antigonus II Gonatas, king of Macedonia, over the Egyptian fleet at Cos (between 258 BCE and 256 BCE) did not long
interrupt Ptolemy's command of the Aegean Sea. In a Second Syrian War with the Seleucid kingdom, under Antiochus II Theos (after 260 BCE),
Ptolemy sustained losses on the seaboard of Asia Minor and agreed to a peace by which Antiochus married his daughter Berenice (c. 250 BCE).
Ptolemy's first wife, Arsinoe I, daughter of Lysimachus, was the mother of his legitimate children:
Ptolemy III Euergetes, his successor.
Berenice Phernopherus, married Antiochus II Theos, king of Syria.
After her repudiation he married his full sister Arsinoe II, the widow of Lysimachus-an Egyptian custom-which brought him her Aegean
Ptolemy had several concubines. With a woman named Bilistiche he had an (illegitimate) son named Ptolemy Andromachou
Other mistresses include: Agathoclea (?), Aglais (?) daughter of Megacles, the cupbearer Cleino, Didyme, the Chian harp player Glauce, the
flautist Mnesis, the actress Myrtion, the flautist Pothine and Stratonice.
The material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height under Ptolemy II. Pomp and splendor flourished. Ptolemy deified
his parents and his sister-wife, after her death (270 BCE). Ptolemy staged a procession in Alexandria in honor of Dionysus led by 24 chariots
drawn by elephants and a procession of lions, leopards, panthers, camels, antelopes, wild asses, ostriches, a bear, a giraffe and a
rhinoceros. According to scholars, most of the animals were in pairs - as many as eight pairs of ostriches - and although the ordinary
chariots were likely led by a single elephant, others which carried a 7-foot-tall (2.1 m) golden statue may have been led by four.
Callimachus, keeper of the library, Theocritus, and a host of lesser poets, glorified the Ptolemaic family. Ptolemy himself was eager to
increase the library and to patronize scientific research. He had exotic animals of far off lands sent to Alexandria. Although an enthusiast
for Hellenic culture, he also adopted Egyptian religious concepts, which helped to bolster his image as a sovereign.
The tradition preserved in the pseudepigraphical Letter of Aristeas which connects the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament into Greek
with his patronage is probably overdrawn. However, Walter Kaiser says, "There can be little doubt that the Law was translated in
Philadelphus's time since Greek quotations from Genesis and Exodus appear in Greek literature before 200 B.C. The language of the Septuagint
is more like Egyptian Greek than it is like Jerusalemite Greek, according to some." Ptolemy had many brilliant mistresses, and his court,
magnificent and dissolute, intellectual and artificial, has been compared with the Versailles of Louis XIV.
Ptolemy was of a delicate constitution. Elias Joseph Bickermann (Chronology of the Ancient World, 2nd ed. 1980) gives the date of his death as
Relations with India -
Ptolemy is recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court at Pataliputra in India, probably to
"But [India] has been treated of by several other Greek writers who resided at the courts of Indian kings, such, for instance, as Megasthenes,
and by Dionysius, who was sent thither by Philadelphus, expressly for the purpose: all of whom have enlarged upon the power and vast resources
of these nations." Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21
He is also mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka, although no Western historical record of
this event remain. | 4,130 | ENGLISH | 1 |
507 E. 10th St.
Education was a primary concern for the new German immigrants who arrived in Texas in the 1840s and 1850s. Although Texas did not have a system of free public education at that time, it did offer subsidies for students attending private tuition schools who could not pay. The German-Texans organized a number of schools under this system, paying for teachers and buildings with a combination of state funds, donations, and tuition. In September 1857, the German-Texans in Austin held a public meeting to establish a German school for the city. Civil engineer Wilhelm von Rosenberg donated land for the school at this site. Within a month, German-Texan volunteers began construction of the school building. The first school in Austin chartered by the Texas Legislature, the German Free School Association opened in 1858 with August Weilbacher and Julius Schutze as its first teachers. The 1857 building with rammed earth outer walls contained two classrooms and a basement. Circa 1872, a two-story limestone section was added to provide four additional classrooms. Schutze had left the school, but returned to teach in 1880 and moved his family into the schoolhouse. They continued to live in the building after the school closed in 1881 due to the advent of Austin's public school system. Schutze published the Texas Vorwaerts newspaper here for a time and eventually gained title to the property. Kelly Stevens, an Austin artist, purchased the building in 1948 and lived in it until his death in 1991. The building was then deeded to the German Texas Heritage Society. The German Free School is a City of Austin Landmark and Recorded Texas Historic Landmark. | <urn:uuid:4ad6df21-251c-47d2-95e3-2cf3eee67cdf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://texastimetravel.com/content/german-free-school-now-german-texan-heritage-society-headquarters | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.98119 | 343 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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Education was a primary concern for the new German immigrants who arrived in Texas in the 1840s and 1850s. Although Texas did not have a system of free public education at that time, it did offer subsidies for students attending private tuition schools who could not pay. The German-Texans organized a number of schools under this system, paying for teachers and buildings with a combination of state funds, donations, and tuition. In September 1857, the German-Texans in Austin held a public meeting to establish a German school for the city. Civil engineer Wilhelm von Rosenberg donated land for the school at this site. Within a month, German-Texan volunteers began construction of the school building. The first school in Austin chartered by the Texas Legislature, the German Free School Association opened in 1858 with August Weilbacher and Julius Schutze as its first teachers. The 1857 building with rammed earth outer walls contained two classrooms and a basement. Circa 1872, a two-story limestone section was added to provide four additional classrooms. Schutze had left the school, but returned to teach in 1880 and moved his family into the schoolhouse. They continued to live in the building after the school closed in 1881 due to the advent of Austin's public school system. Schutze published the Texas Vorwaerts newspaper here for a time and eventually gained title to the property. Kelly Stevens, an Austin artist, purchased the building in 1948 and lived in it until his death in 1991. The building was then deeded to the German Texas Heritage Society. The German Free School is a City of Austin Landmark and Recorded Texas Historic Landmark. | 379 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Earl of Burlington is a title that has been created twice, the first time in the Peerage of England and the second in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The first creation was for Richard Boyle, 2nd Earl of Cork, on 20 March 1664 (see the Earl of Cork for earlier history of the family). He had previously been created Baron Clifford of Lanesborough, in the County of York, on 4 November 1644, also in the Peerage of England. Lord Burlington was the husband of Elizabeth Clifford, 2nd Baroness Clifford. Their eldest son Charles Boyle, Viscount Dungarvan, succeeded his mother as third Baron Clifford in 1691 but predeceased his father. Lord Burlington was therefore succeeded by his grandson (the son of Viscount Dungarvan), the third Earl of Cork and second Earl of Burlington. He had already succeeded his father as fourth Baron Clifford in 1694. His only son, The 3rd Earl of Burlington and 4th Earl of Cork, was the famous architect and patron. He had two daughters but no sons and on his death in 1753 the barony of Clifford of Lanesborough and earldom of Burlington became extinct. He was succeeded in the earldom of Cork by his third cousin, the fifth Earl of Orrery (see the Earl of Cork for further history of these titles).
Lord Burlington was succeeded in his Burlington estates and in the barony of Clifford (which could be passed on through female lines) by his daughter Charlotte, the sixth Baroness. She was the wife of The 4th Duke of Devonshire. On 10 September 1831, the earldom of Burlington was revived when their third and youngest son Lord George Cavendish was created Baron Cavendish of Keighley, in the County of York, and Earl of Burlington, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. In 1858 his grandson, the second Earl, succeeded his first cousin once removed as seventh Duke of Devonshire. For more information on this creation of the earldom, see the latter title.
Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Burlington, 2nd Earl of Cork (1612–1698)
Charles Boyle, 2nd Earl of Burlington, 3rd Earl of Cork (1660–1704)
Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, 4th Earl of Cork (1694–1753)
George Augustus Henry Cavendish, 1st Earl of Burlington (1754–1834)
William Cavendish (1783–1812)
William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Burlington (1808–1891) (succeeded as Duke of Devonshire in 1858)
Earl of Burlington Wikipedia
see Duke of Devonshire for further succession | <urn:uuid:e52df2e6-282b-4af5-8ece-5cac7e79f425> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Earl-of-Burlington | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.98371 | 566 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.06939777731895... | 2 | Earl of Burlington is a title that has been created twice, the first time in the Peerage of England and the second in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The first creation was for Richard Boyle, 2nd Earl of Cork, on 20 March 1664 (see the Earl of Cork for earlier history of the family). He had previously been created Baron Clifford of Lanesborough, in the County of York, on 4 November 1644, also in the Peerage of England. Lord Burlington was the husband of Elizabeth Clifford, 2nd Baroness Clifford. Their eldest son Charles Boyle, Viscount Dungarvan, succeeded his mother as third Baron Clifford in 1691 but predeceased his father. Lord Burlington was therefore succeeded by his grandson (the son of Viscount Dungarvan), the third Earl of Cork and second Earl of Burlington. He had already succeeded his father as fourth Baron Clifford in 1694. His only son, The 3rd Earl of Burlington and 4th Earl of Cork, was the famous architect and patron. He had two daughters but no sons and on his death in 1753 the barony of Clifford of Lanesborough and earldom of Burlington became extinct. He was succeeded in the earldom of Cork by his third cousin, the fifth Earl of Orrery (see the Earl of Cork for further history of these titles).
Lord Burlington was succeeded in his Burlington estates and in the barony of Clifford (which could be passed on through female lines) by his daughter Charlotte, the sixth Baroness. She was the wife of The 4th Duke of Devonshire. On 10 September 1831, the earldom of Burlington was revived when their third and youngest son Lord George Cavendish was created Baron Cavendish of Keighley, in the County of York, and Earl of Burlington, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. In 1858 his grandson, the second Earl, succeeded his first cousin once removed as seventh Duke of Devonshire. For more information on this creation of the earldom, see the latter title.
Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Burlington, 2nd Earl of Cork (1612–1698)
Charles Boyle, 2nd Earl of Burlington, 3rd Earl of Cork (1660–1704)
Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, 4th Earl of Cork (1694–1753)
George Augustus Henry Cavendish, 1st Earl of Burlington (1754–1834)
William Cavendish (1783–1812)
William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Burlington (1808–1891) (succeeded as Duke of Devonshire in 1858)
Earl of Burlington Wikipedia
see Duke of Devonshire for further succession | 624 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The computer that helped take the first astronauts to the moon was surprisingly primitive by modern standards, but NASA’s programmers were able to get a lot out of the fairly modest systems they had available. The requirements that NASA submitted to Charles Stark Draper of the MIT Instrumentation Lab were revolutionary for the time. Unlike standard computers of the day, this computer would have to have a keyboard for direct user interaction, rather than punch cards. It would need to be both more versatile and more reliable than any of its contemporaries, not to mention much smaller. Draper and his team made a computer that was not only indispensable to the Apollo mission but which also revolutionized the state of computer science and had lots of impact on modern computers.
- It is estimated that the brainpower that is packed in a dishwasher is much more than that powering the computer that astronauts used to get to the moon.
- In the 1960s the engineers and scientists then had to make do with the basic computer powers that were available to them.
- Ten weeks after President John F. Kennedy challenged Americans to get to the moon a computer that was used for the project was launched.
“NASA knew just how hard it was going to be to navigate through three-dimensional space from the Earth to the Moon: the speeds, the relative motions, the necessary precision, the math, and the speed with which all that math had to be done.” | <urn:uuid:dcc2728e-3e3a-4e95-aa17-2ffeacd7cb25> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.indigoinstruments.com/this-computer-changed-the-world-and-youve-never-heard-about-it/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00182.warc.gz | en | 0.985882 | 287 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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-0.04141178727... | 2 | The computer that helped take the first astronauts to the moon was surprisingly primitive by modern standards, but NASA’s programmers were able to get a lot out of the fairly modest systems they had available. The requirements that NASA submitted to Charles Stark Draper of the MIT Instrumentation Lab were revolutionary for the time. Unlike standard computers of the day, this computer would have to have a keyboard for direct user interaction, rather than punch cards. It would need to be both more versatile and more reliable than any of its contemporaries, not to mention much smaller. Draper and his team made a computer that was not only indispensable to the Apollo mission but which also revolutionized the state of computer science and had lots of impact on modern computers.
- It is estimated that the brainpower that is packed in a dishwasher is much more than that powering the computer that astronauts used to get to the moon.
- In the 1960s the engineers and scientists then had to make do with the basic computer powers that were available to them.
- Ten weeks after President John F. Kennedy challenged Americans to get to the moon a computer that was used for the project was launched.
“NASA knew just how hard it was going to be to navigate through three-dimensional space from the Earth to the Moon: the speeds, the relative motions, the necessary precision, the math, and the speed with which all that math had to be done.” | 283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1. Celtic warriors
Celts believed that a person's soul resided in their head, so Celtic warriors became notorious for collecting the heads of those they killed and keeping them as trophies. Having a collection of them was seen as an honor in Celtic culture. It goes without saying that the Celts were brutes and fearsome opponents in battle.
2. Norman warriors
These descendants of the Vikings inherited brutal battle skills from their forefathers, with particular reference to their ability to fight on horseback. This meant that they had the ability to scythe through their opponents very quickly and make their escape. The Normans were also one of the first peoples to use progressive military tactics to confuse their opponents.
3. Macedonian warriors
At one point in history, Macedonian warriors were the most feared warriors in the known world. Despite their humble roots in farming, the Macedonians began to rise to prominence in Europe under Phillip II, the father of Alexander the Great. The Macedonian army was extremely well-disciplined, well-practiced and regimented, and employed ingenious strategies in the heat of battle. Its soldiers were also extremely loyal - those who marched alongside Alexander the Great on his 20,000-mile conquest were unpaid and went with him purely on the basis of being able to fight alongside him.
4. Spartan warriors
Spartan boys learned the art of warfare at the age of five - whether they liked it or not. They lived in barracks full-time and were sent out into the wild aged 12 armed with their weapons and a cape. After the age of 18, they pretty much devoted their entire lives to the army and the state of Sparta. Spartan warriors did not usually retire before the age of 60.
5. The Huns
The Huns were so savage that they used to slash the cheeks of newborn boys on the premise that they'd learn to deal with pain from the moment they came into this world. Just like the Normans, the Huns were horseback specialists that swept across Europe, striking fear in the hearts of their subjects. They also invented the Hunnic Bow, which was the most advanced long-distance weapon in the world at the time.
6. The Vikings
Notorious for pillaging and plundering, the Vikings rose to the height of their power in the 11th century AD. They were master sailors, swordsmen, and naval warfare specialists. Viking longboats usually had a capacity of about 60 warriors apiece, allowing them to travel across waterways very speedily.
7. Aztec warriors
Bravery was the name of the game for Aztec warriors. Aztec boys were called up to the army at the age of 17 and learned to use javelins, spears, and clubs rather than swords. The most respected and feared Aztec warriors could be identified by them wearing full jaguar hides, and they were expected to take captives in order to move up the military hierarchy.
8. Samurai warriors
A samurai's sword was his prized possession, and he was also expected to follow the chivalrous code of the Samurai, which was known as Bushido. Their swords were usually tested on unfortunate prisoners, and they had armor that was both incredibly light and incredibly strong. What's more, is that Samurai were highly literate and very well-educated. | <urn:uuid:d7fefb7c-5dbc-4157-a00f-3a2d178f8c2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.ba-bamail.com/content.aspx?emailid=29839 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00289.warc.gz | en | 0.988461 | 679 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.087366119027... | 2 | 1. Celtic warriors
Celts believed that a person's soul resided in their head, so Celtic warriors became notorious for collecting the heads of those they killed and keeping them as trophies. Having a collection of them was seen as an honor in Celtic culture. It goes without saying that the Celts were brutes and fearsome opponents in battle.
2. Norman warriors
These descendants of the Vikings inherited brutal battle skills from their forefathers, with particular reference to their ability to fight on horseback. This meant that they had the ability to scythe through their opponents very quickly and make their escape. The Normans were also one of the first peoples to use progressive military tactics to confuse their opponents.
3. Macedonian warriors
At one point in history, Macedonian warriors were the most feared warriors in the known world. Despite their humble roots in farming, the Macedonians began to rise to prominence in Europe under Phillip II, the father of Alexander the Great. The Macedonian army was extremely well-disciplined, well-practiced and regimented, and employed ingenious strategies in the heat of battle. Its soldiers were also extremely loyal - those who marched alongside Alexander the Great on his 20,000-mile conquest were unpaid and went with him purely on the basis of being able to fight alongside him.
4. Spartan warriors
Spartan boys learned the art of warfare at the age of five - whether they liked it or not. They lived in barracks full-time and were sent out into the wild aged 12 armed with their weapons and a cape. After the age of 18, they pretty much devoted their entire lives to the army and the state of Sparta. Spartan warriors did not usually retire before the age of 60.
5. The Huns
The Huns were so savage that they used to slash the cheeks of newborn boys on the premise that they'd learn to deal with pain from the moment they came into this world. Just like the Normans, the Huns were horseback specialists that swept across Europe, striking fear in the hearts of their subjects. They also invented the Hunnic Bow, which was the most advanced long-distance weapon in the world at the time.
6. The Vikings
Notorious for pillaging and plundering, the Vikings rose to the height of their power in the 11th century AD. They were master sailors, swordsmen, and naval warfare specialists. Viking longboats usually had a capacity of about 60 warriors apiece, allowing them to travel across waterways very speedily.
7. Aztec warriors
Bravery was the name of the game for Aztec warriors. Aztec boys were called up to the army at the age of 17 and learned to use javelins, spears, and clubs rather than swords. The most respected and feared Aztec warriors could be identified by them wearing full jaguar hides, and they were expected to take captives in order to move up the military hierarchy.
8. Samurai warriors
A samurai's sword was his prized possession, and he was also expected to follow the chivalrous code of the Samurai, which was known as Bushido. Their swords were usually tested on unfortunate prisoners, and they had armor that was both incredibly light and incredibly strong. What's more, is that Samurai were highly literate and very well-educated. | 688 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the Civil War, spies helped turned many battles around by infiltrating the lines of control and getting vital information. As the war progressed, since both sides knew it was not an easy win, action was taken to improve the efforts of the war. One of the efforts being done was spying. As soon as the role of spying took over, this war became to be known as an information war.
Many wondered how in the beginning the Southern had won thefirst Battle of the Bull Run in Manassas. It was because of the spying being done by the Confederacy. The development of spying trends began in the south. The Confederacy implemented a plan to the Secretary of State and Secretary of War and they approved it which then later brought a government spying agency known as the Signal Bureau (Markle 6). General T. J. Jackson was thefirst to deploy his own spy to gather information on the Unions (Markle 8). While the Unions thought it is an easy win by having more men, they were sadly mistaken. The spy instructed T. J. Jackson in getting more reinforcements and suggested a different route so they could attack by surprise in a disparate direction. When the battle was won by the Confederacy, it spawned a new evolution of how war was played. More spies were recruited and were instructed to gather more information.
However, when the Unions learned of the south's tactics, they began to assemble one of their own group– the Secret Service (Markle 6). The spies of the Secret Service were plenty but poorly trained and inexperienced. The Signal Bureau had more knowledge of spying in the beginning of the war but lacked spy volunteers. Although, those volunteers didn't spy for money, they did to prove their loyalty to their own states (Civil War Spies).
Those that wanted to join in the Secret Service weren't always admitted. The Secret Service had requirements to match your abilities. They would interview you by generals and doctors. First… | <urn:uuid:581a68e2-41ca-4519-af97-55db259443c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/civil-war-spies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00109.warc.gz | en | 0.987664 | 394 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.321898281574... | 1 | In the Civil War, spies helped turned many battles around by infiltrating the lines of control and getting vital information. As the war progressed, since both sides knew it was not an easy win, action was taken to improve the efforts of the war. One of the efforts being done was spying. As soon as the role of spying took over, this war became to be known as an information war.
Many wondered how in the beginning the Southern had won thefirst Battle of the Bull Run in Manassas. It was because of the spying being done by the Confederacy. The development of spying trends began in the south. The Confederacy implemented a plan to the Secretary of State and Secretary of War and they approved it which then later brought a government spying agency known as the Signal Bureau (Markle 6). General T. J. Jackson was thefirst to deploy his own spy to gather information on the Unions (Markle 8). While the Unions thought it is an easy win by having more men, they were sadly mistaken. The spy instructed T. J. Jackson in getting more reinforcements and suggested a different route so they could attack by surprise in a disparate direction. When the battle was won by the Confederacy, it spawned a new evolution of how war was played. More spies were recruited and were instructed to gather more information.
However, when the Unions learned of the south's tactics, they began to assemble one of their own group– the Secret Service (Markle 6). The spies of the Secret Service were plenty but poorly trained and inexperienced. The Signal Bureau had more knowledge of spying in the beginning of the war but lacked spy volunteers. Although, those volunteers didn't spy for money, they did to prove their loyalty to their own states (Civil War Spies).
Those that wanted to join in the Secret Service weren't always admitted. The Secret Service had requirements to match your abilities. They would interview you by generals and doctors. First… | 397 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Indians were planning to escape their masters and be on their own. Once they were on their own they lived off pear juice and rain water. On their journey they rain into other Indians who welcomed them. They called themselves Avavares who spoke a different language.
Ch. 33 and 34 People came to Castillo telling them about their headaches and cramps and he offered it to God as each of the men gave up something. The men were cured. The Indians wander in the woods for five days trying to get some prickly pears they at the end of the five days their hunger was no more as they indulged in the pears.
Ch. 35 and 36 Mr. Badthing formally called Mala Cosa was a little man who people feared but was strange. In the dances he would sometimes dress in woman’s clothing, which is very unusual for a man. The Avavares were good to the Indians; they lived life like they were free. They were hunting to fish, which was no luck, but the pears were beginning to ripe again so they will feast on them again.
Ch. 37 and 38 Indians were nice to the Christians. Sharing what food they had with everyone. The Indians were had their own way of life. If the men were to get in a fight they would settle it between themselves. They would leave their wives if they had a disagreement.
Ch. 39,40, and 41 The Aguenes attacked the Quevenes killing five and wounding a lot. They woman drew a white flag and signed a peace treaty. The women were thought to be the cause of the war. On their journey they met over ten new tribes in which they all spoke all different languages. When women hear the shout saying “who wants to drink” they have to stand motionless if not they will be beaten.
Ch. 42, 43, and 44 So of the Indians prepared to leave the tribe and go on their own, women began to follow their league as well. They came to witness new customs that other trbes did when the sick came to them. The Indians were becoming closer and closer to the Christians. They would leave during the day and go find food in the mountains after they would find deer they would bring it back not touching it, just would wait for the Christians to bless it.
Ch. 45, 46, and 47 They perform surgery on a man who had an arrowhead in his shoulder. The surgery was successful but bloody and dangerous. Out of the Indians on their journey they found Indians who were energetic, strong and answered every question people. They named them “cow people” because more cow were killed their than anywhere else.
Ch. 48, 49, and 50 The Opata people had given the Christians them corn, cornmeal, calabashes, beans, and cotton blankets. The Christians thanked God for… | <urn:uuid:3165ac96-ed36-41e9-88ff-5897f7ab3814> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Woman-And-Christians-608648.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.994787 | 588 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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Ch. 33 and 34 People came to Castillo telling them about their headaches and cramps and he offered it to God as each of the men gave up something. The men were cured. The Indians wander in the woods for five days trying to get some prickly pears they at the end of the five days their hunger was no more as they indulged in the pears.
Ch. 35 and 36 Mr. Badthing formally called Mala Cosa was a little man who people feared but was strange. In the dances he would sometimes dress in woman’s clothing, which is very unusual for a man. The Avavares were good to the Indians; they lived life like they were free. They were hunting to fish, which was no luck, but the pears were beginning to ripe again so they will feast on them again.
Ch. 37 and 38 Indians were nice to the Christians. Sharing what food they had with everyone. The Indians were had their own way of life. If the men were to get in a fight they would settle it between themselves. They would leave their wives if they had a disagreement.
Ch. 39,40, and 41 The Aguenes attacked the Quevenes killing five and wounding a lot. They woman drew a white flag and signed a peace treaty. The women were thought to be the cause of the war. On their journey they met over ten new tribes in which they all spoke all different languages. When women hear the shout saying “who wants to drink” they have to stand motionless if not they will be beaten.
Ch. 42, 43, and 44 So of the Indians prepared to leave the tribe and go on their own, women began to follow their league as well. They came to witness new customs that other trbes did when the sick came to them. The Indians were becoming closer and closer to the Christians. They would leave during the day and go find food in the mountains after they would find deer they would bring it back not touching it, just would wait for the Christians to bless it.
Ch. 45, 46, and 47 They perform surgery on a man who had an arrowhead in his shoulder. The surgery was successful but bloody and dangerous. Out of the Indians on their journey they found Indians who were energetic, strong and answered every question people. They named them “cow people” because more cow were killed their than anywhere else.
Ch. 48, 49, and 50 The Opata people had given the Christians them corn, cornmeal, calabashes, beans, and cotton blankets. The Christians thanked God for… | 610 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Schlieffen Plan
The Troubles of Germany and the Development of the Plan
By 1914, the military powers in Germany believed that a war with Russia was extremely likely. Since the 1880s, relations between the two states had been growing ever more hostile. Some sort of conflict seemed inevitable. The situation was heightened by a treaty (Dual Alliance, 1896) signed between Russia and France, a country with much hatred for Germany from the Franco-Prussian War, that if one of the two was attacked, the other would come to its aid: instant defeat for Germany. This gave Germany a large problem: a war on two fronts. The Schlieffen plan was devised to solve this problem and ensure victory for Germany over both Russia and France should a war occur.
The first principle that was put into place was that Germany would have to initiate an attack to ensure the element of surprise. The first problem was deciding which country to attack first: Russia or France. Russia was known as the ‘Steamroller’, meaning their military was (supposedly) slow to mobilise but was immensely powerful because of its huge military numbers. Schlieffen and his team estimated that it would take at least two months for Russia to mobilise. France, however, would not take so long, and were a smaller military power (and Germany had defeated them a few decades earlier in the Franco-Prussian War). So it was decided that when Germany declared war on Russia, the German Army would march west and conquer France, before turning east and conquering Russia. However, precision planning and timing to the second would be needed to conquer France in such a short amount of time. After all, it’s not that easy to conquer a country in just 8 weeks.
Schlieffen decided that he should leave a portion of the German Army in the east, just in case he had misjudged how long it would take for Russia to mobilise or failed to defeat France in two months. However, this meant a smaller force to take on France, and this increased the probability of the latter problem. With a smaller offensive force than he had initially, Schlieffen that it would be impossible to defeat France by attack them head on across the Franco-German border (because of lack of soldiers and heavy French fortification). So he decided to flank the French Army instead. To do this he decided to go through Belgium, north of France, and bring the German Army round, west of Paris, and then take the capital city of France, whilst leaving some soldiers on the Franco-German Border, to defend against the French army which would move in such a direction, according to Schlieffen.
This presents problems. Firstly, it risked involving Great Britain in the war. The Treaty of London, 1839, stated that Britain would aid Belgium against foreign attack. However, considering Britain tiny army and previous military record (losing to tribal warriors armed with spears in the Boer War a few decades earlier), Schlieffen was not particularly worried.
Secondly, the prospect of moving 10 million soldiers, ammunition, supplies, and spare supplies through a tiny country with a tiny railway system was bordering on impossible to say the least. To complicate matters further, the huge Belgium fort/city of Liege (home of ‘Big Bertha’, a cannon capable of firing 1 tonne shells) stood directly in their path. This meant they would have to spend time capturing Liege, whilst ensuring that everything was moved, by train relay service, through Belgium, whilst ensuring enough time to take Paris. A daunting task that would rely on timing accurate to the second.
However, once through Belgium, hopefully with the element of surprise still intact, it was simply a matter of moving south, perhaps meeting a retreating French army (from fighting along the Eastern Franco-German border), and capturing Paris, this ensuring victory over France, ready to take on Russia; a lot harder than it sounds.
Assumptions and Failures
Although the Schlieffen Plan was well thought out, the amount of assumptions that were taken into account (i.e. How long Russia would take to mobilize) would eventually lead to its failure and the creation of a stalemate.
On the 2nd of August, 1914, Germany invaded Belgium, hoping to get through it relatively quickly in order to reach France. However, it became evident very quickly that Schlieffen has grossly under-estimated the Belgian Army and the Fort Liege. It took an extra two days to finally conquer Liege, and by that time the German Army in Belgium were locked in a battle with the Belgian Army, meaning their progress through Belgium had now been slowed dramatically. If Schlieffen had ever doubted Britain’s military power and loyalty to Belgium when drawing up his famous plan, he was soon to be proven guilty of such an act. The BEF, an elite, though small, company of soldiers were quickly deployed by Britain and came to the aid of the Belgian Army within days of the war starting. The previous German assumption that the BEF was just a ‘contemptible little army’ was soon squashed, and the BEF support at Mons in Belgium slowed the German advance ever more so.
However, the German Army were still a formidably large force, and managed to push the BEF and Belgian armies into Northern France.
At this point, the German High Command had assumed that the French armies had been crushed on the Franco-German border (where Schlieffen the French would go) and were not retreating to Paris. The truth was that the RFC (today’s RAF) with the BEF had given the French tactical advantage through aerial reconnaissance (another factor the Germans did not expect), and had lined up two armies on the River Marne, near Paris, to catch an advancing German Army. Two important events happened at this point. First, Moltke, leader of the advancing German forces, had now become aware that Russia had become mobilized in just 10 days (rather than the predicted 8 weeks), and were now invading Germany. The very worst possible situation had now become a reality: a war on two fronts. Moltke sent a large number of men back to Germany, because he believed that, with the BEF retreating, and the French (supposedly) in tatters, Paris would be easy pickings. This led to the second event, a large mistake by the Germans. Instead of heading straight for Paris, they went east in the hope of surprising a retreating French Army. Instead, the now weakened Germans were surprised to find a large French/Allied Army waiting for them by the River Marne. The two sides fought each other to a standstill further north of Paris, at the River Aisne, and it became obvious that the Schlieffen Plan had failed.
With both sides at a standstill, now dug in shallow trenches which would later became the famous term ‘trench warfare’, both sides made efforts to outflank each other in the hope of gaining a definitive advantage over the other: ‘The Race to the Sea’. The Germans saw the Channel Ports (important to the BEF for supplies, etc) as their main targets, and the Allies sought to protect them at all costs.
Once again, aerial reconnaissance was essential to the Allies, alerting them of outflanking manoeuvres from the Germans and allowed them to retaliate. This continued until the coast was hit, and the port of Ypres was contested in late 1914. With the Allies winning this, it became evident that now there was going to be a stale mate, both sides looked to deepen and fortify their trenches with barbed wire, artillery, bunkers, etc. The nature of ‘trench warfare’ meant that not side could possibly break the stalemate because of the sheer defensive quality of the trenches: the area between the trenches (no mans land), was constantly under bombardment, making it an absolute impossibility to push your trenches forward.
It is evident that many factors attributed to the stalemate on the eastern front: the miscalculated assumptions in the Schlieffen Plan (Russia mobilization, the BEF, etc) brought both sides to a standstill, and then the introduction of ‘trench warfare’ after the ‘Race to the Sea’, which told us that neither side was going to give an inch, even if it did mean the deaths of millions of their own men. | <urn:uuid:40f3c571-ef63-4c52-96f8-de91ccbf91af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://h2g2.com/entry/A3463003 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.985329 | 1,735 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.62907272577285... | 3 | The Schlieffen Plan
The Troubles of Germany and the Development of the Plan
By 1914, the military powers in Germany believed that a war with Russia was extremely likely. Since the 1880s, relations between the two states had been growing ever more hostile. Some sort of conflict seemed inevitable. The situation was heightened by a treaty (Dual Alliance, 1896) signed between Russia and France, a country with much hatred for Germany from the Franco-Prussian War, that if one of the two was attacked, the other would come to its aid: instant defeat for Germany. This gave Germany a large problem: a war on two fronts. The Schlieffen plan was devised to solve this problem and ensure victory for Germany over both Russia and France should a war occur.
The first principle that was put into place was that Germany would have to initiate an attack to ensure the element of surprise. The first problem was deciding which country to attack first: Russia or France. Russia was known as the ‘Steamroller’, meaning their military was (supposedly) slow to mobilise but was immensely powerful because of its huge military numbers. Schlieffen and his team estimated that it would take at least two months for Russia to mobilise. France, however, would not take so long, and were a smaller military power (and Germany had defeated them a few decades earlier in the Franco-Prussian War). So it was decided that when Germany declared war on Russia, the German Army would march west and conquer France, before turning east and conquering Russia. However, precision planning and timing to the second would be needed to conquer France in such a short amount of time. After all, it’s not that easy to conquer a country in just 8 weeks.
Schlieffen decided that he should leave a portion of the German Army in the east, just in case he had misjudged how long it would take for Russia to mobilise or failed to defeat France in two months. However, this meant a smaller force to take on France, and this increased the probability of the latter problem. With a smaller offensive force than he had initially, Schlieffen that it would be impossible to defeat France by attack them head on across the Franco-German border (because of lack of soldiers and heavy French fortification). So he decided to flank the French Army instead. To do this he decided to go through Belgium, north of France, and bring the German Army round, west of Paris, and then take the capital city of France, whilst leaving some soldiers on the Franco-German Border, to defend against the French army which would move in such a direction, according to Schlieffen.
This presents problems. Firstly, it risked involving Great Britain in the war. The Treaty of London, 1839, stated that Britain would aid Belgium against foreign attack. However, considering Britain tiny army and previous military record (losing to tribal warriors armed with spears in the Boer War a few decades earlier), Schlieffen was not particularly worried.
Secondly, the prospect of moving 10 million soldiers, ammunition, supplies, and spare supplies through a tiny country with a tiny railway system was bordering on impossible to say the least. To complicate matters further, the huge Belgium fort/city of Liege (home of ‘Big Bertha’, a cannon capable of firing 1 tonne shells) stood directly in their path. This meant they would have to spend time capturing Liege, whilst ensuring that everything was moved, by train relay service, through Belgium, whilst ensuring enough time to take Paris. A daunting task that would rely on timing accurate to the second.
However, once through Belgium, hopefully with the element of surprise still intact, it was simply a matter of moving south, perhaps meeting a retreating French army (from fighting along the Eastern Franco-German border), and capturing Paris, this ensuring victory over France, ready to take on Russia; a lot harder than it sounds.
Assumptions and Failures
Although the Schlieffen Plan was well thought out, the amount of assumptions that were taken into account (i.e. How long Russia would take to mobilize) would eventually lead to its failure and the creation of a stalemate.
On the 2nd of August, 1914, Germany invaded Belgium, hoping to get through it relatively quickly in order to reach France. However, it became evident very quickly that Schlieffen has grossly under-estimated the Belgian Army and the Fort Liege. It took an extra two days to finally conquer Liege, and by that time the German Army in Belgium were locked in a battle with the Belgian Army, meaning their progress through Belgium had now been slowed dramatically. If Schlieffen had ever doubted Britain’s military power and loyalty to Belgium when drawing up his famous plan, he was soon to be proven guilty of such an act. The BEF, an elite, though small, company of soldiers were quickly deployed by Britain and came to the aid of the Belgian Army within days of the war starting. The previous German assumption that the BEF was just a ‘contemptible little army’ was soon squashed, and the BEF support at Mons in Belgium slowed the German advance ever more so.
However, the German Army were still a formidably large force, and managed to push the BEF and Belgian armies into Northern France.
At this point, the German High Command had assumed that the French armies had been crushed on the Franco-German border (where Schlieffen the French would go) and were not retreating to Paris. The truth was that the RFC (today’s RAF) with the BEF had given the French tactical advantage through aerial reconnaissance (another factor the Germans did not expect), and had lined up two armies on the River Marne, near Paris, to catch an advancing German Army. Two important events happened at this point. First, Moltke, leader of the advancing German forces, had now become aware that Russia had become mobilized in just 10 days (rather than the predicted 8 weeks), and were now invading Germany. The very worst possible situation had now become a reality: a war on two fronts. Moltke sent a large number of men back to Germany, because he believed that, with the BEF retreating, and the French (supposedly) in tatters, Paris would be easy pickings. This led to the second event, a large mistake by the Germans. Instead of heading straight for Paris, they went east in the hope of surprising a retreating French Army. Instead, the now weakened Germans were surprised to find a large French/Allied Army waiting for them by the River Marne. The two sides fought each other to a standstill further north of Paris, at the River Aisne, and it became obvious that the Schlieffen Plan had failed.
With both sides at a standstill, now dug in shallow trenches which would later became the famous term ‘trench warfare’, both sides made efforts to outflank each other in the hope of gaining a definitive advantage over the other: ‘The Race to the Sea’. The Germans saw the Channel Ports (important to the BEF for supplies, etc) as their main targets, and the Allies sought to protect them at all costs.
Once again, aerial reconnaissance was essential to the Allies, alerting them of outflanking manoeuvres from the Germans and allowed them to retaliate. This continued until the coast was hit, and the port of Ypres was contested in late 1914. With the Allies winning this, it became evident that now there was going to be a stale mate, both sides looked to deepen and fortify their trenches with barbed wire, artillery, bunkers, etc. The nature of ‘trench warfare’ meant that not side could possibly break the stalemate because of the sheer defensive quality of the trenches: the area between the trenches (no mans land), was constantly under bombardment, making it an absolute impossibility to push your trenches forward.
It is evident that many factors attributed to the stalemate on the eastern front: the miscalculated assumptions in the Schlieffen Plan (Russia mobilization, the BEF, etc) brought both sides to a standstill, and then the introduction of ‘trench warfare’ after the ‘Race to the Sea’, which told us that neither side was going to give an inch, even if it did mean the deaths of millions of their own men. | 1,742 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is best known for having invented the calculus in the mid to late 1660s (most of a decade before Leibniz did so independently, and ultimately more influentially) and for having formulated the theory of universal gravity — the latter in his Principia, the single most important work in the transformation of early modern natural philosophy into modern physical science. Yet he also made major discoveries in optics beginning in the mid-1660s and reaching across four decades; and during the course of his 60 years of intense intellectual activity he put no less effort into chemical and alchemical research and into theology and biblical studies than he put into mathematics and physics.
He became a dominant figure in Britain almost immediately following publication of his Principia in 1687, with the consequence that “Newtonianism” of one form or another had become firmly rooted there within the first decade of the eighteenth century. His influence on the continent, however, was delayed by the strong opposition to his theory of gravity expressed by such leading figures as Christiaan Huygens and Leibniz, both of whom saw the theory as invoking an occult power of action at a distance in the absence of Newton’s having proposed a contact mechanism by means of which forces of gravity could act.
As the promise of the theory of gravity became increasingly substantiated, starting in the late 1730s but especially during the 1740s and 1750s, Newton became an equally dominant figure on the continent, and “Newtonianism,” though perhaps in more guarded forms, flourished there as well. What physics textbooks now refer to as “Newtonian mechanics” and “Newtonian science” consists mostly of results achieved on the continent between 1740 and 1800. | <urn:uuid:4b1f1512-6e32-4dbe-bea4-432c6095b475> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mindonfirebooks.com/2019/01/04/born-jan-4th-1963-isaacnewton-was-eng/?shared=email&msg=fail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00473.warc.gz | en | 0.98292 | 373 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.020800897... | 8 | Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is best known for having invented the calculus in the mid to late 1660s (most of a decade before Leibniz did so independently, and ultimately more influentially) and for having formulated the theory of universal gravity — the latter in his Principia, the single most important work in the transformation of early modern natural philosophy into modern physical science. Yet he also made major discoveries in optics beginning in the mid-1660s and reaching across four decades; and during the course of his 60 years of intense intellectual activity he put no less effort into chemical and alchemical research and into theology and biblical studies than he put into mathematics and physics.
He became a dominant figure in Britain almost immediately following publication of his Principia in 1687, with the consequence that “Newtonianism” of one form or another had become firmly rooted there within the first decade of the eighteenth century. His influence on the continent, however, was delayed by the strong opposition to his theory of gravity expressed by such leading figures as Christiaan Huygens and Leibniz, both of whom saw the theory as invoking an occult power of action at a distance in the absence of Newton’s having proposed a contact mechanism by means of which forces of gravity could act.
As the promise of the theory of gravity became increasingly substantiated, starting in the late 1730s but especially during the 1740s and 1750s, Newton became an equally dominant figure on the continent, and “Newtonianism,” though perhaps in more guarded forms, flourished there as well. What physics textbooks now refer to as “Newtonian mechanics” and “Newtonian science” consists mostly of results achieved on the continent between 1740 and 1800. | 385 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the things that made World War II different from other wars was that Nazi Germany was committed to goals that would lead to mass murder. The Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler had always had three goals. One was to destroy his opponents in Germany. A second was to make Germany the strongest country in Europe and to conquer Lebensraum, which means "room to live." This word implied that without this land, Germany could not survive: it was supposedly too small for its population. The third goal was to "purify" Germany—and then Europe—of "racial enemies" and to establish Germans as the "master race." These three goals were closely connected in Hitler's mind, and all three were mixed up with his hatred of Jews, which is known as anti-Semitism.
Even before the Nazis took over Germany, Hitler and other Nazi leaders had attacked the Jews in speeches, in newspapers, and in the slogans they shouted. They compared the Jews to germs that made healthy Germans sick, called them
Top of Article
enemies of Germany, and demanded that they be thrown out of the country. For years, the brown-shirted storm troopers, the Nazi Party's military organization, had attacked and harassed Jews.
When the Nazis came to power, these anti-Semitic ideas became the official policy of the German government. The storm troopers stepped up their campaign of terror. They Page 159 | Top of Article beat up Jews on the streets, attacked Jewish-owned stores, and forced Jews out of their jobs. Because the Nazis now ran the government, the Jews could not turn to the police for help. On April 1, 1933, only two months after Hitler became chancellor (head of the German government), the Nazis organized a national boycott of Jewish-owned stores.
Beginning in 1933, a series of laws denied Jews employment in many jobs, and many Jews decided that it was no longer possible to live in their own country. In 1933, 53,000 Jews left Germany—about one out of every ten Jews in the country. About 16,000 of them eventually returned, many because of the difficult conditions they faced as refugees (people who flee to another country to escape danger or mistreatment).
The Nuremberg laws
In September 1935, a special session of the Reichstag (the German national legislature) met in the southern city of Nuremberg. The Reichstag passed two laws, which had been written on Hitler's direct order. The first law said that only a person of "German or related blood" could be a citizen of Germany, and that only a citizen could have political rights or hold office. The second law made it illegal for Jews to marry or to have sexual relations with non-Jews.
Two months later, the Nazis issued a decree to carry out these laws. It said that anyone with three or more Jewish grandparents was a Jew. Anyone with two Jewish grandparents was a Jew if he or she "belonged to the Jewish religious community" or if he or she were married to a Jew.
The Nuremberg laws did several things. They put Jews into a special legal category, with fewer rights than other Germans. They said that Jews were not Germans, no matter how long their families had lived in the country or how loyal they had been. They said that being a German or a Jew was part of a person's "blood" and could never be changed. After the Nuremberg laws passed, the German government officially did not consider Jews to be citizens.
New laws and new violence
In 1938, the Nazis stepped up their attacks on German Jews. In March, a new law took away the right to own property or sign contracts from Jewish organizations such as synagogues (Jewish houses of worship). In April, all Jewish businesses, except the very smallest, were required to register with the government.
Early in June, the Great Synagogue of Munich was burned down. Later that month, the police arrested all German Jews with police records—which generally meant parking tickets. Fifteen hundred Jews were sent to concentration camps, brutal prison camps run by the SS, the elite Nazi military organization. During this time, the Nazis also went after Jews in Austria, which had become part of Germany in March. By September, 4,000 Austrian Jews were in concentration camps. The arrested Jews were released only if they agreed to leave the country. In August, the synagogue in Nuremberg was destroyed.
In October, the Gestapo (short for the German words for "secret government police") began rounding up Jews who were Polish citizens living in Germany to deport (forcibly remove) them to Poland. The Gestapo arrested 18,000 people, including whole families. On the night of October 27, the Gestapo put them on special trains and sent them to the Polish border. The Polish government refused to allow them into the country, however, and many were held in special camps on the border.
Shortly afterward, Herschel Grynszpan, a seventeen-year-old Jewish man living in France, went to the German embassy in Paris and shot a German diplomat, Ernst vom Rath. Grynszpan's family was among those deported to Poland. The Nazis used this incident to claim that all Jews were at fault and that the shooting was a crime against all Germans.
On the night of November 9, 1938, word reached Germany that vom Rath had died of his wounds. The Nazis launched a nationwide campaign of planned mob violence. In every city in Germany, storm troopers wearing civilian clothing attacked Jewish homes, stores, synagogues, and orphanages, Page 161 | Top of Article burning buildings and throwing furniture onto the street. The police did not interfere.
Seven thousand businesses were destroyed. The streets were filled with shards of the stores' windows, called Kristall in German. That gave the terrible night its name: Kristallnacht, or Crystal Night.
About a hundred Jews were killed, many beaten to death. Thousands of others were injured. An American diplomat in the city of Leipzig described how "an eighteen-year-old boy was hurled from a three-story window to land with both legs broken on a street littered with burning beds and other household furniture."
The same witness wrote that storm troopers threw terrified Jews into a stream after destroying their homes. Then the storm troopers ordered the spectators, ordinary Germans, to spit at the Jews and throw mud at them. The spectators, according to the American witness, were "horrified" by what was happening.
The violence was supposed to look like the "spontaneous" anger of the German people, not the work of the government or the Nazi Party. But no one was fooled. Nazi officials planned the attacks and storm troopers carried them out. Very few other Germans took part. Most Germans, as the American diplomat pointed out, were horrified by the violence, but almost no one tried to stop it.
Arrests and economic measures
Immediately after Crystal Night, 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent to concentration camps. They were gradually released on the condition that they and their families leave Germany within 30 days. Thousands of Jewish families had only days to make arrangements to leave their homeland.
The Nazis also used Crystal Night to destroy any ability Jews still had to earn a living in Germany. The German government decided to seize any insurance money paid to Jewish property owners. In addition, Jews were held responsible for repairing the damage caused by the storm troopers. Jewish-owned businesses that had been forced to close because of the Page 162 | Top of Article destruction could not reopen unless they had non-Jewish owners. And the government "fined" the Jewish community 1 billion marks for vom Rath's death—an enormous amount.
On November 12, 1938, the government issued an official order entitled "Decree on Eliminating the Jews from German Economic Life." It prohibited Jews from selling any goods or services, from being independent craftsmen, or from being in the management of any company.
On November 15, the government expelled all remaining Jewish children from school. In December, Germany barred Jews from many public places, such as movie theaters and beaches.
After Germany had taken over Austria in March 1938, it applied the same anti-Jewish policies to that country. The same thing happened in the parts of Czechoslovakia that Germany seized in October 1938 and March 1939. But the condition of Jews in areas under German control became even worse after World War II began. The first victims were the Jews of Poland.
The first attacks on the Jews of Poland
The population of Poland before the war was about 35 million. About 3.3 million were Jews—almost one-tenth of the population. It was the largest and most important Jewish community in Europe, with a long and rich tradition.
A very large number of Jews, probably about 120,000, were killed during the weeks of fighting against the German invasion and immediately after. Jews in the Polish army, like all Polish soldiers, suffered heavy losses. Many Jewish civilians, like other Poles, died in German air raids. (The German invasion of Poland is described in Chapter 2.) But many other Jews were killed specifically because they were Jews.
Nazi brutality toward Polish Jews began immediately after the German occupation. (An occupation is when a country that has won a war stations military forces in the defeated country to control it.) Many of the worst incidents were committed by the Waffen-SS ("armed SS"). These were units of the SS, the military branch of the Nazi Party, that fought as part of the regular army. Worst of all was a special branch of the SS called the Einsatzgruppen ("special-action groups" or "specialduty
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groups"). These specially trained strike forces were like a combination of army troops and secret police officers.
Humiliation and torture
The way the Nazis behaved reveals much about their hatred of the Jews. The Nazis were not just interested in getting rid of Jews who might be dangerous to them, as they were with Page 164 | Top of Article the Poles. They also wanted to humiliate and torture Jews as much as possible.
In the town of Bielsko on September 3, 1939, the Nazis forced 2,000 Jews into the courtyard of a Jewish school. The Nazis poured boiling water on some while they were hung by their hands; others died when their torturers forced water from a hose into their mouths until their stomachs burst. In Mielec, Nazis forced 35 Jews into a slaughterhouse and set it on fire, burning them alive.
In Wloclawek, the Nazis interrupted prayers in a private house on Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement, the most sacred Jewish holiday). They ordered the people to go outside and run. Then they ordered them to halt. Five or six of the Jews did not hear this order, or did not halt quickly enough to suit the Nazis, and were shot dead.
The next day, the Nazis burned down the town's two synagogues, something they did all over Poland. In the first six months of the German occupation, most of the synagogues of Poland were burned to the ground.
German soldiers grabbed Jews on the streets and beat them. They cut off the beards that religious Jewish men always wore. They forced them to crawl through the mud, or to pull Germans around in carts, or to give the stiff-armed Hitler salute.
The Nazi plan for the Jews of Poland
On September 21, 1939, the deputy head of the SS, Reinhard Heydrich, sent a secret message to German authorities in Poland concerning "the Jewish question in the occupied territory." His first point was to remind the commanders of the Einsatzgruppen that the "final aim" of these actions was to be "kept strictly secret. " The final aim was not explained, but Heydrich said it "will require an extended period of time." However, he wanted to begin the first stages leading to this final aim immediately.
The first goal "should be to establish only a few cities" where the Jews would be concentrated (gathered), Heydrich wrote. To make later actions easier, the concentration points Page 165 | Top of Article should all be at railroad centers, or at least on railroad lines. Once again, the later actions were not described, but the fact that the concentration points had to be convenient to railroad lines indicates that they were not intended as a final destination for the Jews.
Jews from small towns would be forced into the nearest city of concentration. These newcomers, like the Jews who already lived in the cities, would have to live in a special area of the city, separated by walls or fences. This was the beginning of the ghettos. In the Middle Ages, many European Jews were required to live in a special section of town, and usually had to return there by nightfall. In some places, including parts of Germany, these ghettos had lasted until the early nineteenth century. By the time of Heydrich's plan, however, Europe had been free of ghettos for many decades.
Heydrich also ordered the creation of a Jewish Council, usually called a Judenrat, in each Jewish community. Its members and their families would be held responsible for making sure the Jews followed German orders.
The beginning of the system of slave labor
After they occupied Poland, the Germans began using Polish Jews for slave labor. Jews were grabbed off the street and forced to do things like clear rubble from the recent battles or fill in antitank ditches that the Poles had dug.
On October 26, 1939, five weeks after Heydrich's message, an official decree gave the top SS leader in each area of occupied Poland authority over Jewish forced labor. Whenever some German agency needed some emergency work done, the SS formed a labor column of Jews they arrested at random on the street.
Within a few months, the Germans created more permanent labor camps. Soon, 30,000 Jews were digging an anti-tank ditch many miles long near the new border with the Soviet Union. Forty-five thousand others were held in 40 separate camps, building a canal near Lublin. Another 25,000 worked on a project near Warsaw. Non-Jewish Poles were also being sent to work camps.
Before long, Jews were performing forced labor in factories as well. Many German companies—including some owned by the SS itself—built factories next to the work camps. Some Nazi officials became rich by making deals with private businesses. Some of the Jews were paid about forty cents a day, but most were not paid at all. They worked under terrible conditions, without enough food, and the death rate was very high. Eventually a huge system of forced labor—or, really, slave labor—developed.
The first ghettos
At the same time as the forced-labor columns were being created, the Nazis moved ahead with Heydrich's plan to create ghettos. They collected the lists of Jews that each Judenrat had been ordered to draw up. Jews had to wear a yellow six-pointed star at all times and were not allowed to go into certain areas.
The Germans created the first ghetto in late October 1939, less than two months after Germany had invaded Poland. Several months later, a ghetto was established at Lodz, the second-largest city in Poland before the war. It took about another year for the Germans to set up ghettos throughout Poland. By April 1941, almost all Jews in Poland were confined in ghettos.
Although every ghetto was different, the conditions in Lodz give an idea of what they were like. The Nazis always chose the poorest section of town for the ghetto. The buildings were mostly old, run-down, and poorly heated in the cold Polish winters. Few had indoor bathrooms or running water. There were about 32,000 apartments inside the Lodz ghetto, most of them with only one room. On average, four people lived in every room. More than 160,000 people were jammed into an area of one-and-a-half square miles—about thirty city blocks.
In Warsaw, the capital of Poland and home to the largest Jewish population in Europe, around 450,000 Jews lived inside the walls of the ghetto. This was about 200,000 people for every square mile, almost triple the number for the rest of Warsaw, which was itself a crowded city. In the ghetto, an average of nine people lived in every room.
Hunger was the worst problem in the ghettos. Food in German-controlled Poland was rationed, so even people with Page 168 | Top of Article money could legally buy only what the Germans allowed. Each person had ration coupons for different categories of food. Jews were not allowed to buy meat, poultry, fish, fruits, vegetables, eggs, or white flour. Their diet consisted mainly of potatoes and bread. Often they ate potato peels. Many Jews were so poor they could not even buy what the Germans allowed. The combination of cold, poor sanitation, overcrowding, and an inadequate diet led to disease and death. More than 43,000 people starved to death in the Warsaw ghetto in 1941, almost one-tenth of the population. At a funeral for some children from a ghetto orphanage, the remaining children placed a wreath on their graves. It read: "To the Children Who Have Died from Hunger—From the Children Who Are Hungry."
The invasion of Russia and the beginning of mass murder
While it was forcing the Jews of Poland into ghettos, Germany invaded the Soviet Union (Russia and the territory it controlled) on June 22, 1941. The Soviet army and government were completely unprepared. The German forces, led by tanks, pushed into Soviet territory with tremendous speed. (The German invasion is described in Chapter 3.) With them came four specially trained new Einsatzgruppen. They had been recruited from organizations of dedicated Nazis such as the Gestapo, the Waffen-SS, and the SD (from the German words for "security service," the special branch of the SS in charge of spying on the rest of the Nazi Party). These new Einsatzgruppen had received many lectures about Nazi ideas, including the need to exterminate "subhumans" such as Jews. They also received operational training in how to round up and kill large numbers of civilians. (Each Einsatzgruppe used the same procedures, even though they operated many hundreds of miles apart.) By the time their training was over, the officers and men of the Einsatzgruppen all knew that their job was to commit genocide, the deliberate, systematic destruction of a racial, national, or cultural group.
As the German army advanced into Soviet territory, a subunit of an Einsatzgruppe swept into a town or village as soon
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as possible. One of their commanders later described what would happen. The Germans would "order the prominent Jewish citizens to call together all Jews for the purpose of resettlement." (Throughout Europe, the Germans told Jews that they were being "resettled" to some other area, when they were really being sent to their deaths.) When the town's Jewish population had gathered in some central location, such as a school or factory grounds, "they were requested to hand over their Page 170 | Top of Article valuables to the leaders of the unit." Then the Germans marched them away, usually to a nearby forest. "The men, women, and children were led to a place of execution which in most cases was located next to an antitank ditch that had been made deeper." The Germans then told everyone to remove their outer clothing. (In many of the Einsatzgruppen "aktions" [operations], the victims had to remove all their clothing.) "Then they were shot, kneeling or standing, and the corpses thrown into the ditch." Afterward, an Einsatzgruppe officer would climb into the ditch full of dead bodies and shoot people who were still moving.
In other Einsatzgruppen operations, the Germans forced their victims to lie on their stomachs on the edge of a ditch, and a German standing directly over them would shoot them in the back of the neck with a rifle, which was supposed to be placed very close to the victim's neck. The victim's blood and brains often splattered the Germans' uniforms.
An SS colonel described how his unit killed Jews in a December 1941 report to his superiors. The unit would round up Jews from one or more towns and dig a ditch at the right site to hold the right number of bodies. "The marching distance from the collecting points to the ditches averaged about five kilometers [three miles]. The Jews were brought in groups of 500, separated by at least 2 kilometers [1.2 miles] to the place of execution."
In the city of Kovno, in Lithuania (a country that had briefly been part of the Soviet Union), the murders began as soon as the Soviet army retreated from the city. Gangs of Lithuanian anti-Semites attacked and robbed Jews on June 23 and 24, 1941. On June 25, they marched from house to house in the Jewish slum district of the city, killing every Jew they could find. As they did in many other places, the Germans in Kovno encouraged these actions and secretly helped organize the mobs. It was important, the commander of an Einsatzgruppe wrote, to make it seem that the local population had attacked "the Bolshevist [Communist] and Jewish enemy on its own initiative and without instructions from the German authorities."
Ten thousand Jews from Kovno were arrested and taken to Fort Number Seven, one of several old military posts surrounding the city. For several days, large groups were taken out and shot; sometimes the Lithuanians raped the women first. Their bodies, almost 7,000 of them, were buried in large pits.
The Germans forced the 30,000 surviving Jews of the area to move to the slum district where the murder march had occurred. This became Kovno's ghetto. Throughout the summer of 1941, the Germans took hundreds of people from the ghetto and shot them. In October, more than 9,000 people, including thousands of children, were taken to Fort Number Nine and shot. The Germans called Fort Number Nine the Schlachtfeld, which means "slaughter ground." In the years that the Germans held Kovno, 100,000 people, 70,000 of them Jews, were killed in the forts surrounding the city.
The single worst massacre was at Kiev, the capital of Ukraine, which was then part of the Soviet Union. The German army captured Kiev on September 19, after a battle that lasted forty-five days. Within a few days, the Germans ordered all Jews to report for resettlement. They gathered, carrying small bundles, and were led out of town past the Jewish cemetery to an area of sand dunes, where there was a large ravine, a steep natural ditch. The name of the place was Babi Yar.
As each small group reached Babi Yar, the Germans ordered them to strip, hand over their bundles, and march to the edge of the great ravine. Then they were machine gunned. For two days the machine gunners worked and the bodies filled the ravine. Thirty-three thousand died.
The pattern was the same in every part of the Soviet Union captured by the Germans. The Einsatzgruppen would enter an area, round up as many Jews as they could, march them to an isolated area in the woods, and shoot them. Then the Einsatzgruppen would move farther east, following the advance of the German army. The surviving Jews were forced into ghettos and then killed in a series of roundups and executions. In five months, 500,000 Soviet Jews were dead.
The Wannsee Conference
At some point during this period, the top leaders of Nazi Germany decided to kill all the Jews in Europe. They Page 172 | Top of Article called this the "final solution" to the Jewish "problem." They had already taken the first steps in this plan. The Jews of Poland were confined to ghettos, from which they could easily be taken elsewhere and killed. Soviet Jews had been murdered by the hundreds of thousands. In the other countries of Nazi-occupied Europe, Jews had to register with the police and wear a yellow star on their clothes at all times. The places where they could live were restricted.
On January 20, 1942, Heydrich called a conference at Wannsee, a lakeside suburb of Berlin. There, he informed representatives of each branch of the German government about the decision to kill the Jews and instructed them to cooperate in carrying it out. Heydrich told them that "evacuation of the Jews to the east" was now the policy of Nazi Germany. At this very moment, Heydrich said, "practical experience is being gathered that is of major significance in view of the coming Final Solution to the Jewish Question." The practical experience was being gained by the Einsatzgruppen in Russia.
Heydrich reported on the number of Jews in each country of Europe. The total was 11 million. Heydrich's figures included the Jews of Great Britain, which Germany was fighting. They also included countries that were not involved in the war, like Spain, Switzerland, and even Ireland. The aim of the final solution, in other words, was eventually to kill every Jew in all of Europe. The Nazis, according to their own figures, planned to kill 11 million people.
The fifteen men at the conference then discussed the problems involved in arresting the Jews of each country under German control or influence and deporting them to the east. The conference ended with discussions of exactly how best to kill the Jews. They described and debated the technical problems of mass shooting and using poison gas.
Deportations and death camps
On July 19, 1942, Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS, ordered the resettlement of all Polish Jews by the end of the year. The Nazis began deporting Jews from the ghettos until no one was left and the ghetto was "liquidated." In the smaller ghettos, the entire population might be forced onto a single Page 173 | Top of Article train. In the larger ghettos, the process took months. The Nazis would order a few thousand people to report to a central location and then put them on a train. They would never be seen again. Sometimes this went on day after day; sometimes there were long pauses. The trains were going to four special camps.
These camps were different from the older concentration camps in Germany. As terrible as the concentration camps were, the camps in Poland were something new. They were death camps or extermination camps. Four of the camps were built for the sole purpose of killing Jews. They were not meant to do anything else. None of the prisoners was put to work there, except to help run the killing process. Each trainload of Jews was killed as soon as possible.
These four camps killed more than 2 million Jews.
The first of these camps was Chelmno (Kulmhof in German), about 35 miles from Lodz. It began to operate in December 1941, even before the Wannsee Conference was held. People were brought to the nearest railroad station on trains and then driven to Chelmno in trucks. There the Nazis forced them into the back of a different truck that looked like a furniture van. The Nazis crammed as many people into each truck as could possibly fit and sealed the back so that no air could enter. They directed the exhaust from the truck engine into the back through a hose. When the engine of the truck was run, it sent poisonous carbon monoxide into the truck. The truck ran until all the people were dead. Then the Nazis drove the truck to the nearby forest and dumped the bodies into mass graves.
The Nazis repeated this procedure over and over. Three hundred forty thousand people died at Chelmno. All but 7,000 were Jews. Only three people survived.
The other three camps designed to kill the Jews of Poland were different from Chelmno but very similar to one another. Each was near a large center of Jewish population, but they were far enough away, hidden in the forests, so that their purpose could be kept secret. They were on railroad lines, so that the Jews from the Polish cities could be brought to them.
The first camp was Belzec, located between the cities of Lublin and Lvov. From February 1942 to the end of the year, 600,000 people died at Belzec. Almost all were Jews. Two people survived.
Sobibór was east of Lublin. From May 1942 until October 1943, 250,000 people died at Sobibór. Almost all were Jews. Sixty-four people survived.
Treblinka was near Warsaw. From July 1942 to August 1943, about 870,000 people were murdered at Treblinka. Almost all were Jews. Somewhere between forty and seventy people survived.
The three camps were designed so that they could kill people as quickly as possible. The Nazis had approached the murder of Jews as a technical problem. Each aspect of the killings was carefully thought out. They planned how to bring the Jews to the camps and how to deal with them when they arrived. They planned how to process them at the camps and exactly how to kill them, and they planned how to get rid of their clothes, their possessions, and, finally, their bodies.
The Jews who arrived at the camps had already suffered unbelievably harsh conditions on the transport trains that brought them to the camps. They arrived exhausted, starving, and desperate for water. Many had died on the trip. When the survivors were finally allowed off the trains, they were told they had reached a transit camp, a stop along the way to resettlement.
Among the descriptions of these transports, there are several written by officers of the German Reserve Police, who guarded many of the trains. The historian Christopher R. Browning quotes a report written by a Lieutenant Westermann.
Almost 5,000 Jews from Kolomyja in southeastern Poland who had reported for "registration" at 5:30 in the morning were loaded on a train to Belzec. The next day, Westermann wrote, "some 300 Jews—old and weak, ill, frail, and no longer transportable—were executed." It took until seven that evening to complete the loading of the train. "Each car of the transport was loaded with 100 Jews. The great heat prevailing that day made the entire operation very difficult," Westermann reported. The cars were sealed and their doors nailed shut, as usual, he explained. But because it was already dark by the time the train left at nine, and because of the great heat,
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"many Jews escaped by squeezing through the airholes after removing the barbed wire. While the guard was able to shoot many of them immediately, most of the escaping Jews were eliminated that night or the next day by the railroad guard or other police units." In a different transport to Belzec, 2,000 of the Jews had died from suffocation or heat prostration before the train arrived.
When the transport trains reached the death camps, the Nazis brought the first twenty freight cars to the unloading area, while the others waited farther away. The camps were surrounded by barbed wire fences, with high watchtowers at the corners. There were tree branches and leaves in the fencing so that no one could see through.
A group of prisoners opened the doors and the guards ordered all the Jews out. (The prisoners who opened the doors Page 176 | Top of Article were men, usually young and healthy, who had arrived on an earlier transport and had not been killed.) The SS men and the guards (often Ukrainian soldiers in the Soviet army who had been captured by the Germans and who had volunteered to help the Nazis) marched the new arrivals into the camp as quickly as possible. Anyone who lagged behind was beaten with rifle butts or whipped.
Meanwhile, the prisoners who had opened the cars removed the bodies of those who had died on the train. Then they cleaned the cars. They washed away blood, vomit, and human waste and swept out bits of clothing or personal possessions left behind. In a few minutes, all evidence of what had happened on the train was erased.
The guards told the people who had just gotten off the train to leave all their belongings. Then they separated the men from the women and children.
The women and children were forced to run to a long barracks building and told to undress completely so that they could be disinfected in the shower houses. The women would then have their hair cut off, to prevent disease, they were told. The hair, in fact, was used to make products for the German armed forces, such as water-resistant rope for the navy.
Next, the women and children were forced by the guards to run, completely naked, through a narrow path between barbed wire fences. Like the fence outside the camp, they were camouflaged with tree branches to prevent anyone seeing through. The path, about a hundred yards long, was called the "tube."
The guards beat and whipped the women and children to make them run through the tube before they could realize what was happening. There was a sign that said "To the showers," but the path really led to a secret part of the camp where the killing took place.
While the women were being processed, the men waited. They too were naked. After a while, perhaps half an hour or more, they too were forced to run through the tube.
On the other side of the path was a building. It looked like a public bathhouse, which was a familiar sight in Europe in that period. As they came through the tube, the prisoners Page 177 | Top of Article were forced to enter the building through the main door. Inside there were doors to smaller rooms, where showerheads hung from the ceiling. These rooms also had doors to the outside of the building, but these were sealed.
The guards packed the Jews into these rooms as tightly as possible and then sealed the rooms. Then they turned on the engine of a captured Russian tank. The carbon monoxide gas from the engine pumped through the showerheads into the sealed rooms, which were really gas chambers. For half an hour the poisonous gas poured in. The people inside gasped and coughed and choked. They clawed desperately to escape. Their bodies were drenched with sweat, with blood, with their own waste. They did not even have room to fall down when they died. They died pressed against one another, their bodies tangled together.
After all the prisoners were dead, a special group of the permanent prisoners opened the outside doors to the gas chambers. They had to separate the bodies and remove them. Other prisoners washed out the gas chambers to make them ready for the next victims.
Meanwhile, other prisoners, known as the "dentists," searched the mouths of the dead for gold teeth and fillings and removed them with pliers. Then prisoners carried the bodies to several giant pits located about 150 to 200 yards from the gas chambers, threw them in, and buried them. The next group of victims would be thrown on top of them.
The permanent prisoners also sorted through all the belongings of the victims. All identification had to be removed. The yellow stars that the Nazis had ordered the Jews to wear were ripped off the clothing. The names were taken off their suitcases. The Nazis were sending the belongings of the dead to Germany. No one was to know where they came from. Huge mounds of clothing and shoes were piled in a large, open area. The money, gold, jewelry, and other valuables that the Jews had handed over in return for a receipt were now the property of the Nazis.
The Nazis burned their identification papers, passports, birth certificates, photographs, and letters. They wanted no trace of their victims to survive.
Meanwhile, the next twenty cars of the train, which had been parked farther away, were brought to the camp. The whole process was now repeated.
The most infamous death camp was Auschwitz, in southwestern Poland. Unlike the camps designed to kill the Polish Jews, Auschwitz was also an immense slave-labor camp, designed to hold more than 200,000 prisoners at one time, including many non-Jews. It was much bigger than the other camps, with hundreds of buildings. But its main purpose was not slave labor. Auschwitz was designed to kill Jews from all over Europe, not just Poland, although 300,000 Polish Jews Page 179 | Top of Article died there. Transports came to Auschwitz for two and a half years, from France, Holland, Hungary, Norway, Italy, Greece, Belgium, and Slovakia.
These Jews had been arrested in their home countries, rounded up by the German occupation authorities or, in some countries, by the police of their own country, who were helping the Nazis. Usually they had been sent to a transit camp in their own countries until transportation became available. Like Jews everywhere, they had been told they were being resettled somewhere in the east. The terrified prisoners had often spent many days locked in the boxcars.
The railroad tracks went right into the camp. As each transport was unloaded, SS doctors "selected" the new arrivals. A small minority, especially adult men under the age of forty who appeared healthy, were told to go to the right. They would become slave laborers, trying to survive in some of the worst conditions ever endured by human beings. Some of those selected were chosen so that Nazi doctors could use them for horrible medical experiments.
Most of the people, perhaps 90 percent, were sent to the left: children and almost all women, anyone who appeared sick or weak, and all old people. Being sent to the left meant immediate death in the gas chambers.
Auschwitz had more and larger gas chambers than the other camps. Each of the chambers was connected to crematoria, special furnaces where the victims' bodies were burned. There was no need to bury the bodies in giant pits. The brick smokestacks of the crematoria stood high above the camp, like a factory. The smoke that rose from these chimneys for month after month was the symbol of a giant factory of death: the lives of more than 1 million human beings ended at Auschwitz. | <urn:uuid:e4381cd1-1b3a-4bf6-9273-5ee40a1f9750> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3411800017&v=2.1&u=nysl_ca_voorjs&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=7502c5c158c2c2357cceba947da02b7f | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00003.warc.gz | en | 0.987838 | 7,908 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.176340594887... | 1 | One of the things that made World War II different from other wars was that Nazi Germany was committed to goals that would lead to mass murder. The Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler had always had three goals. One was to destroy his opponents in Germany. A second was to make Germany the strongest country in Europe and to conquer Lebensraum, which means "room to live." This word implied that without this land, Germany could not survive: it was supposedly too small for its population. The third goal was to "purify" Germany—and then Europe—of "racial enemies" and to establish Germans as the "master race." These three goals were closely connected in Hitler's mind, and all three were mixed up with his hatred of Jews, which is known as anti-Semitism.
Even before the Nazis took over Germany, Hitler and other Nazi leaders had attacked the Jews in speeches, in newspapers, and in the slogans they shouted. They compared the Jews to germs that made healthy Germans sick, called them
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enemies of Germany, and demanded that they be thrown out of the country. For years, the brown-shirted storm troopers, the Nazi Party's military organization, had attacked and harassed Jews.
When the Nazis came to power, these anti-Semitic ideas became the official policy of the German government. The storm troopers stepped up their campaign of terror. They Page 159 | Top of Article beat up Jews on the streets, attacked Jewish-owned stores, and forced Jews out of their jobs. Because the Nazis now ran the government, the Jews could not turn to the police for help. On April 1, 1933, only two months after Hitler became chancellor (head of the German government), the Nazis organized a national boycott of Jewish-owned stores.
Beginning in 1933, a series of laws denied Jews employment in many jobs, and many Jews decided that it was no longer possible to live in their own country. In 1933, 53,000 Jews left Germany—about one out of every ten Jews in the country. About 16,000 of them eventually returned, many because of the difficult conditions they faced as refugees (people who flee to another country to escape danger or mistreatment).
The Nuremberg laws
In September 1935, a special session of the Reichstag (the German national legislature) met in the southern city of Nuremberg. The Reichstag passed two laws, which had been written on Hitler's direct order. The first law said that only a person of "German or related blood" could be a citizen of Germany, and that only a citizen could have political rights or hold office. The second law made it illegal for Jews to marry or to have sexual relations with non-Jews.
Two months later, the Nazis issued a decree to carry out these laws. It said that anyone with three or more Jewish grandparents was a Jew. Anyone with two Jewish grandparents was a Jew if he or she "belonged to the Jewish religious community" or if he or she were married to a Jew.
The Nuremberg laws did several things. They put Jews into a special legal category, with fewer rights than other Germans. They said that Jews were not Germans, no matter how long their families had lived in the country or how loyal they had been. They said that being a German or a Jew was part of a person's "blood" and could never be changed. After the Nuremberg laws passed, the German government officially did not consider Jews to be citizens.
New laws and new violence
In 1938, the Nazis stepped up their attacks on German Jews. In March, a new law took away the right to own property or sign contracts from Jewish organizations such as synagogues (Jewish houses of worship). In April, all Jewish businesses, except the very smallest, were required to register with the government.
Early in June, the Great Synagogue of Munich was burned down. Later that month, the police arrested all German Jews with police records—which generally meant parking tickets. Fifteen hundred Jews were sent to concentration camps, brutal prison camps run by the SS, the elite Nazi military organization. During this time, the Nazis also went after Jews in Austria, which had become part of Germany in March. By September, 4,000 Austrian Jews were in concentration camps. The arrested Jews were released only if they agreed to leave the country. In August, the synagogue in Nuremberg was destroyed.
In October, the Gestapo (short for the German words for "secret government police") began rounding up Jews who were Polish citizens living in Germany to deport (forcibly remove) them to Poland. The Gestapo arrested 18,000 people, including whole families. On the night of October 27, the Gestapo put them on special trains and sent them to the Polish border. The Polish government refused to allow them into the country, however, and many were held in special camps on the border.
Shortly afterward, Herschel Grynszpan, a seventeen-year-old Jewish man living in France, went to the German embassy in Paris and shot a German diplomat, Ernst vom Rath. Grynszpan's family was among those deported to Poland. The Nazis used this incident to claim that all Jews were at fault and that the shooting was a crime against all Germans.
On the night of November 9, 1938, word reached Germany that vom Rath had died of his wounds. The Nazis launched a nationwide campaign of planned mob violence. In every city in Germany, storm troopers wearing civilian clothing attacked Jewish homes, stores, synagogues, and orphanages, Page 161 | Top of Article burning buildings and throwing furniture onto the street. The police did not interfere.
Seven thousand businesses were destroyed. The streets were filled with shards of the stores' windows, called Kristall in German. That gave the terrible night its name: Kristallnacht, or Crystal Night.
About a hundred Jews were killed, many beaten to death. Thousands of others were injured. An American diplomat in the city of Leipzig described how "an eighteen-year-old boy was hurled from a three-story window to land with both legs broken on a street littered with burning beds and other household furniture."
The same witness wrote that storm troopers threw terrified Jews into a stream after destroying their homes. Then the storm troopers ordered the spectators, ordinary Germans, to spit at the Jews and throw mud at them. The spectators, according to the American witness, were "horrified" by what was happening.
The violence was supposed to look like the "spontaneous" anger of the German people, not the work of the government or the Nazi Party. But no one was fooled. Nazi officials planned the attacks and storm troopers carried them out. Very few other Germans took part. Most Germans, as the American diplomat pointed out, were horrified by the violence, but almost no one tried to stop it.
Arrests and economic measures
Immediately after Crystal Night, 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent to concentration camps. They were gradually released on the condition that they and their families leave Germany within 30 days. Thousands of Jewish families had only days to make arrangements to leave their homeland.
The Nazis also used Crystal Night to destroy any ability Jews still had to earn a living in Germany. The German government decided to seize any insurance money paid to Jewish property owners. In addition, Jews were held responsible for repairing the damage caused by the storm troopers. Jewish-owned businesses that had been forced to close because of the Page 162 | Top of Article destruction could not reopen unless they had non-Jewish owners. And the government "fined" the Jewish community 1 billion marks for vom Rath's death—an enormous amount.
On November 12, 1938, the government issued an official order entitled "Decree on Eliminating the Jews from German Economic Life." It prohibited Jews from selling any goods or services, from being independent craftsmen, or from being in the management of any company.
On November 15, the government expelled all remaining Jewish children from school. In December, Germany barred Jews from many public places, such as movie theaters and beaches.
After Germany had taken over Austria in March 1938, it applied the same anti-Jewish policies to that country. The same thing happened in the parts of Czechoslovakia that Germany seized in October 1938 and March 1939. But the condition of Jews in areas under German control became even worse after World War II began. The first victims were the Jews of Poland.
The first attacks on the Jews of Poland
The population of Poland before the war was about 35 million. About 3.3 million were Jews—almost one-tenth of the population. It was the largest and most important Jewish community in Europe, with a long and rich tradition.
A very large number of Jews, probably about 120,000, were killed during the weeks of fighting against the German invasion and immediately after. Jews in the Polish army, like all Polish soldiers, suffered heavy losses. Many Jewish civilians, like other Poles, died in German air raids. (The German invasion of Poland is described in Chapter 2.) But many other Jews were killed specifically because they were Jews.
Nazi brutality toward Polish Jews began immediately after the German occupation. (An occupation is when a country that has won a war stations military forces in the defeated country to control it.) Many of the worst incidents were committed by the Waffen-SS ("armed SS"). These were units of the SS, the military branch of the Nazi Party, that fought as part of the regular army. Worst of all was a special branch of the SS called the Einsatzgruppen ("special-action groups" or "specialduty
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groups"). These specially trained strike forces were like a combination of army troops and secret police officers.
Humiliation and torture
The way the Nazis behaved reveals much about their hatred of the Jews. The Nazis were not just interested in getting rid of Jews who might be dangerous to them, as they were with Page 164 | Top of Article the Poles. They also wanted to humiliate and torture Jews as much as possible.
In the town of Bielsko on September 3, 1939, the Nazis forced 2,000 Jews into the courtyard of a Jewish school. The Nazis poured boiling water on some while they were hung by their hands; others died when their torturers forced water from a hose into their mouths until their stomachs burst. In Mielec, Nazis forced 35 Jews into a slaughterhouse and set it on fire, burning them alive.
In Wloclawek, the Nazis interrupted prayers in a private house on Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement, the most sacred Jewish holiday). They ordered the people to go outside and run. Then they ordered them to halt. Five or six of the Jews did not hear this order, or did not halt quickly enough to suit the Nazis, and were shot dead.
The next day, the Nazis burned down the town's two synagogues, something they did all over Poland. In the first six months of the German occupation, most of the synagogues of Poland were burned to the ground.
German soldiers grabbed Jews on the streets and beat them. They cut off the beards that religious Jewish men always wore. They forced them to crawl through the mud, or to pull Germans around in carts, or to give the stiff-armed Hitler salute.
The Nazi plan for the Jews of Poland
On September 21, 1939, the deputy head of the SS, Reinhard Heydrich, sent a secret message to German authorities in Poland concerning "the Jewish question in the occupied territory." His first point was to remind the commanders of the Einsatzgruppen that the "final aim" of these actions was to be "kept strictly secret. " The final aim was not explained, but Heydrich said it "will require an extended period of time." However, he wanted to begin the first stages leading to this final aim immediately.
The first goal "should be to establish only a few cities" where the Jews would be concentrated (gathered), Heydrich wrote. To make later actions easier, the concentration points Page 165 | Top of Article should all be at railroad centers, or at least on railroad lines. Once again, the later actions were not described, but the fact that the concentration points had to be convenient to railroad lines indicates that they were not intended as a final destination for the Jews.
Jews from small towns would be forced into the nearest city of concentration. These newcomers, like the Jews who already lived in the cities, would have to live in a special area of the city, separated by walls or fences. This was the beginning of the ghettos. In the Middle Ages, many European Jews were required to live in a special section of town, and usually had to return there by nightfall. In some places, including parts of Germany, these ghettos had lasted until the early nineteenth century. By the time of Heydrich's plan, however, Europe had been free of ghettos for many decades.
Heydrich also ordered the creation of a Jewish Council, usually called a Judenrat, in each Jewish community. Its members and their families would be held responsible for making sure the Jews followed German orders.
The beginning of the system of slave labor
After they occupied Poland, the Germans began using Polish Jews for slave labor. Jews were grabbed off the street and forced to do things like clear rubble from the recent battles or fill in antitank ditches that the Poles had dug.
On October 26, 1939, five weeks after Heydrich's message, an official decree gave the top SS leader in each area of occupied Poland authority over Jewish forced labor. Whenever some German agency needed some emergency work done, the SS formed a labor column of Jews they arrested at random on the street.
Within a few months, the Germans created more permanent labor camps. Soon, 30,000 Jews were digging an anti-tank ditch many miles long near the new border with the Soviet Union. Forty-five thousand others were held in 40 separate camps, building a canal near Lublin. Another 25,000 worked on a project near Warsaw. Non-Jewish Poles were also being sent to work camps.
Before long, Jews were performing forced labor in factories as well. Many German companies—including some owned by the SS itself—built factories next to the work camps. Some Nazi officials became rich by making deals with private businesses. Some of the Jews were paid about forty cents a day, but most were not paid at all. They worked under terrible conditions, without enough food, and the death rate was very high. Eventually a huge system of forced labor—or, really, slave labor—developed.
The first ghettos
At the same time as the forced-labor columns were being created, the Nazis moved ahead with Heydrich's plan to create ghettos. They collected the lists of Jews that each Judenrat had been ordered to draw up. Jews had to wear a yellow six-pointed star at all times and were not allowed to go into certain areas.
The Germans created the first ghetto in late October 1939, less than two months after Germany had invaded Poland. Several months later, a ghetto was established at Lodz, the second-largest city in Poland before the war. It took about another year for the Germans to set up ghettos throughout Poland. By April 1941, almost all Jews in Poland were confined in ghettos.
Although every ghetto was different, the conditions in Lodz give an idea of what they were like. The Nazis always chose the poorest section of town for the ghetto. The buildings were mostly old, run-down, and poorly heated in the cold Polish winters. Few had indoor bathrooms or running water. There were about 32,000 apartments inside the Lodz ghetto, most of them with only one room. On average, four people lived in every room. More than 160,000 people were jammed into an area of one-and-a-half square miles—about thirty city blocks.
In Warsaw, the capital of Poland and home to the largest Jewish population in Europe, around 450,000 Jews lived inside the walls of the ghetto. This was about 200,000 people for every square mile, almost triple the number for the rest of Warsaw, which was itself a crowded city. In the ghetto, an average of nine people lived in every room.
Hunger was the worst problem in the ghettos. Food in German-controlled Poland was rationed, so even people with Page 168 | Top of Article money could legally buy only what the Germans allowed. Each person had ration coupons for different categories of food. Jews were not allowed to buy meat, poultry, fish, fruits, vegetables, eggs, or white flour. Their diet consisted mainly of potatoes and bread. Often they ate potato peels. Many Jews were so poor they could not even buy what the Germans allowed. The combination of cold, poor sanitation, overcrowding, and an inadequate diet led to disease and death. More than 43,000 people starved to death in the Warsaw ghetto in 1941, almost one-tenth of the population. At a funeral for some children from a ghetto orphanage, the remaining children placed a wreath on their graves. It read: "To the Children Who Have Died from Hunger—From the Children Who Are Hungry."
The invasion of Russia and the beginning of mass murder
While it was forcing the Jews of Poland into ghettos, Germany invaded the Soviet Union (Russia and the territory it controlled) on June 22, 1941. The Soviet army and government were completely unprepared. The German forces, led by tanks, pushed into Soviet territory with tremendous speed. (The German invasion is described in Chapter 3.) With them came four specially trained new Einsatzgruppen. They had been recruited from organizations of dedicated Nazis such as the Gestapo, the Waffen-SS, and the SD (from the German words for "security service," the special branch of the SS in charge of spying on the rest of the Nazi Party). These new Einsatzgruppen had received many lectures about Nazi ideas, including the need to exterminate "subhumans" such as Jews. They also received operational training in how to round up and kill large numbers of civilians. (Each Einsatzgruppe used the same procedures, even though they operated many hundreds of miles apart.) By the time their training was over, the officers and men of the Einsatzgruppen all knew that their job was to commit genocide, the deliberate, systematic destruction of a racial, national, or cultural group.
As the German army advanced into Soviet territory, a subunit of an Einsatzgruppe swept into a town or village as soon
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as possible. One of their commanders later described what would happen. The Germans would "order the prominent Jewish citizens to call together all Jews for the purpose of resettlement." (Throughout Europe, the Germans told Jews that they were being "resettled" to some other area, when they were really being sent to their deaths.) When the town's Jewish population had gathered in some central location, such as a school or factory grounds, "they were requested to hand over their Page 170 | Top of Article valuables to the leaders of the unit." Then the Germans marched them away, usually to a nearby forest. "The men, women, and children were led to a place of execution which in most cases was located next to an antitank ditch that had been made deeper." The Germans then told everyone to remove their outer clothing. (In many of the Einsatzgruppen "aktions" [operations], the victims had to remove all their clothing.) "Then they were shot, kneeling or standing, and the corpses thrown into the ditch." Afterward, an Einsatzgruppe officer would climb into the ditch full of dead bodies and shoot people who were still moving.
In other Einsatzgruppen operations, the Germans forced their victims to lie on their stomachs on the edge of a ditch, and a German standing directly over them would shoot them in the back of the neck with a rifle, which was supposed to be placed very close to the victim's neck. The victim's blood and brains often splattered the Germans' uniforms.
An SS colonel described how his unit killed Jews in a December 1941 report to his superiors. The unit would round up Jews from one or more towns and dig a ditch at the right site to hold the right number of bodies. "The marching distance from the collecting points to the ditches averaged about five kilometers [three miles]. The Jews were brought in groups of 500, separated by at least 2 kilometers [1.2 miles] to the place of execution."
In the city of Kovno, in Lithuania (a country that had briefly been part of the Soviet Union), the murders began as soon as the Soviet army retreated from the city. Gangs of Lithuanian anti-Semites attacked and robbed Jews on June 23 and 24, 1941. On June 25, they marched from house to house in the Jewish slum district of the city, killing every Jew they could find. As they did in many other places, the Germans in Kovno encouraged these actions and secretly helped organize the mobs. It was important, the commander of an Einsatzgruppe wrote, to make it seem that the local population had attacked "the Bolshevist [Communist] and Jewish enemy on its own initiative and without instructions from the German authorities."
Ten thousand Jews from Kovno were arrested and taken to Fort Number Seven, one of several old military posts surrounding the city. For several days, large groups were taken out and shot; sometimes the Lithuanians raped the women first. Their bodies, almost 7,000 of them, were buried in large pits.
The Germans forced the 30,000 surviving Jews of the area to move to the slum district where the murder march had occurred. This became Kovno's ghetto. Throughout the summer of 1941, the Germans took hundreds of people from the ghetto and shot them. In October, more than 9,000 people, including thousands of children, were taken to Fort Number Nine and shot. The Germans called Fort Number Nine the Schlachtfeld, which means "slaughter ground." In the years that the Germans held Kovno, 100,000 people, 70,000 of them Jews, were killed in the forts surrounding the city.
The single worst massacre was at Kiev, the capital of Ukraine, which was then part of the Soviet Union. The German army captured Kiev on September 19, after a battle that lasted forty-five days. Within a few days, the Germans ordered all Jews to report for resettlement. They gathered, carrying small bundles, and were led out of town past the Jewish cemetery to an area of sand dunes, where there was a large ravine, a steep natural ditch. The name of the place was Babi Yar.
As each small group reached Babi Yar, the Germans ordered them to strip, hand over their bundles, and march to the edge of the great ravine. Then they were machine gunned. For two days the machine gunners worked and the bodies filled the ravine. Thirty-three thousand died.
The pattern was the same in every part of the Soviet Union captured by the Germans. The Einsatzgruppen would enter an area, round up as many Jews as they could, march them to an isolated area in the woods, and shoot them. Then the Einsatzgruppen would move farther east, following the advance of the German army. The surviving Jews were forced into ghettos and then killed in a series of roundups and executions. In five months, 500,000 Soviet Jews were dead.
The Wannsee Conference
At some point during this period, the top leaders of Nazi Germany decided to kill all the Jews in Europe. They Page 172 | Top of Article called this the "final solution" to the Jewish "problem." They had already taken the first steps in this plan. The Jews of Poland were confined to ghettos, from which they could easily be taken elsewhere and killed. Soviet Jews had been murdered by the hundreds of thousands. In the other countries of Nazi-occupied Europe, Jews had to register with the police and wear a yellow star on their clothes at all times. The places where they could live were restricted.
On January 20, 1942, Heydrich called a conference at Wannsee, a lakeside suburb of Berlin. There, he informed representatives of each branch of the German government about the decision to kill the Jews and instructed them to cooperate in carrying it out. Heydrich told them that "evacuation of the Jews to the east" was now the policy of Nazi Germany. At this very moment, Heydrich said, "practical experience is being gathered that is of major significance in view of the coming Final Solution to the Jewish Question." The practical experience was being gained by the Einsatzgruppen in Russia.
Heydrich reported on the number of Jews in each country of Europe. The total was 11 million. Heydrich's figures included the Jews of Great Britain, which Germany was fighting. They also included countries that were not involved in the war, like Spain, Switzerland, and even Ireland. The aim of the final solution, in other words, was eventually to kill every Jew in all of Europe. The Nazis, according to their own figures, planned to kill 11 million people.
The fifteen men at the conference then discussed the problems involved in arresting the Jews of each country under German control or influence and deporting them to the east. The conference ended with discussions of exactly how best to kill the Jews. They described and debated the technical problems of mass shooting and using poison gas.
Deportations and death camps
On July 19, 1942, Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS, ordered the resettlement of all Polish Jews by the end of the year. The Nazis began deporting Jews from the ghettos until no one was left and the ghetto was "liquidated." In the smaller ghettos, the entire population might be forced onto a single Page 173 | Top of Article train. In the larger ghettos, the process took months. The Nazis would order a few thousand people to report to a central location and then put them on a train. They would never be seen again. Sometimes this went on day after day; sometimes there were long pauses. The trains were going to four special camps.
These camps were different from the older concentration camps in Germany. As terrible as the concentration camps were, the camps in Poland were something new. They were death camps or extermination camps. Four of the camps were built for the sole purpose of killing Jews. They were not meant to do anything else. None of the prisoners was put to work there, except to help run the killing process. Each trainload of Jews was killed as soon as possible.
These four camps killed more than 2 million Jews.
The first of these camps was Chelmno (Kulmhof in German), about 35 miles from Lodz. It began to operate in December 1941, even before the Wannsee Conference was held. People were brought to the nearest railroad station on trains and then driven to Chelmno in trucks. There the Nazis forced them into the back of a different truck that looked like a furniture van. The Nazis crammed as many people into each truck as could possibly fit and sealed the back so that no air could enter. They directed the exhaust from the truck engine into the back through a hose. When the engine of the truck was run, it sent poisonous carbon monoxide into the truck. The truck ran until all the people were dead. Then the Nazis drove the truck to the nearby forest and dumped the bodies into mass graves.
The Nazis repeated this procedure over and over. Three hundred forty thousand people died at Chelmno. All but 7,000 were Jews. Only three people survived.
The other three camps designed to kill the Jews of Poland were different from Chelmno but very similar to one another. Each was near a large center of Jewish population, but they were far enough away, hidden in the forests, so that their purpose could be kept secret. They were on railroad lines, so that the Jews from the Polish cities could be brought to them.
The first camp was Belzec, located between the cities of Lublin and Lvov. From February 1942 to the end of the year, 600,000 people died at Belzec. Almost all were Jews. Two people survived.
Sobibór was east of Lublin. From May 1942 until October 1943, 250,000 people died at Sobibór. Almost all were Jews. Sixty-four people survived.
Treblinka was near Warsaw. From July 1942 to August 1943, about 870,000 people were murdered at Treblinka. Almost all were Jews. Somewhere between forty and seventy people survived.
The three camps were designed so that they could kill people as quickly as possible. The Nazis had approached the murder of Jews as a technical problem. Each aspect of the killings was carefully thought out. They planned how to bring the Jews to the camps and how to deal with them when they arrived. They planned how to process them at the camps and exactly how to kill them, and they planned how to get rid of their clothes, their possessions, and, finally, their bodies.
The Jews who arrived at the camps had already suffered unbelievably harsh conditions on the transport trains that brought them to the camps. They arrived exhausted, starving, and desperate for water. Many had died on the trip. When the survivors were finally allowed off the trains, they were told they had reached a transit camp, a stop along the way to resettlement.
Among the descriptions of these transports, there are several written by officers of the German Reserve Police, who guarded many of the trains. The historian Christopher R. Browning quotes a report written by a Lieutenant Westermann.
Almost 5,000 Jews from Kolomyja in southeastern Poland who had reported for "registration" at 5:30 in the morning were loaded on a train to Belzec. The next day, Westermann wrote, "some 300 Jews—old and weak, ill, frail, and no longer transportable—were executed." It took until seven that evening to complete the loading of the train. "Each car of the transport was loaded with 100 Jews. The great heat prevailing that day made the entire operation very difficult," Westermann reported. The cars were sealed and their doors nailed shut, as usual, he explained. But because it was already dark by the time the train left at nine, and because of the great heat,
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"many Jews escaped by squeezing through the airholes after removing the barbed wire. While the guard was able to shoot many of them immediately, most of the escaping Jews were eliminated that night or the next day by the railroad guard or other police units." In a different transport to Belzec, 2,000 of the Jews had died from suffocation or heat prostration before the train arrived.
When the transport trains reached the death camps, the Nazis brought the first twenty freight cars to the unloading area, while the others waited farther away. The camps were surrounded by barbed wire fences, with high watchtowers at the corners. There were tree branches and leaves in the fencing so that no one could see through.
A group of prisoners opened the doors and the guards ordered all the Jews out. (The prisoners who opened the doors Page 176 | Top of Article were men, usually young and healthy, who had arrived on an earlier transport and had not been killed.) The SS men and the guards (often Ukrainian soldiers in the Soviet army who had been captured by the Germans and who had volunteered to help the Nazis) marched the new arrivals into the camp as quickly as possible. Anyone who lagged behind was beaten with rifle butts or whipped.
Meanwhile, the prisoners who had opened the cars removed the bodies of those who had died on the train. Then they cleaned the cars. They washed away blood, vomit, and human waste and swept out bits of clothing or personal possessions left behind. In a few minutes, all evidence of what had happened on the train was erased.
The guards told the people who had just gotten off the train to leave all their belongings. Then they separated the men from the women and children.
The women and children were forced to run to a long barracks building and told to undress completely so that they could be disinfected in the shower houses. The women would then have their hair cut off, to prevent disease, they were told. The hair, in fact, was used to make products for the German armed forces, such as water-resistant rope for the navy.
Next, the women and children were forced by the guards to run, completely naked, through a narrow path between barbed wire fences. Like the fence outside the camp, they were camouflaged with tree branches to prevent anyone seeing through. The path, about a hundred yards long, was called the "tube."
The guards beat and whipped the women and children to make them run through the tube before they could realize what was happening. There was a sign that said "To the showers," but the path really led to a secret part of the camp where the killing took place.
While the women were being processed, the men waited. They too were naked. After a while, perhaps half an hour or more, they too were forced to run through the tube.
On the other side of the path was a building. It looked like a public bathhouse, which was a familiar sight in Europe in that period. As they came through the tube, the prisoners Page 177 | Top of Article were forced to enter the building through the main door. Inside there were doors to smaller rooms, where showerheads hung from the ceiling. These rooms also had doors to the outside of the building, but these were sealed.
The guards packed the Jews into these rooms as tightly as possible and then sealed the rooms. Then they turned on the engine of a captured Russian tank. The carbon monoxide gas from the engine pumped through the showerheads into the sealed rooms, which were really gas chambers. For half an hour the poisonous gas poured in. The people inside gasped and coughed and choked. They clawed desperately to escape. Their bodies were drenched with sweat, with blood, with their own waste. They did not even have room to fall down when they died. They died pressed against one another, their bodies tangled together.
After all the prisoners were dead, a special group of the permanent prisoners opened the outside doors to the gas chambers. They had to separate the bodies and remove them. Other prisoners washed out the gas chambers to make them ready for the next victims.
Meanwhile, other prisoners, known as the "dentists," searched the mouths of the dead for gold teeth and fillings and removed them with pliers. Then prisoners carried the bodies to several giant pits located about 150 to 200 yards from the gas chambers, threw them in, and buried them. The next group of victims would be thrown on top of them.
The permanent prisoners also sorted through all the belongings of the victims. All identification had to be removed. The yellow stars that the Nazis had ordered the Jews to wear were ripped off the clothing. The names were taken off their suitcases. The Nazis were sending the belongings of the dead to Germany. No one was to know where they came from. Huge mounds of clothing and shoes were piled in a large, open area. The money, gold, jewelry, and other valuables that the Jews had handed over in return for a receipt were now the property of the Nazis.
The Nazis burned their identification papers, passports, birth certificates, photographs, and letters. They wanted no trace of their victims to survive.
Meanwhile, the next twenty cars of the train, which had been parked farther away, were brought to the camp. The whole process was now repeated.
The most infamous death camp was Auschwitz, in southwestern Poland. Unlike the camps designed to kill the Polish Jews, Auschwitz was also an immense slave-labor camp, designed to hold more than 200,000 prisoners at one time, including many non-Jews. It was much bigger than the other camps, with hundreds of buildings. But its main purpose was not slave labor. Auschwitz was designed to kill Jews from all over Europe, not just Poland, although 300,000 Polish Jews Page 179 | Top of Article died there. Transports came to Auschwitz for two and a half years, from France, Holland, Hungary, Norway, Italy, Greece, Belgium, and Slovakia.
These Jews had been arrested in their home countries, rounded up by the German occupation authorities or, in some countries, by the police of their own country, who were helping the Nazis. Usually they had been sent to a transit camp in their own countries until transportation became available. Like Jews everywhere, they had been told they were being resettled somewhere in the east. The terrified prisoners had often spent many days locked in the boxcars.
The railroad tracks went right into the camp. As each transport was unloaded, SS doctors "selected" the new arrivals. A small minority, especially adult men under the age of forty who appeared healthy, were told to go to the right. They would become slave laborers, trying to survive in some of the worst conditions ever endured by human beings. Some of those selected were chosen so that Nazi doctors could use them for horrible medical experiments.
Most of the people, perhaps 90 percent, were sent to the left: children and almost all women, anyone who appeared sick or weak, and all old people. Being sent to the left meant immediate death in the gas chambers.
Auschwitz had more and larger gas chambers than the other camps. Each of the chambers was connected to crematoria, special furnaces where the victims' bodies were burned. There was no need to bury the bodies in giant pits. The brick smokestacks of the crematoria stood high above the camp, like a factory. The smoke that rose from these chimneys for month after month was the symbol of a giant factory of death: the lives of more than 1 million human beings ended at Auschwitz. | 8,109 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A new museum in the German city of Hamburg has proven to be highly popular with tourists, offering as it does an often-hidden truth about World War II—that the Allies started the mass concentrated bombing of civilians, but in postwar propaganda always accused the Germans of starting the “blitz.”
The museum, located at the bombed-out ruins of the Church of St. Nicholas in the city center, was opened last year and is the first in Germany devoted exclusively to the suffering of Germans during the war.
The church where the museum is located was a central navigation point for the Allied bombers, with its high Gothic spire (still the second highest building in Hamburg) being easily visible.
British historian Richard Overy, who was consultant on the project, was quoted last year as saying that “it would put the destruction of Hamburg into context with an even-handed story of air-raids during the war.
“The myth in Britain has been that we bombed military targets and Germans bombed civilian populations, but it is almost exactly the reverse,” said Professor Overy, author of The Air War and Bomber Command.
“The Germans tried to bomb military targets and by mid-1941 the British had given up on that idea and wanted to flatten city centres,” he said. “More people were killed in Hamburg than Dresden but nobody wanted to know that the object of bombing Hamburg was to create a firestorm and to kill very large numbers of people. ”
The museum commemorates the anniversary of the huge British attack, codenamed Operation Gomorrah. The attack during the last week of July, 1943, created one of the largest firestorms raised by the RAF and USAAF in World War II, killing 42,600 civilians and wounding 37,000 in Hamburg and practically destroying the entire city.
The bombing caused a blast of super-heated air which created a 1,500-foot-high tornado of fire and 240 km/h (150 mph) winds which reached temperatures of 800 °C (1,500 °F) at altitudes in excess of 1,000 feet, incinerating more than eight square miles (21 km²) of the city.
Asphalt streets burst into flame, and fuel oil from damaged and destroyed ships, barges, and storage tanks spilled into the water of the canals and the harbor, causing them to ignite as well.
A large number of those killed were seeking safety in bomb shelters and cellars, the firestorm consuming the oxygen in the burning city above.
Approximately 3,000 aircraft were deployed; 9,000 tons of bombs were dropped, and over 250,000 dwellings were destroyed.
Many of the bombs were set with timing devices so as not to explode immediately, but rather many hours after being dropped. This was designed specifically to kill medical personnel, ambulance crews, and firemen trying to help victims of the initial bombing.
For many years after the war, the completely false propaganda was spread—particularly in Britain—that the Germans started the mass bombing of civilians. This lie is endorsed annually in Britain every September when memorials are held to commemorate the Blitz and to honor Sir Arthur Harris, the air war commander behind the Allied bombing campaign.
In reality, the German air force deliberately avoided bombing civilians, particularly in Britain—and it was only after the British Royal Air Force had bombed German cities for months on end, that the Luftwaffe was ordered to strike back.
This fact was openly admitted by the former British Principal Secretary of the Air Ministry, J. M. Spaight, in his 1944 book Bombing Vindicated, produced in response to increasing discontent in Britain with the Allied bombing of German cities.
In that book, Spaight pointed out that the idea to saturate bomb civilian targets was initiated by the British in May 1940.
Spaight added that Hitler specifically opposed the bombing of civlians, and refused to retaliate for months while the German cities were bombed, hoping that “Churchill would come to his senses.”
This belief is dismissed as “stupid” by Spaight, who went on to describe as “pacifists” and “socialists” those Britons who objected to the bombing of civilians.
The British bombers were designed to bomb cities, he said, while the “Teutonic mind” never even considered such a policy, and instead viewed an air force merely as a tool to “blast open” a path for attacking armies.
The German air force, he pointed out, was never used for anything else until ordered to retaliate against the British campaign.
“Whatever Hitler wanted or did not want, he most assuredly did not want the mutual bombing to go on. He had not wanted it ever to begin. He wanted it, having begun, to be called off. There was ample evidence that he did not want the latter kind of bombing to become the practice. He had done his best to have it banned by international agreement.”
Recommended reading: Bombing Vindicated by J. M. Spaight. A shocking reminder of the horror of war which provides a fascinating insight into the brutal psychology of the time. An exact reproduction of the wartime original. | <urn:uuid:a24ea978-d4de-4ed8-8e9b-2d4505a4185f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://newobserveronline.com/new-museum-in-hamburg-examines-allied-war-crimes-in-world-war-ii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00244.warc.gz | en | 0.982707 | 1,085 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.782796919345... | 4 | A new museum in the German city of Hamburg has proven to be highly popular with tourists, offering as it does an often-hidden truth about World War II—that the Allies started the mass concentrated bombing of civilians, but in postwar propaganda always accused the Germans of starting the “blitz.”
The museum, located at the bombed-out ruins of the Church of St. Nicholas in the city center, was opened last year and is the first in Germany devoted exclusively to the suffering of Germans during the war.
The church where the museum is located was a central navigation point for the Allied bombers, with its high Gothic spire (still the second highest building in Hamburg) being easily visible.
British historian Richard Overy, who was consultant on the project, was quoted last year as saying that “it would put the destruction of Hamburg into context with an even-handed story of air-raids during the war.
“The myth in Britain has been that we bombed military targets and Germans bombed civilian populations, but it is almost exactly the reverse,” said Professor Overy, author of The Air War and Bomber Command.
“The Germans tried to bomb military targets and by mid-1941 the British had given up on that idea and wanted to flatten city centres,” he said. “More people were killed in Hamburg than Dresden but nobody wanted to know that the object of bombing Hamburg was to create a firestorm and to kill very large numbers of people. ”
The museum commemorates the anniversary of the huge British attack, codenamed Operation Gomorrah. The attack during the last week of July, 1943, created one of the largest firestorms raised by the RAF and USAAF in World War II, killing 42,600 civilians and wounding 37,000 in Hamburg and practically destroying the entire city.
The bombing caused a blast of super-heated air which created a 1,500-foot-high tornado of fire and 240 km/h (150 mph) winds which reached temperatures of 800 °C (1,500 °F) at altitudes in excess of 1,000 feet, incinerating more than eight square miles (21 km²) of the city.
Asphalt streets burst into flame, and fuel oil from damaged and destroyed ships, barges, and storage tanks spilled into the water of the canals and the harbor, causing them to ignite as well.
A large number of those killed were seeking safety in bomb shelters and cellars, the firestorm consuming the oxygen in the burning city above.
Approximately 3,000 aircraft were deployed; 9,000 tons of bombs were dropped, and over 250,000 dwellings were destroyed.
Many of the bombs were set with timing devices so as not to explode immediately, but rather many hours after being dropped. This was designed specifically to kill medical personnel, ambulance crews, and firemen trying to help victims of the initial bombing.
For many years after the war, the completely false propaganda was spread—particularly in Britain—that the Germans started the mass bombing of civilians. This lie is endorsed annually in Britain every September when memorials are held to commemorate the Blitz and to honor Sir Arthur Harris, the air war commander behind the Allied bombing campaign.
In reality, the German air force deliberately avoided bombing civilians, particularly in Britain—and it was only after the British Royal Air Force had bombed German cities for months on end, that the Luftwaffe was ordered to strike back.
This fact was openly admitted by the former British Principal Secretary of the Air Ministry, J. M. Spaight, in his 1944 book Bombing Vindicated, produced in response to increasing discontent in Britain with the Allied bombing of German cities.
In that book, Spaight pointed out that the idea to saturate bomb civilian targets was initiated by the British in May 1940.
Spaight added that Hitler specifically opposed the bombing of civlians, and refused to retaliate for months while the German cities were bombed, hoping that “Churchill would come to his senses.”
This belief is dismissed as “stupid” by Spaight, who went on to describe as “pacifists” and “socialists” those Britons who objected to the bombing of civilians.
The British bombers were designed to bomb cities, he said, while the “Teutonic mind” never even considered such a policy, and instead viewed an air force merely as a tool to “blast open” a path for attacking armies.
The German air force, he pointed out, was never used for anything else until ordered to retaliate against the British campaign.
“Whatever Hitler wanted or did not want, he most assuredly did not want the mutual bombing to go on. He had not wanted it ever to begin. He wanted it, having begun, to be called off. There was ample evidence that he did not want the latter kind of bombing to become the practice. He had done his best to have it banned by international agreement.”
Recommended reading: Bombing Vindicated by J. M. Spaight. A shocking reminder of the horror of war which provides a fascinating insight into the brutal psychology of the time. An exact reproduction of the wartime original. | 1,079 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, (FASD) is not a mental health diagnosis or a medical diagnosis but is an umbrella term used to describe a range of syndromes and disorders that can occur in a child whose mother consumed alcohol during pregnancy. The effects and symptoms vary in severity. Many children share the common effects which include emotional, physical and learning difficulties. The common physical characteristics that can be associated with FASD are facial deformities, growth deficits, heart, liver, kidney defects, vision and hearing problems as well as permanent brain damage. FASD is the only 100% preventable cause of mental retardation and birth defects in the United States and FASD is 100% untreatable. It is estimated that FASD affects 40,000 infants each year. This is more than Spinal Bifida, Down Syndrome and Muscular Dystrophy combined.
Alcohol damages the parts of the brain that gives us memory, self control, coordinator and judgment. Children with FASD often have difficulties with learning, attention, memory, central nervous system, and problem solving skills that may have lifelong implications. FASD is a permanent condition and affects every aspect of the child’s life and the life of their family.
The emotional toll on families cannot be underestimated. For birth parents, acknowledging that their child’s mental retardation, birth defects, and/or neurodevelopment disorders are a result of maternal prenatal alcohol consumption is very difficult to face. For adoptive or foster parents, discovering that their child suffers from FASD after years of trying to understand his cognitive and behavioral problems results in feelings of frustration and isolation.
As an adoptive mom I can tell you raising a child with FASD is the hardest but the most rewarding thing I have ever done. Andrew is now 13 years old and is in the seventh grade. He is sweet, generous, loving and very naive. He also has exhibited many of the symptoms associated with FASD since the day we brought him home at 1 week old. He cried all the time! Until he was 3 years old and on medication he never slept for more than 30 minutes at a time, day or night. To say life seemed impossible is actually an understatement. He required constant attention and if I let him out of my sight in another room for one minute he would destroy it. If I was not right beside him when he had a bowel movement in his diaper he would take it off and smear feces all over the walls, carpets and bed. We had to put a lock on our refrigerator because he would climb out of his crib in the middle of the night and dump everything out of the refrigerator smearing it in the carpet, walls, and beds. For years we knew that there were serious problems, but no one could help us. All of the professionals said that his behaviors were out of their expertise. We went from Doctor to Doctor, counselor to counselor and searched everywhere for answers for him and our family. By the age of three, he was thrown out of every daycare in our area, went through at least 30 babysitters, and could not stay in the nursery at Church. He was very violent toward everyone; however most of his rages were taken out on me. He would bite me, hit me and throw things at me. He would put holes in the wall, windows, threw rocks at us, as well as the cars and was basically never happy. When he started school a whole new nightmare started. The fourth day of school he had thrown toys, supplies and destroyed the classroom than ran out of the room causing the teacher to have to leave other students to chase my 4 year old. He was moved to an emotionally disabled class where they had experience with other children like him.
By the time he was 5 he had so many diagnoses I lost count, but none of them actually explained the severity of his behaviors. We had tried 21 different medications and tried at least 4 different kinds of therapy. We started researching the internet and found a few sites about FASD and found that there were several places in the USA that specialized in FASD. Andrew and I packed up, leaving my husband and other two children at home and went in search of a diagnosis. We went to Baltimore, MD and saw a FASD specialist that finally gave him an accurate diagnosis of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. While we finally had a diagnosis nobody seemed able to help us get his behavior under control and his behavior was getting worse. At that time, he was on 7 medications however none were effective. We went back on the internet searching and learning about FASD and found a “severe” behavior clinic, The Marcus Institute, in Atlanta GA. They observed his behaviors and they immediately asked if we would be open to coming to Atlanta to live for a couple of months so he could attend the clinic. It was their observation that his behaviors were something that would not ever get better without extreme intervention. At this point we had no choice; he was getting bigger, stronger and more destructive everyday. After fighting insurance complications, Andrew and I went to Atlanta where he underwent treatment, testing and training for eight weeks.
After two months of hard work the severe behavior clinic was able to decrease his problem behaviors by 96.6% from when we first started the program. The skills we learned are skills we are still using to keep his behavior under control. While we still have bad days, we also now have good days. He is able to stay at school all day now, with the help of a shadow and he is able to play baseball and football with other kids his age and he is happy.
Andrew, as well as most FASD children will never be what others feel is “normal” and that is okay with us because he is now a happy little boy. He is learning to read, and is slowly learning social skills. We had to adjust our expectations as well as learn to think “outside of the box” when we are dealing with him and his problems. We are living a fairly normal life, whatever that is. We are not healed in the traditional sense but we are functioning and making progress. He is now off of 5 of the 7 medications and has really grown physically and emotionally.
Most children with FASD have many issues to face their entire lives. FASD behaviors are treatable but not a curable condition that can be fixed with therapy or medication. There are some children who benefit from certain types of medication, but the medications only address some of the symptoms. Permanent brain damage cannot be fixed or medicated. Creative behavior management works well most of the time. Children with FASD have processing problems and cannot understand cause, effect, or consequences. One of the most important things I have learned from my son is to keep an open mind, a sense of humor, and my faith in God.
Source by Kerry B Johnson | <urn:uuid:b3f9e024-ee62-4fed-ae4d-5f8f7768814b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://biohackingdiet.examines.info/blog/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00120.warc.gz | en | 0.988857 | 1,412 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.210935... | 1 | Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, (FASD) is not a mental health diagnosis or a medical diagnosis but is an umbrella term used to describe a range of syndromes and disorders that can occur in a child whose mother consumed alcohol during pregnancy. The effects and symptoms vary in severity. Many children share the common effects which include emotional, physical and learning difficulties. The common physical characteristics that can be associated with FASD are facial deformities, growth deficits, heart, liver, kidney defects, vision and hearing problems as well as permanent brain damage. FASD is the only 100% preventable cause of mental retardation and birth defects in the United States and FASD is 100% untreatable. It is estimated that FASD affects 40,000 infants each year. This is more than Spinal Bifida, Down Syndrome and Muscular Dystrophy combined.
Alcohol damages the parts of the brain that gives us memory, self control, coordinator and judgment. Children with FASD often have difficulties with learning, attention, memory, central nervous system, and problem solving skills that may have lifelong implications. FASD is a permanent condition and affects every aspect of the child’s life and the life of their family.
The emotional toll on families cannot be underestimated. For birth parents, acknowledging that their child’s mental retardation, birth defects, and/or neurodevelopment disorders are a result of maternal prenatal alcohol consumption is very difficult to face. For adoptive or foster parents, discovering that their child suffers from FASD after years of trying to understand his cognitive and behavioral problems results in feelings of frustration and isolation.
As an adoptive mom I can tell you raising a child with FASD is the hardest but the most rewarding thing I have ever done. Andrew is now 13 years old and is in the seventh grade. He is sweet, generous, loving and very naive. He also has exhibited many of the symptoms associated with FASD since the day we brought him home at 1 week old. He cried all the time! Until he was 3 years old and on medication he never slept for more than 30 minutes at a time, day or night. To say life seemed impossible is actually an understatement. He required constant attention and if I let him out of my sight in another room for one minute he would destroy it. If I was not right beside him when he had a bowel movement in his diaper he would take it off and smear feces all over the walls, carpets and bed. We had to put a lock on our refrigerator because he would climb out of his crib in the middle of the night and dump everything out of the refrigerator smearing it in the carpet, walls, and beds. For years we knew that there were serious problems, but no one could help us. All of the professionals said that his behaviors were out of their expertise. We went from Doctor to Doctor, counselor to counselor and searched everywhere for answers for him and our family. By the age of three, he was thrown out of every daycare in our area, went through at least 30 babysitters, and could not stay in the nursery at Church. He was very violent toward everyone; however most of his rages were taken out on me. He would bite me, hit me and throw things at me. He would put holes in the wall, windows, threw rocks at us, as well as the cars and was basically never happy. When he started school a whole new nightmare started. The fourth day of school he had thrown toys, supplies and destroyed the classroom than ran out of the room causing the teacher to have to leave other students to chase my 4 year old. He was moved to an emotionally disabled class where they had experience with other children like him.
By the time he was 5 he had so many diagnoses I lost count, but none of them actually explained the severity of his behaviors. We had tried 21 different medications and tried at least 4 different kinds of therapy. We started researching the internet and found a few sites about FASD and found that there were several places in the USA that specialized in FASD. Andrew and I packed up, leaving my husband and other two children at home and went in search of a diagnosis. We went to Baltimore, MD and saw a FASD specialist that finally gave him an accurate diagnosis of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. While we finally had a diagnosis nobody seemed able to help us get his behavior under control and his behavior was getting worse. At that time, he was on 7 medications however none were effective. We went back on the internet searching and learning about FASD and found a “severe” behavior clinic, The Marcus Institute, in Atlanta GA. They observed his behaviors and they immediately asked if we would be open to coming to Atlanta to live for a couple of months so he could attend the clinic. It was their observation that his behaviors were something that would not ever get better without extreme intervention. At this point we had no choice; he was getting bigger, stronger and more destructive everyday. After fighting insurance complications, Andrew and I went to Atlanta where he underwent treatment, testing and training for eight weeks.
After two months of hard work the severe behavior clinic was able to decrease his problem behaviors by 96.6% from when we first started the program. The skills we learned are skills we are still using to keep his behavior under control. While we still have bad days, we also now have good days. He is able to stay at school all day now, with the help of a shadow and he is able to play baseball and football with other kids his age and he is happy.
Andrew, as well as most FASD children will never be what others feel is “normal” and that is okay with us because he is now a happy little boy. He is learning to read, and is slowly learning social skills. We had to adjust our expectations as well as learn to think “outside of the box” when we are dealing with him and his problems. We are living a fairly normal life, whatever that is. We are not healed in the traditional sense but we are functioning and making progress. He is now off of 5 of the 7 medications and has really grown physically and emotionally.
Most children with FASD have many issues to face their entire lives. FASD behaviors are treatable but not a curable condition that can be fixed with therapy or medication. There are some children who benefit from certain types of medication, but the medications only address some of the symptoms. Permanent brain damage cannot be fixed or medicated. Creative behavior management works well most of the time. Children with FASD have processing problems and cannot understand cause, effect, or consequences. One of the most important things I have learned from my son is to keep an open mind, a sense of humor, and my faith in God.
Source by Kerry B Johnson | 1,423 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Miami Nation was presented before the “Fort Wayne Quest Club” by William R. Clark on October 29th 1993: The Miami men hunted and warred and when they were not so engaged they made weapons, held councils, played games, feasted and participated in ceremonies. The women did everything else which included planting and harvesting crops, skinning animals, preparing the meat and hides, making the clothes, building the huts, preparing the meals, rearing the children and carrying the loads between encampments. At a later time of attempting assimilation, despite subsidies by the federal government, it proved impossible to turn any self-respecting Miami male into a plow farmer. This statement over-simplifies the many-factor basis of failure, but I believe strikes close to the essence of the matter.
The periods following contact up to the end of the French and Indian wars in 1763 was dominated by the incredibly lucrative fur trade; and, although the Miamis dealt with French and English, it was the former who were to exert the greatest influence. This period was characterized as the Miami Golden Age as the British and French contended for the Miamis favor both as military and trading allies. The Miamis were characterized by observers at the time as being more politically astute at playing this game than other tribes and were often capable of maintaining neutrality. There are two features of that period worthy of citing. The first is the impact of the trader’s goods-metal tools, utensils, textiles and guns. Alcohol is a separate topic. The traded goods enhanced the Miami lifestyle but quickly became essential to them if they were to compete successfully with their neighbors. A dependency upon the goods developed that would prove to undermine the Indian culture in perverse ways. A second feature of this time was the extent of French-Indian intermarriage, perhaps more prevalent among Miamis than neighboring tribes. Frenchmen and descendants of mixed marriages were integrated into the tribe, influenced the culture and many provided effective advocacy for at least some Miami during the time of the tribe’s removal in the 1840s. As an aside, it’s noted that French policy discouraged French settlement of the area with intent to preserve the benefits of the fur trade for the French Crown. British rarely married Native Americans, explained by some as related to a rather more Protestant judgmental attitude upon the issue.
The disappearance of the French presence after its loss in the French and Indian War to the British in 1763 ushered in a new era for the Miamis. The British adopted a policy of prohibiting colonial expansion of settlers beyond the Ohio River, a policy that ranked significantly among the grievances prompting the Declaration of Independence. Although the policy was in part advantageous to the Indians, the lack of French competition in the area resulted in curtailment of favorable trading exchanges and sparked Chief Pontiac of the Ottawas to lead uprisings against the British. The Miami participated in a limited way by attacking the small British garrison located in the fort originally built by the French on the east bank of the St. Joseph River just above the confluence of the three rivers. It is parenthetically added that the first fort constructed in this area was in 1722, also by the French, and was located at a point where the Van Buren Street bridge now crosses the St. Mary’s River just north of St. Joe Medical Center. The story told is that the commanding officer, Ensign Robert Holmes, was lured outside the stockade by his young Miami mistress (who was unaware that she was pregnant with his child), under pretense of helping an old squaw. Ensign Holmes was killed, scalped and the fort was captured, by the Miamis. To be continued…
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- LET’S MAKE 2020 THE YEAR OF COMMUNITY - December 20, 2019
- ALLEN COUNTY SPCA HASRECORD-SETTING #GIVINGTUESDAY - December 20, 2019
- 750 MEMORIAL WREATHS PLACEDBY FT WAYNE CIVIL AIR PATROL - December 20, 2019 | <urn:uuid:a580faad-f40a-430f-b044-fb7d3a920ed9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://waynedalenews.com/2008/10/miami-nation284/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00552.warc.gz | en | 0.980365 | 863 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4731338620185... | 1 | The Miami Nation was presented before the “Fort Wayne Quest Club” by William R. Clark on October 29th 1993: The Miami men hunted and warred and when they were not so engaged they made weapons, held councils, played games, feasted and participated in ceremonies. The women did everything else which included planting and harvesting crops, skinning animals, preparing the meat and hides, making the clothes, building the huts, preparing the meals, rearing the children and carrying the loads between encampments. At a later time of attempting assimilation, despite subsidies by the federal government, it proved impossible to turn any self-respecting Miami male into a plow farmer. This statement over-simplifies the many-factor basis of failure, but I believe strikes close to the essence of the matter.
The periods following contact up to the end of the French and Indian wars in 1763 was dominated by the incredibly lucrative fur trade; and, although the Miamis dealt with French and English, it was the former who were to exert the greatest influence. This period was characterized as the Miami Golden Age as the British and French contended for the Miamis favor both as military and trading allies. The Miamis were characterized by observers at the time as being more politically astute at playing this game than other tribes and were often capable of maintaining neutrality. There are two features of that period worthy of citing. The first is the impact of the trader’s goods-metal tools, utensils, textiles and guns. Alcohol is a separate topic. The traded goods enhanced the Miami lifestyle but quickly became essential to them if they were to compete successfully with their neighbors. A dependency upon the goods developed that would prove to undermine the Indian culture in perverse ways. A second feature of this time was the extent of French-Indian intermarriage, perhaps more prevalent among Miamis than neighboring tribes. Frenchmen and descendants of mixed marriages were integrated into the tribe, influenced the culture and many provided effective advocacy for at least some Miami during the time of the tribe’s removal in the 1840s. As an aside, it’s noted that French policy discouraged French settlement of the area with intent to preserve the benefits of the fur trade for the French Crown. British rarely married Native Americans, explained by some as related to a rather more Protestant judgmental attitude upon the issue.
The disappearance of the French presence after its loss in the French and Indian War to the British in 1763 ushered in a new era for the Miamis. The British adopted a policy of prohibiting colonial expansion of settlers beyond the Ohio River, a policy that ranked significantly among the grievances prompting the Declaration of Independence. Although the policy was in part advantageous to the Indians, the lack of French competition in the area resulted in curtailment of favorable trading exchanges and sparked Chief Pontiac of the Ottawas to lead uprisings against the British. The Miami participated in a limited way by attacking the small British garrison located in the fort originally built by the French on the east bank of the St. Joseph River just above the confluence of the three rivers. It is parenthetically added that the first fort constructed in this area was in 1722, also by the French, and was located at a point where the Van Buren Street bridge now crosses the St. Mary’s River just north of St. Joe Medical Center. The story told is that the commanding officer, Ensign Robert Holmes, was lured outside the stockade by his young Miami mistress (who was unaware that she was pregnant with his child), under pretense of helping an old squaw. Ensign Holmes was killed, scalped and the fort was captured, by the Miamis. To be continued…
> Read More Information About Us
> More Articles Written By Our Staff
Latest posts by The Waynedale News Staff (see all)
- LET’S MAKE 2020 THE YEAR OF COMMUNITY - December 20, 2019
- ALLEN COUNTY SPCA HASRECORD-SETTING #GIVINGTUESDAY - December 20, 2019
- 750 MEMORIAL WREATHS PLACEDBY FT WAYNE CIVIL AIR PATROL - December 20, 2019 | 889 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At Seasalter there is an internationally important area for geese, ducks, and waders. The diversity of scenery along the route includes the wide expanses of marshland bordering the Thames and Medway estuaries, the White cliffs of Dover, and panoramic views over Romney Marsh from the escarpment that marks the ancient coastline between Folkestone and Rye.
The Saxon Shore Way was originally opened in 1980, but has since been re-established, and in parts re-routed and extended. It follows the coastline of the South East as it was about 1500 years ago, long before the North Kent Marshes or the Romney Marsh came into existence, when the cliff lines to the north and south extended further into the sea and when the Wantsum Channel provided a thoroughfare for boats between the Isle of Thanet and mainland England. The Way takes its name, the Saxon Shore, from a line of fortifications built along the coastline as it was in the 3rd century AD, towards the end of the Roman period. In this time of crisis Saxon invaders came from the southern regions of modern Denmark and in response the Romans built a line of defensive forts along the coast to repel the newcomers.
The Saxon Shore (Latin:litus Saxonicum) was a military command of the late Roman Empire, consisting of a series of fortifications on both sides of the English channel. It was established in the late 3rd century and was led by the "Count of the Saxon Shore". In the late 4th century, his functions were limited to Britain, while the fortifications in Gaul were established as separate commands. Several Saxon Shore forts survive still in east and south-east England.
During the latter half of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire faced a grave crisis. Internally, it was weakened by civil wars, the violent succession of brief emperors, and secession in the provinces, while externally it faced a new wave of attacks by "barbarian" tribes. Most of Britain had been part of the empire since the mid-1st century. It was protected from raids in the north by the Hadrianic and Antonine Walls, while a fleet of some size was also available.
However, as the frontiers came under increasing external pressure, fortifications were built throughout the Empire in order to protect cities and guard strategically important locations. It is in this context that the forts of the Saxon Shore were constructed. Already in the 230s, under Severus Alexander, several units had been withdrawn from the northern frontier and garrisoned at locations in the south, and had built new forts at Brancaster, Caister-on-Sea and Reculver. Dover was already fortified in the early 2nd century, and the other forts in this group were constructed in the period between the 270s and 290s.
Saxon Shore is an American post-rock band consisting of members from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Brooklyn, New York. The group has thus far released five albums: one packaged as an EP (Luck Will Not Save Us...) and four as full-lengths. Earlier records featured only five to seven songs, while more recent albums have had several more.
Saxon Shore formed in 2001 as the joint project of guitarist Matthew Doty and drummer Josh Tillman. The two wrote several songs that, in time, were recorded for the duo's debut album Be a Bright Blue, released on Doty's own imprint, Broken Factory Records. Tillman's brother Zach was recruited for bass duties during the studio process and found himself becoming a full-fledged member.
After a host of tours across the United States (in which the band recruited three separate bassists), Doty moved to Seattle and later exchanged four-tracks with Josh Tillman, who was living in upstate New York at the time. Studio time reserved in Atlanta eventually blossomed into their next effort, Four Months of Darkness. Traveling musician Matt Stone contributing on guitar and like Zach before him, joined, making the group a four-piece. The album marked a change in Saxon Shore's sound from the light indie pop of Be a Bright Blue to the more melodic Four Months. | <urn:uuid:ac2e8130-89a2-4211-9545-ea1aa08c7653> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wn.com/Saxon_Shore_Way | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00050.warc.gz | en | 0.982282 | 858 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.1764001548... | 1 | At Seasalter there is an internationally important area for geese, ducks, and waders. The diversity of scenery along the route includes the wide expanses of marshland bordering the Thames and Medway estuaries, the White cliffs of Dover, and panoramic views over Romney Marsh from the escarpment that marks the ancient coastline between Folkestone and Rye.
The Saxon Shore Way was originally opened in 1980, but has since been re-established, and in parts re-routed and extended. It follows the coastline of the South East as it was about 1500 years ago, long before the North Kent Marshes or the Romney Marsh came into existence, when the cliff lines to the north and south extended further into the sea and when the Wantsum Channel provided a thoroughfare for boats between the Isle of Thanet and mainland England. The Way takes its name, the Saxon Shore, from a line of fortifications built along the coastline as it was in the 3rd century AD, towards the end of the Roman period. In this time of crisis Saxon invaders came from the southern regions of modern Denmark and in response the Romans built a line of defensive forts along the coast to repel the newcomers.
The Saxon Shore (Latin:litus Saxonicum) was a military command of the late Roman Empire, consisting of a series of fortifications on both sides of the English channel. It was established in the late 3rd century and was led by the "Count of the Saxon Shore". In the late 4th century, his functions were limited to Britain, while the fortifications in Gaul were established as separate commands. Several Saxon Shore forts survive still in east and south-east England.
During the latter half of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire faced a grave crisis. Internally, it was weakened by civil wars, the violent succession of brief emperors, and secession in the provinces, while externally it faced a new wave of attacks by "barbarian" tribes. Most of Britain had been part of the empire since the mid-1st century. It was protected from raids in the north by the Hadrianic and Antonine Walls, while a fleet of some size was also available.
However, as the frontiers came under increasing external pressure, fortifications were built throughout the Empire in order to protect cities and guard strategically important locations. It is in this context that the forts of the Saxon Shore were constructed. Already in the 230s, under Severus Alexander, several units had been withdrawn from the northern frontier and garrisoned at locations in the south, and had built new forts at Brancaster, Caister-on-Sea and Reculver. Dover was already fortified in the early 2nd century, and the other forts in this group were constructed in the period between the 270s and 290s.
Saxon Shore is an American post-rock band consisting of members from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Brooklyn, New York. The group has thus far released five albums: one packaged as an EP (Luck Will Not Save Us...) and four as full-lengths. Earlier records featured only five to seven songs, while more recent albums have had several more.
Saxon Shore formed in 2001 as the joint project of guitarist Matthew Doty and drummer Josh Tillman. The two wrote several songs that, in time, were recorded for the duo's debut album Be a Bright Blue, released on Doty's own imprint, Broken Factory Records. Tillman's brother Zach was recruited for bass duties during the studio process and found himself becoming a full-fledged member.
After a host of tours across the United States (in which the band recruited three separate bassists), Doty moved to Seattle and later exchanged four-tracks with Josh Tillman, who was living in upstate New York at the time. Studio time reserved in Atlanta eventually blossomed into their next effort, Four Months of Darkness. Traveling musician Matt Stone contributing on guitar and like Zach before him, joined, making the group a four-piece. The album marked a change in Saxon Shore's sound from the light indie pop of Be a Bright Blue to the more melodic Four Months. | 869 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Genesis: In Brief
Before I give you the summary about the Genesis, I think it would be appropriate to reveal something about the author of the first book of the Old Testament.
When I read the Genesis (Bereshit), I have a mixture of feelings: awe, fascination, curiosity and disbelief.
To most people, the Genesis is the most interesting and controversial book in the Bible. Some people take the whole of the Genesis, literally, while others have different interpretation to the scriptures. And others still looked at it with skepticism and disbelief.
The Genesis is one of five books that were ascribed to Moses, the Hebrew lawgiver, who led the Israelites out of slavery and Egypt towards the Promised Land – ancient Canaan. The first five books of the Old Testament were called Pentateuch, though the Jews called it Torah (Law). The Torah was fundamental core of the Hebrew/Jewish faith and religion. The books in the Torah are:
- Genesis (υένεσις, Bereshit)
- Exodus (έζοδος, Shemot)
- Leviticus (Λευιτικός, Vayikra)
- Numbers (Αριθοί, Bamidbar)
- Deuteronomy (Δευτερονόμθιομ, Devarim)
However, the Torah can also mean the whole of the Old Testament, which is seen as the Hebrew Bible, but I won’t go into the rest of the Old Testament, here.
Canaan was known by many several names over time, such as Judaea, Palestine and Israel. The kingdom was divided into two after King Solomon, with Israel as the northern kingdom, and Judah as the southern kingdom. During Roman period, it was divided further into provinces – the most important being Judaea, while Galilee formed the northern Roman province. Many people just referred it to as the Holy Land, because three large religious faiths – Judaism, Christian and Islam – say that this Promised Land was the centre of their faith, particularly the city of Jerusalem.
God, in a covenant to the patriarch Abraham, promised this land to him. Abraham was the father of the Hebrew people. His grandson, Jacob, was the one who gave the name for the Jewish people, since his other name was Israel. Jacob’s twelve sons make up the twelve tribes of Israel. It was Jacob who brought his family into Egypt, during a great famine, where his son Joseph had great power among the Egyptians, as governor.
Moses, himself, was the descendant of Levi, the son of Jacob. The Levites didn’t received land as one of the tribe, because they were given priestly functions, enabling them to live within any land of the twelve tribes. Joseph, Levi’s brother, had two sons, who formed two of the tribes of Israel.
Returning to the subject of the Genesis, the account in the Genesis comprised of the Creation, the Flood, and the lives of three important patriarchs before Moses’ time – Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
Although, the Genesis was set before Moses’ time, the history of the Jewish people, as given in the Genesis, was revealed to Moses at Mount Sinai, in a revelation.
(Please note that you don’t need to read this page, if you already read the Genesis. This is only a background for the other part of the site, and summary of the Genesis for those who have not read this book. However, you may find family trees on this page interesting.)
See also the timelines of the patriarchs and the Genesis.
God created the world in six days. He brought light on the first day. He separated the sky from the sea on the second day, and the sea from the land, with plants of all sort, on the third day. On the fourth day, He created the sun, moon and the stars. The fifth day, he filled the land, sky and sea with animals. (Genesis 1, 2:1-4)
In the sixth day, He created human being who resembled Him in form, creating male and female (Genesis 1:26-28), giving them control over other animals. The first two human were named Adam and Eve. God created Adam from the dust in the Garden of Eden; bringing his creation to life by blowing into his nostrils (2:7-9). He placed Adam in the Garden of Eden, where the first man named every animals and birds (2:19-20), but these animals were not suitable companions for man. So He then put Adam in a deep slumber, taking out one of his rib-bones to create Eve (2:21-24).
(Note that in chapter 1, God seemed to have made man and woman at the same time, but in chapter 2, Adam was created first, and Eve afterward.)
According to some later legends, Eve was not the first woman. Adam’s first mate was Lilith, who was later transformed into a demon. I have devoted a page to Lilith.
God told them to eat from any fruit within the Garden, except the Tree of Knowledge that gives knowledge of what is good and what is bad. If they disobey they would die. There was another tree in Eden, called the Tree of Life.
But a snake, more intelligent than any other creatures, told Eve that they wouldn’t die if she eat the fruit (possibly a fig), but she would become more like God. Eve ate the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge and gave a fruit to Adam to eat. Once they ate the fruit, they became aware that they were naked and felt ashamed of their nudity. They hid their nakedness with fig leaves.
When God realised that they had disobeyed Him, he punished the pair as well as the snake. The snake would crawl on its belly, and that he and his mate would hate one another. With Eve, she and all of her kind, would be subject to her husband, and suffer from the pang of childbirth. While Adam would have to toil on the harsh land, to find his own food. Both human would struggle and in the end of their life, their body would return to the soil, where he came from. (Genesis 3:1-21)
God then banished Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden, where an angel with fiery sword barred them from returning to the Garden, to keep them from eating the fruit from the Tree of Life. (Genesis 3:22-24)
In exile, Eve bore Adam two sons – Cain and Abel. Cain was a farmer, while his brother was a shepherd. When the two brothers offered sacrifice to God, God found the lamb as a more pleasing offering than Cain’s harvest. Cain was jealous of God favouring his brother, so he murdered his brother. God punished Cain for his crime, by branding him, causing Cain to wander as a nomad. (Genesis 4)
Eve gave Adam, another son, named Seth, who became the ancestor of the Hebrew race. The Genesis does mention that Adam and Eve had other children, but give us no names (Genesis 5:4).
According to the pseudepigrapha Book of Jubilees mention they had nine sons, and also say that Cain married his sister Awan, while Seth’s wife, Azura, was also Seth’s sister.
Since Adam and Eve were the first couple, Cain and Seth could not possibly marry women from other families, so incest was practiced among the early patriarchs. By Moses’ time, incest was against the law.
Many of the events about Adam and Eve in the Genesis are rewritten in the Gnostic texts found at Nag Hammadi, which you will find in Gnostic Cosmogony.
The Genesis then goes on to list the descendants of Adam, before the time of the Flood. Though each patriarch had other children, the Genesis only listed the direct line from Adam to Noah.
Of these descendants, two of them were of great interest. One was Enoch, son of Jared, and the other was Methuselah, Enoch’s son. (Genesis 5:18-25)
Enoch enjoyed a personal fellowship with God, and when he was 365 years old, God took him to heaven, without this patriarch ever meeting his death. Several legends and pseudepigrapha texts have been written about Enoch. The Genesis didn’t give us much detail about either patriarch, so I had to look for other texts about Enoch. See Enoch and the Book of Watchers.
Methuselah was the oldest to ever live; he died at the age of 969, on the same year as the Flood.
Mankind was flourishing since Seth and Cain, populating the Earth with people. However, a storm was brewing, bring apocalyptic changes in the wind.
Supernatural beings, known as angels and as the Watchers (or more precisely, the “Fallen Watchers”, as opposed to the “Holy Watchers”), looked down from heaven and saw how pleasing the young daughters of men, so that they took them as wives. The Watchers sired offspring that were “heroes of the past”. These offspring were called Nephilim, and later legend they were described as giants.
God was not pleased with these unholy unions of angels and mortal women, and with these half-mortal beings (giants or Nephilim). God saw that mankind have become wicked, and decided to wipe out the entire human race, as well as the animals of the air and land. God decided to send a Flood. (Genesis 6:1-8) See the Book of Watchers.
Only one patriarch was pious, and his name was Noah. Noah was a son of Lamech and grandson of the patriarch Methuselah.
God decided to save Noah and his family. God instructed Noah to construct a wooden vessel, called the Ark. Noah was 500 when he received his instruction to build Ark, so that he could survive the Flood. After this revelation of the coming Deluge, Noah sired 3 sons.
Noah was 600, when he boarded the Ark, with his wife, his sons and their wives. Noah had also brought on board animals of all kind, in pair, male and female.
Rain and flood fell for 40 days and 40 nights, destroying animals, man and giants. Only those within the Ark were saved. They stayed in the Ark for 150 days, the water continuing to go down, until the Ark came to rest on the mountain of the Ararat range. (Genesis 6-8)
From there, Noah and his family left the Ark, and they began to repopulate the Earth. Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth. All three sons had many descendants. Of interest in the genealogy, is Nimrod, son of Cush and grandson of Ham. Nimrod was the first conqueror; he began in the kingdom of Babylon, before annexing other kingdoms into his empire.
However, the Genesis was more interested in the descendants of Shem. It was from the Shem line, that Abraham was born. (Genesis 10-11)
Another interesting scene in the Genesis is the Tower of Babel. At the time, everybody spoke one language. Many of them settled in Babylonia. They built cities from bricks made from clay hardened under fire. When the people decide to make a tower that could reach the sky. God decided to disperse the people, by making people speak different languages, so they can’t understand one another. So the people speaking different languages scattered all over the world. Abraham was perhaps born in this time.
In Dark Mirrors of Heaven, I am less interested in the rest of the Genesis (Genesis 12-50), which is about Abraham and his descendants, which you don’t need to read, but for the sake of completeness, I have included here the summaries of these three patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
Abraham was at first called Abram. He was the son of Terah, and brother of Nahor and Haran. Abraham was born in Ur, a city in southern Mesopotamia (Babylonia), but his father moved his family to Haran in the kingdom of Mari, northeastern Mesopotamia. Abraham was married to Sarah (at first called Sarai).
God spoke to Abraham, who was 70 when he left Haran. God promised Abraham many descendants and that his people would have the land of Canaan. Lot, his nephew, the son of Haran, joined Abraham in this journey.
At first, they were living in Shechem, in Canaan, until famine drove Abraham and his followers to Egypt. Abraham fearing for his life, ask Sarah to pretend that she was his sister, not his wife. Abraham knew that the Egyptian ruler would find Sarah very attractive. The Egyptian ruler was warned in his dream that he would die, if he slept with Abraham’s wife. Fortunately for the king, he didn’t have sex with Sarah, but he and his retainer was inflicted with disease. The ruler rebuked Abraham for the deception, and was told to leave Egypt. Sarah gained a Egyptian slave girl, Hagar, from the king.
They returned to southern Canaan, when Abraham and Lot decided to separate because their servants were fighting over the precedence of their masters.
Lot resided in the wicked town of Sodom, in the Jordan Valley. God destroyed Sodom and Gomorroh, but saved Lot and his family, except that Lot’s wife was turned into a pillar of salt, when she looked back at the valley. (Genesis 19:23-29) Lot’s two daughters decided each should have a son by their father, because there were no other men around in the valley. One son was named Moab, who was the ancestor of the Moabites, while the other son was named Benammi, the ancestor of the Ammonites. These two tribes would later become enemies of the Israelites.
Abraham fought in war against some kingdoms, particular against Chedorlaomer of Elam. Abraham was allied to Melchizedek, king of Salem. Melchizedek was known as the priest of the Most High God. After the victory, Abraham received a blessing from Melchizedek. (Genesis 14)
God again promised land for Abraham and his descendants and in covenant to this promise, Abraham and other male followers should all circumcise. (Genesis 15-1-21)
At the time, Sarah was barren, so she gave her husband her slave girl Hagar, as his concubine. Hagar became mother of Ishmael, who was said to be ancestor of the modern Arabic people. God did promise Abraham that he would have a son by Sarah, but both of them were aging. Sarah did not think this was possible, since she was so old. But she did fall pregnant and gave birth to Isaac. Sarah fearing that her son would lose his inheritance, she told Abraham that Hagar and his son, Ishmael, should leave them. Abraham reluctantly told his son to leave.
God later told Abraham to offer his son as sacrifice to Him. Abraham would have obey and gone through the sacrifice, but God intervened at the last moment. Apparently, the sacrifice of Abraham’s only legitimate son was to test Abraham’s faith and loyalty to Him. (Genesis 22)
When Isaac was older, Abraham sends one of his servants to find a non-Canannite wife for his son. His servant successfully returned from Haran, with Rebecca, daughter of Bethuel. Bethuel was the son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, and of Milcah, Abraham’s niece and Sarah’s sister. Isaac fell in love with Rachel and they were married.
Abraham died at the age of 175. Isaac and Ishmael buried their father beside Sarah, in the Machpelah Cave, near Mamre.
At Beersheba, Isaac and Rebecca had two sons, Esau and Jacob. Esau, the eldest son, was a great hunter, and favourite of Isaac, but his foreign wives made Rebecca angry. She favoured Jacob, and decided to help her son win Esau’s birthright. Since Isaac was blind in his old age, he didn’t know that his wife tricked him into giving the Esau’s blessing to Jacob.
Fearing his brother’s wrath, Jacob readily agreed to go to find wife from Laban, brother of Rebecca. On his way to Haran, Jacob slept, using a rock as his pillow. He had vision that his descendants would receive land that God had promised to Abraham. Jacob named this place Bethel.
Jacob worked for Laban, until he was worthy enough to marry his daughter. Jacob did fall in love with Rachel, Laban’s youngest daughter, but Laban tricked Jacob into marrying Leah, his older daughter. To placate Jacob, Laban agreed to marry his other daughter to Jacob.
God favored Leah that she had four sons in succession. Jealous over her sister and her failure to give a son to Jacob, Rachel gave her slave girl (Bilhah) to Jacob as a concubine. Bilhah gave two sons to Jacob. Jacob also received another concubine (Zilpah), this one from Leah. Leah had two more sons, and a daughter named Dinah. Rachel did finally fall pregnant, and had a son named Joseph.
Around this time, Jacob decided to return home, with his family and the animals had gained from Laban. In his journey, he wrestled and subdued an angel at Peniel, who blessed him with the name Israel.
Jacob arrived home, where a reunion and reconciliation with his brother took place. Esau settled in the land, south-east of the Dead Sea, and he was the ancestor of the kingdom of Edom.
Rachel did have another son, Benjamin, giving birth on the road between Bethel and Ephrath. However, Rachel died and was buried there, which would later become the town of Bethlehem. Isaac died at the age of 180, shortly after Rachel. Isaac was buried in Mamre, near Hebron.
One of his sons, Judah, had unwittingly slept with his widowed daughter-in-law, Tamar, whom he thought was a prostitute; she gave birth to twin sons, Perez and Zerah (Genesis 38). It is from Perez that Judah’s descendants would become rulers of the kingdom of Israel; particularly David and Solomon.
Jacob’s ten older sons were jealous of Joseph, because he was their father’s favourite, gaining a beautiful robe. One day, they jealously tossed into a dried well, and later sold Joseph to slave traders, where he was taken to Egypt. The brothers lied to their father, saying that wild animals killed Joseph, showing the grieving father Joseph’s bloodstained robe. However, it was really God’s plan that Joseph should go to Egypt.
In Egypt, he gained his freedom when he interpret the pharaoh’s dream that Egypt would enjoy seven years of good crops but a famine lasting for seven years would come to Egypt and Canaan. The pharaoh listening to Joseph’s advice, began storing the abundant crops, appointed Joseph as governor, a position of great power, only answerable to the king himself.
Back in Canaan, Jacob was forced to send his ten sons into Egypt, to buy grain, but keeping Benjamin with him. Joseph easily recognised his brothers. Joseph tricked his brothers into bringing their father and Benjamin into Egypt. Here, Jacob was happily reunited with his lost son.
Jacob and his sons stayed in Egypt, even after the famine ended. Jacob died in Egypt, seventeen years after departing from Canaan, aged 147, but his body was taken to Bethlehem, buried beside his wife Rachel. Joseph died 54 years later at the age of 110.
Jacob’s descendants remained in Egypt, but Joseph’s wisdom was forgotten, so that they became slaves to the Egyptians, until the time of Moses.
Jacob’s sons were the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel. It is from his son Judah that Israel would have long line of kings, headed by David and his son Solomon. David would be the ancestor of Jesus, who would herald a new religion, Christianity.
There are many different translations of the bible, but I can only read English, so I have to find the appropriate translations. Although, I’d prefer to get my own books, there are some websites that provide the whole texts on the internet.
Good News Bible: Today English Version
United Bible Societies
1976; reprinted 1986
Tanakh: A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures
According to the Traditional Hebrew Text
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0.3139098286628... | 10 | Genesis: In Brief
Before I give you the summary about the Genesis, I think it would be appropriate to reveal something about the author of the first book of the Old Testament.
When I read the Genesis (Bereshit), I have a mixture of feelings: awe, fascination, curiosity and disbelief.
To most people, the Genesis is the most interesting and controversial book in the Bible. Some people take the whole of the Genesis, literally, while others have different interpretation to the scriptures. And others still looked at it with skepticism and disbelief.
The Genesis is one of five books that were ascribed to Moses, the Hebrew lawgiver, who led the Israelites out of slavery and Egypt towards the Promised Land – ancient Canaan. The first five books of the Old Testament were called Pentateuch, though the Jews called it Torah (Law). The Torah was fundamental core of the Hebrew/Jewish faith and religion. The books in the Torah are:
- Genesis (υένεσις, Bereshit)
- Exodus (έζοδος, Shemot)
- Leviticus (Λευιτικός, Vayikra)
- Numbers (Αριθοί, Bamidbar)
- Deuteronomy (Δευτερονόμθιομ, Devarim)
However, the Torah can also mean the whole of the Old Testament, which is seen as the Hebrew Bible, but I won’t go into the rest of the Old Testament, here.
Canaan was known by many several names over time, such as Judaea, Palestine and Israel. The kingdom was divided into two after King Solomon, with Israel as the northern kingdom, and Judah as the southern kingdom. During Roman period, it was divided further into provinces – the most important being Judaea, while Galilee formed the northern Roman province. Many people just referred it to as the Holy Land, because three large religious faiths – Judaism, Christian and Islam – say that this Promised Land was the centre of their faith, particularly the city of Jerusalem.
God, in a covenant to the patriarch Abraham, promised this land to him. Abraham was the father of the Hebrew people. His grandson, Jacob, was the one who gave the name for the Jewish people, since his other name was Israel. Jacob’s twelve sons make up the twelve tribes of Israel. It was Jacob who brought his family into Egypt, during a great famine, where his son Joseph had great power among the Egyptians, as governor.
Moses, himself, was the descendant of Levi, the son of Jacob. The Levites didn’t received land as one of the tribe, because they were given priestly functions, enabling them to live within any land of the twelve tribes. Joseph, Levi’s brother, had two sons, who formed two of the tribes of Israel.
Returning to the subject of the Genesis, the account in the Genesis comprised of the Creation, the Flood, and the lives of three important patriarchs before Moses’ time – Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
Although, the Genesis was set before Moses’ time, the history of the Jewish people, as given in the Genesis, was revealed to Moses at Mount Sinai, in a revelation.
(Please note that you don’t need to read this page, if you already read the Genesis. This is only a background for the other part of the site, and summary of the Genesis for those who have not read this book. However, you may find family trees on this page interesting.)
See also the timelines of the patriarchs and the Genesis.
God created the world in six days. He brought light on the first day. He separated the sky from the sea on the second day, and the sea from the land, with plants of all sort, on the third day. On the fourth day, He created the sun, moon and the stars. The fifth day, he filled the land, sky and sea with animals. (Genesis 1, 2:1-4)
In the sixth day, He created human being who resembled Him in form, creating male and female (Genesis 1:26-28), giving them control over other animals. The first two human were named Adam and Eve. God created Adam from the dust in the Garden of Eden; bringing his creation to life by blowing into his nostrils (2:7-9). He placed Adam in the Garden of Eden, where the first man named every animals and birds (2:19-20), but these animals were not suitable companions for man. So He then put Adam in a deep slumber, taking out one of his rib-bones to create Eve (2:21-24).
(Note that in chapter 1, God seemed to have made man and woman at the same time, but in chapter 2, Adam was created first, and Eve afterward.)
According to some later legends, Eve was not the first woman. Adam’s first mate was Lilith, who was later transformed into a demon. I have devoted a page to Lilith.
God told them to eat from any fruit within the Garden, except the Tree of Knowledge that gives knowledge of what is good and what is bad. If they disobey they would die. There was another tree in Eden, called the Tree of Life.
But a snake, more intelligent than any other creatures, told Eve that they wouldn’t die if she eat the fruit (possibly a fig), but she would become more like God. Eve ate the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge and gave a fruit to Adam to eat. Once they ate the fruit, they became aware that they were naked and felt ashamed of their nudity. They hid their nakedness with fig leaves.
When God realised that they had disobeyed Him, he punished the pair as well as the snake. The snake would crawl on its belly, and that he and his mate would hate one another. With Eve, she and all of her kind, would be subject to her husband, and suffer from the pang of childbirth. While Adam would have to toil on the harsh land, to find his own food. Both human would struggle and in the end of their life, their body would return to the soil, where he came from. (Genesis 3:1-21)
God then banished Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden, where an angel with fiery sword barred them from returning to the Garden, to keep them from eating the fruit from the Tree of Life. (Genesis 3:22-24)
In exile, Eve bore Adam two sons – Cain and Abel. Cain was a farmer, while his brother was a shepherd. When the two brothers offered sacrifice to God, God found the lamb as a more pleasing offering than Cain’s harvest. Cain was jealous of God favouring his brother, so he murdered his brother. God punished Cain for his crime, by branding him, causing Cain to wander as a nomad. (Genesis 4)
Eve gave Adam, another son, named Seth, who became the ancestor of the Hebrew race. The Genesis does mention that Adam and Eve had other children, but give us no names (Genesis 5:4).
According to the pseudepigrapha Book of Jubilees mention they had nine sons, and also say that Cain married his sister Awan, while Seth’s wife, Azura, was also Seth’s sister.
Since Adam and Eve were the first couple, Cain and Seth could not possibly marry women from other families, so incest was practiced among the early patriarchs. By Moses’ time, incest was against the law.
Many of the events about Adam and Eve in the Genesis are rewritten in the Gnostic texts found at Nag Hammadi, which you will find in Gnostic Cosmogony.
The Genesis then goes on to list the descendants of Adam, before the time of the Flood. Though each patriarch had other children, the Genesis only listed the direct line from Adam to Noah.
Of these descendants, two of them were of great interest. One was Enoch, son of Jared, and the other was Methuselah, Enoch’s son. (Genesis 5:18-25)
Enoch enjoyed a personal fellowship with God, and when he was 365 years old, God took him to heaven, without this patriarch ever meeting his death. Several legends and pseudepigrapha texts have been written about Enoch. The Genesis didn’t give us much detail about either patriarch, so I had to look for other texts about Enoch. See Enoch and the Book of Watchers.
Methuselah was the oldest to ever live; he died at the age of 969, on the same year as the Flood.
Mankind was flourishing since Seth and Cain, populating the Earth with people. However, a storm was brewing, bring apocalyptic changes in the wind.
Supernatural beings, known as angels and as the Watchers (or more precisely, the “Fallen Watchers”, as opposed to the “Holy Watchers”), looked down from heaven and saw how pleasing the young daughters of men, so that they took them as wives. The Watchers sired offspring that were “heroes of the past”. These offspring were called Nephilim, and later legend they were described as giants.
God was not pleased with these unholy unions of angels and mortal women, and with these half-mortal beings (giants or Nephilim). God saw that mankind have become wicked, and decided to wipe out the entire human race, as well as the animals of the air and land. God decided to send a Flood. (Genesis 6:1-8) See the Book of Watchers.
Only one patriarch was pious, and his name was Noah. Noah was a son of Lamech and grandson of the patriarch Methuselah.
God decided to save Noah and his family. God instructed Noah to construct a wooden vessel, called the Ark. Noah was 500 when he received his instruction to build Ark, so that he could survive the Flood. After this revelation of the coming Deluge, Noah sired 3 sons.
Noah was 600, when he boarded the Ark, with his wife, his sons and their wives. Noah had also brought on board animals of all kind, in pair, male and female.
Rain and flood fell for 40 days and 40 nights, destroying animals, man and giants. Only those within the Ark were saved. They stayed in the Ark for 150 days, the water continuing to go down, until the Ark came to rest on the mountain of the Ararat range. (Genesis 6-8)
From there, Noah and his family left the Ark, and they began to repopulate the Earth. Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth. All three sons had many descendants. Of interest in the genealogy, is Nimrod, son of Cush and grandson of Ham. Nimrod was the first conqueror; he began in the kingdom of Babylon, before annexing other kingdoms into his empire.
However, the Genesis was more interested in the descendants of Shem. It was from the Shem line, that Abraham was born. (Genesis 10-11)
Another interesting scene in the Genesis is the Tower of Babel. At the time, everybody spoke one language. Many of them settled in Babylonia. They built cities from bricks made from clay hardened under fire. When the people decide to make a tower that could reach the sky. God decided to disperse the people, by making people speak different languages, so they can’t understand one another. So the people speaking different languages scattered all over the world. Abraham was perhaps born in this time.
In Dark Mirrors of Heaven, I am less interested in the rest of the Genesis (Genesis 12-50), which is about Abraham and his descendants, which you don’t need to read, but for the sake of completeness, I have included here the summaries of these three patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
Abraham was at first called Abram. He was the son of Terah, and brother of Nahor and Haran. Abraham was born in Ur, a city in southern Mesopotamia (Babylonia), but his father moved his family to Haran in the kingdom of Mari, northeastern Mesopotamia. Abraham was married to Sarah (at first called Sarai).
God spoke to Abraham, who was 70 when he left Haran. God promised Abraham many descendants and that his people would have the land of Canaan. Lot, his nephew, the son of Haran, joined Abraham in this journey.
At first, they were living in Shechem, in Canaan, until famine drove Abraham and his followers to Egypt. Abraham fearing for his life, ask Sarah to pretend that she was his sister, not his wife. Abraham knew that the Egyptian ruler would find Sarah very attractive. The Egyptian ruler was warned in his dream that he would die, if he slept with Abraham’s wife. Fortunately for the king, he didn’t have sex with Sarah, but he and his retainer was inflicted with disease. The ruler rebuked Abraham for the deception, and was told to leave Egypt. Sarah gained a Egyptian slave girl, Hagar, from the king.
They returned to southern Canaan, when Abraham and Lot decided to separate because their servants were fighting over the precedence of their masters.
Lot resided in the wicked town of Sodom, in the Jordan Valley. God destroyed Sodom and Gomorroh, but saved Lot and his family, except that Lot’s wife was turned into a pillar of salt, when she looked back at the valley. (Genesis 19:23-29) Lot’s two daughters decided each should have a son by their father, because there were no other men around in the valley. One son was named Moab, who was the ancestor of the Moabites, while the other son was named Benammi, the ancestor of the Ammonites. These two tribes would later become enemies of the Israelites.
Abraham fought in war against some kingdoms, particular against Chedorlaomer of Elam. Abraham was allied to Melchizedek, king of Salem. Melchizedek was known as the priest of the Most High God. After the victory, Abraham received a blessing from Melchizedek. (Genesis 14)
God again promised land for Abraham and his descendants and in covenant to this promise, Abraham and other male followers should all circumcise. (Genesis 15-1-21)
At the time, Sarah was barren, so she gave her husband her slave girl Hagar, as his concubine. Hagar became mother of Ishmael, who was said to be ancestor of the modern Arabic people. God did promise Abraham that he would have a son by Sarah, but both of them were aging. Sarah did not think this was possible, since she was so old. But she did fall pregnant and gave birth to Isaac. Sarah fearing that her son would lose his inheritance, she told Abraham that Hagar and his son, Ishmael, should leave them. Abraham reluctantly told his son to leave.
God later told Abraham to offer his son as sacrifice to Him. Abraham would have obey and gone through the sacrifice, but God intervened at the last moment. Apparently, the sacrifice of Abraham’s only legitimate son was to test Abraham’s faith and loyalty to Him. (Genesis 22)
When Isaac was older, Abraham sends one of his servants to find a non-Canannite wife for his son. His servant successfully returned from Haran, with Rebecca, daughter of Bethuel. Bethuel was the son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, and of Milcah, Abraham’s niece and Sarah’s sister. Isaac fell in love with Rachel and they were married.
Abraham died at the age of 175. Isaac and Ishmael buried their father beside Sarah, in the Machpelah Cave, near Mamre.
At Beersheba, Isaac and Rebecca had two sons, Esau and Jacob. Esau, the eldest son, was a great hunter, and favourite of Isaac, but his foreign wives made Rebecca angry. She favoured Jacob, and decided to help her son win Esau’s birthright. Since Isaac was blind in his old age, he didn’t know that his wife tricked him into giving the Esau’s blessing to Jacob.
Fearing his brother’s wrath, Jacob readily agreed to go to find wife from Laban, brother of Rebecca. On his way to Haran, Jacob slept, using a rock as his pillow. He had vision that his descendants would receive land that God had promised to Abraham. Jacob named this place Bethel.
Jacob worked for Laban, until he was worthy enough to marry his daughter. Jacob did fall in love with Rachel, Laban’s youngest daughter, but Laban tricked Jacob into marrying Leah, his older daughter. To placate Jacob, Laban agreed to marry his other daughter to Jacob.
God favored Leah that she had four sons in succession. Jealous over her sister and her failure to give a son to Jacob, Rachel gave her slave girl (Bilhah) to Jacob as a concubine. Bilhah gave two sons to Jacob. Jacob also received another concubine (Zilpah), this one from Leah. Leah had two more sons, and a daughter named Dinah. Rachel did finally fall pregnant, and had a son named Joseph.
Around this time, Jacob decided to return home, with his family and the animals had gained from Laban. In his journey, he wrestled and subdued an angel at Peniel, who blessed him with the name Israel.
Jacob arrived home, where a reunion and reconciliation with his brother took place. Esau settled in the land, south-east of the Dead Sea, and he was the ancestor of the kingdom of Edom.
Rachel did have another son, Benjamin, giving birth on the road between Bethel and Ephrath. However, Rachel died and was buried there, which would later become the town of Bethlehem. Isaac died at the age of 180, shortly after Rachel. Isaac was buried in Mamre, near Hebron.
One of his sons, Judah, had unwittingly slept with his widowed daughter-in-law, Tamar, whom he thought was a prostitute; she gave birth to twin sons, Perez and Zerah (Genesis 38). It is from Perez that Judah’s descendants would become rulers of the kingdom of Israel; particularly David and Solomon.
Jacob’s ten older sons were jealous of Joseph, because he was their father’s favourite, gaining a beautiful robe. One day, they jealously tossed into a dried well, and later sold Joseph to slave traders, where he was taken to Egypt. The brothers lied to their father, saying that wild animals killed Joseph, showing the grieving father Joseph’s bloodstained robe. However, it was really God’s plan that Joseph should go to Egypt.
In Egypt, he gained his freedom when he interpret the pharaoh’s dream that Egypt would enjoy seven years of good crops but a famine lasting for seven years would come to Egypt and Canaan. The pharaoh listening to Joseph’s advice, began storing the abundant crops, appointed Joseph as governor, a position of great power, only answerable to the king himself.
Back in Canaan, Jacob was forced to send his ten sons into Egypt, to buy grain, but keeping Benjamin with him. Joseph easily recognised his brothers. Joseph tricked his brothers into bringing their father and Benjamin into Egypt. Here, Jacob was happily reunited with his lost son.
Jacob and his sons stayed in Egypt, even after the famine ended. Jacob died in Egypt, seventeen years after departing from Canaan, aged 147, but his body was taken to Bethlehem, buried beside his wife Rachel. Joseph died 54 years later at the age of 110.
Jacob’s descendants remained in Egypt, but Joseph’s wisdom was forgotten, so that they became slaves to the Egyptians, until the time of Moses.
Jacob’s sons were the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel. It is from his son Judah that Israel would have long line of kings, headed by David and his son Solomon. David would be the ancestor of Jesus, who would herald a new religion, Christianity.
There are many different translations of the bible, but I can only read English, so I have to find the appropriate translations. Although, I’d prefer to get my own books, there are some websites that provide the whole texts on the internet.
Good News Bible: Today English Version
United Bible Societies
1976; reprinted 1986
Tanakh: A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures
According to the Traditional Hebrew Text
The Jewish Publication Society; 1985 | 4,321 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Following up on last week’s post about being able to name five female artists, here’s another one to add to your list. French Romantic-style painter Marie-Guillemine Benoist was born on December 18, 1768 in Paris. She was the daughter of a government official who recognized her talent and enrolled her as a pupil of Vigée-LeBrun in 1791; the latter’s influence is very evident in Benoist’s early works, mainly portraits done in pastels.
Later, she studied under Jacques-Louis David, and as a result she began producing more ambitious works in oils. She made her debut at the Salon with two historical scenes and thereafter painted both portraits and historical subjects. She achieved a high reputation and received a gold medal and an annual government grant. Napoleon commissioned portraits of himself and his family from her.
In the early 1800s, she switched to painting genre subjects and sentimental domestic scenes which were immensely popular. Her best-known painting, a remarkable portrait of a young black woman, painted in 1800, is believed to have been inspired by the decree of 1794 abolishing slavery. The painting, which hangs in the Louvre, was recently renamed from Portrait d’une Négresse to Portrait de Madeleine to honor the identity of the sitter, which had been ignored for over two hundred years. | <urn:uuid:ac7d18ed-1366-4f45-9017-2673c7d7d080> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://onequalitythefinest.com/2019/12/16/marie-guillemine-benoist/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.983869 | 288 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2809215486049... | 6 | Following up on last week’s post about being able to name five female artists, here’s another one to add to your list. French Romantic-style painter Marie-Guillemine Benoist was born on December 18, 1768 in Paris. She was the daughter of a government official who recognized her talent and enrolled her as a pupil of Vigée-LeBrun in 1791; the latter’s influence is very evident in Benoist’s early works, mainly portraits done in pastels.
Later, she studied under Jacques-Louis David, and as a result she began producing more ambitious works in oils. She made her debut at the Salon with two historical scenes and thereafter painted both portraits and historical subjects. She achieved a high reputation and received a gold medal and an annual government grant. Napoleon commissioned portraits of himself and his family from her.
In the early 1800s, she switched to painting genre subjects and sentimental domestic scenes which were immensely popular. Her best-known painting, a remarkable portrait of a young black woman, painted in 1800, is believed to have been inspired by the decree of 1794 abolishing slavery. The painting, which hangs in the Louvre, was recently renamed from Portrait d’une Négresse to Portrait de Madeleine to honor the identity of the sitter, which had been ignored for over two hundred years. | 287 | ENGLISH | 1 |
ca. 490-ca. 430 B.C.
Phidias, an Athenian sculptor, was one of the most famous artists in the ancient world. In addition to creating numerous impressive sculptures of gods and goddesses, Phidias oversaw the sculptural decoration of the stone buildings on the Athenian Acropolis. The only known surviving examples of his work are the marble statues of the Parthenon, known as the Elgin marbles, which were carved either by Phidias himself or by other sculptors following his designs.
Phidias’s early works included a group of bronze statues at Delphi that celebrated the Battle of Marathon, and a 30-foot tall bronze statue of Athena, the patron* goddess of Athens, on the Acropolis. He also created a statue of Athena on the Greek island of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea.Although these works were impressive, Phidias was best known for his later statues of Athena at the Parthenon at Athens and of Zeus, the king of the gods, at the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Both statues were made of gold and ivory covering a wooden frame, and both were decorated with precious metals, glass, and paint. The statue of Zeus, the larger of the two, was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
The statue of Athena at the Parthenon is known from descriptions of the original and from a number of copies. The original statue was nearly 40 feet high and covered in nearly a ton of gold. Begun in 447 B.C., it took nearly ten years to complete. Athena held a figure of Nike, the Greek goddess of victory, in her right hand and a spear and shield in her left hand. Her shield was covered inside and out with Amazons and giants. The snakehaired monster Medusa adorned her breastplate, and several other mythological creatures decorated her helmet.
The statue of Zeus at Olympia was probably completed around 430 B.C. Although the original no longer exists, vase paintings and coins that depict the statue indicate that Zeus was seated on a lavishly decorated throne, holding a figure of Nike in his right hand and a staff in his left. Amazons adorned his footstool.
Because of Phidias’s versatility as an artist, the Athenian statesman Pericles placed Phidias in charge of the artistic program on the Acropolis in the early 440s B.C. Phidias oversaw the sculptural decoration of the magnificent temple of the Parthenon, as well as other religious and civic structures. Because of Phidias’s closeness to Pericles, Pericles’ enemies accused Phidias of stealing precious materials that had been supplied for one of his statues. Rather than face imprisonment, Phidias fled to Olympia. While in exile, he created his statue of Zeus. His workshop in Olympia has been discovered, as have his tools and molds. A drinking cup inscribed with his name has even been found at the workshop.
* patron special guardian, protector; or supporter
Not long after he completed the statue of Zeus, Phidias died or was killed while still in exile. His students continued to dominate Athenian sculpture for another generation. Phidias’s work was also the chief influence on later Hellenistic* and Roman sculpture. (See also Architecture, Greek; Sculpture, Greek.)
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek-influenced culture of the Mediterranean world during the three centuries after Alexander the Great, who died in 323 B.C. | <urn:uuid:190fec3e-6ff8-4452-befb-a94d9ab94c96> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://erenow.net/ancient/ancient-greece-and-rome-an-encyclopedia-for-students-4-volume-set/346.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00028.warc.gz | en | 0.981462 | 737 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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Phidias, an Athenian sculptor, was one of the most famous artists in the ancient world. In addition to creating numerous impressive sculptures of gods and goddesses, Phidias oversaw the sculptural decoration of the stone buildings on the Athenian Acropolis. The only known surviving examples of his work are the marble statues of the Parthenon, known as the Elgin marbles, which were carved either by Phidias himself or by other sculptors following his designs.
Phidias’s early works included a group of bronze statues at Delphi that celebrated the Battle of Marathon, and a 30-foot tall bronze statue of Athena, the patron* goddess of Athens, on the Acropolis. He also created a statue of Athena on the Greek island of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea.Although these works were impressive, Phidias was best known for his later statues of Athena at the Parthenon at Athens and of Zeus, the king of the gods, at the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Both statues were made of gold and ivory covering a wooden frame, and both were decorated with precious metals, glass, and paint. The statue of Zeus, the larger of the two, was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
The statue of Athena at the Parthenon is known from descriptions of the original and from a number of copies. The original statue was nearly 40 feet high and covered in nearly a ton of gold. Begun in 447 B.C., it took nearly ten years to complete. Athena held a figure of Nike, the Greek goddess of victory, in her right hand and a spear and shield in her left hand. Her shield was covered inside and out with Amazons and giants. The snakehaired monster Medusa adorned her breastplate, and several other mythological creatures decorated her helmet.
The statue of Zeus at Olympia was probably completed around 430 B.C. Although the original no longer exists, vase paintings and coins that depict the statue indicate that Zeus was seated on a lavishly decorated throne, holding a figure of Nike in his right hand and a staff in his left. Amazons adorned his footstool.
Because of Phidias’s versatility as an artist, the Athenian statesman Pericles placed Phidias in charge of the artistic program on the Acropolis in the early 440s B.C. Phidias oversaw the sculptural decoration of the magnificent temple of the Parthenon, as well as other religious and civic structures. Because of Phidias’s closeness to Pericles, Pericles’ enemies accused Phidias of stealing precious materials that had been supplied for one of his statues. Rather than face imprisonment, Phidias fled to Olympia. While in exile, he created his statue of Zeus. His workshop in Olympia has been discovered, as have his tools and molds. A drinking cup inscribed with his name has even been found at the workshop.
* patron special guardian, protector; or supporter
Not long after he completed the statue of Zeus, Phidias died or was killed while still in exile. His students continued to dominate Athenian sculpture for another generation. Phidias’s work was also the chief influence on later Hellenistic* and Roman sculpture. (See also Architecture, Greek; Sculpture, Greek.)
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek-influenced culture of the Mediterranean world during the three centuries after Alexander the Great, who died in 323 B.C. | 736 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King Henry Iv And Joseph Strorm: Archtypical Fathers
An ideal father is one who is both caring and understanding. To fit this mould, one must express these characteristics. The outlook and actions of King Henry IV (Shakespeare, Henry IV Part 1) and Joseph Strorm (Wyndham, The Chrysalids), suggest characters who do not match the mould of the archetypical ideal father. King Henry IV was a father who thought not much of his son. He sees his son as a riotous, irresponsible young man. King Henry tells Westmoreland that he is envious of Lord Northumberland’s son, Hotspur, and that e wishes he could be more honorable.
It shows King Henry’s lack of trust and grasp of his son through conversations with others. The King has a serious discussion with Prince Hal in act three, where he tells him that he is starting to behave in the same way as King Richard, and since he is acting this way, the people will not want him to be the King. The King has his own ideas on how he thinks that the Prince should live, and for that reason has made the relationship between them very difficult. If only the King would have been more accepting, the Prince could have lived more like himself.
Joseph Strorm is a father with very strict rules. He cares more about the physical make up of a person than he does about the actual personality of the person. In the story a very cold side of Joseph Strorm is shown; he never gets close to his son at all. The only conversation shared between Joseph and his children are harsh and is often punishment. The way Joseph responded when David jokingly wished for a hird arm showed that he cared more about his image and purity than he did for his own child.
Both King Henry and Joseph Strorm lacked the ability to look eye to eye with their children. King Henry did not like the way his Prince ran his life, and Joseph Strorm did not care at all about anything other than if something was pure. These fathers both wished that their children could have been more like themselves. Both King Henry IV and Joseph Strorm are miserable fathers and should reevaluate the way they deal with their children. | <urn:uuid:b1a4b11f-d651-4fce-afdc-506d332d1a92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/king-henry-iv-and-joseph-strorm-archtypical-fathers-2-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.986167 | 458 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.29421067237... | 1 | King Henry Iv And Joseph Strorm: Archtypical Fathers
An ideal father is one who is both caring and understanding. To fit this mould, one must express these characteristics. The outlook and actions of King Henry IV (Shakespeare, Henry IV Part 1) and Joseph Strorm (Wyndham, The Chrysalids), suggest characters who do not match the mould of the archetypical ideal father. King Henry IV was a father who thought not much of his son. He sees his son as a riotous, irresponsible young man. King Henry tells Westmoreland that he is envious of Lord Northumberland’s son, Hotspur, and that e wishes he could be more honorable.
It shows King Henry’s lack of trust and grasp of his son through conversations with others. The King has a serious discussion with Prince Hal in act three, where he tells him that he is starting to behave in the same way as King Richard, and since he is acting this way, the people will not want him to be the King. The King has his own ideas on how he thinks that the Prince should live, and for that reason has made the relationship between them very difficult. If only the King would have been more accepting, the Prince could have lived more like himself.
Joseph Strorm is a father with very strict rules. He cares more about the physical make up of a person than he does about the actual personality of the person. In the story a very cold side of Joseph Strorm is shown; he never gets close to his son at all. The only conversation shared between Joseph and his children are harsh and is often punishment. The way Joseph responded when David jokingly wished for a hird arm showed that he cared more about his image and purity than he did for his own child.
Both King Henry and Joseph Strorm lacked the ability to look eye to eye with their children. King Henry did not like the way his Prince ran his life, and Joseph Strorm did not care at all about anything other than if something was pure. These fathers both wished that their children could have been more like themselves. Both King Henry IV and Joseph Strorm are miserable fathers and should reevaluate the way they deal with their children. | 452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scientists from the British Museum and the University of York came across some traces of opiates which were found preserved inside a vessel thought to be from the Late Bronze Age. This type of vessel is known as a ‘base-ring juglet’ and it was thought for a long time that they were linked with opium use.
This supposition was drawn due to the fact that, when they are inverted, these vessels look like the seed head of the poppy plant. Another known historical fact is that they were objects of an intense trade from 1650 to 1350 BC in the eastern Mediterranean region. A range of analytical and observational techniques were used by scientists in order to properly study a certain juglet which could be found displayed in the British Museum.
This one was sealed, this process allowing its contents to remain preserved. Scientists rejoiced at this notion because this meant that they were presented the rare opportunity to investigate which of its components might have survived. The initial supposition made by the researchers from the British Museum was that the residue found with the juglet had mostly a plant oil composition but it also gave signs of the presence of opium alkaloids.
These substances are organic compounds which are linked with the opium poppy. Perhaps you already knew this, but they can cause some serious psychological effects on the human mind. In order to make sure that these alkaloids were really there and that the initial supposition regarding the presence of opiates in the oil-based residue of the vessel, scientists had to resort to a fresh analytical technique.
Dr. Rachel Smith developed this method as part of her PhD at the University of York while using instruments from the University’s Center of Excellence in Mass Spectrometry. | <urn:uuid:15ab4680-c196-447a-8120-95681f0a5fbd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://greatlakesledger.com/2018/10/05/a-cypriot-vessel-found-with-traces-of-opiates-meaning-that-people-got-high-in-the-bronze-age/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.985772 | 347 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.3172569572925567... | 2 | Scientists from the British Museum and the University of York came across some traces of opiates which were found preserved inside a vessel thought to be from the Late Bronze Age. This type of vessel is known as a ‘base-ring juglet’ and it was thought for a long time that they were linked with opium use.
This supposition was drawn due to the fact that, when they are inverted, these vessels look like the seed head of the poppy plant. Another known historical fact is that they were objects of an intense trade from 1650 to 1350 BC in the eastern Mediterranean region. A range of analytical and observational techniques were used by scientists in order to properly study a certain juglet which could be found displayed in the British Museum.
This one was sealed, this process allowing its contents to remain preserved. Scientists rejoiced at this notion because this meant that they were presented the rare opportunity to investigate which of its components might have survived. The initial supposition made by the researchers from the British Museum was that the residue found with the juglet had mostly a plant oil composition but it also gave signs of the presence of opium alkaloids.
These substances are organic compounds which are linked with the opium poppy. Perhaps you already knew this, but they can cause some serious psychological effects on the human mind. In order to make sure that these alkaloids were really there and that the initial supposition regarding the presence of opiates in the oil-based residue of the vessel, scientists had to resort to a fresh analytical technique.
Dr. Rachel Smith developed this method as part of her PhD at the University of York while using instruments from the University’s Center of Excellence in Mass Spectrometry. | 346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
S Heaton: November 2017
We've had another busy week in Base 3.
In Literacy, we have been looking at newspaper reports. Having looked at how newspaper reports were structured last week, we had a bit of fun with alliteration this week creating fabulous headlines for our article about Romulus and Remus. It was a challenging task this week as we had to report on the fight between the twin brothers which ended with Remus being killed and Romulus going on to create Rome. We had to do more than just retell the story — we had to imagine we had interviewed eye witnesses and use phrases such as 'it is believed that...' and 'eye witnesses reported that...'
In Maths, we have begun to study multiplication and division and how they are so closely connected. We have been using arrays, Cuisenaire rods and bar models to help us picture how a multiplication sum is created. We will continue to look for patterns with these throughout the next few weeks.
Sound is our new area of study for Science and we began by exploring musical instruments to see if we could discover how sound is made. We found out that vibrations need to be present for sound to be made — some times we are able to see the vibrations while sometimes we can feel them. We had fun outside moving around like we thought sound waves moved and then inside we acted like sound waves to discover how bats are able to fly around in the dark. Finally, we created our own sound waves using a ruler and a marker pen.
popular recent articlesAlso in the news
Busy bees again in Base 5. In English we have been learning about the etymology of words- we discovered that many words stemmed from the Ancient Greeks! In maths we have really been developing our knowledge of decimals and fractions- we are becoming experts! We have also had great fun in our music lessons, learning new songs and singing in two parts- well done everyone. We have also be en...
A huge effort from all of our pupils this week. Everyone has been working hard to show our achieve behaviours. Very well done to all our achieve, star learner and reading award winners.Congratulations to Red Team for earning the most house points and Base 1 for winning the golden ticket with 98.5 %...
What a wonderful first week back we had in Base 4!We've been studying Viking and Anglo-Saxon artwork, learning how most of it was found on tools, clothes, armour and everyday objects. We studied the different designs, including some of the important shapes and symbols used to design our own printing blocks. We even had a go at cutting lino using special tools.We've started to look... | <urn:uuid:4aaddd05-020e-489d-9107-13476944c672> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wrenburyschool.org.uk/school-news/base-3-news-about.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.980859 | 548 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.24897883832454... | 1 | S Heaton: November 2017
We've had another busy week in Base 3.
In Literacy, we have been looking at newspaper reports. Having looked at how newspaper reports were structured last week, we had a bit of fun with alliteration this week creating fabulous headlines for our article about Romulus and Remus. It was a challenging task this week as we had to report on the fight between the twin brothers which ended with Remus being killed and Romulus going on to create Rome. We had to do more than just retell the story — we had to imagine we had interviewed eye witnesses and use phrases such as 'it is believed that...' and 'eye witnesses reported that...'
In Maths, we have begun to study multiplication and division and how they are so closely connected. We have been using arrays, Cuisenaire rods and bar models to help us picture how a multiplication sum is created. We will continue to look for patterns with these throughout the next few weeks.
Sound is our new area of study for Science and we began by exploring musical instruments to see if we could discover how sound is made. We found out that vibrations need to be present for sound to be made — some times we are able to see the vibrations while sometimes we can feel them. We had fun outside moving around like we thought sound waves moved and then inside we acted like sound waves to discover how bats are able to fly around in the dark. Finally, we created our own sound waves using a ruler and a marker pen.
popular recent articlesAlso in the news
Busy bees again in Base 5. In English we have been learning about the etymology of words- we discovered that many words stemmed from the Ancient Greeks! In maths we have really been developing our knowledge of decimals and fractions- we are becoming experts! We have also had great fun in our music lessons, learning new songs and singing in two parts- well done everyone. We have also be en...
A huge effort from all of our pupils this week. Everyone has been working hard to show our achieve behaviours. Very well done to all our achieve, star learner and reading award winners.Congratulations to Red Team for earning the most house points and Base 1 for winning the golden ticket with 98.5 %...
What a wonderful first week back we had in Base 4!We've been studying Viking and Anglo-Saxon artwork, learning how most of it was found on tools, clothes, armour and everyday objects. We studied the different designs, including some of the important shapes and symbols used to design our own printing blocks. We even had a go at cutting lino using special tools.We've started to look... | 543 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Historians have argued if the Black Death in the 13th century advanced science and medicine or if it was just a terrible plague that wiped out most of the European population. The Black Death did in fact bring many discoveries to most of Europe. The aftermath of the plague led to advancements of medications and swayed everyone from their hardcore beliefs.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Black Death and Its Effect on the Change in Medicine" essay for youCreate order
Medical practices went from being theoretical, based on their theories of the human body, to being more based on evidence which was gained through experience from prior patients. The questions I want to answer in this paper are: why did it took so long to find a cure for the plague? Was the disease difficult to understand in general? Lastly, did other theories hold up to Galen’s?
It all started in 1347, the time of the century where the people of Europe could not think it could be any worse. Slightly before this time, in 1316-1317, the people were already suffering from a famine due to volcanic eruptions which blocked out the sun. Later, came the cooling process as it rained too much for crops to grow. Families have doubled size roughly between 1000 and 1300’s and there simply was not enough food to feed the people of Europe. It wasn’t until 1347 when the Black Death, also known as the bubonic plague, was brought back by ship from Kaffa to the islands of Sicily.
Kaffa was a Genoese trading center along the Black Sea, but, in 1346, the Huns were trying to take over the trade routes. This however, had allowed the Huns to become the victim of the plague. This caused at least 5 million deaths in China which caused the Huns to dump the bodies into Kaffa. This lead them into thinking it would cause the end of the plague but, unfortunately, the infected fleas will jump to different host bodies after the death of their original host body. This plague was then also brought to other European countries and it spread north.
Everyone was equally harmed by this disease meaning, not only did this disease affect those who were poor, but also those who were rich. At this point, the people have been forgetting the proper burial and would be thrown into a mass grave. By 1350, with an exception to few, all of Europe’s trading routes were devastated by the disease (Sayre 443). Not only did the Black Death plague break out once, but also again in 1363, 1388-90, and 1400.
Keep in mind these people were already suffering from lack of a supplementary food supply and their bodies were already severely weakened. The European people and those around them had not experienced a pandemic to the level of the Black Death in a quincentenary, and the plague’s re-visitation in the 1400s was viewed as completely unparalleled. Therefore, the European people and those around them had no remembered period of time or an event to which they could turn to for guidance and stability. There was no past epidemic similar to the plague, meaning, they didn’t have any historical time period to look back to. I believe that epidemic disease and environmental crisis were the most important factors in shaping European history in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. I think that many, if not most, specialists agree with me (Gottfried). Not only was the plague one of the biggest periods in European history, but it would later spark a revolution in the medical field.
Galen’s theories were highly believed during this time, and he had created a medicine that could help with the plague. Theriac was one of the most popular plague medicines that he created. However, this medicine was not as easy as you would think to get. That medicine alone, simply contained 80 different ingredients. Physician’s responsibility was the prevention of disease and to maintain and promote good health. The belief was that the disease was an imbalance of the four humors. ‘Dry’ and ‘cold’ in the humoral schema, such foodstuffs could engender the type of humors suitable to corroding and overcoming the pestilential poison, itself ‘hot’ and ‘moist’. (Fabbri 250). Medicines in this time typically fell between three categories, purgatives, cordials, and antidotes. Puratives would cleanse the perfluous humors, Cordials strengthened the heart, brain, and liver, and antidotes neuralized poisons. Theriac was originally made for poisonous snake bites and was believed to be supremely effective against poison.
Opium was one of the most significant simple ingredients contained in Theriac. This medicine was actually formed from one of the best medications, mithridatium, which was derived from Mithridates, King of Pontus (120-63 BC), and later, Andromachus the Elder added viper flesh into the recipe which increased the proportion of opium (Fabbri 254). It had been noted that when theriac was fresh, it constipated the bowels, for it contained opium and other “constrictives”; this effect was thought to be due to insufficient aging (Fabbri 255). Although it was considered the best form of medicine at the time, it took 10 years to sit and reach its true form. The advent of the Black Death provided ample opportunity to make use of the expanded pharmacopoeias of Arabic tradition, which had replaced many of the early monastic recipe books (Fabbri 262). What Fabbri is referring to is that the black Death allowed for the older recipes for medicine to be changed to a newer Arabian tradition of medicine and newer recipes were available in texts.
Translations of Arabic pharmacopoeias, a book containing a list of medicinal drugs with directions on how to use them and their effects, were based on Greek, Persian, and Arabic terms (Fabbri 249). These were often but transliterations; this was more like a glossary or a lists of synonyms that were helpful, but without universal scientific criteria, linguistic, geographic, or functional confusion was easy. Moreover, their use of multiple types of preparations and routes of administration was further evidence of their pharmacologic expertise (Fabbri 269). Historians that went into pharmacology would try to avoid studying about medicaments during this time frame due to prejudices against ineffective therapies.
It was difficult for the people of Europe to believe in this medication since so many people were dying from it still. However, many still believed its effectiveness since it took away quite a few symptoms of the plague. The effect of theriac on reported plague symptoms is difficult to assess. Multiple ingredients, together with lack of standardization and disputes about proper constituents, as well as possible chemical interactions, make this a challenging, if not impossible, task (Fabbri 267). Even with some of the backlash on the medication, Theriac was still a main source of medicine, but it wasn’t the only form of treatment. There was philonium magnum, requies magna, and athanasia which were also treatments for the plague at the time (Fabbri 273). These were similar to Theriac in a way because they did the same purpose such as sedatives, used to prevents symptoms of the plague, and acted similar to muscle relaxers. This was also due to the amount of ways that Theriac was given. Theriac and theriac-like opiates were not only given in oral form as electuaries and syrups, but also in rectal, topical, transmucosal, and inhalable preparations (Fabbri 269). The difference between these and Theriac was that since Theriac’s main ingredient was opioids, it solved acute pains. Theriac was not only used in the 1300’s but was used up until late 1800s. The German pharmacopoeia still used Theriac until 1872 and 1884 edition of the Pharmacopee fran?§faise (Fabbri 280).
Now, although in this time historic medical practices were still an uproar, there was still some practices that had to be constricted such as bloodletting. Bloodletting was used to balance out the four humors when one was off. This procedure was used as a cultural practice but precludes the physiologic elements because it was considered a magical belief.
During this time period, physicians had an opportunity to succeed, gain credibility, and rein prestige over other physicians for immersing themselves into their profession and finding a cure to the devastating plague. However, they could to fail miserably and lose their credibility as an efficient medical practitioners, and ultimately lose their prestige throughout society. As a result to this competition against other physicians, they needed to act quickly, even if not directly with patients, in response to the plague, and had to do so in ways that preserve and secure their position in society.
Few physicians responded by writing ample number of plague tractates, where they detailed the causes of the Black Death, how it could be prevented, and even, cures or ways in which to assuage the effects of the plague.
Also, physicians wrote about the necessary preventative measures. Physicians warned the people to stay in the dry air with no corrupting vapors. These tractates also included on how to bathe and what your diet should be to prevent the plague.
It is represented in the kinds of writings that physicians wrote across Europe which attempted to explain the Black Death and provide the solutions to it. Early tractates were typically concerned about the plague’s causation and precautions against it. The cause and disease prevention were the main subjects of speculative medicine. As such, physicians educated in such departments gravitated toward the information and analyzed the teachings, and commented upon from earlier authorities who they studied from.
Work of Hippocrates and other accepted authorities did not provide the information for medieval physicians on how to fight against an epidemic as big as the Black Death had become. Their work did not prepare newer physicians for the task they had in front of them. Galen’s Theriac was the closest they had to a remedy however, it did not cure the plague. New remedies had to be developed quickly. The problem was that even though the most outstanding physicians and surgeons were still learning, these new remedies had be based in practical experiences with plague victims. The process of this having to learn new ways to combat this plague began in the early years of the Black Death and continued to evolve throughout the fifteenth century. Initially, the tractates seem to have been a way to assert dominance in physicians of learned medicine. The inability to adequately serve the European populations in time of plague caused a preference for physicians to write advocating practical measures for combating the plague instead of just explaining it.
Physicians had always had access to the observations of plague victims which means they had plenty of opportunity for discovering the best ways to care for the victims. However, it is evident that, despite the progress made, plague is still a deadly disease. While modern scientific knowledge has generally enhanced our understanding of the medical world of the past, in the case of the plague it has been a hindrance (Clouse). Thus, they continued interest in finding its treatment and sharing the findings through writing, which remained an important pursuit well after the Black Death itself.
It wasn’t until mid 1800’s, after the most recent breakout of the plague, for an actual cure for the Black Death was found in China. Researchers isolated that the Black death was actually a rod shaped bacillus that was responsible. It was found that Yersinia pestis was the cause of the plague and found that rats also showed plague symptoms that were similar to people, and those who were infected typically had flea bites. The big question is why did it take so long to find a cure? Overall, the first step was finding a cause of the cure before curing the plague. It took hundreds of years to find what caused the plague since nobody exactly knew how it was started. They found ways of dealing with the symptoms, but besides curing the symptoms, it was difficult to find the true cause. Once the cause of the Black Death is found, they next have to find a treatment that actually will work against that specific cause. Then, they have to test their cure in isolated areas to determine if it would actually work. Today, there would be an extra step and make sure the drug is safe to use through phases of drug testing. Back then there wasn’t processes such as this
To this day, the plague is still around but due to research based on past experiences we were able to safely prescribe a medication to patients. It wasn’t until mid 1800’s when the cure for the plague was found, in accordance, the law was passed for prescription drugs to become legal. The legalization of prescription drugs allows for people to quickly solve a medical problem that they have without intense medical treatment. Prescriptions come in multiple different forms. Modern medicine has, indeed, similarly perfected inhalable, oral, transdermal, and transmucosal sustained release preparations for a variety of drugs, including narcotic analgesics. This allows variability for patients and gives their input, as well as their doctors, to choose what is best for that person. Not only did the Black Death allow for medication advances but also hospitals.
The Black death revolutionized hospitals similar to how they are today. Hospitals use to be a place of hospitality rather than a place where you seek medical attention. When disease was based on the four humors, doctors would send them off with a way to cure it themselves. In a hospital, it is more relevant to be the one being helped rather than helping yourself.
The Black death helped the European people realize that the four humors were not the fault of cause of disease anymore. People started realizing that the four humors being out of balance was just too wild of a theory for the cause of the plague. With the amount of people that were being affected by this disease, it was later introduced that contagion was the real concern. Contagion introduced the concept of quarantine and the importance of it for the concern of the public health. Quarantine may sound like an intense punishment however, it was one of the most successful ways of controlling the spread of the plague. When scientists do not have an effective cure, isolating the disease for the safety of the public’s health is the best option. We find cases similar to this still in modern history. Ebola was a similar breakout and it shows us the fear that European people went through while facing the plague. The United States took actions of quarantine since we understood the concept of contagion. The Government’s best option was to quarantine the infected until a cure could be found.
In conclusion, the Black Death was an not only a devastating event in history but also one of the most beneficial. The impact on the medical field has developed the gifts we were given today through our health care system. While the Black Death was taking place, Galen’s medical knowledge led them into the right direction, but eventually allowed for us to learn from his knowledge. The results of the plague were devastating but was a push for the health system to find cures as well as advance its teachings and medical practices.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | <urn:uuid:ed620d7c-f7ba-475e-9f1a-44c44f931c73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydriver.com/the-black-death-and-its-effect-on-the-change-in-medicine/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.98388 | 3,199 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.2528355717658... | 1 | Historians have argued if the Black Death in the 13th century advanced science and medicine or if it was just a terrible plague that wiped out most of the European population. The Black Death did in fact bring many discoveries to most of Europe. The aftermath of the plague led to advancements of medications and swayed everyone from their hardcore beliefs.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Black Death and Its Effect on the Change in Medicine" essay for youCreate order
Medical practices went from being theoretical, based on their theories of the human body, to being more based on evidence which was gained through experience from prior patients. The questions I want to answer in this paper are: why did it took so long to find a cure for the plague? Was the disease difficult to understand in general? Lastly, did other theories hold up to Galen’s?
It all started in 1347, the time of the century where the people of Europe could not think it could be any worse. Slightly before this time, in 1316-1317, the people were already suffering from a famine due to volcanic eruptions which blocked out the sun. Later, came the cooling process as it rained too much for crops to grow. Families have doubled size roughly between 1000 and 1300’s and there simply was not enough food to feed the people of Europe. It wasn’t until 1347 when the Black Death, also known as the bubonic plague, was brought back by ship from Kaffa to the islands of Sicily.
Kaffa was a Genoese trading center along the Black Sea, but, in 1346, the Huns were trying to take over the trade routes. This however, had allowed the Huns to become the victim of the plague. This caused at least 5 million deaths in China which caused the Huns to dump the bodies into Kaffa. This lead them into thinking it would cause the end of the plague but, unfortunately, the infected fleas will jump to different host bodies after the death of their original host body. This plague was then also brought to other European countries and it spread north.
Everyone was equally harmed by this disease meaning, not only did this disease affect those who were poor, but also those who were rich. At this point, the people have been forgetting the proper burial and would be thrown into a mass grave. By 1350, with an exception to few, all of Europe’s trading routes were devastated by the disease (Sayre 443). Not only did the Black Death plague break out once, but also again in 1363, 1388-90, and 1400.
Keep in mind these people were already suffering from lack of a supplementary food supply and their bodies were already severely weakened. The European people and those around them had not experienced a pandemic to the level of the Black Death in a quincentenary, and the plague’s re-visitation in the 1400s was viewed as completely unparalleled. Therefore, the European people and those around them had no remembered period of time or an event to which they could turn to for guidance and stability. There was no past epidemic similar to the plague, meaning, they didn’t have any historical time period to look back to. I believe that epidemic disease and environmental crisis were the most important factors in shaping European history in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. I think that many, if not most, specialists agree with me (Gottfried). Not only was the plague one of the biggest periods in European history, but it would later spark a revolution in the medical field.
Galen’s theories were highly believed during this time, and he had created a medicine that could help with the plague. Theriac was one of the most popular plague medicines that he created. However, this medicine was not as easy as you would think to get. That medicine alone, simply contained 80 different ingredients. Physician’s responsibility was the prevention of disease and to maintain and promote good health. The belief was that the disease was an imbalance of the four humors. ‘Dry’ and ‘cold’ in the humoral schema, such foodstuffs could engender the type of humors suitable to corroding and overcoming the pestilential poison, itself ‘hot’ and ‘moist’. (Fabbri 250). Medicines in this time typically fell between three categories, purgatives, cordials, and antidotes. Puratives would cleanse the perfluous humors, Cordials strengthened the heart, brain, and liver, and antidotes neuralized poisons. Theriac was originally made for poisonous snake bites and was believed to be supremely effective against poison.
Opium was one of the most significant simple ingredients contained in Theriac. This medicine was actually formed from one of the best medications, mithridatium, which was derived from Mithridates, King of Pontus (120-63 BC), and later, Andromachus the Elder added viper flesh into the recipe which increased the proportion of opium (Fabbri 254). It had been noted that when theriac was fresh, it constipated the bowels, for it contained opium and other “constrictives”; this effect was thought to be due to insufficient aging (Fabbri 255). Although it was considered the best form of medicine at the time, it took 10 years to sit and reach its true form. The advent of the Black Death provided ample opportunity to make use of the expanded pharmacopoeias of Arabic tradition, which had replaced many of the early monastic recipe books (Fabbri 262). What Fabbri is referring to is that the black Death allowed for the older recipes for medicine to be changed to a newer Arabian tradition of medicine and newer recipes were available in texts.
Translations of Arabic pharmacopoeias, a book containing a list of medicinal drugs with directions on how to use them and their effects, were based on Greek, Persian, and Arabic terms (Fabbri 249). These were often but transliterations; this was more like a glossary or a lists of synonyms that were helpful, but without universal scientific criteria, linguistic, geographic, or functional confusion was easy. Moreover, their use of multiple types of preparations and routes of administration was further evidence of their pharmacologic expertise (Fabbri 269). Historians that went into pharmacology would try to avoid studying about medicaments during this time frame due to prejudices against ineffective therapies.
It was difficult for the people of Europe to believe in this medication since so many people were dying from it still. However, many still believed its effectiveness since it took away quite a few symptoms of the plague. The effect of theriac on reported plague symptoms is difficult to assess. Multiple ingredients, together with lack of standardization and disputes about proper constituents, as well as possible chemical interactions, make this a challenging, if not impossible, task (Fabbri 267). Even with some of the backlash on the medication, Theriac was still a main source of medicine, but it wasn’t the only form of treatment. There was philonium magnum, requies magna, and athanasia which were also treatments for the plague at the time (Fabbri 273). These were similar to Theriac in a way because they did the same purpose such as sedatives, used to prevents symptoms of the plague, and acted similar to muscle relaxers. This was also due to the amount of ways that Theriac was given. Theriac and theriac-like opiates were not only given in oral form as electuaries and syrups, but also in rectal, topical, transmucosal, and inhalable preparations (Fabbri 269). The difference between these and Theriac was that since Theriac’s main ingredient was opioids, it solved acute pains. Theriac was not only used in the 1300’s but was used up until late 1800s. The German pharmacopoeia still used Theriac until 1872 and 1884 edition of the Pharmacopee fran?§faise (Fabbri 280).
Now, although in this time historic medical practices were still an uproar, there was still some practices that had to be constricted such as bloodletting. Bloodletting was used to balance out the four humors when one was off. This procedure was used as a cultural practice but precludes the physiologic elements because it was considered a magical belief.
During this time period, physicians had an opportunity to succeed, gain credibility, and rein prestige over other physicians for immersing themselves into their profession and finding a cure to the devastating plague. However, they could to fail miserably and lose their credibility as an efficient medical practitioners, and ultimately lose their prestige throughout society. As a result to this competition against other physicians, they needed to act quickly, even if not directly with patients, in response to the plague, and had to do so in ways that preserve and secure their position in society.
Few physicians responded by writing ample number of plague tractates, where they detailed the causes of the Black Death, how it could be prevented, and even, cures or ways in which to assuage the effects of the plague.
Also, physicians wrote about the necessary preventative measures. Physicians warned the people to stay in the dry air with no corrupting vapors. These tractates also included on how to bathe and what your diet should be to prevent the plague.
It is represented in the kinds of writings that physicians wrote across Europe which attempted to explain the Black Death and provide the solutions to it. Early tractates were typically concerned about the plague’s causation and precautions against it. The cause and disease prevention were the main subjects of speculative medicine. As such, physicians educated in such departments gravitated toward the information and analyzed the teachings, and commented upon from earlier authorities who they studied from.
Work of Hippocrates and other accepted authorities did not provide the information for medieval physicians on how to fight against an epidemic as big as the Black Death had become. Their work did not prepare newer physicians for the task they had in front of them. Galen’s Theriac was the closest they had to a remedy however, it did not cure the plague. New remedies had to be developed quickly. The problem was that even though the most outstanding physicians and surgeons were still learning, these new remedies had be based in practical experiences with plague victims. The process of this having to learn new ways to combat this plague began in the early years of the Black Death and continued to evolve throughout the fifteenth century. Initially, the tractates seem to have been a way to assert dominance in physicians of learned medicine. The inability to adequately serve the European populations in time of plague caused a preference for physicians to write advocating practical measures for combating the plague instead of just explaining it.
Physicians had always had access to the observations of plague victims which means they had plenty of opportunity for discovering the best ways to care for the victims. However, it is evident that, despite the progress made, plague is still a deadly disease. While modern scientific knowledge has generally enhanced our understanding of the medical world of the past, in the case of the plague it has been a hindrance (Clouse). Thus, they continued interest in finding its treatment and sharing the findings through writing, which remained an important pursuit well after the Black Death itself.
It wasn’t until mid 1800’s, after the most recent breakout of the plague, for an actual cure for the Black Death was found in China. Researchers isolated that the Black death was actually a rod shaped bacillus that was responsible. It was found that Yersinia pestis was the cause of the plague and found that rats also showed plague symptoms that were similar to people, and those who were infected typically had flea bites. The big question is why did it take so long to find a cure? Overall, the first step was finding a cause of the cure before curing the plague. It took hundreds of years to find what caused the plague since nobody exactly knew how it was started. They found ways of dealing with the symptoms, but besides curing the symptoms, it was difficult to find the true cause. Once the cause of the Black Death is found, they next have to find a treatment that actually will work against that specific cause. Then, they have to test their cure in isolated areas to determine if it would actually work. Today, there would be an extra step and make sure the drug is safe to use through phases of drug testing. Back then there wasn’t processes such as this
To this day, the plague is still around but due to research based on past experiences we were able to safely prescribe a medication to patients. It wasn’t until mid 1800’s when the cure for the plague was found, in accordance, the law was passed for prescription drugs to become legal. The legalization of prescription drugs allows for people to quickly solve a medical problem that they have without intense medical treatment. Prescriptions come in multiple different forms. Modern medicine has, indeed, similarly perfected inhalable, oral, transdermal, and transmucosal sustained release preparations for a variety of drugs, including narcotic analgesics. This allows variability for patients and gives their input, as well as their doctors, to choose what is best for that person. Not only did the Black Death allow for medication advances but also hospitals.
The Black death revolutionized hospitals similar to how they are today. Hospitals use to be a place of hospitality rather than a place where you seek medical attention. When disease was based on the four humors, doctors would send them off with a way to cure it themselves. In a hospital, it is more relevant to be the one being helped rather than helping yourself.
The Black death helped the European people realize that the four humors were not the fault of cause of disease anymore. People started realizing that the four humors being out of balance was just too wild of a theory for the cause of the plague. With the amount of people that were being affected by this disease, it was later introduced that contagion was the real concern. Contagion introduced the concept of quarantine and the importance of it for the concern of the public health. Quarantine may sound like an intense punishment however, it was one of the most successful ways of controlling the spread of the plague. When scientists do not have an effective cure, isolating the disease for the safety of the public’s health is the best option. We find cases similar to this still in modern history. Ebola was a similar breakout and it shows us the fear that European people went through while facing the plague. The United States took actions of quarantine since we understood the concept of contagion. The Government’s best option was to quarantine the infected until a cure could be found.
In conclusion, the Black Death was an not only a devastating event in history but also one of the most beneficial. The impact on the medical field has developed the gifts we were given today through our health care system. While the Black Death was taking place, Galen’s medical knowledge led them into the right direction, but eventually allowed for us to learn from his knowledge. The results of the plague were devastating but was a push for the health system to find cures as well as advance its teachings and medical practices.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | 3,224 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kamiros was one of the three large Doric cities of the island, which united with Ialysos and Lindos in the 5th century B.C. to create the powerful city - state of Rhodes.
Although it was established by the Dorians, it seems like the first inhabitants of the area must have been Achaeans, as the ruins of an ancient Mycenaean necropolis close to the village of Kalovarda reveal. Kameiros was basically an agricultural society which produced oil, wine and figs. During the city's golden era of the 6th century, it was the first Rhodian city to cut its own coins.
Kameiros (Kamiros) has been often compared to Pompeii, something which is not correct since Kamiros did not fall into decline because of a natural disaster. Its decline, like the decline of Ialysos, was the result of the gradual abandonment by its residents, who decided to move to the city of Rhodes, which as mentioned above, was established in 408 B.C.
In 1929 archaeologists localized the ruins of the ancient city, and the excavations which brought it back to life continued till the end of World War II.
The motive to start the excavations was the accidental discovery of some ancient graves, as well as the name of the area, which was Kameiros (Kamiros), and which had been reforested by the time. The findings which had been revealed by the excavations, which are very rich and important, have been taken to the British Museum and the Louvre. We hope that some day these archaeological treasures will be given back in order to be exposed to the public by the archaeological museum of Rhodes.
The sanctuary of Athena
The sanctuary of Athena existed on the acropolis of Kamiros (Kameiros) from the ninth century BC. All that has survived of the earliest phase are the deposits, in which the numerous votive offerings were deposited, probably during a rebuilding phase during the sixth century BC. It was perhaps at this time that the first temple of Athena was built. The deposits consisted of a rectangular pit of great depth, as well as small cavities in the rock in the where the Hellenistic temple was later built.
Large-scale building works were carried out in the sanctuary during Hellenistic times, perhaps after the earthquake of 227 BC. Its architectural planning was based on the terraced arrangement which was popular in the Hellenistic period and is also encountered in the sanctuary of Lindos.
On the lowest terrace at the end of the main street, stood a small altar, from which ramps led to the ends of the second trace, where a stoa in the Doric order with a wide esplanade front of it was located. The stoa was 204 m. long and was one of the largest in the ancient world.
At its rear a row of rooms served the needs of the sanctuary. In the middle of the stoa the rooms were interrupted by a staircase leading up to the highest terrace, on which stood the temple of Athena in the inner sacred precinct or temenos. | <urn:uuid:a09a9662-ca2f-4899-85ae-b6f27b7afe97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rhodesguide.com/travelguide/rhodes_monuments.php?ssp=9 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.988732 | 647 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.4808810055... | 13 | Kamiros was one of the three large Doric cities of the island, which united with Ialysos and Lindos in the 5th century B.C. to create the powerful city - state of Rhodes.
Although it was established by the Dorians, it seems like the first inhabitants of the area must have been Achaeans, as the ruins of an ancient Mycenaean necropolis close to the village of Kalovarda reveal. Kameiros was basically an agricultural society which produced oil, wine and figs. During the city's golden era of the 6th century, it was the first Rhodian city to cut its own coins.
Kameiros (Kamiros) has been often compared to Pompeii, something which is not correct since Kamiros did not fall into decline because of a natural disaster. Its decline, like the decline of Ialysos, was the result of the gradual abandonment by its residents, who decided to move to the city of Rhodes, which as mentioned above, was established in 408 B.C.
In 1929 archaeologists localized the ruins of the ancient city, and the excavations which brought it back to life continued till the end of World War II.
The motive to start the excavations was the accidental discovery of some ancient graves, as well as the name of the area, which was Kameiros (Kamiros), and which had been reforested by the time. The findings which had been revealed by the excavations, which are very rich and important, have been taken to the British Museum and the Louvre. We hope that some day these archaeological treasures will be given back in order to be exposed to the public by the archaeological museum of Rhodes.
The sanctuary of Athena
The sanctuary of Athena existed on the acropolis of Kamiros (Kameiros) from the ninth century BC. All that has survived of the earliest phase are the deposits, in which the numerous votive offerings were deposited, probably during a rebuilding phase during the sixth century BC. It was perhaps at this time that the first temple of Athena was built. The deposits consisted of a rectangular pit of great depth, as well as small cavities in the rock in the where the Hellenistic temple was later built.
Large-scale building works were carried out in the sanctuary during Hellenistic times, perhaps after the earthquake of 227 BC. Its architectural planning was based on the terraced arrangement which was popular in the Hellenistic period and is also encountered in the sanctuary of Lindos.
On the lowest terrace at the end of the main street, stood a small altar, from which ramps led to the ends of the second trace, where a stoa in the Doric order with a wide esplanade front of it was located. The stoa was 204 m. long and was one of the largest in the ancient world.
At its rear a row of rooms served the needs of the sanctuary. In the middle of the stoa the rooms were interrupted by a staircase leading up to the highest terrace, on which stood the temple of Athena in the inner sacred precinct or temenos. | 644 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Beethoven was, as we now know, going deaf. Already quite famous as a pianist and composer, he had for several years experienced buzzing and ringing in his ears; by 1800, his hearing was in full decline. The problem thereafter worsened by the year, and it became clear to him and those around him that there was no hope of remission. But what happened as a result changed the world of music, and holds a lesson for us more than two centuries later.
For a long time, Beethoven raged against his decline, insisting on performing, with worse and worse results. To be able to hear his own playing, he banged on pianos so forcefully that he often left them wrecked. “In forte passages the poor deaf man pounded on the keys until the strings jangled,” wrote his friend and fellow composer Ludwig Spohr. “I was deeply saddened at so hard a fate.”
Beethoven confided in friends that without sound, his life would be meaningless. One close to him wrote of his laments: “It is a cry of revolt and of heart-rending pain — one cannot hear it but be shaken with pity. He is ready to end his life; only moral rectitude keeps him back.”
He finally gave up performing as his deafness progressed but found ways to keep composing. His housekeepers noticed that he would try to feel the timbre of notes on the piano by putting a pencil in his mouth and touching it to the soundboard while he played. When his hearing was partial, he apparently avoided using notes with the frequencies he could not hear. A 2011 analysis in the British Medical Journal shows that high notes (above 1568 Hz) made up 80 percent of his string quartets written in his 20s but dropped to less than 20 percent in his 40s.
In the last decade of Beethoven’s life (he died at 56), his deafness was complete, so music could reside only in his imagination. That meant the end of his compositional career, right? Wrong, of course. During that period, Beethoven wrote the music that would define his unique style, change music permanently and give him a legacy as one of the greatest composers of all time.
Entirely deaf, Beethoven wrote his best string quartets (with more high notes than in works from the previous decade), his magisterial “Missa Solemnis” and his greatest triumph of all, the Ninth Symphony. He insisted on conducting the latter piece’s premier (although legend has it there was a second conductor in the wings whom the orchestra was actually following). After the performance, unaware of the thunderous ovation, Beethoven was physically turned by one of the musicians to see the jubilant audience members on their feet after hearing what has come to be regarded by many as the greatest orchestral piece ever written.
It seems a mystery that Beethoven became more original and brilliant as a composer in inverse proportion to his ability to hear his own — and others’ — music. But maybe it isn’t so surprising. As his hearing deteriorated, he was less influenced by the prevailing compositional fashions, and more by the musical structures forming inside his own head. His early work is pleasantly reminiscent of his early instructor, the hugely popular Josef Haydn. Beethoven’s later work became so original that he was, and is, regarded as the father of music’s romantic period. “He opened up a new world in music,” said French romantic master Hector Berlioz. “Beethoven is not human.”
Deafness freed Beethoven as a composer because he no longer had society’s soundtrack in his ears. Perhaps therein lies a lesson for each of us. I know, I know: You’re no Beethoven. But as you read the lines above, maybe you could relate to the great composer’s loss in some small way. Have you lost something that defined your identity? Maybe it involves your looks. Or your social prestige. Or your professional relevance.
How might this loss set you free? You might finally define yourself in new ways, free from the boundaries you set for yourself based on the expectations of others. For example, as you age, what if you lean in to the “declines’’ — really just natural changes — and use your wisdom more than your beauty and wits? What if you turn your energy from impressing strangers to being completely present with the people you love?
It would be naive to think that Beethoven fully appreciated the artistic freedom his deafness granted him. I can imagine Beethoven went to his grave regretting his loss of hearing, because it cost him his beloved career as a fine pianist. He did not know the extent to which his radical new compositional style — heard only by others — would define him as truly great for hundreds of years after his death. Maybe he had a clue, however. It is significant that his Ninth Symphony closes triumphantly with lines from Friedrich Schiller’s poem “Ode to Joy”: “Joy! A spark of fire from heaven, / Daughter from Elysium, / Drunk with fire we dare to enter, / Holy One, inside your shrine. / Your magic power binds together, / What we by custom wrench apart, / All men will emerge as brothers, / Where you rest your gentle wings.”
This holiday season, perhaps we can all learn a lesson from the life of the great Beethoven. Take time to listen to the Ninth and give deep thought to the changes in your own life. You might not revolutionize music, but maybe you will discover joy in the freedom that can come from losing something, but allowing yourself to grow.
Read more from Arthur C. Brooks's archive. | <urn:uuid:7d664baf-dec8-4c73-aa0a-a4043c590c06> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/this-holiday-season-we-can-all-learn-a-lesson-from-beethoven/2019/12/13/71f21aba-1d0e-11ea-b4c1-fd0d91b60d9e_story.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.98825 | 1,225 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.098677754... | 1 | Beethoven was, as we now know, going deaf. Already quite famous as a pianist and composer, he had for several years experienced buzzing and ringing in his ears; by 1800, his hearing was in full decline. The problem thereafter worsened by the year, and it became clear to him and those around him that there was no hope of remission. But what happened as a result changed the world of music, and holds a lesson for us more than two centuries later.
For a long time, Beethoven raged against his decline, insisting on performing, with worse and worse results. To be able to hear his own playing, he banged on pianos so forcefully that he often left them wrecked. “In forte passages the poor deaf man pounded on the keys until the strings jangled,” wrote his friend and fellow composer Ludwig Spohr. “I was deeply saddened at so hard a fate.”
Beethoven confided in friends that without sound, his life would be meaningless. One close to him wrote of his laments: “It is a cry of revolt and of heart-rending pain — one cannot hear it but be shaken with pity. He is ready to end his life; only moral rectitude keeps him back.”
He finally gave up performing as his deafness progressed but found ways to keep composing. His housekeepers noticed that he would try to feel the timbre of notes on the piano by putting a pencil in his mouth and touching it to the soundboard while he played. When his hearing was partial, he apparently avoided using notes with the frequencies he could not hear. A 2011 analysis in the British Medical Journal shows that high notes (above 1568 Hz) made up 80 percent of his string quartets written in his 20s but dropped to less than 20 percent in his 40s.
In the last decade of Beethoven’s life (he died at 56), his deafness was complete, so music could reside only in his imagination. That meant the end of his compositional career, right? Wrong, of course. During that period, Beethoven wrote the music that would define his unique style, change music permanently and give him a legacy as one of the greatest composers of all time.
Entirely deaf, Beethoven wrote his best string quartets (with more high notes than in works from the previous decade), his magisterial “Missa Solemnis” and his greatest triumph of all, the Ninth Symphony. He insisted on conducting the latter piece’s premier (although legend has it there was a second conductor in the wings whom the orchestra was actually following). After the performance, unaware of the thunderous ovation, Beethoven was physically turned by one of the musicians to see the jubilant audience members on their feet after hearing what has come to be regarded by many as the greatest orchestral piece ever written.
It seems a mystery that Beethoven became more original and brilliant as a composer in inverse proportion to his ability to hear his own — and others’ — music. But maybe it isn’t so surprising. As his hearing deteriorated, he was less influenced by the prevailing compositional fashions, and more by the musical structures forming inside his own head. His early work is pleasantly reminiscent of his early instructor, the hugely popular Josef Haydn. Beethoven’s later work became so original that he was, and is, regarded as the father of music’s romantic period. “He opened up a new world in music,” said French romantic master Hector Berlioz. “Beethoven is not human.”
Deafness freed Beethoven as a composer because he no longer had society’s soundtrack in his ears. Perhaps therein lies a lesson for each of us. I know, I know: You’re no Beethoven. But as you read the lines above, maybe you could relate to the great composer’s loss in some small way. Have you lost something that defined your identity? Maybe it involves your looks. Or your social prestige. Or your professional relevance.
How might this loss set you free? You might finally define yourself in new ways, free from the boundaries you set for yourself based on the expectations of others. For example, as you age, what if you lean in to the “declines’’ — really just natural changes — and use your wisdom more than your beauty and wits? What if you turn your energy from impressing strangers to being completely present with the people you love?
It would be naive to think that Beethoven fully appreciated the artistic freedom his deafness granted him. I can imagine Beethoven went to his grave regretting his loss of hearing, because it cost him his beloved career as a fine pianist. He did not know the extent to which his radical new compositional style — heard only by others — would define him as truly great for hundreds of years after his death. Maybe he had a clue, however. It is significant that his Ninth Symphony closes triumphantly with lines from Friedrich Schiller’s poem “Ode to Joy”: “Joy! A spark of fire from heaven, / Daughter from Elysium, / Drunk with fire we dare to enter, / Holy One, inside your shrine. / Your magic power binds together, / What we by custom wrench apart, / All men will emerge as brothers, / Where you rest your gentle wings.”
This holiday season, perhaps we can all learn a lesson from the life of the great Beethoven. Take time to listen to the Ninth and give deep thought to the changes in your own life. You might not revolutionize music, but maybe you will discover joy in the freedom that can come from losing something, but allowing yourself to grow.
Read more from Arthur C. Brooks's archive. | 1,177 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Luigi de la Penne, Antonio Marceglia and Vincenzo Martellotta were the pilots of the two-men torpedo ‘chariots’—or, pigs, as they were called. They slipped through the anti-submarine net defences when they were opened to allow a British destroyer flotilla to enter the harbour.
De la Penne placed his warhead beneath HMS Valiant but a mishap caused him and his diver to be captured. They were brought on board the Valiant. They refused to disclose the purpose of their mission and the charge went off while they were still aboard.
A similar explosion rocked the Queen Elizabeth, caused by the charge that Marceglia had laid. (Martellotta was similarly successful against his target: the tanker Sagona).The two British battleships sunk in shallow water and, like some of the US battleships in Pearl Harbour, could eventually be refloated. The process would take months.
In the meantime, Sir Andrew Cunningham had only cruisers and destroyers to oppose an Italian fleet which included four battleships. | <urn:uuid:683cd0f5-222d-40dc-9158-4fc2ad0e6d4b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://secondbysecondworldwar.com/?p=4858 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00348.warc.gz | en | 0.987927 | 225 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.476718... | 2 | Luigi de la Penne, Antonio Marceglia and Vincenzo Martellotta were the pilots of the two-men torpedo ‘chariots’—or, pigs, as they were called. They slipped through the anti-submarine net defences when they were opened to allow a British destroyer flotilla to enter the harbour.
De la Penne placed his warhead beneath HMS Valiant but a mishap caused him and his diver to be captured. They were brought on board the Valiant. They refused to disclose the purpose of their mission and the charge went off while they were still aboard.
A similar explosion rocked the Queen Elizabeth, caused by the charge that Marceglia had laid. (Martellotta was similarly successful against his target: the tanker Sagona).The two British battleships sunk in shallow water and, like some of the US battleships in Pearl Harbour, could eventually be refloated. The process would take months.
In the meantime, Sir Andrew Cunningham had only cruisers and destroyers to oppose an Italian fleet which included four battleships. | 221 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Of all the factors that have led to the atrocious racial situation in the U.S. today, none is more important than the guilt complex built up in the minds of White Americans over Negro slavery. This came about because of the currently popular notion that the Black slave trade can be blamed entirely on “Whitey” and that to “make it up” to the Negro we should clutch him to our bosom and integrate him completely into our society.
At the outset it should be pointed out that before the Industrial Revolution began, around 1775, slavery was widely practiced in numerous areas of the world. Until the advent of the machine, there were only two kinds of useful power – man power and animal power. Sometimes the man power was furnished by free men and sometimes by slaves, and nowhere was slavery more prevalent than in the Negro homeland – Africa.
It is maintained by some that the Machine Age actually did away with slavery, and not any “pangs of conscience” on the part of mankind, and they may very well be right. But it is a paradox that in one case, at least, a machine helped promote slavery, rather than retard it. This was the cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793. Up until that time it took one man ten hours to extract one pound of lint from three pounds of seeds. Cotton growing had been in a slump but the new invention made it much more profitable, and resulted in a fantastic boom in the raising of the crop, and thus created the need for more slaves.
The trade in Negro slaves began in 1441 and lasted over 400 years. The first slaves to reach British America arrived in 1620, when a dutch ship sold part of its cargo to the tobacco growers in Jamestown, Virginia. It was common for the slaves to be first procured in the interior of Africa by native chieftains, traded to Arab slavers and then taken to the coast where they were exchanged again for Western commodities. The native chieftains would engage in forays, sometimes even among their own subjects, a favorite method of capture being to set fire to a village by night and seizing the fleeing inhabitants when they tried to escape.
Regarding the treatment of Black slaves once they reached the United States, abolitionists like Thaddeus Stevens, William Lloyd Garrison, and Jonathan Walker spread horror stories about it, but the truth is that the slaves were valuable property, costing from around $500 to $2,000 each, and it did not pay to abuse them. If a farmer’s bull tears up a fence, he does not kill it, nor does a horse breeder, recovering one of his horses that ran away, whip the animal to death because it tried to escape. Punishments for disobedience, and a few deaths, did occasionally occur, but they were the exception rather than the rule. As for food, a study in 1879 showed that slaves had a “quite substantial diet” which exceeded that of free men by over 10%. The food was simple but wholesome, and the slave quarters were much like the cabins of pioneer Whites. They had good medical attention and were forced to keep regular habits, with the result that the health of the Negroes under slavery was better than it was after emancipation, and their mortality rate, up until the Civil War, was less than that of the White population of the South. Slaves were often rewarded for extra production with cash, goods or unscheduled holidays, and those with good records given bonuses and promotions.
The Black slaves of White Southerners fared much better than did those taken to South America by the Spanish and Portuguese. Most American slaves were not opposed to slavery, and even aided and abetted it. In their own homeland in Africa they had often been slaves, or had a status not much better than that of a slave. On Southern plantations the more able among them ran the field operations by serving as foremen or overseers, while 7% were used as domestic servants and 12% trained to be semi-skilled craftsmen.
The rate of increase of American slaves proves that they were well treated, in general, rather than mistreated. Some 330,000 were brought here originally, and they had increased to over a million by 1880. By the close of the Civil War, Negroes in the U.S. numbered about 4½ million, and most of this was due to natural increase, rather than by new blood being brought in. Great Britain abolished the slave trade in 1808, and we did so immediately afterward. Other nations began to jump on the bandwagon, so that the traffic in slaves by overseas routes was vastly reduced in the next two decades, and ceased to exist, at least as far as Europe and America were concerned, with the signing of the Ashburton Treaty in 1842. So, when we consider that Blacks in America more than quadrupled in 65 years, we have to come to the conclusion that they were well cared for in the South. In fact, their reproduction during this period was so great that it hardly has any counterpart in history!
In his native land, on the other hand, the African often had it much tougher, and the death rate from malnutrition and disease was far higher. He was also more or less in danger of being a victim of some of the atrocious mass murders committed by his own chiefs, which were well recorded by White settlers and missionaries in Africa. Sometimes these were performed as sacrifices to a tribal god or at the death of a tribal leader; at other times they were done simply as entertainment for the local chieftain and henchmen. These fiendish practices were sometimes used by the early White slavers as justification for their trade, as they felt they were saving the natives from brutal and early deaths. At any rate, the slaves in America led safer lives than did their brethren back in the Dark Continent, and also enjoyed more comforts, bad as their lot may sometimes have been. In fact, they enjoyed higher standards of living than do many Blacks in Africa today.
Most Southerners did not own slaves, and of those who did, 20% had only one slave and 44% owned three or less. Just before the Civil War, there were 2,292 owners with 100 slaves or more, and 88 who owned 300 or more. Only one family owned more than 1,000 slaves in 1860.
Slaves fared best of all on the small plantations. Here the owners had personal contact with them, and treated them about as well as some employers treat their workers today. Smaller slave owners seldom broke up a family, because it was not good economics in their cases. The hotter regions of the deep South had the largest plantations. These were agribusiness types of operations with huge plantings of cotton, sugar cane, etc. The owners here had little personal contact with their slaves and were thus not as much concerned about their treatment. The work was harder and more regimented, and often a hardnosed Black foreman was in charge. If a slave proved himself to be too lazy or uncooperative to do ordinary work around a farm or small plantation, he was sometimes put on the auction block and sold to one of the larger plantations. Blacks with much intelligence or ability were considered too valuable to do the routine work in the huge cotton and cane fields.
It was these large agribusiness types of operations that produced the most runaway slaves. But the owners themselves usually did not have the time or inclination to look for them, so professional slave catchers came into being, operating somewhat along the lines of the bounty hunters of the Old West; except, of course, that they did not kill the slaves they captured.
It is popular today for fiction writers to depict the Southern plantations as hotbeds of miscegenation, with the owner’s fair-haired daughter lusting over the Black field hand, or his dissolute son crawling in bed with a Black house servant. In truth, such things were not common, and the average Southerner was no more immoral than his Yankee cousin up North. Most slave owners were men of family, and too proud to stoop to race-mixing. Their sons and daughters were also not inclined to disgrace their families by breeding with Negroes. The plantations didn’t produce hordes of mulattoes; they were the product of cities and towns. Here the free Negroes congregated. Washington, D.C. in 1850 had 42.18 mulattoes to every 100 Blacks. By 1860 the following cities showed these percentages of mulattoes to the total number of Negroes :
48.9% in New Orleans; 11% in the rest of Louisiana;
18.1% in Savannah; 8.2% in the rest of Georgia;
25.2% in Charleston; 5.5% in the rest of So. Carolina.
On the farms and plantations, Negroes were valued for the work they could produce and not because of sexual attraction. If a White man had bought a woman slave for the purpose of concubinage, he would have been socially ostracized.
It should be realized that most Negro slaves in America had no feeling against slavery, and that there were Black slave owners in the South who were just as pro-slavery as any White slave owner. And while the White nations had given up slavery long before the 19th century was out, it was widely practiced in various Negro societies in Africa well up into modern times, and there are still occasional reports of it being practiced there even now.
There is no reason for any White man or woman today to feel guilty about slavery, and as for the descendants of these slaves who now reside here, if they fell wronged, would they want us to right this wrong by sending them back to their ancestral homeland? How many Blacks in America would trade places with the average modern Black in Africa?
While it is true that a small percentage of Whites in America did benefit economically from Negro slavery, this has been overwhelmingly offset by all the negative effects that have come down upon us. We now have on our hands a race problem of staggering proportions. Steadily the negroid gene-pool grows, like a spreading cancer. It is a problem that our White politicians should face, but they dare not face it.
SOURCE: The Liberty Bell, November 1984 | <urn:uuid:82496a59-32fa-4588-8924-b467174caaa0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://racialrealism.wordpress.com/2018/03/29/notes-on-negro-slavery/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.988616 | 2,125 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.18624225258827... | 3 | Of all the factors that have led to the atrocious racial situation in the U.S. today, none is more important than the guilt complex built up in the minds of White Americans over Negro slavery. This came about because of the currently popular notion that the Black slave trade can be blamed entirely on “Whitey” and that to “make it up” to the Negro we should clutch him to our bosom and integrate him completely into our society.
At the outset it should be pointed out that before the Industrial Revolution began, around 1775, slavery was widely practiced in numerous areas of the world. Until the advent of the machine, there were only two kinds of useful power – man power and animal power. Sometimes the man power was furnished by free men and sometimes by slaves, and nowhere was slavery more prevalent than in the Negro homeland – Africa.
It is maintained by some that the Machine Age actually did away with slavery, and not any “pangs of conscience” on the part of mankind, and they may very well be right. But it is a paradox that in one case, at least, a machine helped promote slavery, rather than retard it. This was the cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793. Up until that time it took one man ten hours to extract one pound of lint from three pounds of seeds. Cotton growing had been in a slump but the new invention made it much more profitable, and resulted in a fantastic boom in the raising of the crop, and thus created the need for more slaves.
The trade in Negro slaves began in 1441 and lasted over 400 years. The first slaves to reach British America arrived in 1620, when a dutch ship sold part of its cargo to the tobacco growers in Jamestown, Virginia. It was common for the slaves to be first procured in the interior of Africa by native chieftains, traded to Arab slavers and then taken to the coast where they were exchanged again for Western commodities. The native chieftains would engage in forays, sometimes even among their own subjects, a favorite method of capture being to set fire to a village by night and seizing the fleeing inhabitants when they tried to escape.
Regarding the treatment of Black slaves once they reached the United States, abolitionists like Thaddeus Stevens, William Lloyd Garrison, and Jonathan Walker spread horror stories about it, but the truth is that the slaves were valuable property, costing from around $500 to $2,000 each, and it did not pay to abuse them. If a farmer’s bull tears up a fence, he does not kill it, nor does a horse breeder, recovering one of his horses that ran away, whip the animal to death because it tried to escape. Punishments for disobedience, and a few deaths, did occasionally occur, but they were the exception rather than the rule. As for food, a study in 1879 showed that slaves had a “quite substantial diet” which exceeded that of free men by over 10%. The food was simple but wholesome, and the slave quarters were much like the cabins of pioneer Whites. They had good medical attention and were forced to keep regular habits, with the result that the health of the Negroes under slavery was better than it was after emancipation, and their mortality rate, up until the Civil War, was less than that of the White population of the South. Slaves were often rewarded for extra production with cash, goods or unscheduled holidays, and those with good records given bonuses and promotions.
The Black slaves of White Southerners fared much better than did those taken to South America by the Spanish and Portuguese. Most American slaves were not opposed to slavery, and even aided and abetted it. In their own homeland in Africa they had often been slaves, or had a status not much better than that of a slave. On Southern plantations the more able among them ran the field operations by serving as foremen or overseers, while 7% were used as domestic servants and 12% trained to be semi-skilled craftsmen.
The rate of increase of American slaves proves that they were well treated, in general, rather than mistreated. Some 330,000 were brought here originally, and they had increased to over a million by 1880. By the close of the Civil War, Negroes in the U.S. numbered about 4½ million, and most of this was due to natural increase, rather than by new blood being brought in. Great Britain abolished the slave trade in 1808, and we did so immediately afterward. Other nations began to jump on the bandwagon, so that the traffic in slaves by overseas routes was vastly reduced in the next two decades, and ceased to exist, at least as far as Europe and America were concerned, with the signing of the Ashburton Treaty in 1842. So, when we consider that Blacks in America more than quadrupled in 65 years, we have to come to the conclusion that they were well cared for in the South. In fact, their reproduction during this period was so great that it hardly has any counterpart in history!
In his native land, on the other hand, the African often had it much tougher, and the death rate from malnutrition and disease was far higher. He was also more or less in danger of being a victim of some of the atrocious mass murders committed by his own chiefs, which were well recorded by White settlers and missionaries in Africa. Sometimes these were performed as sacrifices to a tribal god or at the death of a tribal leader; at other times they were done simply as entertainment for the local chieftain and henchmen. These fiendish practices were sometimes used by the early White slavers as justification for their trade, as they felt they were saving the natives from brutal and early deaths. At any rate, the slaves in America led safer lives than did their brethren back in the Dark Continent, and also enjoyed more comforts, bad as their lot may sometimes have been. In fact, they enjoyed higher standards of living than do many Blacks in Africa today.
Most Southerners did not own slaves, and of those who did, 20% had only one slave and 44% owned three or less. Just before the Civil War, there were 2,292 owners with 100 slaves or more, and 88 who owned 300 or more. Only one family owned more than 1,000 slaves in 1860.
Slaves fared best of all on the small plantations. Here the owners had personal contact with them, and treated them about as well as some employers treat their workers today. Smaller slave owners seldom broke up a family, because it was not good economics in their cases. The hotter regions of the deep South had the largest plantations. These were agribusiness types of operations with huge plantings of cotton, sugar cane, etc. The owners here had little personal contact with their slaves and were thus not as much concerned about their treatment. The work was harder and more regimented, and often a hardnosed Black foreman was in charge. If a slave proved himself to be too lazy or uncooperative to do ordinary work around a farm or small plantation, he was sometimes put on the auction block and sold to one of the larger plantations. Blacks with much intelligence or ability were considered too valuable to do the routine work in the huge cotton and cane fields.
It was these large agribusiness types of operations that produced the most runaway slaves. But the owners themselves usually did not have the time or inclination to look for them, so professional slave catchers came into being, operating somewhat along the lines of the bounty hunters of the Old West; except, of course, that they did not kill the slaves they captured.
It is popular today for fiction writers to depict the Southern plantations as hotbeds of miscegenation, with the owner’s fair-haired daughter lusting over the Black field hand, or his dissolute son crawling in bed with a Black house servant. In truth, such things were not common, and the average Southerner was no more immoral than his Yankee cousin up North. Most slave owners were men of family, and too proud to stoop to race-mixing. Their sons and daughters were also not inclined to disgrace their families by breeding with Negroes. The plantations didn’t produce hordes of mulattoes; they were the product of cities and towns. Here the free Negroes congregated. Washington, D.C. in 1850 had 42.18 mulattoes to every 100 Blacks. By 1860 the following cities showed these percentages of mulattoes to the total number of Negroes :
48.9% in New Orleans; 11% in the rest of Louisiana;
18.1% in Savannah; 8.2% in the rest of Georgia;
25.2% in Charleston; 5.5% in the rest of So. Carolina.
On the farms and plantations, Negroes were valued for the work they could produce and not because of sexual attraction. If a White man had bought a woman slave for the purpose of concubinage, he would have been socially ostracized.
It should be realized that most Negro slaves in America had no feeling against slavery, and that there were Black slave owners in the South who were just as pro-slavery as any White slave owner. And while the White nations had given up slavery long before the 19th century was out, it was widely practiced in various Negro societies in Africa well up into modern times, and there are still occasional reports of it being practiced there even now.
There is no reason for any White man or woman today to feel guilty about slavery, and as for the descendants of these slaves who now reside here, if they fell wronged, would they want us to right this wrong by sending them back to their ancestral homeland? How many Blacks in America would trade places with the average modern Black in Africa?
While it is true that a small percentage of Whites in America did benefit economically from Negro slavery, this has been overwhelmingly offset by all the negative effects that have come down upon us. We now have on our hands a race problem of staggering proportions. Steadily the negroid gene-pool grows, like a spreading cancer. It is a problem that our White politicians should face, but they dare not face it.
SOURCE: The Liberty Bell, November 1984 | 2,192 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Great things are done by a series of small things brought together.”
Vincent van Gogh's Biography
Vincent van Gogh was a 19th-century Dutch painter and one of the most influential figures in the history of modern Western art. Known for legendary paintings like The Starry Night, Sunflowers, and even his own self-portrait, his post-impressionist style was defined by vibrant colors and expressive brushstrokes that make his paintings extraordinarily vivid.
Van Gogh was plagued by mental illness throughout his life, experiencing psychotic and depressive episodes throughout adulthood, and in one of the crueler twists in art history he was considered a failure during his lifetime. It wasn’t until after his suicide in 1890 that his paintings became popular, and he is now considered by many to be one of the greatest painters of all time.
Vincent van Gogh was a heavy drinker (in fact, he was unhealthy in just about every way it’s possible to be), and like many of the bohemians of his day, absinthe was his drink of choice. He was known to slug it down in prodigious amounts, and it featured in a number of his paintings, such as Still Life with Glass of Absinthe and a Carafe (1887). | <urn:uuid:5f8225dd-4a5f-4f14-bc70-50ba51e6d9ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://famousdrinkers.com/person/vincent-van-gogh/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00122.warc.gz | en | 0.993464 | 271 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2968525588512... | 4 | “Great things are done by a series of small things brought together.”
Vincent van Gogh's Biography
Vincent van Gogh was a 19th-century Dutch painter and one of the most influential figures in the history of modern Western art. Known for legendary paintings like The Starry Night, Sunflowers, and even his own self-portrait, his post-impressionist style was defined by vibrant colors and expressive brushstrokes that make his paintings extraordinarily vivid.
Van Gogh was plagued by mental illness throughout his life, experiencing psychotic and depressive episodes throughout adulthood, and in one of the crueler twists in art history he was considered a failure during his lifetime. It wasn’t until after his suicide in 1890 that his paintings became popular, and he is now considered by many to be one of the greatest painters of all time.
Vincent van Gogh was a heavy drinker (in fact, he was unhealthy in just about every way it’s possible to be), and like many of the bohemians of his day, absinthe was his drink of choice. He was known to slug it down in prodigious amounts, and it featured in a number of his paintings, such as Still Life with Glass of Absinthe and a Carafe (1887). | 263 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why should you read Dante’s “Divine Comedy”? - Sheila Marie Orfano
- 288,878 Views
- 1,107 Questions Answered
- TEDEd Animation
Dante Alighieri was a famed Italian poet, writer, political thinker, and scholar of philosophy and theology in the Late Middle Ages. Born in Florence in 1265, he was heavily involved in Florentine politics and outspokenly critical of practices he deemed corrupt within the Catholic Church. This is apparent in his most celebrated work, a three-part epic poem called the Divine Comedy.
In addition to the Divine Comedy and other poetry, Dante wrote treatises on politics, such as De Monarchia, and philosophical compositions, like Convivio. He is also well-known for his unrequited love of Beatrice Portinari, which inspired many of his poems. Arguably, the most notable feature of his work was his novel use of the vernacular, instead of Latin, in his writing. For this, he is considered to be the father of Italian language.
In 1302, Dante was exiled from Florence by an opposing political party. He never set foot in his beloved city again, dying in Ravenna, Italy, in 1321. His legacy lives on in classic and contemporary art and culture.
Create and share a new lesson based on this one. | <urn:uuid:2feebee4-a314-4d3c-be70-39f59646a33b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ed.ted.com/lessons/why-should-you-read-dante-s-divine-comedy-sheila-marie-orfano | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.983992 | 284 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.349104... | 1 | Why should you read Dante’s “Divine Comedy”? - Sheila Marie Orfano
- 288,878 Views
- 1,107 Questions Answered
- TEDEd Animation
Dante Alighieri was a famed Italian poet, writer, political thinker, and scholar of philosophy and theology in the Late Middle Ages. Born in Florence in 1265, he was heavily involved in Florentine politics and outspokenly critical of practices he deemed corrupt within the Catholic Church. This is apparent in his most celebrated work, a three-part epic poem called the Divine Comedy.
In addition to the Divine Comedy and other poetry, Dante wrote treatises on politics, such as De Monarchia, and philosophical compositions, like Convivio. He is also well-known for his unrequited love of Beatrice Portinari, which inspired many of his poems. Arguably, the most notable feature of his work was his novel use of the vernacular, instead of Latin, in his writing. For this, he is considered to be the father of Italian language.
In 1302, Dante was exiled from Florence by an opposing political party. He never set foot in his beloved city again, dying in Ravenna, Italy, in 1321. His legacy lives on in classic and contemporary art and culture.
Create and share a new lesson based on this one. | 291 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Topic 8 Lesson 3
Reconstruction – The action or process of being
built up or formed again.
Radical Republicans – A faction of American
politicians who were within the Republican Party of the US around 1854
Wade Davis Bill of 1864 – A bill proposed for
the Reconstruction of the South written by two Radical Republican, Henry Winter
Davis and Senator Wade.
Freedmen’s Bureau – The agency of the War
Department which was set up in 1865 and was to assist freed slaves, in
obtaining relief, land, jobs, education, and education.
Andrew Johnson – The 17th President
in th US, and was the vice president during the assassination of Abraham
Black Codes – The laws based on prejudices, and
were passed b Democrat-controlled Southern states in both 1865 and 1866.
Civil Rights Act of 1866 – The act had declared
that all people that were born in the US were citizens without regard to race.
Fourteenth Amendment – All people were born or
naturalized in the US and they were subjected to the jurisdiction, and they are
citizens of the United States.
Impeach – Congress votes to try and get rid of
Fifteenth Amendment – All the citizens get to
vote, and cannot be denied by race.
The Challenges of
The northerners thought that it would be a way
to reconstruct the South’s productivity to number that it had reached in the
past. The southerners declined because they had felt that they were giving away
too much land and had received no benefits from it.
The Civil War devastated the South because the
South had been destroyed and the land had gotten lost. Three examples would be
businesses closing, homes which were burned down, and the properties that were
After the slaves had been emancipated they were
granted citizenship. They did not have all the right they wanted to have yet
like other people in society but the Republican Party had been fighting to grant
full citizenship to African Americans.
supported Freedmen’s Bureau and had opposed the Wade-Davis Bill because the
Freedmen’s Bureau had been formed to help victims. The victims of slavery and
the families who had to mourn the losses of family member losses in the War
which had also given the African American legal rights to white men. He did not
support the Wade-Davis Bill because it was not based on helping the victims who
had needed to help and he knew the Union wouldn’t support it.
6. Many Northerners
believed the Southerners deserved to be punished because had had enslaved the
African Americans which wasn’t illegal, which had meant they had committed
Presidency and Reconstruction
7. Johnson’s views about the Reconstruction
are different from Lincoln’s views because Lincoln had supported the emancipation
of Slaves. This had ruined the economy of the South though because they had
lost all of their plantation workers. Johnson had believed that slavery should
still be needed because the South would not be able to recover with out
8. Southerners limited the rights of former
slaves because the Black Codes had been created and they had required African
Americans to only work limited hours in their jobs. These codes had eventually
gotten rid of with the Reconstruction of the South.
Congress Passes a
Plan for Reconstruction
Reconstruction would have been a lot smoother if Lincoln was not assassinated,
and Lincoln would have been able to lead the Reconstruction. Lincoln had
believed in the Emancipation and in equality amongst all other humans
regardless of their race and since the process would’ve went by much faster.
Radical Republicans were very powerful the years after the Civil War because
they had spent all of their time figuring out what the nation had needed, and
to strengthen the reconstruction program in the United States. | <urn:uuid:291fa5ee-cc12-47d9-9ec4-bb6d2a144d8e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://taxteaparty.com/chris-of-the-war-department-which-was-set/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.982862 | 812 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.25737... | 2 | Topic 8 Lesson 3
Reconstruction – The action or process of being
built up or formed again.
Radical Republicans – A faction of American
politicians who were within the Republican Party of the US around 1854
Wade Davis Bill of 1864 – A bill proposed for
the Reconstruction of the South written by two Radical Republican, Henry Winter
Davis and Senator Wade.
Freedmen’s Bureau – The agency of the War
Department which was set up in 1865 and was to assist freed slaves, in
obtaining relief, land, jobs, education, and education.
Andrew Johnson – The 17th President
in th US, and was the vice president during the assassination of Abraham
Black Codes – The laws based on prejudices, and
were passed b Democrat-controlled Southern states in both 1865 and 1866.
Civil Rights Act of 1866 – The act had declared
that all people that were born in the US were citizens without regard to race.
Fourteenth Amendment – All people were born or
naturalized in the US and they were subjected to the jurisdiction, and they are
citizens of the United States.
Impeach – Congress votes to try and get rid of
Fifteenth Amendment – All the citizens get to
vote, and cannot be denied by race.
The Challenges of
The northerners thought that it would be a way
to reconstruct the South’s productivity to number that it had reached in the
past. The southerners declined because they had felt that they were giving away
too much land and had received no benefits from it.
The Civil War devastated the South because the
South had been destroyed and the land had gotten lost. Three examples would be
businesses closing, homes which were burned down, and the properties that were
After the slaves had been emancipated they were
granted citizenship. They did not have all the right they wanted to have yet
like other people in society but the Republican Party had been fighting to grant
full citizenship to African Americans.
supported Freedmen’s Bureau and had opposed the Wade-Davis Bill because the
Freedmen’s Bureau had been formed to help victims. The victims of slavery and
the families who had to mourn the losses of family member losses in the War
which had also given the African American legal rights to white men. He did not
support the Wade-Davis Bill because it was not based on helping the victims who
had needed to help and he knew the Union wouldn’t support it.
6. Many Northerners
believed the Southerners deserved to be punished because had had enslaved the
African Americans which wasn’t illegal, which had meant they had committed
Presidency and Reconstruction
7. Johnson’s views about the Reconstruction
are different from Lincoln’s views because Lincoln had supported the emancipation
of Slaves. This had ruined the economy of the South though because they had
lost all of their plantation workers. Johnson had believed that slavery should
still be needed because the South would not be able to recover with out
8. Southerners limited the rights of former
slaves because the Black Codes had been created and they had required African
Americans to only work limited hours in their jobs. These codes had eventually
gotten rid of with the Reconstruction of the South.
Congress Passes a
Plan for Reconstruction
Reconstruction would have been a lot smoother if Lincoln was not assassinated,
and Lincoln would have been able to lead the Reconstruction. Lincoln had
believed in the Emancipation and in equality amongst all other humans
regardless of their race and since the process would’ve went by much faster.
Radical Republicans were very powerful the years after the Civil War because
they had spent all of their time figuring out what the nation had needed, and
to strengthen the reconstruction program in the United States. | 806 | ENGLISH | 1 |
You are sending a link to...
Remembering East African slave raids
This is an interesting article from the BBC to accompany the 200th anniversary of the abolition of the slave trade.
Walter Mbotela recounts with great emotion the tales of how his grandfather was captured by Arab traders from his birthplace in Nyasaland and shipped away into slavery.
Mr Mbotela senior, along with other slaves, were driven away from their villages and loaded into ships destined for Zanzibar, East Africa's main slave market until 1873.
These captives were however lucky, as after they were purchased and in transit to work in plantations, their ship was intercepted by the British Royal Navy, which was patrolling the Indian Ocean slave routes to enforce the UK ban on the slave trade, adopted in 1807. For close to 70 years after the abolition, the trade continued to flourish on the East African coast.
"The boat my grandfather and other slaves were sailing on was brought to Mombasa, instead of being taken to other freed slaves settlements in India," Mr Mbotela, a 93-year-old retired journalist recalls. Other lucky slaves, aboard cargo ships that were intercepted by the British Navy, found themselves relocated to a freed slave settlement, christened Frere Town.
“Many descendants of the freed slaves have since left this area, but I am proud to be among the few who remained and own homes here. It's good to remain in touch with your history," Mr Mbotela says.
The faces of the Frere Town settlement may be gone but its story still lingers among people in Mombasa and a few physical features remain prominent. . . on the site is a bell that was erected and used to sound warnings when Arab slave ships were seen approaching Mombasa Island.
There was not much slave-raiding along the Kenyan coast but it was a vital transit point for slaves who were captured further inland, due to its proximity to the main market in Zanzibar.
But Arab slave traders established a smuggling port to the south of Mombasa, in an area now known as Shimoni, meaning the hole in Swahili. For the traders, the natural limestone caves in Shimoni provided the perfect warehouse for the slaves before they were shipped off to Zanzibar. . . Rusted chains and hooks are still embedded into the walls of the caves. | <urn:uuid:ddffbece-3b44-460c-9aa5-d2132c5220af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://2005-09.newenglishreview.org/blog_email.cfm?blog_id=6739 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.984219 | 490 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.207537457346916... | 3 | You are sending a link to...
Remembering East African slave raids
This is an interesting article from the BBC to accompany the 200th anniversary of the abolition of the slave trade.
Walter Mbotela recounts with great emotion the tales of how his grandfather was captured by Arab traders from his birthplace in Nyasaland and shipped away into slavery.
Mr Mbotela senior, along with other slaves, were driven away from their villages and loaded into ships destined for Zanzibar, East Africa's main slave market until 1873.
These captives were however lucky, as after they were purchased and in transit to work in plantations, their ship was intercepted by the British Royal Navy, which was patrolling the Indian Ocean slave routes to enforce the UK ban on the slave trade, adopted in 1807. For close to 70 years after the abolition, the trade continued to flourish on the East African coast.
"The boat my grandfather and other slaves were sailing on was brought to Mombasa, instead of being taken to other freed slaves settlements in India," Mr Mbotela, a 93-year-old retired journalist recalls. Other lucky slaves, aboard cargo ships that were intercepted by the British Navy, found themselves relocated to a freed slave settlement, christened Frere Town.
“Many descendants of the freed slaves have since left this area, but I am proud to be among the few who remained and own homes here. It's good to remain in touch with your history," Mr Mbotela says.
The faces of the Frere Town settlement may be gone but its story still lingers among people in Mombasa and a few physical features remain prominent. . . on the site is a bell that was erected and used to sound warnings when Arab slave ships were seen approaching Mombasa Island.
There was not much slave-raiding along the Kenyan coast but it was a vital transit point for slaves who were captured further inland, due to its proximity to the main market in Zanzibar.
But Arab slave traders established a smuggling port to the south of Mombasa, in an area now known as Shimoni, meaning the hole in Swahili. For the traders, the natural limestone caves in Shimoni provided the perfect warehouse for the slaves before they were shipped off to Zanzibar. . . Rusted chains and hooks are still embedded into the walls of the caves. | 493 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the beginning of the twentieth-century, social, political, and economic changes had a huge impact on music. Technology also played a crucial role in music development. Composers started experimenting with an increasingly dissonant pitch language. Melody, in the traditional way, was not recognizable. One of the most prominent composers of the twentieth-century was Olivier Messiaen. The purpose of this research is to introduce his compositional technique and his musical language as well as to gain an in-depth knowledge of his piano music. Messiaen derived his compositional technique from variety of sources, such as Greek rhythms, Hindu rhythms, and bird calls. He was one of the leading composers who made his music rhythmically intriguing and appealing. He frequently used rhythms of added values, augmented and diminished rhythms, non-retrogradable rhythms, and polyrhythms in his compositions. He was also an ornithologist. He spent lot of time transcribing bird calls. The Technique of My Musical Language, the book written by the composer himself, is the main source of this research as he introduces his unique compositional methods with many examples. Learning about his compositional technique is of tremendous help in understanding his musical language, his ideology, and the performance of his music.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Augmented Rhythms, Diminished Rhythms, Polyrhythms | <urn:uuid:203484bb-17d1-4895-8749-3b606e0f8ad5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.iletisimedebiyatmuzikkongresi.org/bildiriayrinti/the-compositional-technique-of-the-prominent-twentieth-century-french-composer-olivier-messiaen_56 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00140.warc.gz | en | 0.984294 | 281 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.024008879438... | 3 | At the beginning of the twentieth-century, social, political, and economic changes had a huge impact on music. Technology also played a crucial role in music development. Composers started experimenting with an increasingly dissonant pitch language. Melody, in the traditional way, was not recognizable. One of the most prominent composers of the twentieth-century was Olivier Messiaen. The purpose of this research is to introduce his compositional technique and his musical language as well as to gain an in-depth knowledge of his piano music. Messiaen derived his compositional technique from variety of sources, such as Greek rhythms, Hindu rhythms, and bird calls. He was one of the leading composers who made his music rhythmically intriguing and appealing. He frequently used rhythms of added values, augmented and diminished rhythms, non-retrogradable rhythms, and polyrhythms in his compositions. He was also an ornithologist. He spent lot of time transcribing bird calls. The Technique of My Musical Language, the book written by the composer himself, is the main source of this research as he introduces his unique compositional methods with many examples. Learning about his compositional technique is of tremendous help in understanding his musical language, his ideology, and the performance of his music.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Augmented Rhythms, Diminished Rhythms, Polyrhythms | 274 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1982 a baby boy was born to Inayat Bibi and Saif Masih. They named him Iqbal Masih. Sometime after Iqbal’s birth, Saif Masih deserted the family. While Iqbal’s mother worked, his older sisters took care of him and his older siblings. Iqbal did not go to school. Education was not compulsory or widely available in Pakistan. Very few poor children learnt to read and write. He spent his earliest years playing in the fields until he was ready to help his family by going to work.
To pay off the wedding of Saif’ oldest son, he turned to a local thekedar, an employer who owns a nearby carpet factory. In return for the loan, the employer expects collateral, a guarantee of something of value to secure the loan. Said Masih’s only valuable possessions were his children. Iqbal, a scrappy four-year-old, was considered ready to work. Little Iqbal would weave carpets until all the money, including an undisclosed amount of interest and expenses, was paid back.. From that day forward, Iqbal became a “debt-bonded slave.”
Iqbal’s job at the carpet factory was essentially no different from that of millions of other young people who work day and night to help their families. At four o’clock in the morning, he was picked up by the thekedar and driven to the factory where he was to work for the next six years of his life. He was put in an airless room, big enough for about twenty looms. A small, bare light bulb gave out little light. It was sticky and hot inside the room because all the windows were sealed tight to keep out any insects that might damage the wool.
When Iqbal completed his work as an apprentice, he was then ready to weave carpets. He worked beside twenty other boys. His earnings amounted to one rupee a day (two cents), even though he worked from four o’clock in the morning until seven in the evening. The children in the shop were not allowed to speak to one another. “If the children spoke, they were not giving the complete attention to the product and were liable to make errors,” Iqbal later told journalists. Many other freed child slaves told similar stories.
Lint and fluff floated in the air. Iqbal would breathe it in and cough it out. Sweat poured down Iqbal’s face as he leaned close to the loom. The thekedar screamed, “Don’t soil the wool!”
Iqbal and his fellow weavers were warned never to leave the factory during work hours. “If we tried to escape, we were threatened with being thrown in boiling oil,” he said. “If we were too slow, we often got lashed on our backs and heads.” Concentration was crucial. Mistaking a single knot led to fines or beatings. Daydreaming could have serious consequences. The sharp, crescent-shaped weavers’ tool would slip and nick his fingers. This happened many times.
Once, when Iqbal was so exhausted he began to doze off, the sharp knife slid, digging into the flesh of his forefinger. “Hold your hand up!” the thekedar shouted. “Don’t let the blood drip!” The carpet master did not want Iqbal’s blood to stain the precious wool thread. To stop the bleeding, the carpet master dripped hot oil onto the wound. The oil, used to seal the wound, stung horribly and Iqbal screamed. His screams were answered with a slap on the head and an order to get back to work.
Every afternoon the child slaves were given a half-hour lunch break. Iqbal said, “We were kept hungry.” The thekedar provided the youngsters a small portion of rice and lentils. Sometimes there would be a few other vegetables added to the meal. The cost of this simple meal was immediately added to the children’s paishgee, increasing their debt.
Iqbal said, “We weren’t allowed many days off. Even sick children were not allowed to rest.” If a child weaver complained that he was too sick to work, the chowkidar locked him in a dark closet known as the punishment room. “they also hung children upside down until they became sicker. Children were beaten,” said Iqbal.
Although most bonded children are docile and obedient, they are are not afraid to talk back. These children are often hit, chained to their looms, or locked in dark, musty closets. Iqbal would often talk back. He was beaten more often than the other children because, time and time again, he defied the master. He spoke up when he thought something was not right. “Sometimes I was fined.” In a way, the fines were worse than the beatings. They raised Iqbal’s debt higher and higher. Instead of paying off his bondage, he was increasing the time it would take to earn his freedom.
In Pakistan, children are forced to work in brick kilns, agriculture, carpet factories, restaurants, and factories manufacturing all kinds of goods from furniture, and sports goods, to surgical equipment. They also work as domestic labourers, where they are often exposed to mental and physical abuse and separated from their parents, being kept in a state of virtual imprisonment.
Iqbal the brave boy, however, never gave up hope. On one occasion, he managed to escape and reached the local police station. He told the police about how the factory owner had shackled him into slavery.
But he was brought back by the custodians of law to the factory owner for a petty bribe. This worsened Iqbal’s predicament. The factory owners became more ruthless than ever because of his insubordination. He and the other children were chained to keep them from escaping.
Oneday after he turned 10, Iqbal heard a speaker from the Bonded Labour Liberation Front (BLLF), a Pakistani community-based organization dedicated to freeing children from such child slavery. Hope resurfaced, and he escaped again.
Iqbal joined the Bonded Labour Liberation Front (BLLF). His story reached the ears of Ehsan Ullah Khan, Chairman of BLLF, who directed his efforts towards freeing Iqbal from bondage, and mercifully succeeded. He made it his mission to raise awareness about child slavery. He toured various cities of Pakistan where child slavery is known to exist. He also travelled internationally inviting masses to stand with him against child labour. He resumed his education and managed to complete four years of education in a two-year period. He said,
“Children should have pens in their hands, not tools.”
On 16 April 1995, Easter Sunday, at the age of 12, Iqbal was fatally shot by Ashraf Hero, a heroin addict, while visiting relatives in Muridke, Pakistan, cycling with his cousin in a village field. His funeral was attended by approximately 800 mourners. Following his death, Pakistani economic elites responded to declining carpet sales by denying the use of bonded child labor in their factories and employing the Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) to brutally harass and arrest activists working for the Bonded Labour Liberation Front (BLLF). The Pakistani press conducted a smear campaign against the BLLF, arguing that child laborers receive high wages and favorable working conditions.
They may have killed him but his mission will always stay alive. He remains to be an inspiration for numerous local and international organisations fighting against child labour.
John 8:36 So if the Son sets you free, you will be free indeed. | <urn:uuid:977955e6-c4bb-44ea-9d6e-0c3d39c6ecbf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://catholico.org/2020/01/09/the-touching-story-of-young-iqbal-masih/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.990068 | 1,646 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.35949334502220... | 4 | In 1982 a baby boy was born to Inayat Bibi and Saif Masih. They named him Iqbal Masih. Sometime after Iqbal’s birth, Saif Masih deserted the family. While Iqbal’s mother worked, his older sisters took care of him and his older siblings. Iqbal did not go to school. Education was not compulsory or widely available in Pakistan. Very few poor children learnt to read and write. He spent his earliest years playing in the fields until he was ready to help his family by going to work.
To pay off the wedding of Saif’ oldest son, he turned to a local thekedar, an employer who owns a nearby carpet factory. In return for the loan, the employer expects collateral, a guarantee of something of value to secure the loan. Said Masih’s only valuable possessions were his children. Iqbal, a scrappy four-year-old, was considered ready to work. Little Iqbal would weave carpets until all the money, including an undisclosed amount of interest and expenses, was paid back.. From that day forward, Iqbal became a “debt-bonded slave.”
Iqbal’s job at the carpet factory was essentially no different from that of millions of other young people who work day and night to help their families. At four o’clock in the morning, he was picked up by the thekedar and driven to the factory where he was to work for the next six years of his life. He was put in an airless room, big enough for about twenty looms. A small, bare light bulb gave out little light. It was sticky and hot inside the room because all the windows were sealed tight to keep out any insects that might damage the wool.
When Iqbal completed his work as an apprentice, he was then ready to weave carpets. He worked beside twenty other boys. His earnings amounted to one rupee a day (two cents), even though he worked from four o’clock in the morning until seven in the evening. The children in the shop were not allowed to speak to one another. “If the children spoke, they were not giving the complete attention to the product and were liable to make errors,” Iqbal later told journalists. Many other freed child slaves told similar stories.
Lint and fluff floated in the air. Iqbal would breathe it in and cough it out. Sweat poured down Iqbal’s face as he leaned close to the loom. The thekedar screamed, “Don’t soil the wool!”
Iqbal and his fellow weavers were warned never to leave the factory during work hours. “If we tried to escape, we were threatened with being thrown in boiling oil,” he said. “If we were too slow, we often got lashed on our backs and heads.” Concentration was crucial. Mistaking a single knot led to fines or beatings. Daydreaming could have serious consequences. The sharp, crescent-shaped weavers’ tool would slip and nick his fingers. This happened many times.
Once, when Iqbal was so exhausted he began to doze off, the sharp knife slid, digging into the flesh of his forefinger. “Hold your hand up!” the thekedar shouted. “Don’t let the blood drip!” The carpet master did not want Iqbal’s blood to stain the precious wool thread. To stop the bleeding, the carpet master dripped hot oil onto the wound. The oil, used to seal the wound, stung horribly and Iqbal screamed. His screams were answered with a slap on the head and an order to get back to work.
Every afternoon the child slaves were given a half-hour lunch break. Iqbal said, “We were kept hungry.” The thekedar provided the youngsters a small portion of rice and lentils. Sometimes there would be a few other vegetables added to the meal. The cost of this simple meal was immediately added to the children’s paishgee, increasing their debt.
Iqbal said, “We weren’t allowed many days off. Even sick children were not allowed to rest.” If a child weaver complained that he was too sick to work, the chowkidar locked him in a dark closet known as the punishment room. “they also hung children upside down until they became sicker. Children were beaten,” said Iqbal.
Although most bonded children are docile and obedient, they are are not afraid to talk back. These children are often hit, chained to their looms, or locked in dark, musty closets. Iqbal would often talk back. He was beaten more often than the other children because, time and time again, he defied the master. He spoke up when he thought something was not right. “Sometimes I was fined.” In a way, the fines were worse than the beatings. They raised Iqbal’s debt higher and higher. Instead of paying off his bondage, he was increasing the time it would take to earn his freedom.
In Pakistan, children are forced to work in brick kilns, agriculture, carpet factories, restaurants, and factories manufacturing all kinds of goods from furniture, and sports goods, to surgical equipment. They also work as domestic labourers, where they are often exposed to mental and physical abuse and separated from their parents, being kept in a state of virtual imprisonment.
Iqbal the brave boy, however, never gave up hope. On one occasion, he managed to escape and reached the local police station. He told the police about how the factory owner had shackled him into slavery.
But he was brought back by the custodians of law to the factory owner for a petty bribe. This worsened Iqbal’s predicament. The factory owners became more ruthless than ever because of his insubordination. He and the other children were chained to keep them from escaping.
Oneday after he turned 10, Iqbal heard a speaker from the Bonded Labour Liberation Front (BLLF), a Pakistani community-based organization dedicated to freeing children from such child slavery. Hope resurfaced, and he escaped again.
Iqbal joined the Bonded Labour Liberation Front (BLLF). His story reached the ears of Ehsan Ullah Khan, Chairman of BLLF, who directed his efforts towards freeing Iqbal from bondage, and mercifully succeeded. He made it his mission to raise awareness about child slavery. He toured various cities of Pakistan where child slavery is known to exist. He also travelled internationally inviting masses to stand with him against child labour. He resumed his education and managed to complete four years of education in a two-year period. He said,
“Children should have pens in their hands, not tools.”
On 16 April 1995, Easter Sunday, at the age of 12, Iqbal was fatally shot by Ashraf Hero, a heroin addict, while visiting relatives in Muridke, Pakistan, cycling with his cousin in a village field. His funeral was attended by approximately 800 mourners. Following his death, Pakistani economic elites responded to declining carpet sales by denying the use of bonded child labor in their factories and employing the Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) to brutally harass and arrest activists working for the Bonded Labour Liberation Front (BLLF). The Pakistani press conducted a smear campaign against the BLLF, arguing that child laborers receive high wages and favorable working conditions.
They may have killed him but his mission will always stay alive. He remains to be an inspiration for numerous local and international organisations fighting against child labour.
John 8:36 So if the Son sets you free, you will be free indeed. | 1,581 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How the attack on parl harbor shaped the involvement of americans in world war ii
How did pearl harbor changed american opinion about the war quizlet
Public opinion had been moving towards support for entering the war during , but considerable opposition remained until the attack. Rather, the attack constituted a critical juncture in the history of U. All the rest was merely the proper application of overwhelming force. Rather, the attack constituted a critical juncture in the history of U. He is on record as having said, in the previous year, "I can run wild for six months It appears the Japanese government was referring to the "part message", which did not actually break off negotiations, let alone declare war, but did officially raise the possibility of a break in relations. We should not be wiped out. Kurusu also stated, falsely, that the United States was looking for world domination, beyond just Asia, with "sinister designs". Imperial Japanese military leaders appear to have had mixed feelings about the attack. Containment of communism became the organizing principle of U. Kimmel , and the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attack , were relieved of their commands shortly thereafter. In the blink of an eye, the United States was at war. In other words, the tense and hostile relations that developed between the capitalist countries led by the United States and Communist nations headed by the Soviet Union in the years after the Second World War came to be popularly known as cold war. Decades after Pearl Harbor, nationalist parties are on the rise in the West and East alike. Although the Imperial Japanese government had made some effort to prepare their population for war by anti-American propaganda, it appears most Japanese were surprised, apprehensive, and dismayed by the news they were now at war with the U.
Roosevelt had long been angling for U. These actions fueled consternation in the U. Nor does Trump see the international environment as posing many bona fide security threats.
Diplomatic communications had been coordinated well in advance with the attack, but had failed delivery at the intended time. Kimmeland the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attackwere relieved of their commands shortly thereafter.
Long term effects of pearl harbor
We will never know if FDR would have succeeded in maneuvering the U. General Marshall, testifying before the Congressional Committee, was asked: Did the President of the United States, in your opinion, have a right to assume that the commands in Hawaii were properly alerted on the morning of December 7? But there was never anything inevitable or immovable about this internationalist consensus. Troops from across the country were shipped to battlefields around the world. In any case, relations had already significantly deteriorated since Japan's invasion of China in the early s, which the U. The term is first applied in to the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Sates, generally came to be regarded as the only two superpower, and confronted each other in the cold war. The nations of Europe, and indeed we, ourselves, did not appreciate that purpose. He alone did not declare war. A Joint Congressional Committee was also appointed, on September 14, , to investigate the causes of the attack and subsequent disaster.
Trump has questioned cornerstones of U. For Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day, thousands paid tribute to the veterans who fought and died, flags across the nation flew at half-staff, and segments of the armed forces held a moment of silence.
Rooseveltwho had allegedly been manipulated by the Cominterndrew Japan into the attack on Pearl Harbor. However, as noted previously, American statesmen had rejected plans for economic recovery in Europe based on the cancellation of war debts and the formation of a free trade zone.
How did pearl harbor unite americans
Others, such as Clay Blair, Jr. When there is a genuine threat to a democracy, "We're all in this together, and we will fight it out together," he said. And of course, a costly war of choice was waged in Vietnam. Kimmel , and the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attack , were relieved of their commands shortly thereafter. A Joint Congressional Committee was also appointed, on September 14, , to investigate the causes of the attack and subsequent disaster. World War II "strengthened us as a country," said Ambrose. The U.
based on 71 review | <urn:uuid:bca85e31-a7e3-4bcc-863f-ffb825c8be30> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://katedyxezyzal.dellrichards.com/how-the-attack-on-parl-harbor-shaped-the-involvement-of-americans-in-world-war-ii405154985mg.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00289.warc.gz | en | 0.980641 | 957 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.3392663896083... | 1 | How the attack on parl harbor shaped the involvement of americans in world war ii
How did pearl harbor changed american opinion about the war quizlet
Public opinion had been moving towards support for entering the war during , but considerable opposition remained until the attack. Rather, the attack constituted a critical juncture in the history of U. All the rest was merely the proper application of overwhelming force. Rather, the attack constituted a critical juncture in the history of U. He is on record as having said, in the previous year, "I can run wild for six months It appears the Japanese government was referring to the "part message", which did not actually break off negotiations, let alone declare war, but did officially raise the possibility of a break in relations. We should not be wiped out. Kurusu also stated, falsely, that the United States was looking for world domination, beyond just Asia, with "sinister designs". Imperial Japanese military leaders appear to have had mixed feelings about the attack. Containment of communism became the organizing principle of U. Kimmel , and the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attack , were relieved of their commands shortly thereafter. In the blink of an eye, the United States was at war. In other words, the tense and hostile relations that developed between the capitalist countries led by the United States and Communist nations headed by the Soviet Union in the years after the Second World War came to be popularly known as cold war. Decades after Pearl Harbor, nationalist parties are on the rise in the West and East alike. Although the Imperial Japanese government had made some effort to prepare their population for war by anti-American propaganda, it appears most Japanese were surprised, apprehensive, and dismayed by the news they were now at war with the U.
Roosevelt had long been angling for U. These actions fueled consternation in the U. Nor does Trump see the international environment as posing many bona fide security threats.
Diplomatic communications had been coordinated well in advance with the attack, but had failed delivery at the intended time. Kimmeland the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attackwere relieved of their commands shortly thereafter.
Long term effects of pearl harbor
We will never know if FDR would have succeeded in maneuvering the U. General Marshall, testifying before the Congressional Committee, was asked: Did the President of the United States, in your opinion, have a right to assume that the commands in Hawaii were properly alerted on the morning of December 7? But there was never anything inevitable or immovable about this internationalist consensus. Troops from across the country were shipped to battlefields around the world. In any case, relations had already significantly deteriorated since Japan's invasion of China in the early s, which the U. The term is first applied in to the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Sates, generally came to be regarded as the only two superpower, and confronted each other in the cold war. The nations of Europe, and indeed we, ourselves, did not appreciate that purpose. He alone did not declare war. A Joint Congressional Committee was also appointed, on September 14, , to investigate the causes of the attack and subsequent disaster.
Trump has questioned cornerstones of U. For Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day, thousands paid tribute to the veterans who fought and died, flags across the nation flew at half-staff, and segments of the armed forces held a moment of silence.
Rooseveltwho had allegedly been manipulated by the Cominterndrew Japan into the attack on Pearl Harbor. However, as noted previously, American statesmen had rejected plans for economic recovery in Europe based on the cancellation of war debts and the formation of a free trade zone.
How did pearl harbor unite americans
Others, such as Clay Blair, Jr. When there is a genuine threat to a democracy, "We're all in this together, and we will fight it out together," he said. And of course, a costly war of choice was waged in Vietnam. Kimmel , and the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attack , were relieved of their commands shortly thereafter. A Joint Congressional Committee was also appointed, on September 14, , to investigate the causes of the attack and subsequent disaster. World War II "strengthened us as a country," said Ambrose. The U.
based on 71 review | 962 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Cuba, 1 January is Liberation Day to commemorate the defeat of the Batista regime by the rebel Communist forces of Fidel Castro on 1 January, 1959. Although it was a little later that the total defeat of Batista’s forces took place, it was 1 January that Batista himself fled Cuba and went into exile.
|2021||1 Jan||Fri||Liberation Day|
|2022||1 Jan||Sat||Liberation Day|
The background of Liberation Day goes back to the defeat of Spain by the United States in the Spanish-American War in 1898. This led to Cuba falling under U.S. control. Although Cuba was officially made “independent” in 1902, the U.S. really maintained a degree of control over Cuban affairs and also supported various Cuban governments against their opposition, even sometimes when a dictator was in charge.
In 1940, Fulgencio Batista was elected president of Cuba, but when he was set to lose re-election in 1952, he staged a coup and took over as dictator. A rebellion broke out against him in 1956, but that one failed. Then Castro led a small rebel group from exile in Mexico to Cuba’s Sierra Maestra Mountains and waged a war against Batista that finally succeeded by the beginning of 1959.
There are big Liberation Day celebrations in Havana and Santiago every year, and there are many places with free concerts. The celebrations continue into 2 January which is Victory Day, so it’s a two-day holiday really. | <urn:uuid:26f8d70c-d728-4c14-9f27-8322f6c2457b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://publicholidays.la/cuba/liberation-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.982421 | 314 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.563477516... | 1 | In Cuba, 1 January is Liberation Day to commemorate the defeat of the Batista regime by the rebel Communist forces of Fidel Castro on 1 January, 1959. Although it was a little later that the total defeat of Batista’s forces took place, it was 1 January that Batista himself fled Cuba and went into exile.
|2021||1 Jan||Fri||Liberation Day|
|2022||1 Jan||Sat||Liberation Day|
The background of Liberation Day goes back to the defeat of Spain by the United States in the Spanish-American War in 1898. This led to Cuba falling under U.S. control. Although Cuba was officially made “independent” in 1902, the U.S. really maintained a degree of control over Cuban affairs and also supported various Cuban governments against their opposition, even sometimes when a dictator was in charge.
In 1940, Fulgencio Batista was elected president of Cuba, but when he was set to lose re-election in 1952, he staged a coup and took over as dictator. A rebellion broke out against him in 1956, but that one failed. Then Castro led a small rebel group from exile in Mexico to Cuba’s Sierra Maestra Mountains and waged a war against Batista that finally succeeded by the beginning of 1959.
There are big Liberation Day celebrations in Havana and Santiago every year, and there are many places with free concerts. The celebrations continue into 2 January which is Victory Day, so it’s a two-day holiday really. | 336 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Do you know the real story behind Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech? Here are a few bits of information you may not be familiar with.
- The speech took place at a peaceful demonstration called the “March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.” The event was held on August 28, 1963.
- King wasn’t planning on speaking at the event at all. The schedule was packed throughout the day with a variety of speakers and entertainment. However, no one wanted the last time slot of the day, so King agreed to be the concluding speaker.
- While King was allotted four minutes for his remarks, his speech ended up being 16 minutes long.
- King had a prepared speech that didn’t include anything about his now-famous dream. However, during his prepared remarks, Mahalia Jackson hollered out “Tell ‘em about the dream, Martin!” She was referring to a topic King had briefly discussed at an event two months earlier. Honoring her request, King departed from his prepared remarks and delivered the “I Have a Dream” speech that we are all familiar with today.
- Historians believe that King’s speech, along with the march, had a significant impact on the passing of the Civil Rights act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
These facts and many more can be found in this video on Martin Luther King Jr. | <urn:uuid:2933fd79-fc9a-49f9-b46d-6b1bf5983dd7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://news.leavitt.com/just-for-fun/martin-luther-king/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00222.warc.gz | en | 0.981856 | 299 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.202783197164535... | 5 | Do you know the real story behind Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech? Here are a few bits of information you may not be familiar with.
- The speech took place at a peaceful demonstration called the “March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.” The event was held on August 28, 1963.
- King wasn’t planning on speaking at the event at all. The schedule was packed throughout the day with a variety of speakers and entertainment. However, no one wanted the last time slot of the day, so King agreed to be the concluding speaker.
- While King was allotted four minutes for his remarks, his speech ended up being 16 minutes long.
- King had a prepared speech that didn’t include anything about his now-famous dream. However, during his prepared remarks, Mahalia Jackson hollered out “Tell ‘em about the dream, Martin!” She was referring to a topic King had briefly discussed at an event two months earlier. Honoring her request, King departed from his prepared remarks and delivered the “I Have a Dream” speech that we are all familiar with today.
- Historians believe that King’s speech, along with the march, had a significant impact on the passing of the Civil Rights act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
These facts and many more can be found in this video on Martin Luther King Jr. | 290 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The popular vote has outweighed the electoral vote in the presidential election five times in United States history, the latest occurring in 2016. This means that in five separate elections, candidates who received more votes to become the president of the United States did not win, due to the complex role of the Electoral College.
Originally, the Electoral College was created as a way to make the election more fair to those living in less populated areas. It gives those areas a larger voice so they won’t be drowned out by heavily populated areas.
The best example of this today would be the difference in population between California, the most populated state, and Wyoming, the least populated state. California has over 39 million citizens whereas Wyoming has fewer than 600 thousand citizens. Because of this disparity, California has 55 electoral votes and Wyoming has only 3.
Since the number of allocated electoral votes for states is made up of a combination of the specific state’s number of senators and representatives, the smallest number of electoral votes can be only 3. While this type of system seems fair, when placed in terms of electoral votes per citizen, a Wyoming citizen’s vote has 3.55 times more electoral power than a Californian’s vote.
The Founding Fathers may have designed the electoral system to give more of a voice to those in less populated areas but a ratio of more than 3 to 1 is far too much.
In the 2000 election, former Vice President Al Gore won the popular vote but lost the election to George W. Bush in one of the most controversial elections in recent history. The election was ultimately decided by Florida’s electoral votes. Florida’s popular votes were so close, however, that many recounts were issued and some accusations of missing ballot boxes were presented. Gore accepted his defeat and conceded to Bush. In total, Gore won the popular vote by over 500,000 votes, yet, he was defeated by Bush in Florida by about 500 votes, causing the Electoral College votes to swing toward Bush.
Even when looking at the map from the 2016 presidential election, it seems that Donald Trump should have won in a landslide solely due to the number of counties that voted for him. Yet, when you look at the actual numbers in the Electoral College and, more specifically, the popular vote, most of the counties he won were rural and less populated.
In contrast, Hillary Clinton won the counties that were urban and more heavily populated. This caused Clinton to win the popular vote and Donald Trump to win the electoral vote and, thus, the presidency.
The Electoral College has changed the way presidential candidates campaign. Rather than trying to appeal to the mass amount of Americans, they target specific states that they know will win them more electoral votes.
It is anti-democratic to represent one group of people rather than America as a whole. Just because a person lives in a certain area should not mean that their vote should count for more or less than anyone else.
Until this outdated system is thrown away, one vote for one person will never be accurate.
The Electoral College’s role in America has changed, no longer lifting the voices of people in less populated areas. If it does not help the American public to advocate for their needs to politicians, it should be abolished.
This story was written by Kevin Schablin. He can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:4137fd16-c427-4cdb-b9d7-78834726f9e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://marquettewire.org/4024258/opinion/schablin-it-is-time-to-abolish-the-electoral-college/?print=true | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00539.warc.gz | en | 0.980708 | 694 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.348286330... | 2 | The popular vote has outweighed the electoral vote in the presidential election five times in United States history, the latest occurring in 2016. This means that in five separate elections, candidates who received more votes to become the president of the United States did not win, due to the complex role of the Electoral College.
Originally, the Electoral College was created as a way to make the election more fair to those living in less populated areas. It gives those areas a larger voice so they won’t be drowned out by heavily populated areas.
The best example of this today would be the difference in population between California, the most populated state, and Wyoming, the least populated state. California has over 39 million citizens whereas Wyoming has fewer than 600 thousand citizens. Because of this disparity, California has 55 electoral votes and Wyoming has only 3.
Since the number of allocated electoral votes for states is made up of a combination of the specific state’s number of senators and representatives, the smallest number of electoral votes can be only 3. While this type of system seems fair, when placed in terms of electoral votes per citizen, a Wyoming citizen’s vote has 3.55 times more electoral power than a Californian’s vote.
The Founding Fathers may have designed the electoral system to give more of a voice to those in less populated areas but a ratio of more than 3 to 1 is far too much.
In the 2000 election, former Vice President Al Gore won the popular vote but lost the election to George W. Bush in one of the most controversial elections in recent history. The election was ultimately decided by Florida’s electoral votes. Florida’s popular votes were so close, however, that many recounts were issued and some accusations of missing ballot boxes were presented. Gore accepted his defeat and conceded to Bush. In total, Gore won the popular vote by over 500,000 votes, yet, he was defeated by Bush in Florida by about 500 votes, causing the Electoral College votes to swing toward Bush.
Even when looking at the map from the 2016 presidential election, it seems that Donald Trump should have won in a landslide solely due to the number of counties that voted for him. Yet, when you look at the actual numbers in the Electoral College and, more specifically, the popular vote, most of the counties he won were rural and less populated.
In contrast, Hillary Clinton won the counties that were urban and more heavily populated. This caused Clinton to win the popular vote and Donald Trump to win the electoral vote and, thus, the presidency.
The Electoral College has changed the way presidential candidates campaign. Rather than trying to appeal to the mass amount of Americans, they target specific states that they know will win them more electoral votes.
It is anti-democratic to represent one group of people rather than America as a whole. Just because a person lives in a certain area should not mean that their vote should count for more or less than anyone else.
Until this outdated system is thrown away, one vote for one person will never be accurate.
The Electoral College’s role in America has changed, no longer lifting the voices of people in less populated areas. If it does not help the American public to advocate for their needs to politicians, it should be abolished.
This story was written by Kevin Schablin. He can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org. | 694 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Indirect speech or "Say it again"
Indirect Speech (also known as Reported Speech) refers to a sentence reporting what someone has said. It is almost always used in spoken English.
If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be in a past form. This form is usually one step back into the past from the original.
- She said her job was interesting.
- She said she went to the library each day.
- Our new colleague said he spoke French every day.
If simple present, present perfect or the future is used in the reporting verb (i.e. says) the tense is retained. For example:
- She says that her job is interesting.
- She says that she goes to the library each day.
- Our new colleague will say that he speaks French every day.
If reporting a general truth the present tense will be retained or even the future tense can be used. For example:
- She said that her country is very beautiful.
- They said that trust is vital for any business.
- My wife said that she will always love me no matter what.
Now read the following story and find the indirect speech expressions in italics.
"Say it again""I'm just popping out to put the car away in the garage. I've left it in the road." I told my wife that I just was popping out to put the car away in the garage as I had left it in the road. "You be careful. Remember you've had a lot to drink and the police are having a particular purge at the moment in drink driving." She told me to be careful and reminded me that I had a lot to drink and that the police have a particular purge at the time on drink driving. She is very law-abiding, my wife.
I shut the front door and as I walked down the garden path, I noticed someone standing by the car. It was a policeman. "Very pleasant weather for the time of year." He pointed out the pleasantness of the weather for the time of year. "Oh er - yes. Absolutely". I hesitated and agreed wholeheartedly. "Is this your car, sir". He asked me whether it was my car.
"Yes, indeed" I affirmed confidently. "Don't see many of this particular make often. I've sometimes thought of buying one myself." He reckoned that you did not often see many of that particular make. He sometimes thought of buying one himself. "Oh, really". I expressed interest in his comment.
"What is this man up to? Is he trying to lure me into starting up the car so that he can then breathalyze me?" I asked myself what that man was up to and wondered whether he was trying to lure me into starting up the car so that he could then breathalyze me. "But then I doubt I could afford it. Cost a fair amount, I expect?" Then he doubted whether he could afford it and conjectured that it it had to cost a fair amount. "I picked it up quite cheaply actually. It has done a lot of miles, you see." I explained that I had it picked up quite cheaply because it had done a lot of miles. The man was beginning to get on my nerves. Why didn't he just arrest me for intent to drive a motor car while under the influence of drink?
The next question seemed a bit fatuous as I was clutching my car keys at the time. "Going for a spin, sir?" He asked me whether I was going for a spin and I didn't like the way he emphasized the word spin. "No, I'm just going to put the car in the garage." I denied this and pointed out that I was just going to put the car in the garage. "Don't let me hold you up. I'm just waiting around to catch the odd speeding motorist and anyone who's had a bit too many, ha ha." He told me not to let him hold me up and went on to say that he was just waiting around to catch the odd speeding motorist and then added with a chuckle anyone who had had too much to drink.
I couldn't hesitate any longer and got into the car and switched on the engine. "Just a minute, sir." The policeman asked me politely to stop for a minute. The voice of my conscience spoke: "He's got you now and you've fallen right into the trap." He had got me now and I had fallen right into the trap. "What's the matter?" I asked what the matter was.
"Let me just see that the road's clear for you." He asked me to let him see the road was clear. It was and so was I. I breathed a sight of relief, drove the car into the garage and shut the door. As I turned to go into the house, I was aware of the policeman. He put his hand into his pocket. I assumed that the moment of truth had arrived. Out came his handkerchief, after all even policemen have to blow their noses. "What does he want, now?" I asked myself what he was going to do next. "It is my duty to point out to you, sir" it was his duty to point out to me that I drove a car under the influence? No. He just wanted to point out that one of my brake lights had gone and suggested I put it right as soon as possible.
I needed a drink. | <urn:uuid:4e181981-eb53-49c5-b399-c51a200ff5b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://english.best/reading/grammar/indirect-speech/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.992837 | 1,136 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.1412654221057891... | 2 | Indirect speech or "Say it again"
Indirect Speech (also known as Reported Speech) refers to a sentence reporting what someone has said. It is almost always used in spoken English.
If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be in a past form. This form is usually one step back into the past from the original.
- She said her job was interesting.
- She said she went to the library each day.
- Our new colleague said he spoke French every day.
If simple present, present perfect or the future is used in the reporting verb (i.e. says) the tense is retained. For example:
- She says that her job is interesting.
- She says that she goes to the library each day.
- Our new colleague will say that he speaks French every day.
If reporting a general truth the present tense will be retained or even the future tense can be used. For example:
- She said that her country is very beautiful.
- They said that trust is vital for any business.
- My wife said that she will always love me no matter what.
Now read the following story and find the indirect speech expressions in italics.
"Say it again""I'm just popping out to put the car away in the garage. I've left it in the road." I told my wife that I just was popping out to put the car away in the garage as I had left it in the road. "You be careful. Remember you've had a lot to drink and the police are having a particular purge at the moment in drink driving." She told me to be careful and reminded me that I had a lot to drink and that the police have a particular purge at the time on drink driving. She is very law-abiding, my wife.
I shut the front door and as I walked down the garden path, I noticed someone standing by the car. It was a policeman. "Very pleasant weather for the time of year." He pointed out the pleasantness of the weather for the time of year. "Oh er - yes. Absolutely". I hesitated and agreed wholeheartedly. "Is this your car, sir". He asked me whether it was my car.
"Yes, indeed" I affirmed confidently. "Don't see many of this particular make often. I've sometimes thought of buying one myself." He reckoned that you did not often see many of that particular make. He sometimes thought of buying one himself. "Oh, really". I expressed interest in his comment.
"What is this man up to? Is he trying to lure me into starting up the car so that he can then breathalyze me?" I asked myself what that man was up to and wondered whether he was trying to lure me into starting up the car so that he could then breathalyze me. "But then I doubt I could afford it. Cost a fair amount, I expect?" Then he doubted whether he could afford it and conjectured that it it had to cost a fair amount. "I picked it up quite cheaply actually. It has done a lot of miles, you see." I explained that I had it picked up quite cheaply because it had done a lot of miles. The man was beginning to get on my nerves. Why didn't he just arrest me for intent to drive a motor car while under the influence of drink?
The next question seemed a bit fatuous as I was clutching my car keys at the time. "Going for a spin, sir?" He asked me whether I was going for a spin and I didn't like the way he emphasized the word spin. "No, I'm just going to put the car in the garage." I denied this and pointed out that I was just going to put the car in the garage. "Don't let me hold you up. I'm just waiting around to catch the odd speeding motorist and anyone who's had a bit too many, ha ha." He told me not to let him hold me up and went on to say that he was just waiting around to catch the odd speeding motorist and then added with a chuckle anyone who had had too much to drink.
I couldn't hesitate any longer and got into the car and switched on the engine. "Just a minute, sir." The policeman asked me politely to stop for a minute. The voice of my conscience spoke: "He's got you now and you've fallen right into the trap." He had got me now and I had fallen right into the trap. "What's the matter?" I asked what the matter was.
"Let me just see that the road's clear for you." He asked me to let him see the road was clear. It was and so was I. I breathed a sight of relief, drove the car into the garage and shut the door. As I turned to go into the house, I was aware of the policeman. He put his hand into his pocket. I assumed that the moment of truth had arrived. Out came his handkerchief, after all even policemen have to blow their noses. "What does he want, now?" I asked myself what he was going to do next. "It is my duty to point out to you, sir" it was his duty to point out to me that I drove a car under the influence? No. He just wanted to point out that one of my brake lights had gone and suggested I put it right as soon as possible.
I needed a drink. | 1,116 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Characterisitics Of A Tragedy Play Essay
The Characterisitics Of A Tragedy Play Essay, Research Paper The Characteristics of a Tragedy Play Shakespeare was a well known playwright.Some of his most famous plays were tragedies.A tragedy involves the decent of a great man like a king or warrior from the most fortunate success to the to total defeat and death.The plays Hamlet and Macbeth have many of the characteristics of a tragedy.The characters Hamlet and Macbeth are the tragic heros in the plays.Hamlet and Macbeth are well known tragedies and the main character in each play is a tragic hero. Before discussing the plays Hamlet and Macbeth, one must know the characteristics of a tragedy.Two types of tragedy plays are:a major tragedy, and a minor tragedy.The major tragedy usually effects everyone,and the minor tragedy effects a small part of the people. The tragic hero must be a great and admirable man in both his powers and opportunities.He should be a person in society whose actions involve the well-being of its members.The plot of the play should show him working to achieve some goal very dear to him.This action will involve him in choices.There will be a web of circumstances and this will set off a chain of events that could not have been foreseen or stopped.The hostility of his destiny may be the result of circumstances,of the activities of his enemies,or some supernatural force hostile to him personally or to all humanity such as fate,the gods, or Satan.When it is too late to escape the victim comes to realize what has happened to him,and dies bitter,burnt-out,and desperate.The audience will know more about what is going on before the hero does,and sees his evil destiny at work long before he does. This sets up ironical tension,and is a powerful instrument for gaining the sympathy of the audience.The hero’s death at the end usually releases him from life’s burden,and the audience from its tension,but it also releases the hero’s society from the disorder his downfall had caused. The plays Hamlet and Macbeth have many of the characteristics of a tragedy.The two tragedies are major tragedies,they effect everyone that is around Hamlet and Macbeth.Macbeth and Hamlet were both working toward a goal.Hamlet is trying to get revenge for is dead father,and throughout the play he hurt many people along the way. Macbeth’s goal is to become king and after he claims the thrown he worries for the rest of the play about who is trying to kill him. Throughout the plays Macbeth and Hamlet hurt many people that they had once cared strongly for.The reason for all of the pain that Macbeth and Hamlet caused,was of a supernatural force.In Hamlet it was is father asking him to avenge his death.In Macbeth it was the three witches telling him that he would be king.The audience felt sorry for the two tragic heros,because they knew before the hero what was happening to them and how it was leading to their downfall. Hamlet and Macbeth were defiantly tragic heros.They were both in high places in the society.Hamlet was a kings son and effected many peoples lives.Macbeth was the Thaine of Glamis and later he becomes Thaine of Cawdor and eventually king.He defiantly effected many peoples lives.The heros in both plays stared out very good men however as the plays progressed they became worse.Macbeth was heartless when he had Lady Macduff and her children killed.He had reached his lowest point.Finally,in the end Macbeth and Hamlet realized what they had done and knew it was wrong,however,it was too late to change any of it. Shakespeare was a great writer.He created strong tragic characters.His plays were able to pull many emotions from the audience.The tragedies that he wrote were very good they were major tragedies.Macbeth and Hamlet were very popular tragedies,and still are today,their maine characters Macbeth and Hamlet were very strong tragic heros.
- Практические занятия | <urn:uuid:bb89296d-b09e-4ca0-92b5-aae54ad92eed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://referat.ru/referat/the-characterisitics-of-a-tragedy-play-essay-460493 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.984444 | 897 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.2804522514... | 2 | The Characterisitics Of A Tragedy Play Essay
The Characterisitics Of A Tragedy Play Essay, Research Paper The Characteristics of a Tragedy Play Shakespeare was a well known playwright.Some of his most famous plays were tragedies.A tragedy involves the decent of a great man like a king or warrior from the most fortunate success to the to total defeat and death.The plays Hamlet and Macbeth have many of the characteristics of a tragedy.The characters Hamlet and Macbeth are the tragic heros in the plays.Hamlet and Macbeth are well known tragedies and the main character in each play is a tragic hero. Before discussing the plays Hamlet and Macbeth, one must know the characteristics of a tragedy.Two types of tragedy plays are:a major tragedy, and a minor tragedy.The major tragedy usually effects everyone,and the minor tragedy effects a small part of the people. The tragic hero must be a great and admirable man in both his powers and opportunities.He should be a person in society whose actions involve the well-being of its members.The plot of the play should show him working to achieve some goal very dear to him.This action will involve him in choices.There will be a web of circumstances and this will set off a chain of events that could not have been foreseen or stopped.The hostility of his destiny may be the result of circumstances,of the activities of his enemies,or some supernatural force hostile to him personally or to all humanity such as fate,the gods, or Satan.When it is too late to escape the victim comes to realize what has happened to him,and dies bitter,burnt-out,and desperate.The audience will know more about what is going on before the hero does,and sees his evil destiny at work long before he does. This sets up ironical tension,and is a powerful instrument for gaining the sympathy of the audience.The hero’s death at the end usually releases him from life’s burden,and the audience from its tension,but it also releases the hero’s society from the disorder his downfall had caused. The plays Hamlet and Macbeth have many of the characteristics of a tragedy.The two tragedies are major tragedies,they effect everyone that is around Hamlet and Macbeth.Macbeth and Hamlet were both working toward a goal.Hamlet is trying to get revenge for is dead father,and throughout the play he hurt many people along the way. Macbeth’s goal is to become king and after he claims the thrown he worries for the rest of the play about who is trying to kill him. Throughout the plays Macbeth and Hamlet hurt many people that they had once cared strongly for.The reason for all of the pain that Macbeth and Hamlet caused,was of a supernatural force.In Hamlet it was is father asking him to avenge his death.In Macbeth it was the three witches telling him that he would be king.The audience felt sorry for the two tragic heros,because they knew before the hero what was happening to them and how it was leading to their downfall. Hamlet and Macbeth were defiantly tragic heros.They were both in high places in the society.Hamlet was a kings son and effected many peoples lives.Macbeth was the Thaine of Glamis and later he becomes Thaine of Cawdor and eventually king.He defiantly effected many peoples lives.The heros in both plays stared out very good men however as the plays progressed they became worse.Macbeth was heartless when he had Lady Macduff and her children killed.He had reached his lowest point.Finally,in the end Macbeth and Hamlet realized what they had done and knew it was wrong,however,it was too late to change any of it. Shakespeare was a great writer.He created strong tragic characters.His plays were able to pull many emotions from the audience.The tragedies that he wrote were very good they were major tragedies.Macbeth and Hamlet were very popular tragedies,and still are today,their maine characters Macbeth and Hamlet were very strong tragic heros.
- Практические занятия | 810 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Tim Lambert
Windsor began as a Saxon village. The name Windsor is believed to be a corruption of the Saxon words 'windlass Oran' meaning a bank with a windlass. After the Saxons founded the settlement it grew into a town because of its position by a river. In those days it was expensive to transport goods by land. It was cheaper to transport them by the river. The Thames was an important artery between London and the heart of England. It was inevitable that a town would grow up on the site of Windsor.
By the time of the Domesday book (1086) Windsor was a small town it probably had a population of only a few hundred, which seems very small to us but settlements were very small in those days. A typical village only had about 100 to 150 inhabitants. William the Conqueror took Windsor as his own property. There was already a royal palace in the town. Windsor was near a forest where the king could go hunting and it was near a river which could be used for transport so the king liked it.
The original settlement was at Old Windsor but William built a castle on an escarpment at Clewer. Windsor Castle would have a large staff of defenders and servants and provided a market for the people's goods. So it stimulated the growth of Windsor. Soon the townspeople began to move to be nearer the castle and a new settlement grew up around it. At first Windsor castle was made of wood but in the 12th century, it was rebuilt in stone. Windsor castle was strengthened and improved by Henry II (1154-1189) and Henry III (1216-1272).
More about castles
Medieval Windsor was run by an official called a bailiff, on behalf of the king. In 1212 the people of Windsor were ordered to provide 10 armored men to serve the king. During the 13th century, Windsor grew in size and importance.
In 1277 Windsor was given a charter. This was a document granting the townspeople certain rights. The charter granted the merchants the right to form a guild, an organization that looked after their interests and regulated trade in the town. Windsor had a weekly market and from 1350 Windsor also had 2 fairs. A fair was like a market but was held only once a year and would attract buyers and sellers from all over Berkshire.
In the 15th century Windsor entered a recession and seems to have gone into decline. Nevertheless in 1467 Windsors government was reformed and it was given a proper corporation. From then on Windsor had a mayor and 2 bailiffs to assist him.
From the late 12th century there was a leper hospital outside Windsor.
Life in the Middle Ages
In the 16th century prosperity returned to Windsor. Three Tuns pub was built in 1518. St Georges Chapel in Windsor castle was begun in the reign of Edward IV (1442-1483) but it was completed in 1528 during the reign of Henry VIII.
From 1585 the inhabitants of Windsor were required by law to pave the streets in front of their houses. Whether they actually did so is doubtful!
Tudor Windsor would have been filthy. Like all towns in the 16th century and 17th century Windsor suffered from outbreaks of plague. There was a severe outbreak in 1603. Afterwards, a pest house was built where victims could be isolated and looked after. There was another outbreak of plague in Windsor in 1624-25.
In 1635 the residents of Windsor were forbidden to let their pigs wander the streets! (That was a common practice at that time as the pigs would eat offal and other rubbish people threw in the streets).
In 1636 an existing settlement in Connecticut was renamed Windsor.
In 1642 civil war between king and parliament began. Parliamentary troops were sent to occupy Windsor. The royalists made one attempt to take the town and castle in October 1642 but failed. Windsor remained in parliamentary hands until the end of the war in 1646. After his execution in 1649 Charles, I was buried in Windsor Castle.
By the late 17th century the population of Windsor had probably exceeded 2,000, by the standards of the time it was a respectably sized town. Meanwhile, in 1673 the first stagecoach service from Windsor to London began. Burford House was built c. 1677. In 1689 a new Guildhall was built in Windsor. Frogmore House was built in 1680.
At the end of the 17th century Celia Fiennes, a travel writer, said: 'Windsor town looks well, the streets large, the guildhall on stone pillars. From there the streets run along to the bridge over the Thames'.
During the 18th century Windsor continued to be a market town. In 1725 a charity school was built in Windsor for poor boys. In 1733 a workhouse was built for the destitute. As the name suggest the able bodied were expected to work.
In 1764 an existing French settlement in Canada was renamed Windsor.
18th century Windsor was improved by an act of Parliament of 1769, which set up a body of men who were responsible for paving, cleaning and lighting the streets. Previously residents were supposed to pave the street in front of their house and hang out a candle during the winter. How many actually did so is not known! From 1769 the streets of Windsor were properly paved and lanterns were hung out during dark winter nights. Six night watchmen were appointed to patrol the streets at night. Despite these improvements there was a great deal of poverty and slum housing in Windsor in the 18th century, as there was in all towns.
Meanwhile Windsor gained its first theatre, Theatre Royal, in 1793.
In 1801 at the time of the first census the population of Windsor was 3,361 making it a fair sized town. Windsor grew rapidly in the 19th century. By 1851 it was 6,734 and by the end of the century the population of Windsor had passed 9,000.
In 1810 another Windsor was founded in New South Wales. In 1836 another settlement in Canada was renamed Windsor.
During the 19th century Windsor remained a market town. The industrial revolution, which transformed other towns largely passed Windsor by. However in the 19th century there were some improvements in Windsor. In 1818 a dispensary was founded where the poor could obtain free medicines.
A cast iron bridge over the Thames was built in 1824. Gas street lighting was introduced in Windsor in 1827 and a railway from London reached Windsor in 1844.
Combermere barracks was first built in 1805. It was rebuilt in 1853. Victoria barracks was built in 1853.
In 1901 the population of Windsor was about 9,500. It was a small town dominated by the castle but it grew much larger during the 20th century. In 1932 Sir Eric Savill laid out 35 acres of gardens. The new gardens were named after him. The King George V Memorial was erected in 1937. St Georges Chapel was restored in 1922-23. In 1992 Windsor Castle suffered a fire. However by 1997 the damaged had been repaired.
At the beginning of the Second World War it was assumed Windsor would be safe from bombing as it was not a manufacturing center. Many evacuees were sent to the town but most of them soon went home. However Windsor was not entirely spared by the Germans.
Windsor has never been a manufacturing center. Today industry in the town is dominated by tourism and by banking and finance. There are also computer companies and a pharmaceuticals industry. However many of the people in Windsor commute to Slough or London.
The Household Cavalry Museum opened in 1964. Then in 1974 local government was reformed and Windsor was joined with Maidenhead. King Edward Court was built in 1979 and Royal Station shopping centre was built in 1997.
Today Windsor is a thriving town. The population of Windsor is 32,000.
A timeline of Windsor
A history of London
A history of Reading
A history of Basingstoke
A history of Newbury
A history of England | <urn:uuid:c8cfc167-9cea-4e66-8664-f575b4303eb7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://localhistories.org/windsor.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00124.warc.gz | en | 0.990476 | 1,668 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.0994167... | 2 | By Tim Lambert
Windsor began as a Saxon village. The name Windsor is believed to be a corruption of the Saxon words 'windlass Oran' meaning a bank with a windlass. After the Saxons founded the settlement it grew into a town because of its position by a river. In those days it was expensive to transport goods by land. It was cheaper to transport them by the river. The Thames was an important artery between London and the heart of England. It was inevitable that a town would grow up on the site of Windsor.
By the time of the Domesday book (1086) Windsor was a small town it probably had a population of only a few hundred, which seems very small to us but settlements were very small in those days. A typical village only had about 100 to 150 inhabitants. William the Conqueror took Windsor as his own property. There was already a royal palace in the town. Windsor was near a forest where the king could go hunting and it was near a river which could be used for transport so the king liked it.
The original settlement was at Old Windsor but William built a castle on an escarpment at Clewer. Windsor Castle would have a large staff of defenders and servants and provided a market for the people's goods. So it stimulated the growth of Windsor. Soon the townspeople began to move to be nearer the castle and a new settlement grew up around it. At first Windsor castle was made of wood but in the 12th century, it was rebuilt in stone. Windsor castle was strengthened and improved by Henry II (1154-1189) and Henry III (1216-1272).
More about castles
Medieval Windsor was run by an official called a bailiff, on behalf of the king. In 1212 the people of Windsor were ordered to provide 10 armored men to serve the king. During the 13th century, Windsor grew in size and importance.
In 1277 Windsor was given a charter. This was a document granting the townspeople certain rights. The charter granted the merchants the right to form a guild, an organization that looked after their interests and regulated trade in the town. Windsor had a weekly market and from 1350 Windsor also had 2 fairs. A fair was like a market but was held only once a year and would attract buyers and sellers from all over Berkshire.
In the 15th century Windsor entered a recession and seems to have gone into decline. Nevertheless in 1467 Windsors government was reformed and it was given a proper corporation. From then on Windsor had a mayor and 2 bailiffs to assist him.
From the late 12th century there was a leper hospital outside Windsor.
Life in the Middle Ages
In the 16th century prosperity returned to Windsor. Three Tuns pub was built in 1518. St Georges Chapel in Windsor castle was begun in the reign of Edward IV (1442-1483) but it was completed in 1528 during the reign of Henry VIII.
From 1585 the inhabitants of Windsor were required by law to pave the streets in front of their houses. Whether they actually did so is doubtful!
Tudor Windsor would have been filthy. Like all towns in the 16th century and 17th century Windsor suffered from outbreaks of plague. There was a severe outbreak in 1603. Afterwards, a pest house was built where victims could be isolated and looked after. There was another outbreak of plague in Windsor in 1624-25.
In 1635 the residents of Windsor were forbidden to let their pigs wander the streets! (That was a common practice at that time as the pigs would eat offal and other rubbish people threw in the streets).
In 1636 an existing settlement in Connecticut was renamed Windsor.
In 1642 civil war between king and parliament began. Parliamentary troops were sent to occupy Windsor. The royalists made one attempt to take the town and castle in October 1642 but failed. Windsor remained in parliamentary hands until the end of the war in 1646. After his execution in 1649 Charles, I was buried in Windsor Castle.
By the late 17th century the population of Windsor had probably exceeded 2,000, by the standards of the time it was a respectably sized town. Meanwhile, in 1673 the first stagecoach service from Windsor to London began. Burford House was built c. 1677. In 1689 a new Guildhall was built in Windsor. Frogmore House was built in 1680.
At the end of the 17th century Celia Fiennes, a travel writer, said: 'Windsor town looks well, the streets large, the guildhall on stone pillars. From there the streets run along to the bridge over the Thames'.
During the 18th century Windsor continued to be a market town. In 1725 a charity school was built in Windsor for poor boys. In 1733 a workhouse was built for the destitute. As the name suggest the able bodied were expected to work.
In 1764 an existing French settlement in Canada was renamed Windsor.
18th century Windsor was improved by an act of Parliament of 1769, which set up a body of men who were responsible for paving, cleaning and lighting the streets. Previously residents were supposed to pave the street in front of their house and hang out a candle during the winter. How many actually did so is not known! From 1769 the streets of Windsor were properly paved and lanterns were hung out during dark winter nights. Six night watchmen were appointed to patrol the streets at night. Despite these improvements there was a great deal of poverty and slum housing in Windsor in the 18th century, as there was in all towns.
Meanwhile Windsor gained its first theatre, Theatre Royal, in 1793.
In 1801 at the time of the first census the population of Windsor was 3,361 making it a fair sized town. Windsor grew rapidly in the 19th century. By 1851 it was 6,734 and by the end of the century the population of Windsor had passed 9,000.
In 1810 another Windsor was founded in New South Wales. In 1836 another settlement in Canada was renamed Windsor.
During the 19th century Windsor remained a market town. The industrial revolution, which transformed other towns largely passed Windsor by. However in the 19th century there were some improvements in Windsor. In 1818 a dispensary was founded where the poor could obtain free medicines.
A cast iron bridge over the Thames was built in 1824. Gas street lighting was introduced in Windsor in 1827 and a railway from London reached Windsor in 1844.
Combermere barracks was first built in 1805. It was rebuilt in 1853. Victoria barracks was built in 1853.
In 1901 the population of Windsor was about 9,500. It was a small town dominated by the castle but it grew much larger during the 20th century. In 1932 Sir Eric Savill laid out 35 acres of gardens. The new gardens were named after him. The King George V Memorial was erected in 1937. St Georges Chapel was restored in 1922-23. In 1992 Windsor Castle suffered a fire. However by 1997 the damaged had been repaired.
At the beginning of the Second World War it was assumed Windsor would be safe from bombing as it was not a manufacturing center. Many evacuees were sent to the town but most of them soon went home. However Windsor was not entirely spared by the Germans.
Windsor has never been a manufacturing center. Today industry in the town is dominated by tourism and by banking and finance. There are also computer companies and a pharmaceuticals industry. However many of the people in Windsor commute to Slough or London.
The Household Cavalry Museum opened in 1964. Then in 1974 local government was reformed and Windsor was joined with Maidenhead. King Edward Court was built in 1979 and Royal Station shopping centre was built in 1997.
Today Windsor is a thriving town. The population of Windsor is 32,000.
A timeline of Windsor
A history of London
A history of Reading
A history of Basingstoke
A history of Newbury
A history of England | 1,865 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Napier was Hawke’s Bay’s leading town throughout the 19th century and into the 20th. It was the region’s administrative centre and housed its most vital piece of infrastructure – the main port. However, the value of goods exported from the port fell from the 1890s, and, until the early 20th century, so did Napier’s population. The town was built on a sandy spit of land surrounded by water, which also hindered expansion and growth, despite some land reclamation.
By contrast, the nearby town of Hastings grew steadily into the 20th century. It was supported by profitable industries such as meat processing and horticulture, and surrounded by flat land suitable for urban expansion.
The growth of Hastings, and its close proximity to Napier, created a sense of rivalry between the two towns. By the 1920s Hastings was the main shopping centre of the region. Though both were subject to fluctuating economic fortunes during this decade, Hastings seemed to be prospering ahead of Napier. The 1931 earthquake changed this.
1931 Hawke’s Bay earthquake
The 7.8 magnitude earthquake that struck on 3 February 1931 was the most significant event in the region’s modern history. For people who lived through it, it became a boundary marker – life was divided into before and after the ‘quake’.
Its effect was complex. At least 256 people died, and most of central Napier and parts of other towns (mainly Hastings) were destroyed. However, the earthquake raised over 2,000 hectares of land around the Ahuriri Lagoon in Napier, providing vital room for the previously water-bound town to grow. The construction of new industry, housing and an airport on reclaimed land prevented Hastings from overtaking its rival.
The twin cities
Napier achieved city status (20,000 people) in 1950, followed closely by Hastings in 1956. Both had housing shortages after the Second World War and new suburbs, which included state (public) housing, were built.
In the 1960s and 1970s the two cities competed to secure a polytechnic (Napier won when it was built in nearby Taradale) and disagreed over local government reform, which Napier managed to control in its favour. Though Hastings was the regional centre of the agricultural and horticultural industries, and the favoured location of head offices by this period, Napier had more government department offices and retained a political edge.
In 1999 a merger of the two cities was mooted. This was supported by 67.1% of Hastings district voters but only 25.3% of Napier voters. Napier residents were reluctant to take on Hastings, with its large rural hinterland.
At times, the cities worked together on certain initiatives, most notably Hawke’s Bay Incorporated, the regional economic development agency. | <urn:uuid:3b524562-6fa0-486c-a239-d12a2ec2b2fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/en/hawkes-bay-region/page-13 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00494.warc.gz | en | 0.983727 | 592 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.29212146... | 14 | Napier was Hawke’s Bay’s leading town throughout the 19th century and into the 20th. It was the region’s administrative centre and housed its most vital piece of infrastructure – the main port. However, the value of goods exported from the port fell from the 1890s, and, until the early 20th century, so did Napier’s population. The town was built on a sandy spit of land surrounded by water, which also hindered expansion and growth, despite some land reclamation.
By contrast, the nearby town of Hastings grew steadily into the 20th century. It was supported by profitable industries such as meat processing and horticulture, and surrounded by flat land suitable for urban expansion.
The growth of Hastings, and its close proximity to Napier, created a sense of rivalry between the two towns. By the 1920s Hastings was the main shopping centre of the region. Though both were subject to fluctuating economic fortunes during this decade, Hastings seemed to be prospering ahead of Napier. The 1931 earthquake changed this.
1931 Hawke’s Bay earthquake
The 7.8 magnitude earthquake that struck on 3 February 1931 was the most significant event in the region’s modern history. For people who lived through it, it became a boundary marker – life was divided into before and after the ‘quake’.
Its effect was complex. At least 256 people died, and most of central Napier and parts of other towns (mainly Hastings) were destroyed. However, the earthquake raised over 2,000 hectares of land around the Ahuriri Lagoon in Napier, providing vital room for the previously water-bound town to grow. The construction of new industry, housing and an airport on reclaimed land prevented Hastings from overtaking its rival.
The twin cities
Napier achieved city status (20,000 people) in 1950, followed closely by Hastings in 1956. Both had housing shortages after the Second World War and new suburbs, which included state (public) housing, were built.
In the 1960s and 1970s the two cities competed to secure a polytechnic (Napier won when it was built in nearby Taradale) and disagreed over local government reform, which Napier managed to control in its favour. Though Hastings was the regional centre of the agricultural and horticultural industries, and the favoured location of head offices by this period, Napier had more government department offices and retained a political edge.
In 1999 a merger of the two cities was mooted. This was supported by 67.1% of Hastings district voters but only 25.3% of Napier voters. Napier residents were reluctant to take on Hastings, with its large rural hinterland.
At times, the cities worked together on certain initiatives, most notably Hawke’s Bay Incorporated, the regional economic development agency. | 629 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1914, Princess Mary, daughter of King George V and Queen Mary decided that she would send a gift ‘from the nation’ to all of those serving abroad in the War. Initially, Princess Mary had intended to pay for the gifts out of her allowance, but it was decided that a public fund would be set up with her backing.
The public response to the appeal for funds was considerable, with more money than required being raised. It was then decided that the list of those eligible to receive a gift would be increased to also include those who were serving at home, prisoners of war and the families of those who had died in 1914. This increased the number of those eligible to over 2 million.
The contents of the brass Christmas boxes varied depending on the recipient, but the standard box issued contained; tobacco, 20 cigarettes, a pipe, a Christmas card, and a photograph of Princess Mary. Non-smokers received a packet of acid tablets and khaki writing case, and nurses were given chocolate.
It is estimated that over 350,000 boxes were delivered by the Christmas of 1914, with the rest following on over the next few years, delayed by brass shortages and issues with distribution. The Christmas boxes became a valued possession of many who served, often used for storing personal items after its initial contents had been used up. | <urn:uuid:ae93b52e-528b-44db-9cf8-0d0ea9faa2c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thehighlandersmuseum.com/?p=26962 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.989562 | 270 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.1252194792032241... | 8 | In 1914, Princess Mary, daughter of King George V and Queen Mary decided that she would send a gift ‘from the nation’ to all of those serving abroad in the War. Initially, Princess Mary had intended to pay for the gifts out of her allowance, but it was decided that a public fund would be set up with her backing.
The public response to the appeal for funds was considerable, with more money than required being raised. It was then decided that the list of those eligible to receive a gift would be increased to also include those who were serving at home, prisoners of war and the families of those who had died in 1914. This increased the number of those eligible to over 2 million.
The contents of the brass Christmas boxes varied depending on the recipient, but the standard box issued contained; tobacco, 20 cigarettes, a pipe, a Christmas card, and a photograph of Princess Mary. Non-smokers received a packet of acid tablets and khaki writing case, and nurses were given chocolate.
It is estimated that over 350,000 boxes were delivered by the Christmas of 1914, with the rest following on over the next few years, delayed by brass shortages and issues with distribution. The Christmas boxes became a valued possession of many who served, often used for storing personal items after its initial contents had been used up. | 284 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In numerous ways, both economically and culturally, the 1920s proved to be America’s modern decade. What were the sources of 1920s prosperity? Did the affluence reach all classes?
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
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- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
The 1920s was characterized by widespread prosperity and saw a huge growth in economy as a result of numerous factors. There was a rapid growth in consumer goods such as automobiles, construction boom, and advancing government growth policies (Joseph, 1946). The United States’ economy transformed into a consolidated and peacetime one, as its society acculturated into consumerism. With the emergence of new technologies, there also came a need for infrastructure, funded by the government. There was widespread electrification program, and enaction of telephone lines, indoor plumbing, and modern sewer systems.
However, with widespread prosperity, there were sectors that were left behind, mining and farming. With failures in these sectors, those working in them were adversely affected. They ended up becoming jobless as farm produce became unsellable. These meant that workers in farms could not enjoy what the rest of the population was doing. It is important to note that, during this time, about half of America’s population lived in the rural areas. Those who were majorly affected were the black community as well as immigrant workers. Immigrant workers worked for little money as they faced discrimination in their working fields.
Mass production in industries such as radio, movie, chemical and automobile skyrocketed (Joseph, 1946). There was a widespread mass production in vehicles in the United States. By 1927, Ford had sold about fifteen million of the Model T cars. Automobile parts became available to the average consumers. The effects brought about by the automobile industry were widespread as it contributed to other industries such as service stations, used car dealership, highway building, motels, as well as new housing units.
What changes took place in the daily lives of the middle classes and the 20s youth?
The diet of the Americans changed in general as hygiene improved. As there was an increase in farming activities, especially wheat, most Americans ate wheat related products and fresh farm produce. Moreover, with new commodities manufacture for skin use, there was an overall change in the way people groomed themselves. With new trends in fashion, urban women adopted a new style of grooming. There emerged a class of Americans with extra money and desire to spend. This increased the demnd for goods.
In this era, there was a huge increase in cash being spent on leisure activities such as sports, movies and dances. However, the new pursuits of leisure time became a conflict with culture. Nightclubs became accessed by various groups including women who had been restricted earlier. The 20s also saw an increase in consumer spending. The middle class afforded technology as a result of mass production. People started spending on goods and services from the chemical, movie, automobile, and radio industries. There was a boom in Hollywood as entertainment became availed to the masses. Going to the theater to watch a movie became accessible and affordable.
The spirit in the 1920s was that of a feeling of discontinuity; that is a break with old traditions. There were changes in the American way of life. Birth rate fell down as divorce rate increased. There was an increase in sexual activity before and after marriage. A sizable number of working class women began working outside their homes. These women also started attending colleges as they entered professional careers. There were concerns that the American family was in a crisis. Moralists wondered whether the family could survive in the new social order that had emerged. The modern woman sought to be equal with the man, for example, she went to a night club, drunk, smoked and sought for sexual gratification.
What roles did mass media come to play in people’s lives?
The 1920s also saw an emergence of numerous radio stations. In 1922, KDKA began broadcasting in Pittsburgh as the first commercial radio station. Numerous others proliferated at a remarkable rate. These radio stations were very instrumental in promoting music genres like jazz (Hakim, 1995). Many Americans began to listen to sweet music, as musicians became exposed to the masses due to the spread of radio stations.
Another area that boomed in the 1920s was the movies. The first all-color feature known as the Toll of the Sea was released in 1922. The year 1926 saw Warner Bros release Don Juan as the first feature that had music and sound effects, and in 1927, The Jazz Singer, as the first sound feature that included restricted talking sequences. There were many cartoons that released in the following years, which became popular in numerous movie theaters during this period. This is the time that Walt Disney emerged, in addition to the emergence of box office draws such as Charlie Chaplin, Billie Dove, Joan Crawford, Colleen Moore, Al Jolson and many others.
There was a lot of advertising going on ass the emerging fashion popularized. Both radio stations and movie theaters did a lot of advertising to sell fashion and other consumer products. Newspapers and magazines were instrumental in selling out the new social lifestyle that had emerged in the 1920s. There was a lot of literary activity, as numerous works of notable authors made an appearance. Young women’s fashion became a trend as well as a social statement as immortalized in magazine covers and movies. Radio advertising became instrumental for mass marketing during this period (Hakim, 1995).
What changes did women see in their personal lives and social status?
The 1920s gave birth to what can be referred to as the feminine mystique. During this time, many women wanted to marry; they wanted to stay at home with their children and do housework such as cooking and cleaning. In addition to this, it is important to note that they were highly educated and working, so, they freely exercised their purchasing power (Brown, 1987). They did this frequently with the aim of bettering their homes and families. On the other hand, housewives began feeling unsatisfied and frustrated.
The 1920s also saw most women begin attending large state universities and colleges. They began entering mainstream middle class experience. They typically began enrolling in classes such as home economics. Notably, this post-war era was increasingly becoming conservative. Women could attend college with the aim of finding a suitable husband. They were fueled with the idea of being sexually liberated; hence the dating exercise underwent major changes on universities and colleges.
A legislation that was passed at the beginning of the twentieth century saw numerous factories paying a minimum wage and shortening their workdays (Brown, 1987). With this legislation, there was a shift of focus in the 1920s to job performance so as to meet demand. Many women, including black females, were employed in sectors like laundry and agriculture. The economic boom in the 1920s meant more opportunities extended to lower classes. Women advanced in the work force; they became hired for office jobs.
When the 19th amendment was passed in 1920, women gained the political equality they had been fighting for. During this time, women wanted to succeed in areas that they had been earlier denied. There were groups such as the National Women’s Party (NWP) that kept on fighting foe more political rights. They proposed the Equal Rights Amendment in 1923, worked to do away with laws that employed sex as a discrimination tool.
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-0.0766241922974... | 1 | In numerous ways, both economically and culturally, the 1920s proved to be America’s modern decade. What were the sources of 1920s prosperity? Did the affluence reach all classes?
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
The 1920s was characterized by widespread prosperity and saw a huge growth in economy as a result of numerous factors. There was a rapid growth in consumer goods such as automobiles, construction boom, and advancing government growth policies (Joseph, 1946). The United States’ economy transformed into a consolidated and peacetime one, as its society acculturated into consumerism. With the emergence of new technologies, there also came a need for infrastructure, funded by the government. There was widespread electrification program, and enaction of telephone lines, indoor plumbing, and modern sewer systems.
However, with widespread prosperity, there were sectors that were left behind, mining and farming. With failures in these sectors, those working in them were adversely affected. They ended up becoming jobless as farm produce became unsellable. These meant that workers in farms could not enjoy what the rest of the population was doing. It is important to note that, during this time, about half of America’s population lived in the rural areas. Those who were majorly affected were the black community as well as immigrant workers. Immigrant workers worked for little money as they faced discrimination in their working fields.
Mass production in industries such as radio, movie, chemical and automobile skyrocketed (Joseph, 1946). There was a widespread mass production in vehicles in the United States. By 1927, Ford had sold about fifteen million of the Model T cars. Automobile parts became available to the average consumers. The effects brought about by the automobile industry were widespread as it contributed to other industries such as service stations, used car dealership, highway building, motels, as well as new housing units.
What changes took place in the daily lives of the middle classes and the 20s youth?
The diet of the Americans changed in general as hygiene improved. As there was an increase in farming activities, especially wheat, most Americans ate wheat related products and fresh farm produce. Moreover, with new commodities manufacture for skin use, there was an overall change in the way people groomed themselves. With new trends in fashion, urban women adopted a new style of grooming. There emerged a class of Americans with extra money and desire to spend. This increased the demnd for goods.
In this era, there was a huge increase in cash being spent on leisure activities such as sports, movies and dances. However, the new pursuits of leisure time became a conflict with culture. Nightclubs became accessed by various groups including women who had been restricted earlier. The 20s also saw an increase in consumer spending. The middle class afforded technology as a result of mass production. People started spending on goods and services from the chemical, movie, automobile, and radio industries. There was a boom in Hollywood as entertainment became availed to the masses. Going to the theater to watch a movie became accessible and affordable.
The spirit in the 1920s was that of a feeling of discontinuity; that is a break with old traditions. There were changes in the American way of life. Birth rate fell down as divorce rate increased. There was an increase in sexual activity before and after marriage. A sizable number of working class women began working outside their homes. These women also started attending colleges as they entered professional careers. There were concerns that the American family was in a crisis. Moralists wondered whether the family could survive in the new social order that had emerged. The modern woman sought to be equal with the man, for example, she went to a night club, drunk, smoked and sought for sexual gratification.
What roles did mass media come to play in people’s lives?
The 1920s also saw an emergence of numerous radio stations. In 1922, KDKA began broadcasting in Pittsburgh as the first commercial radio station. Numerous others proliferated at a remarkable rate. These radio stations were very instrumental in promoting music genres like jazz (Hakim, 1995). Many Americans began to listen to sweet music, as musicians became exposed to the masses due to the spread of radio stations.
Another area that boomed in the 1920s was the movies. The first all-color feature known as the Toll of the Sea was released in 1922. The year 1926 saw Warner Bros release Don Juan as the first feature that had music and sound effects, and in 1927, The Jazz Singer, as the first sound feature that included restricted talking sequences. There were many cartoons that released in the following years, which became popular in numerous movie theaters during this period. This is the time that Walt Disney emerged, in addition to the emergence of box office draws such as Charlie Chaplin, Billie Dove, Joan Crawford, Colleen Moore, Al Jolson and many others.
There was a lot of advertising going on ass the emerging fashion popularized. Both radio stations and movie theaters did a lot of advertising to sell fashion and other consumer products. Newspapers and magazines were instrumental in selling out the new social lifestyle that had emerged in the 1920s. There was a lot of literary activity, as numerous works of notable authors made an appearance. Young women’s fashion became a trend as well as a social statement as immortalized in magazine covers and movies. Radio advertising became instrumental for mass marketing during this period (Hakim, 1995).
What changes did women see in their personal lives and social status?
The 1920s gave birth to what can be referred to as the feminine mystique. During this time, many women wanted to marry; they wanted to stay at home with their children and do housework such as cooking and cleaning. In addition to this, it is important to note that they were highly educated and working, so, they freely exercised their purchasing power (Brown, 1987). They did this frequently with the aim of bettering their homes and families. On the other hand, housewives began feeling unsatisfied and frustrated.
The 1920s also saw most women begin attending large state universities and colleges. They began entering mainstream middle class experience. They typically began enrolling in classes such as home economics. Notably, this post-war era was increasingly becoming conservative. Women could attend college with the aim of finding a suitable husband. They were fueled with the idea of being sexually liberated; hence the dating exercise underwent major changes on universities and colleges.
A legislation that was passed at the beginning of the twentieth century saw numerous factories paying a minimum wage and shortening their workdays (Brown, 1987). With this legislation, there was a shift of focus in the 1920s to job performance so as to meet demand. Many women, including black females, were employed in sectors like laundry and agriculture. The economic boom in the 1920s meant more opportunities extended to lower classes. Women advanced in the work force; they became hired for office jobs.
When the 19th amendment was passed in 1920, women gained the political equality they had been fighting for. During this time, women wanted to succeed in areas that they had been earlier denied. There were groups such as the National Women’s Party (NWP) that kept on fighting foe more political rights. They proposed the Equal Rights Amendment in 1923, worked to do away with laws that employed sex as a discrimination tool.
Most popular orders | 1,621 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We mark time in many different ways – months, weeks, days, seconds. These terms get thrown around regularly, and they play a huge role in the way we conceptualize the many happenings of our lives.
Here we’ll take a look at each of the months and try to answer some fundamental questions about them: where do they get their names from, why are there twelve of them, why does the year begin in January, and more!
January is named after Janus, the Roman god of beginnings and endings. Janus presided over doors and gates, which feels appropriate for the new year. He is often depicted with two faces – one looking forward and the other looking backward. Notably, January was the last month to be added to the calendar, which originally had ten months and began in March.
February is named after a Roman purification festival called februa, which occurred around the fifteenth of this month. Februa literally means “month of cleansing” – a fitting title considering that February was once the last month of the year. Much like the New Year’s Resolutions of today, a “month of cleansing” seems like a good way to say goodbye to the old and usher in the new.
March is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. In ancient Rome, war was ceased during the time of celebration between the old and new year. Since March was the earliest part of the year when the weather was mild enough to begin waging war again, it was originally the first month.
There are a few different theories about where April gets its name. Some believe that April is derived from the Latin base apero – meaning “second” – because it was once the second month of the year. Others say it comes from another Latin word, aperire, which means “to open” and is suggestive of the opening of buds and flowers during springtime. Still others claim that April was named for Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, beauty, and procreation.
May is named for the Greek goddess Maia. She had a son, Hermes, with the god Zeus, and she was an earth goddess and a goddess of growth, which explains her connection to this springtime month.
June is named after Juno, the wife of Jupiter and queen of the gods. Juno was the patroness of childbirth and marriage, which is fitting for what has long been the most popular month for weddings.
July was the birth month of Julius Caesar, for whom the month was renamed following his death in 44 B.C. Previously, July was called “Quintilis,” which is Latin for “fifth” and referred to the fact that, with the calendar year beginning in March, July was the fifth month. July was also the first month to be named after a real person, rather than a Roman or Greek deity.
August is the only other month named after a historical figure – Augustus Caesar, who was the nephew of Julius Caesar and the first emperor of Rome. Much like July, August was previously called “Sextilius,” meaning – you guessed it – “sixth.” It was Emperor Augustus’ legacy which eventually gave rise to the adjective august, meaning “respected and impressive.” Additionally, July and August were both allotted thirty-one days to reflect the importance of the leaders that they represented.
September, October, November, December
September, October, November, and December come from the Latin words septem, octo, novem, and decem, meaning “seventh,” “eighth,” “ninth,” and “tenth.” Though their root meanings now make them feel out of place in the calendar year, prior to the addition of January and February, they were indeed the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth months.
The names of the months are all derived from three sources: Greek and Roman deities, Roman rulers, and numbers. Interestingly, though Julius Caesar made January the first month of the year with the implementation of the Julian Calendar in 709 BC, many places around the world continued to celebrate the New Year in March for centuries to come. In fact, England and the American colonies rang in the new year on the day of the spring equinox up until 1752, nearly two hundred years after most western nations adopted a January first New Year in accordance with Pope Gregory’s implementation of the Gregorian calendar (which is still the most widely used calendar today).
One final fun fact on the subject: The word “month” comes from the Proto-Germanic word for “moon.” Starting with the implementation of the Julian calendar, each month was intended to reflect a single lunar cycle. It was Julius Caesar’s astronomers who explained the need for twelve months plus the addition of leap year in order to synchronize with the seasons, which is why he elected to add January and February to the calendar. The word Monday shares a similar root, and literally means “day of the moon.”
Janet Barrow writes about the places where language meets history, culture, and politics. She studied Written Arts at Bard College, and her fiction has appeared in Easy Street and Adelaide Magazine. After two years in Lima, Peru, she recently moved to Chicago. | <urn:uuid:983447bd-717e-478b-9b28-fe5544aea09e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.altalang.com/beyond-words/how-did-the-months-get-their-names/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.980488 | 1,117 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.33896535... | 3 | We mark time in many different ways – months, weeks, days, seconds. These terms get thrown around regularly, and they play a huge role in the way we conceptualize the many happenings of our lives.
Here we’ll take a look at each of the months and try to answer some fundamental questions about them: where do they get their names from, why are there twelve of them, why does the year begin in January, and more!
January is named after Janus, the Roman god of beginnings and endings. Janus presided over doors and gates, which feels appropriate for the new year. He is often depicted with two faces – one looking forward and the other looking backward. Notably, January was the last month to be added to the calendar, which originally had ten months and began in March.
February is named after a Roman purification festival called februa, which occurred around the fifteenth of this month. Februa literally means “month of cleansing” – a fitting title considering that February was once the last month of the year. Much like the New Year’s Resolutions of today, a “month of cleansing” seems like a good way to say goodbye to the old and usher in the new.
March is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. In ancient Rome, war was ceased during the time of celebration between the old and new year. Since March was the earliest part of the year when the weather was mild enough to begin waging war again, it was originally the first month.
There are a few different theories about where April gets its name. Some believe that April is derived from the Latin base apero – meaning “second” – because it was once the second month of the year. Others say it comes from another Latin word, aperire, which means “to open” and is suggestive of the opening of buds and flowers during springtime. Still others claim that April was named for Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, beauty, and procreation.
May is named for the Greek goddess Maia. She had a son, Hermes, with the god Zeus, and she was an earth goddess and a goddess of growth, which explains her connection to this springtime month.
June is named after Juno, the wife of Jupiter and queen of the gods. Juno was the patroness of childbirth and marriage, which is fitting for what has long been the most popular month for weddings.
July was the birth month of Julius Caesar, for whom the month was renamed following his death in 44 B.C. Previously, July was called “Quintilis,” which is Latin for “fifth” and referred to the fact that, with the calendar year beginning in March, July was the fifth month. July was also the first month to be named after a real person, rather than a Roman or Greek deity.
August is the only other month named after a historical figure – Augustus Caesar, who was the nephew of Julius Caesar and the first emperor of Rome. Much like July, August was previously called “Sextilius,” meaning – you guessed it – “sixth.” It was Emperor Augustus’ legacy which eventually gave rise to the adjective august, meaning “respected and impressive.” Additionally, July and August were both allotted thirty-one days to reflect the importance of the leaders that they represented.
September, October, November, December
September, October, November, and December come from the Latin words septem, octo, novem, and decem, meaning “seventh,” “eighth,” “ninth,” and “tenth.” Though their root meanings now make them feel out of place in the calendar year, prior to the addition of January and February, they were indeed the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth months.
The names of the months are all derived from three sources: Greek and Roman deities, Roman rulers, and numbers. Interestingly, though Julius Caesar made January the first month of the year with the implementation of the Julian Calendar in 709 BC, many places around the world continued to celebrate the New Year in March for centuries to come. In fact, England and the American colonies rang in the new year on the day of the spring equinox up until 1752, nearly two hundred years after most western nations adopted a January first New Year in accordance with Pope Gregory’s implementation of the Gregorian calendar (which is still the most widely used calendar today).
One final fun fact on the subject: The word “month” comes from the Proto-Germanic word for “moon.” Starting with the implementation of the Julian calendar, each month was intended to reflect a single lunar cycle. It was Julius Caesar’s astronomers who explained the need for twelve months plus the addition of leap year in order to synchronize with the seasons, which is why he elected to add January and February to the calendar. The word Monday shares a similar root, and literally means “day of the moon.”
Janet Barrow writes about the places where language meets history, culture, and politics. She studied Written Arts at Bard College, and her fiction has appeared in Easy Street and Adelaide Magazine. After two years in Lima, Peru, she recently moved to Chicago. | 1,061 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why Britain was Reluctant to Annex Cameroon
1) Britain was reluctant to annex Cameroon because there were conflicting views between the British foreign office and the British colonial office. The foreign office favoured annexation while the colonial office was against it.
2) Also, Britain had the feeling that she already had enough territories in West Africa. By this time Britain had already colonized, Sierra Leone, the Gold-Coastand Lagos.
3) Britain was still exercising confidences in the treaties, which she had with he coastal chiefs. By the terms of these treaties the coastal chiefs had agreed’ that they would not favour any other European power more than Britain and that they would take care of British:Property as if it was their own.
4) Britain was more interested in trade and British trade was doing well without annexation.
5) She believed that the territory was poor of resources. And that annexing it would be an unnecessary financial burden to British tax payers.
6) Britain feared annexation would lead to wars with the interior tribes especially if she engages in operations such as the suppression of slave trade and slavery.
7) The British annexation of Egypt in 1882 had already alienated France more over they had come into tacit agreements with the French that they should not create colonial empires just because of petty…quarrels among European traders.
8) Britain at the time did not foresee that Germany or, any other European power was interested in annexing Cameroon. Even the French advance was not yet considered a threat.
9)The French advance from the South of Cameroon was riot yet considered or seen as a threat to
British interest in Cameroon.
10) The British discovered Gold in South Africa and were more interested in other areas like Australia that were considered to be richer than Cameroon.
Why the Britain later changed her Attitude and entered the race to Annex Cameroon
1. Britain eventually entered the race for the annexation of Cameroon because in 1884, Britain discovered a secret plot by Germany to annex Cameroon.
2. The French advanced from the South of Cameroon was now seen as a threat to British commercial interest. The French had even signed treaties with King Pass All of Malimba.
3. Consul Hewett’s reports on the Cameroon Coast influenced the British. In his reports he revealed that the Cameroonian soil was suitable for plantations and also that the English traders were willing to bear the cost of administration.
4. Britain discovered that the area around mount Cameroon had a suitable climate for European settlement. They therefore wanted to make Buea the headquarter at the Oil river protectorate.
5. Britain entered the race to annex Cameroon to safeguard her pride. The French or German annexation was bound to bring disgrace to Britain, as a leading colonial power.
6. There was pressure from British traders Britain therefore wanted to safe guard their interest.*
7. Pressure also came from English Baptist Missionaries. They feared that they would be expelled as in Fernando Po should Britain fail to annex the territory.
8. Britain wanted to protect her source of raw materials and also open up the interior for British trade. | <urn:uuid:e79117f8-8086-40cb-afb8-4843af0c7ac6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://cameroongcerevision.com/britain-reluctant-annex-cameroon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00372.warc.gz | en | 0.984701 | 637 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.008949812501... | 3 | Why Britain was Reluctant to Annex Cameroon
1) Britain was reluctant to annex Cameroon because there were conflicting views between the British foreign office and the British colonial office. The foreign office favoured annexation while the colonial office was against it.
2) Also, Britain had the feeling that she already had enough territories in West Africa. By this time Britain had already colonized, Sierra Leone, the Gold-Coastand Lagos.
3) Britain was still exercising confidences in the treaties, which she had with he coastal chiefs. By the terms of these treaties the coastal chiefs had agreed’ that they would not favour any other European power more than Britain and that they would take care of British:Property as if it was their own.
4) Britain was more interested in trade and British trade was doing well without annexation.
5) She believed that the territory was poor of resources. And that annexing it would be an unnecessary financial burden to British tax payers.
6) Britain feared annexation would lead to wars with the interior tribes especially if she engages in operations such as the suppression of slave trade and slavery.
7) The British annexation of Egypt in 1882 had already alienated France more over they had come into tacit agreements with the French that they should not create colonial empires just because of petty…quarrels among European traders.
8) Britain at the time did not foresee that Germany or, any other European power was interested in annexing Cameroon. Even the French advance was not yet considered a threat.
9)The French advance from the South of Cameroon was riot yet considered or seen as a threat to
British interest in Cameroon.
10) The British discovered Gold in South Africa and were more interested in other areas like Australia that were considered to be richer than Cameroon.
Why the Britain later changed her Attitude and entered the race to Annex Cameroon
1. Britain eventually entered the race for the annexation of Cameroon because in 1884, Britain discovered a secret plot by Germany to annex Cameroon.
2. The French advanced from the South of Cameroon was now seen as a threat to British commercial interest. The French had even signed treaties with King Pass All of Malimba.
3. Consul Hewett’s reports on the Cameroon Coast influenced the British. In his reports he revealed that the Cameroonian soil was suitable for plantations and also that the English traders were willing to bear the cost of administration.
4. Britain discovered that the area around mount Cameroon had a suitable climate for European settlement. They therefore wanted to make Buea the headquarter at the Oil river protectorate.
5. Britain entered the race to annex Cameroon to safeguard her pride. The French or German annexation was bound to bring disgrace to Britain, as a leading colonial power.
6. There was pressure from British traders Britain therefore wanted to safe guard their interest.*
7. Pressure also came from English Baptist Missionaries. They feared that they would be expelled as in Fernando Po should Britain fail to annex the territory.
8. Britain wanted to protect her source of raw materials and also open up the interior for British trade. | 632 | ENGLISH | 1 |
François-Marie Arouet was a French philosopher and writer of Age of Enlightenment. Voltaire would establish himself as one the leading writers of the Enlightenment. Voltaire was born in Paris, France on November 21 1694. When Voltaire was only 7 years old his mother passed away which made him come closer to his free-thinking godfather. She was a very strong woman who went through a lot of pain and suffering but did prove capable of over passing all that. Voltaire went to School Collége Louis-le-Grand in 1704(Biography, 2017) where he received a classical education which was Jesuit. This is where he would win many academic prizes. He would also receive a sound liberal education which enhanced his ability as a writer and trained his critical sense. Theatrical training was also in his training. His father insisted and believed that his son should keep on studying study law but Voltaire had a vision of himself becoming a great poet. Voltaire was elated when his godfather the sophisticated Abbé de Châteauneuf, introduced him into the daringly liberal society of the Temple. To Voltaire the Temple was a society of “Princes and Poets”(CliffNotes Francois Voltaire Biography , 2016). At some point Voltaire was a tragic poet. But his godfather was there to support him. He began showing promise as a writer. Abbé de Châteauneuf was Voltaire’s godfather which actually taught him to recite lines from the satirical and shocking poem Moïsade. He would have multiple pieces that became famous for example, the tragic play Zaïre, the historical study The Age of Louis XIV and the satirical novella Candide(Halsall, 1998). Facing the odds with the French authorities over his politically charged work, he was once imprisoned two times and spent many years in exile. He would later on die coming back from France in 1778. Viewing into Voltaire’s one of many books he has came out with many throughout his years. This one in particular is based on letters to the English about his own experiences living in England between 1726 and 1729. Gamifying his life would be interesting and something cool to see because now looking into his life, it was pretty crazy. Voltaire’s had a successful professional life. Voltaire body of writing also includes the notable historical works The Age of Louis XIV (1751) and Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations (1756) (Hewett, 2006). In the latter, Voltaire took a unique approach to tracing the progression of world civilization by focusing on social history and the arts. In 1952, researcher and writer Theodore Besterman established a museum devoted to Voltaire in Geneva. He later set about writing a biography of his favorite subject, and following his death in 1976. This gets to show that Voltaire was a respected man and people actually looked up to him. Voltaire had a career that would stretch out to 60 years. He wrote many influential poems, essays, and books and famous pieces including letters to the English. It was a series of articles and information to read about. The articles were long and were written in detail which to me can be considered pretty boring, so I will providing some interesting information about Voltaire. It was rumored that Voltaire would drink up to 40 cups of coffee in a day which may explain why there would be days when he worked up to 18 hours a day writing.Voltaire did become hugely wealthy by exploiting a flaw in the French lottery, which at the end of the day is a very bad thing. The setting for a game based on Voltaire would have to be a background that would be common around his time. The main character is obviously Voltaire and it would also be interesting because many things have happened in his life which were both crazy and successful. There could be a couple more players in the game like a brother or sister or even mom or dad but you will have to wait and see. You could get points by collecting books which are coins in the game and you would have to get through the obstacles in the game which refers back to Voltaire’s life because let us be honest he had both positives and negatives in his life. The more the points the better because your score will keep on increasing and you could compare it to other players. The obstacles will count as a negative person in Voltaire’s life so it would be an enemy in the game so hit it and you will lose a life. When you reach 10 coins you will gain a live so that is a little bonus to help you out in the later parts of the game. Once you have collected all coins in the game you will unlock a chest with all the information you will ever need to become a great poet and the game will be won but of course you would have to get through the many obstacles and objectives to get the chest to unlock in the first place. All these things can either make you lose a life or gain you points/score or make you reset to the beginning of the level which will just makes things harder on yourself but you chose the way to play the game. My game concept should be made because it would be unique and before this I would of never even thought of playing a game that is based around Voltaire. I feel that if I get the time I could spice it up and come up with something creative at least and it would make the game interesting. | <urn:uuid:5f8a5189-d2f9-4d0c-82ea-8e0ac5f44649> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/francois-marie-is-where-he-would-win-many-academic-prizes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00043.warc.gz | en | 0.990454 | 1,129 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.33606696128... | 1 | François-Marie Arouet was a French philosopher and writer of Age of Enlightenment. Voltaire would establish himself as one the leading writers of the Enlightenment. Voltaire was born in Paris, France on November 21 1694. When Voltaire was only 7 years old his mother passed away which made him come closer to his free-thinking godfather. She was a very strong woman who went through a lot of pain and suffering but did prove capable of over passing all that. Voltaire went to School Collége Louis-le-Grand in 1704(Biography, 2017) where he received a classical education which was Jesuit. This is where he would win many academic prizes. He would also receive a sound liberal education which enhanced his ability as a writer and trained his critical sense. Theatrical training was also in his training. His father insisted and believed that his son should keep on studying study law but Voltaire had a vision of himself becoming a great poet. Voltaire was elated when his godfather the sophisticated Abbé de Châteauneuf, introduced him into the daringly liberal society of the Temple. To Voltaire the Temple was a society of “Princes and Poets”(CliffNotes Francois Voltaire Biography , 2016). At some point Voltaire was a tragic poet. But his godfather was there to support him. He began showing promise as a writer. Abbé de Châteauneuf was Voltaire’s godfather which actually taught him to recite lines from the satirical and shocking poem Moïsade. He would have multiple pieces that became famous for example, the tragic play Zaïre, the historical study The Age of Louis XIV and the satirical novella Candide(Halsall, 1998). Facing the odds with the French authorities over his politically charged work, he was once imprisoned two times and spent many years in exile. He would later on die coming back from France in 1778. Viewing into Voltaire’s one of many books he has came out with many throughout his years. This one in particular is based on letters to the English about his own experiences living in England between 1726 and 1729. Gamifying his life would be interesting and something cool to see because now looking into his life, it was pretty crazy. Voltaire’s had a successful professional life. Voltaire body of writing also includes the notable historical works The Age of Louis XIV (1751) and Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations (1756) (Hewett, 2006). In the latter, Voltaire took a unique approach to tracing the progression of world civilization by focusing on social history and the arts. In 1952, researcher and writer Theodore Besterman established a museum devoted to Voltaire in Geneva. He later set about writing a biography of his favorite subject, and following his death in 1976. This gets to show that Voltaire was a respected man and people actually looked up to him. Voltaire had a career that would stretch out to 60 years. He wrote many influential poems, essays, and books and famous pieces including letters to the English. It was a series of articles and information to read about. The articles were long and were written in detail which to me can be considered pretty boring, so I will providing some interesting information about Voltaire. It was rumored that Voltaire would drink up to 40 cups of coffee in a day which may explain why there would be days when he worked up to 18 hours a day writing.Voltaire did become hugely wealthy by exploiting a flaw in the French lottery, which at the end of the day is a very bad thing. The setting for a game based on Voltaire would have to be a background that would be common around his time. The main character is obviously Voltaire and it would also be interesting because many things have happened in his life which were both crazy and successful. There could be a couple more players in the game like a brother or sister or even mom or dad but you will have to wait and see. You could get points by collecting books which are coins in the game and you would have to get through the obstacles in the game which refers back to Voltaire’s life because let us be honest he had both positives and negatives in his life. The more the points the better because your score will keep on increasing and you could compare it to other players. The obstacles will count as a negative person in Voltaire’s life so it would be an enemy in the game so hit it and you will lose a life. When you reach 10 coins you will gain a live so that is a little bonus to help you out in the later parts of the game. Once you have collected all coins in the game you will unlock a chest with all the information you will ever need to become a great poet and the game will be won but of course you would have to get through the many obstacles and objectives to get the chest to unlock in the first place. All these things can either make you lose a life or gain you points/score or make you reset to the beginning of the level which will just makes things harder on yourself but you chose the way to play the game. My game concept should be made because it would be unique and before this I would of never even thought of playing a game that is based around Voltaire. I feel that if I get the time I could spice it up and come up with something creative at least and it would make the game interesting. | 1,159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
American History :final project Essay
Of migration to the Americas was thought to be a land bridge of the Bearing Strait called Barbering. Barbering connected North America and Asia, it was a natural bridge made by the dropping of sea level. People migrated in pursuit of animals – it was the only food When it’s the only food source – you follow it. It was believed that people hunted mammoths, saber tooth cats , and muskoxen. The Columbian Exchange was the trade of new plants,animals,foods and diseases between Europe,Asia,Africa,and the Americas that changed these cultures for better and worse.
This gave more resources , culture tan power to the Americas.
From the West and Eastern worlds were many diseases , though most came from Europe. Like malaria , yellow fever , and smallpox. Smallpox was the most dangerous to the Native Americans inhabiting the Americas. They had no immunity, unlike the English setters and almost died instantly. Smallpox wiped out entire Native villages , and killed almost half of the population.
People were very unhappy with the conditions of England. There was religious persecution,an unstable economy , and promise of capitalism. Many people did not like King Henry VIII shoving the Anglican church down their throats.
Protestants and Catholics were shunned and brought to jail for practicing religion. Many saw the colon sees as a great opportunity for religious freedom and a better life. The permanent settlement was Jamestown ,Virginia. Those that went there were wealthy aristocrats who searched for gold instead of working. They didn’t know how to work, and frankly didn’t want to learn. That all changed when John Smith arrived giving the colony its future wealth and cash crop TOBACCO. The Puritans (Pilgrims) who were famous for their strict religion, went to Plymouth Rock. Before getting off the ship they signed and created the
Mayflower Compact , stating their loyalty to the king along with government and colony rules. The House of Buy regress was the first elective representative assembly in American history. All of the colonies’ economies developed differently due to their different geography. The North had rocky soil, so fishing, whaling, and shipbuilding were their main economy. While the middle colonies farmed just enough for their own families , and became the Breadbasket Colonies due to their growing of wheat and barley. The South developed different , due to their hot and fertile soils climate they were ammos for farming on plantations (a giant farm).
Since the plantations were so large , they needed addition workers, African slaves. Triangular Trade were triangle shaped trade routes connecting England o Africa and the Colonies. Slaves were only some of the items traded. In the horrible and grueling Middle Passage was the name of the leg of the triangle in which slaves were brought to the colonies.
Cite this American History :final project Essay
American History :final project Essay. (2018, May 02). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/american-history-final-project/ | <urn:uuid:c19d8cae-7be4-4d22-9155-45ea44dd6a5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/american-history-final-project/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00523.warc.gz | en | 0.981239 | 633 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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Of migration to the Americas was thought to be a land bridge of the Bearing Strait called Barbering. Barbering connected North America and Asia, it was a natural bridge made by the dropping of sea level. People migrated in pursuit of animals – it was the only food When it’s the only food source – you follow it. It was believed that people hunted mammoths, saber tooth cats , and muskoxen. The Columbian Exchange was the trade of new plants,animals,foods and diseases between Europe,Asia,Africa,and the Americas that changed these cultures for better and worse.
This gave more resources , culture tan power to the Americas.
From the West and Eastern worlds were many diseases , though most came from Europe. Like malaria , yellow fever , and smallpox. Smallpox was the most dangerous to the Native Americans inhabiting the Americas. They had no immunity, unlike the English setters and almost died instantly. Smallpox wiped out entire Native villages , and killed almost half of the population.
People were very unhappy with the conditions of England. There was religious persecution,an unstable economy , and promise of capitalism. Many people did not like King Henry VIII shoving the Anglican church down their throats.
Protestants and Catholics were shunned and brought to jail for practicing religion. Many saw the colon sees as a great opportunity for religious freedom and a better life. The permanent settlement was Jamestown ,Virginia. Those that went there were wealthy aristocrats who searched for gold instead of working. They didn’t know how to work, and frankly didn’t want to learn. That all changed when John Smith arrived giving the colony its future wealth and cash crop TOBACCO. The Puritans (Pilgrims) who were famous for their strict religion, went to Plymouth Rock. Before getting off the ship they signed and created the
Mayflower Compact , stating their loyalty to the king along with government and colony rules. The House of Buy regress was the first elective representative assembly in American history. All of the colonies’ economies developed differently due to their different geography. The North had rocky soil, so fishing, whaling, and shipbuilding were their main economy. While the middle colonies farmed just enough for their own families , and became the Breadbasket Colonies due to their growing of wheat and barley. The South developed different , due to their hot and fertile soils climate they were ammos for farming on plantations (a giant farm).
Since the plantations were so large , they needed addition workers, African slaves. Triangular Trade were triangle shaped trade routes connecting England o Africa and the Colonies. Slaves were only some of the items traded. In the horrible and grueling Middle Passage was the name of the leg of the triangle in which slaves were brought to the colonies.
Cite this American History :final project Essay
American History :final project Essay. (2018, May 02). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/american-history-final-project/ | 616 | ENGLISH | 1 |
2007 United Kingdom floods facts for kids
The 2007 floods in the United Kingdom were a series of major floods that happened in many places across the country during the summer of 2007.
In Gloucestershire, there was a flash flood from the River Severn and a lot of extreme rainfall. It is estimated that 23 people died and nearly all of Gloucestershire was trapped in their homes for the summer holidays. The water was around four foot deep, and it got into most people's homes. The repairs would have cost about 3 thousand pounds per home.
- Primary effects
- In July 2007, three people died after the river Severn burst its banks, fifteen people died.
- 10,000 motorists were stranded overnight.
- Farmers lost crops.
- 350,000 people were without running water after the sewage treatment plant was submerged.
- Houses and buildings were flooded and ruined.
- Electricity in Gloucester was shut down.
- Schools and businesses were unable to travel or work and were shut down.
- Significant damage to most properties in the area with nearly 50,000 homes affected, with people losing treasured, personal belongings and made homeless- staying with friends or relatives and 850 families had to stay in caravans, some up to Christmas 2008.
- Infrastructure severely affected, with roads cut off and badly damaged.
- On 22nd May water treatment works shut down. The media reporting’s of imminent loss of supplies, meant usage doubled and led to water depletion. By 24th July, 140,000 properties in Gloucestershire had no water supply. Alternative water supplies by bottles, bowsers and tankers had to be used, see Figure 14. Water supplies were not fully restored until the 1st August
- Secondary effects
- Shops had better business because people needed more supplies.
- £3 billion had to be spent on repairs.
- Some businesses lost income while they had to repair buildings.
- 9,000 businesses affected
- More than 180,000 insurance claim
- People helped each other, creating a sense of community.
- Children were taught in temporary classrooms without books.
- Sandbags were distributed. (25,000)
- 200 Tonnes of sand used
- Flood barriers were put in place.
- Bottled water was given out.
- 5 million liters of water distributed through 85 different places
- People who lost their homes were forced to live with relatives or caravans for up to two years.
2007 United Kingdom floods Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:05d0296b-7542-4445-a8dd-2f756c5392a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/2007_United_Kingdom_floods | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00488.warc.gz | en | 0.985246 | 527 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.1903901994... | 2 | 2007 United Kingdom floods facts for kids
The 2007 floods in the United Kingdom were a series of major floods that happened in many places across the country during the summer of 2007.
In Gloucestershire, there was a flash flood from the River Severn and a lot of extreme rainfall. It is estimated that 23 people died and nearly all of Gloucestershire was trapped in their homes for the summer holidays. The water was around four foot deep, and it got into most people's homes. The repairs would have cost about 3 thousand pounds per home.
- Primary effects
- In July 2007, three people died after the river Severn burst its banks, fifteen people died.
- 10,000 motorists were stranded overnight.
- Farmers lost crops.
- 350,000 people were without running water after the sewage treatment plant was submerged.
- Houses and buildings were flooded and ruined.
- Electricity in Gloucester was shut down.
- Schools and businesses were unable to travel or work and were shut down.
- Significant damage to most properties in the area with nearly 50,000 homes affected, with people losing treasured, personal belongings and made homeless- staying with friends or relatives and 850 families had to stay in caravans, some up to Christmas 2008.
- Infrastructure severely affected, with roads cut off and badly damaged.
- On 22nd May water treatment works shut down. The media reporting’s of imminent loss of supplies, meant usage doubled and led to water depletion. By 24th July, 140,000 properties in Gloucestershire had no water supply. Alternative water supplies by bottles, bowsers and tankers had to be used, see Figure 14. Water supplies were not fully restored until the 1st August
- Secondary effects
- Shops had better business because people needed more supplies.
- £3 billion had to be spent on repairs.
- Some businesses lost income while they had to repair buildings.
- 9,000 businesses affected
- More than 180,000 insurance claim
- People helped each other, creating a sense of community.
- Children were taught in temporary classrooms without books.
- Sandbags were distributed. (25,000)
- 200 Tonnes of sand used
- Flood barriers were put in place.
- Bottled water was given out.
- 5 million liters of water distributed through 85 different places
- People who lost their homes were forced to live with relatives or caravans for up to two years.
2007 United Kingdom floods Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 570 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Father of the Indian Independence Movement and founder of a political dynasty that spawned three Prime Ministers, Motilal Nehru (1861-1931) was born into a wealthy Brahman family of Kashmiri origins. He trained as a lawyer and was one of the first of a young Hindu generation to be trained in the British legal system: India then being a British colony nominally ruled by Queen Empress Victoria and her appointed Viceroy. Nehru qualified Bar at Law from the University of Cambridge and enlisted as a lawyer in India’s English courts. He was a frequent visitor to London and was sufficiently respected an advocate to appear before Her Majesty’s Privy Council.
Nehru paid his only visit to Henry Poole & Co in 1905. He stayed at the Hotel Cecil on the Strand (now demolished) and placed a single order for a black short lounge suit similar to the one seen in the photograph with his eldest son who would become independent India’s first Prime Minister. It wasn’t until 1907 that the prosperous lawyer of international repute turned his attention to politics and, more specifically, the independence of India from British rule. He became leader of the Indian National Congress and would serve as President between 1919-1920 and 1928-1929.
In 1919 Nehru founded a radical daily newspaper The Independent to publicize his staunch anti-colonial political views. He was also influenced to join Mahatma Ghandi’s Noncooperation Movement in 1919 after the massacre of hundreds of Indians by the British Army at Amritsar. Nehru gave up his legal career thus shunning materialist values and Western clothing such as his one and only Henry Poole & Co suit. Now publicly agitating for the end of British colonial rule, Nehru and his son Jawaharial were arrested in 1921 for civil disobedience and imprisoned. On his release, Nehru formed the Swaraj (Self Rule) Party and effectively became leader of the Opposition in 1923. In 1928 he wrote the Congress Party’s Nehru Report: a proposed constitution for an independent India based on the dominion status of former British colonies Canada and New Zealand. The British rejected his proposal.
In 1930 Gandhi initiated an act of civil disobedience that became known as the Salt March. It was a protest against the British holding the monopoly on production and distribution of salt in India and the march from Gujarat attracted hundreds then thousands of followers. The Salt March was broken-up by the British Army and opposition politicians were imprisoned including once again Nehru and his son. On his release, Nehru’s health failed him and he died in 1931. His son Jawaharial Nehru was elected the first Prime Minister of India in 1947. In the same year he met and began a life-long love affair with Countess Edwina Mountbatten; India’s last Vicereine. A film about their love affair is under production starring Hugh Grant and Kate Blanchett as the Earl and Countess of Mountbatten. | <urn:uuid:b9194baa-75ca-44f1-beb5-b3be108ebafb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://henrypoole.com/individual/motilal-nehru/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00515.warc.gz | en | 0.982085 | 616 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.4926609694957... | 5 | Father of the Indian Independence Movement and founder of a political dynasty that spawned three Prime Ministers, Motilal Nehru (1861-1931) was born into a wealthy Brahman family of Kashmiri origins. He trained as a lawyer and was one of the first of a young Hindu generation to be trained in the British legal system: India then being a British colony nominally ruled by Queen Empress Victoria and her appointed Viceroy. Nehru qualified Bar at Law from the University of Cambridge and enlisted as a lawyer in India’s English courts. He was a frequent visitor to London and was sufficiently respected an advocate to appear before Her Majesty’s Privy Council.
Nehru paid his only visit to Henry Poole & Co in 1905. He stayed at the Hotel Cecil on the Strand (now demolished) and placed a single order for a black short lounge suit similar to the one seen in the photograph with his eldest son who would become independent India’s first Prime Minister. It wasn’t until 1907 that the prosperous lawyer of international repute turned his attention to politics and, more specifically, the independence of India from British rule. He became leader of the Indian National Congress and would serve as President between 1919-1920 and 1928-1929.
In 1919 Nehru founded a radical daily newspaper The Independent to publicize his staunch anti-colonial political views. He was also influenced to join Mahatma Ghandi’s Noncooperation Movement in 1919 after the massacre of hundreds of Indians by the British Army at Amritsar. Nehru gave up his legal career thus shunning materialist values and Western clothing such as his one and only Henry Poole & Co suit. Now publicly agitating for the end of British colonial rule, Nehru and his son Jawaharial were arrested in 1921 for civil disobedience and imprisoned. On his release, Nehru formed the Swaraj (Self Rule) Party and effectively became leader of the Opposition in 1923. In 1928 he wrote the Congress Party’s Nehru Report: a proposed constitution for an independent India based on the dominion status of former British colonies Canada and New Zealand. The British rejected his proposal.
In 1930 Gandhi initiated an act of civil disobedience that became known as the Salt March. It was a protest against the British holding the monopoly on production and distribution of salt in India and the march from Gujarat attracted hundreds then thousands of followers. The Salt March was broken-up by the British Army and opposition politicians were imprisoned including once again Nehru and his son. On his release, Nehru’s health failed him and he died in 1931. His son Jawaharial Nehru was elected the first Prime Minister of India in 1947. In the same year he met and began a life-long love affair with Countess Edwina Mountbatten; India’s last Vicereine. A film about their love affair is under production starring Hugh Grant and Kate Blanchett as the Earl and Countess of Mountbatten. | 654 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin was born 6 June (26 May, Old Style) 1799, Moscow, and died 10 February 1837 (29 January, New Style), St Petersburg. He was a Russian poet, novelist, dramatist and writer of short stories.
Many think he was the greatest Russian poet. He started the great tradition of Russian literature. Pushkin wrote in a way that no other Russian had done beforr: he used the Russian language as it was spoken instead of writing in a style based on old church books. His influence on other Russian writers was enormous and several Russian composers set his stories and poems to music. His poetry is very hard to translate well into other languages because the words are full of special meanings in Russian culture. His novels, especially Eugene Onegin, are widely read.
Early years[change | change source]
Pushkin's father came from an old aristocratic family. On his mother's side Pushkin had African ancestors. His great-grandfather Abram Gannibal was an Abyssinian who was living in a palace of the Turkish sultan in Istanbul. The Russian ambassador bought him as a present for Peter the Great, the tsar of Russia. Gannibal became a favourite of Peter the Great and he was sent to Paris to study. He became very rich. Pushkin was proud of his great-grandfather and wrote about him in a novel called The Negro of Peter the Great.
In 19th century Russia all aristocratic families learned to speak French, so Pushkin and his brother and sister spoke and wrote in French more than in Russian. The children were cared for by a nurse, Arina Rodionovna Yakovleva. It was the nurse who taught them to love the Russian language. She told the children Russian folktales. Pushkin also spoke Russian to the peasants and he read many books in his father's library.
When he was 12 he went to a new school called the Imperial Lyceum at Tsarskoye Selo. Years later this school was renamed Pushkin after their famous pupil. He soon started writing romantic poems in Russian using Russian tales of heroes and adventures. Ruslan and Ludmila was a poem that was later to be made into an opera by Mikhael Glinka.
Adulthood[change | change source]
In 1817, Pushkin got a job in the foreign office at St. Petersburg. He soon became interested in politics and supported the Decembrist revolt of 1825 when a group of noblemen and army officers tried to put another tsar in power and make him less powerful. Pushkin wrote some political poems. The result was that he was told he had to leave St. Petersburg. He had to spend six years in exile in the south of the country: in the Caucasus and the Crimea. He wrote about his experiences in the south in several romantic narrative poems (long poems which tell a story). He started work on a novel in verse called Yevgeny Onegin (or Eugene Onegin). He did not finish it until 1833. This was to be his most famous work. It was used by many musicians including Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky who made it into an opera. The poem shows typical Russian people in the society of his day.
Pushkin was angry that he was still in exile and he wrote many letters to his friends. Many of these letters were later published. He spent a lot of time drinking, gaming and fighting with swords. He fell in love with the daughter of a Count for whom he was working. The Count managed to get Pushkin exiled to his mother's estate near Pskov at the other end of Russia. Pushkin spent two years here. He was lonely, but he studied Russian history and talked to the peasants. The poems he wrote were full of ideas from Russian culture. He wrote one of his major works: Boris Godunov, a drama about a story from Russian history. The composer Modest Mussorgsky later made an opera from it. Boris Godunov was a cruel tsar in the 17th century. Pushkin's play shows that the ordinary people had a lot of power. This made it difficult for Pushkin to get it published.
Return from exile[change | change source]
After the revolt in 1825 the new tsar Nicholas I realized that Pushkin was by now very famous. He also realized that he had not taken part in the revolt, so he allowed him to return. The tsar said that he himself would censor Pushkin's works before they were allowed to be published. He said that he was going to be a good tsar and help the poor people (the serfs) to become free. Pushkin was in a difficult position because he could not write anything that the tsar would not like.
He had to be very careful not to say bad things about the rulers of the country. The police watched him very carefully. Yet at this time Pushkin wrote a large number of great works, almost each one of them being the first of their kind in Russian literature. One example is the short story The Queen of Spades, which Tchaikovsky made into an opera and which was to be a great influence on the novels of Fyodor Dostoevsky.
Last years[change | change source]
In his last years, Pushkin was again in government service in St. Petersburg. He married in 1831 and had to spend a lot of time in society at court. He wrote more and more prose. He wrote a history of Peter the Great and a historical novel The Captain's Daughter. He kept asking the tsar to let him resign from his job and go to the country to spend his time writing. The tsar would not allow that. In 1837, Pushkin was killed in a duel. He had been forced to fight the duel in order to defend his wife's honour.
Pushkin’s achievements[change | change source]
The Russian language today would be very different if it had not been for Pushkin. Using the language as it was spoken by the people he made it into a language which was simple but which could also express deep feelings. His works were a great influence on later writers like Ivan Turgenev, Ivan Goncharov and Leo Tolstoy. Yevgeny Onegin was the first Russian novel which told a story about the society of the time. His works have been translated into all the major languages | <urn:uuid:c97fbd77-495f-4652-b647-d62d1b30663e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.99428 | 1,335 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.328076124191... | 1 | Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin was born 6 June (26 May, Old Style) 1799, Moscow, and died 10 February 1837 (29 January, New Style), St Petersburg. He was a Russian poet, novelist, dramatist and writer of short stories.
Many think he was the greatest Russian poet. He started the great tradition of Russian literature. Pushkin wrote in a way that no other Russian had done beforr: he used the Russian language as it was spoken instead of writing in a style based on old church books. His influence on other Russian writers was enormous and several Russian composers set his stories and poems to music. His poetry is very hard to translate well into other languages because the words are full of special meanings in Russian culture. His novels, especially Eugene Onegin, are widely read.
Early years[change | change source]
Pushkin's father came from an old aristocratic family. On his mother's side Pushkin had African ancestors. His great-grandfather Abram Gannibal was an Abyssinian who was living in a palace of the Turkish sultan in Istanbul. The Russian ambassador bought him as a present for Peter the Great, the tsar of Russia. Gannibal became a favourite of Peter the Great and he was sent to Paris to study. He became very rich. Pushkin was proud of his great-grandfather and wrote about him in a novel called The Negro of Peter the Great.
In 19th century Russia all aristocratic families learned to speak French, so Pushkin and his brother and sister spoke and wrote in French more than in Russian. The children were cared for by a nurse, Arina Rodionovna Yakovleva. It was the nurse who taught them to love the Russian language. She told the children Russian folktales. Pushkin also spoke Russian to the peasants and he read many books in his father's library.
When he was 12 he went to a new school called the Imperial Lyceum at Tsarskoye Selo. Years later this school was renamed Pushkin after their famous pupil. He soon started writing romantic poems in Russian using Russian tales of heroes and adventures. Ruslan and Ludmila was a poem that was later to be made into an opera by Mikhael Glinka.
Adulthood[change | change source]
In 1817, Pushkin got a job in the foreign office at St. Petersburg. He soon became interested in politics and supported the Decembrist revolt of 1825 when a group of noblemen and army officers tried to put another tsar in power and make him less powerful. Pushkin wrote some political poems. The result was that he was told he had to leave St. Petersburg. He had to spend six years in exile in the south of the country: in the Caucasus and the Crimea. He wrote about his experiences in the south in several romantic narrative poems (long poems which tell a story). He started work on a novel in verse called Yevgeny Onegin (or Eugene Onegin). He did not finish it until 1833. This was to be his most famous work. It was used by many musicians including Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky who made it into an opera. The poem shows typical Russian people in the society of his day.
Pushkin was angry that he was still in exile and he wrote many letters to his friends. Many of these letters were later published. He spent a lot of time drinking, gaming and fighting with swords. He fell in love with the daughter of a Count for whom he was working. The Count managed to get Pushkin exiled to his mother's estate near Pskov at the other end of Russia. Pushkin spent two years here. He was lonely, but he studied Russian history and talked to the peasants. The poems he wrote were full of ideas from Russian culture. He wrote one of his major works: Boris Godunov, a drama about a story from Russian history. The composer Modest Mussorgsky later made an opera from it. Boris Godunov was a cruel tsar in the 17th century. Pushkin's play shows that the ordinary people had a lot of power. This made it difficult for Pushkin to get it published.
Return from exile[change | change source]
After the revolt in 1825 the new tsar Nicholas I realized that Pushkin was by now very famous. He also realized that he had not taken part in the revolt, so he allowed him to return. The tsar said that he himself would censor Pushkin's works before they were allowed to be published. He said that he was going to be a good tsar and help the poor people (the serfs) to become free. Pushkin was in a difficult position because he could not write anything that the tsar would not like.
He had to be very careful not to say bad things about the rulers of the country. The police watched him very carefully. Yet at this time Pushkin wrote a large number of great works, almost each one of them being the first of their kind in Russian literature. One example is the short story The Queen of Spades, which Tchaikovsky made into an opera and which was to be a great influence on the novels of Fyodor Dostoevsky.
Last years[change | change source]
In his last years, Pushkin was again in government service in St. Petersburg. He married in 1831 and had to spend a lot of time in society at court. He wrote more and more prose. He wrote a history of Peter the Great and a historical novel The Captain's Daughter. He kept asking the tsar to let him resign from his job and go to the country to spend his time writing. The tsar would not allow that. In 1837, Pushkin was killed in a duel. He had been forced to fight the duel in order to defend his wife's honour.
Pushkin’s achievements[change | change source]
The Russian language today would be very different if it had not been for Pushkin. Using the language as it was spoken by the people he made it into a language which was simple but which could also express deep feelings. His works were a great influence on later writers like Ivan Turgenev, Ivan Goncharov and Leo Tolstoy. Yevgeny Onegin was the first Russian novel which told a story about the society of the time. His works have been translated into all the major languages | 1,354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Below is a detailed article about the English Civil War and the Interregnum that occurred in England during the 17th century. The word Interregnum refers to a period where a throne is vacant between to successive regimes. At this time, government control is at a halt. Instead of government control, there is more of parliamentary and military control in the Interregnum. It is a period when normal government functions are suspended. Such a period in British history is known as the English Interregnum. It took place right after the execution of Charles I of England. Let us learn more about how the Civil War in England was related to the Interregnum.
English Civil War and Interregnum
Due to the conflict between the monarchy led by King Charles I against the Parliament, a civil war broke out in England in 1642. This incident literally marked one of the weak points of the English monarchy for the long term. He lacked a strong army and even a team of bureaucrats that made him unable to control his own subjects.
Charles I also lacked financial power as he had no income from his legal sources. The parliamentary taxation also came to a standstill due to the Stuartian Kings that levied unnecessary taxes on the people. They invented new types of non-parliamentary taxations that disturbed the people. However, they were forced to pay the. This led to the Parliamentarians to earn support from the people to bring down the monarchy.
Soon most of the nobility, the lawyers, merchants, and the gentry turned against Charles I. The dissolving of the parliament – which was a disturbing move by Charles I as a leader led to him prove as inefficient not only in England but also in Scotland and Ireland where he is King and Lord respectively. The Scottish influence slowly led to the spread of Anglican Christianity and the Presbyterian Church was being replaced.
The House of Commons refused to pay his taxes due to his irresponsibility as a leader and inefficiency that led to many political disasters. He attempted to gain control of the army in the Bishops War in 1639 and 1640 but failed. Finally, the outbreak of the rebellion in Ireland led to the Civil War in 1641.
The Civil War (1642 – 1646)
The Parliamentarians were afraid that the King was unable to attend to his responsibilities as King. Instead of being for and by the people, he was against the people and the entire military and political group. He also violated many Protestant values by supporting international Catholicism. Rumors were spread about him being a cryptopapist and a traitor to the Protestant community.
Therefore, King Charles, I of England was executed for treason. He was beheaded in London on January 30, 1649. In the year 1625, he ascended the throne. He then married a Catholic French Princess which offended his protestant subjects. Due to protests by the Parliament and political opposition, he dissolved the parliament in the year 1629. He continued to rule entirely by himself in the following year.
All these impromptu and not devised decisions led to the outbreak of the English civil war in 1642 between the parliament and the king. The group of Parliamentarians was led by Oliver Cromwell – an English military and political leader; also known as the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. | <urn:uuid:a04c5577-4c63-4941-8efb-b9d1b690a922> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://elizabethanenglandlife.com/english-civil-war-interregnum.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00538.warc.gz | en | 0.986957 | 673 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.1847836... | 3 | Below is a detailed article about the English Civil War and the Interregnum that occurred in England during the 17th century. The word Interregnum refers to a period where a throne is vacant between to successive regimes. At this time, government control is at a halt. Instead of government control, there is more of parliamentary and military control in the Interregnum. It is a period when normal government functions are suspended. Such a period in British history is known as the English Interregnum. It took place right after the execution of Charles I of England. Let us learn more about how the Civil War in England was related to the Interregnum.
English Civil War and Interregnum
Due to the conflict between the monarchy led by King Charles I against the Parliament, a civil war broke out in England in 1642. This incident literally marked one of the weak points of the English monarchy for the long term. He lacked a strong army and even a team of bureaucrats that made him unable to control his own subjects.
Charles I also lacked financial power as he had no income from his legal sources. The parliamentary taxation also came to a standstill due to the Stuartian Kings that levied unnecessary taxes on the people. They invented new types of non-parliamentary taxations that disturbed the people. However, they were forced to pay the. This led to the Parliamentarians to earn support from the people to bring down the monarchy.
Soon most of the nobility, the lawyers, merchants, and the gentry turned against Charles I. The dissolving of the parliament – which was a disturbing move by Charles I as a leader led to him prove as inefficient not only in England but also in Scotland and Ireland where he is King and Lord respectively. The Scottish influence slowly led to the spread of Anglican Christianity and the Presbyterian Church was being replaced.
The House of Commons refused to pay his taxes due to his irresponsibility as a leader and inefficiency that led to many political disasters. He attempted to gain control of the army in the Bishops War in 1639 and 1640 but failed. Finally, the outbreak of the rebellion in Ireland led to the Civil War in 1641.
The Civil War (1642 – 1646)
The Parliamentarians were afraid that the King was unable to attend to his responsibilities as King. Instead of being for and by the people, he was against the people and the entire military and political group. He also violated many Protestant values by supporting international Catholicism. Rumors were spread about him being a cryptopapist and a traitor to the Protestant community.
Therefore, King Charles, I of England was executed for treason. He was beheaded in London on January 30, 1649. In the year 1625, he ascended the throne. He then married a Catholic French Princess which offended his protestant subjects. Due to protests by the Parliament and political opposition, he dissolved the parliament in the year 1629. He continued to rule entirely by himself in the following year.
All these impromptu and not devised decisions led to the outbreak of the English civil war in 1642 between the parliament and the king. The group of Parliamentarians was led by Oliver Cromwell – an English military and political leader; also known as the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. | 703 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This page tells about the history of the Virginia Colony.
Despite the failure of the Lost Colony at Roanoke, King James I was eager to start a permanent English settlement in North America. He granted charters to a pair of English companies to establish those settlements. While one of the two companies was unsuccessful in establishing a colony in present-day Maine, the other, known as the London Company, led by captain Christopher Newport, sailed to Virginia and established a settlement on a swampy peninsula on the James River.
While the chosen location certainly provided good cover from the potential ambushes of local Indians, its swampy climate led to horrible diseases such as Dysentery and Malaria. Jamestown further suffered from poor and corrupt leadership and a population of men that were unfit for life in the wilderness. Many were there for the opportunity to make a lot of money and refused to participate in building shelters or collecting food. Settlers constantly bickered with each other and found relatively little in the way of natural resources or wonders to send back to England.
Because Jamestown was built on traditional hunting grounds of the Algonkin Indians, trouble arose soon after their arrival. By the winter of 1607, only 38 out of the original 104 settlers were still alive. Food shortages were making unbearable situations even worse. Jamestown was on the brink of collapse until JOHN SMITH formulated plans to procure Indian corn and other foods via trade. Smith's first excursions were extremely successful, and he returned to the beleaguered colony with large quantities of corn and beans. On one of his excursions, however, he was ambushed by Indians and taken to the great king Powhatan. Smith used his charm and persuasion to convince Powhatan that the settlers were peaceful and did not intend to build a permanent settlement at Jamestown. Smith was subsequently returned to Jamestown and gained influence among the colonists.
In winter of 1608, Jamestown remained a desperate settlement with serious leadership problems and a food shortage. John Smith became hated by much of the so-called leadership. Despite at least one attempt on his life, Smith was named president of the Jamestown Council because of his previous experience and because he was one of the few colonists who knew what it took to survive at Jamestown.
For the next year, Smith managed the colony about as well as it could be managed. He forced all colonists to work and contribute to the colony as a whole. He imposed badly-needed discipline and even staged shooting contests and drills to scare local Indians who were surely spying on them. Besides managing Jamestown, John Smith procured food from local Indians for European trinkets and goods. Despite Powhatan's demand for guns, John Smith refused to trade them, and often burned villages and stole food when Indians would not trade. Smith's power terrified the Indians, who came to think of him as virtually indestructible. Powhatan rightfully saw him as the life-force of Jamestown and sent his warriors on countless missions to kill him. While John Smith escaped death many times with firepower, Powhatan's daughter, the princess Pocahontas, took a special liking to him, and informed him in advance when her father would send warriors after him. | <urn:uuid:44c46d73-bce7-4417-a430-708979ac0233> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/virginia-colony | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.984604 | 667 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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-0.01805852726... | 1 | This page tells about the history of the Virginia Colony.
Despite the failure of the Lost Colony at Roanoke, King James I was eager to start a permanent English settlement in North America. He granted charters to a pair of English companies to establish those settlements. While one of the two companies was unsuccessful in establishing a colony in present-day Maine, the other, known as the London Company, led by captain Christopher Newport, sailed to Virginia and established a settlement on a swampy peninsula on the James River.
While the chosen location certainly provided good cover from the potential ambushes of local Indians, its swampy climate led to horrible diseases such as Dysentery and Malaria. Jamestown further suffered from poor and corrupt leadership and a population of men that were unfit for life in the wilderness. Many were there for the opportunity to make a lot of money and refused to participate in building shelters or collecting food. Settlers constantly bickered with each other and found relatively little in the way of natural resources or wonders to send back to England.
Because Jamestown was built on traditional hunting grounds of the Algonkin Indians, trouble arose soon after their arrival. By the winter of 1607, only 38 out of the original 104 settlers were still alive. Food shortages were making unbearable situations even worse. Jamestown was on the brink of collapse until JOHN SMITH formulated plans to procure Indian corn and other foods via trade. Smith's first excursions were extremely successful, and he returned to the beleaguered colony with large quantities of corn and beans. On one of his excursions, however, he was ambushed by Indians and taken to the great king Powhatan. Smith used his charm and persuasion to convince Powhatan that the settlers were peaceful and did not intend to build a permanent settlement at Jamestown. Smith was subsequently returned to Jamestown and gained influence among the colonists.
In winter of 1608, Jamestown remained a desperate settlement with serious leadership problems and a food shortage. John Smith became hated by much of the so-called leadership. Despite at least one attempt on his life, Smith was named president of the Jamestown Council because of his previous experience and because he was one of the few colonists who knew what it took to survive at Jamestown.
For the next year, Smith managed the colony about as well as it could be managed. He forced all colonists to work and contribute to the colony as a whole. He imposed badly-needed discipline and even staged shooting contests and drills to scare local Indians who were surely spying on them. Besides managing Jamestown, John Smith procured food from local Indians for European trinkets and goods. Despite Powhatan's demand for guns, John Smith refused to trade them, and often burned villages and stole food when Indians would not trade. Smith's power terrified the Indians, who came to think of him as virtually indestructible. Powhatan rightfully saw him as the life-force of Jamestown and sent his warriors on countless missions to kill him. While John Smith escaped death many times with firepower, Powhatan's daughter, the princess Pocahontas, took a special liking to him, and informed him in advance when her father would send warriors after him. | 664 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What are the Characteristics of Baroque Art?
Understanding the characteristics of baroque art can be as intimidating as the artwork itself. Artists working in this period were known for their embellishments, ornament and drama, designed to inspire awe in those receiving the work. The Baroque period's grandiose nature often granted it mockery in its initial reception, but time has been good to its reputation. While its origins are controversial, its achievements and quality are difficult to counter, especially if looked at from a historical perspective. Many periods in art are reflections of those which came before it. While this is true to an extent, Baroque art had a very specific genesis, making it necessary for oneHOWTO to not only look into what are the characteristics of Baroque art, but to search its origins also. In doing so, we will shed some light on a period of art history which is a influential as it is controversial.
Origins and overview of Baroque art
It is impossible to trace the beginning of many art periods back to an exact date, but it is also helpful to know when was the Baroque period. Critics generally agree the earliest Baroque art was created in the late 16th century and is said to have ended sometime in the early 17th century. This is when the Baroque style started to merge into its successor, the softer and often more playful, yet still ornate, Rococo period.
However, the origins of Baroque art appear to have stemmed from an event which took place between 1545 and 1563 known as The Council of Trent. This was an ecumenical meeting of the Catholic Church which met to counteract the spread of Protestantism in Europe. When Martin Luther posted the Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, he began the Protestant Reformation which criticised behaviors of the Catholic church, many of which were hugely unpopular. This is especially so with the lower classes who were seen by many to be exploited by the practices of the church.
The Council of Trent met to address the schism between the two major sides of the Christian church and to reaffirm certain beliefs and practices. This was to shore up the required support for the Catholic church to maintain its dominance over much of European society. How this relates to art is that the council also inspired artists loyal to the Catholic faith to use their art to support these decrees.
As Protestantism was popular among many impoverished peoples, this art was no longer to be purely in the domain of the rich. Baroque art was to speak to all people, to reinforce the power of the church and to remind its consumers of the severity of a life outside the Christian god's good graces. This meant it had to be direct, imposing and inspiring, three characteristics Baroque art aspired to convey.
Before we move on to some more specific characteristics of Baroque art, we need to be specific about what we mean by art. You may be picturing some of the large canvas paintings which certainly make up much of this period's output, but Baroque art extends to any and all form of artistic expression in the period. This includes sculpture, architecture, music, literature, jewellery design, philosophy and more. The types of characteristics of this art period extend to these different media in differing ways, but they are present nonetheless.
Religious and Biblical
Whereas the Renaissance period which came directly before it emphasized humanism and realism, the concerted effort to reaffirm the power of the Catholic church meant that artists were to reaffirm the holiness of the Catholic church. This meant depictions of sacraments as well as the Saints which were so honored by the Papacy. There was to be little ambiguity in how the scenes were displayed, even if the individual artists would provide their own particular flourishes.
There was some effort in Protestant circles to use art for their own purposes, but it was much more low-key and was limited in its reach. The two main sides of the Protestant believers were Calvinists and Lutherans. Both groups criticized what they saw as the impious ornateness of the Catholic church's artistic proclivities, much of which was funded by taxes on the poor. This meant that the Catholics essentially came to dominate the religious iconography of the time. Many protestants even destroyed religious art a they saw the depictions as a form of idolatry, worshipped instead of their god.
This means that one of the main characteristics of Baroque art was its Catholic religious imagery. Even those which were not necessarily directly Catholic were seen to be so. A good example of this is Johannes Vermeer, as he was a Dutch painter in a Protestant country, but is considered by many to share the traits of the Baroque period (even if he is often considered part of the Dutch 'Golden Age'). He adopted Catholicism during marriage and his painting Allegory of the Catholic Faith fits neatly into the religious Catholic themes of the importance of faith.
As Protestantism developed it proved itself to be a more pious and restrained faith which, while still fervent, placed more emphasis on the humbleness of life on earth before reaching the glories of heaven. In the face of this, the Catholic church seems to have doubled down and created some of the most lavish and grand pieces of art the culture had ever seen.
Examples of such grandiosity include Bernini's The Ecstasy of St Theresa (see main picture), a sculpture in the Cornaro Chapel in Rome. It is an extremely ornate depiction of one of the Catholic saints and is made from marble and gold. In sheer scale it is impressive, but the original price for its commission (a private commission as Bernini had fallen out of favor of its contemporary Pope) fits in with the Baroque excess.
Perhaps one of the most famous examples of Baroque art is the combination of architecture and sculpture which is the Trevi Fountain in Rome. It has giant Corinthian pilasters, Tritons (Greek merman god) calming the waters of the fountain and is in front of a grand personal palace. There was competition to build the fountain, with different artists trying to outdo each other, going to show just how important personal wealth was to religious conviction.
Many of the scenes depicted were not just grandiose, but technically brilliant. Peter Paul Rubens' Hippopotamus Hunt shows an image which is not only grand, but layered and with an impressive grasp of perspective (even if the hippo and dog seem to be of a similar size). Vermeer was so lauded for his perspective and accuracy, some claim he used a special device to create these achievements.
Dramatic and theatrical
The Baroque period was known for its artistic drama. Painters like Caravaggio painted scenes of intense drama, such as The Crucifixion of Saint Peter which showed Jesus's right hand man on earth being crucified on a cross upside down. His face is beatific as those trying to turn his cross upside down strain and contort with great dramatic effort. The aforementioned Trevi Fountain and The Ecstasy of St Theresa, also have a great theatricality to them, with the latter even having a window box of marble sculpted onlookers engaging in the scene.
The drama wasn't limited to painting and sculpture. The Baroque period extended to actual drama with perhaps the most famous dramatist being considered a Baroque writer: William Shakespeare. His plays have the characteristics of ornate language and intense emotion which we see in other types of Baroque art. Although officially Protestant, Shakespeare, as with many English Baroque artists, was believed to have Catholic sympathies. Practical space issues in the Globe theatre meant the scenes may not have been as elaborate as hoped, but the costumes were as ornate as possible. Subsequent stagings of plays like The Tempest, however, show just how grand these plays could be if the resources are available.
Vivid use of light and color
As with Vermeer, the intensity of color of Baroque painters (and other artists) was a defining characteristic. It was partly due to the development of pigments from ongoing global explorations, making bolder and more refined colors available. Baroque painters were not shy of a little blood red, especially the great Italian painter Caravaggio. Paintings such as Judith Beheading Holofernes depicted quite gruesome, but realistic images which were deep and rich in color and shade. Even his paintings of mythology such as Medusa have a realism and drama to their fantastic depictions.
Musicians and composers like Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederic Handel also created different tones with their music which can be likened to the vivid use of light and color which characterizes other Baroque art. It is these shades and ornateness of music which defines Baroque music, evoking images of drama in the mind, even without seeing it through the eyes.
Wide ranging and varied
Lastly, it is important to note that, although the Council of Trent and the Catholic push were greatly influential on Baroque painting, the style of Baroque is a general heading under which many variations exist. As the Baroque period extended over such a long time, it evolved a flowed with the expressions and intentions of individuals who marked their work with their own particular style.
Vermeer is a good example of a Baroque artists who rarely painted overtly religious iconography, instead preferring to paint more realistic scenes of quotidian life. Yet his work has the color, drama and vibrancy of Baroque art and his underlying religious conviction can be interpreted. These characteristics of Baroque art inform the work, but they do not dictate to them.
While the Catholic church is an incredibly important factor when considering Baroque art as a whole, it was also a controversial one. With the rise of Protestantism, there is much more art which was created during this period which did not reflect its values. The Catholic church's desire to enforce its position also caused a lot of inequality and there would come a backlash against the baroque style in the form of Rococo and eventually Modernism (although the latter would still take a century or two).
If you want to read similar articles to What are the Characteristics of Baroque Art?, we recommend you visit our Learning category. | <urn:uuid:1b6f1fb5-d5c5-44cb-80bc-4879e25f8bcb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://education.onehowto.com/article/what-are-the-characteristics-of-baroque-art-12650.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00280.warc.gz | en | 0.981133 | 2,127 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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Understanding the characteristics of baroque art can be as intimidating as the artwork itself. Artists working in this period were known for their embellishments, ornament and drama, designed to inspire awe in those receiving the work. The Baroque period's grandiose nature often granted it mockery in its initial reception, but time has been good to its reputation. While its origins are controversial, its achievements and quality are difficult to counter, especially if looked at from a historical perspective. Many periods in art are reflections of those which came before it. While this is true to an extent, Baroque art had a very specific genesis, making it necessary for oneHOWTO to not only look into what are the characteristics of Baroque art, but to search its origins also. In doing so, we will shed some light on a period of art history which is a influential as it is controversial.
Origins and overview of Baroque art
It is impossible to trace the beginning of many art periods back to an exact date, but it is also helpful to know when was the Baroque period. Critics generally agree the earliest Baroque art was created in the late 16th century and is said to have ended sometime in the early 17th century. This is when the Baroque style started to merge into its successor, the softer and often more playful, yet still ornate, Rococo period.
However, the origins of Baroque art appear to have stemmed from an event which took place between 1545 and 1563 known as The Council of Trent. This was an ecumenical meeting of the Catholic Church which met to counteract the spread of Protestantism in Europe. When Martin Luther posted the Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, he began the Protestant Reformation which criticised behaviors of the Catholic church, many of which were hugely unpopular. This is especially so with the lower classes who were seen by many to be exploited by the practices of the church.
The Council of Trent met to address the schism between the two major sides of the Christian church and to reaffirm certain beliefs and practices. This was to shore up the required support for the Catholic church to maintain its dominance over much of European society. How this relates to art is that the council also inspired artists loyal to the Catholic faith to use their art to support these decrees.
As Protestantism was popular among many impoverished peoples, this art was no longer to be purely in the domain of the rich. Baroque art was to speak to all people, to reinforce the power of the church and to remind its consumers of the severity of a life outside the Christian god's good graces. This meant it had to be direct, imposing and inspiring, three characteristics Baroque art aspired to convey.
Before we move on to some more specific characteristics of Baroque art, we need to be specific about what we mean by art. You may be picturing some of the large canvas paintings which certainly make up much of this period's output, but Baroque art extends to any and all form of artistic expression in the period. This includes sculpture, architecture, music, literature, jewellery design, philosophy and more. The types of characteristics of this art period extend to these different media in differing ways, but they are present nonetheless.
Religious and Biblical
Whereas the Renaissance period which came directly before it emphasized humanism and realism, the concerted effort to reaffirm the power of the Catholic church meant that artists were to reaffirm the holiness of the Catholic church. This meant depictions of sacraments as well as the Saints which were so honored by the Papacy. There was to be little ambiguity in how the scenes were displayed, even if the individual artists would provide their own particular flourishes.
There was some effort in Protestant circles to use art for their own purposes, but it was much more low-key and was limited in its reach. The two main sides of the Protestant believers were Calvinists and Lutherans. Both groups criticized what they saw as the impious ornateness of the Catholic church's artistic proclivities, much of which was funded by taxes on the poor. This meant that the Catholics essentially came to dominate the religious iconography of the time. Many protestants even destroyed religious art a they saw the depictions as a form of idolatry, worshipped instead of their god.
This means that one of the main characteristics of Baroque art was its Catholic religious imagery. Even those which were not necessarily directly Catholic were seen to be so. A good example of this is Johannes Vermeer, as he was a Dutch painter in a Protestant country, but is considered by many to share the traits of the Baroque period (even if he is often considered part of the Dutch 'Golden Age'). He adopted Catholicism during marriage and his painting Allegory of the Catholic Faith fits neatly into the religious Catholic themes of the importance of faith.
As Protestantism developed it proved itself to be a more pious and restrained faith which, while still fervent, placed more emphasis on the humbleness of life on earth before reaching the glories of heaven. In the face of this, the Catholic church seems to have doubled down and created some of the most lavish and grand pieces of art the culture had ever seen.
Examples of such grandiosity include Bernini's The Ecstasy of St Theresa (see main picture), a sculpture in the Cornaro Chapel in Rome. It is an extremely ornate depiction of one of the Catholic saints and is made from marble and gold. In sheer scale it is impressive, but the original price for its commission (a private commission as Bernini had fallen out of favor of its contemporary Pope) fits in with the Baroque excess.
Perhaps one of the most famous examples of Baroque art is the combination of architecture and sculpture which is the Trevi Fountain in Rome. It has giant Corinthian pilasters, Tritons (Greek merman god) calming the waters of the fountain and is in front of a grand personal palace. There was competition to build the fountain, with different artists trying to outdo each other, going to show just how important personal wealth was to religious conviction.
Many of the scenes depicted were not just grandiose, but technically brilliant. Peter Paul Rubens' Hippopotamus Hunt shows an image which is not only grand, but layered and with an impressive grasp of perspective (even if the hippo and dog seem to be of a similar size). Vermeer was so lauded for his perspective and accuracy, some claim he used a special device to create these achievements.
Dramatic and theatrical
The Baroque period was known for its artistic drama. Painters like Caravaggio painted scenes of intense drama, such as The Crucifixion of Saint Peter which showed Jesus's right hand man on earth being crucified on a cross upside down. His face is beatific as those trying to turn his cross upside down strain and contort with great dramatic effort. The aforementioned Trevi Fountain and The Ecstasy of St Theresa, also have a great theatricality to them, with the latter even having a window box of marble sculpted onlookers engaging in the scene.
The drama wasn't limited to painting and sculpture. The Baroque period extended to actual drama with perhaps the most famous dramatist being considered a Baroque writer: William Shakespeare. His plays have the characteristics of ornate language and intense emotion which we see in other types of Baroque art. Although officially Protestant, Shakespeare, as with many English Baroque artists, was believed to have Catholic sympathies. Practical space issues in the Globe theatre meant the scenes may not have been as elaborate as hoped, but the costumes were as ornate as possible. Subsequent stagings of plays like The Tempest, however, show just how grand these plays could be if the resources are available.
Vivid use of light and color
As with Vermeer, the intensity of color of Baroque painters (and other artists) was a defining characteristic. It was partly due to the development of pigments from ongoing global explorations, making bolder and more refined colors available. Baroque painters were not shy of a little blood red, especially the great Italian painter Caravaggio. Paintings such as Judith Beheading Holofernes depicted quite gruesome, but realistic images which were deep and rich in color and shade. Even his paintings of mythology such as Medusa have a realism and drama to their fantastic depictions.
Musicians and composers like Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederic Handel also created different tones with their music which can be likened to the vivid use of light and color which characterizes other Baroque art. It is these shades and ornateness of music which defines Baroque music, evoking images of drama in the mind, even without seeing it through the eyes.
Wide ranging and varied
Lastly, it is important to note that, although the Council of Trent and the Catholic push were greatly influential on Baroque painting, the style of Baroque is a general heading under which many variations exist. As the Baroque period extended over such a long time, it evolved a flowed with the expressions and intentions of individuals who marked their work with their own particular style.
Vermeer is a good example of a Baroque artists who rarely painted overtly religious iconography, instead preferring to paint more realistic scenes of quotidian life. Yet his work has the color, drama and vibrancy of Baroque art and his underlying religious conviction can be interpreted. These characteristics of Baroque art inform the work, but they do not dictate to them.
While the Catholic church is an incredibly important factor when considering Baroque art as a whole, it was also a controversial one. With the rise of Protestantism, there is much more art which was created during this period which did not reflect its values. The Catholic church's desire to enforce its position also caused a lot of inequality and there would come a backlash against the baroque style in the form of Rococo and eventually Modernism (although the latter would still take a century or two).
If you want to read similar articles to What are the Characteristics of Baroque Art?, we recommend you visit our Learning category. | 2,077 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Brown was born on May 9th, 1800, in Torrington, Connecticut. At age 5 he moved to Ohio and acquired a hatred for the institution of slavery from his father. When he was 12, he stayed with a Michigan family who continuously beat their slaves. The image would haunt Brown for the rest of his life. Brown soon became a staunch abolitionist (an advocate for the banning of slavery) and even started a school to help educate young black people in 1834.
A Murderous Act of Vengeance
In 1855, John Brown followed five of his sons to "Bleeding Kansas", where a number of abolitionists had recently been murdered. Brown and his sons subsequently murdered five slavery advocates at Pottawatomie, Kansas on May 24, 1856. Brown and his sons immediately became fugitives and withstood a mob of attacking Missourians at Osawatomie. Brown's actions, together with his stand at Osawatomie, made him a legendary figure and a nationally recognized opponent of slavery.
Planning for an Insurrection
When Brown returned east, he formulated a plan to free slaves by force. He had financial support from many wealthy abolitionists in the northeast. Brown's plan included a refuge for runaway slaves in the mountains of Virginia. On October 16, 1859, John Brown, his sons, and a small number of loyal supporters, launched an attack against the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. He believed word of the arsenal's capture would inspire slaves throughout Virginia to rebel against their owners. The group easily took the town and the arsenal. Brown, however, failed to launch any further offensives and took a defensive position within the arsenal. Brown's group was quickly surrounded by the local militia, and then, a day later, by U.S. marines led by Robert E. Lee. The ensuing battles resulted in the death of two of his sons, his own injuries, and an unconditional surrender.
As a result of his actions, Brown was charged with murder and treason. He was hanged at Charleston, Virginia on December 2, 1859. Nevertheless, his rebellion was one of the primary causes of the Civil War. Many southern sympathizers believed Brown's rebellion was a conspiracy against slavery advocates of the south staged by the U.S. Government. Others feared Brown's rebellion would indeed cause a slave insurrection. For many years after his death, Brown was considered a martyr and hero to the abolitionist cause. | <urn:uuid:9df208be-4420-4088-bf40-4ab42160ccbc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/john-brown-rebellion | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00498.warc.gz | en | 0.987797 | 499 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.078217729926... | 2 | John Brown was born on May 9th, 1800, in Torrington, Connecticut. At age 5 he moved to Ohio and acquired a hatred for the institution of slavery from his father. When he was 12, he stayed with a Michigan family who continuously beat their slaves. The image would haunt Brown for the rest of his life. Brown soon became a staunch abolitionist (an advocate for the banning of slavery) and even started a school to help educate young black people in 1834.
A Murderous Act of Vengeance
In 1855, John Brown followed five of his sons to "Bleeding Kansas", where a number of abolitionists had recently been murdered. Brown and his sons subsequently murdered five slavery advocates at Pottawatomie, Kansas on May 24, 1856. Brown and his sons immediately became fugitives and withstood a mob of attacking Missourians at Osawatomie. Brown's actions, together with his stand at Osawatomie, made him a legendary figure and a nationally recognized opponent of slavery.
Planning for an Insurrection
When Brown returned east, he formulated a plan to free slaves by force. He had financial support from many wealthy abolitionists in the northeast. Brown's plan included a refuge for runaway slaves in the mountains of Virginia. On October 16, 1859, John Brown, his sons, and a small number of loyal supporters, launched an attack against the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. He believed word of the arsenal's capture would inspire slaves throughout Virginia to rebel against their owners. The group easily took the town and the arsenal. Brown, however, failed to launch any further offensives and took a defensive position within the arsenal. Brown's group was quickly surrounded by the local militia, and then, a day later, by U.S. marines led by Robert E. Lee. The ensuing battles resulted in the death of two of his sons, his own injuries, and an unconditional surrender.
As a result of his actions, Brown was charged with murder and treason. He was hanged at Charleston, Virginia on December 2, 1859. Nevertheless, his rebellion was one of the primary causes of the Civil War. Many southern sympathizers believed Brown's rebellion was a conspiracy against slavery advocates of the south staged by the U.S. Government. Others feared Brown's rebellion would indeed cause a slave insurrection. For many years after his death, Brown was considered a martyr and hero to the abolitionist cause. | 528 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scorning Slavery in Mark Twain´s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
1466 WordsJan 27, 20186 Pages
Martin Luther King Jr. was a civil rights activist who worked to gain legal equality for African Americans in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In 1963, he delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech during the March on Washington. King believed that blacks and whites are equal and yearned for social justice. Nearly 100 years earlier, Mark Twain shared similar beliefs; he also agreed that blacks and whites are equal. In Huckleberry Finn, Twain criticizes the assumption that whites should control blacks, as well as the Southern belief that blacks are not as smart whites, or as capable of feeling human emotions.
Twain criticizes the belief in the South that blacks are naturally unintelligent. In the beginning of the book, as tom sawyer is introduced, tom plays a prank on Jim by hanging his hat above his head. Tom and Huck find it funny when superstitious Jim, the next day, recounts that witches put him in a trance. Huck explains that “Niggers would come miles to hear Jim tell about it, and he was more looked up to than any nigger in that country.” Both Huck and Tom find this ridiculous, knowing that it wasn’t witches who played the trick, but themselves. Jim’s gullibility is comedic to them. They think that they duped Jim, but Jim benefits from their trick. Jim is no longer focused on his work, and instead, cleverly, creates a diversion from his responsibilities. Jim is still fed and given shelter, yet he no longer has to perform manual labor. Jim, without his owners | <urn:uuid:eee14459-11d8-4314-a894-90a0119c1d7d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Scorning-Slavery-in-Mark-Twains-The-Adventures-PKBZTN4J8B6S | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00418.warc.gz | en | 0.983517 | 353 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.2190594375133... | 1 | Scorning Slavery in Mark Twain´s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
1466 WordsJan 27, 20186 Pages
Martin Luther King Jr. was a civil rights activist who worked to gain legal equality for African Americans in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In 1963, he delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech during the March on Washington. King believed that blacks and whites are equal and yearned for social justice. Nearly 100 years earlier, Mark Twain shared similar beliefs; he also agreed that blacks and whites are equal. In Huckleberry Finn, Twain criticizes the assumption that whites should control blacks, as well as the Southern belief that blacks are not as smart whites, or as capable of feeling human emotions.
Twain criticizes the belief in the South that blacks are naturally unintelligent. In the beginning of the book, as tom sawyer is introduced, tom plays a prank on Jim by hanging his hat above his head. Tom and Huck find it funny when superstitious Jim, the next day, recounts that witches put him in a trance. Huck explains that “Niggers would come miles to hear Jim tell about it, and he was more looked up to than any nigger in that country.” Both Huck and Tom find this ridiculous, knowing that it wasn’t witches who played the trick, but themselves. Jim’s gullibility is comedic to them. They think that they duped Jim, but Jim benefits from their trick. Jim is no longer focused on his work, and instead, cleverly, creates a diversion from his responsibilities. Jim is still fed and given shelter, yet he no longer has to perform manual labor. Jim, without his owners | 368 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most of us are extremely familiar with the jolly, white-bearded man in a red suit. But where did he come from? I decided to combine history and Christmas this week, and explored that question.
Most historians agree that the original Santa was a monk, Nicholas, who was born around 280 A.D. in what is now the country of Turkey. He was revered for his kindness and generosity, and was made a saint (Saint Nicholas) by the church. Saint Nicholas was also known as a protector of children and sailors, and was the most popular saint in Europe. His feast day is on December 6th, the day of his death, which is why some people have a tradition of providing small gifts on that day.
Now fast forward hundreds of years. Dutch settlers arriving in the mid-to-late 1700s in what is now New York City brought their traditions for Sint Nikolaas (Dutch for Saint Nicholas) with them. Over time, this name was shortened to Sinter Klaas, which then over more time became Santa Claus.
The first known picture of St. Nicholas in the U.S. was a woodcut done in New York in 1804. In earlier years, there was not one set description of his appearance. His appearance – as well as specific holiday customs – varied based on a person’s country of origin.
Our current image of him started in 1822 when Clement Clarke Moore wrote a Christmas poem. Since he was an Episcopal minister, he almost didn’t publish such a frivolous piece. But he eventually did, and it became “Twas The Night Before Christmas.” This poem established Santa as a heavyset “right jolly old elf” who traveled in a flying sleigh pulled by reindeer and came down chimneys.
Then, in 1881, political cartoonist Thomas Nast created a drawing of Santa – inspired by the poem – which appeared in Harper’s Weekly. He was the first to show Santa with a white beard, wearing a red suit trimmed with white fur, and holding a sack full of toys. Oh, and Nast was also the first to depict elves and a Mrs. Claus in his drawings.
The Christmas holiday saw an upsurge of popularity in the early 1800s and Santa likewise became more popular. Stores started promoting Christmas shopping as early as 1820. Newspapers started including holiday advertisements in the 1840s, and often used images of Santa. The first life-size (though not live) Santa display was in a Philadelphia store in 1841. It was a huge success. Thousands of children (and their shopping parents) came to see him. It didn’t take long for stores to start hiring live Santas.
Speaking of live Santas, the Salvation Army first began using Santas as bell ringers in the early 1890s. They were short of funds to provide Christmas meals for poor families, so the Salvation Army paid unemployed men in New York City to dress up as Santa and ask for donations. The idea spread and evolved, which is why we now see Salvation Army volunteers ringing bells next to their kettles every holiday season.
So there you go. A brief summary of why Santa Claus is such an integral part of Christmas now. There are so many additional fascinating bits of Santa trivia I could have included (did you know in Canada he has his own postal code?) but I had to end this somewhere. I hope you enjoyed this fun trip back into history. And I hope you enjoy the coming days of the holiday season. For me, it’s time to wrap some presents and bake some cookies.
I write historical romances, and I invite you to share the journey to published author with me. | <urn:uuid:2a746bbd-443f-4dce-a51c-72a1c4dfd00e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.karenmarcam.com/blog/santa-claus-has-interesting-origins | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00558.warc.gz | en | 0.984528 | 770 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.36413383483... | 7 | Most of us are extremely familiar with the jolly, white-bearded man in a red suit. But where did he come from? I decided to combine history and Christmas this week, and explored that question.
Most historians agree that the original Santa was a monk, Nicholas, who was born around 280 A.D. in what is now the country of Turkey. He was revered for his kindness and generosity, and was made a saint (Saint Nicholas) by the church. Saint Nicholas was also known as a protector of children and sailors, and was the most popular saint in Europe. His feast day is on December 6th, the day of his death, which is why some people have a tradition of providing small gifts on that day.
Now fast forward hundreds of years. Dutch settlers arriving in the mid-to-late 1700s in what is now New York City brought their traditions for Sint Nikolaas (Dutch for Saint Nicholas) with them. Over time, this name was shortened to Sinter Klaas, which then over more time became Santa Claus.
The first known picture of St. Nicholas in the U.S. was a woodcut done in New York in 1804. In earlier years, there was not one set description of his appearance. His appearance – as well as specific holiday customs – varied based on a person’s country of origin.
Our current image of him started in 1822 when Clement Clarke Moore wrote a Christmas poem. Since he was an Episcopal minister, he almost didn’t publish such a frivolous piece. But he eventually did, and it became “Twas The Night Before Christmas.” This poem established Santa as a heavyset “right jolly old elf” who traveled in a flying sleigh pulled by reindeer and came down chimneys.
Then, in 1881, political cartoonist Thomas Nast created a drawing of Santa – inspired by the poem – which appeared in Harper’s Weekly. He was the first to show Santa with a white beard, wearing a red suit trimmed with white fur, and holding a sack full of toys. Oh, and Nast was also the first to depict elves and a Mrs. Claus in his drawings.
The Christmas holiday saw an upsurge of popularity in the early 1800s and Santa likewise became more popular. Stores started promoting Christmas shopping as early as 1820. Newspapers started including holiday advertisements in the 1840s, and often used images of Santa. The first life-size (though not live) Santa display was in a Philadelphia store in 1841. It was a huge success. Thousands of children (and their shopping parents) came to see him. It didn’t take long for stores to start hiring live Santas.
Speaking of live Santas, the Salvation Army first began using Santas as bell ringers in the early 1890s. They were short of funds to provide Christmas meals for poor families, so the Salvation Army paid unemployed men in New York City to dress up as Santa and ask for donations. The idea spread and evolved, which is why we now see Salvation Army volunteers ringing bells next to their kettles every holiday season.
So there you go. A brief summary of why Santa Claus is such an integral part of Christmas now. There are so many additional fascinating bits of Santa trivia I could have included (did you know in Canada he has his own postal code?) but I had to end this somewhere. I hope you enjoyed this fun trip back into history. And I hope you enjoy the coming days of the holiday season. For me, it’s time to wrap some presents and bake some cookies.
I write historical romances, and I invite you to share the journey to published author with me. | 776 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St. Ossius of Cordova was one of the more influential and well respected bishop-confessors at the time of St. Constantine’s conversion to the Christian faith. When Constantine wanted to follow the Christian faith, Ossius was one of the many bishops Constantine called to his court to teach him the intricate details and expectations of his newfound faith. Moreover, Ossius was the first Constantine trusted to serve as a mediator between himself and the Church, directing Constantine in his activity with the Church itself. This is why, when the Arian controversy emerged in Alexandria, disrupting the peace of the Church, Ossius was sent to investigate the cause of the conflict and to find a way to end the controversy and reestablish the peace of the Church.
What happened next was not what either Constantine or Ossius expected. When Ossius talked to the Patriarch of Alexandria, St. Alexander, and learned what was at stake, he was more than a little surprised: how can a Christian deny the divinity of Christ? Ossius and Alexander quickly came into an agreement as to the errors of Arius, and they tried, without success, to bring an end to the controversy before it spread throughout the empire. While working with Alexander, Ossius met the young St. Athanasius, and quickly became one of Athanasius’s mentors. Ever since his meeting with the bishop from Cordova, Athanasius looked upon him with great favor.
Because the conflict did not end with Ossius’ intervention in Alexandria, Ossius, working with Constantine, eventually decided it was best to convene an empire-wide, that is ecumenical, council to help deal with the Arian controversy (as well as many other internal conflicts causing scandal to the Christian faith). Ossius presided at the council, convened at Nicea, and helped write and produce is creed.
Ossius continued to be a strong opponent of Arianism. His reputation as a holy confessor certainly gave him credibility to the rest of the Church, and that meant Arians felt the sting of his denial of their claims. But this was not to mean they did not try to undermine his message. When Constantine died, the Arians found all kinds of ways to influence the empire, getting into the courts of his successors, so that orthodox bishops often suffered exile or worse, persecution and torture, for their defense of Nicea.
Since he fell and signed the creed, many have condemned him, despite being a confessor-bishop who suffered torture several times in his life for the sake of Christ. Many Novatians and Donatists, who despised Ossius because he persuaded Constantine not to give financial support to their churches, besmeared his name, causing the West to ignore his holy and saintly life (he is recognized as a Saint in the East). His lapse was against his will, when he was not in the best frame of mind or health, and was done in part for the sake of others to stop them from being tortured. His situation is quite like the situation found in Endo’s novel Silence, and the movie which has come out of that novel.
Would those same people who condemn Silence condemn a film about Ossius of Cordova which deals with his signing of the Arian Creed of Sirmium, showing the psychological and physical torture which led to his breakdown (similar to what is shown in Endo’s Silence)? Would they say such a film promotes apostasy by being realistic about history? Would they likewise condemn Ossius, not allowing him forgiveness afterward, and denounce any who would show him such graceful consideration?
They would do so against the express wishes of Athanasius. | <urn:uuid:ad01c74e-10b2-45be-b01d-7518fb5ead2d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.patheos.com/blogs/henrykarlson/2017/01/ossius-cordova-silence-christ-can-even-save-broken/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.985071 | 752 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.26177990436... | 1 | St. Ossius of Cordova was one of the more influential and well respected bishop-confessors at the time of St. Constantine’s conversion to the Christian faith. When Constantine wanted to follow the Christian faith, Ossius was one of the many bishops Constantine called to his court to teach him the intricate details and expectations of his newfound faith. Moreover, Ossius was the first Constantine trusted to serve as a mediator between himself and the Church, directing Constantine in his activity with the Church itself. This is why, when the Arian controversy emerged in Alexandria, disrupting the peace of the Church, Ossius was sent to investigate the cause of the conflict and to find a way to end the controversy and reestablish the peace of the Church.
What happened next was not what either Constantine or Ossius expected. When Ossius talked to the Patriarch of Alexandria, St. Alexander, and learned what was at stake, he was more than a little surprised: how can a Christian deny the divinity of Christ? Ossius and Alexander quickly came into an agreement as to the errors of Arius, and they tried, without success, to bring an end to the controversy before it spread throughout the empire. While working with Alexander, Ossius met the young St. Athanasius, and quickly became one of Athanasius’s mentors. Ever since his meeting with the bishop from Cordova, Athanasius looked upon him with great favor.
Because the conflict did not end with Ossius’ intervention in Alexandria, Ossius, working with Constantine, eventually decided it was best to convene an empire-wide, that is ecumenical, council to help deal with the Arian controversy (as well as many other internal conflicts causing scandal to the Christian faith). Ossius presided at the council, convened at Nicea, and helped write and produce is creed.
Ossius continued to be a strong opponent of Arianism. His reputation as a holy confessor certainly gave him credibility to the rest of the Church, and that meant Arians felt the sting of his denial of their claims. But this was not to mean they did not try to undermine his message. When Constantine died, the Arians found all kinds of ways to influence the empire, getting into the courts of his successors, so that orthodox bishops often suffered exile or worse, persecution and torture, for their defense of Nicea.
Since he fell and signed the creed, many have condemned him, despite being a confessor-bishop who suffered torture several times in his life for the sake of Christ. Many Novatians and Donatists, who despised Ossius because he persuaded Constantine not to give financial support to their churches, besmeared his name, causing the West to ignore his holy and saintly life (he is recognized as a Saint in the East). His lapse was against his will, when he was not in the best frame of mind or health, and was done in part for the sake of others to stop them from being tortured. His situation is quite like the situation found in Endo’s novel Silence, and the movie which has come out of that novel.
Would those same people who condemn Silence condemn a film about Ossius of Cordova which deals with his signing of the Arian Creed of Sirmium, showing the psychological and physical torture which led to his breakdown (similar to what is shown in Endo’s Silence)? Would they say such a film promotes apostasy by being realistic about history? Would they likewise condemn Ossius, not allowing him forgiveness afterward, and denounce any who would show him such graceful consideration?
They would do so against the express wishes of Athanasius. | 762 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lightning strikes might have added a touch of drama to the Apollo 12 mission, but it was nothing compared to the challenging full-scale emergency that faced Apollo 13.
An explosion in space, more than 300,000 km from home raised fears that its crew would be lost in space and never come home. But the threat of disaster was turned into one of the greatest triumphs in space exploration history when NASA pulled off a seemingly impossible rescue.
All plans for a landing on the Moon had to be abandoned. But ironically it was the Lunar Module, Aquarius, that saved the stricken crew.
The mission had started well enough for veteran astronaut Commander Jim Lovell, and his crew Fred Haise and Jack Swigert who were on their first spaceflights. One engine on their Saturn V rocket cut out too soon during launch on April 11, 1970, leaving four others to burn longer to put them into Earth orbit. But now they were safely on their way to the Moon and a visit to the Fra Mauro highlands.
After two days, the crew had just finished a lengthy TV broadcast home when Swigert flicked a switch to stir oxygen tanks in the Service Module. A short circuit sparked a fire that caused an explosion in one tank, damaging another and blowing the side off the spacecraft. Electricity, light and water were lost.
Swigert called mission control to report the incident, telling them the now famous words: “Houston, we’ve had a problem here.” Warning lights showed that one oxygen tank was empty and the other emptying fast. Glancing out of the window, Lovell could see the precious gas venting into space.
It was hugely fortunate that the Command Module, named Odyssey, had already docked with LM Aquarius because it would have been impossible to carry out such a manoeuvre with a dead spacecraft. As it was, the crew was going to have to rely on the lander to get them home, performing as a lifeboat in a way that it was never intended to do.
Aquarius still had oxygen and water in its tanks, plus power and a functioning rocket engine. It was impossible simply to turn the spacecraft round to bring it home. Instead Aquarius would be used to swing the astronauts around the back of the Moon and towards Earth again. The astronauts helped navigate, like sailors of old, by aligning a sextant on the Sun.
The crew were ordered into Aquarius and Odyssey was completely powered down. The lander’s thruster was fired to send them around the Moon, but calculations showed they would splash down in the Indian Ocean where there would be no rescue ships. A second engine burn was therefore made, both to bring them back more quickly, and to land them in the Pacific. For Lovell, who was on Apollo 8, it was the second time he had rounded the Moon without landing.
Power use in Aquarius was kept to a minimum to conserve it for the long voyage ahead, bringing the temperature down to a chilly 3 degrees C for the uncomfortable crew who were losing weight and becoming dehydrated.
Then another danger became apparent: the astronauts were producing more carbon dioxide than the Lunar Module was designed to handle and it was building to a perilous level. Square canisters in Odyssey were designed to remove carbon dioxide, but they were not compatible with the round openings in Aquarius’s environmental system. NASA’s engineers found a way to adapt cardboard plastic bags and tape on the spacecraft to make the connection.
Before re-entry, the astronauts had to return to the Command Module. They found it cold with condensation covering the walls. They jettisoned the Service Module, taking photos to show the extensive damage from the explosion, then prepared for re-entry. Back home, the world held its breath but re-entry was successful and the astronauts were recovered by the USS Iwo Jima.
★ Keep up with space news and observing tips. Click here to sign up for alerts to our latest reports. No spam ever - we promise! | <urn:uuid:923ee992-1a21-425e-a0af-62c007c8cd39> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.skymania.com/wp/apollo-13-houston-weve-had-a-problem/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00448.warc.gz | en | 0.981736 | 831 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1897996068... | 6 | Lightning strikes might have added a touch of drama to the Apollo 12 mission, but it was nothing compared to the challenging full-scale emergency that faced Apollo 13.
An explosion in space, more than 300,000 km from home raised fears that its crew would be lost in space and never come home. But the threat of disaster was turned into one of the greatest triumphs in space exploration history when NASA pulled off a seemingly impossible rescue.
All plans for a landing on the Moon had to be abandoned. But ironically it was the Lunar Module, Aquarius, that saved the stricken crew.
The mission had started well enough for veteran astronaut Commander Jim Lovell, and his crew Fred Haise and Jack Swigert who were on their first spaceflights. One engine on their Saturn V rocket cut out too soon during launch on April 11, 1970, leaving four others to burn longer to put them into Earth orbit. But now they were safely on their way to the Moon and a visit to the Fra Mauro highlands.
After two days, the crew had just finished a lengthy TV broadcast home when Swigert flicked a switch to stir oxygen tanks in the Service Module. A short circuit sparked a fire that caused an explosion in one tank, damaging another and blowing the side off the spacecraft. Electricity, light and water were lost.
Swigert called mission control to report the incident, telling them the now famous words: “Houston, we’ve had a problem here.” Warning lights showed that one oxygen tank was empty and the other emptying fast. Glancing out of the window, Lovell could see the precious gas venting into space.
It was hugely fortunate that the Command Module, named Odyssey, had already docked with LM Aquarius because it would have been impossible to carry out such a manoeuvre with a dead spacecraft. As it was, the crew was going to have to rely on the lander to get them home, performing as a lifeboat in a way that it was never intended to do.
Aquarius still had oxygen and water in its tanks, plus power and a functioning rocket engine. It was impossible simply to turn the spacecraft round to bring it home. Instead Aquarius would be used to swing the astronauts around the back of the Moon and towards Earth again. The astronauts helped navigate, like sailors of old, by aligning a sextant on the Sun.
The crew were ordered into Aquarius and Odyssey was completely powered down. The lander’s thruster was fired to send them around the Moon, but calculations showed they would splash down in the Indian Ocean where there would be no rescue ships. A second engine burn was therefore made, both to bring them back more quickly, and to land them in the Pacific. For Lovell, who was on Apollo 8, it was the second time he had rounded the Moon without landing.
Power use in Aquarius was kept to a minimum to conserve it for the long voyage ahead, bringing the temperature down to a chilly 3 degrees C for the uncomfortable crew who were losing weight and becoming dehydrated.
Then another danger became apparent: the astronauts were producing more carbon dioxide than the Lunar Module was designed to handle and it was building to a perilous level. Square canisters in Odyssey were designed to remove carbon dioxide, but they were not compatible with the round openings in Aquarius’s environmental system. NASA’s engineers found a way to adapt cardboard plastic bags and tape on the spacecraft to make the connection.
Before re-entry, the astronauts had to return to the Command Module. They found it cold with condensation covering the walls. They jettisoned the Service Module, taking photos to show the extensive damage from the explosion, then prepared for re-entry. Back home, the world held its breath but re-entry was successful and the astronauts were recovered by the USS Iwo Jima.
★ Keep up with space news and observing tips. Click here to sign up for alerts to our latest reports. No spam ever - we promise! | 822 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paradise Lost Published
Though little read today other than by literature students, Paradise Lost is still regarded as one of the great foundations of modern English writing. It is dense with cultural references, from the Classics, of course from the Bible, but from many other sources too. Milton’s years at Cambridge and moreso his self-guided studies while living in Horton in Berkshire provided the poet with a depth of scholarship that floods out of his greatest work.
It also has political overtones, the fact that Satan is its most interesting character a telling one, his rebellion against God understandable, even laudable; Satan’s famous words: “who overcomes by force hath overcome but half his foe,” perhaps the most often quoted from the work.
Milton was a republican, a functionary in Cromwell’s regime, and after the Restoration went into hiding for a time – as author of The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates in 1649, a defence of the regicides, he feared that he might face the same end that some of them met on October17 1660.
The book, which was probably in his mind from 1641, and was begun at the end of the following decade, finally appeared in 1667, having been finished in a cottage in Chalfont St Giles where he was escaping the plague ravaging London. By that time he was totally blind and forced to dictate to secretaries, holding huge sections of verse in his mind. The copyright to this work so long in the making was sold to his publisher, Samuel Simmons of London, for Ł10.
More famous dates here
5321 views since 7th February 2011
On this day: | <urn:uuid:e860de8c-0673-417d-bcb4-acdf195aeb50> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.information-britain.co.uk/famdates.php?id=1317 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.987447 | 348 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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Though little read today other than by literature students, Paradise Lost is still regarded as one of the great foundations of modern English writing. It is dense with cultural references, from the Classics, of course from the Bible, but from many other sources too. Milton’s years at Cambridge and moreso his self-guided studies while living in Horton in Berkshire provided the poet with a depth of scholarship that floods out of his greatest work.
It also has political overtones, the fact that Satan is its most interesting character a telling one, his rebellion against God understandable, even laudable; Satan’s famous words: “who overcomes by force hath overcome but half his foe,” perhaps the most often quoted from the work.
Milton was a republican, a functionary in Cromwell’s regime, and after the Restoration went into hiding for a time – as author of The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates in 1649, a defence of the regicides, he feared that he might face the same end that some of them met on October17 1660.
The book, which was probably in his mind from 1641, and was begun at the end of the following decade, finally appeared in 1667, having been finished in a cottage in Chalfont St Giles where he was escaping the plague ravaging London. By that time he was totally blind and forced to dictate to secretaries, holding huge sections of verse in his mind. The copyright to this work so long in the making was sold to his publisher, Samuel Simmons of London, for Ł10.
More famous dates here
5321 views since 7th February 2011
On this day: | 357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This month, the country of Mexico has experienced two major earthquakes. The first, on Friday, September 8, measured about 8.2 (on the Richter scale used to read the power of earthquakes). It was the most powerful one to hit Mexico in 100 years and almost 100 people died.
Then, just last Tuesday, September 19, a 7.1 quake hit about 120 kilometers (75 miles) from the capital, Mexico City. Despite being somewhat less powerful, this second quake caused about three times as many deaths, and was the deadliest to hit Mexico in over 30 years. Why?
Bad luck? Or bad planning?
There are many reasons, of course. The first quake was deeper (70 km or 43 miles below ground) than the second (51 km or 32 miles). Though a deeper quake is felt over a wider area, the shaking isn't as intense as a shallow quake closer to the surface.
There is also the matter of where people were at the time of the quakes — the first one happened at night, while the second one was around 1pm. Perhaps people were in more vulnerable places during the day than at night?
And, of course, second quake was simply much closer to Mexico City, one of the world's biggest cities and home to 8.8 million people. More people, more risk. But many scientists say that the capital city's trouble with quakes isn't just about its higher population. It's about where (especially on what) it's built.
Mexico City sits on an ancient lake bed. It's not even all that ancient, really.
500 years ago, this land was still occupied by the Aztecs, an ethnic group that ruled the area from the 1300s to the early 1500s. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, was were Mexico City is today. Except it was on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco.
After the Spanish conquered the Aztecs in 1521, they quickly began to rebuild Tenochtitlan with their own buildings and style. They also wanted to make the city larger. Over the next few centuries, they slowly drained the lake, until it was gone completely. As the lake disappeared, the city grew and grew.
On a bowl of jelly
While this new land was dry, it wasn't as solid as much of the land in the rest of the country. Any lake bed, or bottom, usually isn't hard rock. It tends to be made of layers of sand and clay, carried there by the water and dropped on the bottom as sediment.
This means that most of Mexico City today is built on soft sand and clay, not rock. The way this ground reacts to a quake is unique...and deadly. The tremors of the quake immediately slow down when they hit the sand and clay. Instead of traveling quickly across the city (as they would with most rock) they linger and get stronger.
As Stephen Hicks of the University of Southampton described it to the Guardian, an earthquake hitting Mexico City is "like shaking a bowl of jelly." According to a report in the New York Times, a quake in Mexico City can be up to hundred times more stronger than it would be elsewhere.
And it's all because of the fact that it was built on an old drained lake.
Safer, but still vulnerable
Mexicans understand that they live in an area that is vulnerable to earthquakes.
As we discussed at the end of this story, the country of Mexico is found where several tectonic plates meet. The leads to dozens of quakes every year, though few of them are strong enough to feel. And on the very day of the second September quake, Mexico City was literally holding memorials to a quake in 1985 that killed over 10,000 people.
The 1985 quake led to led to changes to the country's building codes. This made the buildings stronger and safer during a quake. In fact, many experts believe that last Tuesday's quake would've been far worse if those changes hadn't been made.
But as long as Mexico City is where it is, on a lake bed in an earthquake hot spot, the city will always face challenges to its safety during tremors. | <urn:uuid:465d298f-7d7e-4729-a9b9-15c1261143df> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://owlconnected.com/archives/mexico-city-vulnerable-earthquakes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00371.warc.gz | en | 0.984253 | 864 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.07232505083084... | 7 | This month, the country of Mexico has experienced two major earthquakes. The first, on Friday, September 8, measured about 8.2 (on the Richter scale used to read the power of earthquakes). It was the most powerful one to hit Mexico in 100 years and almost 100 people died.
Then, just last Tuesday, September 19, a 7.1 quake hit about 120 kilometers (75 miles) from the capital, Mexico City. Despite being somewhat less powerful, this second quake caused about three times as many deaths, and was the deadliest to hit Mexico in over 30 years. Why?
Bad luck? Or bad planning?
There are many reasons, of course. The first quake was deeper (70 km or 43 miles below ground) than the second (51 km or 32 miles). Though a deeper quake is felt over a wider area, the shaking isn't as intense as a shallow quake closer to the surface.
There is also the matter of where people were at the time of the quakes — the first one happened at night, while the second one was around 1pm. Perhaps people were in more vulnerable places during the day than at night?
And, of course, second quake was simply much closer to Mexico City, one of the world's biggest cities and home to 8.8 million people. More people, more risk. But many scientists say that the capital city's trouble with quakes isn't just about its higher population. It's about where (especially on what) it's built.
Mexico City sits on an ancient lake bed. It's not even all that ancient, really.
500 years ago, this land was still occupied by the Aztecs, an ethnic group that ruled the area from the 1300s to the early 1500s. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, was were Mexico City is today. Except it was on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco.
After the Spanish conquered the Aztecs in 1521, they quickly began to rebuild Tenochtitlan with their own buildings and style. They also wanted to make the city larger. Over the next few centuries, they slowly drained the lake, until it was gone completely. As the lake disappeared, the city grew and grew.
On a bowl of jelly
While this new land was dry, it wasn't as solid as much of the land in the rest of the country. Any lake bed, or bottom, usually isn't hard rock. It tends to be made of layers of sand and clay, carried there by the water and dropped on the bottom as sediment.
This means that most of Mexico City today is built on soft sand and clay, not rock. The way this ground reacts to a quake is unique...and deadly. The tremors of the quake immediately slow down when they hit the sand and clay. Instead of traveling quickly across the city (as they would with most rock) they linger and get stronger.
As Stephen Hicks of the University of Southampton described it to the Guardian, an earthquake hitting Mexico City is "like shaking a bowl of jelly." According to a report in the New York Times, a quake in Mexico City can be up to hundred times more stronger than it would be elsewhere.
And it's all because of the fact that it was built on an old drained lake.
Safer, but still vulnerable
Mexicans understand that they live in an area that is vulnerable to earthquakes.
As we discussed at the end of this story, the country of Mexico is found where several tectonic plates meet. The leads to dozens of quakes every year, though few of them are strong enough to feel. And on the very day of the second September quake, Mexico City was literally holding memorials to a quake in 1985 that killed over 10,000 people.
The 1985 quake led to led to changes to the country's building codes. This made the buildings stronger and safer during a quake. In fact, many experts believe that last Tuesday's quake would've been far worse if those changes hadn't been made.
But as long as Mexico City is where it is, on a lake bed in an earthquake hot spot, the city will always face challenges to its safety during tremors. | 896 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Commissioned in the year 1486 to paint the vocation by the Medici family of Florence, Sandro Botticelli worked on his masterpiece “The Birth of Venus”, specifically for the family of Lorenzo de' Medici, who was a close comrade of Botticelli. The painting is a portrait of the goddess Venus, as seen to be emerging from under the sea waters as a beautiful woman, and her arrival at the seashore. The depiction is in relation to the Venus Anadyomene ornamentation. Currently “The Birth of Venus” painting in held on display at Florence’s Uffizi Gallery, Italy.
Created in the Renaissance period, when the majority of the art was dedicated to the Christian theme, the painting notably stands out, because it presents a naked woman. In his painting, Botticelli reveals the goddess Venus in the form of a strikingly beautiful and innocent woman. She serves as a symbol of the spring that was approaching. Depiction of naked women was not common in the Renaissance, and the act was viewed as pagan or as a symbol of sinful lust. In the Renaissance period, the majority of paintings of women represented the Virgin Mary, portraying her in a modest manifestation with an innocent smile and covered head. Therefore, the painting “The Birth of Venus” is important in showing the non-biblical part of the Renaissance period of Italian art. Venus is a goddess of love, and she is presented the beginning of a new season of spring, which opened the door for new life of harvest. Most importantly, the painting shows that Botticelli was choosing his themes for painting based on his source of inspiration rather than shared beliefs.
Buy Venus essay paper online
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
In addition, Botticelli as a Renaissance art master helps people understand the importance of the painting during that period. Botticelli had a variety of inspiration sources for his works. Probably one of the inspirations for painting the Venus was created by his age mates who were revisiting and rediscovering Greek beauty ideals and Ancient Greek art. However, Botticelli’s Venus contains many aspects of Renaissance classical ideals that involved motion and perfection. The orange tree on the background the flower petals that have been sprinkled throughout the atmosphere, Zephyrs blowing away ringlets of hair, gentle tossing of waves, and the clothes and cloaks of the woman seem to be slightly lifted by the breeze giving the impression of euphoria. Furthermore, the pose of the Venus is evocative of the Venus de Medici, which was a gem inscription and marble sculpture from Classical relic in the collection of the Medici that Botticelli had a chance of viewing earlier (Dunant 23)
The painting “The Birth of Venus” was clearly unlike the artworks which were commissioned during the Renaissance times as Christianity dictated what sort of compositions were to be made. In fact, painters who would disobey risked losing their own lives. Thus, the painting was designed to be placed and hung above the matrimonial bed. More so, the painting was a bold celebration of human desire. Being so controversial for its time, “The Birth of Venus” was kept away from sight of people behind the closed doors for almost half a century. The church would not allow for such exposure of the human body, especially a female body, be placed on public view. Moreover, since the church was in charge of commissioning majority of the artworks made during the Renaissance period, there was no way religious leaders would accept a painting that showed lust and sinful ways of pagans into the confines of the church. However, the painting is an important source of the Renaissance history, as far as many of the artworks that were done during that time were forever lost in Bonfires of the Vanities.
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0.2814468741416931,... | 1 | Commissioned in the year 1486 to paint the vocation by the Medici family of Florence, Sandro Botticelli worked on his masterpiece “The Birth of Venus”, specifically for the family of Lorenzo de' Medici, who was a close comrade of Botticelli. The painting is a portrait of the goddess Venus, as seen to be emerging from under the sea waters as a beautiful woman, and her arrival at the seashore. The depiction is in relation to the Venus Anadyomene ornamentation. Currently “The Birth of Venus” painting in held on display at Florence’s Uffizi Gallery, Italy.
Created in the Renaissance period, when the majority of the art was dedicated to the Christian theme, the painting notably stands out, because it presents a naked woman. In his painting, Botticelli reveals the goddess Venus in the form of a strikingly beautiful and innocent woman. She serves as a symbol of the spring that was approaching. Depiction of naked women was not common in the Renaissance, and the act was viewed as pagan or as a symbol of sinful lust. In the Renaissance period, the majority of paintings of women represented the Virgin Mary, portraying her in a modest manifestation with an innocent smile and covered head. Therefore, the painting “The Birth of Venus” is important in showing the non-biblical part of the Renaissance period of Italian art. Venus is a goddess of love, and she is presented the beginning of a new season of spring, which opened the door for new life of harvest. Most importantly, the painting shows that Botticelli was choosing his themes for painting based on his source of inspiration rather than shared beliefs.
Buy Venus essay paper online
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
In addition, Botticelli as a Renaissance art master helps people understand the importance of the painting during that period. Botticelli had a variety of inspiration sources for his works. Probably one of the inspirations for painting the Venus was created by his age mates who were revisiting and rediscovering Greek beauty ideals and Ancient Greek art. However, Botticelli’s Venus contains many aspects of Renaissance classical ideals that involved motion and perfection. The orange tree on the background the flower petals that have been sprinkled throughout the atmosphere, Zephyrs blowing away ringlets of hair, gentle tossing of waves, and the clothes and cloaks of the woman seem to be slightly lifted by the breeze giving the impression of euphoria. Furthermore, the pose of the Venus is evocative of the Venus de Medici, which was a gem inscription and marble sculpture from Classical relic in the collection of the Medici that Botticelli had a chance of viewing earlier (Dunant 23)
The painting “The Birth of Venus” was clearly unlike the artworks which were commissioned during the Renaissance times as Christianity dictated what sort of compositions were to be made. In fact, painters who would disobey risked losing their own lives. Thus, the painting was designed to be placed and hung above the matrimonial bed. More so, the painting was a bold celebration of human desire. Being so controversial for its time, “The Birth of Venus” was kept away from sight of people behind the closed doors for almost half a century. The church would not allow for such exposure of the human body, especially a female body, be placed on public view. Moreover, since the church was in charge of commissioning majority of the artworks made during the Renaissance period, there was no way religious leaders would accept a painting that showed lust and sinful ways of pagans into the confines of the church. However, the painting is an important source of the Renaissance history, as far as many of the artworks that were done during that time were forever lost in Bonfires of the Vanities.
Related analysis essays
Most popular orders | 785 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Looking Out for Number One:
Conflicting Cultural Values in Early Seventeenth-Century Virginia
By: T.H Breen
The main focus of Breen's essay the focus is on the fact that colonists in Virginia were driven and motivated to come to the New World, predominantly for monetary reasons. Virginia's soil was found to be unusually well suited for growing tobacco, which is why it drove such a variety of people to migrate there. The colonists, though said to be religious, were extremely individualistic, selfish, as well as primarily drawn in by the economic opportunity in Virginia. These attitudes and ideals are what consequently resulted in numerous military defeats and massacres. They avoided their military obligations, thus naming them the vulnerable “poorly defended white settlements.” These settlements were very easy for the Indians to take advantage of, as Breen writes.
Early Virginia's flourishing cultivation of tobacco drew a diversity of people, from fresh war veterans and former soldiers, to adventurers and ordinary people looking to recoup from former monetary losses. However the tobacco did not only alter the country culturally and economically, but it “ threw more wood into the fire.” It strengthened the infamous individualistic attitude the colonists had. The adventurers began to have a very competitive attitude and took upon themselves as many others did an anarchist or mutinous perspective, where government intervention was view as a threat to there independence.
Breen clearly depicts the Virginians attitude by saying that if they would have landed in a “cold, rocky, inhospitable country…they would probably have given up the entire venture…” Throughout this essay Breen reiterates the fact that the Virginians were out for private gain. They took it to such an extent that they isolated themselves throughout the land, which they exploited to all ends. Their relationships between each other and social behavior clearly portrayed the individualistic attitude they had. Slaves were used as a resource to increase profit. In Virginia you seemed to either be a resource used for profit or an exploiter who utilized those resources.
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0.131964... | 1 | Looking Out for Number One:
Conflicting Cultural Values in Early Seventeenth-Century Virginia
By: T.H Breen
The main focus of Breen's essay the focus is on the fact that colonists in Virginia were driven and motivated to come to the New World, predominantly for monetary reasons. Virginia's soil was found to be unusually well suited for growing tobacco, which is why it drove such a variety of people to migrate there. The colonists, though said to be religious, were extremely individualistic, selfish, as well as primarily drawn in by the economic opportunity in Virginia. These attitudes and ideals are what consequently resulted in numerous military defeats and massacres. They avoided their military obligations, thus naming them the vulnerable “poorly defended white settlements.” These settlements were very easy for the Indians to take advantage of, as Breen writes.
Early Virginia's flourishing cultivation of tobacco drew a diversity of people, from fresh war veterans and former soldiers, to adventurers and ordinary people looking to recoup from former monetary losses. However the tobacco did not only alter the country culturally and economically, but it “ threw more wood into the fire.” It strengthened the infamous individualistic attitude the colonists had. The adventurers began to have a very competitive attitude and took upon themselves as many others did an anarchist or mutinous perspective, where government intervention was view as a threat to there independence.
Breen clearly depicts the Virginians attitude by saying that if they would have landed in a “cold, rocky, inhospitable country…they would probably have given up the entire venture…” Throughout this essay Breen reiterates the fact that the Virginians were out for private gain. They took it to such an extent that they isolated themselves throughout the land, which they exploited to all ends. Their relationships between each other and social behavior clearly portrayed the individualistic attitude they had. Slaves were used as a resource to increase profit. In Virginia you seemed to either be a resource used for profit or an exploiter who utilized those resources.
In order to keep all people able to work on the fields... | 420 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today Year three were very lucky to go on an intriguing and exciting trip to Creswell Crags in Worksop. We got to go in a real limestone cave (which we have learned in our science topic is a sedimentary rock!) that real Neanderthals used and lived in during the stone age. The children were very excited to see some real flint tools that would have been used for hunting although none of them were keen to trial living in a cave for a day or two! Our lovely guides also took us to the back of the cave where they showed us some examples of the kinds of skeletons that were found in the back of the cave when it was first excavated. The children were very surprised to find out that cave hyena would have lived in Creswell Crags, we were even shown some hyena 'coprolite' (fossilised poo or poo stone) that was found in he caves.
As well as going in the cave we got to practice some traditional survival skills to give us a further insight into the lives of stone age men. Do you like our bender huts?
Year 3 Blog
In Year 3 Mr Cavanagh's class and Mrs Hawkins's class. We have lots of wonderful support staff who help us with our learning every day; they are Miss S Smith, Miss Thomas, Miss Hudson and Mrs Lloyd. | <urn:uuid:2da122e6-4ef3-490f-93b1-60740d5b2c83> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.highviewprimary.co.uk/year-3-blog/creswell-crags | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.988589 | 281 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.29644984006881714... | 1 | Today Year three were very lucky to go on an intriguing and exciting trip to Creswell Crags in Worksop. We got to go in a real limestone cave (which we have learned in our science topic is a sedimentary rock!) that real Neanderthals used and lived in during the stone age. The children were very excited to see some real flint tools that would have been used for hunting although none of them were keen to trial living in a cave for a day or two! Our lovely guides also took us to the back of the cave where they showed us some examples of the kinds of skeletons that were found in the back of the cave when it was first excavated. The children were very surprised to find out that cave hyena would have lived in Creswell Crags, we were even shown some hyena 'coprolite' (fossilised poo or poo stone) that was found in he caves.
As well as going in the cave we got to practice some traditional survival skills to give us a further insight into the lives of stone age men. Do you like our bender huts?
Year 3 Blog
In Year 3 Mr Cavanagh's class and Mrs Hawkins's class. We have lots of wonderful support staff who help us with our learning every day; they are Miss S Smith, Miss Thomas, Miss Hudson and Mrs Lloyd. | 277 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Part of our collection of articles on Australian history’s missing women, in collaboration with the Australian Dictionary of Biography
Taken from her own people as a young child and exposed to the luxurious but alien environment of Government House in Hobart, Mathinna experienced both the best and the worst conditions faced by Tasmanian Aborigines in the mid nineteenth century.
A member of the Port Sorell group of Tasmanian Aborigines, she was born around 1835. Tasmania’s Black War had ended, and her father, Towterer, and mother, Wanganeep, had been among the many Aborigines moved to Flinders Island by the Europeans in the early 1830s. There, the Aboriginal death rate would prove to be catastrophic. When Towterer died in 1837, apparently of consumption, the commandant, George Augustus Robinson, noted that he left a wife and an infant child whom the authorities called Mary. Wanganeep married Palle, of the same Aboriginal group, but she herself died in 1841, when Mathinna was six.
Jane Franklin, wife of the governor of Van Diemen’s Land, had developed an interest in the Tasmanian Aborigines. Like almost all the British, she believed in the “great chain of being,” a ranking of races that predated evolutionary theory, with Europeans at the top and everyone else in descending order according to their degree of observable “civilisation.” Indigenous people were seen as scientific curios and Franklin wanted to learn as much as she could about them. It was this thinking that led Europeans to take children in “for their own good,” creating the first generation of stolen children. Franklin was one of the earliest Europeans to try her hand at “Europeanising” Indigenous children.
The Franklins visited Flinders Island in 1838, and later that year Jane asked Robinson to send her a black boy. Robinson sent Timemernidic, a boy of about nine. Franklin left it to her stepdaughter Eleanor to teach him, and in October Eleanor wrote that “he is anxious to be able to read and write well.” Timemernidic “waits at table and does other little things,” she went on. “But unfortunately he is very idle and obstinate, so that it is difficult to keep him to his duty, unless he is constantly watched.”
Franklin was discouraged. “You have heard of my unsuccessful experiment to civilise a native boy,” she wrote to her sister Mary. Timemernidic was given a job as a seaman, and Franklin decided to try again with a younger and, she hoped, more malleable child, this time a girl. By 1841 Robinson had sent Mary to her.
“I could not learn her native name when she was sent to me,” Franklin wrote, “so I called her Mathinna after the name of a necklace made of shells which the natives string together & put on their neck.”
Mathinna lived in the schoolroom with seventeen-year-old Eleanor, who in May 1841 wrote to a cousin: “my little pupil Methinna (a native girl) is waiting for her lesson, and every few minutes interrupting me to shew me her work.” Mathinna dictated to Eleanor a letter to her stepfather Palle, back on Flinders Island.
“I am good little girl,” she wrote, “I have pen & ink cause I am good little girl. I do love my father. I have got a doll & shift & petticoat. I read My Father. I thank thee for sleep. I have got red frock. Like my father come here to see my father. I have got sore feet & shoes & stockings & am very glad.”
“Said one day I do love my God,” added Eleanor. “I think she is affectate [affectionate] & intelligent.” From this description, Mathinna seems to have been lively and eager to please, and she had a kind and warm-hearted carer in Eleanor, who arranged a European playmate for the little girl. Before breakfast, Eleanor and her father would stroll in the garden while Mathinna, according to a bystander, “would be darting about, or climbing the trees with hand and toe, native fashion, peering down with wild bright eyes out of the lofty foliage.”
Franklin had Mathinna’s portrait painted by the artist Thomas Bock, noting that “she is dressed in a scarlet frock with a black leather girdle which sets off her naked black arms & legs to great advantage.” But Franklin became as disillusioned about Mathinna as she had been about Timemernidic, describing her as “very troublesome and disobedient” (she was eight). She “retains much of the unconquerable nature of the savage,” wrote Franklin, including “extreme uncertainty of will and temper, great want of perseverance and attention, little if any, self controle, and great acuteness of the senses and facility of imitation.” Why Franklin’s view of Mathinna was so different from Eleanor’s is not clear, but Eleanor certainly exhibited greater sympathy and understanding.
By July 1843 Franklin had had enough of Mathinna and sent her to the Orphan School in Hobart. Later that year the Franklins returned to England, and there is nothing in the records to suggest that the girl had any chance of accompanying them.
Mathinna was returned to the Aboriginal settlement on Flinders Island the following year. By now Palle had died, and she had no family to care for her. In a letter written when Mathinna was twelve, the superintendent’s wife said that she was treated vindictively by the white staff, and was wretched, dirty and miserable. Shortly afterwards, the remaining Aborigines on the island were moved to a former convict station at Oyster Cove, south of Hobart, and the four girls in the group, including Mathinna, were sent to the Orphan School.
This seems to have been a happy experience for Mathinna. On one occasion, the governor’s wife, Lady Denison, visited the school, and the girls showed her a native dance and sang an Aboriginal song and an English hymn. The matron professed to be treating them with indulgence, allowing them to follow their own devices more than other children because they could only be brought into civilised habits by gradual degrees.
Mathinna might well have led a contented existence if she had been able to stay at the school. But in 1851, when she was fifteen, the authorities decided she was too old to remain there and should be removed to the Oyster Cove settlement or, “should anyone be willing to receive her,” taken into domestic service. No one was, apparently, so she went to Oyster Cove.
This is the last definite mention of Mathinna in surviving documents. As far as we know, Franklin did not enquire after Mathinna, and the fact that her name doesn’t appear in any later record of Tasmanian Aborigines may indicate that the authorities were embarrassed by the fate of her protégée.
We do know that Mathinna died young, and it is likely that either of two recorded deaths at Oyster Cove refers to her. In their despair many Aborigines took to drink, and in 1852, Aminia (or Amenia, or Armenia), “a Native Aboriginal woman,” became drunk at the North West Bay inn and while walking home fell on the road with her face in a puddle. She was found dead the next morning. Was this young woman Mathinna, who would have been sixteen or seventeen at the time? Aminia is not mentioned anywhere else, either at the Orphan School or on Flinders Island.
But it was believed at the time that Mathinna committed suicide by drowning herself in the river, as the Mercury reported in August 1879: “Mathinna, the unfortunate favourite of Lady Franklin, who, after her patroness left the colony, passed through so many sad trials, which terminated in her committing suicide, by throwing herself into the River Derwent, where she was drowned.”
It would not be surprising: after being taken from her own people at seven, she was expected to fit into an alien, if reasonably kindly, environment at Government House. From the age of nine she had no family and no protector, and could fit into no community. She was made miserable back in the Aboriginal settlement, spent three or so years in the relatively mild though still alien Orphan School, then at only fifteen was returned to the badly run Aboriginal settlement, where there was no happy outcome for anyone. •
The Ambitions of Jane Franklin, by Alison Alexander, Allen & Unwin, 2014 | <urn:uuid:eb9c6266-708e-4f9f-ac95-d6fd24e57fa1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://insidestory.org.au/a-brief-life-seen-through-wild-bright-eyes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.984502 | 1,891 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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Taken from her own people as a young child and exposed to the luxurious but alien environment of Government House in Hobart, Mathinna experienced both the best and the worst conditions faced by Tasmanian Aborigines in the mid nineteenth century.
A member of the Port Sorell group of Tasmanian Aborigines, she was born around 1835. Tasmania’s Black War had ended, and her father, Towterer, and mother, Wanganeep, had been among the many Aborigines moved to Flinders Island by the Europeans in the early 1830s. There, the Aboriginal death rate would prove to be catastrophic. When Towterer died in 1837, apparently of consumption, the commandant, George Augustus Robinson, noted that he left a wife and an infant child whom the authorities called Mary. Wanganeep married Palle, of the same Aboriginal group, but she herself died in 1841, when Mathinna was six.
Jane Franklin, wife of the governor of Van Diemen’s Land, had developed an interest in the Tasmanian Aborigines. Like almost all the British, she believed in the “great chain of being,” a ranking of races that predated evolutionary theory, with Europeans at the top and everyone else in descending order according to their degree of observable “civilisation.” Indigenous people were seen as scientific curios and Franklin wanted to learn as much as she could about them. It was this thinking that led Europeans to take children in “for their own good,” creating the first generation of stolen children. Franklin was one of the earliest Europeans to try her hand at “Europeanising” Indigenous children.
The Franklins visited Flinders Island in 1838, and later that year Jane asked Robinson to send her a black boy. Robinson sent Timemernidic, a boy of about nine. Franklin left it to her stepdaughter Eleanor to teach him, and in October Eleanor wrote that “he is anxious to be able to read and write well.” Timemernidic “waits at table and does other little things,” she went on. “But unfortunately he is very idle and obstinate, so that it is difficult to keep him to his duty, unless he is constantly watched.”
Franklin was discouraged. “You have heard of my unsuccessful experiment to civilise a native boy,” she wrote to her sister Mary. Timemernidic was given a job as a seaman, and Franklin decided to try again with a younger and, she hoped, more malleable child, this time a girl. By 1841 Robinson had sent Mary to her.
“I could not learn her native name when she was sent to me,” Franklin wrote, “so I called her Mathinna after the name of a necklace made of shells which the natives string together & put on their neck.”
Mathinna lived in the schoolroom with seventeen-year-old Eleanor, who in May 1841 wrote to a cousin: “my little pupil Methinna (a native girl) is waiting for her lesson, and every few minutes interrupting me to shew me her work.” Mathinna dictated to Eleanor a letter to her stepfather Palle, back on Flinders Island.
“I am good little girl,” she wrote, “I have pen & ink cause I am good little girl. I do love my father. I have got a doll & shift & petticoat. I read My Father. I thank thee for sleep. I have got red frock. Like my father come here to see my father. I have got sore feet & shoes & stockings & am very glad.”
“Said one day I do love my God,” added Eleanor. “I think she is affectate [affectionate] & intelligent.” From this description, Mathinna seems to have been lively and eager to please, and she had a kind and warm-hearted carer in Eleanor, who arranged a European playmate for the little girl. Before breakfast, Eleanor and her father would stroll in the garden while Mathinna, according to a bystander, “would be darting about, or climbing the trees with hand and toe, native fashion, peering down with wild bright eyes out of the lofty foliage.”
Franklin had Mathinna’s portrait painted by the artist Thomas Bock, noting that “she is dressed in a scarlet frock with a black leather girdle which sets off her naked black arms & legs to great advantage.” But Franklin became as disillusioned about Mathinna as she had been about Timemernidic, describing her as “very troublesome and disobedient” (she was eight). She “retains much of the unconquerable nature of the savage,” wrote Franklin, including “extreme uncertainty of will and temper, great want of perseverance and attention, little if any, self controle, and great acuteness of the senses and facility of imitation.” Why Franklin’s view of Mathinna was so different from Eleanor’s is not clear, but Eleanor certainly exhibited greater sympathy and understanding.
By July 1843 Franklin had had enough of Mathinna and sent her to the Orphan School in Hobart. Later that year the Franklins returned to England, and there is nothing in the records to suggest that the girl had any chance of accompanying them.
Mathinna was returned to the Aboriginal settlement on Flinders Island the following year. By now Palle had died, and she had no family to care for her. In a letter written when Mathinna was twelve, the superintendent’s wife said that she was treated vindictively by the white staff, and was wretched, dirty and miserable. Shortly afterwards, the remaining Aborigines on the island were moved to a former convict station at Oyster Cove, south of Hobart, and the four girls in the group, including Mathinna, were sent to the Orphan School.
This seems to have been a happy experience for Mathinna. On one occasion, the governor’s wife, Lady Denison, visited the school, and the girls showed her a native dance and sang an Aboriginal song and an English hymn. The matron professed to be treating them with indulgence, allowing them to follow their own devices more than other children because they could only be brought into civilised habits by gradual degrees.
Mathinna might well have led a contented existence if she had been able to stay at the school. But in 1851, when she was fifteen, the authorities decided she was too old to remain there and should be removed to the Oyster Cove settlement or, “should anyone be willing to receive her,” taken into domestic service. No one was, apparently, so she went to Oyster Cove.
This is the last definite mention of Mathinna in surviving documents. As far as we know, Franklin did not enquire after Mathinna, and the fact that her name doesn’t appear in any later record of Tasmanian Aborigines may indicate that the authorities were embarrassed by the fate of her protégée.
We do know that Mathinna died young, and it is likely that either of two recorded deaths at Oyster Cove refers to her. In their despair many Aborigines took to drink, and in 1852, Aminia (or Amenia, or Armenia), “a Native Aboriginal woman,” became drunk at the North West Bay inn and while walking home fell on the road with her face in a puddle. She was found dead the next morning. Was this young woman Mathinna, who would have been sixteen or seventeen at the time? Aminia is not mentioned anywhere else, either at the Orphan School or on Flinders Island.
But it was believed at the time that Mathinna committed suicide by drowning herself in the river, as the Mercury reported in August 1879: “Mathinna, the unfortunate favourite of Lady Franklin, who, after her patroness left the colony, passed through so many sad trials, which terminated in her committing suicide, by throwing herself into the River Derwent, where she was drowned.”
It would not be surprising: after being taken from her own people at seven, she was expected to fit into an alien, if reasonably kindly, environment at Government House. From the age of nine she had no family and no protector, and could fit into no community. She was made miserable back in the Aboriginal settlement, spent three or so years in the relatively mild though still alien Orphan School, then at only fifteen was returned to the badly run Aboriginal settlement, where there was no happy outcome for anyone. •
The Ambitions of Jane Franklin, by Alison Alexander, Allen & Unwin, 2014 | 1,828 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While historians are largely agreed on what caused the American Civil War, it is still a hotly debated topic.
Which of the following issues do you feel was most central to provoking secession and civil war: the national debate over slavery, the debate over states' rights, or the growing economic and social differences between North and South? Defend your position by discussing at least five specific events from the 1850s that prove your position was in fact the central position of the American people at that time.. Not only should you discuss those events (explaining what they were and why there were important), you should also insure that you relate them to your position.
Recently Asked Questions
- What did the development of opera have in common with the development of Elizabethan theater? They both became commercial ventures with audiences drawn from
- How did theater in Renaissance Italy differ from that in England? It was entirely outdoors There were no changes of scene or scenery There were major
- What was true of London theaters during Shakespeare's time? They were built outside the city limits. They were enclosed (or indoors) to control for paying | <urn:uuid:6c94f676-b12b-4b22-b7aa-d5666e7d2e0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.coursehero.com/tutors-problems/US-History/19988225-While-historians-are-largely-agreed-on-what-caused-the-American-Civil/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00008.warc.gz | en | 0.99077 | 222 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.42905694246292... | 1 | While historians are largely agreed on what caused the American Civil War, it is still a hotly debated topic.
Which of the following issues do you feel was most central to provoking secession and civil war: the national debate over slavery, the debate over states' rights, or the growing economic and social differences between North and South? Defend your position by discussing at least five specific events from the 1850s that prove your position was in fact the central position of the American people at that time.. Not only should you discuss those events (explaining what they were and why there were important), you should also insure that you relate them to your position.
Recently Asked Questions
- What did the development of opera have in common with the development of Elizabethan theater? They both became commercial ventures with audiences drawn from
- How did theater in Renaissance Italy differ from that in England? It was entirely outdoors There were no changes of scene or scenery There were major
- What was true of London theaters during Shakespeare's time? They were built outside the city limits. They were enclosed (or indoors) to control for paying | 227 | ENGLISH | 1 |
People have always died, and for as long as people have died, the disposal of bodies has been required. Various methods have stood the test of time, whether they be burial, cremation, or even being sent off to sea like a Viking warrior. As with these methods, we usually keep bodies out of sight, and memorials such as graves or tombs are instead constructed as a visual reminder. However, sometimes much more creative methods are forged. Under the city of Paris, the capital of France, there are hundreds of miles of secret tunnels and passageways that may give you a bit of a shock.
The Paris Catacombs consist of an underground labyrinth spanning over 200 miles in length. The word “catacomb” derives from the Latin for ‘amongst the tombs’, and these tunnels in Paris are certainly true to this name, as the ossuary houses the skeletal remains of over six million Parisians.
The creation of the catacombs was originally a vital measure for the people of Paris: towards the end of the 18th century, there was a huge public health scare caused by the inner–city cemeteries. Many had been used for hundreds upon hundreds of years, and the bones were piling up – literally. The overflowing of the dead led to many outbreaks of disease and therefore meant that the old cemeteries had to be closed and the remains removed. The main cemetery in Paris at the time, Saints Innocents, was closed in 1780. After the closure, the authorities needed somewhere to dispose of the excess human remains, and they decided to use the former quarries under the neighbourhood of Montrouge, situated two miles from the centre of the city. These quarries are known as ‘Tombe-Issoire’ and date back to activity as early as the 15th century. They were closed in 1776 due to many collapses on the ground level during the early– and mid-18th century. From 1787-1814, the majority of the bones from the overflowing cemeteries were moved to the former quarries, consolidated as underground ossuaries.
The tunnels were first opened to the public in 1809, and are still available for visitation to this day. The first thing that a curious visitor will notice is their vast size. The Denfert-Rochereau Ossuary (the area of the tunnels that is available for public access) is 11,000 square-metres, and has a depth of 20 metres – this approximates to the height of a five-story building. There are 243 steps to walk in total (131 going down, 112 going upwards), and in total there are 1.5km of eerie passageways to travel through. Impressive? Well, given that the catacombs stretch for a total of 200 miles, an official tour isn’t even skimming the surface.
The Catacombs of Paris are exceptionally unique due to their stylization. When the skeletons were removed from Saints Innocents, workers organized the bones into piles, rather than keeping the bodies together. Because the remains were sorted this way, it provided the Director of the Paris Mine Inspection Service, Louis-Étienne Héricart de Thury, the idea of approaching the creation of the ossuaries with a museographical and monumental style. As you can see, Thury made sure that artistic integrity was engrained into the creation of the catacombs. Rows of skulls line the walls, while impressive columns of bones have been constructed in the middle of the caverns. These decorative formations of the dead may seem harrowing at first sight, but upon reflection, the beauty of the human body can still continue long after life has ceased to exist.
Since the tunnels were opened to the public in 1809, they became a very popular attraction within the upper echelons of society, and gained visitors from throughout Paris, the rest of France, and abroad. It is believed to be the burial place for many notable members of French society, as these individuals were buried in the graveyards that bones were removed from. Notable remains include that of Charles Perrault, the author of well-known fairytales such as Little Red Riding Hood (whose version was published before that of the Brothers Grimm), Cinderella, and Puss in Boots; Jean de la Fontaine, famous for a collection of fables; painter Simon Vouet and Baroque sculptor François Giradon. The Paris Catacombs have also had their famous visitors: they have been frequented by French royalty and even Napoléon Bonaparte.
Because such a vast area of the tunnels is uncharted and not (officially) open for public access, they aren’t without their secrets and controversies. In 2004, the French police stumbled across a 500 square metre cavern that was home to a cinema. In this cinema, there were seats where various noir classics and modern thrillers were available for viewing, as well as a fully stocked bar and a working restaurant. On the initial discovery of the cinema, during their journey through the passageways, they were warned off by several signs claiming that building works were occurring and that they should turn around and leave. At one point, there were even recordings of dogs barking to ward off any other curious parties. When the police returned to the cinema for the second time, nothing remained but a note on the floor that read, “Do not try and find us.” There are thought to be many secret societies and sects running throughout the catacombs, home to many bizarre goings on. It is reported that in one area, there is even a pool of water, accessible for a swim!
The underground labyrinth was also the setting of a wine heist in 2017. Thieves used the tunnels to make it underneath a nearby apartment cellar, which they then managed to break into, stealing over 300 bottles of vintage wine valued at €300,000. Someone breaking into your house from underneath is definitely the last thing you would expect, and who knows what other crimes these catacomb thieves have in mind?
The tunnels have been frequented by few, and remain a mystery to many. They were last formally used during WW2, where the French resistance used it to travel the city undetected, and the German army are also known have had a bunker under a high school called the Lycée Montaigne in the 6th arrondissement (administrative district) of Paris.
The outer regions of the Catacombs now remain with a few, avid explorers known as ‘cataphiles’, as well as the mysterious people building cinemas, taking swimming trips, and committing crimes amongst the bones. They are, in essence, a secret society, and would be rather meticulous to infiltrate. I am sure many more bizarre stories from the underground will surface in the years to come.
Although the Catacombs of Paris may seem as if they are a unique phenomenon, they are not the only ones of their kind, nor are they the first. The term “catacomb” was borrowed from the Catacombs of Rome: these underground ossuaries are believed to be the first in existence, and were created in the 2nd century AD. The idea caught on throughout the years and there are now catacombs and other similar corpse constructions in 20 different countries across various continents, including Egypt, the Philippines and the Czech Republic.
The Catacombs of Paris are now visited by half a million people each year. Of course, these are only the official figures for the small area that is open as a tourist attraction. Who knows how many other groups of people – and individuals – are lurking under the streets of Paris amongst the dead? | <urn:uuid:2a1dc1d2-980d-4995-9bf3-20d05738432c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.littlegatepublishing.com/2019/04/paris-catacombs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00125.warc.gz | en | 0.981051 | 1,603 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.58249998092... | 11 | People have always died, and for as long as people have died, the disposal of bodies has been required. Various methods have stood the test of time, whether they be burial, cremation, or even being sent off to sea like a Viking warrior. As with these methods, we usually keep bodies out of sight, and memorials such as graves or tombs are instead constructed as a visual reminder. However, sometimes much more creative methods are forged. Under the city of Paris, the capital of France, there are hundreds of miles of secret tunnels and passageways that may give you a bit of a shock.
The Paris Catacombs consist of an underground labyrinth spanning over 200 miles in length. The word “catacomb” derives from the Latin for ‘amongst the tombs’, and these tunnels in Paris are certainly true to this name, as the ossuary houses the skeletal remains of over six million Parisians.
The creation of the catacombs was originally a vital measure for the people of Paris: towards the end of the 18th century, there was a huge public health scare caused by the inner–city cemeteries. Many had been used for hundreds upon hundreds of years, and the bones were piling up – literally. The overflowing of the dead led to many outbreaks of disease and therefore meant that the old cemeteries had to be closed and the remains removed. The main cemetery in Paris at the time, Saints Innocents, was closed in 1780. After the closure, the authorities needed somewhere to dispose of the excess human remains, and they decided to use the former quarries under the neighbourhood of Montrouge, situated two miles from the centre of the city. These quarries are known as ‘Tombe-Issoire’ and date back to activity as early as the 15th century. They were closed in 1776 due to many collapses on the ground level during the early– and mid-18th century. From 1787-1814, the majority of the bones from the overflowing cemeteries were moved to the former quarries, consolidated as underground ossuaries.
The tunnels were first opened to the public in 1809, and are still available for visitation to this day. The first thing that a curious visitor will notice is their vast size. The Denfert-Rochereau Ossuary (the area of the tunnels that is available for public access) is 11,000 square-metres, and has a depth of 20 metres – this approximates to the height of a five-story building. There are 243 steps to walk in total (131 going down, 112 going upwards), and in total there are 1.5km of eerie passageways to travel through. Impressive? Well, given that the catacombs stretch for a total of 200 miles, an official tour isn’t even skimming the surface.
The Catacombs of Paris are exceptionally unique due to their stylization. When the skeletons were removed from Saints Innocents, workers organized the bones into piles, rather than keeping the bodies together. Because the remains were sorted this way, it provided the Director of the Paris Mine Inspection Service, Louis-Étienne Héricart de Thury, the idea of approaching the creation of the ossuaries with a museographical and monumental style. As you can see, Thury made sure that artistic integrity was engrained into the creation of the catacombs. Rows of skulls line the walls, while impressive columns of bones have been constructed in the middle of the caverns. These decorative formations of the dead may seem harrowing at first sight, but upon reflection, the beauty of the human body can still continue long after life has ceased to exist.
Since the tunnels were opened to the public in 1809, they became a very popular attraction within the upper echelons of society, and gained visitors from throughout Paris, the rest of France, and abroad. It is believed to be the burial place for many notable members of French society, as these individuals were buried in the graveyards that bones were removed from. Notable remains include that of Charles Perrault, the author of well-known fairytales such as Little Red Riding Hood (whose version was published before that of the Brothers Grimm), Cinderella, and Puss in Boots; Jean de la Fontaine, famous for a collection of fables; painter Simon Vouet and Baroque sculptor François Giradon. The Paris Catacombs have also had their famous visitors: they have been frequented by French royalty and even Napoléon Bonaparte.
Because such a vast area of the tunnels is uncharted and not (officially) open for public access, they aren’t without their secrets and controversies. In 2004, the French police stumbled across a 500 square metre cavern that was home to a cinema. In this cinema, there were seats where various noir classics and modern thrillers were available for viewing, as well as a fully stocked bar and a working restaurant. On the initial discovery of the cinema, during their journey through the passageways, they were warned off by several signs claiming that building works were occurring and that they should turn around and leave. At one point, there were even recordings of dogs barking to ward off any other curious parties. When the police returned to the cinema for the second time, nothing remained but a note on the floor that read, “Do not try and find us.” There are thought to be many secret societies and sects running throughout the catacombs, home to many bizarre goings on. It is reported that in one area, there is even a pool of water, accessible for a swim!
The underground labyrinth was also the setting of a wine heist in 2017. Thieves used the tunnels to make it underneath a nearby apartment cellar, which they then managed to break into, stealing over 300 bottles of vintage wine valued at €300,000. Someone breaking into your house from underneath is definitely the last thing you would expect, and who knows what other crimes these catacomb thieves have in mind?
The tunnels have been frequented by few, and remain a mystery to many. They were last formally used during WW2, where the French resistance used it to travel the city undetected, and the German army are also known have had a bunker under a high school called the Lycée Montaigne in the 6th arrondissement (administrative district) of Paris.
The outer regions of the Catacombs now remain with a few, avid explorers known as ‘cataphiles’, as well as the mysterious people building cinemas, taking swimming trips, and committing crimes amongst the bones. They are, in essence, a secret society, and would be rather meticulous to infiltrate. I am sure many more bizarre stories from the underground will surface in the years to come.
Although the Catacombs of Paris may seem as if they are a unique phenomenon, they are not the only ones of their kind, nor are they the first. The term “catacomb” was borrowed from the Catacombs of Rome: these underground ossuaries are believed to be the first in existence, and were created in the 2nd century AD. The idea caught on throughout the years and there are now catacombs and other similar corpse constructions in 20 different countries across various continents, including Egypt, the Philippines and the Czech Republic.
The Catacombs of Paris are now visited by half a million people each year. Of course, these are only the official figures for the small area that is open as a tourist attraction. Who knows how many other groups of people – and individuals – are lurking under the streets of Paris amongst the dead? | 1,631 | ENGLISH | 1 |
WILLIAM HAWKINS was born in Pleasant Hill, North Carolina on October 10, 1777. His early education was attained in the common schools of his native state. He went on to study law in Philadelphia and North Carolina, and afterwards established his legal career in Warren County, North Carolina. He also worked as an assistant Indian agent at Fort Hawkins, Georgia, and was a negotiator for a disagreement with the Tuscarora Indians in 1801. Hawkins first entered politics as a member of the North Carolina House of Commons, a position he held from 1804 to 1805 and 1809 to 1811. He also served as speaker of the house from 1810 to 1811. Hawkins won election to the governorship in 1811, and went on to win reelection to a second term in 1812, as well as to a third term in 1813. During his tenure, troops and provisions were raised for the War of 1812, and industrial development was promoted. After leaving the governorship, Hawkins retired from political life. However, he returned briefly in 1817, when he won reelection to the North Carolina House of Commons. Governor William Hawkins passed away on May 17, 1819, and was buried in Sparta, Georgia.
North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources (search keyword: Governors)
Sobel, Robert, and John Raimo, eds. Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1789-1978, Vol. 3, Westport, Conn.; Meckler Books, 1978. 4 vols. | <urn:uuid:d28fabfb-b87b-4ad1-8ad4-2e71d95d1d74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nga.org/governor/william-hawkins/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.985114 | 317 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.132768824696540... | 9 | WILLIAM HAWKINS was born in Pleasant Hill, North Carolina on October 10, 1777. His early education was attained in the common schools of his native state. He went on to study law in Philadelphia and North Carolina, and afterwards established his legal career in Warren County, North Carolina. He also worked as an assistant Indian agent at Fort Hawkins, Georgia, and was a negotiator for a disagreement with the Tuscarora Indians in 1801. Hawkins first entered politics as a member of the North Carolina House of Commons, a position he held from 1804 to 1805 and 1809 to 1811. He also served as speaker of the house from 1810 to 1811. Hawkins won election to the governorship in 1811, and went on to win reelection to a second term in 1812, as well as to a third term in 1813. During his tenure, troops and provisions were raised for the War of 1812, and industrial development was promoted. After leaving the governorship, Hawkins retired from political life. However, he returned briefly in 1817, when he won reelection to the North Carolina House of Commons. Governor William Hawkins passed away on May 17, 1819, and was buried in Sparta, Georgia.
North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources (search keyword: Governors)
Sobel, Robert, and John Raimo, eds. Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1789-1978, Vol. 3, Westport, Conn.; Meckler Books, 1978. 4 vols. | 371 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The London Metropolitan Police Force was formed in 1829 after the system that had previously been in place, run by parish councils, had become less effective due to large scale population growth. The police wore blue uniforms to distinguish them from the army, and were mostly unarmed, a situation which persists until today. Women were not allowed to join until 1919, almost a hundred years after the formation of the force. The headquarters is known as New Scotland Yard, although when it moves back to Victoria Embankment, it will just be known as Scotland Yard.
A Brief History of the Metropolitan Police, London
The Metropolitan Police was formed in 1829, under the guidance of Home Secretary Sir Robert Peel. It started as a force of 1013 and has grown to over 31,000 officers today.
The Metropolitan Police was formed on 29 September 1829. The police have been given many nicknames over the years: Bobbies, Peelers, Cops, Rozzers, Fuzz, Filth, The Bill, The Old Bill, The Boys in Blue, to name but a few.
The famous Bow Street Runners were not, as is often believed, part of the Metropolitan Police, they were founded in 1742 by the author and magistrate Henry Fielding, and were attached to Bow Street Magistrates’ Office. They were known as “thief takers” but there weren’t many of them - only eight - and they investigated crimes that the parish constables handed over to them; they were the first detective force.
Prior to the formation of an established police force, most policing in the UK was the responsibility of the local government of the day, which was usually the parish council. Each parish had a number of constables and parish watchmen. The constables were local people, unpaid, and the job was rotated among the people of the parish, which was not popular. The watchmen were paid to do the job. Those of us who live in London now will tell you that different councils have different ways of doing things, and it was no different back in the 19th century which led to differing standards and differing success rates relating to crime management.
Largely because of high value thefts on the River Thames and the influence of companies such as the East India Company, the Marine Police Force was established in 1798. It originally comprised 220 constables who were assisted by a thousand dock workers and is now generally regarded as being the world’s first modern police force. The Marine Police Force merged with the Metropolitan Police in 1839.
As London grew in size, with the Industrial Revolution, the system of constables and watchmen was becoming less effective. After much debate and the establishment of a parliamentary committee, Sir Robert Peel, who had been Home Secretary since 1822, proposed the Metropolitan Police Act. The Act gave control of policing in London to Peel, although the City of London remained entirely separate and established its own police force later.
To allay any fears of the public about a military force being used to deal with civil matters, Peel intentionally did not follow a military system for the force. The uniform was blue, to distinguish it from the red jackets of the army and they were not routinely armed with anything other than a wooden truncheon and a rattle that could be used to summon assistance. Side arms, in the form of flintlock pistols were issued for use in firearms incidents, which were fairly common in those days as Protestants were allowed both to own and use firearms. Additionally, burglaries usually involved firearms. The rattles were replaced by whistles in the 1880s. The majority of Metropolitan Police officers (and, indeed, those in other UK forces) remain unarmed.
The original police force was made up of two Commissioners (Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Charles Rowan and Sir Richard Mayne), eight superintendents, 20 inspectors, 88 sergeants and 895 constables (compare that with the 31,000 plus officers today!)
The volunteer Women’s Police Service was founded in 1914. Women were first allowed to join the force proper in 1919, but they dealt mainly with prostitutes and juveniles. It wasn’t until 1937 that they were allowed to take fingerprints, and they didn’t carry handcuffs nor make arrests, unless specifically told to do so, until 1923.
It wasn’t until 1973 that the first Woman Detective Constable was appointed, in the same year that the Women’s department became fully integrated into the force, meaning that women carried out many of the same roles as men although they didn’t get equal pay until 1974. That didn’t mean that they were necessarily allowed to do the same jobs though, it wasn’t until 1977 that a woman became a traffic officer and 1979 when a woman became a dog handler.
The first two Commissioners occupied a private house at 4 Whitehall Place. The back of this opened into a courtyard, and the back of the house was used as a police station. The back entrance opened onto a road called Great Scotland Yard, hence the headquarters becoming known as Scotland Yard. Where the name Great Scotland Yard originated is not entirely clear. Over the next 60 years, other adjacent premises were occupied, as well as buildings elsewhere. By 1890, having outgrown these, the headquarters moved to Victoria Embankment.
In 1967, a bigger site was needed and the headquarters moved to its current location, New Scotland Yard, in Broadway, however, when the police move out of there (anticipated in 2016) they will move back close to their old home on the Embankment.
|LEGO City Police High-Speed Chase 60138 Building Toy with Cop Car, Police Helicopter, and Getaway...|
Your child will love this LEGO City Police play set, featuring a police helicopter with spinning rotors and a lowering winch with hook, cop car in hot pursuit, and stolen sports...
|Kid Galaxy Squeezable Pull Back Police Car. Toddler Emergency Vehicle Toy for Kids Age 2 and Up|
Mom's will love this police car with a soft and squeezable body! Safe for young kids, walls and furniture. High quality, powerful pull back motor adds to the fun!
|Battery Operated Bump and Go Transforming Toys for Kids -Auto Transforming Auto Robots Action Fig...|
AUTO TRANSFORMING BETWEEN AUTO ROBOTS AND RACING CAR: After turning on the single switch, this beautiful racing car will not only start running and chasing, but also auto transf... | <urn:uuid:0c93431d-b63e-4539-9c27-46ed433a8653> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wizzley.com/a-brief-history-of-the-metropolitan-police-london/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.982205 | 1,338 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.07013448327... | 1 | The London Metropolitan Police Force was formed in 1829 after the system that had previously been in place, run by parish councils, had become less effective due to large scale population growth. The police wore blue uniforms to distinguish them from the army, and were mostly unarmed, a situation which persists until today. Women were not allowed to join until 1919, almost a hundred years after the formation of the force. The headquarters is known as New Scotland Yard, although when it moves back to Victoria Embankment, it will just be known as Scotland Yard.
A Brief History of the Metropolitan Police, London
The Metropolitan Police was formed in 1829, under the guidance of Home Secretary Sir Robert Peel. It started as a force of 1013 and has grown to over 31,000 officers today.
The Metropolitan Police was formed on 29 September 1829. The police have been given many nicknames over the years: Bobbies, Peelers, Cops, Rozzers, Fuzz, Filth, The Bill, The Old Bill, The Boys in Blue, to name but a few.
The famous Bow Street Runners were not, as is often believed, part of the Metropolitan Police, they were founded in 1742 by the author and magistrate Henry Fielding, and were attached to Bow Street Magistrates’ Office. They were known as “thief takers” but there weren’t many of them - only eight - and they investigated crimes that the parish constables handed over to them; they were the first detective force.
Prior to the formation of an established police force, most policing in the UK was the responsibility of the local government of the day, which was usually the parish council. Each parish had a number of constables and parish watchmen. The constables were local people, unpaid, and the job was rotated among the people of the parish, which was not popular. The watchmen were paid to do the job. Those of us who live in London now will tell you that different councils have different ways of doing things, and it was no different back in the 19th century which led to differing standards and differing success rates relating to crime management.
Largely because of high value thefts on the River Thames and the influence of companies such as the East India Company, the Marine Police Force was established in 1798. It originally comprised 220 constables who were assisted by a thousand dock workers and is now generally regarded as being the world’s first modern police force. The Marine Police Force merged with the Metropolitan Police in 1839.
As London grew in size, with the Industrial Revolution, the system of constables and watchmen was becoming less effective. After much debate and the establishment of a parliamentary committee, Sir Robert Peel, who had been Home Secretary since 1822, proposed the Metropolitan Police Act. The Act gave control of policing in London to Peel, although the City of London remained entirely separate and established its own police force later.
To allay any fears of the public about a military force being used to deal with civil matters, Peel intentionally did not follow a military system for the force. The uniform was blue, to distinguish it from the red jackets of the army and they were not routinely armed with anything other than a wooden truncheon and a rattle that could be used to summon assistance. Side arms, in the form of flintlock pistols were issued for use in firearms incidents, which were fairly common in those days as Protestants were allowed both to own and use firearms. Additionally, burglaries usually involved firearms. The rattles were replaced by whistles in the 1880s. The majority of Metropolitan Police officers (and, indeed, those in other UK forces) remain unarmed.
The original police force was made up of two Commissioners (Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Charles Rowan and Sir Richard Mayne), eight superintendents, 20 inspectors, 88 sergeants and 895 constables (compare that with the 31,000 plus officers today!)
The volunteer Women’s Police Service was founded in 1914. Women were first allowed to join the force proper in 1919, but they dealt mainly with prostitutes and juveniles. It wasn’t until 1937 that they were allowed to take fingerprints, and they didn’t carry handcuffs nor make arrests, unless specifically told to do so, until 1923.
It wasn’t until 1973 that the first Woman Detective Constable was appointed, in the same year that the Women’s department became fully integrated into the force, meaning that women carried out many of the same roles as men although they didn’t get equal pay until 1974. That didn’t mean that they were necessarily allowed to do the same jobs though, it wasn’t until 1977 that a woman became a traffic officer and 1979 when a woman became a dog handler.
The first two Commissioners occupied a private house at 4 Whitehall Place. The back of this opened into a courtyard, and the back of the house was used as a police station. The back entrance opened onto a road called Great Scotland Yard, hence the headquarters becoming known as Scotland Yard. Where the name Great Scotland Yard originated is not entirely clear. Over the next 60 years, other adjacent premises were occupied, as well as buildings elsewhere. By 1890, having outgrown these, the headquarters moved to Victoria Embankment.
In 1967, a bigger site was needed and the headquarters moved to its current location, New Scotland Yard, in Broadway, however, when the police move out of there (anticipated in 2016) they will move back close to their old home on the Embankment.
|LEGO City Police High-Speed Chase 60138 Building Toy with Cop Car, Police Helicopter, and Getaway...|
Your child will love this LEGO City Police play set, featuring a police helicopter with spinning rotors and a lowering winch with hook, cop car in hot pursuit, and stolen sports...
|Kid Galaxy Squeezable Pull Back Police Car. Toddler Emergency Vehicle Toy for Kids Age 2 and Up|
Mom's will love this police car with a soft and squeezable body! Safe for young kids, walls and furniture. High quality, powerful pull back motor adds to the fun!
|Battery Operated Bump and Go Transforming Toys for Kids -Auto Transforming Auto Robots Action Fig...|
AUTO TRANSFORMING BETWEEN AUTO ROBOTS AND RACING CAR: After turning on the single switch, this beautiful racing car will not only start running and chasing, but also auto transf... | 1,401 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"If You Are An Educated Indian Woman, You Owe Her": Remembering Savitribai Phule
Women have now become active participants in all walks of life. They are not only homemakers now but are also influencing the course of social change in the community. But this position did not come quickly. They had to fight to reclaim their rights. It was not very long ago that women faced sati, child marriage and other biased practices
One woman who can unarguably be credited with the feminist movement in India is Savitribai Phule. From being a child bride to becoming the first teacher of the country and a harbinger of social justice, Phule lived a life which inspired generations.
First Indian feminist Savitribai Phule
“Awake, arise and educate, smash traditions-liberate” – Savitribai Phule
Savitribai Phule was born into a family of farmers in Naigaon, Maharashtra. Since the practice of child marriage was prevalent in the 19th century, she was married off at the age of nine. Her husband who himself was a social activist taught her to read and write to the point that she could write poetry. After she was was literate, she participated in her husband’s in social reform movements, teaching young girls. She endured a lot of comments and abuses for her work and idea to educate young girls.
It was a period when mortality rate was high; many young girls became widows even before attaining puberty. The little girls were forced to shave their heads and wear a simple white sari and live a life of austerity and celibacy. Not only this, these women, being vulnerable, were often subjected to sexual exploitation. The condition of women worsened with time. These girls were abandoned by the men when they became pregnant. Some girls would commit suicide while few got an abortion due to fear of being ostracised from society. It would pain Savitri to see women leading a life like this. Moved by the plight of these women, Savitribai opened a widow care centre. “Balhatya Pratibandhak Giha” was started for pregnant rape victims to help them deliver children.
She gathered her courage and organised a strike against the barbers to persuade them to stop shaving heads of the young widows. Her husband was her support through this movement.
She and her husband also adopted a son who was born to a widow. Savitribai had challenged the questions of gender in isolation and also highlighted the issues of women. Savitribai and her adopted son Yashwant also opened a clinic to treat those who were suffering from the bubonic plague. She served the patients wholeheartedly. She also contracted the disease while caring for the patients. Even with the disease weakening her body, her spirit remained vibrant. She continued helping other patients.
First female teacher in the country
Phule very early on in life developed a fondness for teaching. She was trained in Ms Faraa’s Institution in Ahmednagar and in Ms Mitchell School in Pune to become the first female teacher in India.
She then, along with her husband started first women’s school at Bhide Wada in Pune in 1848 with just eight students from different castes. Considering that the societal setup was extremely regressive at that time, Phule initiative to educate women was met with a lot of opposition, with some even considering it to be a sin. Savitribai Phule would often carry extra saree while going to teach at her school, for a very peculiar reason. The reason was that mud, tomatoes, stones, cow dung and rotten eggs were often thrown at her on her way.
This did not deter her and by 1851, she was running three schools with about 150 students. She also offered stipends to prevent students from dropping out.
She died on 10 March 1897. Phule was one of the first contemporary Indian feminists.
The Logical Indian take
“If you are an Indian woman who reads, you owe her. If you are an educated Indian woman, you owe her. If you are an Indian schoolgirl reading this chapter in English, you owe her. If you are an educated international desi woman, you owe her,” a piece titled ‘Savitribai and India’s Conversation on Education’, published in the Oikos Worldviews Journal in 2008 said. This one line perfectly describes what Phule’s contribution meant to the society, fruits of which we are reaping till date. | <urn:uuid:c93e0647-e5e1-4086-bb13-934f59dd5e0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thelogicalindian.com/rewind/savitribai-phule-birth-anniversary | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00277.warc.gz | en | 0.984976 | 948 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.2812383770942... | 4 | "If You Are An Educated Indian Woman, You Owe Her": Remembering Savitribai Phule
Women have now become active participants in all walks of life. They are not only homemakers now but are also influencing the course of social change in the community. But this position did not come quickly. They had to fight to reclaim their rights. It was not very long ago that women faced sati, child marriage and other biased practices
One woman who can unarguably be credited with the feminist movement in India is Savitribai Phule. From being a child bride to becoming the first teacher of the country and a harbinger of social justice, Phule lived a life which inspired generations.
First Indian feminist Savitribai Phule
“Awake, arise and educate, smash traditions-liberate” – Savitribai Phule
Savitribai Phule was born into a family of farmers in Naigaon, Maharashtra. Since the practice of child marriage was prevalent in the 19th century, she was married off at the age of nine. Her husband who himself was a social activist taught her to read and write to the point that she could write poetry. After she was was literate, she participated in her husband’s in social reform movements, teaching young girls. She endured a lot of comments and abuses for her work and idea to educate young girls.
It was a period when mortality rate was high; many young girls became widows even before attaining puberty. The little girls were forced to shave their heads and wear a simple white sari and live a life of austerity and celibacy. Not only this, these women, being vulnerable, were often subjected to sexual exploitation. The condition of women worsened with time. These girls were abandoned by the men when they became pregnant. Some girls would commit suicide while few got an abortion due to fear of being ostracised from society. It would pain Savitri to see women leading a life like this. Moved by the plight of these women, Savitribai opened a widow care centre. “Balhatya Pratibandhak Giha” was started for pregnant rape victims to help them deliver children.
She gathered her courage and organised a strike against the barbers to persuade them to stop shaving heads of the young widows. Her husband was her support through this movement.
She and her husband also adopted a son who was born to a widow. Savitribai had challenged the questions of gender in isolation and also highlighted the issues of women. Savitribai and her adopted son Yashwant also opened a clinic to treat those who were suffering from the bubonic plague. She served the patients wholeheartedly. She also contracted the disease while caring for the patients. Even with the disease weakening her body, her spirit remained vibrant. She continued helping other patients.
First female teacher in the country
Phule very early on in life developed a fondness for teaching. She was trained in Ms Faraa’s Institution in Ahmednagar and in Ms Mitchell School in Pune to become the first female teacher in India.
She then, along with her husband started first women’s school at Bhide Wada in Pune in 1848 with just eight students from different castes. Considering that the societal setup was extremely regressive at that time, Phule initiative to educate women was met with a lot of opposition, with some even considering it to be a sin. Savitribai Phule would often carry extra saree while going to teach at her school, for a very peculiar reason. The reason was that mud, tomatoes, stones, cow dung and rotten eggs were often thrown at her on her way.
This did not deter her and by 1851, she was running three schools with about 150 students. She also offered stipends to prevent students from dropping out.
She died on 10 March 1897. Phule was one of the first contemporary Indian feminists.
The Logical Indian take
“If you are an Indian woman who reads, you owe her. If you are an educated Indian woman, you owe her. If you are an Indian schoolgirl reading this chapter in English, you owe her. If you are an educated international desi woman, you owe her,” a piece titled ‘Savitribai and India’s Conversation on Education’, published in the Oikos Worldviews Journal in 2008 said. This one line perfectly describes what Phule’s contribution meant to the society, fruits of which we are reaping till date. | 933 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Battle Creek native William Fleming helped write NASA's blueprint for first moon landing
Jack and Janice Fleming were in the middle of of their vacation on the Jersey Shore, but instead of soaking in the summer sun, the teenage siblings were inside their hotel room with their parents, glued to the television.
It was July 20, 1969.
As Neil Armstrong took his "one small step" on the moon's surface that afternoon, their father, William Fleming, watched silently. His grin of satisfaction was the only indicator of his role in the success of the mission.
In May of 1961, President John F. Kennedy issued his directive to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade.
Fleming, a Battle Creek native who died in 1999, was tasked with leading an ad hoc committee at NASA to determine the feasibility of achieving this goal. The comprehensive 510-page "Fleming report," written in six weeks by a team of engineers, concluded it could be achieved by 1967, at a cost of $12 billion.
"Fleming played a key role in framing the early discussions about how we would go to the moon," said NASA Chief Historian Bill Barry. "Mr. Fleming worked in the NASA Headquarters Office of Space Flight Programs in the very early days of forming the plans to go to the moon. In fact, he was on most of the committees that took the initial look at what 'mode' would be used for landing on the moon and — based on that — what kind of booster we would need to do that work."
In the 50 years since the Apollo 11 mission, little has been reported about Fleming's part in its success. He, like many of the engineers and scientists behind the historic feat, worked tirelessly but away from the public eye.
"He was just my dad. He was nobody special. Because he didn’t project that he was anything special. It was just good old dad," Janice Fleming said. "As I got older, I understood it, but I'm not sure I fully understood the depth and scope of his management, and the fact it was his road map."
Battle Creek beginnings
Bill Fleming's father, William Fleming Sr., emigrated to Battle Creek from Northern Ireland in 1911 to work for the Michigan Carton Company, and later, Postum Cereal in its factory and as a bookkeeper.
Bill Fleming was born in Battle Creek in 1921. His father died from complications following a medical procedure in 1933, and he and his younger brother were raised by their mother, Greta, a nurse who served in the U.S. Army Nurse Corps during World War I.
"My father said, 'Grandma told me I needed to be the man of the family,'" Janice Fleming recalled. "He drove everywhere, learned to drive, took responsibility. Had a paper route and delivered papers to make money. He just had to grow up real young."
Fleming attended Battle Creek Central High School, graduating in 1939. His senior portrait in the 1939 Paean, the school's year book, shows a bespectacled, dark-haired young man. Next to his photo is the quote, "Moral, sensible, and a well-bred man" and lists his extracurriculars: chairman of the political science club and football.
After graduating from high school, Fleming attended Purdue University. He enrolled in an accelerated program during World War II, graduating with a degree in aeronautical engineering in 1943, when the notion of traveling to the moon was mostly limited to pages in comic books.
Fleming was hired out of college by the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory (now known as Glenn Research Center), part of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the predecessor to NASA. There, he managed chemical rocket research in the laboratory's altitude test chambers and supersonic wind tunnels. The research helped pioneer jet propulsion, testing some of the first U.S. jet engines used in combat at the end of World War II.
He worked at NACA for 15 years. According to his son, he nearly left after his first year to enlist in the military.
"In the middle of the war, he got the itch to enlist in the military, since everyone else is doing it and its the patriotic thing to do," Jack Fleming said. "He went down to the Navy enlistment office, actually enlisted and he was given a commission as a college graduate. The enlisting officer said, 'All you have to do is get your boss to sign off.'
"He goes back to the office to report back to Abe Silverstein. He walks into his office and says, 'Guess what? I've enlisted in the army.' Silverstein says, 'Not so fast. Let me see those papers, hold on a minute.' While my dad is sitting there, he calls the enlistment office. 'Cancel that enlistment, he is too important here.'"
Accepting the challenge
In his famed address to congress in 1961, Kennedy said, "We choose to go to the moon! We choose to go to the moon...We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win, and the others, too."
Upon receipt of this directive, Robert Seamans, then associate administrator at NASA, established a task force to devise a plan to make it happen. The task force was chaired by Fleming, who was given four weeks to submit the report. It took six weeks. The report was titled "A Feasible Approach to an Early Manned Lunar Landing."
The urgency of the report was due to the ongoing "space race" between America and Russia.
"We don't know if the Russians will beat us to the moon," Fleming told the Battle Creek Enquirer in July of 1961. "They have always stressed spectacular projects, but they still must face the same problems we do.... The objective of our program is not to be first, but to do it as quickly as possible."
During a trip to Battle Creek in 1962 to visit his mother, Fleming gave a presentation to a local Kiwanis Club, addressing questions about the value of the Apollo mission.
"Many ask what good is it going to do us to place men on the moon," he said. "The answer is that, in addition to the accomplishment itself and all the advantages that might accrue, the technology surrounding space flight has military implications. And many of the techniques and materials developed will become part of our industrial complex and our way of living."
After the "Fleming Report" was issued, he continued to play a key role at NASA as director of technical programs. He traveled constantly as a troubleshooter of sorts, ensuring the scientists and engineers were on schedule.
Among his frequent stops to various space centers, he often visited the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, to meet with German-American Wernher von Braun, chief architect of the Saturn V rocket that propelled the Apollo spacecraft to the moon.
"My dad was sitting in a conference room with von Braun and three or four of his German scientists. 'How are things going on the testing side of the rocket? Are you on schedule?'" Jack Fleming said. "Von Braun would turn to his German scientist and speak in German. They'd go back and forth, he'd nod his head and go to the next one. My father didn't speak a word of German. Five minutes later, von Braun would turn to my dad and said, 'The answer to your question is yes.'"
After completion of the Apollo program in 1972, von Braun wrote to Fleming, "I would like to take this opportunity to thank you especially, Bill, for the tremendous job you have done to make NASA's planning activity a success. I have been particularly impressed by your willingness to seize the initiative to take the necessary actions for the efficient functioning of my office."
Fleming retired from NASA in 1974. Upon his retirement, Eugene Emme, NASA's first historian, wrote to him, "Because of your energy and your dedication to the civilian space venture, the world, the moon, and even the universe now appear differently to most of humankind... Apollo and all the rest of NASA's historical markings are not stone monuments like the Pyramids, the Acropolis, Notre Dame, or Stonehenge. They are symbolized by people dedicated to do difficult and unprecedented things, and in concert."
From 1974 to 1985, Fleming worked in Washington as a management consultant and also volunteered at the National Air and Space Museum. He was diagnosed with stage four gastric cancer in 1999, and died two months later at 78. His wife of 45 years, Evelyn, followed in 2010.
While he played a significant role in mankind's "giant leap," Fleming never let his work interfere with his family life.
And it wasn't until late in his life that he shared his accomplishments with his grown children.
"Later I asked him, 'Why didn’t you go to any of the launches?'" Janice recalled.
Her father, she said, answered, "Why should I? My work is done. They are riding along, but all the hard work has been done, the scientific and engineering aspects are what got them there."
Nick Buckley can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org or 269-966-0652. Follow him on Twitter:@NickJBuckley | <urn:uuid:fd9b04d1-a97d-4720-a80c-738d1ceb8386> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.battlecreekenquirer.com/story/news/2019/07/18/battle-creek-native-authored-nasa-blueprint-first-moon-landing/1677909001/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00234.warc.gz | en | 0.981655 | 1,992 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.2454456090927124... | 3 | Battle Creek native William Fleming helped write NASA's blueprint for first moon landing
Jack and Janice Fleming were in the middle of of their vacation on the Jersey Shore, but instead of soaking in the summer sun, the teenage siblings were inside their hotel room with their parents, glued to the television.
It was July 20, 1969.
As Neil Armstrong took his "one small step" on the moon's surface that afternoon, their father, William Fleming, watched silently. His grin of satisfaction was the only indicator of his role in the success of the mission.
In May of 1961, President John F. Kennedy issued his directive to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade.
Fleming, a Battle Creek native who died in 1999, was tasked with leading an ad hoc committee at NASA to determine the feasibility of achieving this goal. The comprehensive 510-page "Fleming report," written in six weeks by a team of engineers, concluded it could be achieved by 1967, at a cost of $12 billion.
"Fleming played a key role in framing the early discussions about how we would go to the moon," said NASA Chief Historian Bill Barry. "Mr. Fleming worked in the NASA Headquarters Office of Space Flight Programs in the very early days of forming the plans to go to the moon. In fact, he was on most of the committees that took the initial look at what 'mode' would be used for landing on the moon and — based on that — what kind of booster we would need to do that work."
In the 50 years since the Apollo 11 mission, little has been reported about Fleming's part in its success. He, like many of the engineers and scientists behind the historic feat, worked tirelessly but away from the public eye.
"He was just my dad. He was nobody special. Because he didn’t project that he was anything special. It was just good old dad," Janice Fleming said. "As I got older, I understood it, but I'm not sure I fully understood the depth and scope of his management, and the fact it was his road map."
Battle Creek beginnings
Bill Fleming's father, William Fleming Sr., emigrated to Battle Creek from Northern Ireland in 1911 to work for the Michigan Carton Company, and later, Postum Cereal in its factory and as a bookkeeper.
Bill Fleming was born in Battle Creek in 1921. His father died from complications following a medical procedure in 1933, and he and his younger brother were raised by their mother, Greta, a nurse who served in the U.S. Army Nurse Corps during World War I.
"My father said, 'Grandma told me I needed to be the man of the family,'" Janice Fleming recalled. "He drove everywhere, learned to drive, took responsibility. Had a paper route and delivered papers to make money. He just had to grow up real young."
Fleming attended Battle Creek Central High School, graduating in 1939. His senior portrait in the 1939 Paean, the school's year book, shows a bespectacled, dark-haired young man. Next to his photo is the quote, "Moral, sensible, and a well-bred man" and lists his extracurriculars: chairman of the political science club and football.
After graduating from high school, Fleming attended Purdue University. He enrolled in an accelerated program during World War II, graduating with a degree in aeronautical engineering in 1943, when the notion of traveling to the moon was mostly limited to pages in comic books.
Fleming was hired out of college by the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory (now known as Glenn Research Center), part of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the predecessor to NASA. There, he managed chemical rocket research in the laboratory's altitude test chambers and supersonic wind tunnels. The research helped pioneer jet propulsion, testing some of the first U.S. jet engines used in combat at the end of World War II.
He worked at NACA for 15 years. According to his son, he nearly left after his first year to enlist in the military.
"In the middle of the war, he got the itch to enlist in the military, since everyone else is doing it and its the patriotic thing to do," Jack Fleming said. "He went down to the Navy enlistment office, actually enlisted and he was given a commission as a college graduate. The enlisting officer said, 'All you have to do is get your boss to sign off.'
"He goes back to the office to report back to Abe Silverstein. He walks into his office and says, 'Guess what? I've enlisted in the army.' Silverstein says, 'Not so fast. Let me see those papers, hold on a minute.' While my dad is sitting there, he calls the enlistment office. 'Cancel that enlistment, he is too important here.'"
Accepting the challenge
In his famed address to congress in 1961, Kennedy said, "We choose to go to the moon! We choose to go to the moon...We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win, and the others, too."
Upon receipt of this directive, Robert Seamans, then associate administrator at NASA, established a task force to devise a plan to make it happen. The task force was chaired by Fleming, who was given four weeks to submit the report. It took six weeks. The report was titled "A Feasible Approach to an Early Manned Lunar Landing."
The urgency of the report was due to the ongoing "space race" between America and Russia.
"We don't know if the Russians will beat us to the moon," Fleming told the Battle Creek Enquirer in July of 1961. "They have always stressed spectacular projects, but they still must face the same problems we do.... The objective of our program is not to be first, but to do it as quickly as possible."
During a trip to Battle Creek in 1962 to visit his mother, Fleming gave a presentation to a local Kiwanis Club, addressing questions about the value of the Apollo mission.
"Many ask what good is it going to do us to place men on the moon," he said. "The answer is that, in addition to the accomplishment itself and all the advantages that might accrue, the technology surrounding space flight has military implications. And many of the techniques and materials developed will become part of our industrial complex and our way of living."
After the "Fleming Report" was issued, he continued to play a key role at NASA as director of technical programs. He traveled constantly as a troubleshooter of sorts, ensuring the scientists and engineers were on schedule.
Among his frequent stops to various space centers, he often visited the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, to meet with German-American Wernher von Braun, chief architect of the Saturn V rocket that propelled the Apollo spacecraft to the moon.
"My dad was sitting in a conference room with von Braun and three or four of his German scientists. 'How are things going on the testing side of the rocket? Are you on schedule?'" Jack Fleming said. "Von Braun would turn to his German scientist and speak in German. They'd go back and forth, he'd nod his head and go to the next one. My father didn't speak a word of German. Five minutes later, von Braun would turn to my dad and said, 'The answer to your question is yes.'"
After completion of the Apollo program in 1972, von Braun wrote to Fleming, "I would like to take this opportunity to thank you especially, Bill, for the tremendous job you have done to make NASA's planning activity a success. I have been particularly impressed by your willingness to seize the initiative to take the necessary actions for the efficient functioning of my office."
Fleming retired from NASA in 1974. Upon his retirement, Eugene Emme, NASA's first historian, wrote to him, "Because of your energy and your dedication to the civilian space venture, the world, the moon, and even the universe now appear differently to most of humankind... Apollo and all the rest of NASA's historical markings are not stone monuments like the Pyramids, the Acropolis, Notre Dame, or Stonehenge. They are symbolized by people dedicated to do difficult and unprecedented things, and in concert."
From 1974 to 1985, Fleming worked in Washington as a management consultant and also volunteered at the National Air and Space Museum. He was diagnosed with stage four gastric cancer in 1999, and died two months later at 78. His wife of 45 years, Evelyn, followed in 2010.
While he played a significant role in mankind's "giant leap," Fleming never let his work interfere with his family life.
And it wasn't until late in his life that he shared his accomplishments with his grown children.
"Later I asked him, 'Why didn’t you go to any of the launches?'" Janice recalled.
Her father, she said, answered, "Why should I? My work is done. They are riding along, but all the hard work has been done, the scientific and engineering aspects are what got them there."
Nick Buckley can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org or 269-966-0652. Follow him on Twitter:@NickJBuckley | 2,036 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 57-year-old rhino is believed to have died of natural causes, according to the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority. In the wild, rhinos generally reach an age between 37 and 43.
Fausta, a female black rhino, died in Tanzania on December 27 at the age of 57, the authorities in Ngorongoro, where the animal had lived, said in a statement on Saturday.
The Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority said the rhino was the oldest in the world.
"Records show that Fausta lived longer than any rhino in the world and survived in the Ngorongoro, free-ranging, for more than 54 years" before she was moved to a sanctuary in 2016, said the statement.
"Fausta was first located in the Ngorongoro crater in 1965 by a scientist from the University of Dar Es Salaam, at the age of between three and four years," the statement added. "Her health began to deteriorate in 2016, when we were forced to put the animal in captivity, after several attacks from hyena and severe wounds thereafter."
In 2017, Sana, the oldest white rhino at the time, died in captivity at the La Planete Sauvage Zoological Park in France.
The black rhinoceros, also known as the hook-lipped rhino, is native to eastern and southern Africa. Although it is referred to as "black," specimens' colors can range from brown to grey.
Zoologists estimate the life expectancy of rhinos to be between 37 and 43 years in the wild, while they can live longer in captivity. | <urn:uuid:aba1d875-a58a-4129-bb25-8c5c11179b7e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dw.com/en/worlds-oldest-rhino-dies-in-tanzania-aged-57/a-51823710 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00060.warc.gz | en | 0.983744 | 341 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.47137367725... | 1 | The 57-year-old rhino is believed to have died of natural causes, according to the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority. In the wild, rhinos generally reach an age between 37 and 43.
Fausta, a female black rhino, died in Tanzania on December 27 at the age of 57, the authorities in Ngorongoro, where the animal had lived, said in a statement on Saturday.
The Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority said the rhino was the oldest in the world.
"Records show that Fausta lived longer than any rhino in the world and survived in the Ngorongoro, free-ranging, for more than 54 years" before she was moved to a sanctuary in 2016, said the statement.
"Fausta was first located in the Ngorongoro crater in 1965 by a scientist from the University of Dar Es Salaam, at the age of between three and four years," the statement added. "Her health began to deteriorate in 2016, when we were forced to put the animal in captivity, after several attacks from hyena and severe wounds thereafter."
In 2017, Sana, the oldest white rhino at the time, died in captivity at the La Planete Sauvage Zoological Park in France.
The black rhinoceros, also known as the hook-lipped rhino, is native to eastern and southern Africa. Although it is referred to as "black," specimens' colors can range from brown to grey.
Zoologists estimate the life expectancy of rhinos to be between 37 and 43 years in the wild, while they can live longer in captivity. | 359 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kenyatta's Ally Who Hid Him From Danger
In Kenya, dynasties are known to maintain long-lasting relationships, and as for the Mzee Jomo Kenyatta and Simeon Nyachae's families, theirs is too a long history.
In the 1940s, Mzee Kenyatta was wanted by the British authorities. It is during this period he met Senior Chief Musa Nyandusi, Nyachae's father, as published in the book by David K Leonard of the University of California Press titled African Successes.
Because of the multiplicity of his services to the colonial state, Nyandusi was quite influential within the British administration. His prominence enabled him to keep his 'indiscreet' relationships with the cause of African nationalism at its peak.
During this time, Kenyatta was preaching African nationalism when he heard of Nyandusi's fame that spread across the country and sought to meet him.
When Jomo Kenyatta toured Western Kenya in the 1940s to broaden the base for the cause of African rights, he stayed at Nyandusi's home.
As the conflict with the Britons intensified and the Mau Mau uprising began among the Kikuyu, Nyandusi kept his relationship with Kenyatta.
Although the chief's power and wealth was derived from his service to the British Crown, he shared with many other chiefs a deep resentment of European discrimination against Africans.
He held the belief that life would be even better in a state where the monopoly of foreigners in political power was broken. Thus many colonial chiefs covertly supported at least some African nationalist politicians.
On October 15, 1952, Kenyatta was campaigning for self-rule in Kisii when he received a tip-off that the colonial administration was seeking to arrest him. Nyandusi hid him for the night and helped him escape to Nairobi. The founding father was arrested five days later.
The Britons were furious when they discovered what Nyandusi had done, but he argued that he hosted the visitor as part of fulfilling African obligations of hospitality.
Despite such covert assistance to the African nationalist cause by some of the chiefs, none of them was able to survive the transition to independence. In the public's eye, the colonial chiefs were closely identified with the colonial rule, and in 1964, Home Affairs Minister Jaramogi Oginga Odinga scrapped the post.
The harsh rule which was instituted by the colonialists in response to the Mau Mau uprising in the early 1950s created a deep resentment against those who administered it.
Nyandusi had reached the age of mandatory retirement in 1964, and his departure, therefore, was routine rather than forced.
However, Kenyatta's relationship with Nyandusi continued when he appointed Simeon Nyachae, Nyandusi's son, as a district officer in Kangundo in 1960, as a district commissioner for Nyandarua in March 1963, and later a provincial commissioner for Central in 1964.
Nyachae served in the defunct provincial administration till 1979 and later as head of civil service under the Kenyatta regime, extending into retired President Daniel Toroitich Arap Moi's rule.
Nyachae joined elective politics in 1992 as an MP for Nyaribari Chache Constituency and was a vocal figure in politics until December 2007..
- 22 January 2020 - 7:57 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 7:48 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 7:31 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 7:08 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 7:15 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 6:32 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 5:44 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 6:52 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 5:04 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 6:05 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 4:53 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 6:02 pm | <urn:uuid:8ff54147-842d-4d45-986a-437601b16770> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kenyans.co.ke/news/46969-how-kenyatta-nyachae-relationship-was-born | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00289.warc.gz | en | 0.981536 | 819 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.305894941... | 1 | Kenyatta's Ally Who Hid Him From Danger
In Kenya, dynasties are known to maintain long-lasting relationships, and as for the Mzee Jomo Kenyatta and Simeon Nyachae's families, theirs is too a long history.
In the 1940s, Mzee Kenyatta was wanted by the British authorities. It is during this period he met Senior Chief Musa Nyandusi, Nyachae's father, as published in the book by David K Leonard of the University of California Press titled African Successes.
Because of the multiplicity of his services to the colonial state, Nyandusi was quite influential within the British administration. His prominence enabled him to keep his 'indiscreet' relationships with the cause of African nationalism at its peak.
During this time, Kenyatta was preaching African nationalism when he heard of Nyandusi's fame that spread across the country and sought to meet him.
When Jomo Kenyatta toured Western Kenya in the 1940s to broaden the base for the cause of African rights, he stayed at Nyandusi's home.
As the conflict with the Britons intensified and the Mau Mau uprising began among the Kikuyu, Nyandusi kept his relationship with Kenyatta.
Although the chief's power and wealth was derived from his service to the British Crown, he shared with many other chiefs a deep resentment of European discrimination against Africans.
He held the belief that life would be even better in a state where the monopoly of foreigners in political power was broken. Thus many colonial chiefs covertly supported at least some African nationalist politicians.
On October 15, 1952, Kenyatta was campaigning for self-rule in Kisii when he received a tip-off that the colonial administration was seeking to arrest him. Nyandusi hid him for the night and helped him escape to Nairobi. The founding father was arrested five days later.
The Britons were furious when they discovered what Nyandusi had done, but he argued that he hosted the visitor as part of fulfilling African obligations of hospitality.
Despite such covert assistance to the African nationalist cause by some of the chiefs, none of them was able to survive the transition to independence. In the public's eye, the colonial chiefs were closely identified with the colonial rule, and in 1964, Home Affairs Minister Jaramogi Oginga Odinga scrapped the post.
The harsh rule which was instituted by the colonialists in response to the Mau Mau uprising in the early 1950s created a deep resentment against those who administered it.
Nyandusi had reached the age of mandatory retirement in 1964, and his departure, therefore, was routine rather than forced.
However, Kenyatta's relationship with Nyandusi continued when he appointed Simeon Nyachae, Nyandusi's son, as a district officer in Kangundo in 1960, as a district commissioner for Nyandarua in March 1963, and later a provincial commissioner for Central in 1964.
Nyachae served in the defunct provincial administration till 1979 and later as head of civil service under the Kenyatta regime, extending into retired President Daniel Toroitich Arap Moi's rule.
Nyachae joined elective politics in 1992 as an MP for Nyaribari Chache Constituency and was a vocal figure in politics until December 2007..
- 22 January 2020 - 7:57 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 7:48 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 7:31 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 7:08 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 7:15 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 6:32 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 5:44 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 6:52 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 5:04 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 6:05 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 4:53 pm
- 22 January 2020 - 6:02 pm | 939 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Japanese Print Description
HIROSHIGE II (1829-69)
Sanno gongen setchu (Sanno Shrine in snow),
from Toto sanjurokkei (Thirty-six views of the eastern capital)
Sanno Gongen Shrine, guardian of Edo Castle and the Tokugawa clan, was located on high ground so that it could be seen from Edo castle. The first Edo Castle was built by Ota Dokan in 1457 and included a guardian deity enshrined within it. When Tokugawa Ieyasu became shogun in 1603 Edo became his capital and he greatly enlarged and fortified the castle. The following year the shrine was moved outside the castle. It was destroyed in the great fire of 1657 and in 1659 it was rebuilt southwest of the main castle grounds, just within the outer moat. It was renamed Hie-jinja Shrine in 1869.
The Sanno Shrine was host to the Sanno Matsuri (festival), one of Edo’s two most important festivals. The other was the Kanda Matsuri and both festivals included long parades featuring many large floats and portable shrines. These festival parades were the only ones during the Edo Period that were permitted inside the castle grounds. The shrines were located NE and SW of the castle as it was considered auspicious. Both parades were held annually until 1680. After that they were held in alternate years, a tradition that continues today. | <urn:uuid:741c23ea-b3a4-459d-a9b2-ceddcb3fb895> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jacksonarts.com/product/hiroshige-ii-sanno-shrine/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00373.warc.gz | en | 0.992186 | 316 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.4818051755428... | 7 | Japanese Print Description
HIROSHIGE II (1829-69)
Sanno gongen setchu (Sanno Shrine in snow),
from Toto sanjurokkei (Thirty-six views of the eastern capital)
Sanno Gongen Shrine, guardian of Edo Castle and the Tokugawa clan, was located on high ground so that it could be seen from Edo castle. The first Edo Castle was built by Ota Dokan in 1457 and included a guardian deity enshrined within it. When Tokugawa Ieyasu became shogun in 1603 Edo became his capital and he greatly enlarged and fortified the castle. The following year the shrine was moved outside the castle. It was destroyed in the great fire of 1657 and in 1659 it was rebuilt southwest of the main castle grounds, just within the outer moat. It was renamed Hie-jinja Shrine in 1869.
The Sanno Shrine was host to the Sanno Matsuri (festival), one of Edo’s two most important festivals. The other was the Kanda Matsuri and both festivals included long parades featuring many large floats and portable shrines. These festival parades were the only ones during the Edo Period that were permitted inside the castle grounds. The shrines were located NE and SW of the castle as it was considered auspicious. Both parades were held annually until 1680. After that they were held in alternate years, a tradition that continues today. | 324 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The fact that black Africans were placed into slavery for centuries is common knowledge. However, there is another ethic group that was forced into slavery that goes unnoticed by history —perhaps because they have never used their historical experience to justify their current problems.
King James II of England began the Irish slave trade in 1625 when he sold 30,000 Irish prisoners as slaves to the New World. His proclamation of 1625 required Irish political prisoners to be sold to English settlers in the West Indies. By the mid-1600s, the Irish represented the main body of slaves sold to Antigua and Montserrat —in fact, during that period, 70% of the total population of Montserrat was Irish slaves. The majority of early slaves brought to the New World were white —and Irish.
Between 1641 and 1652, about 300,000 Irish were sold as slaves. Between those that the English killed and sold into slavery, the population of Ireland decreased from 1.5 million to 600,000 in this decade alone. Like the African slaves, families were separated as wives and children were not allowed to accompany their husbands and fathers across the Atlantic. This of course led to a helpless population of fatherless people —England’s solution —they sold the women and children as well.
During the 1650s, more than 100,000 Irish children were taken from their parents and sold as slaves in the West Indies, Virginia, and New England. Some 52,000 Irish women and children were sold to Barbados and Virginia during the same period. Another 30,000 were placed on the block and sold to the highest bidder. In 1656, Lord Cromwell ordered 2,000 Irish children be taken to Jamaica and sold as slaves to English settlers.
Historians, probably mostly English, tend to use the term “Indentured Servants” to remove some of the stain of the enslavement of the Irish. However, the facts speak for themselves; the Irish that were sold during the 17th and 18th centuries were human labor.
One of the driving forces of the Irish slave trade was the fact that they were cheaper to own than Africans. Africans sold for about 50 pounds sterling while an Irish slave was valued at 5 £ sterling. There were many instances where the Irish were treated more harshly than their African counterparts because their value was far less. If a whipped or branded Irish slave died, it was a far less of a monetary setback than the death of an African slave. Therefore, on balance, the Africans received better treatment.
The children of slaves became slaves as well, which increased the size of the owner’s free workforce. So it was not uncommon for the slave owner to breed Irish women for fun and profit. Seizing on the best of both worlds, slave owners began a “breeding program” by having black males impregnate the white Irish women. These new “mulatto” slaves fetched a higher price on the slave market than the strictly white Irish. The breeding practice became so widespread that legislation was passed in 1681 forbidding the practice of using Irish females to copulate with African men for the purpose of producing slaves for sale. In point of fact, the “mulattos” were undermining the prices in the slave market, and the new laws were passed more to insure the profits of the slave industry than any type of human compassion.
The Irish slave trade continued until 1839 when England got out of the slave trade. However, this only applied to state-sponsored slave trade — it did not preclude the capture or transport of white or black slaves.
The main difference between the slavery of the Irish and Africans is that the Irish have assimilated themselves into the various societies in which they were introduced. Unless one happens upon a St. Patrick’s Day celebration, one would be hard pressed to distinguish the Irish from any other mainstream ethnic group in America.
The Irish have overcome their unfortunate past and function as if slavery was not even a part of their legacy. Many blacks however, use the centuries past experience to defend their lack of achievement and ascribe the experience to their assorted problems. At the risk of seeming insensitive, how an ethnic group responds to adversity speaks volumes about their corporate character and strength of will.
Have a good week. Bill Shuey is a freelance writer from North Carolina. | <urn:uuid:62ab8dfe-6f2a-49e3-9c18-5e0fe502036e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ncrenegade.com/editorial/the-other-slaves/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00081.warc.gz | en | 0.983913 | 890 | 4.46875 | 4 | [
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0.360881388... | 2 | The fact that black Africans were placed into slavery for centuries is common knowledge. However, there is another ethic group that was forced into slavery that goes unnoticed by history —perhaps because they have never used their historical experience to justify their current problems.
King James II of England began the Irish slave trade in 1625 when he sold 30,000 Irish prisoners as slaves to the New World. His proclamation of 1625 required Irish political prisoners to be sold to English settlers in the West Indies. By the mid-1600s, the Irish represented the main body of slaves sold to Antigua and Montserrat —in fact, during that period, 70% of the total population of Montserrat was Irish slaves. The majority of early slaves brought to the New World were white —and Irish.
Between 1641 and 1652, about 300,000 Irish were sold as slaves. Between those that the English killed and sold into slavery, the population of Ireland decreased from 1.5 million to 600,000 in this decade alone. Like the African slaves, families were separated as wives and children were not allowed to accompany their husbands and fathers across the Atlantic. This of course led to a helpless population of fatherless people —England’s solution —they sold the women and children as well.
During the 1650s, more than 100,000 Irish children were taken from their parents and sold as slaves in the West Indies, Virginia, and New England. Some 52,000 Irish women and children were sold to Barbados and Virginia during the same period. Another 30,000 were placed on the block and sold to the highest bidder. In 1656, Lord Cromwell ordered 2,000 Irish children be taken to Jamaica and sold as slaves to English settlers.
Historians, probably mostly English, tend to use the term “Indentured Servants” to remove some of the stain of the enslavement of the Irish. However, the facts speak for themselves; the Irish that were sold during the 17th and 18th centuries were human labor.
One of the driving forces of the Irish slave trade was the fact that they were cheaper to own than Africans. Africans sold for about 50 pounds sterling while an Irish slave was valued at 5 £ sterling. There were many instances where the Irish were treated more harshly than their African counterparts because their value was far less. If a whipped or branded Irish slave died, it was a far less of a monetary setback than the death of an African slave. Therefore, on balance, the Africans received better treatment.
The children of slaves became slaves as well, which increased the size of the owner’s free workforce. So it was not uncommon for the slave owner to breed Irish women for fun and profit. Seizing on the best of both worlds, slave owners began a “breeding program” by having black males impregnate the white Irish women. These new “mulatto” slaves fetched a higher price on the slave market than the strictly white Irish. The breeding practice became so widespread that legislation was passed in 1681 forbidding the practice of using Irish females to copulate with African men for the purpose of producing slaves for sale. In point of fact, the “mulattos” were undermining the prices in the slave market, and the new laws were passed more to insure the profits of the slave industry than any type of human compassion.
The Irish slave trade continued until 1839 when England got out of the slave trade. However, this only applied to state-sponsored slave trade — it did not preclude the capture or transport of white or black slaves.
The main difference between the slavery of the Irish and Africans is that the Irish have assimilated themselves into the various societies in which they were introduced. Unless one happens upon a St. Patrick’s Day celebration, one would be hard pressed to distinguish the Irish from any other mainstream ethnic group in America.
The Irish have overcome their unfortunate past and function as if slavery was not even a part of their legacy. Many blacks however, use the centuries past experience to defend their lack of achievement and ascribe the experience to their assorted problems. At the risk of seeming insensitive, how an ethnic group responds to adversity speaks volumes about their corporate character and strength of will.
Have a good week. Bill Shuey is a freelance writer from North Carolina. | 929 | ENGLISH | 1 |
British Broadcasting Corporation Home. James's accession meant that the three separate kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were now united, for the first time, under a single monarch. James was the first Stuart ruler of England. One of James I's first acts of foreign policy was to end the long war with Spain, which had continued intermittently for 20 years. The resulting Treaty of London was largely favourable to Spain, but was also an acknowledgement by the Spanish that their hopes of bringing England under Spanish control were over.
The end of the war greatly eased the English government's near bankrupt financial state. England and Spain were at peace for the next 50 years. In , a group of English Catholics, angered by James I's failure to relax the penal laws against their co-religionists, hatched a plot to blow up the king and parliament by igniting gunpowder barrels concealed in a vault beneath the building.
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The plot was discovered before it could be carried out. The conspirators, including Guy Fawkes after whom the plot is often known, were either killed resisting arrest, or captured and then executed by being hanged, drawn and quartered. But in , the new lord deputy, Arthur Chichester, began to restrict their authority. Fearing arrest, the two fled to the continent with 90 family members and followers - the 'Flight of the Earls'.
Protestants from England and Scotland were encouraged to move to Ulster, cultivate the land and establish towns. These 'planters' moved onto land confiscated from its Gaelic Catholic inhabitants. The plantation was often organised through guilds and corporations.
Create a List
The London companies were granted the city of Derry, thereafter known as Londonderry. By the end of the 16th century, there were several different English bibles in circulation and the church authorities felt a definitive version was needed. It became the most famous English translation of the scriptures and had a profound impact on the English language. The eldest daughter of James I and Anne of Denmark, Princess Elizabeth, was widely admired for her beauty, spirit and charm. Six years later, Frederick was elected king of Bohemia, but he and Elizabeth were driven out of the country by Catholic forces soon afterwards.
It was through Elizabeth's descendants that the House of Hanover came to inherit the English throne. William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, popular in his time but subsequently regarded as the greatest writer in the English language. The first Africans who arrived in Jamestown, Virginia were not slaves but indentured servants. However, over the course of the 17th century their status gradually shifted so that more and more became slaves.
Race-based slavery soon became central to the economy of the British colonies in North America. A group attempting to escape religious persecution in England sailed for the New World and landed at Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts. They became known as the 'Pilgrim Fathers', and are often portrayed as the founders of modern America.
Jamestown was established on behalf of the London Company, which hoped to make a profit from the new colony for its shareholders. James I was struck down by what contemporaries described as 'a tertian ague' and died in his bed at Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, at the age of He was succeeded by his only surviving son, Charles, then years-old, who was proclaimed as king at the gates of Theobalds a few hours later.
He returned two years later with a group of settlers and Barbados was developed into a sugar plantation economy using at first indentured servants and then slaves captured in West Africa. Despite his best efforts, Buckingham was eventually forced to evacuate the island amid scenes of chaos and confusion.
While conferring with his officers, Buckingham was stabbed by John Felton, a discontented former soldier. The duke was immensely unpopular and few apart from the king mourned his death. Already disillusioned with parliaments, Charles I was outraged when, on 2 March , members of parliament first held the Speaker of the House down in his chair and then passed three resolutions condemning the king's financial and religious policies.
Eight days later, Charles dissolved the assembly and embarked on a period of government without parliaments, known as the 'Personal Rule'. Keen to secure a greater degree of religious conformity across his three kingdoms, Charles I ordered the introduction of a new prayer book in Scotland. The measure backfired badly when, at St Giles church in Edinburgh, an angry crowd protested against the book, shouting: 'The Mass is come amongst us!
Determined not to accept the new prayer book which Charles I was trying to impose on them, the Scots had drawn up a 'National Covenant' which bound its signatories to resist all religious 'innovations'. Thousands followed. The General Assembly of the Kirk declared episcopacy bishops abolished and Charles prepared to send troops into Scotland to restore order. Desperate for money to fight the Scots, Charles I was forced to summon a new parliament - his first after 11 years of personal rule. At first, there seemed a good chance that members of parliament might be prepared to set their resentments of the king's domestic policies aside and agree to grant him money.
Yet such hopes proved illusory, and Charles was forced to dissolve the parliament within a month. Having advanced deep into England, the Scottish army found Charles I's forces waiting for them on the southern bank of the River Tyne at Newburn. Charging across the river under cover of artillery fire, the Scots swiftly put the English infantry to flight.
Charles was forced to agree to a humiliating truce. With the Scottish army firmly established in Northern England and refusing to leave until its expenses had been paid, Charles I was again forced to summon a parliament. But instead of providing the king with financial assistance, many of the members of parliament - some of whom were zealous Protestants, or Puritans - used it to voice angry complaints against his policies.
In late , Ireland rebelled. The country's Catholic inhabitants were simultaneously appalled by the prospect of a Puritan parliament achieving political dominance in England, and entranced by the possibility of seizing concessions similar to those which had been won by the Scots. Several thousand English and Scottish Protestant settlers were killed and many more were forced to flee. Fearing that his opponents in parliament were not only determined to seize political control, but also to impeach his Catholic wife, Henrietta Maria, Charles I marched into the House of Commons and attempted to arrest five leading members of parliament.
Forewarned, they slipped away and Charles was forced to leave empty-handed. By setting up his royal standard on the Castle Hill at Nottingham, and by summoning his loyal subjects to join him against his enemies in parliament, Charles effectively signalled the start of the English Civil War. Inauspiciously for him: 'the standard itself was blown down the same night Although parliament had initially managed to gain control of almost all of southern England, in October some 10, Cornishmen rose up in arms for Charles I and chased parliament's few local supporters across the River Tamar.
Thus a new front in the developing English Civil War was opened, with the Cornishmen becoming some of the king's toughest soldiers.
English Puritanism, by John Spurr
The struggle that followed was bloody but indecisive, putting paid to hopes that the English Civil War might be settled by a single battle. Having suffered a series of reverses and desperate for more men, Charles I ordered James Butler, Marquis of Ormond, to arrange a ceasefire with the Catholic 'confederates' or insurgents in Ireland, so that the English Protestant soldiers fighting there could be shipped home to serve against the Parliamentarians.
The so-called 'cessation of arms' outraged the king's English opponents.
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Fearing that they would be unable to beat the Royalist forces without outside help, the Parliamentarians concluded an alliance with the Scots. By the terms of the treaty the Scots agreed to send a powerful army to fight Charles I, in return for church reform in England 'according to the word of God', that is, in keeping with Scottish Protestantism. Charles I's northern supporters were besieged in York by a joint force of Parliamentarians and Scots, but were relieved by a Royalist army under the king's nephew, Prince Rupert. Triumph quickly turned to disaster for Rupert when his army was destroyed in a pitched battle at Marston Moor on the following day.
Thereafter, the north of England was effectively lost to the king. Following the humiliating defeat of its main field army in the Battle of Lostwithiel in Cornwall in , parliament decided a more effective army was required. It passed the 'Self-denying Ordinance' that required all members of both houses of parliament to lay down their commands. The restructured fighting force, established by law on 15 February, was named the 'New Model Army'. Sir Thomas Fairfax was appointed its lord general and Oliver Cromwell his second-in-command.
Confident that his veteran troops would outfight parliament's newly-raised forces, Charles I launched his main field army of around 9, men against Sir Thomas Fairfax's army of around 14, men at Naseby in Northamptonshire. The result was a disaster for the king. The superb Royalist infantry were lost, and with them, all chance of winning the war. As the Parliamentarian net closed around him, Charles I decided to throw in his lot with the Scots.
He made his way to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell, near Newark, and gave himself up. At the end of December , the bulk of the Scottish army marched back across the River Tweed and the king's Scottish guards were replaced by English Parliamentarian ones. In mid, England experienced a further eruption of violence known as the Second Civil War.
Rebellions in favour of the king broke out in many parts of England and Wales, and a joint force of Scots and English Royalists rode south but were destroyed at Preston by an army under Oliver Cromwell. This marked the end of the Royalist resurgence. Enraged by parliament's opposition to their political ideals, officers of the New Model Army decided to remove those members of parliament they regarded as untrustworthy in what was effectively a coup d'etat.
Colonel Thomas Pride, after whom the purge is named, accordingly turned away some members, while over 40 more were arrested.
Civil War and Revolution
The resulting parliament of less than members was derisively known as 'the Rump'. Accordingly, the king was charged with high treason, tried, found guilty and beheaded. Charles faced his trial and death with remarkable dignity. His last word on the scaffold was: 'Remember'. The execution of a king was greeted across Europe with shock.
In an atmosphere of greater religious tolerance and lack of censorship during the war, radical political and religious ideas flourished. The New Model Army was a hothouse for many of these ideas. It was particularly influenced by the 'Levellers', a small but vocal group who called for significant changes in society, including an extension of the franchise.
The army leadership reacted badly to challenges to their authority, and in May crushed a Leveller mutiny at Burford in Oxfordshire. Determined to subdue 'the rebellious Irish', parliament ordered Oliver Cromwell to lead a powerful expeditionary force across the Irish Sea. After landing at Dublin, Cromwell quickly moved on to storm the nearby town of Drogheda. His troops slaughtered more than 3, of the defenders in the process.
Desperate to recover his father's throne, Charles I's eldest son struck a bargain with the Scots whereby he agreed to take the Covenant himself in return for the promise of Scottish military assistance. Many English royalists came in to support him, but in a hard-fought battle at Worcester, the Parliamentarian commander Oliver Cromwell defeated the young king's army. It proved to be the last major battle of the English Civil War. Charles subsequently fled into exile abroad.
After the execution of Charles I, the various factions in parliament began to squabble amongst themselves. In frustration, Oliver Cromwell dismissed the purged 'Rump' parliament and summoned a new one. This also failed to deal with the complexity of the problems England was now facing. His continuing popularity with the army propped up his regime. The Spanish had ruled Jamaica since , and introduced African slaves to work in the sugar plantations. The British seized the island and continued to develop the sugar trade. During this period, many slaves escaped into the mountains.
These people became known as 'Maroons' and came to control large areas of the Jamaican interior, often launching attacks on the sugar plantations. English puritanism, Spurr, John. Published Basingstoke : Macmillan Available at Main Library. This item is not reservable because: There are no reservable copies for this title. Please contact a member of library staff for further information. Barcode Shelfmark Loan type Status Lending Details Statement of responsibility : John Spurr. ISBN : X , , , , , Note : Includes bibliographical references and index.
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0.143174543... | 1 | British Broadcasting Corporation Home. James's accession meant that the three separate kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were now united, for the first time, under a single monarch. James was the first Stuart ruler of England. One of James I's first acts of foreign policy was to end the long war with Spain, which had continued intermittently for 20 years. The resulting Treaty of London was largely favourable to Spain, but was also an acknowledgement by the Spanish that their hopes of bringing England under Spanish control were over.
The end of the war greatly eased the English government's near bankrupt financial state. England and Spain were at peace for the next 50 years. In , a group of English Catholics, angered by James I's failure to relax the penal laws against their co-religionists, hatched a plot to blow up the king and parliament by igniting gunpowder barrels concealed in a vault beneath the building.
- Citation metadata.
- See a Problem?.
- What Is Puritanism? | Scholastic.
The plot was discovered before it could be carried out. The conspirators, including Guy Fawkes after whom the plot is often known, were either killed resisting arrest, or captured and then executed by being hanged, drawn and quartered. But in , the new lord deputy, Arthur Chichester, began to restrict their authority. Fearing arrest, the two fled to the continent with 90 family members and followers - the 'Flight of the Earls'.
Protestants from England and Scotland were encouraged to move to Ulster, cultivate the land and establish towns. These 'planters' moved onto land confiscated from its Gaelic Catholic inhabitants. The plantation was often organised through guilds and corporations.
Create a List
The London companies were granted the city of Derry, thereafter known as Londonderry. By the end of the 16th century, there were several different English bibles in circulation and the church authorities felt a definitive version was needed. It became the most famous English translation of the scriptures and had a profound impact on the English language. The eldest daughter of James I and Anne of Denmark, Princess Elizabeth, was widely admired for her beauty, spirit and charm. Six years later, Frederick was elected king of Bohemia, but he and Elizabeth were driven out of the country by Catholic forces soon afterwards.
It was through Elizabeth's descendants that the House of Hanover came to inherit the English throne. William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, popular in his time but subsequently regarded as the greatest writer in the English language. The first Africans who arrived in Jamestown, Virginia were not slaves but indentured servants. However, over the course of the 17th century their status gradually shifted so that more and more became slaves.
Race-based slavery soon became central to the economy of the British colonies in North America. A group attempting to escape religious persecution in England sailed for the New World and landed at Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts. They became known as the 'Pilgrim Fathers', and are often portrayed as the founders of modern America.
Jamestown was established on behalf of the London Company, which hoped to make a profit from the new colony for its shareholders. James I was struck down by what contemporaries described as 'a tertian ague' and died in his bed at Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, at the age of He was succeeded by his only surviving son, Charles, then years-old, who was proclaimed as king at the gates of Theobalds a few hours later.
He returned two years later with a group of settlers and Barbados was developed into a sugar plantation economy using at first indentured servants and then slaves captured in West Africa. Despite his best efforts, Buckingham was eventually forced to evacuate the island amid scenes of chaos and confusion.
While conferring with his officers, Buckingham was stabbed by John Felton, a discontented former soldier. The duke was immensely unpopular and few apart from the king mourned his death. Already disillusioned with parliaments, Charles I was outraged when, on 2 March , members of parliament first held the Speaker of the House down in his chair and then passed three resolutions condemning the king's financial and religious policies.
Eight days later, Charles dissolved the assembly and embarked on a period of government without parliaments, known as the 'Personal Rule'. Keen to secure a greater degree of religious conformity across his three kingdoms, Charles I ordered the introduction of a new prayer book in Scotland. The measure backfired badly when, at St Giles church in Edinburgh, an angry crowd protested against the book, shouting: 'The Mass is come amongst us!
Determined not to accept the new prayer book which Charles I was trying to impose on them, the Scots had drawn up a 'National Covenant' which bound its signatories to resist all religious 'innovations'. Thousands followed. The General Assembly of the Kirk declared episcopacy bishops abolished and Charles prepared to send troops into Scotland to restore order. Desperate for money to fight the Scots, Charles I was forced to summon a new parliament - his first after 11 years of personal rule. At first, there seemed a good chance that members of parliament might be prepared to set their resentments of the king's domestic policies aside and agree to grant him money.
Yet such hopes proved illusory, and Charles was forced to dissolve the parliament within a month. Having advanced deep into England, the Scottish army found Charles I's forces waiting for them on the southern bank of the River Tyne at Newburn. Charging across the river under cover of artillery fire, the Scots swiftly put the English infantry to flight.
Charles was forced to agree to a humiliating truce. With the Scottish army firmly established in Northern England and refusing to leave until its expenses had been paid, Charles I was again forced to summon a parliament. But instead of providing the king with financial assistance, many of the members of parliament - some of whom were zealous Protestants, or Puritans - used it to voice angry complaints against his policies.
In late , Ireland rebelled. The country's Catholic inhabitants were simultaneously appalled by the prospect of a Puritan parliament achieving political dominance in England, and entranced by the possibility of seizing concessions similar to those which had been won by the Scots. Several thousand English and Scottish Protestant settlers were killed and many more were forced to flee. Fearing that his opponents in parliament were not only determined to seize political control, but also to impeach his Catholic wife, Henrietta Maria, Charles I marched into the House of Commons and attempted to arrest five leading members of parliament.
Forewarned, they slipped away and Charles was forced to leave empty-handed. By setting up his royal standard on the Castle Hill at Nottingham, and by summoning his loyal subjects to join him against his enemies in parliament, Charles effectively signalled the start of the English Civil War. Inauspiciously for him: 'the standard itself was blown down the same night Although parliament had initially managed to gain control of almost all of southern England, in October some 10, Cornishmen rose up in arms for Charles I and chased parliament's few local supporters across the River Tamar.
Thus a new front in the developing English Civil War was opened, with the Cornishmen becoming some of the king's toughest soldiers.
English Puritanism, by John Spurr
The struggle that followed was bloody but indecisive, putting paid to hopes that the English Civil War might be settled by a single battle. Having suffered a series of reverses and desperate for more men, Charles I ordered James Butler, Marquis of Ormond, to arrange a ceasefire with the Catholic 'confederates' or insurgents in Ireland, so that the English Protestant soldiers fighting there could be shipped home to serve against the Parliamentarians.
The so-called 'cessation of arms' outraged the king's English opponents.
- Article excerpt;
- Analog Circuit Design: Smart Data Converters, Filters on Chip, Multimode Transmitters.
- More on Puritans England History 17th century.
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- What Angels Fear: A Sebastian St. Cyr Mystery.
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Fearing that they would be unable to beat the Royalist forces without outside help, the Parliamentarians concluded an alliance with the Scots. By the terms of the treaty the Scots agreed to send a powerful army to fight Charles I, in return for church reform in England 'according to the word of God', that is, in keeping with Scottish Protestantism. Charles I's northern supporters were besieged in York by a joint force of Parliamentarians and Scots, but were relieved by a Royalist army under the king's nephew, Prince Rupert. Triumph quickly turned to disaster for Rupert when his army was destroyed in a pitched battle at Marston Moor on the following day.
Thereafter, the north of England was effectively lost to the king. Following the humiliating defeat of its main field army in the Battle of Lostwithiel in Cornwall in , parliament decided a more effective army was required. It passed the 'Self-denying Ordinance' that required all members of both houses of parliament to lay down their commands. The restructured fighting force, established by law on 15 February, was named the 'New Model Army'. Sir Thomas Fairfax was appointed its lord general and Oliver Cromwell his second-in-command.
Confident that his veteran troops would outfight parliament's newly-raised forces, Charles I launched his main field army of around 9, men against Sir Thomas Fairfax's army of around 14, men at Naseby in Northamptonshire. The result was a disaster for the king. The superb Royalist infantry were lost, and with them, all chance of winning the war. As the Parliamentarian net closed around him, Charles I decided to throw in his lot with the Scots.
He made his way to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell, near Newark, and gave himself up. At the end of December , the bulk of the Scottish army marched back across the River Tweed and the king's Scottish guards were replaced by English Parliamentarian ones. In mid, England experienced a further eruption of violence known as the Second Civil War.
Rebellions in favour of the king broke out in many parts of England and Wales, and a joint force of Scots and English Royalists rode south but were destroyed at Preston by an army under Oliver Cromwell. This marked the end of the Royalist resurgence. Enraged by parliament's opposition to their political ideals, officers of the New Model Army decided to remove those members of parliament they regarded as untrustworthy in what was effectively a coup d'etat.
Colonel Thomas Pride, after whom the purge is named, accordingly turned away some members, while over 40 more were arrested.
Civil War and Revolution
The resulting parliament of less than members was derisively known as 'the Rump'. Accordingly, the king was charged with high treason, tried, found guilty and beheaded. Charles faced his trial and death with remarkable dignity. His last word on the scaffold was: 'Remember'. The execution of a king was greeted across Europe with shock.
In an atmosphere of greater religious tolerance and lack of censorship during the war, radical political and religious ideas flourished. The New Model Army was a hothouse for many of these ideas. It was particularly influenced by the 'Levellers', a small but vocal group who called for significant changes in society, including an extension of the franchise.
The army leadership reacted badly to challenges to their authority, and in May crushed a Leveller mutiny at Burford in Oxfordshire. Determined to subdue 'the rebellious Irish', parliament ordered Oliver Cromwell to lead a powerful expeditionary force across the Irish Sea. After landing at Dublin, Cromwell quickly moved on to storm the nearby town of Drogheda. His troops slaughtered more than 3, of the defenders in the process.
Desperate to recover his father's throne, Charles I's eldest son struck a bargain with the Scots whereby he agreed to take the Covenant himself in return for the promise of Scottish military assistance. Many English royalists came in to support him, but in a hard-fought battle at Worcester, the Parliamentarian commander Oliver Cromwell defeated the young king's army. It proved to be the last major battle of the English Civil War. Charles subsequently fled into exile abroad.
After the execution of Charles I, the various factions in parliament began to squabble amongst themselves. In frustration, Oliver Cromwell dismissed the purged 'Rump' parliament and summoned a new one. This also failed to deal with the complexity of the problems England was now facing. His continuing popularity with the army propped up his regime. The Spanish had ruled Jamaica since , and introduced African slaves to work in the sugar plantations. The British seized the island and continued to develop the sugar trade. During this period, many slaves escaped into the mountains.
These people became known as 'Maroons' and came to control large areas of the Jamaican interior, often launching attacks on the sugar plantations. English puritanism, Spurr, John. Published Basingstoke : Macmillan Available at Main Library. This item is not reservable because: There are no reservable copies for this title. Please contact a member of library staff for further information. Barcode Shelfmark Loan type Status Lending Details Statement of responsibility : John Spurr. ISBN : X , , , , , Note : Includes bibliographical references and index.
Physical Description : x, p. Series : Social history in perspective. Subject : England Church history 17th century. | 2,799 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was November 21 in the year 1581 when 18 year old Henry Jacobs entered St. Mary Hall in Oxford. Not much is known about his childhood or adult life until 1596 when he began to write about separatism and breaking with the Church of England. The important thing to note is that all those in England who began to study the Scriptures and discuss ideas at this time of how God intended His people to worship, govern, and apply the Scriptures came into eventual conflict with King James I who put himself as Head of the Church and State. Whenever power concentrates, religious and civil liberty are restricted and the free flow of ideas that is the lifeblood of a culture is threatened with punishments and persecution.Henry wrote tracts and petitions to Queen Elizabeth, and then King James, criticizing their concentration of power and particularly desiring for the Church of England to make reforms that were more Scriptural. One such petition had the title To Abolish the Anti-Christian Prelacy which criticized the hierarchy of bishops who controlled the local churches on behalf of the King. King James responded, “No Bishop, No King.” In other words, a loss of bishops would mean a loss of his power. No wonder Jacobs was imprisoned. However, upon his release in 1610, he fled to Leiden, Holland and there resided with the Pilgrim Church under the leadership of John Robinson.
After spending time with the Pilgrim Church in Holland, he wrote that he now agreed with Robinson that “a visible church was constituted by free mutual consent of believers joining and covenanting to live as members of a holy society, and that such a church should elect its ministers, elders, deacons, and the congregation should be governed by it’s officers.” It is one thing to separate from the Church of England due to its errors and control, but it is quite another to be clear about what you are separating to. It was Robinson’s influence that gave Henry Jacobs a clear vision in this regard.
Henry and the congregation that joined him in London upon his return paid a dear price for their covenant. Any church meeting held outside the English Church was called a Conventicle and was deemed illegal. They were defined by those in authority as secret meetings to hear unlicensed preaching. He continued about six years, and then went to Virginia and formed a settlement named after him called Jacobopolis. Upon his return to England, he died in 1624. But good ideas rooted in Scripture do not die when the founder does, and so it was that John Lothrop picked up the torch and continued the secret meetings in Southwark where the Pilgrims had held meetings in planning their trip to America.
John Lothrop was about 20 years younger than Jacobs. He was confirmed by the congregation as Pastor over this remnant church in 1625. Like the Pilgrims before them, they had to hold their meetings in secret, and in their case, this meant meeting in the homes of the covenant members. William Laud, Bishop of London, made it his goal to arrest those who met in secret. So it was that Lothrop and his congregation were arrested and brought before the Court in 1632. The Court of High Commissions stated that, “This day were brought to the court out of prison diverse persons which were taken on Sunday last at a conventicle…”
The congregation was told, “You show yourselves to be unthankful to God, to the King and to the Church of England, that when, God be praised, through his Majesties care and ours that you have preaching in every church, and men have liberty to join in prayer and participation in the sacraments and have catechizing to enlighten you, you in an unthankful manner cast off all this yoke, and in private unlawfully assemble yourselves together… you are desperately heretical.” The entire congregation of about 35 or 40 refused to sign the oath to the King and thus were returned to prison. Several, including Lothrop, spent almost two years there. Finally, Lothrop and about 30 departed for America in 1634. They first settled in Scituate and were soon joined by Isaac Robinson from Plymouth, who had arrived in the new world in 1631, the 5th child of John and Bridget. Isaac had probably grown up hearing about Henry Jacobs and this church from his Dad who shepherded the Pilgrim Church.
The Pilgrim separatists are considered pioneers of religious liberty (or the jurisdictional separation of church and state where one does not have to be a member of the church in order to vote for civil officers). They now had another church close to them patterned after their form of government. The Barnstable congregation held their first church service, with the sacraments, near a large rock in 1639. It became known as Sacrament Rock, or Pulpit Rock. When it was split apart to build a jail years later, the fragments were joined together so that Barnstable (named after Barnstaple, England) could have its rock of remembrance similar to what the Pilgrims have on the shores of Plymouth.
Pastors Thomas Walley and Jonathan Russell, Sr. continued the legacy of this covenanted group of believers in Barnstable. By 1685, it was reported that nearly 1,000 native converts had come to Christ! In addition, Jonathan Russell Sr. and Jonathan Rusell Jr., baptized 1,015 people from 1683 to 1759 and added 427 members to the church! A new Meetinghouse was begun in 1717 and completed by 1719. By 1723 they had to expand the building! Like so many New England towns, the town meetings were also held in the church and discussions about taxation, religious freedom and the proper role of church and state were held there as well!
Consider the fruit of this church. Here is the Pilgrim twin congregation, settled in Barnstable, who initially sends out Isaac Robinson in 1660 who founds the town of Falmouth. He then stands up for the rights of Quakers and their religious liberty against those who wish to retain the power of English style church government. Isaac would then move to Martha’s Vineyard in 1670 where he served as selectmen for almost three decades! He returns to his daughter, Fear, in Barnstable and dies at 90 in 1701.
Pastor Jonathan Russel, Jr., like other clergy at the time, catechized youth within his congregation. His close friend, James Otis, Sr. had a son also named James. He was tutored and trained well. His younger sister, Mercy, insisted on being included. The two of them became famous as defenders of both religious and civil liberty. James was known as the “Orator of the Revolution” in the North. His Writs of Assistance speech at the Old State House in 1761 so moved a young John Adams that he wrote, “This day the child Independence was born.” Mercy (who married James Warren of Plymouth) became the contemporary historian of the Revolution whose books were purchased by Thomas Jefferson in 1803. A tiny church, born under persecution, crossed the ocean and planted the town of Barnstable. Developed in the midst of revival, her fruit extended generationally and helped birth the nation! Never forget that the womb of religious and civil liberty begins with a people obedient to the Word of God and willing to let their light shine through service in their community! | <urn:uuid:bcfc2f45-3732-4478-b0b3-21917e089301> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://plymrock.org/henry-jacobs-and-the-founding-of-barnstable/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00446.warc.gz | en | 0.987465 | 1,522 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.14183877408504... | 11 | It was November 21 in the year 1581 when 18 year old Henry Jacobs entered St. Mary Hall in Oxford. Not much is known about his childhood or adult life until 1596 when he began to write about separatism and breaking with the Church of England. The important thing to note is that all those in England who began to study the Scriptures and discuss ideas at this time of how God intended His people to worship, govern, and apply the Scriptures came into eventual conflict with King James I who put himself as Head of the Church and State. Whenever power concentrates, religious and civil liberty are restricted and the free flow of ideas that is the lifeblood of a culture is threatened with punishments and persecution.Henry wrote tracts and petitions to Queen Elizabeth, and then King James, criticizing their concentration of power and particularly desiring for the Church of England to make reforms that were more Scriptural. One such petition had the title To Abolish the Anti-Christian Prelacy which criticized the hierarchy of bishops who controlled the local churches on behalf of the King. King James responded, “No Bishop, No King.” In other words, a loss of bishops would mean a loss of his power. No wonder Jacobs was imprisoned. However, upon his release in 1610, he fled to Leiden, Holland and there resided with the Pilgrim Church under the leadership of John Robinson.
After spending time with the Pilgrim Church in Holland, he wrote that he now agreed with Robinson that “a visible church was constituted by free mutual consent of believers joining and covenanting to live as members of a holy society, and that such a church should elect its ministers, elders, deacons, and the congregation should be governed by it’s officers.” It is one thing to separate from the Church of England due to its errors and control, but it is quite another to be clear about what you are separating to. It was Robinson’s influence that gave Henry Jacobs a clear vision in this regard.
Henry and the congregation that joined him in London upon his return paid a dear price for their covenant. Any church meeting held outside the English Church was called a Conventicle and was deemed illegal. They were defined by those in authority as secret meetings to hear unlicensed preaching. He continued about six years, and then went to Virginia and formed a settlement named after him called Jacobopolis. Upon his return to England, he died in 1624. But good ideas rooted in Scripture do not die when the founder does, and so it was that John Lothrop picked up the torch and continued the secret meetings in Southwark where the Pilgrims had held meetings in planning their trip to America.
John Lothrop was about 20 years younger than Jacobs. He was confirmed by the congregation as Pastor over this remnant church in 1625. Like the Pilgrims before them, they had to hold their meetings in secret, and in their case, this meant meeting in the homes of the covenant members. William Laud, Bishop of London, made it his goal to arrest those who met in secret. So it was that Lothrop and his congregation were arrested and brought before the Court in 1632. The Court of High Commissions stated that, “This day were brought to the court out of prison diverse persons which were taken on Sunday last at a conventicle…”
The congregation was told, “You show yourselves to be unthankful to God, to the King and to the Church of England, that when, God be praised, through his Majesties care and ours that you have preaching in every church, and men have liberty to join in prayer and participation in the sacraments and have catechizing to enlighten you, you in an unthankful manner cast off all this yoke, and in private unlawfully assemble yourselves together… you are desperately heretical.” The entire congregation of about 35 or 40 refused to sign the oath to the King and thus were returned to prison. Several, including Lothrop, spent almost two years there. Finally, Lothrop and about 30 departed for America in 1634. They first settled in Scituate and were soon joined by Isaac Robinson from Plymouth, who had arrived in the new world in 1631, the 5th child of John and Bridget. Isaac had probably grown up hearing about Henry Jacobs and this church from his Dad who shepherded the Pilgrim Church.
The Pilgrim separatists are considered pioneers of religious liberty (or the jurisdictional separation of church and state where one does not have to be a member of the church in order to vote for civil officers). They now had another church close to them patterned after their form of government. The Barnstable congregation held their first church service, with the sacraments, near a large rock in 1639. It became known as Sacrament Rock, or Pulpit Rock. When it was split apart to build a jail years later, the fragments were joined together so that Barnstable (named after Barnstaple, England) could have its rock of remembrance similar to what the Pilgrims have on the shores of Plymouth.
Pastors Thomas Walley and Jonathan Russell, Sr. continued the legacy of this covenanted group of believers in Barnstable. By 1685, it was reported that nearly 1,000 native converts had come to Christ! In addition, Jonathan Russell Sr. and Jonathan Rusell Jr., baptized 1,015 people from 1683 to 1759 and added 427 members to the church! A new Meetinghouse was begun in 1717 and completed by 1719. By 1723 they had to expand the building! Like so many New England towns, the town meetings were also held in the church and discussions about taxation, religious freedom and the proper role of church and state were held there as well!
Consider the fruit of this church. Here is the Pilgrim twin congregation, settled in Barnstable, who initially sends out Isaac Robinson in 1660 who founds the town of Falmouth. He then stands up for the rights of Quakers and their religious liberty against those who wish to retain the power of English style church government. Isaac would then move to Martha’s Vineyard in 1670 where he served as selectmen for almost three decades! He returns to his daughter, Fear, in Barnstable and dies at 90 in 1701.
Pastor Jonathan Russel, Jr., like other clergy at the time, catechized youth within his congregation. His close friend, James Otis, Sr. had a son also named James. He was tutored and trained well. His younger sister, Mercy, insisted on being included. The two of them became famous as defenders of both religious and civil liberty. James was known as the “Orator of the Revolution” in the North. His Writs of Assistance speech at the Old State House in 1761 so moved a young John Adams that he wrote, “This day the child Independence was born.” Mercy (who married James Warren of Plymouth) became the contemporary historian of the Revolution whose books were purchased by Thomas Jefferson in 1803. A tiny church, born under persecution, crossed the ocean and planted the town of Barnstable. Developed in the midst of revival, her fruit extended generationally and helped birth the nation! Never forget that the womb of religious and civil liberty begins with a people obedient to the Word of God and willing to let their light shine through service in their community! | 1,584 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Florence Nightingale: Saving lives with statistics
Busting the myth
Florence Nightingale was so much more than a lady with a lamp. The legend of the saintly nurse has long obscured the truth – that her mathematical genius was what really saved so many lives.
Her ambition led her into the hellish world of Crimean warfare and, as a result, on a journey that would transform nursing and hospitals in Britain.
A gifted child
Florence was named after the Italian city of her birth. She grew up on picturesque English country estates with her elder sister, Parthenope.
Her upper middle class upbringing included an extensive home education from Florence’s father, who taught his daughters classics, philosophy and modern languages. Florence excelled in mathematics and science. Her love of recording and organising information was clear from an early age – she documented her extensive shell collection with precisely drawn tables and lists.
Florence hears God
The Nightingales took their daughters on a tour of Europe, a custom intended to educate and refine gentlewomen in the 19th century.
But Florence's unconventional character continued to develop, as entries from her diary of the trip show. She recorded detailed notes of population statistics, hospitals and other charitable institutions. In spite of her mother's disapproval, she later received further tuition in mathematics. Yet her biggest rebellion was still to come. In 1837, she became convinced God had 'called' her to his service but her parents were horrified when she revealed what she thought the service should be...
Florence was an eligible young woman – intelligent, striking and wealthy. Proposals were sure to come her way, but Florence had a proposal of her own.
Her family expected her to marry well but the prospect of a life of domesticity left Florence cold. By 1844, she had decided nursing was her calling. She proposed training in Salisbury, but her parents refused. They thought nursing was lowly, immodest work done by the poor or servants, completely unsuitable for a woman of Florence’s social standing. Florence, however, persevered. In 1849, after a long courtship, she even declined a proposal of marriage, believing her destiny lay outside wedlock.
Nothing could sway Florence from her mission to nurse. She defied her parents' wishes and continued to visit hospitals in Paris, Rome and London.
In 1850, realising his daughter was unlikely to marry, Florence’s father finally relented and allowed her to train as a nurse in Germany. Parthenope struggled to accept her sister’s hard-won independence and suffered a nervous breakdown in 1852. This forced Florence to return and care for her. But in August 1853, the breakthrough finally came: Florence became superintendent at a women's hospital in Harley Street. After nearly a decade, she had realised her ambition of becoming a nurse.
The Crimea calls
The Crimean War broke out in 1853. Newspaper reports from the front line told horror stories of the appalling conditions in British army hospitals.
Sidney Herbert, Secretary of State at War, knew Florence well. He appointed her to take 38 nurses to the military hospital in Scutari, Turkey. It was the first time women had been allowed to officially serve in the army. When she arrived, the Barrack Hospital was filthy – the floor was an inch thick with faeces. She set her nurses to work cleaning the hospital and ensured soldiers were properly fed and clothed. The regular troops were, for the first time, being treated with decency and respect.
The death toll rises
Florence’s best efforts to combat the rising death toll failed. It kept increasing relentlessly, with over four thousand deaths in a single winter.
Although she had made the hospital more efficient, it was no less deadly. In the spring of 1855, the British government sent out a Sanitary Commission to investigate the conditions at Scutari. It discovered the Barrack Hospital was built on a sewer, meaning patients were drinking contaminated water. The hospital, along with other British army hospitals, was flushed out and ventilation improved. Consequently, the death rate began to fall.
The lady of the lamp hits the big time
When a portrait of Florence carrying a lamp and tending to patients appeared in the press, she quickly gained an army of die-hard Florence fans.
Her work in Scutari improving the living conditions of soldiers in hospitals was hailed by both the press and the public. Her family had to wade through a steady stream of poems posted to Florence – the Victorian equivalent of fan mail – and images of 'the lady of the lamp' were printed on bags, mats and souvenirs. But Florence was wary of her celebrity. Although she returned home a heroine, she kept a low profile by travelling under a pseudonym – Miss Smith.
Florence gets to work
It wasn't until after she had processed all she had learned at Scutari, that Florence used her fame as a powerful weapon in her mission to save lives.
Haunted by the appalling loss of life, Florence met with one of her biggest fans, Queen Victoria. With her backing, she persuaded the government to set up a Royal Commission into the health of the army. Leading statistician William Farr and John Sutherland of the Sanitary Commission helped her analyse vast amounts of complex army data. The truth she uncovered was shocking – 16,000 of the 18,000 deaths were not due to battle wounds but to preventable diseases, spread by poor sanitation.
Florence reveals the truth
Florence knew her talent for statistics wouldn't be enough to ensure her report hit home. It was time to prove her mastery of communication as well.
Rather than lists or tables, she represented the death toll in a revolutionary way. Her ‘rose diagram’ showed a sharp decrease in fatalities following the work of the Sanitary Commission – it fell by 99% in a single year. The diagram was so easy to understand it was widely republished and the public understood the army’s failings and the urgent need for change. In light of Florence’s work, new army medical, sanitary science and statistics departments were established to improve healthcare.
Healthcare for everyone
Florence was ill but wealthy – she could afford to pay for private healthcare. But she knew most people in Victorian Britain couldn't do the same.
Impoverished people could only care for one another. Florence's Notes on Nursing aimed to educate people about ways to care for sick relatives and neighbours, but she still wanted to help the very poorest in society. She sent trained nurses into workhouses to help treat the needy. This attempt to make medical care readily available to everyone, regardless of their class or income, served as an early precursor to the National Health Service.
Florence takes the fight to India
Florence had been involved in improving the health of the British army in India since her experiences in Scutari.
By the 1880s, scientific knowledge had advanced to further support her reforming ideas. Like many medical practitioners, she now accepted germ theory, and so emphasised the need for uncontaminated water supplies for people in India. Still collecting data, she campaigned for famine relief and improved sanitary conditions to combat a high death toll that she believed was caused by conditions akin to those she’d witnessed in Scutari. Florence received reports from India until 1906.
Before Florence died at the age of 90, she became the first woman to be awarded the Order of Merit.
The headstrong girl with a well-documented shell collection had achieved so much, in field once deemed unsuitable for women of her class. Often a lone female voice appealing to the Victorian establishment, her skill for communication and mathematics helped overhaul army and civilian healthcare and saved thousands from a gruesome death. She shrewdly used her public mandate to urge governments into action, enshrining sanitation and personal well-being in our healthcare culture. | <urn:uuid:63565d6f-5596-4941-a4f7-408c396597aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/florence-nightingale-saving-lives-with-statistics/zjksmfr | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00486.warc.gz | en | 0.980435 | 1,635 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.121281675994... | 2 | Florence Nightingale: Saving lives with statistics
Busting the myth
Florence Nightingale was so much more than a lady with a lamp. The legend of the saintly nurse has long obscured the truth – that her mathematical genius was what really saved so many lives.
Her ambition led her into the hellish world of Crimean warfare and, as a result, on a journey that would transform nursing and hospitals in Britain.
A gifted child
Florence was named after the Italian city of her birth. She grew up on picturesque English country estates with her elder sister, Parthenope.
Her upper middle class upbringing included an extensive home education from Florence’s father, who taught his daughters classics, philosophy and modern languages. Florence excelled in mathematics and science. Her love of recording and organising information was clear from an early age – she documented her extensive shell collection with precisely drawn tables and lists.
Florence hears God
The Nightingales took their daughters on a tour of Europe, a custom intended to educate and refine gentlewomen in the 19th century.
But Florence's unconventional character continued to develop, as entries from her diary of the trip show. She recorded detailed notes of population statistics, hospitals and other charitable institutions. In spite of her mother's disapproval, she later received further tuition in mathematics. Yet her biggest rebellion was still to come. In 1837, she became convinced God had 'called' her to his service but her parents were horrified when she revealed what she thought the service should be...
Florence was an eligible young woman – intelligent, striking and wealthy. Proposals were sure to come her way, but Florence had a proposal of her own.
Her family expected her to marry well but the prospect of a life of domesticity left Florence cold. By 1844, she had decided nursing was her calling. She proposed training in Salisbury, but her parents refused. They thought nursing was lowly, immodest work done by the poor or servants, completely unsuitable for a woman of Florence’s social standing. Florence, however, persevered. In 1849, after a long courtship, she even declined a proposal of marriage, believing her destiny lay outside wedlock.
Nothing could sway Florence from her mission to nurse. She defied her parents' wishes and continued to visit hospitals in Paris, Rome and London.
In 1850, realising his daughter was unlikely to marry, Florence’s father finally relented and allowed her to train as a nurse in Germany. Parthenope struggled to accept her sister’s hard-won independence and suffered a nervous breakdown in 1852. This forced Florence to return and care for her. But in August 1853, the breakthrough finally came: Florence became superintendent at a women's hospital in Harley Street. After nearly a decade, she had realised her ambition of becoming a nurse.
The Crimea calls
The Crimean War broke out in 1853. Newspaper reports from the front line told horror stories of the appalling conditions in British army hospitals.
Sidney Herbert, Secretary of State at War, knew Florence well. He appointed her to take 38 nurses to the military hospital in Scutari, Turkey. It was the first time women had been allowed to officially serve in the army. When she arrived, the Barrack Hospital was filthy – the floor was an inch thick with faeces. She set her nurses to work cleaning the hospital and ensured soldiers were properly fed and clothed. The regular troops were, for the first time, being treated with decency and respect.
The death toll rises
Florence’s best efforts to combat the rising death toll failed. It kept increasing relentlessly, with over four thousand deaths in a single winter.
Although she had made the hospital more efficient, it was no less deadly. In the spring of 1855, the British government sent out a Sanitary Commission to investigate the conditions at Scutari. It discovered the Barrack Hospital was built on a sewer, meaning patients were drinking contaminated water. The hospital, along with other British army hospitals, was flushed out and ventilation improved. Consequently, the death rate began to fall.
The lady of the lamp hits the big time
When a portrait of Florence carrying a lamp and tending to patients appeared in the press, she quickly gained an army of die-hard Florence fans.
Her work in Scutari improving the living conditions of soldiers in hospitals was hailed by both the press and the public. Her family had to wade through a steady stream of poems posted to Florence – the Victorian equivalent of fan mail – and images of 'the lady of the lamp' were printed on bags, mats and souvenirs. But Florence was wary of her celebrity. Although she returned home a heroine, she kept a low profile by travelling under a pseudonym – Miss Smith.
Florence gets to work
It wasn't until after she had processed all she had learned at Scutari, that Florence used her fame as a powerful weapon in her mission to save lives.
Haunted by the appalling loss of life, Florence met with one of her biggest fans, Queen Victoria. With her backing, she persuaded the government to set up a Royal Commission into the health of the army. Leading statistician William Farr and John Sutherland of the Sanitary Commission helped her analyse vast amounts of complex army data. The truth she uncovered was shocking – 16,000 of the 18,000 deaths were not due to battle wounds but to preventable diseases, spread by poor sanitation.
Florence reveals the truth
Florence knew her talent for statistics wouldn't be enough to ensure her report hit home. It was time to prove her mastery of communication as well.
Rather than lists or tables, she represented the death toll in a revolutionary way. Her ‘rose diagram’ showed a sharp decrease in fatalities following the work of the Sanitary Commission – it fell by 99% in a single year. The diagram was so easy to understand it was widely republished and the public understood the army’s failings and the urgent need for change. In light of Florence’s work, new army medical, sanitary science and statistics departments were established to improve healthcare.
Healthcare for everyone
Florence was ill but wealthy – she could afford to pay for private healthcare. But she knew most people in Victorian Britain couldn't do the same.
Impoverished people could only care for one another. Florence's Notes on Nursing aimed to educate people about ways to care for sick relatives and neighbours, but she still wanted to help the very poorest in society. She sent trained nurses into workhouses to help treat the needy. This attempt to make medical care readily available to everyone, regardless of their class or income, served as an early precursor to the National Health Service.
Florence takes the fight to India
Florence had been involved in improving the health of the British army in India since her experiences in Scutari.
By the 1880s, scientific knowledge had advanced to further support her reforming ideas. Like many medical practitioners, she now accepted germ theory, and so emphasised the need for uncontaminated water supplies for people in India. Still collecting data, she campaigned for famine relief and improved sanitary conditions to combat a high death toll that she believed was caused by conditions akin to those she’d witnessed in Scutari. Florence received reports from India until 1906.
Before Florence died at the age of 90, she became the first woman to be awarded the Order of Merit.
The headstrong girl with a well-documented shell collection had achieved so much, in field once deemed unsuitable for women of her class. Often a lone female voice appealing to the Victorian establishment, her skill for communication and mathematics helped overhaul army and civilian healthcare and saved thousands from a gruesome death. She shrewdly used her public mandate to urge governments into action, enshrining sanitation and personal well-being in our healthcare culture. | 1,633 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archaeologists have collected over 500 absolutely stunning bone harpoons, some of which are 13,000 years old and may have been used for hunting hippo.
We often hear about the prehistoric people who hunted woolly mammoth, but what about those who once hunted hippo? Over the last five years, archaeologists from the University of Cambridge have been busy excavating around the edges of Kenya’s Lake Turkana. During that time, they have amassed an extraordinary collection of bone harpoons, which range in date from 6,000 to 13,000 years old.
Representing nearly 7,000 years of design, the harpoons are as beautiful as they are varied. Some have barbed points, some have been sharpened into elongated spears, and others are more hook-like. They are carved from a range of materials including bone, ivory and horn. Many have been carefully polished and decorated.
What they all have in common is that they were all discovered around the edge of the lake and, says Dr Alex Wilshaw (a Research Associate on the project), were they were probably used for fishing, and would once been attached to a pole using twine or string, allowing the hunter-fishers to spear their prey and then pull in their catch.
But their catch were no small fry
Some of the bigger and thicker harpoons may have been used to spear some pretty huge species like Nile Perch, which are native to the area and can grow up to two metres long, says Alex. What’s more, some of them may have been used for hunting hippo, which were also common in the area.
The team hope to establish patterns showing how people may have tweaked their designs and the materials they used depending on their prey, and reveal just how creative people were with their technology. Since some of the harpoons also look as if they have been polished, the team hope that residue analysis may even be able reveal what people were using to care for their tools.
Together, says Alex, the harpoons can provide a spatial and temporal cross-section of prehistoric life in the area, and tell us how hunting technology changed. And by looking at the harpoons in more detail along with other evidence, they hope to find clues about the many different populations who lived by the lake as water levels rose and fell over a period of nearly 10,000 years. We can’t wait to hear more.
Support great archaeology
DigVentures crowdfunds archaeological projects that everyone can be part of, in the UK and overseas. With help from people all over the world, we investigate the past and publish our discoveries online for free. Support one of our digs and you can choose to excavate alongside our team, or watch our discoveries online! | <urn:uuid:024a0c03-9511-43ad-857b-e65aa56567d2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://digventures.com/2017/02/found-beautiful-bone-harpoons-from-13000-years-ago/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.98319 | 565 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.39365684986114... | 1 | Archaeologists have collected over 500 absolutely stunning bone harpoons, some of which are 13,000 years old and may have been used for hunting hippo.
We often hear about the prehistoric people who hunted woolly mammoth, but what about those who once hunted hippo? Over the last five years, archaeologists from the University of Cambridge have been busy excavating around the edges of Kenya’s Lake Turkana. During that time, they have amassed an extraordinary collection of bone harpoons, which range in date from 6,000 to 13,000 years old.
Representing nearly 7,000 years of design, the harpoons are as beautiful as they are varied. Some have barbed points, some have been sharpened into elongated spears, and others are more hook-like. They are carved from a range of materials including bone, ivory and horn. Many have been carefully polished and decorated.
What they all have in common is that they were all discovered around the edge of the lake and, says Dr Alex Wilshaw (a Research Associate on the project), were they were probably used for fishing, and would once been attached to a pole using twine or string, allowing the hunter-fishers to spear their prey and then pull in their catch.
But their catch were no small fry
Some of the bigger and thicker harpoons may have been used to spear some pretty huge species like Nile Perch, which are native to the area and can grow up to two metres long, says Alex. What’s more, some of them may have been used for hunting hippo, which were also common in the area.
The team hope to establish patterns showing how people may have tweaked their designs and the materials they used depending on their prey, and reveal just how creative people were with their technology. Since some of the harpoons also look as if they have been polished, the team hope that residue analysis may even be able reveal what people were using to care for their tools.
Together, says Alex, the harpoons can provide a spatial and temporal cross-section of prehistoric life in the area, and tell us how hunting technology changed. And by looking at the harpoons in more detail along with other evidence, they hope to find clues about the many different populations who lived by the lake as water levels rose and fell over a period of nearly 10,000 years. We can’t wait to hear more.
Support great archaeology
DigVentures crowdfunds archaeological projects that everyone can be part of, in the UK and overseas. With help from people all over the world, we investigate the past and publish our discoveries online for free. Support one of our digs and you can choose to excavate alongside our team, or watch our discoveries online! | 575 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Cause Of The Great Depression Essay
The Cause Of The Great Depression Essay, Research Paper The economic expansion of the 1920?s, with its increased production of goods and high profits, culminated in immense consumer speculation that collapsed with disastrous results in 1929 causing America?s Great Depression. There were a number or contributing factors to the depression, with the largest and most important one being a general loss of confidence in the American economy. The reason it escalated was a general misunderstanding of recessions by American policymakers of the time. The U.S. economy was booming in the 1920?s. Stocks prices soared, as they were bought on margin for as little as 10% down. Market speculation is cyclical-that is, if one stock appears profitable, you buy it, which causes the price to rise and others to buy as well. However, the economy was not stable. National wealth was not distributed evenly. Instead, most money was in the hands of a few families who saved or invested rather than spent their money on American goods. Thus, supply was greater than demand, and some people profited, but others did not. As such, the bubble had to inevitably burst, since the stock market boom was very unsteady and people borrowed money on false optimism. Black Tuesday in 1929 was that bubble burster. In the summer of 1929, a few stock market investors began selling their stock. They predicted that the bull market might end soon, leaving them in debt. Seeing these few investors begin to sell, others soon followed to minimize their losses, creating a domino effect, which exacerbated the situation. Regardless of the governments attempt to place the modern equivalent of tens of billions of dollars into certain banks, the liquidation continued, as folks wanted out quickly at whatever cost. Many people lost as much as ten times their initial investment, which shook consumer confidence. In an effort to cover their margins, people rushed the banks in masses, demanding their money. Soon, banks began to run out of cash and went bust. With the economy falling in shambles and companies defaulting on loans, nearly all private and corporate investment ceased. Companies couldn?t afford to expand, and in fact, many had to consolidate in order to cover the margins on their loans. This meant postponing hiring and laying workers off, which caused unemployment to skyrocket. With people now willing to work for less money, wages lessened too. At the same time prices rose in an attempt by companies to make some amount of profit off the goods. Because the governments? prevailing economic theory was based on laissez-faire economics, the government believed that recessions were self-correcting. Eventually unemployment and inflation stopped declining, but not before the U.S. lost 1/3 of it?s output and 25% of the workforce was unemployed. In the end, it was World War II that brought us out of the Great Depression. With war at hand, the government began pumping massive amounts of money into the economy. Production and inflation increased. More jobs were available and wages rose. At the war?s end there was a brief recession while the economy reacted to a loss of the money the government had been pumping in, but the big picture demonstrated American optimism for victory was high, and as such the faith of Americans in their country followed their increased patriotism. The market had finally corrected. | <urn:uuid:dc017548-2e8d-49f6-85ac-c174d693a636> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://referat.ru/referat/the-cause-of-the-great-depression-essay-460428 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.98345 | 681 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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The Cause Of The Great Depression Essay, Research Paper The economic expansion of the 1920?s, with its increased production of goods and high profits, culminated in immense consumer speculation that collapsed with disastrous results in 1929 causing America?s Great Depression. There were a number or contributing factors to the depression, with the largest and most important one being a general loss of confidence in the American economy. The reason it escalated was a general misunderstanding of recessions by American policymakers of the time. The U.S. economy was booming in the 1920?s. Stocks prices soared, as they were bought on margin for as little as 10% down. Market speculation is cyclical-that is, if one stock appears profitable, you buy it, which causes the price to rise and others to buy as well. However, the economy was not stable. National wealth was not distributed evenly. Instead, most money was in the hands of a few families who saved or invested rather than spent their money on American goods. Thus, supply was greater than demand, and some people profited, but others did not. As such, the bubble had to inevitably burst, since the stock market boom was very unsteady and people borrowed money on false optimism. Black Tuesday in 1929 was that bubble burster. In the summer of 1929, a few stock market investors began selling their stock. They predicted that the bull market might end soon, leaving them in debt. Seeing these few investors begin to sell, others soon followed to minimize their losses, creating a domino effect, which exacerbated the situation. Regardless of the governments attempt to place the modern equivalent of tens of billions of dollars into certain banks, the liquidation continued, as folks wanted out quickly at whatever cost. Many people lost as much as ten times their initial investment, which shook consumer confidence. In an effort to cover their margins, people rushed the banks in masses, demanding their money. Soon, banks began to run out of cash and went bust. With the economy falling in shambles and companies defaulting on loans, nearly all private and corporate investment ceased. Companies couldn?t afford to expand, and in fact, many had to consolidate in order to cover the margins on their loans. This meant postponing hiring and laying workers off, which caused unemployment to skyrocket. With people now willing to work for less money, wages lessened too. At the same time prices rose in an attempt by companies to make some amount of profit off the goods. Because the governments? prevailing economic theory was based on laissez-faire economics, the government believed that recessions were self-correcting. Eventually unemployment and inflation stopped declining, but not before the U.S. lost 1/3 of it?s output and 25% of the workforce was unemployed. In the end, it was World War II that brought us out of the Great Depression. With war at hand, the government began pumping massive amounts of money into the economy. Production and inflation increased. More jobs were available and wages rose. At the war?s end there was a brief recession while the economy reacted to a loss of the money the government had been pumping in, but the big picture demonstrated American optimism for victory was high, and as such the faith of Americans in their country followed their increased patriotism. The market had finally corrected. | 692 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Volcano sent forth on the eruption.
- Shocks of the earthquake.
- Heavy shower of ashes, every object was seen to be covered with a crust.
- What Pliny told about the city of Pompeii? Conclusion.
Two thousand years ago, men thought that the volcano of Vesuvius, near the modern city of Napoles in Italy, was extinct. The fine city of Pompei had been on the sides of the mountain and was a favorite resort of wealthy romans. On the 24th of August in the year 79 A.D. the volcano sent forth an eruption which completely buried the city, so that for many years men had forgotten that it was there. This is description, translated from a letter written by Pliny, a great Roman writer. He wrote in Latin, of course, and was writing from Misenum, a town twenty miles distant from the volcano of Vesuvius.
That night my sleep was greatly broken by shocks of an earthquake; but now they were so violent as to threaten total ruin. At last my mother and I went out of the house. The buildings all around us were shaking, and we resolved to quit the town. The people followed us in a panic, and pressed in great crowds around us.
Our chariots swayed so violently that we could not keep them steady, even by supporting them with large stones; the sea seemed to be rolled back from the shore by the trembling of the earth. On the other side of the bay, a black and terrible cloud descended and covered the ocean.
“Ashes now began to fall upon us. Turning my head, I saw behind us a dense cloud which came rolling in our track like a river in flood. In a few moments we were in darkness-not the darkness of a cloudy day, but of a close shut chamber.
“Then a heavy shower of ashes rained upon us, which we were obliged every now and then to shake off, or else we should have been covered up and buried. After a while this dreadful darkness gradually disappeared; the day returned, and with it the sun, though very faintly. Every object was seen to be covered with a crust of white ashes like a deep layer of snow.”
What a terrible day it must have been in the city of Pompei! The buried city, of which Pliny told us in his old letter nearly nineteen hundred years ago, lay forgotten, under the ground for over sixteen hundred years. Then men started to dig it out, and now the ashes and the hardened lava have been cleared away, and the Roman city can be seen as it was then. Men and women were found still at the dinner table. A Roman soldier, who had been a sentinel over a place of importance, had died still at his post, refusing to seek safety and desert his duty! What a page from history! | <urn:uuid:b199924e-0a2e-447e-840f-1c280d2d8797> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thecollegestudy.net/2015/08/paragraph-on-the-effects-of-a-volcanic-eruption.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00497.warc.gz | en | 0.986969 | 588 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.41425162553... | 8 | - Volcano sent forth on the eruption.
- Shocks of the earthquake.
- Heavy shower of ashes, every object was seen to be covered with a crust.
- What Pliny told about the city of Pompeii? Conclusion.
Two thousand years ago, men thought that the volcano of Vesuvius, near the modern city of Napoles in Italy, was extinct. The fine city of Pompei had been on the sides of the mountain and was a favorite resort of wealthy romans. On the 24th of August in the year 79 A.D. the volcano sent forth an eruption which completely buried the city, so that for many years men had forgotten that it was there. This is description, translated from a letter written by Pliny, a great Roman writer. He wrote in Latin, of course, and was writing from Misenum, a town twenty miles distant from the volcano of Vesuvius.
That night my sleep was greatly broken by shocks of an earthquake; but now they were so violent as to threaten total ruin. At last my mother and I went out of the house. The buildings all around us were shaking, and we resolved to quit the town. The people followed us in a panic, and pressed in great crowds around us.
Our chariots swayed so violently that we could not keep them steady, even by supporting them with large stones; the sea seemed to be rolled back from the shore by the trembling of the earth. On the other side of the bay, a black and terrible cloud descended and covered the ocean.
“Ashes now began to fall upon us. Turning my head, I saw behind us a dense cloud which came rolling in our track like a river in flood. In a few moments we were in darkness-not the darkness of a cloudy day, but of a close shut chamber.
“Then a heavy shower of ashes rained upon us, which we were obliged every now and then to shake off, or else we should have been covered up and buried. After a while this dreadful darkness gradually disappeared; the day returned, and with it the sun, though very faintly. Every object was seen to be covered with a crust of white ashes like a deep layer of snow.”
What a terrible day it must have been in the city of Pompei! The buried city, of which Pliny told us in his old letter nearly nineteen hundred years ago, lay forgotten, under the ground for over sixteen hundred years. Then men started to dig it out, and now the ashes and the hardened lava have been cleared away, and the Roman city can be seen as it was then. Men and women were found still at the dinner table. A Roman soldier, who had been a sentinel over a place of importance, had died still at his post, refusing to seek safety and desert his duty! What a page from history! | 579 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Roman Law was the law that was in effect throughout the age of antiquity in the City of Rome and later in the Roman Empire. When Roman rule over Europe came to an end, Roman law was largely--though not completely--forgotten. (Ancient Rome, Compton's 96) The earliest code of Roman Law was the Law of the Twelve Tables. It was formalized in 451-450BC from existing oral law by ten magistrates, called decemvirs, and inscribed on tablets of bronze, which were posted in the principal Roman Forum. According to tradition, the code was drawn up to appease the plebes, who maintained that their liberties were not adequately protected by the unwritten law as interpreted by patrician judges. (Ancient Rome, Compton's 96) Originally ten tablets of laws were inscribed; two more tablets were added the following year. The tablets were destroyed in the sack of Rome by the Gauls in 390BC, but a number of the laws are known through references in later Latin literature. The Twelve Tables covered al!.
l categories of the law and also included specific penalties for various infractions. The code underwent frequent changes but remained in effect for almost 1000 years. In the 6th century a commission appointed by the Roman emperor Justinian consolidated all the sources of law, resulting in the Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of Civil Law). The Corpus Juris had no immediate effect in Western Europe, but in the second half of the 11th century it was rediscovered in Italy. The study of law based on the Corpus Juris was instituted at European universities, and the Corpus Juris became an important part of Continental law. (Ancient Rome, Compton's 96) Combined with canon law and the customs of merchants, they formed a body of law known throughout continental Europe. During the 17th and 18th centuries the authority of the Corpus Juris began to decline as it was reexamined. The stage was set for the codification of modern civil law. | <urn:uuid:04cdedb0-a92a-4607-9a3b-2b90f0fe36c0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/79747.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.983532 | 401 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.28768807649... | 3 | Roman Law was the law that was in effect throughout the age of antiquity in the City of Rome and later in the Roman Empire. When Roman rule over Europe came to an end, Roman law was largely--though not completely--forgotten. (Ancient Rome, Compton's 96) The earliest code of Roman Law was the Law of the Twelve Tables. It was formalized in 451-450BC from existing oral law by ten magistrates, called decemvirs, and inscribed on tablets of bronze, which were posted in the principal Roman Forum. According to tradition, the code was drawn up to appease the plebes, who maintained that their liberties were not adequately protected by the unwritten law as interpreted by patrician judges. (Ancient Rome, Compton's 96) Originally ten tablets of laws were inscribed; two more tablets were added the following year. The tablets were destroyed in the sack of Rome by the Gauls in 390BC, but a number of the laws are known through references in later Latin literature. The Twelve Tables covered al!.
l categories of the law and also included specific penalties for various infractions. The code underwent frequent changes but remained in effect for almost 1000 years. In the 6th century a commission appointed by the Roman emperor Justinian consolidated all the sources of law, resulting in the Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of Civil Law). The Corpus Juris had no immediate effect in Western Europe, but in the second half of the 11th century it was rediscovered in Italy. The study of law based on the Corpus Juris was instituted at European universities, and the Corpus Juris became an important part of Continental law. (Ancient Rome, Compton's 96) Combined with canon law and the customs of merchants, they formed a body of law known throughout continental Europe. During the 17th and 18th centuries the authority of the Corpus Juris began to decline as it was reexamined. The stage was set for the codification of modern civil law. | 435 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Eugene Aram, (born c. September 1704, Ramsgill, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Aug. 6, 1759, York, Yorkshire), noted English scholar and murderer, whose notoriety was romanticized in a ballad by Thomas Hood and in the novel Eugene Aram (1832), by Bulwer-Lytton.
In 1745, when Aram was schoolmaster at Knaresborough, a man named Daniel Clark, his intimate friend, after obtaining a considerable quantity of goods from tradesmen, disappeared. Suspicions of being concerned in this swindling transaction fell upon Aram. His garden was searched, and some of the goods were found there. However, because there was insufficient evidence to convict him of any crime, he was discharged. For several years he traveled through parts of England, acting as usher in a number of schools, and settled finally at Lynn, in Norfolk. During his travels he had amassed considerable material for a projected comparative lexicon of the English, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Celtic languages. He was undoubtedly an original philologist, who recognized what was then not yet admitted by scholars, that the Celtic language was related to the other languages of Europe and that Latin was not derived from Greek. But he was not destined to live in history as the pioneer of a new philology.
In February 1758 a skeleton was dug up at Knaresborough, and some suspicion arose that it might be Clark’s. Aram’s wife had often hinted that her husband and a man named Houseman knew the secret of Clark’s disappearance. Houseman was at once arrested and confronted with the bones that had been found. After denials, he confessed that he had been present at the murder of Clark by Aram and another man, Terry, of whom nothing further was heard. He also gave information as to the place where Clark’s body had been buried. A skeleton was dug up, and Aram was immediately arrested and sent to York for trial. He was found guilty and condemned to be executed. While in his cell he confessed his guilt and asserted that he had discovered an intimacy between Clark and his own wife.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
HomicideHomicide, the killing of one human being by another. Homicide is a general term and may refer to a noncriminal act as well as the criminal act of murder. Some homicides are considered justifiable, such as the killing of a person to prevent the commission of a serious felony or to aid a…
MurderMurder, in criminal law, the unjustified killing of one person by another, usually distinguished from the crime of manslaughter by the element of malice aforethought. See…
CrimeCrime, the intentional commission of an act usually deemed socially harmful or dangerous and specifically defined, prohibited, and punishable under criminal law. Most countries have enacted a criminal code in which all of the criminal law can be found, though English law—the source of many other… | <urn:uuid:84a65053-3f97-4fe3-9f68-b50d9d66c0e6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eugene-Aram-English-scholar | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00497.warc.gz | en | 0.986641 | 651 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.22450244426727... | 1 | Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Eugene Aram, (born c. September 1704, Ramsgill, Yorkshire, Eng.—died Aug. 6, 1759, York, Yorkshire), noted English scholar and murderer, whose notoriety was romanticized in a ballad by Thomas Hood and in the novel Eugene Aram (1832), by Bulwer-Lytton.
In 1745, when Aram was schoolmaster at Knaresborough, a man named Daniel Clark, his intimate friend, after obtaining a considerable quantity of goods from tradesmen, disappeared. Suspicions of being concerned in this swindling transaction fell upon Aram. His garden was searched, and some of the goods were found there. However, because there was insufficient evidence to convict him of any crime, he was discharged. For several years he traveled through parts of England, acting as usher in a number of schools, and settled finally at Lynn, in Norfolk. During his travels he had amassed considerable material for a projected comparative lexicon of the English, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Celtic languages. He was undoubtedly an original philologist, who recognized what was then not yet admitted by scholars, that the Celtic language was related to the other languages of Europe and that Latin was not derived from Greek. But he was not destined to live in history as the pioneer of a new philology.
In February 1758 a skeleton was dug up at Knaresborough, and some suspicion arose that it might be Clark’s. Aram’s wife had often hinted that her husband and a man named Houseman knew the secret of Clark’s disappearance. Houseman was at once arrested and confronted with the bones that had been found. After denials, he confessed that he had been present at the murder of Clark by Aram and another man, Terry, of whom nothing further was heard. He also gave information as to the place where Clark’s body had been buried. A skeleton was dug up, and Aram was immediately arrested and sent to York for trial. He was found guilty and condemned to be executed. While in his cell he confessed his guilt and asserted that he had discovered an intimacy between Clark and his own wife.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
HomicideHomicide, the killing of one human being by another. Homicide is a general term and may refer to a noncriminal act as well as the criminal act of murder. Some homicides are considered justifiable, such as the killing of a person to prevent the commission of a serious felony or to aid a…
MurderMurder, in criminal law, the unjustified killing of one person by another, usually distinguished from the crime of manslaughter by the element of malice aforethought. See…
CrimeCrime, the intentional commission of an act usually deemed socially harmful or dangerous and specifically defined, prohibited, and punishable under criminal law. Most countries have enacted a criminal code in which all of the criminal law can be found, though English law—the source of many other… | 659 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This book achieved its goal by reflecting the past and history of American Slavery. We can see through much detail what America was and has become throughout the era of slavery. It was the Colonial era that America began to see what true slavery would soon become.
The author, Peter Kolchin, tried to interpret the true history of slavery. He wants the readers to understand the depth to which the slaves lived under bondage. In the book, he describes the history of the Colonial era and how slavery began. He shows us how the eighteenth century progressed and how American slavery developed. Then it moves onto the American Revolution, and how the American slaves were born into class. It was this time that slave population was more than twice it had been. The Revolutionary War had a major impact on slavery and on the slaves.
The author goes on to describe antebellum slavery. During this time he describes slavery as a massive expansion. He expresses this knowledge through numbers of slaves and overwhelming facts. At this time cotton boosted the economy of all the slave states, cotton producing or not. Cotton created an intense demand for slave labor and therefore slave prices rose to an all time high. Slave trading was very traumatic for the slaves, being separated from the only thing they knew. Some lived on plantations under a watchful eye and others worked right beside their owners. Slaves on large plantations usually worked in gangs, and there were better positions to work then others. Some gangs were separated into groups of lighter work, consisting of men and woman. Other gangs weren't so lucky and were assigned to hard labor.
The author made a point to explain what slaves had it better than others. He described the life of southern slaves and how they suffered extraordinary amount of pain in their lives. The slaves owners control their live and every possession the slave ever owned. They lived by rules every minute of their lives. The slave owners suppressed many things in a slaves' life. For example, interfering with the naming of the slaves children. The slave owners treated the slaves like animals. The owners would punish slaves for doing wrong mostly by whipping. Those whippings, sometimes a public display, were carried out as a casual affair.
Slavery life wasn't all work. Even as much as the slave owners tried to control their lives, the slaves did create a life of their own behind all the work. The author describes this as an ordinary life yet I don't see it as ordinary at... | <urn:uuid:74b5c161-6685-413b-a5e7-203ca3753077> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/american-slavery-book-review | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00077.warc.gz | en | 0.985001 | 495 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.244854956865... | 1 | This book achieved its goal by reflecting the past and history of American Slavery. We can see through much detail what America was and has become throughout the era of slavery. It was the Colonial era that America began to see what true slavery would soon become.
The author, Peter Kolchin, tried to interpret the true history of slavery. He wants the readers to understand the depth to which the slaves lived under bondage. In the book, he describes the history of the Colonial era and how slavery began. He shows us how the eighteenth century progressed and how American slavery developed. Then it moves onto the American Revolution, and how the American slaves were born into class. It was this time that slave population was more than twice it had been. The Revolutionary War had a major impact on slavery and on the slaves.
The author goes on to describe antebellum slavery. During this time he describes slavery as a massive expansion. He expresses this knowledge through numbers of slaves and overwhelming facts. At this time cotton boosted the economy of all the slave states, cotton producing or not. Cotton created an intense demand for slave labor and therefore slave prices rose to an all time high. Slave trading was very traumatic for the slaves, being separated from the only thing they knew. Some lived on plantations under a watchful eye and others worked right beside their owners. Slaves on large plantations usually worked in gangs, and there were better positions to work then others. Some gangs were separated into groups of lighter work, consisting of men and woman. Other gangs weren't so lucky and were assigned to hard labor.
The author made a point to explain what slaves had it better than others. He described the life of southern slaves and how they suffered extraordinary amount of pain in their lives. The slaves owners control their live and every possession the slave ever owned. They lived by rules every minute of their lives. The slave owners suppressed many things in a slaves' life. For example, interfering with the naming of the slaves children. The slave owners treated the slaves like animals. The owners would punish slaves for doing wrong mostly by whipping. Those whippings, sometimes a public display, were carried out as a casual affair.
Slavery life wasn't all work. Even as much as the slave owners tried to control their lives, the slaves did create a life of their own behind all the work. The author describes this as an ordinary life yet I don't see it as ordinary at... | 494 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Grapes of Wrath is a novel by John Steinbeck that exposes the desperate conditions under which the migratory farming families of America during the 1930’s lived, through a personal approach and heavy symbolism. The novel tells of one family’s migration west to California through the great economic depression of the 1930’s. The bank took possession of their land because the owners could not pay off their loan. The novel shows how the Joad family deals with moving to California, and how they survive the cruelty of the landowners that took advantage of them, their poverty, and willingness to work.
The Grapes of Wrath combines Steinbecks adoration of the land, his passionate hatred for corruption; resulting from materialism (money), and his abiding faith in the common people to overcome the hostile environment. As it opens with a retaining picture of nature on rampage, the novel shows the men and women that are unbroken by nature. The theme is that of a man verses a hostile environment. His body may be destroyed, but his spirit is not broken. The method used to develop the theme of the novel is through the use of symbolism.
There are several uses of symbols in the novel from the turtle at the eginning to the rain at the end. As each symbol is presented, examples of the good and the bad things that exist within the novel are shown. The opening chapter paints a vivid picture of the situation facing the drought-stricken farmers of Oklahoma. Dust is described as covering everything, smothering the life out of anything that wants to grow. The dust is symbolic of the erosion of the lives of the people. The dust is synonymous with “deadness”, as Steinbeck puts it..
The land is a ruined way of life (farming), people Kearney 2 uprooted and forced to leave. Secondly, the dust stands for profiteering banks in the background that squeeze the life out the land as the people are actually forced from their land. The soil, or the people (farmers), have been drained of life and are exploited: The last rain fell on the red and gray country of Oklahoma in early May. The weeds became dark green to protect themselves from the sun’s unyielding rays. The wind grew stronger, uprooting the weakened corn, and the air became so filled with dust that the stars were not visible at night.
The book continues with a turtle, which appears and reappears several times arly on in the novel and which can be seen as standing for survival, a driving life force in all of mankind that cannot be conquered by nature or man. The turtle represents a hope that the trip to the west is survivable and accomplishable by the Joad family. The turtle further represents the migrants struggles against both nature and man by overcoming all obstacles he encounters: the red ant in his path, being captured in Tom Joad’s jacket, and lastly, as a light truck approached nearer and nearer, the driver saw the turtle and swerved to hit it.
The driver of the truck works for a large company, who try to stop the migrants rom going west. As the driver attempts to hit the turtle, it is yet another example of the large and powerful trying to extinguish or kill the small and weak. Steadily the turtle advances on, ironically to the southwest, the direction of the migration of people. The turtle is described as being lasting, ancient, old and wise: horny head, yellowed toenails, indestructible high dome of a shell, humorous old eyes.
The driver of the truck, red ant, and Tom Joad’s jacket are all symbolic of nature and man trying to stop the turtle from continuing his journey westward to the promise land. The turtle helps to develop the theme by showing its struggle against life, comparing it to the Joad struggle against man. The grapes seem to symbolize both copiousness and bitterness. Grandpa, the oldest member of the Joad family, talks of the grapes as symbols of plenty; all his descriptions of what he is going to do with the grapes in California suggest contentment, freedom, the goal for which the Joad family strive for.
The grapes that are talked about by Grandpa help to elaborate the theme by showing that no matter how nice everything seems in California, the truth is that their beauty is only kin deep, in their souls they are rotten. The willow tree that is located on the Joad’s farm represents the Joad family. The willow is described as being unmovable and never bending to the wind or dust. The Joad family does not want to move, they prefer to stay on the land they grew up on, much the same as the willow does. The willow contributes to the theme by showing the unwillingness of the people to be removed from their land by the banks.
The latter represents the force making them leave their homes. Both of these symbols help contribute to the theme by showing a struggle between each other. The rains that come at the conclusion of the novel symbolize several things. Rain in that it is excessive, in a certain way fulfills a cycle of the dust which is also excessive. In a way nature has restored a balance and has initiated a new growth cycle. This ties in with other examples of the rebirth idea in the ending, much in the way the Joad family will grow again.
The rain contributes to the theme by showing the cycle of nature that gives a conclusion to the novel by showing that life is a pattern of birth and death. The rain is another example of nature against man, the rain comes and floods the living uarters of the Joads. In opposite ways rain can be helpful to give life to plants that need Kearney 4 it to live. Depending on which extreme the rain is in, it can be harmful or helpful. This is true for man, man can become either extremes bad or good depending on his personal choices.
Steinbeck wrote this book for one reason; to make the plight and difficulties of the migrant workers known to all of America. He accomplished this by telling the story from the viewpoint of a particular family, rather then the migrant workers as a whole. Steinbeck showed what these people went through from their eviction from their home, o their eventually self-destruction and failure as a family. Once the appropriate focus on the Joad’s had been reached, it was then possible for Steinbeck to tie it all together by bringing the entire situation into view.
This was possible through the demonstration of the workers establishing a common ground with each other. Once the strength of the inner family had been established, a family of families could be constructed. It showed just what the life of a migrant worker was all about, the establishing of a common ground within one another. The migrant workers were a group of people who were looking out for each other and willing to work together, as survival during these periods proved tough and could not be accomplished without teamwork.
This is simply why the migrant workers found ways to successfully govern themselves throughout their tent cities which is why they looked to establish a common ground. Times were tough, and that constant harassment of police organizations only worsened the situation. It was clearly evident that the Joad’s like any of the migrant workers, were looking out for one other, and would do anything if one was Kearney 5 in need, and nothing exemplifies this ideal more then the closing scene of the novel.
Rose, surrounded by a family overshadowed by personal loss, lack of income and food, and in a period of emotionally and mental death, gives life to a dying stranger regardless of who he was, or where he came from. This is what true life to the migrant workers was all about, and this is what they had demonstrated time and time again. As each symbol is presented chronologically through the novel, they come together at the end to paint a clear picture of the conditions, treatment and feelings the Joads’ as they make there journey through the novel to the West.
I would definitely recommend this book to anyone interested in the history of our country or of the Great Depression. It was quite a lengthy novel, but you could feel the story because Steinbeck was writing about his own time period, not his ancestors nor his children, but something he actually had lived through. The book stirs emotion from deep within. The powerfully thick description allowed me to picture the book in my mind’s eye. Overall it was a novel, worthy of the Pulitzer Prize it won. | <urn:uuid:0a0764fd-1ef8-4dd0-a27a-c684a99dc4af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mypaynetapps.com/the-grapes-of-wrath-a-novel-by-john-steinbeck/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.980734 | 1,753 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.094767309725284... | 4 | The Grapes of Wrath is a novel by John Steinbeck that exposes the desperate conditions under which the migratory farming families of America during the 1930’s lived, through a personal approach and heavy symbolism. The novel tells of one family’s migration west to California through the great economic depression of the 1930’s. The bank took possession of their land because the owners could not pay off their loan. The novel shows how the Joad family deals with moving to California, and how they survive the cruelty of the landowners that took advantage of them, their poverty, and willingness to work.
The Grapes of Wrath combines Steinbecks adoration of the land, his passionate hatred for corruption; resulting from materialism (money), and his abiding faith in the common people to overcome the hostile environment. As it opens with a retaining picture of nature on rampage, the novel shows the men and women that are unbroken by nature. The theme is that of a man verses a hostile environment. His body may be destroyed, but his spirit is not broken. The method used to develop the theme of the novel is through the use of symbolism.
There are several uses of symbols in the novel from the turtle at the eginning to the rain at the end. As each symbol is presented, examples of the good and the bad things that exist within the novel are shown. The opening chapter paints a vivid picture of the situation facing the drought-stricken farmers of Oklahoma. Dust is described as covering everything, smothering the life out of anything that wants to grow. The dust is symbolic of the erosion of the lives of the people. The dust is synonymous with “deadness”, as Steinbeck puts it..
The land is a ruined way of life (farming), people Kearney 2 uprooted and forced to leave. Secondly, the dust stands for profiteering banks in the background that squeeze the life out the land as the people are actually forced from their land. The soil, or the people (farmers), have been drained of life and are exploited: The last rain fell on the red and gray country of Oklahoma in early May. The weeds became dark green to protect themselves from the sun’s unyielding rays. The wind grew stronger, uprooting the weakened corn, and the air became so filled with dust that the stars were not visible at night.
The book continues with a turtle, which appears and reappears several times arly on in the novel and which can be seen as standing for survival, a driving life force in all of mankind that cannot be conquered by nature or man. The turtle represents a hope that the trip to the west is survivable and accomplishable by the Joad family. The turtle further represents the migrants struggles against both nature and man by overcoming all obstacles he encounters: the red ant in his path, being captured in Tom Joad’s jacket, and lastly, as a light truck approached nearer and nearer, the driver saw the turtle and swerved to hit it.
The driver of the truck works for a large company, who try to stop the migrants rom going west. As the driver attempts to hit the turtle, it is yet another example of the large and powerful trying to extinguish or kill the small and weak. Steadily the turtle advances on, ironically to the southwest, the direction of the migration of people. The turtle is described as being lasting, ancient, old and wise: horny head, yellowed toenails, indestructible high dome of a shell, humorous old eyes.
The driver of the truck, red ant, and Tom Joad’s jacket are all symbolic of nature and man trying to stop the turtle from continuing his journey westward to the promise land. The turtle helps to develop the theme by showing its struggle against life, comparing it to the Joad struggle against man. The grapes seem to symbolize both copiousness and bitterness. Grandpa, the oldest member of the Joad family, talks of the grapes as symbols of plenty; all his descriptions of what he is going to do with the grapes in California suggest contentment, freedom, the goal for which the Joad family strive for.
The grapes that are talked about by Grandpa help to elaborate the theme by showing that no matter how nice everything seems in California, the truth is that their beauty is only kin deep, in their souls they are rotten. The willow tree that is located on the Joad’s farm represents the Joad family. The willow is described as being unmovable and never bending to the wind or dust. The Joad family does not want to move, they prefer to stay on the land they grew up on, much the same as the willow does. The willow contributes to the theme by showing the unwillingness of the people to be removed from their land by the banks.
The latter represents the force making them leave their homes. Both of these symbols help contribute to the theme by showing a struggle between each other. The rains that come at the conclusion of the novel symbolize several things. Rain in that it is excessive, in a certain way fulfills a cycle of the dust which is also excessive. In a way nature has restored a balance and has initiated a new growth cycle. This ties in with other examples of the rebirth idea in the ending, much in the way the Joad family will grow again.
The rain contributes to the theme by showing the cycle of nature that gives a conclusion to the novel by showing that life is a pattern of birth and death. The rain is another example of nature against man, the rain comes and floods the living uarters of the Joads. In opposite ways rain can be helpful to give life to plants that need Kearney 4 it to live. Depending on which extreme the rain is in, it can be harmful or helpful. This is true for man, man can become either extremes bad or good depending on his personal choices.
Steinbeck wrote this book for one reason; to make the plight and difficulties of the migrant workers known to all of America. He accomplished this by telling the story from the viewpoint of a particular family, rather then the migrant workers as a whole. Steinbeck showed what these people went through from their eviction from their home, o their eventually self-destruction and failure as a family. Once the appropriate focus on the Joad’s had been reached, it was then possible for Steinbeck to tie it all together by bringing the entire situation into view.
This was possible through the demonstration of the workers establishing a common ground with each other. Once the strength of the inner family had been established, a family of families could be constructed. It showed just what the life of a migrant worker was all about, the establishing of a common ground within one another. The migrant workers were a group of people who were looking out for each other and willing to work together, as survival during these periods proved tough and could not be accomplished without teamwork.
This is simply why the migrant workers found ways to successfully govern themselves throughout their tent cities which is why they looked to establish a common ground. Times were tough, and that constant harassment of police organizations only worsened the situation. It was clearly evident that the Joad’s like any of the migrant workers, were looking out for one other, and would do anything if one was Kearney 5 in need, and nothing exemplifies this ideal more then the closing scene of the novel.
Rose, surrounded by a family overshadowed by personal loss, lack of income and food, and in a period of emotionally and mental death, gives life to a dying stranger regardless of who he was, or where he came from. This is what true life to the migrant workers was all about, and this is what they had demonstrated time and time again. As each symbol is presented chronologically through the novel, they come together at the end to paint a clear picture of the conditions, treatment and feelings the Joads’ as they make there journey through the novel to the West.
I would definitely recommend this book to anyone interested in the history of our country or of the Great Depression. It was quite a lengthy novel, but you could feel the story because Steinbeck was writing about his own time period, not his ancestors nor his children, but something he actually had lived through. The book stirs emotion from deep within. The powerfully thick description allowed me to picture the book in my mind’s eye. Overall it was a novel, worthy of the Pulitzer Prize it won. | 1,732 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The industrial melanism in peppered moth populations that has occurred over the past 100 years provides an example of natural selection A. Over time, peppered moth populations in Germany and England migrated from nonindustrialized areas to those that were industrialized. B. Originally most peppered moths were pale in color, but especially in areas of extreme industrialization, dark-colored moths began to dominate. C. Kettlewell's experiments showed that birds were acting as a selecting force by eating light-colored moths on dark trees in polluted areas. D. The recent increase of pale forms as pollution decreases supports the importance of natural selection by birds as a factor affecting peppered moth populations. E. According to Kettlewell's theory, natural selection produced birds that were better able to detect moths even when areas were polluted. F. Recent research indicates that when adult moths fail to choose appropriate backgrounds, they are usually eaten by birds. | <urn:uuid:c587c063-9253-4b63-867a-b23f0b0c52d4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.peakgmt.com/web/M_25L334O00HNZB0N$.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.984321 | 188 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.12802676856517... | 1 | The industrial melanism in peppered moth populations that has occurred over the past 100 years provides an example of natural selection A. Over time, peppered moth populations in Germany and England migrated from nonindustrialized areas to those that were industrialized. B. Originally most peppered moths were pale in color, but especially in areas of extreme industrialization, dark-colored moths began to dominate. C. Kettlewell's experiments showed that birds were acting as a selecting force by eating light-colored moths on dark trees in polluted areas. D. The recent increase of pale forms as pollution decreases supports the importance of natural selection by birds as a factor affecting peppered moth populations. E. According to Kettlewell's theory, natural selection produced birds that were better able to detect moths even when areas were polluted. F. Recent research indicates that when adult moths fail to choose appropriate backgrounds, they are usually eaten by birds. | 191 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Until April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth was one of the most famous actors of his time. And while it would be a performance at a theater that would make him notorious afterward, he wasn’t acting. That night, of course, Booth became one of history’s most infamous assassins when he who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C.
Booth was a member of the prominent 19th century Booth theatrical family from Maryland and, by the 1860s, was a well-known actor. He was also a Confederate sympathizer vehement in his denunciation of the Lincoln Administration and outraged by the South's imminent defeat in the Civil War. He strongly opposed the abolition of slavery in the United States and Lincoln's proposal to extend voting rights to recently emancipated slaves.
Booth and a group of co-conspirators planned to kill Lincoln, Vice President Andrew Johnson, and Secretary of State William Seward in a bid to help the Confederacy's cause. Although Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia had surrendered four days earlier, Booth believed the war was not yet over because Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston's army was still fighting the Union Army. Of the conspirators, only Booth was completely successful in carrying out his respective part of the plot. Seward was wounded but recovered; Lincoln died the next morning from a single gunshot wound to the back of the head.
Following the shooting, Booth fled on horseback to southern Maryland, eventually making his way to a farm in rural northern Virginia 12 days later, where he was tracked down and shot by Boston Corbett, a Union soldier who acted against orders. Eight others were tried and convicted, and four were hanged shortly thereafter.
The official account of the pursuit and shooting of Booth was written by Edward P. Doherty of the 16th New York cavalry and was preserved in The War of the Rebellion: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. This edition of the account of the capture of Booth includes pictures of Booth and Lincoln. | <urn:uuid:843ec91c-735a-4010-a19f-beb83551cf7d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.apple.com/ca/book/official-records-union-confederate-armies-capture-john/id476928596 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00437.warc.gz | en | 0.983602 | 415 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.417026877403259... | 1 | Until April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth was one of the most famous actors of his time. And while it would be a performance at a theater that would make him notorious afterward, he wasn’t acting. That night, of course, Booth became one of history’s most infamous assassins when he who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C.
Booth was a member of the prominent 19th century Booth theatrical family from Maryland and, by the 1860s, was a well-known actor. He was also a Confederate sympathizer vehement in his denunciation of the Lincoln Administration and outraged by the South's imminent defeat in the Civil War. He strongly opposed the abolition of slavery in the United States and Lincoln's proposal to extend voting rights to recently emancipated slaves.
Booth and a group of co-conspirators planned to kill Lincoln, Vice President Andrew Johnson, and Secretary of State William Seward in a bid to help the Confederacy's cause. Although Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia had surrendered four days earlier, Booth believed the war was not yet over because Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston's army was still fighting the Union Army. Of the conspirators, only Booth was completely successful in carrying out his respective part of the plot. Seward was wounded but recovered; Lincoln died the next morning from a single gunshot wound to the back of the head.
Following the shooting, Booth fled on horseback to southern Maryland, eventually making his way to a farm in rural northern Virginia 12 days later, where he was tracked down and shot by Boston Corbett, a Union soldier who acted against orders. Eight others were tried and convicted, and four were hanged shortly thereafter.
The official account of the pursuit and shooting of Booth was written by Edward P. Doherty of the 16th New York cavalry and was preserved in The War of the Rebellion: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. This edition of the account of the capture of Booth includes pictures of Booth and Lincoln. | 424 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the fifteenth century, there was a power struggle between rival descendants of Edward III. The conflict between them is known as the Wars of the Roses.
The descendants of John of Gaunt were Lancastrians represented by a red rose.
The descendants of Edmund of Langley were Yorkists represented by a white rose.
The young king Edward V was declared illegitimate in 1483. His uncle, Richard Duke of Gloucester took the throne as Richard III. Soon afterwards, Edward V and his younger brother Richard, the Princes in the Tower, disappeared. Many people believe they were murdered by their uncle.
Henry Tudor was the rival Lancastrian claimant to the throne. He was in France raising troops to mount an invasion and remove Richard from the throne. He gained the support of Elizabeth Woodville, widow of Edward IV, by promising to marry her eldest daughter, Elizabeth, when he became King.
In 1485 Henry Tudor landed at Milford Haven and marched inland. On hearing of the invasion, Richard III called his army to muster in Leicester. The two sides met at Bosworth Field on 22nd August 1485. Richard III was killed on the battlefield and Henry Tudor was proclaimed king.
Henry took the throne as Henry VII and, as promised, married Elizabeth of York in January 1486. The emblem of the new dynasty was the Tudor Rose which was created from the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York.
Harvard Reference for this page:
Heather Y Wheeler. (2017). How did the Tudor Rose come about? Available: https://www.tudornation.com/how-did-the-tudor-rose-come-about Last accessed January 18th, 2020 | <urn:uuid:36deaa08-6821-4073-998b-29669a82b727> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tudornation.com/how-did-the-tudor-rose-come-about/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.982007 | 357 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.189730256795883... | 1 | In the fifteenth century, there was a power struggle between rival descendants of Edward III. The conflict between them is known as the Wars of the Roses.
The descendants of John of Gaunt were Lancastrians represented by a red rose.
The descendants of Edmund of Langley were Yorkists represented by a white rose.
The young king Edward V was declared illegitimate in 1483. His uncle, Richard Duke of Gloucester took the throne as Richard III. Soon afterwards, Edward V and his younger brother Richard, the Princes in the Tower, disappeared. Many people believe they were murdered by their uncle.
Henry Tudor was the rival Lancastrian claimant to the throne. He was in France raising troops to mount an invasion and remove Richard from the throne. He gained the support of Elizabeth Woodville, widow of Edward IV, by promising to marry her eldest daughter, Elizabeth, when he became King.
In 1485 Henry Tudor landed at Milford Haven and marched inland. On hearing of the invasion, Richard III called his army to muster in Leicester. The two sides met at Bosworth Field on 22nd August 1485. Richard III was killed on the battlefield and Henry Tudor was proclaimed king.
Henry took the throne as Henry VII and, as promised, married Elizabeth of York in January 1486. The emblem of the new dynasty was the Tudor Rose which was created from the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York.
Harvard Reference for this page:
Heather Y Wheeler. (2017). How did the Tudor Rose come about? Available: https://www.tudornation.com/how-did-the-tudor-rose-come-about Last accessed January 18th, 2020 | 368 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Washington D.C, Aug 1: Recent studies have found that students who feel a greater sense of belonging with their peers, family and school community are less likely to become bullies. Research has shown that despite efforts, one in three children continue to experience bullying in school.
However, research has also indicated that environmental and psychological factors might play an important role in minimising bullying behaviours. Researchers analysed responses of a survey conducted on over 900 middle school students from rural schools throughout the U.S. The survey addressed their sense of belonging among peers, family and school community as well as bullying behaviour. For example, they were asked if they upset others for the fun of it or if they spread rumours. School Bullying Increases Chances of Mental Health Issues.
The results indicated that the more a student feels like they belong among their peers and family, the more likely they will feel like they belong at school. In addition, the more they feel like they belong within their school community, the less likely they were to report bullying behaviour.
This indicated that parents might be able to play a proactive role in increasing their child's sense of belonging at school by focusing on improving family belongingness.
Christopher Slaten, one of the researchers of the study, suggested that one of the ways parents can increase a child's sense of family belonging is to organise activities that cater to every child's interests.
"If you have children with varying interests, it might be beneficial to suggest the whole family get together to attend each other's events and activities, even if it doesn't please the whole crowd every time. By encouraging siblings to support each other, parents can help their children feel like their interests are accepted and that they fit within the family unit," Slaten said in the study published in the journal of Emotional & Child Psychology.
Chad Rose, one of the researchers of the study, added that teachers and school leaders should also consider techniques and programs that create a supportive environment for students. Some examples include starting clubs for students with various interests, offering to lend an ear to students who need someone to talk to and consider community-building events.
"What we have found is that students' perception of how supportive and accepting their school environment is has the power to alter bullying behaviour. This means that even acts of simple compassion and efforts to create an accepting and supportive space for students can help prevent bullying in schools. This is empowering news for teachers, students, and their families," Rose concluded. | <urn:uuid:1f63ef29-11c1-4ba5-87e6-1548e9fab561> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.latestly.com/lifestyle/sense-of-belonging-reduces-ones-chance-of-becoming-a-bully-study-1064212.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00348.warc.gz | en | 0.980481 | 500 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.012552287429571... | 1 | Washington D.C, Aug 1: Recent studies have found that students who feel a greater sense of belonging with their peers, family and school community are less likely to become bullies. Research has shown that despite efforts, one in three children continue to experience bullying in school.
However, research has also indicated that environmental and psychological factors might play an important role in minimising bullying behaviours. Researchers analysed responses of a survey conducted on over 900 middle school students from rural schools throughout the U.S. The survey addressed their sense of belonging among peers, family and school community as well as bullying behaviour. For example, they were asked if they upset others for the fun of it or if they spread rumours. School Bullying Increases Chances of Mental Health Issues.
The results indicated that the more a student feels like they belong among their peers and family, the more likely they will feel like they belong at school. In addition, the more they feel like they belong within their school community, the less likely they were to report bullying behaviour.
This indicated that parents might be able to play a proactive role in increasing their child's sense of belonging at school by focusing on improving family belongingness.
Christopher Slaten, one of the researchers of the study, suggested that one of the ways parents can increase a child's sense of family belonging is to organise activities that cater to every child's interests.
"If you have children with varying interests, it might be beneficial to suggest the whole family get together to attend each other's events and activities, even if it doesn't please the whole crowd every time. By encouraging siblings to support each other, parents can help their children feel like their interests are accepted and that they fit within the family unit," Slaten said in the study published in the journal of Emotional & Child Psychology.
Chad Rose, one of the researchers of the study, added that teachers and school leaders should also consider techniques and programs that create a supportive environment for students. Some examples include starting clubs for students with various interests, offering to lend an ear to students who need someone to talk to and consider community-building events.
"What we have found is that students' perception of how supportive and accepting their school environment is has the power to alter bullying behaviour. This means that even acts of simple compassion and efforts to create an accepting and supportive space for students can help prevent bullying in schools. This is empowering news for teachers, students, and their families," Rose concluded. | 494 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Drums are thousands of years old and were used in Mesopotamian and Ancient Egyptian. Goblet shaped drums go all the way back to Babylonia from 1100 BCE. In doing as much research as we are able, this particular glaw’ng ae’ (Goblet Drum), is probably from northern Siam (Thailand), circa 1850-1880 is our best hypothesis. The cart seems to be of similar age and was probably constructed around the same time as the drum. The goblet drum itself is hollowed-out of one piece of wood and is almost 11 feet long, without the cart, the drum weighs more than 1,000 pounds. These gigantic goblet drums were used principally in Buddhist temples, from the northern provinces of Thailand. History suggest that they were used as a signal to start the day and to regulate temple activities. In addition, they were played during festivals and to accompany folk dances. Traditional goblet drums are highly regarded and never stepped over or made contact with your feet. In our research and it should be pointed out, that we are not experts in SE Asian Arts, but the only other goblet drum of this scale and stature in the states, that we could locate, is in The National Music Museum and is one of the most renowned institutions of its kind in the world. The Museum is located at 414 E. Clark St. Vermillion, South Dakota. Measures: Drum length (without the cart) is 130.5". Diameter of drum head is 27.5" and overall diameter of head (includes leather detailing) is 29". Drum base diameter is 34". | <urn:uuid:4e286f25-3090-48ff-bca8-4a2262ba307e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://m.oldplank.com/item/35363537 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.983622 | 335 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.42128786444... | 7 | Drums are thousands of years old and were used in Mesopotamian and Ancient Egyptian. Goblet shaped drums go all the way back to Babylonia from 1100 BCE. In doing as much research as we are able, this particular glaw’ng ae’ (Goblet Drum), is probably from northern Siam (Thailand), circa 1850-1880 is our best hypothesis. The cart seems to be of similar age and was probably constructed around the same time as the drum. The goblet drum itself is hollowed-out of one piece of wood and is almost 11 feet long, without the cart, the drum weighs more than 1,000 pounds. These gigantic goblet drums were used principally in Buddhist temples, from the northern provinces of Thailand. History suggest that they were used as a signal to start the day and to regulate temple activities. In addition, they were played during festivals and to accompany folk dances. Traditional goblet drums are highly regarded and never stepped over or made contact with your feet. In our research and it should be pointed out, that we are not experts in SE Asian Arts, but the only other goblet drum of this scale and stature in the states, that we could locate, is in The National Music Museum and is one of the most renowned institutions of its kind in the world. The Museum is located at 414 E. Clark St. Vermillion, South Dakota. Measures: Drum length (without the cart) is 130.5". Diameter of drum head is 27.5" and overall diameter of head (includes leather detailing) is 29". Drum base diameter is 34". | 354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World War Two
World War Two
In World War Two, the air force truly became a military power with influence. President Roosevelt took the initiative and called for men to build the air force, mostly for the use of strategic bombing. It became independent in 1941, when the Army Air Forces (AAF) was created with the Army Air Corps as part of it. In the reorganization of the Army by the War Department Circular in 1942, the Army Air Forces gained equality with the Navy and Army on the Joint Chief of Staffs. It also got rid of both the Air Corps and Combat Commands, so that the Army Air Force could have a more streamlined and centralized command.
In 1943, Carl A. Spaatz became commander of the new US Strategic Forces, and was reporting directly to the Combined Chiefs of Staff. His strategic bombings were productive until they attempted to penetrate deeper into enemy territory. When they got far in, they were easily overtaken and defeated; soon the casualty rate was above what was acceptable, and so they withdrew the campaign, but with the improvement of technologies, soon the techniques used by airman advanced as well. In the Pacific Theater of Operations, the AAF provided major support and advancement. General George Kenney invented the Skip Bombing technique, which defeated many Japanese planes and ships. There were many forms of airlifts attempted and some succeeded, others did not.
"World War Two." Military Ranks Online. 04 Feb 2012.
Military-Ranks.org. 22 Jan 2020. <https://www.military-ranks.org/info/air-force-world-war-two> | <urn:uuid:40540581-b7df-449a-a7ae-9555dfe8d872> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.military-ranks.org/info/air-force-world-war-two | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00081.warc.gz | en | 0.981135 | 332 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.3704142272... | 1 | World War Two
World War Two
In World War Two, the air force truly became a military power with influence. President Roosevelt took the initiative and called for men to build the air force, mostly for the use of strategic bombing. It became independent in 1941, when the Army Air Forces (AAF) was created with the Army Air Corps as part of it. In the reorganization of the Army by the War Department Circular in 1942, the Army Air Forces gained equality with the Navy and Army on the Joint Chief of Staffs. It also got rid of both the Air Corps and Combat Commands, so that the Army Air Force could have a more streamlined and centralized command.
In 1943, Carl A. Spaatz became commander of the new US Strategic Forces, and was reporting directly to the Combined Chiefs of Staff. His strategic bombings were productive until they attempted to penetrate deeper into enemy territory. When they got far in, they were easily overtaken and defeated; soon the casualty rate was above what was acceptable, and so they withdrew the campaign, but with the improvement of technologies, soon the techniques used by airman advanced as well. In the Pacific Theater of Operations, the AAF provided major support and advancement. General George Kenney invented the Skip Bombing technique, which defeated many Japanese planes and ships. There were many forms of airlifts attempted and some succeeded, others did not.
"World War Two." Military Ranks Online. 04 Feb 2012.
Military-Ranks.org. 22 Jan 2020. <https://www.military-ranks.org/info/air-force-world-war-two> | 343 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How did the revolts of Gabriel, Denmark Vesey, and Nat Turner affect African-Americans?
Although the revolts initially saw a crackdown on African American slaves and an increase in violence against them, they also served as an eye opener for several good natured individuals that slavery was an evil institution and needed to be phased out. The draconian penalties meted out by the Southern states against the slaves who were in some cases badly mutilated and tortured before being put to death also showed the evil role of slavery in a brutalized society.
The revolts by former slaves also meant that abolitionism in the United States continued to flourish and the accounts of certain slaves who were badly ill treated in the South began to surface. The abolitionist movement was mainly active in the Northern states which had already rid itself of slaves and the whole system however these rebellions continued increasing awareness on the issue of slavery especially in the North and led to diverse campaigns to protect slaves in the South from their barbaric masters..
The revolts also led to the foundation of the American Colonization Society which worked hard to resettle freed slaves in newly formed African colonies such as Liberia. Although the experiment was initially unsuccessful, eventually the colonies were to flourish considerably with several freed slaves returning to their country of birth,
African Americans responded strongly to the Civil War and joined up with Northern armies in several cases dying for their cause. Lincoln’s perspective on slavery changed considerably during the Civil War as at first he believed that slavery should remain but as the war developed he knew that this was an issue which needed to be sorted out once and for all.
The Emancipation Proclamation was announced by President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 promising all slaves freedom at the end of the Civil War. The 14th Amendment enshrines this proclamation accordingly although in the South it was to take almost another 100 years before blacks could really experience freedom with the passage of the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act. | <urn:uuid:2d7e1bee-6622-4bb4-9a09-a78a904b4008> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/abolitionism-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.985045 | 394 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.2749717831611... | 2 | How did the revolts of Gabriel, Denmark Vesey, and Nat Turner affect African-Americans?
Although the revolts initially saw a crackdown on African American slaves and an increase in violence against them, they also served as an eye opener for several good natured individuals that slavery was an evil institution and needed to be phased out. The draconian penalties meted out by the Southern states against the slaves who were in some cases badly mutilated and tortured before being put to death also showed the evil role of slavery in a brutalized society.
The revolts by former slaves also meant that abolitionism in the United States continued to flourish and the accounts of certain slaves who were badly ill treated in the South began to surface. The abolitionist movement was mainly active in the Northern states which had already rid itself of slaves and the whole system however these rebellions continued increasing awareness on the issue of slavery especially in the North and led to diverse campaigns to protect slaves in the South from their barbaric masters..
The revolts also led to the foundation of the American Colonization Society which worked hard to resettle freed slaves in newly formed African colonies such as Liberia. Although the experiment was initially unsuccessful, eventually the colonies were to flourish considerably with several freed slaves returning to their country of birth,
African Americans responded strongly to the Civil War and joined up with Northern armies in several cases dying for their cause. Lincoln’s perspective on slavery changed considerably during the Civil War as at first he believed that slavery should remain but as the war developed he knew that this was an issue which needed to be sorted out once and for all.
The Emancipation Proclamation was announced by President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 promising all slaves freedom at the end of the Civil War. The 14th Amendment enshrines this proclamation accordingly although in the South it was to take almost another 100 years before blacks could really experience freedom with the passage of the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act. | 401 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Researchers testing out a program aimed at reducing the amount of time kids spent in front of screens have conceded that, after one year, the program didn't help children and their parents to make much progress towards that goal. Yet, looking at the bright side, the researchers, who wrote up their findings in a study published this week, noted that kids who participated in the program did cut down on the number of meals they consumed while staring at the television.
Dr. Catherine D. Birken, the lead author, hailed the finding, explaining that those who eat in front of the television tend to not only consume more in a sitting, but also make food selections that are less than healthful. Birken noted that it could be just such food choices that could be responsible for the link between increased screen time for kids, and higher rates of childhood obesity.
In addition to its association with obesity, the study's researchers say screen time – whether it is in front of a television, computer or video game console – has been linked to children having problems with language development and behavior, and their likelihood of cigarette smoking.
"These are really important health outcomes in young children," said Birken. "So we need to understand what works and what doesn't."
Although previous studies have had mixed results in their attempts to limit children's screen time, those that were more promising tended to target children at around the pre-school age — that is why Birken's group selected this age group to try their practical approach to wean kids from their televisions. The results of this attempt were published in the latest issue of the Pediatrics journal.
For their study, published in the journal Pediatrics on Monday, Birken and her colleagues recruited three-year-old children from a network of clinics around the Toronto area during their annual checkups. The children and their parents were randomly assigned into one of two groups. In an intervention group of 64 children, the parents were told about the health impact of screen time on kids and how to reduce their children's hours. Some of the techniques included removing televisions from the kids' bedrooms and not allowing them to eat with the television on.
Both the parents and the children received additional training, mainly about internet safety and parental rating systems used by the television networks in Canada.
When the children were assessed again at the end of the year, the researchers didn't find any differences in rates of television use between two groups. Nor were there any differences detected between the BMI scores of the control and the experimental group. Yet, there was one statistically significant finding. Kids in the experimental group ate substantially fewer meals in front of the TV than those in the control group.
At the start of the study, each group of kids ate about two meals with the television on daily. A year later, that number remained the same for the control group, but fell to about 1.6 for the intervention group.
That, the researchers note, works out to be at least two fewer meals per week in front of the television.
"I don't think there is much harm in turning the TV off during meals. I think that is a good message either way," said Birken. | <urn:uuid:1d0fd91f-a501-4b19-8c03-170810330395> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.educationnews.org/parenting/program-lowers-the-number-of-meals-eaten-in-front-of-tv/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00246.warc.gz | en | 0.985732 | 645 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.36518341302871... | 1 | Researchers testing out a program aimed at reducing the amount of time kids spent in front of screens have conceded that, after one year, the program didn't help children and their parents to make much progress towards that goal. Yet, looking at the bright side, the researchers, who wrote up their findings in a study published this week, noted that kids who participated in the program did cut down on the number of meals they consumed while staring at the television.
Dr. Catherine D. Birken, the lead author, hailed the finding, explaining that those who eat in front of the television tend to not only consume more in a sitting, but also make food selections that are less than healthful. Birken noted that it could be just such food choices that could be responsible for the link between increased screen time for kids, and higher rates of childhood obesity.
In addition to its association with obesity, the study's researchers say screen time – whether it is in front of a television, computer or video game console – has been linked to children having problems with language development and behavior, and their likelihood of cigarette smoking.
"These are really important health outcomes in young children," said Birken. "So we need to understand what works and what doesn't."
Although previous studies have had mixed results in their attempts to limit children's screen time, those that were more promising tended to target children at around the pre-school age — that is why Birken's group selected this age group to try their practical approach to wean kids from their televisions. The results of this attempt were published in the latest issue of the Pediatrics journal.
For their study, published in the journal Pediatrics on Monday, Birken and her colleagues recruited three-year-old children from a network of clinics around the Toronto area during their annual checkups. The children and their parents were randomly assigned into one of two groups. In an intervention group of 64 children, the parents were told about the health impact of screen time on kids and how to reduce their children's hours. Some of the techniques included removing televisions from the kids' bedrooms and not allowing them to eat with the television on.
Both the parents and the children received additional training, mainly about internet safety and parental rating systems used by the television networks in Canada.
When the children were assessed again at the end of the year, the researchers didn't find any differences in rates of television use between two groups. Nor were there any differences detected between the BMI scores of the control and the experimental group. Yet, there was one statistically significant finding. Kids in the experimental group ate substantially fewer meals in front of the TV than those in the control group.
At the start of the study, each group of kids ate about two meals with the television on daily. A year later, that number remained the same for the control group, but fell to about 1.6 for the intervention group.
That, the researchers note, works out to be at least two fewer meals per week in front of the television.
"I don't think there is much harm in turning the TV off during meals. I think that is a good message either way," said Birken. | 633 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women in the Struggle for Irish Independence
Women have too often been written out of history. This is especially true in the fight for Irish independence. The women’s struggle was three-fold, beginning with the suffragettes’ fight to win the vote. Then came the push for fair pay and working conditions. Binding them together became part of the national struggle, first for home rule, then for the establishment of an Irish Republic.
The Easter Rising of 1916 brought them together as soldiers of the Republic. Through the terrible years that followed, they became the conscience of Republicanism. Following independence, they were betrayed by the men they had served alongside. DeValera and the Catholic Church restricted their roles in society—they were to be wives and mothers without a voice. It was not until Ireland’s entry into the European community and the self destruction of a corrupt Church that Irish women were acknowledged for what they had achieved. | <urn:uuid:cdab50fd-ced2-4b80-88c3-c7e13b00872b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mcfarlandbooks.com/newly-published-women-in-the-struggle-for-irish-independence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00207.warc.gz | en | 0.985866 | 189 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.09410283... | 3 | Women in the Struggle for Irish Independence
Women have too often been written out of history. This is especially true in the fight for Irish independence. The women’s struggle was three-fold, beginning with the suffragettes’ fight to win the vote. Then came the push for fair pay and working conditions. Binding them together became part of the national struggle, first for home rule, then for the establishment of an Irish Republic.
The Easter Rising of 1916 brought them together as soldiers of the Republic. Through the terrible years that followed, they became the conscience of Republicanism. Following independence, they were betrayed by the men they had served alongside. DeValera and the Catholic Church restricted their roles in society—they were to be wives and mothers without a voice. It was not until Ireland’s entry into the European community and the self destruction of a corrupt Church that Irish women were acknowledged for what they had achieved. | 186 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Skjálfandi (also known as Skjálfandaflói) is a bay in northern Iceland, with some of the characteristics of a fjord. The Icelandic word Skjálfandi literally translates to trembling which may refer to earthquakes in the area.
The bay, originally created by glacial activity, has two major rivers flowing into it: Skjálfandafljót, which is a glacier river, and Laxá, which is a freshwater river. The river Laxá (English: "Salmon River") is famous for its salmon and part of the river is protected by the Ramsar Convention.
There are two islands in Skjálfandi. The larger one is Flatey (flat island). It is situated close to the opposite side of the bay from Húsavík. There is a village on the island, no longer inhabited, composed of a few houses, a school and a church. There is no ferry serving Flatey. Skjálfandi's smaller island is called Lundey. Its name means island of the puffins because of the great colony of puffins living on its cliffs during the summer. Lundey is located close to Húsavík.
Garðar Svavarsson was one of the first Scandinavians to settle in Iceland, doing so around 860 CE. He built a house in Skjálfandi, but spent only the following winter months there before leaving Iceland. His slave Náttfari was left behind and continued to live on the farm but was chased away from it later by a Norse settler, forcing Náttfari to build a new farm on poorer land in Náttfaravík by Skjálfandi. | <urn:uuid:aa38df2e-23c8-4564-b526-4730be87b97b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skj%C3%A1lfandi?printable=yes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00424.warc.gz | en | 0.98212 | 368 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.169681653380393... | 2 | Skjálfandi (also known as Skjálfandaflói) is a bay in northern Iceland, with some of the characteristics of a fjord. The Icelandic word Skjálfandi literally translates to trembling which may refer to earthquakes in the area.
The bay, originally created by glacial activity, has two major rivers flowing into it: Skjálfandafljót, which is a glacier river, and Laxá, which is a freshwater river. The river Laxá (English: "Salmon River") is famous for its salmon and part of the river is protected by the Ramsar Convention.
There are two islands in Skjálfandi. The larger one is Flatey (flat island). It is situated close to the opposite side of the bay from Húsavík. There is a village on the island, no longer inhabited, composed of a few houses, a school and a church. There is no ferry serving Flatey. Skjálfandi's smaller island is called Lundey. Its name means island of the puffins because of the great colony of puffins living on its cliffs during the summer. Lundey is located close to Húsavík.
Garðar Svavarsson was one of the first Scandinavians to settle in Iceland, doing so around 860 CE. He built a house in Skjálfandi, but spent only the following winter months there before leaving Iceland. His slave Náttfari was left behind and continued to live on the farm but was chased away from it later by a Norse settler, forcing Náttfari to build a new farm on poorer land in Náttfaravík by Skjálfandi. | 362 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Silver forks are a staple of silverware with different types being available on a traditional dinner table. From simple table forks to salad forks to the highly specialized pickle forks, this item comes in several different sizes.
It also has an interesting history that comes from an area of the world outside of Europe. Today, silver forks crafted by English and Scottish silversmiths are highly prized and many are still found today in households around the world.
But where did the fork come from and how did it become part of the dinner table? Why were several versions created? Understanding the answers will provide better insight into why silver forks are so unique.
The Origins of the Fork
Of the silverware that is present on the dinner table, the fork is the newest of the lot. This is because knives date back to prehistoric times. They are the oldest cutlery used at the dinner table. Knives were a creation derived from the hand axes that were a common tool at the time. Spoons also date back to the early days of civilization and usually made from objects that could scoop up liquids.
The ancient Greeks used a trident-like instrument to pull meat from a pot. However, the fork itself did not appear on dinner tables until the 8th or 9th century AD. This was probably somewhere in Persia, the exact origins of the fork for the dinner table are unknown. However, it does seem that Persia, today Iraq and Iran, was where the fork as we know it was created.
The use of the fork spread westward thanks in part to the Byzantine Empire. At the time this empire occupied most of modern-day Turkey. The fork was initially not accepted in many European societies, mostly because the way meals were prepared did not require its use.
That began to change around the 16th century when the usefulness of the fork started to become better known. This is thanks to Catherine de Medici who toured France for a year demonstrating what she believed was the proper way to eat food at the dinner table which included the fork. Most forks at this time were simple, two-pronged instruments meant to stab the food.
The main reason why forks come in different sizes was not so much the ability to create them, but in that the primary purpose of the fork was to replace the hands as the means of securing and lifting food to the mouth. Arguably the main reason why the fork was rather obscure until the Middle Ages was because it was seen as rather useless since the hands could be used. That changes with the coming of the Black Plague and other widespread diseases and illnesses which swept Europe. After that, the fork was seen as a means of eating food without touching it with the hands.
And that is why different forks were created for different tasks to help prevent the spread of illness. Although admittedly it may not have worked to the degree that it was hoped, the use and creation of different forks was the result of concerns about directly touching food. Interestingly enough, those using forks before this change in attitude were seen as having poor table manners.
It was not until the turn of the 18th century that forks as we know them today came about. This is when royalty and the wealthy began purchasing multiple sets of silverware for their homes. And it was about this time that silver began to be commonly used to create the knifes, spoons, and forks, hence the word “silverware”. A word that is still used today to refer to dinner forks, knives, and spoons.
The Use of Silver to Make Forks
In Europe, the rise of the fork coincided with the use of silver to create what would be known as silverware. English and Scottish silversmiths began created all sorts of items from silver thanks to a combination of expanding mines and the high demand for silver products. As with most other items at the time, the silversmiths used the silver that was donated by the customer for their services.
The initial forks made from silver were solid, but over time with the different types of forks being created they became more elaborate in term of design. The dinner forks were being expanded into include other types of forks, some of which we still see today.
- Table Forks
- Dessert Forks
- Pickle Forks and More
Crafted from silver or Sterling silver which provides additional firmness and durability, the forks created by the English and Scottish silversmiths were in high demand, peaking around the turn of the 19th century. At this time the designs became somewhat more elaborate as reflective of the times in which they were created.
The peak of the Sterling silver forks and silverware in general changed by the middle of the 19th century. The combination of mass production and desire for simpler, less elaborate silverware marked the end of an era. By the turn of the 20th century, silversmiths were only turning out a fraction of the forks and other products made from silver compared to a century ago.
Silver Forks Today
For the most part, forks are not made from silver since it has become far more expensive compared to other, far more suitable metals used in making cutlery. This means that the antique market today for dinner forks made from silver or Sterling silver has become quite pronounced. This is particularly true for the forks made by English and Scottish silversmiths.
These highly prized items from the turn of the 19th century fetch a good price at auctions and private sales. This is because they represent more than the simple value of the silver used in their creation. With different silversmiths came more elaborate designs in forks. This also includes the stamp of the silversmith and the logo or indication of where the fork was made. | <urn:uuid:8438c089-66e2-423e-a303-53db99b68159> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dartsilverltd.co.uk/the-history-and-use-of-silver-forks/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00158.warc.gz | en | 0.982482 | 1,172 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.0003910281... | 12 | Silver forks are a staple of silverware with different types being available on a traditional dinner table. From simple table forks to salad forks to the highly specialized pickle forks, this item comes in several different sizes.
It also has an interesting history that comes from an area of the world outside of Europe. Today, silver forks crafted by English and Scottish silversmiths are highly prized and many are still found today in households around the world.
But where did the fork come from and how did it become part of the dinner table? Why were several versions created? Understanding the answers will provide better insight into why silver forks are so unique.
The Origins of the Fork
Of the silverware that is present on the dinner table, the fork is the newest of the lot. This is because knives date back to prehistoric times. They are the oldest cutlery used at the dinner table. Knives were a creation derived from the hand axes that were a common tool at the time. Spoons also date back to the early days of civilization and usually made from objects that could scoop up liquids.
The ancient Greeks used a trident-like instrument to pull meat from a pot. However, the fork itself did not appear on dinner tables until the 8th or 9th century AD. This was probably somewhere in Persia, the exact origins of the fork for the dinner table are unknown. However, it does seem that Persia, today Iraq and Iran, was where the fork as we know it was created.
The use of the fork spread westward thanks in part to the Byzantine Empire. At the time this empire occupied most of modern-day Turkey. The fork was initially not accepted in many European societies, mostly because the way meals were prepared did not require its use.
That began to change around the 16th century when the usefulness of the fork started to become better known. This is thanks to Catherine de Medici who toured France for a year demonstrating what she believed was the proper way to eat food at the dinner table which included the fork. Most forks at this time were simple, two-pronged instruments meant to stab the food.
The main reason why forks come in different sizes was not so much the ability to create them, but in that the primary purpose of the fork was to replace the hands as the means of securing and lifting food to the mouth. Arguably the main reason why the fork was rather obscure until the Middle Ages was because it was seen as rather useless since the hands could be used. That changes with the coming of the Black Plague and other widespread diseases and illnesses which swept Europe. After that, the fork was seen as a means of eating food without touching it with the hands.
And that is why different forks were created for different tasks to help prevent the spread of illness. Although admittedly it may not have worked to the degree that it was hoped, the use and creation of different forks was the result of concerns about directly touching food. Interestingly enough, those using forks before this change in attitude were seen as having poor table manners.
It was not until the turn of the 18th century that forks as we know them today came about. This is when royalty and the wealthy began purchasing multiple sets of silverware for their homes. And it was about this time that silver began to be commonly used to create the knifes, spoons, and forks, hence the word “silverware”. A word that is still used today to refer to dinner forks, knives, and spoons.
The Use of Silver to Make Forks
In Europe, the rise of the fork coincided with the use of silver to create what would be known as silverware. English and Scottish silversmiths began created all sorts of items from silver thanks to a combination of expanding mines and the high demand for silver products. As with most other items at the time, the silversmiths used the silver that was donated by the customer for their services.
The initial forks made from silver were solid, but over time with the different types of forks being created they became more elaborate in term of design. The dinner forks were being expanded into include other types of forks, some of which we still see today.
- Table Forks
- Dessert Forks
- Pickle Forks and More
Crafted from silver or Sterling silver which provides additional firmness and durability, the forks created by the English and Scottish silversmiths were in high demand, peaking around the turn of the 19th century. At this time the designs became somewhat more elaborate as reflective of the times in which they were created.
The peak of the Sterling silver forks and silverware in general changed by the middle of the 19th century. The combination of mass production and desire for simpler, less elaborate silverware marked the end of an era. By the turn of the 20th century, silversmiths were only turning out a fraction of the forks and other products made from silver compared to a century ago.
Silver Forks Today
For the most part, forks are not made from silver since it has become far more expensive compared to other, far more suitable metals used in making cutlery. This means that the antique market today for dinner forks made from silver or Sterling silver has become quite pronounced. This is particularly true for the forks made by English and Scottish silversmiths.
These highly prized items from the turn of the 19th century fetch a good price at auctions and private sales. This is because they represent more than the simple value of the silver used in their creation. With different silversmiths came more elaborate designs in forks. This also includes the stamp of the silversmith and the logo or indication of where the fork was made. | 1,168 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Teaching your children to manage their time is teaching them life-skills that they will need as adults.
A common idea of holiday is to laze around, have no clear idea what to do or how to spend the time fruitfully.The end result could be that most of the day is wasted as the things that are done may not really be relaxing or refreshing. (Definition of recreation – activities that people do to relax, have fun and refresh their strength and spirit)
Do your children need to learn to use free time well?
Your children are more likely to squander their time if they do not have any goals for this holiday period or if they do not have any daily plan for what to do each day. Can you discuss with them some goals for this period or some daily or weekly activities to undertake?
The holiday period will pass quickly. Teaching your children to set (short-term) goals and to manage their time to achieve these is teaching them a life-skill that they will need as adults. Your children may look at you blankly when you suggest goals and daily timetables for their holiday. How can you prepare yourself for this discussion? | <urn:uuid:bd369466-4e0e-4c38-811b-33dbcaf3be5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fes.org.sg/single-post/2014/05/01/What-do-holidays-teach-your-children-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00084.warc.gz | en | 0.98002 | 237 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.745217263698... | 4 | Teaching your children to manage their time is teaching them life-skills that they will need as adults.
A common idea of holiday is to laze around, have no clear idea what to do or how to spend the time fruitfully.The end result could be that most of the day is wasted as the things that are done may not really be relaxing or refreshing. (Definition of recreation – activities that people do to relax, have fun and refresh their strength and spirit)
Do your children need to learn to use free time well?
Your children are more likely to squander their time if they do not have any goals for this holiday period or if they do not have any daily plan for what to do each day. Can you discuss with them some goals for this period or some daily or weekly activities to undertake?
The holiday period will pass quickly. Teaching your children to set (short-term) goals and to manage their time to achieve these is teaching them a life-skill that they will need as adults. Your children may look at you blankly when you suggest goals and daily timetables for their holiday. How can you prepare yourself for this discussion? | 231 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women first organized and collectively fought for suffrage at the national level in July of 1848. Suffragists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott convened a meeting of over 300 people in Seneca Falls, New York. In the following decades, women marched, protested, lobbied, and even went to jail. By the 1870s, women pressured Congress to vote on an amendment that would recognize their suffrage rights. This amendment was sometimes known as the Susan B. Anthony amendment and became the 19th Amendment.
The amendment reads:
"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United State or by any state on account of sex."
After decades of arguments for and against women's suffrage, Congress finally passed the 19th Amendment in June 1919. After Congress approved the 19th Amendment, at least 36 states needed to vote in favor of it for it to become law. This process is called ratification.
On January 28, 1920, South Carolina voted to reject the 19th Amendment. But by August of 1920, 36 states ratified the Amendment, ensuring that in every state – even in South Carolina--the right to vote could not be denied based on sex.
On July 1, 1969, South Carolina showed its support for women’s suffrage by officially ratifying the 19th Amendment.
South Carolina Places of Women’s Suffrage: The Pickens-Salley House
In the late 1920s, noted suffragist and businesswoman Eulalie Chafee Salley purchased a historic house and had it moved to Aiken County. Salley preserved the home and was one of the first women actively involved in historic preservation in South Carolina. She was also well known for her dedication to women’s rights. Salley joined the South Carolina Equal Suffrage League of Women Voters and founded a local group called the Aiken County Equal Suffrage League. She also led the unsuccessful campaign to persuade South Carolina to ratify the 19th Amendment. Salley was so dedicated to the cause that she took a ride on one of the state’s first airplanes and scattered suffrage pamphlets from the air.
Last updated: August 27, 2019 | <urn:uuid:9217262e-1167-4fa3-aad5-eaaacc3a0dae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nps.gov/articles/south-carolina-women-s-history.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.981163 | 458 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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-0.109275825321... | 7 | Women first organized and collectively fought for suffrage at the national level in July of 1848. Suffragists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott convened a meeting of over 300 people in Seneca Falls, New York. In the following decades, women marched, protested, lobbied, and even went to jail. By the 1870s, women pressured Congress to vote on an amendment that would recognize their suffrage rights. This amendment was sometimes known as the Susan B. Anthony amendment and became the 19th Amendment.
The amendment reads:
"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United State or by any state on account of sex."
After decades of arguments for and against women's suffrage, Congress finally passed the 19th Amendment in June 1919. After Congress approved the 19th Amendment, at least 36 states needed to vote in favor of it for it to become law. This process is called ratification.
On January 28, 1920, South Carolina voted to reject the 19th Amendment. But by August of 1920, 36 states ratified the Amendment, ensuring that in every state – even in South Carolina--the right to vote could not be denied based on sex.
On July 1, 1969, South Carolina showed its support for women’s suffrage by officially ratifying the 19th Amendment.
South Carolina Places of Women’s Suffrage: The Pickens-Salley House
In the late 1920s, noted suffragist and businesswoman Eulalie Chafee Salley purchased a historic house and had it moved to Aiken County. Salley preserved the home and was one of the first women actively involved in historic preservation in South Carolina. She was also well known for her dedication to women’s rights. Salley joined the South Carolina Equal Suffrage League of Women Voters and founded a local group called the Aiken County Equal Suffrage League. She also led the unsuccessful campaign to persuade South Carolina to ratify the 19th Amendment. Salley was so dedicated to the cause that she took a ride on one of the state’s first airplanes and scattered suffrage pamphlets from the air.
Last updated: August 27, 2019 | 497 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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