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Courtesans with Fan and Flute attributed to Zhang Gui from the Qing dynasty. This painting depicts two Chinese courtesans one older one and one younger girl. The young girl is holding a flute which was seen as a very suggestive instrument at the time. While the older woman holds a fan and a rose, which were often seen as flowers relating to romance and love. The flute and rose fill this image with sexual innuendos showing how courtesans were perceived in Qing China. The older woman is looking down at the girl lovingly as if she is very proud of her for the work she is doing. Girls started their preparation to become a courtesan at a very young age and the older woman is probably training the young girl to become successful. The older woman has a lot more jewelry and flowers in her hair showing her seniority compared to the young girl who only has one clip in her hair. This painting fits into our exhibition on how the specific roles of women in Chinese and Japanese cultures were reflected in art by depicting how Chinese courtesans were viewed in ancient China. The painting shows how girls trained for the majority of their lives to become a good courtesan and had to work very hard to perfect all the skills they needed to know. It also illustrates how they were not similar to prostitutes because they were only used by upper-class educated men who wanted to enjoy their variety of talents. For example, courtesans could dance, play music and chess, and write, so they were not only used for sexual services but also many other activities. They were also not attainable to lower class citizens based on how expensive it was to hire courtesans. People respected the courtesans hard work and artistry and desired them, however, could not acquire them because of their exclusive nature. “Courtesans with Fan and Flute.” Freer\|Sackler, Smithsonian, asia.si.edu/object/F1916.107/. Courtesan at a Writing Desk by Isoda Koryusai. This image shows two courtesans looking over a desk at a handscroll. Given the knowledge that courtesans were highly educated in literature and music, the painting could be depicting the women practicing to gain more expertise. Both women are dressed in very extravagant detailed robes showing that they are probably high-ranking courtesans who are very respected people. The woman standing could be an older more advanced courtesan helping the younger one at the desk gain experience in her literary skills. The courtesan at the desk is covering half of the handscroll with her sleeve and the other courtesan is standing further back leaning forward to see what is on the scroll. These factors make it seem as though the women might not be supposed to look at this piece of writing and are reading it without someone’s knowledge. Koryusai was very well known for his images of flowers which are shown in a vase on the desk and also in the hair of the standing courtesan. The flowers in the vase look like plum blossom flowers, these symbolize elegance which is a very important image to hold as a courtesan in Japan. This painting fits into our exhibition on how the specific roles of women in Chinese and Japanese cultures were reflected in art by showing how Japanese courtesans were viewed during the Edo period. These women show the clothes that high-ranking courtesans would be seen wearing and also gives a glimpse into their daily life. It shows how these women would study and train for many years to achieve their rank. Also, it shows that they were not simply perceived as prostitutes during this times. The artwork shows that they were well educated and worked hard from a young age in order to gain status in their field. “Courtesan at a Wrtiting Desk.” Museum of Fine Arts Boston, collections.mfa.org/objects/26405. Toshusai Sharaku depicts a man and a woman who seem to be in an argument with each other. The man appears to be more dominant in the picture by the way he is looking down to the woman and she is looking at the ground. The couple looks like they were out on a walk but have now stopped short. The man seems very unhappy with the woman and she is leaning away from him showing that she wants to get away from the conversation they are having. The umbrella they are holding is a sun umbrella so it is probably a nice sunny day. However, the dark color background to the painting depicts the anger they are feeling and enhances that feeling that something is wrong. Toshusai Sharaku became very famous in the Japanese Edo period for his detailed paintings of actors, meaning it is probable that both people shown in this painting are men, because all actors at this time were male. Sharaku was well known for being able to express the intense emotions the actors would show during their performances. This can be seen in the large frown on the man’s face in this painting and the tense feeling that they both have. Sharaku also used mica, a shiny mineral, in his backgrounds, which was seen as an extravagant technique that many artist could not afford to use in their art. This painting fits into our exhibition because it give a different kind of depiction of how women were viewed in Japan during the Edo period. Although these are both male actors, the representation of the woman is how women would have been viewed during this time. Sharaku and the actors would try and present the most realistic interpretation of a women so it would be believable to both their audiences. This painting shows how women were subordinate to the male figures in their lives and were often not able to stand up for themselves. “Toshusai Sharaku.” The Trout Gallery, collections.troutgallery.org/obj14611?sid=6285&x=248167.	<urn:uuid:451c3457-3813-471a-b4a2-b1277170c063>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://blogs.dickinson.edu/womenandeastasianartau19/2019/12/10/courtesans-in-china-and-japan/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00175.warc.gz	en	0.990531	1,205	3.453125	3	[ -0.1819179505109787, 0.36580348014831543, 0.3466607630252838, 0.19180461764335632, -0.18755671381950378, 0.3336922526359558, 0.3452775776386261, -0.3981565833091736, 0.21675530076026917, -0.1856001317501068, -0.005642285570502281, -0.10024422407150269, 0.35164955258369446, 0.01561387442052...	2	Courtesans with Fan and Flute attributed to Zhang Gui from the Qing dynasty. This painting depicts two Chinese courtesans one older one and one younger girl. The young girl is holding a flute which was seen as a very suggestive instrument at the time. While the older woman holds a fan and a rose, which were often seen as flowers relating to romance and love. The flute and rose fill this image with sexual innuendos showing how courtesans were perceived in Qing China. The older woman is looking down at the girl lovingly as if she is very proud of her for the work she is doing. Girls started their preparation to become a courtesan at a very young age and the older woman is probably training the young girl to become successful. The older woman has a lot more jewelry and flowers in her hair showing her seniority compared to the young girl who only has one clip in her hair. This painting fits into our exhibition on how the specific roles of women in Chinese and Japanese cultures were reflected in art by depicting how Chinese courtesans were viewed in ancient China. The painting shows how girls trained for the majority of their lives to become a good courtesan and had to work very hard to perfect all the skills they needed to know. It also illustrates how they were not similar to prostitutes because they were only used by upper-class educated men who wanted to enjoy their variety of talents. For example, courtesans could dance, play music and chess, and write, so they were not only used for sexual services but also many other activities. They were also not attainable to lower class citizens based on how expensive it was to hire courtesans. People respected the courtesans hard work and artistry and desired them, however, could not acquire them because of their exclusive nature. “Courtesans with Fan and Flute.” Freer\|Sackler, Smithsonian, asia.si.edu/object/F1916.107/. Courtesan at a Writing Desk by Isoda Koryusai. This image shows two courtesans looking over a desk at a handscroll. Given the knowledge that courtesans were highly educated in literature and music, the painting could be depicting the women practicing to gain more expertise. Both women are dressed in very extravagant detailed robes showing that they are probably high-ranking courtesans who are very respected people. The woman standing could be an older more advanced courtesan helping the younger one at the desk gain experience in her literary skills. The courtesan at the desk is covering half of the handscroll with her sleeve and the other courtesan is standing further back leaning forward to see what is on the scroll. These factors make it seem as though the women might not be supposed to look at this piece of writing and are reading it without someone’s knowledge. Koryusai was very well known for his images of flowers which are shown in a vase on the desk and also in the hair of the standing courtesan. The flowers in the vase look like plum blossom flowers, these symbolize elegance which is a very important image to hold as a courtesan in Japan. This painting fits into our exhibition on how the specific roles of women in Chinese and Japanese cultures were reflected in art by showing how Japanese courtesans were viewed during the Edo period. These women show the clothes that high-ranking courtesans would be seen wearing and also gives a glimpse into their daily life. It shows how these women would study and train for many years to achieve their rank. Also, it shows that they were not simply perceived as prostitutes during this times. The artwork shows that they were well educated and worked hard from a young age in order to gain status in their field. “Courtesan at a Wrtiting Desk.” Museum of Fine Arts Boston, collections.mfa.org/objects/26405. Toshusai Sharaku depicts a man and a woman who seem to be in an argument with each other. The man appears to be more dominant in the picture by the way he is looking down to the woman and she is looking at the ground. The couple looks like they were out on a walk but have now stopped short. The man seems very unhappy with the woman and she is leaning away from him showing that she wants to get away from the conversation they are having. The umbrella they are holding is a sun umbrella so it is probably a nice sunny day. However, the dark color background to the painting depicts the anger they are feeling and enhances that feeling that something is wrong. Toshusai Sharaku became very famous in the Japanese Edo period for his detailed paintings of actors, meaning it is probable that both people shown in this painting are men, because all actors at this time were male. Sharaku was well known for being able to express the intense emotions the actors would show during their performances. This can be seen in the large frown on the man’s face in this painting and the tense feeling that they both have. Sharaku also used mica, a shiny mineral, in his backgrounds, which was seen as an extravagant technique that many artist could not afford to use in their art. This painting fits into our exhibition because it give a different kind of depiction of how women were viewed in Japan during the Edo period. Although these are both male actors, the representation of the woman is how women would have been viewed during this time. Sharaku and the actors would try and present the most realistic interpretation of a women so it would be believable to both their audiences. This painting shows how women were subordinate to the male figures in their lives and were often not able to stand up for themselves. “Toshusai Sharaku.” The Trout Gallery, collections.troutgallery.org/obj14611?sid=6285&x=248167.	1,194	ENGLISH	1
How to Write a Summary of an Article? The Henrician Reformation posed many religiously inspired ideology as well as both political and dynastic considerations. His personal reasoning is simply that he wanted to secure an heir to the throne. I am focusing on the political reasoning for this paper. Tell us what you need to have done now! Lower clergy was leading a life of misery and poverty, while the higher clergymen lived a life of wealth and pleasure. With all of these discontentment and resentment, it was an optimum time for Henry to make his change. He took necessary steps to limit the power of the clergy in the English church by destroying monasteries and enacting laws that were to be followed by the church authorities. The substance of these laws mandated that a priest could be associated with a single church The henrician reformation essay and that the Pope was to be elected by the clergy who were nominated by the King. In the end, the English church was separated from the Roman church and the communities of Christians were split into two camps: The Henrician Reformation is characterized by the monarchy and the Church of England being fundamentally reshaped. I believe that this reshaping was distinguished by two categories: Henry saw himself as a godly reformer, a king who answered directly to God. He sees himself as the king who had banished corruption from the Church and restored the truth of the Bible. The Act of Supremacy is one of the crucial key in Henrician Reformation as well as his plans for monastic dissolution. After all, he was the King of England and as King, he was the head of the church. As the head of the Church, he has all authority to make all decisions regarding the Church and religious matters. If Henry was to be the head of the church as king, he had to be a godly king because his success was dependent on his divineness as the head of the English church. So to maintain his divineness, Henry had to dissolve the monasteries. This was crucial since the religious houses were loyal to the papal authority and this loyalty had to be crushed in order to drown out all foreign influence. Further, dissolving the monasteries was an act that clearly exercised the kind of authority Henry VIII bestowed upon himself through the Act of Supremacy. The type of control Henry desired was made to manifest through the dissolution of the monasteries, and any attempt to defy him was crushed mercilessly. Inthe English Bible was published under sanction of the government and allowed to be freely distributed. Henry knew that monasteries were likely to bear allegiance to Rome, so he abolished them. Another factor that played in the abolishment of the monasteries was greed.The Motives, Causes, and Results of the Henrician Reformation: A Brief Inquiry of Druids and sacrifices—even human sacrifices—to mysterious deities. 7 A major reason for this ambiguity is the fact that early British society was illiterate, and hence. We will write a custom essay sample on Was the Henrician Reformation inevitable specifically for you for only $ $/page. Order now made possible the religious changes in the Henrician reformation. With the Reform being initiated by the government, and supported from below in the commonwealth, it would seem the reformation was far. Essay on The Reformation The Reformation. The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the . The English Reformation was the result of Henry VIII's desire to obtain a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, pure and simple. There was no basis in philosophy, thought, or politics that brought it. The Henrician Reformation Essay Words \| 4 Pages The Henrician Reformation The Henrician Reformation had much more political purpose than religious principles and to understand this much of the motives and changes of the reformation need to be considered. The Henrician Reformation Essay Words 4 Pages The Henrician Reformation The Henrician Reformation had much more political purpose than religious principles and to understand this much of the motives and changes of the reformation need to be considered.	<urn:uuid:c09695e2-947c-4faf-925f-9afc691e61dd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://piqyjonifacysij.regardbouddhiste.com/the-henrician-reformation-essay-28762nh.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00357.warc.gz	en	0.984607	869	3.265625	3	[ -0.37187135219573975, 0.3334503769874573, -0.10850584506988525, -0.14789485931396484, -0.3156362771987915, -0.06358476728200912, -0.23628810048103333, 0.11536732316017151, 0.11027241498231888, 0.053657837212085724, -0.171620711684227, -0.2618408203125, 0.31592512130737305, 0.00230453675612...	2	How to Write a Summary of an Article? The Henrician Reformation posed many religiously inspired ideology as well as both political and dynastic considerations. His personal reasoning is simply that he wanted to secure an heir to the throne. I am focusing on the political reasoning for this paper. Tell us what you need to have done now! Lower clergy was leading a life of misery and poverty, while the higher clergymen lived a life of wealth and pleasure. With all of these discontentment and resentment, it was an optimum time for Henry to make his change. He took necessary steps to limit the power of the clergy in the English church by destroying monasteries and enacting laws that were to be followed by the church authorities. The substance of these laws mandated that a priest could be associated with a single church The henrician reformation essay and that the Pope was to be elected by the clergy who were nominated by the King. In the end, the English church was separated from the Roman church and the communities of Christians were split into two camps: The Henrician Reformation is characterized by the monarchy and the Church of England being fundamentally reshaped. I believe that this reshaping was distinguished by two categories: Henry saw himself as a godly reformer, a king who answered directly to God. He sees himself as the king who had banished corruption from the Church and restored the truth of the Bible. The Act of Supremacy is one of the crucial key in Henrician Reformation as well as his plans for monastic dissolution. After all, he was the King of England and as King, he was the head of the church. As the head of the Church, he has all authority to make all decisions regarding the Church and religious matters. If Henry was to be the head of the church as king, he had to be a godly king because his success was dependent on his divineness as the head of the English church. So to maintain his divineness, Henry had to dissolve the monasteries. This was crucial since the religious houses were loyal to the papal authority and this loyalty had to be crushed in order to drown out all foreign influence. Further, dissolving the monasteries was an act that clearly exercised the kind of authority Henry VIII bestowed upon himself through the Act of Supremacy. The type of control Henry desired was made to manifest through the dissolution of the monasteries, and any attempt to defy him was crushed mercilessly. Inthe English Bible was published under sanction of the government and allowed to be freely distributed. Henry knew that monasteries were likely to bear allegiance to Rome, so he abolished them. Another factor that played in the abolishment of the monasteries was greed.The Motives, Causes, and Results of the Henrician Reformation: A Brief Inquiry of Druids and sacrifices—even human sacrifices—to mysterious deities. 7 A major reason for this ambiguity is the fact that early British society was illiterate, and hence. We will write a custom essay sample on Was the Henrician Reformation inevitable specifically for you for only $ $/page. Order now made possible the religious changes in the Henrician reformation. With the Reform being initiated by the government, and supported from below in the commonwealth, it would seem the reformation was far. Essay on The Reformation The Reformation. The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the . The English Reformation was the result of Henry VIII's desire to obtain a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, pure and simple. There was no basis in philosophy, thought, or politics that brought it. The Henrician Reformation Essay Words \| 4 Pages The Henrician Reformation The Henrician Reformation had much more political purpose than religious principles and to understand this much of the motives and changes of the reformation need to be considered. The Henrician Reformation Essay Words 4 Pages The Henrician Reformation The Henrician Reformation had much more political purpose than religious principles and to understand this much of the motives and changes of the reformation need to be considered.	856	ENGLISH	1
Matthew Thornton was an Irish born American physician and legislator who was one of the 56 signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence in 1776. He was a man of principles who believed that freedom is everyone’s bright right. Though he was born in Ireland he migrated to America at the young age of three and developed an undying love for the country. An intelligent young man, he chose to become a physician so that he could help others by alleviating their sufferings. He studied medicine under Doctor Grout, and established himself as a physician and surgeon. He was hardworking and ambitious and built a successful medical practice that made him quite wealthy and earned him considerable social status as well. During the King George’s War, he was selected to serve as a surgeon in the New Hampshire military. His political career began when he was elected as a delegate for Londonderry in the Colonial Assembly. Later on he went on to become the President of the New Hampshire Provincial Congress. He served as the president of the five member committee that drafted the first state constitution that America was to adopt on her independence. He signed the U.S. Declaration of Independence in 1776 and was elected a delegate to the Continental Congress. - He was born to Elizabeth and James Thornton in Ireland. The family migrated to America when he was three years old. At first they lived in Maine but soon shifted to Massachusetts following an attack on their home.He attended Worcester Academy from where he received his basic education. His goal was to pursue a career in medicine and he completed his medical studies at Leicester under the guidance of a physician relative, Dr.Grout.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists: - After completing his education, the young and ambitious Thornton started a medical practice in 1740 when he was 26 years old. His practice thrived and soon he made a name for himself as a successful physician and surgeon.He was enlisted as a surgeon in the New Hampshire Military in 1745 during the King George’s War that lasted till 1748. He played a major role in siege of the French Fortress of Louisbourg.In 1758, he was chosen as a delegate to the colonial assembly where he represented Londonderry. He took active part in colonial affairs and was a prominent participant in the protests against the Stamp Act in New Hampshire.He believed strongly in the concept of freedom and liberty and was of the view that the states of America should be freed from the control of the British Empire. He openly condemned the oppressive acts of the British Parliament.He was appointed the President of the New Hampshire Provincial Congress in 1775 and also elected the Chairman of the Committee of Safety which was in charge of raising ammunitions at times of war.As a member of the Committee of Safety, he was responsible for drafting the first state constitution that would be adopted after the dissolution of the British Empire rule.On 4 July 1776, the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence which had been approved a couple of days before. Thornton signed the Declaration as a representative of New Hampshire, becoming one of the 56 delegates who signed the Declaration.After independence, he was elected the first president of the New Hampshire House of Representatives. In spite of not having any legal education, he was chosen to serve as a justice in the Superior Court from 1776 to 1782.When his public career ended, he also retired from medical practice owing to his advancing age. He spent his later years farming and operating a ferry.Major Works - He played a major role in the expedition leading to the capture of the French fortress of Louisbourg. The troops were led by Colonel William Pepperell and Thornton was the accompanying surgeon. The expedition was a physically excruciating one for the soldiers, but only six among the 500 entrusted to the doctor died of sickness.He is famous as one of the 56 signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. Initially he was not able to participate in the signing of the Declaration on 2 August 1776, but then he got the opportunity to sign the document on a later date along with some others.Personal Life & Legacy - He married Hannah Jack in 1760 and had five children with her.After retiring from both his public career and medical profession, he spent his leisure time farming. He also operated a ferry service. He led an active life till the very end and died in 1803 at the age of 89.Trivia - The original epitaph on his grave simply reads "An Honest Man."He was also a political essayist who wrote many essays, articles, and letters for various newspapers. How To CiteArticle Title- Matthew Thornton BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/matthew-thornton-3999.phpLast Updated- October 27, 2017 People Also Viewed	<urn:uuid:a170c06f-52a8-4580-84a5-33d36d5eebf2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/matthew-thornton-3999.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00093.warc.gz	en	0.988484	1,001	3.34375	3	[ 0.2736778259277344, 0.08106788247823715, 0.24231968820095062, -0.13055387139320374, -0.30865663290023804, -0.15351036190986633, 0.4670697748661041, -0.0408787801861763, -0.5289885997772217, 0.030728571116924286, 0.06206652894616127, 0.22193235158920288, 0.08416933566331863, 0.4024128913879...	1	Matthew Thornton was an Irish born American physician and legislator who was one of the 56 signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence in 1776. He was a man of principles who believed that freedom is everyone’s bright right. Though he was born in Ireland he migrated to America at the young age of three and developed an undying love for the country. An intelligent young man, he chose to become a physician so that he could help others by alleviating their sufferings. He studied medicine under Doctor Grout, and established himself as a physician and surgeon. He was hardworking and ambitious and built a successful medical practice that made him quite wealthy and earned him considerable social status as well. During the King George’s War, he was selected to serve as a surgeon in the New Hampshire military. His political career began when he was elected as a delegate for Londonderry in the Colonial Assembly. Later on he went on to become the President of the New Hampshire Provincial Congress. He served as the president of the five member committee that drafted the first state constitution that America was to adopt on her independence. He signed the U.S. Declaration of Independence in 1776 and was elected a delegate to the Continental Congress. - He was born to Elizabeth and James Thornton in Ireland. The family migrated to America when he was three years old. At first they lived in Maine but soon shifted to Massachusetts following an attack on their home.He attended Worcester Academy from where he received his basic education. His goal was to pursue a career in medicine and he completed his medical studies at Leicester under the guidance of a physician relative, Dr.Grout.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists: - After completing his education, the young and ambitious Thornton started a medical practice in 1740 when he was 26 years old. His practice thrived and soon he made a name for himself as a successful physician and surgeon.He was enlisted as a surgeon in the New Hampshire Military in 1745 during the King George’s War that lasted till 1748. He played a major role in siege of the French Fortress of Louisbourg.In 1758, he was chosen as a delegate to the colonial assembly where he represented Londonderry. He took active part in colonial affairs and was a prominent participant in the protests against the Stamp Act in New Hampshire.He believed strongly in the concept of freedom and liberty and was of the view that the states of America should be freed from the control of the British Empire. He openly condemned the oppressive acts of the British Parliament.He was appointed the President of the New Hampshire Provincial Congress in 1775 and also elected the Chairman of the Committee of Safety which was in charge of raising ammunitions at times of war.As a member of the Committee of Safety, he was responsible for drafting the first state constitution that would be adopted after the dissolution of the British Empire rule.On 4 July 1776, the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence which had been approved a couple of days before. Thornton signed the Declaration as a representative of New Hampshire, becoming one of the 56 delegates who signed the Declaration.After independence, he was elected the first president of the New Hampshire House of Representatives. In spite of not having any legal education, he was chosen to serve as a justice in the Superior Court from 1776 to 1782.When his public career ended, he also retired from medical practice owing to his advancing age. He spent his later years farming and operating a ferry.Major Works - He played a major role in the expedition leading to the capture of the French fortress of Louisbourg. The troops were led by Colonel William Pepperell and Thornton was the accompanying surgeon. The expedition was a physically excruciating one for the soldiers, but only six among the 500 entrusted to the doctor died of sickness.He is famous as one of the 56 signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. Initially he was not able to participate in the signing of the Declaration on 2 August 1776, but then he got the opportunity to sign the document on a later date along with some others.Personal Life & Legacy - He married Hannah Jack in 1760 and had five children with her.After retiring from both his public career and medical profession, he spent his leisure time farming. He also operated a ferry service. He led an active life till the very end and died in 1803 at the age of 89.Trivia - The original epitaph on his grave simply reads "An Honest Man."He was also a political essayist who wrote many essays, articles, and letters for various newspapers. How To CiteArticle Title- Matthew Thornton BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/matthew-thornton-3999.phpLast Updated- October 27, 2017 People Also Viewed	1,029	ENGLISH	1
World War II provided unprecedented opportunities for women in many countries to join the workforce. Since it involved global conflicts on what can be termed as an unprecedented scale; an urgency of mobilizing all people to join in the war made the evolution of women’s role inevitable. As a result, women were able to acquire jobs that had never been open to women especially in the defense industry in countries such as; but not limited to, the US, Great Britain, Germany and the Soviet Union (Summerfield, Penny, 88). Due to the new found freedoms as well as opportunities in the war, it was almost, “like being let out of a cage,” for many women. In most countries; before the war, some of the “women’s work,” include, being homemakers, clerical work, teaching, as well as nursing (Goldin, Claudia, & Claudia Olivetti, 258). However, the World War II provided women a chance to overcome not only cultural stereotypes; that to a great extent worked against them, but also dislocation and discrimination which they had endured for decades in the society and the labor force industry (American women and World War II). Employment of Women during the World War II During the World War II men were essentially the only ones involved in the war, however, as more men died in the war, there was need to recruit more soldiers to fill the labor vacuum created. By 1941, the war production industries were forced to overcome the significant social obstacles that surrounded women’s ability as well as capacity to engage in “Men’s Work” in the labor market (Goldin, Claudia, & Claudia Olivetti, 258). Women were called out to participate in the war in large numbers with most campaigns stressing on the patriotic need for all women to join the workforce. As a result in the US, more than 350,000 women volunteered to join the military service while twenty times that number stepped into civilian jobs which had been regarded as “men’s work. More than 7 million women who had not been employed, hence, earning wages joined approximately 11 million others in the American labor market. Other women later joined the workforce in an attempt to take advantage of the opportunities brought about by wartime (Summerfield, Penny, 88). However, some women in Great Britain, as well as the US, choose to remain in their hometowns in an effort to organize home front initiatives that were aimed at building morale, conserving the available resources, and raising funds for the war. After engaging in in-depth training programs prepared by major industries, women began working in major factories building ships and airplanes, producing ammunitions as chemical analysts, mechanics, and engineers. They also worked in the auxiliary services as air-raid wardens, fire engine drivers, conductors, and as evacuation and fire officers (Summerfield, Penny, 92). On the other hand, others joined the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force, the Army, Marine Corps, Navy Nurse Corps, and the Navy-Coast Guard. Problems Faced by Women The entry of women into occupations previously male dominated, renewed debates concerning the issue of equal pay. During this period, women’s’ salaries were much lower as compared to those of men. In the US on average women earned approximately $ 31.21 while men earned $ 54.65 on a weekly basis. After several negotiations, limited agreements were made for all the women that performed similar jobs to men. However, in the US, most of the employers to a great extent managed to circumvent the issue, and as a result, women’s pay remained approximately 53% of the salary that had been acquired by the men replaced (Goldin, Claudia, & Claudia Olivetti, 260). During the World War, women particularly mothers were faced with the challenge of addressing their dual role as both mothers and workers. It was almost impossible for such mothers to provide care for their children. For example in the US, to solve this problem, Eleanor Roosevelt sought help from Franklin Roosevelt to establish government childcare facilities which were created in 1942 under the Community Facilities Act. Eventually, more than seven centers with the capacity of approximately 105,000 children were created (McEuen). Eleanor Roosevelt also urged all the industries to establish model childcare facilities for their women workers. Despite such massive efforts, they failed to meet the full child care needs for working mothers (McEuen). Another prevalent problem faced by women was cultural resistance to women occupying and working in male dominated environments. To eliminate this problem, the US government created propaganda Campaigns which centered on a popular figure “Rosie the Riveter”; a fictitious female character that was portrayed as feminine yet very strong. Rosie the Riveter became the most iconic image representing the working women (Knaff, 120). In an effort to give reassurance to men; that demands of war would not make working women more masculine, most of the factories provided lessons to all the women such as on how to apply makeup; moreover, cosmetics were never rationed in workplaces throughout the World War II (Knaff, 120). For the Americans, keeping women looking attractive and at their best was believed to be vital for morale. Employment of Women after the World War II After the world, all men returned home and eventually assumed their pre-war occupations that were being occupied by women. As a result, women were driven out of various manufacturing as well as industrial trades they held, even though approximately 75% of women had voiced their wish to continue working. Also, the period after the world war was also marked by the rise of baby boomers where women became full-time housewives and homemakers. After being forcefully laid off from previous wartime occupations and into the world of domesticity most of the women felt extremely disenfranchised. Moreover, the 1950s are in most instances identified as the pinnacle of gender inequality because women were not only denigrated but also portrayed as “submissive, stupid as well as purely domestic creatures” (kgeorge). Despite this, the World War II had already solidified the notion that most of the women were in the labor force market to stay. Consequently, many organizations were established such as the Woman’s Club of Winter Park, which rose as an important venue for feminists. Such groups aimed at advancing the civic, social, moral and educational welfare of women (kgeorge). They also sought to seek corporation with similar organizations to promote knowledge as well as interest in employment. Although the years immediately after the World War II inclusive of the 1950s did not encompass as many feminist movements as those established in the 1960s and 70s, it is quite clear that the concept of feminism began to percolate immediately after the World War II. This post about equal contribution to the victory over fascism that will guide us to the topic about equality that you can read in the man and woman should have equal rights essay.	<urn:uuid:096101c5-3fb6-4434-a902-459d74854681>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://womenasagentsofchange.org/women-in-world-war-ii/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00250.warc.gz	en	0.984985	1,435	4.46875	4	[ -0.33189916610717773, 0.1909189373254776, -0.1609383225440979, -0.007239942904561758, 0.0709766149520874, 0.3152574300765991, -0.10617531836032867, 0.15671072900295258, 0.017771342769265175, -0.24725542962551117, 0.1689259558916092, 0.04524574428796768, 0.13944107294082642, 0.2756655812263...	21	World War II provided unprecedented opportunities for women in many countries to join the workforce. Since it involved global conflicts on what can be termed as an unprecedented scale; an urgency of mobilizing all people to join in the war made the evolution of women’s role inevitable. As a result, women were able to acquire jobs that had never been open to women especially in the defense industry in countries such as; but not limited to, the US, Great Britain, Germany and the Soviet Union (Summerfield, Penny, 88). Due to the new found freedoms as well as opportunities in the war, it was almost, “like being let out of a cage,” for many women. In most countries; before the war, some of the “women’s work,” include, being homemakers, clerical work, teaching, as well as nursing (Goldin, Claudia, & Claudia Olivetti, 258). However, the World War II provided women a chance to overcome not only cultural stereotypes; that to a great extent worked against them, but also dislocation and discrimination which they had endured for decades in the society and the labor force industry (American women and World War II). Employment of Women during the World War II During the World War II men were essentially the only ones involved in the war, however, as more men died in the war, there was need to recruit more soldiers to fill the labor vacuum created. By 1941, the war production industries were forced to overcome the significant social obstacles that surrounded women’s ability as well as capacity to engage in “Men’s Work” in the labor market (Goldin, Claudia, & Claudia Olivetti, 258). Women were called out to participate in the war in large numbers with most campaigns stressing on the patriotic need for all women to join the workforce. As a result in the US, more than 350,000 women volunteered to join the military service while twenty times that number stepped into civilian jobs which had been regarded as “men’s work. More than 7 million women who had not been employed, hence, earning wages joined approximately 11 million others in the American labor market. Other women later joined the workforce in an attempt to take advantage of the opportunities brought about by wartime (Summerfield, Penny, 88). However, some women in Great Britain, as well as the US, choose to remain in their hometowns in an effort to organize home front initiatives that were aimed at building morale, conserving the available resources, and raising funds for the war. After engaging in in-depth training programs prepared by major industries, women began working in major factories building ships and airplanes, producing ammunitions as chemical analysts, mechanics, and engineers. They also worked in the auxiliary services as air-raid wardens, fire engine drivers, conductors, and as evacuation and fire officers (Summerfield, Penny, 92). On the other hand, others joined the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force, the Army, Marine Corps, Navy Nurse Corps, and the Navy-Coast Guard. Problems Faced by Women The entry of women into occupations previously male dominated, renewed debates concerning the issue of equal pay. During this period, women’s’ salaries were much lower as compared to those of men. In the US on average women earned approximately $ 31.21 while men earned $ 54.65 on a weekly basis. After several negotiations, limited agreements were made for all the women that performed similar jobs to men. However, in the US, most of the employers to a great extent managed to circumvent the issue, and as a result, women’s pay remained approximately 53% of the salary that had been acquired by the men replaced (Goldin, Claudia, & Claudia Olivetti, 260). During the World War, women particularly mothers were faced with the challenge of addressing their dual role as both mothers and workers. It was almost impossible for such mothers to provide care for their children. For example in the US, to solve this problem, Eleanor Roosevelt sought help from Franklin Roosevelt to establish government childcare facilities which were created in 1942 under the Community Facilities Act. Eventually, more than seven centers with the capacity of approximately 105,000 children were created (McEuen). Eleanor Roosevelt also urged all the industries to establish model childcare facilities for their women workers. Despite such massive efforts, they failed to meet the full child care needs for working mothers (McEuen). Another prevalent problem faced by women was cultural resistance to women occupying and working in male dominated environments. To eliminate this problem, the US government created propaganda Campaigns which centered on a popular figure “Rosie the Riveter”; a fictitious female character that was portrayed as feminine yet very strong. Rosie the Riveter became the most iconic image representing the working women (Knaff, 120). In an effort to give reassurance to men; that demands of war would not make working women more masculine, most of the factories provided lessons to all the women such as on how to apply makeup; moreover, cosmetics were never rationed in workplaces throughout the World War II (Knaff, 120). For the Americans, keeping women looking attractive and at their best was believed to be vital for morale. Employment of Women after the World War II After the world, all men returned home and eventually assumed their pre-war occupations that were being occupied by women. As a result, women were driven out of various manufacturing as well as industrial trades they held, even though approximately 75% of women had voiced their wish to continue working. Also, the period after the world war was also marked by the rise of baby boomers where women became full-time housewives and homemakers. After being forcefully laid off from previous wartime occupations and into the world of domesticity most of the women felt extremely disenfranchised. Moreover, the 1950s are in most instances identified as the pinnacle of gender inequality because women were not only denigrated but also portrayed as “submissive, stupid as well as purely domestic creatures” (kgeorge). Despite this, the World War II had already solidified the notion that most of the women were in the labor force market to stay. Consequently, many organizations were established such as the Woman’s Club of Winter Park, which rose as an important venue for feminists. Such groups aimed at advancing the civic, social, moral and educational welfare of women (kgeorge). They also sought to seek corporation with similar organizations to promote knowledge as well as interest in employment. Although the years immediately after the World War II inclusive of the 1950s did not encompass as many feminist movements as those established in the 1960s and 70s, it is quite clear that the concept of feminism began to percolate immediately after the World War II. This post about equal contribution to the victory over fascism that will guide us to the topic about equality that you can read in the man and woman should have equal rights essay.	1,448	ENGLISH	1
2. the anglo-french war One brief but tragic incident, which occurred within a century after the European War, may be said to have sealed the fate of the First Men. During this century the will for peace and sanity was already becoming a serious factor in history. Save for a number of most untoward accidents, to be recorded in due course, the party of peace might have dominated Europe during its most dangerous period; and, through Europe, the world. With either a little less bad luck or a fraction more of vision and self-control at this critical time, there might never have occurred that aeon of darkness, in which the First Men were presently to be submerged. For had victory been gained before the general level of mentality had seriously begun to decline, the attainment of the world state might have been regarded, not as an end, but as the first step toward true civilization. But this was not to be. After the European War the defeated nation, formerly no less militaristic than the others, now became the most pacific, and a stronghold of enlightenment. Almost everywhere, indeed, there had occurred a profound change of heart, but chiefly in Germany. The victors on the other hand, in spite of their real craving to be human and generous, and to found a new world, were led partly by their own timidity, partly by their governors' blind diplomacy, into all the vices against which they believed themselves to have been crusading. After a brief period in which they desperately affected amity for one another they began to indulge once more in physical conflicts. Of these conflicts, two must be observed. The first outbreak, and the less disastrous for Europe, was a short and grotesque struggle between France and Italy. Since the fall of ancient Rome, the Italians had excelled more in art and literature than in martial achievement. But the heroic liberation of Italy in the nineteenth Christian century had made Italians peculiarly sensitive to national prestige; and since among Western peoples national vigour was measured in terms of military glory, the Italians were fired, by their success against a rickety foreign domination, to vindicate themselves more thoroughly against the charge of mediocrity in warfare. After the European War, however, Italy passed through a phase of social disorder and self-distrust. Subsequently a flamboyant but sincere national party gained control of the State, and afforded the Italians a new selfrespect, based on reform of the social services, and on militaristic policy. Trains became punctual, streets clean, morals puritanical. Aviation records were won for Italy. The young, dressed up and taught to play at soldiers with real fire-arms, were persuaded to regard themselves as saviours of the nation, encouraged to shed blood, and used to enforce the will of the Government. The whole movement was engineered chiefly by a man whose genius in action combined with his rhetoric and crudity of thought to make him a very successful dictator. Almost miraculously he drilled the Italian nation into efficiency. At the same time, with great emotional effect and incredible lack of humour he trumpeted Italy's self-importance, and her will to "expand." And since Italians were slow to learn the necessity of restricting their population, "expansion" was a real need. Thus it came about that Italy, hungry for French territory in Africa, jealous of French leadership of the Latin races, indignant at the protection afforded to Italian "traitors" in France, became increasingly prone to quarrel with the most assertive of her late allies. It was a frontier incident, a fancied "insult to the Italian flag," which at last caused an unauthorized raid upon French territory by a small party of Italian militia. The raiders were captured, but French blood was shed. The consequent demand for apology and reparation was calm, but subtly offensive to Italian dignity. Italian patriots worked themselves into short-sighted fury. The Dictator, far from daring to apologize, was forced to require the release of the captive militia-men, and finally to declare war. After a single sharp engagement the relentless armies of France pressed into North Italy. Resistance, at first heroic, soon became chaotic. In consternation the Italians woke from their dream of military glory. The populace turned against the Dictator whom they themselves had forced to declare war. In a theatrical but gallant attempt to dominate the Roman mob, he failed, and was killed. The new government made a hasty peace, ceding to France a frontier territory which she had already annexed for "security." Thenceforth Italians were less concerned to outshine the glory of Garibaldi than to emulate the greater glory of Dante, Giotto and Galileo. France had now complete mastery of the continent of Europe; but having much to lose, she behaved arrogantly and nervously. It was not long before peace was once more disturbed. Scarcely had the last veterans of the European War ceased from wearying their juniors with reminiscence, when the long rivalry between France and England culminated in a dispute between their respective Governments over a case of sexual outrage said to have been committed by a French African soldier upon an Englishwoman. In this quarrel, the British Government happened to be definitely in the wrong, and was probably confused by its own sexual repressions. The outrage had never been committed. The facts which gave rise to the rumour were, that an idle and neurotic Englishwoman in the south of France, craving the embraces of a "cave man," had seduced a Senegalese corporal in her own apartments. When, later, he had shown signs of boredom, she took revenge by declaring that he had attacked her indecently in the woods above the town. This rumour was such that the English were all too prone to savour and believe. At the same time, the magnates of the English Press could not resist this opportunity of trading upon the public's sexuality, tribalism and self-righteousness. There followed an epidemic of abuse, and occasional violence, against French subjects in England; and thus the party of fear and militarism in France was given the opportunity it had long sought. For the real cause of this war was connected with air power. France had persuaded the League of Nations (in one of its less intelligent moments) to restrict the size of military aeroplanes in such a manner that, while London lay within easy striking distance of the French coast, Paris could only with difficulty be touched by England. This state of affairs obviously could not last long. Britain was agitating more and more insistently for the removal of the restriction. On the other hand, there was an increasing demand for complete aerial disarmament in Europe; and so strong was the party of sanity in France, that the scheme would almost certainly have been accepted by the French Government. On both counts, therefore, the militarists of France were eager to strike while yet there was opportunity. In an instant, the whole fruit of this effort for disarmament was destroyed. That subtle difference of mentality which had ever made it impossible for these two nations to understand one another, was suddenly exaggerated by this provocative incident into an apparently insoluble discord. England reverted to her conviction that all Frenchmen were sensualists, while to France the English appeared, as often before, the most offensive of hypocrites. In vain did the saner minds in each country insist on the fundamental humanity of both. In vain, did the chastened Germans seek to mediate. In vain did the League, which by now had very great prestige and authority, threaten both parties with expulsion, even with chastisement. Rumour got about in Paris that England, breaking all her international pledges, was now feverishly building giant planes which would wreck France from Calais to Marseilles. And indeed the rumour was not wholly a slander, for when the struggle began, the British air force was found to have a range of intensive action far wider than was expected. Yet the actual outbreak of war took England by surprise. While the London papers were selling out upon the news that war was declared, enemy planes appeared over the city. In a couple of hours a third of London was in ruins, and half her population lay poisoned in the streets. One bomb, falling beside the British Museum, turned the whole of Bloomsbury into a crater, wherein fragments of mummies, statues, and manuscripts were mingled with the contents of shops, and morsels of salesmen and the intelligentsia. Thus in a moment was destroyed a large proportion of England's most precious relics and most fertile brains. Then occurred one of those microscopic, yet supremely potent incidents which sometimes mould the course of events for centuries. During the bombardment a special meeting of the British Cabinet was held in a cellar in Downing Street. The party in power at the time was progressive, mildly pacifist, and timorously cosmopolitan. It had got itself involved in the French quarrel quite unintentionally. At this Cabinet meeting an idealistic member urged upon his colleagues the need for a supreme gesture of heroism and generosity on the part of Britain. Raising his voice with difficulty above the bark of English guns and the volcanic crash of French bombs, he suggested sending by radio the following message: "From the people of England to the people of France. Catastrophe has fallen on us at your hands. In this hour of agony, all hate and anger have left us. Our eyes are opened. No longer can we think of ourselves as English merely, and you as merely French; all of us are, before all else, civilized beings. Do not imagine that we are defeated, and that this message is a cry for mercy. Our armament is intact, and our resources still very great. Yet, because of the revelation which has come to us today, we will not fight. No plane, no ship, no soldier of Britain shall commit any further act of hostility. Do what you will. It would be better even that a great people should be destroyed than that the whole race should be thrown into turmoil. But you will not strike again. As our own eyes have been opened by agony, yours now will be opened by our act of brotherhood. The spirit of France and the spirit of England differ. They differ deeply; but only as the eye differs from the hand. Without you, we should be barbarians. And without us, even the bright spirit of France would be but half expressed. For the spirit of France lives again in our culture and in our very speech; and the spirit of England is that which strikes from you your most distinctive brilliance." At no earlier stage of man's history could such a message have been considered seriously by any government. Had it been suggested during the previous war, its author would have been ridiculed, execrated, perhaps even murdered. But since those days, much had happened. Increased communication, increased cultural intercourse, and a prolonged vigorous campaign for cosmopolitanism, had changed the mentality of Europe. Even so, when, after a brief discussion, the Government ordered this unique message to be sent, its members were awed by their own act. As one of them expressed it, they were uncertain whether it was the devil or the deity that had possessed them, but possessed they certainly were. That night the people of London (those who were left) experienced an exaltation of spirit. Disorganization of the city's life, overwhelming physical suffering and compassion, the consciousness of an unprecedented spiritual act in which each individual felt himself to have somehow participated—these influences combined to produce, even in the bustle and confusion of a wrecked metropolis, a certain restrained fervour, and a deep peace of mind, wholly unfamiliar to Londoners. Meanwhile the undamaged North knew not whether to regard the Government's sudden pacificism as a piece of cowardice or as a superbly courageous gesture. Very soon, however, they began to make a virtue of necessity, and incline to the latter view. Paris itself was divided by the message into a vocal party of triumph and a silent party of bewilderment. But as the hours advanced, and the former urged a policy of aggression, the latter found voice for the cry, "Viva l'Angleterre, viva l'humanité." And so strong by now was the will for cosmopolitanism that the upshot would almost certainly have been a triumph of sanity, had there not occurred in England an accident which tilted the whole precarious course of events in the opposite direction. The bombardment had occurred on a Friday night. On Saturday the repercussions of England's great message were echoing throughout the nations. That evening, as a wet and foggy day was achieving its pallid sunset, a French plane was seen over the western outskirts of London. It gradually descended, and was regarded by onlookers as a messenger of peace. Lower and lower it came. Something was seen to part from it and fall. In a few seconds an immense explosion occurred in the neighbourhood of a great school and a royal palace. There was hideous destruction in the school. The palace escaped. But, chief disaster for the cause of peace, a beautiful and extravagantly popular young princess was caught by the explosion. Her body, obscenely mutilated, but still recognizable to every student of the illustrated papers, was impaled upon some high park-railings beside the main thoroughfare toward the city. Immediately after the explosion the enemy plane crashed, burst into flame, and was destroyed with its occupants. A moment's cool thinking would have convinced all onlookers that this disaster was an accident, that the plane was a belated straggler in distress, and no messenger of hate. But, confronted with the mangled bodies of schoolboys, and harrowed by cries of agony and terror, the populace was in no state for ratiocination. Moreover there was the princess, an overwhelmingly potent sexual symbol and emblem of tribalism, slaughtered and exposed before the eyes of her adorers. The news was flashed over the country, and distorted of course in such a manner as to admit no doubt that this act was the crowning deviltry of sexual fiends beyond the Channel. In an hour the mood of London was changed, and the whole population of England succumbed to a paroxysm of primitive hate far more extravagant than any that had occurred even in the war against Germany. The British air force, all too well equipped and prepared, was ordered to Paris. Meanwhile in France the militaristic government had fallen, and the party of peace was now in control. While the streets were still thronged by its vociferous supporters, the first bomb fell. By Monday morning Paris was obliterated. There followed a few days of strife between the opposing armaments, and of butchery committed upon the civilian populations. In spite of French gallantry, the superior organization, mechanical efficiency, and more cautious courage of the British Air Force soon made it impossible for a French plane to leave the ground. But if France was broken, England was too crippled to pursue her advantage. Every city of the two countries was completely disorganized. Famine, riot, looting, and above all the rapidly accelerating and quite uncontrollable spread of disease, disintegrated both States, and brought war to a standstill. Indeed, not only did hostilities cease, but also both nations were too shattered even to continue hating one another. The energies of each were for a while wholly occupied in trying to prevent complete annihilation by famine and pestilence. In the work of reconstruction they had to depend very largely on help from outside. The management of each country was taken over, for the time, by the League of Nations. It is significant to compare the mood of Europe at this time with that which followed the European War. Formerly, though there had been a real effort toward unity, hate and suspicion continued to find expression in national policies. There was much wrangling about indemnities, reparations, securities; and the division of the whole continent into two hostile camps persisted, though by then it was purely artificial and sentimental. But after the Anglo-French war, a very different mood prevailed. There was no mention of reparations, no possibility of seeking security by alliances. Patriotism simply faded out, for the time, under the influence of extreme disaster. The two enemy peoples co-operated with the League in the work of reconstructing not only each one itself, but each one the other. This change of heart was due partly to the temporary collapse of the whole national organization, partly to the speedy dominance of each nation by pacifist and anti-nationalist Labour, partly to the fact that the League was powerful enough to inquire into and publish the whole story of the origins of the war, and expose each combatant to itself and to the world in a sorry light. We have now observed in some detail the incident which stands out in man's history as perhaps the most dramatic example of petty cause and mighty effect. For consider. Through some miscalculation, or a mere defect in his instruments, a French airman went astray, and came to grief in London after the sending of the peace message. Had this not happened, England and France would not have been wrecked. And, had the war been nipped at the outset, as it almost was, the party of sanity throughout the world would have been very greatly strengthened; the precarious will to unity would have gained the conviction which it lacked, would have dominated man not merely during the terrified revulsion after each spasm of national strife, but as a permanent policy based on mutual trust. Indeed so delicately balanced were man's primitive and developed impulses at this time, that but for this trivial accident, the movement which was started by England's peace message might have proceeded steadily and rapidly toward the unification of the race. It might, that is, have attained its goal, before, instead of after, the period of mental deterioration, which in fact resulted from a long epidemic of wars. And so the first Dark Age might never have occurred.	<urn:uuid:10234a5c-6d5e-4994-a965-fbc234ed5e64>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.inkitt.com/stories/other/68316/chapters/3	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00192.warc.gz	en	0.982684	3,686	3.375	3	[ -0.41046255826950073, 0.6093909740447998, 0.11815359443426132, -0.31070220470428467, -0.22224217653274536, 0.3278619050979614, 0.09386976063251495, 0.33127540349960327, 0.41878214478492737, -0.24343223869800568, -0.01298515498638153, -0.15984857082366943, 0.42231255769729614, 0.53598415851...	1	2. the anglo-french war One brief but tragic incident, which occurred within a century after the European War, may be said to have sealed the fate of the First Men. During this century the will for peace and sanity was already becoming a serious factor in history. Save for a number of most untoward accidents, to be recorded in due course, the party of peace might have dominated Europe during its most dangerous period; and, through Europe, the world. With either a little less bad luck or a fraction more of vision and self-control at this critical time, there might never have occurred that aeon of darkness, in which the First Men were presently to be submerged. For had victory been gained before the general level of mentality had seriously begun to decline, the attainment of the world state might have been regarded, not as an end, but as the first step toward true civilization. But this was not to be. After the European War the defeated nation, formerly no less militaristic than the others, now became the most pacific, and a stronghold of enlightenment. Almost everywhere, indeed, there had occurred a profound change of heart, but chiefly in Germany. The victors on the other hand, in spite of their real craving to be human and generous, and to found a new world, were led partly by their own timidity, partly by their governors' blind diplomacy, into all the vices against which they believed themselves to have been crusading. After a brief period in which they desperately affected amity for one another they began to indulge once more in physical conflicts. Of these conflicts, two must be observed. The first outbreak, and the less disastrous for Europe, was a short and grotesque struggle between France and Italy. Since the fall of ancient Rome, the Italians had excelled more in art and literature than in martial achievement. But the heroic liberation of Italy in the nineteenth Christian century had made Italians peculiarly sensitive to national prestige; and since among Western peoples national vigour was measured in terms of military glory, the Italians were fired, by their success against a rickety foreign domination, to vindicate themselves more thoroughly against the charge of mediocrity in warfare. After the European War, however, Italy passed through a phase of social disorder and self-distrust. Subsequently a flamboyant but sincere national party gained control of the State, and afforded the Italians a new selfrespect, based on reform of the social services, and on militaristic policy. Trains became punctual, streets clean, morals puritanical. Aviation records were won for Italy. The young, dressed up and taught to play at soldiers with real fire-arms, were persuaded to regard themselves as saviours of the nation, encouraged to shed blood, and used to enforce the will of the Government. The whole movement was engineered chiefly by a man whose genius in action combined with his rhetoric and crudity of thought to make him a very successful dictator. Almost miraculously he drilled the Italian nation into efficiency. At the same time, with great emotional effect and incredible lack of humour he trumpeted Italy's self-importance, and her will to "expand." And since Italians were slow to learn the necessity of restricting their population, "expansion" was a real need. Thus it came about that Italy, hungry for French territory in Africa, jealous of French leadership of the Latin races, indignant at the protection afforded to Italian "traitors" in France, became increasingly prone to quarrel with the most assertive of her late allies. It was a frontier incident, a fancied "insult to the Italian flag," which at last caused an unauthorized raid upon French territory by a small party of Italian militia. The raiders were captured, but French blood was shed. The consequent demand for apology and reparation was calm, but subtly offensive to Italian dignity. Italian patriots worked themselves into short-sighted fury. The Dictator, far from daring to apologize, was forced to require the release of the captive militia-men, and finally to declare war. After a single sharp engagement the relentless armies of France pressed into North Italy. Resistance, at first heroic, soon became chaotic. In consternation the Italians woke from their dream of military glory. The populace turned against the Dictator whom they themselves had forced to declare war. In a theatrical but gallant attempt to dominate the Roman mob, he failed, and was killed. The new government made a hasty peace, ceding to France a frontier territory which she had already annexed for "security." Thenceforth Italians were less concerned to outshine the glory of Garibaldi than to emulate the greater glory of Dante, Giotto and Galileo. France had now complete mastery of the continent of Europe; but having much to lose, she behaved arrogantly and nervously. It was not long before peace was once more disturbed. Scarcely had the last veterans of the European War ceased from wearying their juniors with reminiscence, when the long rivalry between France and England culminated in a dispute between their respective Governments over a case of sexual outrage said to have been committed by a French African soldier upon an Englishwoman. In this quarrel, the British Government happened to be definitely in the wrong, and was probably confused by its own sexual repressions. The outrage had never been committed. The facts which gave rise to the rumour were, that an idle and neurotic Englishwoman in the south of France, craving the embraces of a "cave man," had seduced a Senegalese corporal in her own apartments. When, later, he had shown signs of boredom, she took revenge by declaring that he had attacked her indecently in the woods above the town. This rumour was such that the English were all too prone to savour and believe. At the same time, the magnates of the English Press could not resist this opportunity of trading upon the public's sexuality, tribalism and self-righteousness. There followed an epidemic of abuse, and occasional violence, against French subjects in England; and thus the party of fear and militarism in France was given the opportunity it had long sought. For the real cause of this war was connected with air power. France had persuaded the League of Nations (in one of its less intelligent moments) to restrict the size of military aeroplanes in such a manner that, while London lay within easy striking distance of the French coast, Paris could only with difficulty be touched by England. This state of affairs obviously could not last long. Britain was agitating more and more insistently for the removal of the restriction. On the other hand, there was an increasing demand for complete aerial disarmament in Europe; and so strong was the party of sanity in France, that the scheme would almost certainly have been accepted by the French Government. On both counts, therefore, the militarists of France were eager to strike while yet there was opportunity. In an instant, the whole fruit of this effort for disarmament was destroyed. That subtle difference of mentality which had ever made it impossible for these two nations to understand one another, was suddenly exaggerated by this provocative incident into an apparently insoluble discord. England reverted to her conviction that all Frenchmen were sensualists, while to France the English appeared, as often before, the most offensive of hypocrites. In vain did the saner minds in each country insist on the fundamental humanity of both. In vain, did the chastened Germans seek to mediate. In vain did the League, which by now had very great prestige and authority, threaten both parties with expulsion, even with chastisement. Rumour got about in Paris that England, breaking all her international pledges, was now feverishly building giant planes which would wreck France from Calais to Marseilles. And indeed the rumour was not wholly a slander, for when the struggle began, the British air force was found to have a range of intensive action far wider than was expected. Yet the actual outbreak of war took England by surprise. While the London papers were selling out upon the news that war was declared, enemy planes appeared over the city. In a couple of hours a third of London was in ruins, and half her population lay poisoned in the streets. One bomb, falling beside the British Museum, turned the whole of Bloomsbury into a crater, wherein fragments of mummies, statues, and manuscripts were mingled with the contents of shops, and morsels of salesmen and the intelligentsia. Thus in a moment was destroyed a large proportion of England's most precious relics and most fertile brains. Then occurred one of those microscopic, yet supremely potent incidents which sometimes mould the course of events for centuries. During the bombardment a special meeting of the British Cabinet was held in a cellar in Downing Street. The party in power at the time was progressive, mildly pacifist, and timorously cosmopolitan. It had got itself involved in the French quarrel quite unintentionally. At this Cabinet meeting an idealistic member urged upon his colleagues the need for a supreme gesture of heroism and generosity on the part of Britain. Raising his voice with difficulty above the bark of English guns and the volcanic crash of French bombs, he suggested sending by radio the following message: "From the people of England to the people of France. Catastrophe has fallen on us at your hands. In this hour of agony, all hate and anger have left us. Our eyes are opened. No longer can we think of ourselves as English merely, and you as merely French; all of us are, before all else, civilized beings. Do not imagine that we are defeated, and that this message is a cry for mercy. Our armament is intact, and our resources still very great. Yet, because of the revelation which has come to us today, we will not fight. No plane, no ship, no soldier of Britain shall commit any further act of hostility. Do what you will. It would be better even that a great people should be destroyed than that the whole race should be thrown into turmoil. But you will not strike again. As our own eyes have been opened by agony, yours now will be opened by our act of brotherhood. The spirit of France and the spirit of England differ. They differ deeply; but only as the eye differs from the hand. Without you, we should be barbarians. And without us, even the bright spirit of France would be but half expressed. For the spirit of France lives again in our culture and in our very speech; and the spirit of England is that which strikes from you your most distinctive brilliance." At no earlier stage of man's history could such a message have been considered seriously by any government. Had it been suggested during the previous war, its author would have been ridiculed, execrated, perhaps even murdered. But since those days, much had happened. Increased communication, increased cultural intercourse, and a prolonged vigorous campaign for cosmopolitanism, had changed the mentality of Europe. Even so, when, after a brief discussion, the Government ordered this unique message to be sent, its members were awed by their own act. As one of them expressed it, they were uncertain whether it was the devil or the deity that had possessed them, but possessed they certainly were. That night the people of London (those who were left) experienced an exaltation of spirit. Disorganization of the city's life, overwhelming physical suffering and compassion, the consciousness of an unprecedented spiritual act in which each individual felt himself to have somehow participated—these influences combined to produce, even in the bustle and confusion of a wrecked metropolis, a certain restrained fervour, and a deep peace of mind, wholly unfamiliar to Londoners. Meanwhile the undamaged North knew not whether to regard the Government's sudden pacificism as a piece of cowardice or as a superbly courageous gesture. Very soon, however, they began to make a virtue of necessity, and incline to the latter view. Paris itself was divided by the message into a vocal party of triumph and a silent party of bewilderment. But as the hours advanced, and the former urged a policy of aggression, the latter found voice for the cry, "Viva l'Angleterre, viva l'humanité." And so strong by now was the will for cosmopolitanism that the upshot would almost certainly have been a triumph of sanity, had there not occurred in England an accident which tilted the whole precarious course of events in the opposite direction. The bombardment had occurred on a Friday night. On Saturday the repercussions of England's great message were echoing throughout the nations. That evening, as a wet and foggy day was achieving its pallid sunset, a French plane was seen over the western outskirts of London. It gradually descended, and was regarded by onlookers as a messenger of peace. Lower and lower it came. Something was seen to part from it and fall. In a few seconds an immense explosion occurred in the neighbourhood of a great school and a royal palace. There was hideous destruction in the school. The palace escaped. But, chief disaster for the cause of peace, a beautiful and extravagantly popular young princess was caught by the explosion. Her body, obscenely mutilated, but still recognizable to every student of the illustrated papers, was impaled upon some high park-railings beside the main thoroughfare toward the city. Immediately after the explosion the enemy plane crashed, burst into flame, and was destroyed with its occupants. A moment's cool thinking would have convinced all onlookers that this disaster was an accident, that the plane was a belated straggler in distress, and no messenger of hate. But, confronted with the mangled bodies of schoolboys, and harrowed by cries of agony and terror, the populace was in no state for ratiocination. Moreover there was the princess, an overwhelmingly potent sexual symbol and emblem of tribalism, slaughtered and exposed before the eyes of her adorers. The news was flashed over the country, and distorted of course in such a manner as to admit no doubt that this act was the crowning deviltry of sexual fiends beyond the Channel. In an hour the mood of London was changed, and the whole population of England succumbed to a paroxysm of primitive hate far more extravagant than any that had occurred even in the war against Germany. The British air force, all too well equipped and prepared, was ordered to Paris. Meanwhile in France the militaristic government had fallen, and the party of peace was now in control. While the streets were still thronged by its vociferous supporters, the first bomb fell. By Monday morning Paris was obliterated. There followed a few days of strife between the opposing armaments, and of butchery committed upon the civilian populations. In spite of French gallantry, the superior organization, mechanical efficiency, and more cautious courage of the British Air Force soon made it impossible for a French plane to leave the ground. But if France was broken, England was too crippled to pursue her advantage. Every city of the two countries was completely disorganized. Famine, riot, looting, and above all the rapidly accelerating and quite uncontrollable spread of disease, disintegrated both States, and brought war to a standstill. Indeed, not only did hostilities cease, but also both nations were too shattered even to continue hating one another. The energies of each were for a while wholly occupied in trying to prevent complete annihilation by famine and pestilence. In the work of reconstruction they had to depend very largely on help from outside. The management of each country was taken over, for the time, by the League of Nations. It is significant to compare the mood of Europe at this time with that which followed the European War. Formerly, though there had been a real effort toward unity, hate and suspicion continued to find expression in national policies. There was much wrangling about indemnities, reparations, securities; and the division of the whole continent into two hostile camps persisted, though by then it was purely artificial and sentimental. But after the Anglo-French war, a very different mood prevailed. There was no mention of reparations, no possibility of seeking security by alliances. Patriotism simply faded out, for the time, under the influence of extreme disaster. The two enemy peoples co-operated with the League in the work of reconstructing not only each one itself, but each one the other. This change of heart was due partly to the temporary collapse of the whole national organization, partly to the speedy dominance of each nation by pacifist and anti-nationalist Labour, partly to the fact that the League was powerful enough to inquire into and publish the whole story of the origins of the war, and expose each combatant to itself and to the world in a sorry light. We have now observed in some detail the incident which stands out in man's history as perhaps the most dramatic example of petty cause and mighty effect. For consider. Through some miscalculation, or a mere defect in his instruments, a French airman went astray, and came to grief in London after the sending of the peace message. Had this not happened, England and France would not have been wrecked. And, had the war been nipped at the outset, as it almost was, the party of sanity throughout the world would have been very greatly strengthened; the precarious will to unity would have gained the conviction which it lacked, would have dominated man not merely during the terrified revulsion after each spasm of national strife, but as a permanent policy based on mutual trust. Indeed so delicately balanced were man's primitive and developed impulses at this time, that but for this trivial accident, the movement which was started by England's peace message might have proceeded steadily and rapidly toward the unification of the race. It might, that is, have attained its goal, before, instead of after, the period of mental deterioration, which in fact resulted from a long epidemic of wars. And so the first Dark Age might never have occurred.	3,686	ENGLISH	1
We decided to focus on learning and progressing in computer programming skills. We would use this activity with lower Key Stage 2 children but it could easily be extended for older children or those who are accomplished programmers or as they progress with the programming over a series of lessons. Children would be given the simple bat and ball game, which already has all of the script written for them. Children are then to create their own theme for the bat and ball game. They could choose their themes. We’ve chosen aliens, but it could be anything from cars to unicorns! Depending on the children’s experience, we would ask the children, for example, to change the sprites, add sounds, and add a background.Our group have demonstrated possible outcomes of this activity with the space bat and ball game (see “Resources“). We would ask them to prepare their games to be used with Key Stage 1 children so that they had an audience in mind. The KS1 children could use the games as a stimulus for writing stories, poetry, drama, role-plays etc. These would then be shown and played by the KS1 children who could provide an evaluation for the children, giving it a purpose and the “assessment” not coming from the teacher. Everyone knows that e-safety is an important aspect that needs to be taught to children but through talking to children (and from my own experience) it isn’t always being taught in the best way. When talking to Year 7 students during the transition period they expressed their views that the first topic covered was E-safety, which included making posters. They all said that although they understood it was an important topic that the information was always the same and that it was always taught in the same way via making posters. It is our job, as teachers, to make sure that our pupils do not come out of our classes saying the same thing. We want them to have learnt something new and have learnt it in a new, inspiring and interactive way. How can we do this? Internet safety is often taught as a topic. However, is this entirely necessary? Internet safety is something that needs to be thought about and adhered to whenever the children go onto the computer. This means that e-safety needs to be incorporated into every lesson. Through small activities, reminders before the children write an email or having information in the room. Also, children need to have the opportunity to put this into practice on a regular basis either through natural use of e-mail or VLE’s.	<urn:uuid:bc014ef8-d31f-4111-b043-fd894bbba135>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mypad.northampton.ac.uk/08285021/tag/resources/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00408.warc.gz	en	0.980276	522	3.828125	4	[ -0.3621416687965393, -0.12001557648181915, 0.054210931062698364, -0.6820611357688904, -0.3053833842277527, 0.33707112073898315, -0.04702796787023544, 0.138980433344841, -0.0238024964928627, 0.25213831663131714, 0.009212208911776543, -0.040129899978637695, 0.019028814509510994, 0.0391610451...	3	We decided to focus on learning and progressing in computer programming skills. We would use this activity with lower Key Stage 2 children but it could easily be extended for older children or those who are accomplished programmers or as they progress with the programming over a series of lessons. Children would be given the simple bat and ball game, which already has all of the script written for them. Children are then to create their own theme for the bat and ball game. They could choose their themes. We’ve chosen aliens, but it could be anything from cars to unicorns! Depending on the children’s experience, we would ask the children, for example, to change the sprites, add sounds, and add a background.Our group have demonstrated possible outcomes of this activity with the space bat and ball game (see “Resources“). We would ask them to prepare their games to be used with Key Stage 1 children so that they had an audience in mind. The KS1 children could use the games as a stimulus for writing stories, poetry, drama, role-plays etc. These would then be shown and played by the KS1 children who could provide an evaluation for the children, giving it a purpose and the “assessment” not coming from the teacher. Everyone knows that e-safety is an important aspect that needs to be taught to children but through talking to children (and from my own experience) it isn’t always being taught in the best way. When talking to Year 7 students during the transition period they expressed their views that the first topic covered was E-safety, which included making posters. They all said that although they understood it was an important topic that the information was always the same and that it was always taught in the same way via making posters. It is our job, as teachers, to make sure that our pupils do not come out of our classes saying the same thing. We want them to have learnt something new and have learnt it in a new, inspiring and interactive way. How can we do this? Internet safety is often taught as a topic. However, is this entirely necessary? Internet safety is something that needs to be thought about and adhered to whenever the children go onto the computer. This means that e-safety needs to be incorporated into every lesson. Through small activities, reminders before the children write an email or having information in the room. Also, children need to have the opportunity to put this into practice on a regular basis either through natural use of e-mail or VLE’s.	503	ENGLISH	1
Who was Moses' mother? Question: "Who was Moses' mother?" Answer: Moses’ mother, Jochebed, was a Hebrew woman living in slavery in Egypt before the exodus. She was the daughter of a Levite, and she married Amram, another Levite (Exodus 2:1). According to Exodus 6:20, Jochebed married her nephew; thus, she was Amram’s aunt as well as his wife. We know that Moses was born several years after their marriage because she already had a daughter who was old enough at the time of Moses’ infancy to act as a lookout (Exodus 2:4). This was likely Moses’ sister, Miriam the prophetess, who is mentioned by name in Exodus 15:20. Along with Moses and Miriam, Jochebed had at least one other sibling, Moses’ brother Aaron (Exodus 6:20). Moses was born during a troubled time for the Israelites in Egypt. The king had decreed that midwives were to kill all Hebrew boys when they were born, leaving only the girls alive. This progrom was Pharaoh’s attempt to control the population of the Israelites, who were strong and growing in numbers in the land of Egypt (Exodus 1:8–16). There was rebellion against this murderous decree in many quarters. The Hebrew midwives refused to participate in the infanticide and deceived Pharaoh so they could avoid killing the baby boys (Exodus 1:17–19). Moses’ mother Jochebed hid Moses in a basket of bulrushes and set him afloat on the Nile River to preserve his life (Exodus 2:3). Even Pharaoh’s own daughter disobeyed the decree when she found Moses in the basket and took pity on him, adopting him as her own child (Exodus 2:5–10). Moses was raised as the son of Pharaoh’s daughter, and it was also Pharaoh’s daughter who named him. Jochebed, in an astonishing example of God’s providence and mercy, became Moses’ nurse and was paid by the king for her service (Exodus 2:7–9). There is no other information about Moses’ mother in the Bible. Interestingly, the Qur'an tells the story of Jochebed’s decision to hide Moses, with little variation in the particulars of the biblical story—though the Qur'an adds some details about Jochebed’s pregnancy that the Bible does not corroborate. Recommended Resource: Moses: A Man of Selfless Dedication by Chuck Swindoll More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! Who was Zipporah in the Bible? Why were Michael and Satan disputing over the body of Moses (Jude 9)? Who was Miriam in the Bible? Who was Joshua in the Bible? What can we learn from the prayer of Moses (Psalm 90)? Questions about Exodus Who was Moses' mother?	<urn:uuid:d71cf9b8-13d5-4cd1-af95-162d65253aaa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gotquestions.org/Moses-mother.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00007.warc.gz	en	0.981145	633	3.296875	3	[ -0.3512599766254425, 0.7288845777511597, 0.22808495163917542, -0.21172915399074554, -0.5757358074188232, -0.3350326418876648, 0.48180827498435974, -0.06777047365903854, -0.09422430396080017, 0.41597694158554077, -0.1023467481136322, -0.5109890699386597, -0.05203450843691826, -0.00881866365...	1	Who was Moses' mother? Question: "Who was Moses' mother?" Answer: Moses’ mother, Jochebed, was a Hebrew woman living in slavery in Egypt before the exodus. She was the daughter of a Levite, and she married Amram, another Levite (Exodus 2:1). According to Exodus 6:20, Jochebed married her nephew; thus, she was Amram’s aunt as well as his wife. We know that Moses was born several years after their marriage because she already had a daughter who was old enough at the time of Moses’ infancy to act as a lookout (Exodus 2:4). This was likely Moses’ sister, Miriam the prophetess, who is mentioned by name in Exodus 15:20. Along with Moses and Miriam, Jochebed had at least one other sibling, Moses’ brother Aaron (Exodus 6:20). Moses was born during a troubled time for the Israelites in Egypt. The king had decreed that midwives were to kill all Hebrew boys when they were born, leaving only the girls alive. This progrom was Pharaoh’s attempt to control the population of the Israelites, who were strong and growing in numbers in the land of Egypt (Exodus 1:8–16). There was rebellion against this murderous decree in many quarters. The Hebrew midwives refused to participate in the infanticide and deceived Pharaoh so they could avoid killing the baby boys (Exodus 1:17–19). Moses’ mother Jochebed hid Moses in a basket of bulrushes and set him afloat on the Nile River to preserve his life (Exodus 2:3). Even Pharaoh’s own daughter disobeyed the decree when she found Moses in the basket and took pity on him, adopting him as her own child (Exodus 2:5–10). Moses was raised as the son of Pharaoh’s daughter, and it was also Pharaoh’s daughter who named him. Jochebed, in an astonishing example of God’s providence and mercy, became Moses’ nurse and was paid by the king for her service (Exodus 2:7–9). There is no other information about Moses’ mother in the Bible. Interestingly, the Qur'an tells the story of Jochebed’s decision to hide Moses, with little variation in the particulars of the biblical story—though the Qur'an adds some details about Jochebed’s pregnancy that the Bible does not corroborate. Recommended Resource: Moses: A Man of Selfless Dedication by Chuck Swindoll More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! Who was Zipporah in the Bible? Why were Michael and Satan disputing over the body of Moses (Jude 9)? Who was Miriam in the Bible? Who was Joshua in the Bible? What can we learn from the prayer of Moses (Psalm 90)? Questions about Exodus Who was Moses' mother?	626	ENGLISH	1
Indian leader, Mohandas Gandhi died at the age of 78 on January 30, 1948 at 5:12 p.m. Mohandas Gandhi was known throughout the world for his nonviolent protests against both British rule and interreligious fighting. Gandhi was born in the town of Porbander, and received his schooling in Rajkot where his father was an advisor to the local ruler. Mohandas Gandhi married a girl named Kasturba. Both were thirteen years old at the time. At the age of 19, Gandhi decided to travel to England to receive his degree in law. Gandhi left his son Harilal who was a few months old with his wife. While in England, Mohandas came across new cultures, people, and ideas. Gandhi quickly received his law degree and was called to the bar in 1891, but returned …show more content… Muslim-Hindu violence became an increasing problem in India, and Gandhi commenced his last fast unto death, which he stopped when Muslims and Hindus agreed to live in peace. A few days later, a bomb went off at his house during Gandhi’s prayers but no one was hurt, however Gandhi refused additional security. At ten minutes past five o’ clock, Mohandas Gandhi made his way to evening prayers. At 5:12 Nathuram Godse approached Gandhi and shot him three times in the chest at point-blank-range. His arms still crossed in a peaceful sign of greeting, Gandhi blessed his assassin, shouting, “he ram! He ram!” and then collapsed to the floor, dead. Gandhi pushed himself to become a better person every day by fasting, marching, and speaking of peace, once writing, “When we do not like certain laws, we do not break the heads of the lawgivers but we suffer and do not submit to the laws.” Mahatma Gandhi was a peaceful man who believed in ahisma, or nonviolence and reverence in life. To fight against injustice, Mahatma Gandhi believed in the power of nonviolent resistance. Gandhi believed that civil disobedience, a peaceful way of refusing to obey unreasonable laws could achieve success much more effectively than violence. Shortly before his passing, “Gandhi had said, “You must be the change you wish to see in the world,” and Mahatma Gandhi truly embraced that statement until the moment he	<urn:uuid:2207aa0c-05af-4da7-8723-44db64388ddf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Gandhi-Obituary-F3SXGGGWSA.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00138.warc.gz	en	0.986596	493	3.96875	4	[ -0.368431955575943, 0.6320924162864685, -0.06483288109302521, 0.09715259820222855, -0.4895138740539551, -0.08920864760875702, 0.5966277718544006, 0.13856367766857147, 0.13183213770389557, -0.020467989146709442, -0.0031519527547061443, 0.059720102697610855, 0.04948508366942406, 0.3798170089...	1	Indian leader, Mohandas Gandhi died at the age of 78 on January 30, 1948 at 5:12 p.m. Mohandas Gandhi was known throughout the world for his nonviolent protests against both British rule and interreligious fighting. Gandhi was born in the town of Porbander, and received his schooling in Rajkot where his father was an advisor to the local ruler. Mohandas Gandhi married a girl named Kasturba. Both were thirteen years old at the time. At the age of 19, Gandhi decided to travel to England to receive his degree in law. Gandhi left his son Harilal who was a few months old with his wife. While in England, Mohandas came across new cultures, people, and ideas. Gandhi quickly received his law degree and was called to the bar in 1891, but returned …show more content… Muslim-Hindu violence became an increasing problem in India, and Gandhi commenced his last fast unto death, which he stopped when Muslims and Hindus agreed to live in peace. A few days later, a bomb went off at his house during Gandhi’s prayers but no one was hurt, however Gandhi refused additional security. At ten minutes past five o’ clock, Mohandas Gandhi made his way to evening prayers. At 5:12 Nathuram Godse approached Gandhi and shot him three times in the chest at point-blank-range. His arms still crossed in a peaceful sign of greeting, Gandhi blessed his assassin, shouting, “he ram! He ram!” and then collapsed to the floor, dead. Gandhi pushed himself to become a better person every day by fasting, marching, and speaking of peace, once writing, “When we do not like certain laws, we do not break the heads of the lawgivers but we suffer and do not submit to the laws.” Mahatma Gandhi was a peaceful man who believed in ahisma, or nonviolence and reverence in life. To fight against injustice, Mahatma Gandhi believed in the power of nonviolent resistance. Gandhi believed that civil disobedience, a peaceful way of refusing to obey unreasonable laws could achieve success much more effectively than violence. Shortly before his passing, “Gandhi had said, “You must be the change you wish to see in the world,” and Mahatma Gandhi truly embraced that statement until the moment he	491	ENGLISH	1
You: "What did you do in school today?" Your child: "Nothing." How many times have you heard that?? I am sure many of you can relate to the above conversation! So...to stimulate productive and engaging, thoughtful discussions with your third grader, below is a list of suggested questions to ask your child throughout the year! One of my favorite poems...although about a five year old...can certainly apply to first graders: What Did You Do Today? When children come home at the end of the day, The question they're asked as they scurry to play, Is, "Tell me, what did you do in school today?" "NOTHING! I did NOTHING in school today!" Maybe nothing means that I played with blocks, Tied my own shoes, or found precious rocks. Maybe our monarchs hatched today, Or maybe I learned a new game to play. Maybe today was the very first time My scissors followed a really straight line! Maybe I sang our song from beginning to end, Or maybe I made a brand new friend! When you're only five, and your heart has wings, NOTHING can mean so many things! General Questions to Ask Throughout the Year - Try using some of them! -What is your class job for the next two weeks? What is your responsibility for it? -What are the rules when you are on the playground? -Who did you sit with at lunch today? What did you talk about? -Who did you play with today? - What did you read this week? What was it about? What happened in the story? Did you like the book? Why or why not? - What was the best thing that happened at school today? -What was the hardest thing you had to do in school today? -Tell me something that made you laugh today. - Who is at your table this month in class? - Can you show me something you learned today? - What was the most interesting thing your teacher said today? - Which class rule did you follow the most today? - What are you looking forward to at school tomorrow? - Were you able to finish all of your classwork today? - Tell me about a new word you heard at school today. - If I called your teacher right now, what would s/he tell me about your day? - Where did you end up on the clip chart today? - Did you help someone today? Did someone help you today? - Did someone do something nice for you today? - What was your favorite lesson today? - On a scale of 1-10, with ten being the highest, how would you rate your day? If it isn't a ten, what would make it a ten? - If you could switch seats with anyone in class, where would you want to sit and why? - Tell me when you used your pencil the most in school today. -What did you learn in reading group this week? - Did you learn something new about a classmate today? - What special did you have today? What did you learn in the special?	<urn:uuid:61056505-2ac5-44f3-b48c-4b43c79f524d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tewksburyschools.org/Page/1277	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00518.warc.gz	en	0.985975	670	3.546875	4	[ -0.29518142342567444, -0.3560916781425476, 0.40295663475990295, -0.4978362023830414, -0.2930784821510315, -0.1205805316567421, 0.5187259912490845, 0.28818660974502563, -0.0711296945810318, -0.04565766453742981, 0.4487379789352417, 0.2352314591407776, 0.0805865079164505, 0.3728214502334595,...	2	You: "What did you do in school today?" Your child: "Nothing." How many times have you heard that?? I am sure many of you can relate to the above conversation! So...to stimulate productive and engaging, thoughtful discussions with your third grader, below is a list of suggested questions to ask your child throughout the year! One of my favorite poems...although about a five year old...can certainly apply to first graders: What Did You Do Today? When children come home at the end of the day, The question they're asked as they scurry to play, Is, "Tell me, what did you do in school today?" "NOTHING! I did NOTHING in school today!" Maybe nothing means that I played with blocks, Tied my own shoes, or found precious rocks. Maybe our monarchs hatched today, Or maybe I learned a new game to play. Maybe today was the very first time My scissors followed a really straight line! Maybe I sang our song from beginning to end, Or maybe I made a brand new friend! When you're only five, and your heart has wings, NOTHING can mean so many things! General Questions to Ask Throughout the Year - Try using some of them! -What is your class job for the next two weeks? What is your responsibility for it? -What are the rules when you are on the playground? -Who did you sit with at lunch today? What did you talk about? -Who did you play with today? - What did you read this week? What was it about? What happened in the story? Did you like the book? Why or why not? - What was the best thing that happened at school today? -What was the hardest thing you had to do in school today? -Tell me something that made you laugh today. - Who is at your table this month in class? - Can you show me something you learned today? - What was the most interesting thing your teacher said today? - Which class rule did you follow the most today? - What are you looking forward to at school tomorrow? - Were you able to finish all of your classwork today? - Tell me about a new word you heard at school today. - If I called your teacher right now, what would s/he tell me about your day? - Where did you end up on the clip chart today? - Did you help someone today? Did someone help you today? - Did someone do something nice for you today? - What was your favorite lesson today? - On a scale of 1-10, with ten being the highest, how would you rate your day? If it isn't a ten, what would make it a ten? - If you could switch seats with anyone in class, where would you want to sit and why? - Tell me when you used your pencil the most in school today. -What did you learn in reading group this week? - Did you learn something new about a classmate today? - What special did you have today? What did you learn in the special?	626	ENGLISH	1
Wikijunior:World War II/Invasion of the Soviet Union Preparations and PlansEdit After the invasion of France and the Battle of Britain, the German leader, Adolf Hitler, made plans to invade the Soviet Union (USSR). Hitler had always hated the communist government in the USSR and everything it stood for. He thought the people who lived there were "sub humans". Hitler had always said that nobody should fight a war "on two fronts", meaning that you should always finish off one enemy before making another one. As part of this strategy, Germany signed a non-aggression agreement with the USSR. But with his attack on the USSR he was breaking his own rule - Britain still wasn't beaten. The code name for the attack on the USSR was "Operation Barbarossa". The attack started on 22 June 1941 and was a complete surprise to the Soviets. It is amazing that it was a surprise because the British had been telling the Soviet leader, Stalin, for months that the Germans would attack. They knew this because they could read the German secret codes. But Stalin didn't want to believe he would be attacked. More than 4.5 million soldiers from Germany and its allies invaded the USSR. The width of the attack was huge - nearly 1,800 miles long. The idea was to conquer the "European" part of the USSR. Although the attack went well and millions of Soviet soldiers were captured, the Germans couldn't reach the Soviet capital, Moscow. Although the Germans went on to win many battles in the USSR they never had the strength to win the overall war.	<urn:uuid:ab74d77a-ed3f-4375-aaba-5ba7a1babefd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:World_War_II/Invasion_of_the_Soviet_Union	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00270.warc.gz	en	0.986891	325	4.09375	4	[ -0.584797739982605, 0.0904468223452568, 0.0727572962641716, 0.21814025938510895, -0.09900140762329102, -0.09471941739320755, 0.3092227280139923, 0.03158680349588394, -0.22816738486289978, -0.09876962751150131, 0.3258790671825409, -0.15376219153404236, 0.5233176946640015, 0.4537113904953003...	3	Wikijunior:World War II/Invasion of the Soviet Union Preparations and PlansEdit After the invasion of France and the Battle of Britain, the German leader, Adolf Hitler, made plans to invade the Soviet Union (USSR). Hitler had always hated the communist government in the USSR and everything it stood for. He thought the people who lived there were "sub humans". Hitler had always said that nobody should fight a war "on two fronts", meaning that you should always finish off one enemy before making another one. As part of this strategy, Germany signed a non-aggression agreement with the USSR. But with his attack on the USSR he was breaking his own rule - Britain still wasn't beaten. The code name for the attack on the USSR was "Operation Barbarossa". The attack started on 22 June 1941 and was a complete surprise to the Soviets. It is amazing that it was a surprise because the British had been telling the Soviet leader, Stalin, for months that the Germans would attack. They knew this because they could read the German secret codes. But Stalin didn't want to believe he would be attacked. More than 4.5 million soldiers from Germany and its allies invaded the USSR. The width of the attack was huge - nearly 1,800 miles long. The idea was to conquer the "European" part of the USSR. Although the attack went well and millions of Soviet soldiers were captured, the Germans couldn't reach the Soviet capital, Moscow. Although the Germans went on to win many battles in the USSR they never had the strength to win the overall war.	332	ENGLISH	1
The story begins with Mary appearing to the shepherd Hans. Why was she such an appealing figure for Hans? What was her general appeal for late-medieval peasants? . The story begins with the Virgin Mary who appears to Shepherd Hans. The Virgin informs Hans Behem that he is one of her chosen shepherds. Mary also told Hans that the Lord was not pleased with his people. Hans was chosen to deliver the message and preach to the Lord's people by Mary. During the late-medieval time period, Mary was seen as a figure that gave peasants their rights. The peasants looked to the Virgin because she is a saint that works towards equal opportunities and rights for all God's people. . What is the importance of Carnival for the peasant?. Carnival played crucial role in the life of a peasant. As Carnival came around peasants could enjoy the good parts about life and the thought of a future carnival helped them continue on with their lives. During carnival the peasants would mock the church by electing a boy as bishop and celebrating the material world. A person would dress as a donkey and say a mock mass at carnival which was very humorous to the peasants. The peasants constantly anticipate the arrival of the next carnival for it brought joy to their lives. What is Walpurgisnacht and what does it show about religious festivals in this period?. Walpurgisnacht is the feast day of St. Walburga, an 18th century Anglo-Saxon nun, celebrated on April 30th. When Walburga was buried, an oily liquid oozed from her grave this liquid was known for its healing powers. During the year of 1476, like every other year great bonfires were lit but this year was different, they were lit to drive away the witches. Not everyone has the same views on the approaching summer and the thought of witches. The feast of St. Walburga was one of the major events for the peasants. Why did people come and see Hans? What would motivate a peasant to participate in a pilgrimage?.	<urn:uuid:0d116475-51b5-4f18-b433-3b2ad96de3cd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/203866.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00155.warc.gz	en	0.983782	425	3.53125	4	[ 0.07988054305315018, 0.33731842041015625, 0.39917367696762085, -0.19372497498989105, 0.1118309497833252, 0.16090495884418488, -0.24122443795204163, 0.04344797879457474, -0.051286496222019196, 0.19447432458400726, -0.24188350141048431, -0.11287617683410645, -0.1394611895084381, -0.122392743...	3	The story begins with Mary appearing to the shepherd Hans. Why was she such an appealing figure for Hans? What was her general appeal for late-medieval peasants? . The story begins with the Virgin Mary who appears to Shepherd Hans. The Virgin informs Hans Behem that he is one of her chosen shepherds. Mary also told Hans that the Lord was not pleased with his people. Hans was chosen to deliver the message and preach to the Lord's people by Mary. During the late-medieval time period, Mary was seen as a figure that gave peasants their rights. The peasants looked to the Virgin because she is a saint that works towards equal opportunities and rights for all God's people. . What is the importance of Carnival for the peasant?. Carnival played crucial role in the life of a peasant. As Carnival came around peasants could enjoy the good parts about life and the thought of a future carnival helped them continue on with their lives. During carnival the peasants would mock the church by electing a boy as bishop and celebrating the material world. A person would dress as a donkey and say a mock mass at carnival which was very humorous to the peasants. The peasants constantly anticipate the arrival of the next carnival for it brought joy to their lives. What is Walpurgisnacht and what does it show about religious festivals in this period?. Walpurgisnacht is the feast day of St. Walburga, an 18th century Anglo-Saxon nun, celebrated on April 30th. When Walburga was buried, an oily liquid oozed from her grave this liquid was known for its healing powers. During the year of 1476, like every other year great bonfires were lit but this year was different, they were lit to drive away the witches. Not everyone has the same views on the approaching summer and the thought of witches. The feast of St. Walburga was one of the major events for the peasants. Why did people come and see Hans? What would motivate a peasant to participate in a pilgrimage?.	421	ENGLISH	1
When people think of camels, they normally think of the sandy desert regions of North Africa and the Middle East. This is understandable in that camels are well adapted for desert conditions. They’ve been used in that region since long before the birth of Jesus and are mentioned in the bible. However, it might come as a surprise to many people, including many Americans, that there are wild camels living in the US. US camel origins Camels actually originated in North America and migrated to Asia over the land bridge that once existed. They subsequently died out in North America, though the camel family is still represented in South America, with the alpaca, llama, and vicuna. This naturally means that camels must have been imported if there is currently a breeding population of wild camels in the US. Indeed, that is exactly what happened and it is well documented. Importation of camels Early in US history, most expansion occurred from the eastern US to the west. At the time, most of the land west of the Mississippi was wild and lawless. There were also numerous skirmishes between the settlers and various Indian tribes. To help with these issues, the US Army, specifically the cavalry, established a number of forts throughout the west. One of the problem areas was the desert southwest. The cavalry used horses, but they could only go to places that had available water for the horses to drink and enough food for them to eat. The desert areas were not good for either food or water, but there was a definite need. In the early 1800’s, a proposal was made to purchase and import some camels. It was noted that camels are capable of traveling long distances without food and water and that they could also maintain a steady pace for days, while horses needed rest much more frequently. At first, the camel proposal was taken lightly, though, and the US Congress didn’t authorize funding. Opinions about the proposition began to change in the time period from 1846 to 1848, however. That was when the Mexican-American war was fought. Not only was the need for army personnel felt, after the war, the US found itself with a huge amount of primarily desert land, acquired from Mexico. This was the Texas territory. In 1855, Congress approved the expenditure of $30,000 to acquire some camels, largely due to the efforts of Jefferson Davis, who was the secretary of war at the time. The Camel Corps In all, 33 camels were purchased from Egypt, Turkey, and Tunisia. By February 1857, the camel herd had grown to 70 animals and these were stationed at Camp Verde, Texas. The advantages of camels over horses and wagons were quickly seen and many people fully supported the expansion of what had become the Camel Corps. This included Lieutinant Colonel Robert E. Lee (pictured), who used camels on a lengthy patrol in 1860. A number of camels were moved to Camp Tejon in California and it is quite possible that the camel corps would have expanded even more, had it not been for the American Civil War. In particular, the Confederate Army captured Camp Verde, though Camp Tejon remained in Union control. None of the camels were used during the war. After the war, the new secretary of war, Edwin Stanton, who was unaware of how useful camels were and could be, ordered the camels to be sold. They were and many of the people who bought them ended up abandoning the animals or purposely turned them loose. The last official sighting of wild camels in the southwest deserts was in the 1940s. However, since this would indicate that there was a breeding population of camels, it is extremely likely that they still live in that area. In fact, there are a number of people who have claimed to have seen them more recently. There seems to be little interest in the animals, so there have been no official updates to the status of the camels in the southwest US. It should be mentioned, too, that the camels are technically not wild, but rather feral. The area also has a growing population of feral burros, which are non-native, destroying habitat and yet are protected by law.	<urn:uuid:d829adc1-122a-4c2f-a7b6-d3624a4de0a7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://virily.com/animals/did-you-know-that-there-are-camels-in-the-united-states/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00278.warc.gz	en	0.988528	875	3.390625	3	[ -0.17530536651611328, 0.20666876435279846, 0.06090577691793442, 0.4100860059261322, 0.3074708878993988, 0.13184314966201782, -0.013686152175068855, 0.26378121972084045, 0.1657775342464447, 0.3944721817970276, 0.06339158117771149, -0.26218584179878235, 0.35447269678115845, 0.149663805961608...	1	When people think of camels, they normally think of the sandy desert regions of North Africa and the Middle East. This is understandable in that camels are well adapted for desert conditions. They’ve been used in that region since long before the birth of Jesus and are mentioned in the bible. However, it might come as a surprise to many people, including many Americans, that there are wild camels living in the US. US camel origins Camels actually originated in North America and migrated to Asia over the land bridge that once existed. They subsequently died out in North America, though the camel family is still represented in South America, with the alpaca, llama, and vicuna. This naturally means that camels must have been imported if there is currently a breeding population of wild camels in the US. Indeed, that is exactly what happened and it is well documented. Importation of camels Early in US history, most expansion occurred from the eastern US to the west. At the time, most of the land west of the Mississippi was wild and lawless. There were also numerous skirmishes between the settlers and various Indian tribes. To help with these issues, the US Army, specifically the cavalry, established a number of forts throughout the west. One of the problem areas was the desert southwest. The cavalry used horses, but they could only go to places that had available water for the horses to drink and enough food for them to eat. The desert areas were not good for either food or water, but there was a definite need. In the early 1800’s, a proposal was made to purchase and import some camels. It was noted that camels are capable of traveling long distances without food and water and that they could also maintain a steady pace for days, while horses needed rest much more frequently. At first, the camel proposal was taken lightly, though, and the US Congress didn’t authorize funding. Opinions about the proposition began to change in the time period from 1846 to 1848, however. That was when the Mexican-American war was fought. Not only was the need for army personnel felt, after the war, the US found itself with a huge amount of primarily desert land, acquired from Mexico. This was the Texas territory. In 1855, Congress approved the expenditure of $30,000 to acquire some camels, largely due to the efforts of Jefferson Davis, who was the secretary of war at the time. The Camel Corps In all, 33 camels were purchased from Egypt, Turkey, and Tunisia. By February 1857, the camel herd had grown to 70 animals and these were stationed at Camp Verde, Texas. The advantages of camels over horses and wagons were quickly seen and many people fully supported the expansion of what had become the Camel Corps. This included Lieutinant Colonel Robert E. Lee (pictured), who used camels on a lengthy patrol in 1860. A number of camels were moved to Camp Tejon in California and it is quite possible that the camel corps would have expanded even more, had it not been for the American Civil War. In particular, the Confederate Army captured Camp Verde, though Camp Tejon remained in Union control. None of the camels were used during the war. After the war, the new secretary of war, Edwin Stanton, who was unaware of how useful camels were and could be, ordered the camels to be sold. They were and many of the people who bought them ended up abandoning the animals or purposely turned them loose. The last official sighting of wild camels in the southwest deserts was in the 1940s. However, since this would indicate that there was a breeding population of camels, it is extremely likely that they still live in that area. In fact, there are a number of people who have claimed to have seen them more recently. There seems to be little interest in the animals, so there have been no official updates to the status of the camels in the southwest US. It should be mentioned, too, that the camels are technically not wild, but rather feral. The area also has a growing population of feral burros, which are non-native, destroying habitat and yet are protected by law.	885	ENGLISH	1
This article was originally published at The Conversation and has been republished under Creative Commons. How did people look after their children in the Stone Age? It turns out that prehistoric parents may not have been so different to modern mums and dads. Clay vessels that have been found in Germany could have been used to supplement breast milk and wean children more than 5,000 years ago. They became more common across Bronze and Iron Age Europe and are thought to be some of the first-known baby bottles. Analyses of child skeletons from this period suggest that supplementary foods were given to babies at around 6 months and weaning was complete by 2 to 3 years of age. These bottles are often stray finds on dig sites of ancient settlements and come in all sorts of shapes, but are always very small and have a spout through which liquid could be poured or suckled. Sometimes they take the form of very cute mythical animals with feet and heads, perhaps made by the parents to entertain their children. Archaeologists have suggested that they were used to feed infants, but they might also have fed the sick or elderly. Until now, no one knew their true purpose or what types of food they might have contained. Parenting through the ages In our study, we decided to investigate these objects using a technique called organic residue analysis. We found three in European child graves, and two of them were complete. Normally, we’d grind up broken pots, but we couldn’t possibly do this to these very small and precious vessels. Instead, we did some very delicate drilling to produce enough ceramic powder and then treated it with a chemical technique that extracts molecules called lipids. These lipids come from the fats, oils, and waxes of the natural world, and are normally absorbed into the material of the prehistoric pots during cooking, or, in this case, through heating the milk. Luckily, these lipids often survive for thousands of years. We regularly use this technique to find out what sort of food people cooked in their ancient pots. It seems they ate many of the things we eat today, including various types of meat, dairy products, fish, vegetables, and honey. Our results showed that the three vessels contained ruminant animal milk, from cows, sheep, or goat. Their presence in child graves suggests they were used to feed babies animal milk as a supplementary food during weaning. This is interesting because animal milk would only have become available as humans changed their lifestyles and settled in farming communities. It’s at that time—the dawn of agriculture—that people first domesticated cows, sheep, goats, and pigs. This ultimately led to the “Neolithic demographic transition,” when the widespread use of animal milk to feed babies, or as a supplementary weaning food in some parts of the world, improved nutrition, contributing to an increased birth rate. The human population grew significantly as a result and so did settlement sizes, which eventually became the towns and cities we know today. By holding these ancient baby bottles, we’re connected to the first generations of children who grew up in the transition from hunter-gatherer groups to communities based around agriculture. This research gives us a greater insight into the lives of mothers and babies in the past, and how prehistoric families were dealing with infant feeding and nutrition at what would have been a very risky time in an infant’s life. Child mortality would have been high—there were no antibiotics in those days—and feeding babies with animal milk would have come with its own set of risks. Although it may have provided a valuable source of nutrition, today we know that unpasteurized milk carries the risk of contamination from bacteria and can transmit disease from the animal. Like all good research, this begs a range of new questions. Both the ancient Greeks and the Romans used very similar vessels, and we know of a small number in a prehistoric site in Sudan. It would be interesting to see how these generations of children were fed and raised elsewhere in the world. It’s perhaps comforting to know that despite the vast distance of time, these people loved and cared for their children in much the same way that we do today.	<urn:uuid:2628f3da-5dfb-49ed-8c56-3bfe455ccb99>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/neolithic-parenting-baby-bottles/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00312.warc.gz	en	0.985333	854	3.484375	3	[ -0.002354608615860343, 0.1655125617980957, 0.2693817913532257, -0.101588174700737, 0.061727508902549744, -0.043635085225105286, -0.07957462966442108, 0.06281443685293198, -0.626948893070221, -0.029670443385839462, 0.03659500181674957, -0.7301267385482788, -0.13773947954177856, 0.2524235546...	4	This article was originally published at The Conversation and has been republished under Creative Commons. How did people look after their children in the Stone Age? It turns out that prehistoric parents may not have been so different to modern mums and dads. Clay vessels that have been found in Germany could have been used to supplement breast milk and wean children more than 5,000 years ago. They became more common across Bronze and Iron Age Europe and are thought to be some of the first-known baby bottles. Analyses of child skeletons from this period suggest that supplementary foods were given to babies at around 6 months and weaning was complete by 2 to 3 years of age. These bottles are often stray finds on dig sites of ancient settlements and come in all sorts of shapes, but are always very small and have a spout through which liquid could be poured or suckled. Sometimes they take the form of very cute mythical animals with feet and heads, perhaps made by the parents to entertain their children. Archaeologists have suggested that they were used to feed infants, but they might also have fed the sick or elderly. Until now, no one knew their true purpose or what types of food they might have contained. Parenting through the ages In our study, we decided to investigate these objects using a technique called organic residue analysis. We found three in European child graves, and two of them were complete. Normally, we’d grind up broken pots, but we couldn’t possibly do this to these very small and precious vessels. Instead, we did some very delicate drilling to produce enough ceramic powder and then treated it with a chemical technique that extracts molecules called lipids. These lipids come from the fats, oils, and waxes of the natural world, and are normally absorbed into the material of the prehistoric pots during cooking, or, in this case, through heating the milk. Luckily, these lipids often survive for thousands of years. We regularly use this technique to find out what sort of food people cooked in their ancient pots. It seems they ate many of the things we eat today, including various types of meat, dairy products, fish, vegetables, and honey. Our results showed that the three vessels contained ruminant animal milk, from cows, sheep, or goat. Their presence in child graves suggests they were used to feed babies animal milk as a supplementary food during weaning. This is interesting because animal milk would only have become available as humans changed their lifestyles and settled in farming communities. It’s at that time—the dawn of agriculture—that people first domesticated cows, sheep, goats, and pigs. This ultimately led to the “Neolithic demographic transition,” when the widespread use of animal milk to feed babies, or as a supplementary weaning food in some parts of the world, improved nutrition, contributing to an increased birth rate. The human population grew significantly as a result and so did settlement sizes, which eventually became the towns and cities we know today. By holding these ancient baby bottles, we’re connected to the first generations of children who grew up in the transition from hunter-gatherer groups to communities based around agriculture. This research gives us a greater insight into the lives of mothers and babies in the past, and how prehistoric families were dealing with infant feeding and nutrition at what would have been a very risky time in an infant’s life. Child mortality would have been high—there were no antibiotics in those days—and feeding babies with animal milk would have come with its own set of risks. Although it may have provided a valuable source of nutrition, today we know that unpasteurized milk carries the risk of contamination from bacteria and can transmit disease from the animal. Like all good research, this begs a range of new questions. Both the ancient Greeks and the Romans used very similar vessels, and we know of a small number in a prehistoric site in Sudan. It would be interesting to see how these generations of children were fed and raised elsewhere in the world. It’s perhaps comforting to know that despite the vast distance of time, these people loved and cared for their children in much the same way that we do today.	836	ENGLISH	1
NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Science English Chapter 1 The Third Level are provided here with simple step-by-step explanations. These solutions for The Third Level are extremely popular among Class 12 Science students for English The Third Level Solutions come handy for quickly completing your homework and preparing for exams. All questions and answers from the NCERT Book of Class 12 Science English Chapter 1 are provided here for you for free. You will also love the ad-free experience on Meritnation’s NCERT Solutions. All NCERT Solutions for class Class 12 Science English are prepared by experts and are 100% accurate. Page No 48: Who is Jo? How does she respond to her father’s story telling? Jo or Joanne was the four-year-old daughter of Jack and Clare. She was accustomed to hearing stories from her father every evening and on Saturday afternoons, for the past two years. With each passing day, sleep had started eluding her during these story sessions, and her mind and body stayed wide-awake, engrossed in the world of fantasy and adventure. She was an intelligent and inquisitive child. Her mind was bubbling with queries regarding whatever she heard or saw. Her responses to the stories were a curious mixture of emotions caught in recognition of the known and eagerness to explore the unknown aspects woven in the basic tale by her father. An impatient Jo wanted the story to move with a fast pace and yet cannot proceed with conflicting ideas or unresolved queries in her mind. She was also a very observant listener and corrected her father wherever she felt he faltered. The intensity of her engagement with the story was apparent from her body language and facial expressions. She empathized with the protagonist and rejected whatever did not fit in her own narrow world. The eagerness to understand and the restlessness to assert her point of view kept her awake. She was even willing to fight with her father and to coax him to end the story according to her standpoint. Her responses indicate that she had started developing a personality of her own. Page No 53: What possible plot line could the story continue with? From the perspective of Jo, the story should have ended with a happy note of Roger Skunk getting rid of the foul smell forever and being able to play with all other children. However, from the perspective of Jack, the story may not have such an innocent fairy tale ending. In the process of story telling, it was evident that Jack got nostalgic about his own childhood and his mother. Thus, he brought in his own perspective. His sense of belongingness to his mother and his experience of dealing with reality resulted in a mature and compromising end where the reality limited the scope of fiction. As he associated himself with Roger Skunk of his story, he avoided getting into the problematic situation of identity crisis and of blaming his mother. Page No 54: What do you think was Jo’s problem? For Jo, the story could have ended comfortably with Roger Skunk relieved of his foul body-odour and accepted by other children as their playmate. However, Jack took the story to another level, which created a ruckus in the little and simple world of Jo. She was unconvinced with the fact that Roger Skunk’s mother did not like the newly acquired smell of roses and wanted him to get his earlier body odour restored. For a little girl like Jo, the world was centered on friends to play with. Therefore, when she notices that other small animals avoided the poor Skunk, she empathized with him, and thought highly of the wizard who helped the poor creature gain friends and happiness. She could not understand why a mother would want to compromise her child’s happiness just to suit her own self. Being the inquisitive self she was, Jo could not understand why the skunk’s mother hit the kind wizard without being hit back. In her perspective, the skunk’s Mommy was wrong in whatever she did. Jo was not ready to accept that ‘mothers are always correct’. Page No 55: Q1. What is the moral issue that the story raises? The story examines moral issues dependent on different levels of maturity. There is a sharp contrast between an adult’s perspective of life and the worldview of a little child. Children represent innocence. Hatred and injustice have no place in the their world. In the story, the baby skunk was able to make friends only after he smelled of roses. In Jo’s perspective, the happiness of being able to make friends surpassed any other thing. As a result, she is unable to assess the reason why the mother skunk pressurized her child to get his original foul body odour restored. On the contrary, Jack tried to justify the skunk’s mother and wanted Roger to listen to his mother even if it means smelling bad again. Jack, a typical father, wanted his daughter to believe that parents are always correct and they know what is best for their children. Thus, the story raises the question of whether parents should always be followed blindly. Page No 55: How does Jo want the story to end and why? Jo was not convinced with the ending of the story and coaxed her father to retell the story the next day giving the story a predetermined path that she had set. According to her, neither Roger Skunk nor the wizard was wrong in the story. Jo refused to accept the end where Roger Skunk's mother hits the wizard and that too without being hit back. She wanted the story to end with the wizard hitting back the mother skunk with his magic wand and chopping off her arms 'forcely’. Page No 55: Why does Jack insist that it was the wizard that was hit and not the mother? There were three reasons for Jack’s insistence on only the wizard being hit by the Mommy. First, by the time Jo realized that the story does not get a logical and fair ending if the mommy is not hit back, Jack had already narrated the story. To revert his words would mean to refute the notion that whatever parents say is right. Second, for Jack to give in to Jo’s demand would mean disrespecting the elders. Jo was very young at that time and Jack believed that it was time for her to learn to respect elders and understand that whatever elders do is for their best. The third reason was that Jack, while narrating the story, unknowingly got emotionally connected with the character of the protagonist and his mother. He pictured his own mother in place of Roger Skunk’s mother and thus could not imagine his own mother being hit by anyone. Moreover, he personally considered her to have made right decisions for him. Page No 55: What makes Jack feel caught in an ugly middle position? As the story of Roger Skunk is unfolded, the impatient and unsatisfied Jo strongly puts forth her point of view. She did not want the story to end the way her father had perceived and narrated it. According to her point of view, the wizard should have hit the skunk’s mommy hard. Jack knew that from the ethical point of view, and according to the principles of respect that one is taught from the early childhood, what she was asking for was wrong. However, the force with which Jo had asked him to change the end of the story left him in a dilemma. He was caught in a battle between the two perspectives, and could not find a way to make Jo understand his point of view that mothers are never wrong. Page No 55: What is your stance regarding the two endings to the Roger Skunk story? Considering the tender age of Jo, both the endings seem a little irrational. It is certain that she will be learning from whatever she hears and visualizes at this age. If the story ends according to Jack, Jo will never be able to question anything she considers wrong in life since this ending stresses that elders are always right in whatever they do. In addition, the story shows the skunk’s mommy hitting the wizard for no fault of his. The wizard had only done what he was asked to. This may scare the four-year-old Jo, as it teaches that mothers, being elders, have the right to hit anyone, even if they are not at fault. On the contrary, if the story ends as Jo wanted it to, it will stop her from believing in and respecting her elders. She may even start believing that there is nothing wrong in hitting elders. A balanced view may be given in an apt ending, where the mommy either does not hit the wizard at all or realizes her mistake soon. Page No 55: Why is the adult’s perspective on life different from that of a child? A child’s speech and line of thought, his actions and reactions, are natural and not guided by any outward influence. He speaks from his heart in accordance with what is ethically right in his perspective. On the other hand, an adult has many things to consider before speaking or reacting. Thus, the influence of society governs and dominates his thoughts. In this chapter, Jo speaks what she considers correct. But Jack, an adult caught in a dilemma, kept thinking on the consequences of accepting his daughter's ending to the story and what the society has made him learn over time. View NCERT Solutions for all chapters of Class 12	<urn:uuid:9436a4d2-840d-4dd2-b8b7-159675e33c97>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.meritnation.com/cbse-class-12-science/english/vistas-ncert-solutions/should-wizard-hit-mommy/ncert-solutions/46_7_1375_3083_48_23481	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00473.warc.gz	en	0.982728	1,949	3.5	4	[ -0.2734600901603699, 0.38273927569389343, 0.10583202540874481, -0.27694278955459595, -0.35196563601493835, 0.04781902953982353, 0.06925658881664276, 0.4399067163467407, -0.13620713353157043, 0.12470802664756775, 0.26243457198143005, -0.15329056978225708, 0.20812833309173584, -0.09654885530...	2	NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Science English Chapter 1 The Third Level are provided here with simple step-by-step explanations. These solutions for The Third Level are extremely popular among Class 12 Science students for English The Third Level Solutions come handy for quickly completing your homework and preparing for exams. All questions and answers from the NCERT Book of Class 12 Science English Chapter 1 are provided here for you for free. You will also love the ad-free experience on Meritnation’s NCERT Solutions. All NCERT Solutions for class Class 12 Science English are prepared by experts and are 100% accurate. Page No 48: Who is Jo? How does she respond to her father’s story telling? Jo or Joanne was the four-year-old daughter of Jack and Clare. She was accustomed to hearing stories from her father every evening and on Saturday afternoons, for the past two years. With each passing day, sleep had started eluding her during these story sessions, and her mind and body stayed wide-awake, engrossed in the world of fantasy and adventure. She was an intelligent and inquisitive child. Her mind was bubbling with queries regarding whatever she heard or saw. Her responses to the stories were a curious mixture of emotions caught in recognition of the known and eagerness to explore the unknown aspects woven in the basic tale by her father. An impatient Jo wanted the story to move with a fast pace and yet cannot proceed with conflicting ideas or unresolved queries in her mind. She was also a very observant listener and corrected her father wherever she felt he faltered. The intensity of her engagement with the story was apparent from her body language and facial expressions. She empathized with the protagonist and rejected whatever did not fit in her own narrow world. The eagerness to understand and the restlessness to assert her point of view kept her awake. She was even willing to fight with her father and to coax him to end the story according to her standpoint. Her responses indicate that she had started developing a personality of her own. Page No 53: What possible plot line could the story continue with? From the perspective of Jo, the story should have ended with a happy note of Roger Skunk getting rid of the foul smell forever and being able to play with all other children. However, from the perspective of Jack, the story may not have such an innocent fairy tale ending. In the process of story telling, it was evident that Jack got nostalgic about his own childhood and his mother. Thus, he brought in his own perspective. His sense of belongingness to his mother and his experience of dealing with reality resulted in a mature and compromising end where the reality limited the scope of fiction. As he associated himself with Roger Skunk of his story, he avoided getting into the problematic situation of identity crisis and of blaming his mother. Page No 54: What do you think was Jo’s problem? For Jo, the story could have ended comfortably with Roger Skunk relieved of his foul body-odour and accepted by other children as their playmate. However, Jack took the story to another level, which created a ruckus in the little and simple world of Jo. She was unconvinced with the fact that Roger Skunk’s mother did not like the newly acquired smell of roses and wanted him to get his earlier body odour restored. For a little girl like Jo, the world was centered on friends to play with. Therefore, when she notices that other small animals avoided the poor Skunk, she empathized with him, and thought highly of the wizard who helped the poor creature gain friends and happiness. She could not understand why a mother would want to compromise her child’s happiness just to suit her own self. Being the inquisitive self she was, Jo could not understand why the skunk’s mother hit the kind wizard without being hit back. In her perspective, the skunk’s Mommy was wrong in whatever she did. Jo was not ready to accept that ‘mothers are always correct’. Page No 55: Q1. What is the moral issue that the story raises? The story examines moral issues dependent on different levels of maturity. There is a sharp contrast between an adult’s perspective of life and the worldview of a little child. Children represent innocence. Hatred and injustice have no place in the their world. In the story, the baby skunk was able to make friends only after he smelled of roses. In Jo’s perspective, the happiness of being able to make friends surpassed any other thing. As a result, she is unable to assess the reason why the mother skunk pressurized her child to get his original foul body odour restored. On the contrary, Jack tried to justify the skunk’s mother and wanted Roger to listen to his mother even if it means smelling bad again. Jack, a typical father, wanted his daughter to believe that parents are always correct and they know what is best for their children. Thus, the story raises the question of whether parents should always be followed blindly. Page No 55: How does Jo want the story to end and why? Jo was not convinced with the ending of the story and coaxed her father to retell the story the next day giving the story a predetermined path that she had set. According to her, neither Roger Skunk nor the wizard was wrong in the story. Jo refused to accept the end where Roger Skunk's mother hits the wizard and that too without being hit back. She wanted the story to end with the wizard hitting back the mother skunk with his magic wand and chopping off her arms 'forcely’. Page No 55: Why does Jack insist that it was the wizard that was hit and not the mother? There were three reasons for Jack’s insistence on only the wizard being hit by the Mommy. First, by the time Jo realized that the story does not get a logical and fair ending if the mommy is not hit back, Jack had already narrated the story. To revert his words would mean to refute the notion that whatever parents say is right. Second, for Jack to give in to Jo’s demand would mean disrespecting the elders. Jo was very young at that time and Jack believed that it was time for her to learn to respect elders and understand that whatever elders do is for their best. The third reason was that Jack, while narrating the story, unknowingly got emotionally connected with the character of the protagonist and his mother. He pictured his own mother in place of Roger Skunk’s mother and thus could not imagine his own mother being hit by anyone. Moreover, he personally considered her to have made right decisions for him. Page No 55: What makes Jack feel caught in an ugly middle position? As the story of Roger Skunk is unfolded, the impatient and unsatisfied Jo strongly puts forth her point of view. She did not want the story to end the way her father had perceived and narrated it. According to her point of view, the wizard should have hit the skunk’s mommy hard. Jack knew that from the ethical point of view, and according to the principles of respect that one is taught from the early childhood, what she was asking for was wrong. However, the force with which Jo had asked him to change the end of the story left him in a dilemma. He was caught in a battle between the two perspectives, and could not find a way to make Jo understand his point of view that mothers are never wrong. Page No 55: What is your stance regarding the two endings to the Roger Skunk story? Considering the tender age of Jo, both the endings seem a little irrational. It is certain that she will be learning from whatever she hears and visualizes at this age. If the story ends according to Jack, Jo will never be able to question anything she considers wrong in life since this ending stresses that elders are always right in whatever they do. In addition, the story shows the skunk’s mommy hitting the wizard for no fault of his. The wizard had only done what he was asked to. This may scare the four-year-old Jo, as it teaches that mothers, being elders, have the right to hit anyone, even if they are not at fault. On the contrary, if the story ends as Jo wanted it to, it will stop her from believing in and respecting her elders. She may even start believing that there is nothing wrong in hitting elders. A balanced view may be given in an apt ending, where the mommy either does not hit the wizard at all or realizes her mistake soon. Page No 55: Why is the adult’s perspective on life different from that of a child? A child’s speech and line of thought, his actions and reactions, are natural and not guided by any outward influence. He speaks from his heart in accordance with what is ethically right in his perspective. On the other hand, an adult has many things to consider before speaking or reacting. Thus, the influence of society governs and dominates his thoughts. In this chapter, Jo speaks what she considers correct. But Jack, an adult caught in a dilemma, kept thinking on the consequences of accepting his daughter's ending to the story and what the society has made him learn over time. View NCERT Solutions for all chapters of Class 12	1,902	ENGLISH	1
pherePLANTS AND DISEASES IN THE WESTERN WORLD In 1215, a man named Marco Polo embarked on a journey towards Western Asia and China. His reason for going to Asia was to gain spices, silks, and other luxurious items only the Asians made. Along his journey, Polo soon realized that the Earth was larger than he thought and that there must be some easier way to get to china. Not too long after his journey, the Ottoman Turks conquouered Constantinople. Constantinople (present day Istanbul) is the city, in Turkey, that divides Eastern Europe from Western Asia. Constantinople (which was previously held by European Christians) was a major port and trading center for the Europeans. It was also a major turnpike in the only safe route to Asia. Basically, the only way one could get to Asia, was through Constantinople. Since the Ottoman Turks held this city and charged outrageous prices on goods, another route to Asia was sought out by the Europeans. Vasco De Gamma found a water route, around Africa, to get to Asia. But it was Christopher Columbus’s choice in a water route to Asia that changed the world forever. Columbus sailed west, along the Atlantic, to get to Eastern Asia. However, Columbus did not know there was a HUGE landmass blocking him from Asia. This landmass was North and South America. Columbus landed on Barbados and brought with him some fellow sailors, food, and a few personal items. However. Columbus did not know that by landing on Barbados, he would create a European frenzy to conqueror the “New World”. By the 1700’s Europeans accomplished this goal. They accomplished this goal with the help of thousands of Europeans with guns and the help of foreign organisms and diseases. If these organisms and diseases did not sack the Natives the way they did, maybe today we would be speaking a Native language instead of English. The very first organisms that reached the New World were, of course, human beings from Europe. Along with these humans, came European plants. The Europeans who chose to settle the Americas needed to bring European animals, such as sheep, cattle, horses, etc. In order to feed these animals, Europeans needed to bring European plants. When these plants were introduced to the fertile American land, they started spreading like wildfire and destroyed every Native, weaker plant in their way. Because all the Native plants were being pushed aside by the stronger European plants, Native animals who fed on the Native plants began disappearing. Maybe they disappeared due to starvation. Maybe they disappeared due to being shot and killed by European farmers because they were feeding on their crops. There are numerous possibilities. Not only were herbivores hurt by these new plants, but omnivores and carnivores were also hurt. Meat-eating animals found it very hard to find plant-eating prey. Because of this, some meat-eating animals disappeared due to the lack of food. Native Americans were also hurt by these new plants. These plants destroyed the plants the Natives consumed. Therefore they had to move to new land that had not been infected with the European plants. They also had to move because the buffalo and deer they fed on moved because of the European onslaught. This, in turn, opened up more land for the Europeans to move into. Plants were very important in helping the Europeans take over the New World. But these new plants were not as deadly and effective as the new diseases Europeans brought. Before the Europeans “discovered” the New World, the had to deal with diseases such as measles, mumps, smallpox, dysentery, the plaque, and other diseases. Over time, they began becoming immune to these diseases. When the Europeans began settling the New World, they unknowingly brought these diseases with them. The Natives had no immunity to these diseases and began dropping like flies. Hundreds of thousands of Natives died from these diseases. The Aztecs, Incas, and most of the Eastern American tribes were decimated by European disease. Because more and more Natives began dying, the European conquerors encountered less and less Native resistance. The less the resistance, the easier it became for the Europeans to dominate the Americas. Not only were American Natives decimated, but Australian Aborigines were also destroyed by European disease. However, disease was not the only weapon used against the Natives. The Europeans had advanced technology that consisted of guns and armor. These weapons also played a major role in European rule. What seems odd to most people is the reason why Europeans did not succumb to Native diseases. These diseases were weak and had very little effect on the Europeans because the European immune system was so strong.	<urn:uuid:5cab2a25-72af-43cf-9833-e8dca834b343>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://guidedcollective.com/plants-and-diseases-that-ravaged-the-western-hemis-idea/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00344.warc.gz	en	0.984781	957	3.609375	4	[ -0.07347545027732849, -0.15696805715560913, 0.3943554162979126, -0.018099598586559296, -0.04869664087891579, -0.26518377661705017, 0.18465390801429749, 0.2866402864456177, 0.025179384276270866, 0.2353636920452118, 0.01698826067149639, -0.6818054914474487, 0.0556611642241478, 0.175977960228...	4	pherePLANTS AND DISEASES IN THE WESTERN WORLD In 1215, a man named Marco Polo embarked on a journey towards Western Asia and China. His reason for going to Asia was to gain spices, silks, and other luxurious items only the Asians made. Along his journey, Polo soon realized that the Earth was larger than he thought and that there must be some easier way to get to china. Not too long after his journey, the Ottoman Turks conquouered Constantinople. Constantinople (present day Istanbul) is the city, in Turkey, that divides Eastern Europe from Western Asia. Constantinople (which was previously held by European Christians) was a major port and trading center for the Europeans. It was also a major turnpike in the only safe route to Asia. Basically, the only way one could get to Asia, was through Constantinople. Since the Ottoman Turks held this city and charged outrageous prices on goods, another route to Asia was sought out by the Europeans. Vasco De Gamma found a water route, around Africa, to get to Asia. But it was Christopher Columbus’s choice in a water route to Asia that changed the world forever. Columbus sailed west, along the Atlantic, to get to Eastern Asia. However, Columbus did not know there was a HUGE landmass blocking him from Asia. This landmass was North and South America. Columbus landed on Barbados and brought with him some fellow sailors, food, and a few personal items. However. Columbus did not know that by landing on Barbados, he would create a European frenzy to conqueror the “New World”. By the 1700’s Europeans accomplished this goal. They accomplished this goal with the help of thousands of Europeans with guns and the help of foreign organisms and diseases. If these organisms and diseases did not sack the Natives the way they did, maybe today we would be speaking a Native language instead of English. The very first organisms that reached the New World were, of course, human beings from Europe. Along with these humans, came European plants. The Europeans who chose to settle the Americas needed to bring European animals, such as sheep, cattle, horses, etc. In order to feed these animals, Europeans needed to bring European plants. When these plants were introduced to the fertile American land, they started spreading like wildfire and destroyed every Native, weaker plant in their way. Because all the Native plants were being pushed aside by the stronger European plants, Native animals who fed on the Native plants began disappearing. Maybe they disappeared due to starvation. Maybe they disappeared due to being shot and killed by European farmers because they were feeding on their crops. There are numerous possibilities. Not only were herbivores hurt by these new plants, but omnivores and carnivores were also hurt. Meat-eating animals found it very hard to find plant-eating prey. Because of this, some meat-eating animals disappeared due to the lack of food. Native Americans were also hurt by these new plants. These plants destroyed the plants the Natives consumed. Therefore they had to move to new land that had not been infected with the European plants. They also had to move because the buffalo and deer they fed on moved because of the European onslaught. This, in turn, opened up more land for the Europeans to move into. Plants were very important in helping the Europeans take over the New World. But these new plants were not as deadly and effective as the new diseases Europeans brought. Before the Europeans “discovered” the New World, the had to deal with diseases such as measles, mumps, smallpox, dysentery, the plaque, and other diseases. Over time, they began becoming immune to these diseases. When the Europeans began settling the New World, they unknowingly brought these diseases with them. The Natives had no immunity to these diseases and began dropping like flies. Hundreds of thousands of Natives died from these diseases. The Aztecs, Incas, and most of the Eastern American tribes were decimated by European disease. Because more and more Natives began dying, the European conquerors encountered less and less Native resistance. The less the resistance, the easier it became for the Europeans to dominate the Americas. Not only were American Natives decimated, but Australian Aborigines were also destroyed by European disease. However, disease was not the only weapon used against the Natives. The Europeans had advanced technology that consisted of guns and armor. These weapons also played a major role in European rule. What seems odd to most people is the reason why Europeans did not succumb to Native diseases. These diseases were weak and had very little effect on the Europeans because the European immune system was so strong.	954	ENGLISH	1
Instrument Of The Week Instrument Of The Week The history of the saxophone can be traced back over 150 years. Although this seems like a long time, the saxophone is one of the newer instruments in the musical spectrum. It was invented by and named for Antoine-Joseph (Adolphe) Sax. He was an expert instrument maker and talented musician. The saxophone was patented on March 20, 1846. It has since become a necessity in every band due to its tonal beauty and versatility. Be sure to stop the music at the top of the page! Sax grew up in the trade of instrument making. Sax's father was an expert in instrument making. By the age of six, Sax had already become an expert in it as well. Sax, being the musician he was, became aware of the tonal disparity between strings and winds: moreover, that between brasses and woodwinds. The strings were being overpowered by the winds and the woodwinds were being overblown by the brasses. Sax needed an instrument that would balance the three sections. His answer to the problem was a horn with the body of a brass instrument and the mouthpiece of a woodwind instrument. When he combined these two elements, the saxophone was born. The first saxophone, a C bass, was displayed for the first time, in 1841, to the famous composer, Hector Berlioz. He was amazed at its versatility, unique tone, and control of dynamics. In 1842, Sax moved to Paris to introduce his new instrument to the rest of the world. Soon to follow was the creation of an entire saxophone family: fourteen different saxophones in all. Each differed by size and pitch. They were the: E flat sopranino, F sopranino, B flat soprano, C soprano, E flat alto, F alto, B flat tenor, C tenor, E flat baritone, B flat bass, C bass, E flat contrabass, and F contrabass. Many of these variations, however, are seldom used or have become obsolete. The saxophone finally became known as an integral part of all bands in 1845. This is the year of the famous "battle of the bands". The French Army band was still using "traditional" instrumentation. Sax saw this as an opportunity to show the world how the saxophone could improve the tonal quality in all bands. He suggested a contest between an army band composed of the original orchestral instrumentation against a band with an instrumentation that included saxophones. Sax’s band of twenty-eight men, compared to the French Army band of thirty-five, overwhelmed the crowd. That day, the saxophone was officially introduced into the French Army Band and soon to all other bands. Many composers began to write music for the saxophone, but it was not until about seventy-five years later that the saxophone began to be used to play dance music. However, to do this the saxophone needed to be altered. Originally, the sax was designed to have a smooth, mellow, and balanced tone. This had to be changed so it could compete with the blaring trumpets, noisy drums, shuffling feet, and loud talking that accompanied the surroundings of early twentieth century dance bands. The mouthpiece of the sax was made smaller and more parallel. This gave the sax the loud, obnoxious sound needed for jazz and dance music. Since this metamorphosis, the saxophone has been thought of as primarily a jazz instrument. Today, many people enjoy the wonderful music produced by the saxophone. The beautiful sound of a sax quintet or a blaring jazz soloist can be heard all around the world. The saxophone has become a part of almost every style of music. It is being played everywhere from night clubs to football fields. The saxophone is truly one of the great musical instruments in our existence. Call Me Maybe Saxophone Cover How It's Made Saxophones John Coltrane - Impressions - 1961 The History of the Saxophone . . January 31, 2013 . <>	<urn:uuid:0a619cbe-813c-4c46-adbb-00e4591b61ad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.brassonivorymusic.com/iotw-saxophone	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00524.warc.gz	en	0.984522	858	3.296875	3	[ -0.22312359511852264, -0.06622420251369476, 0.12778323888778687, -0.6557415723800659, -0.6098513603210449, 0.20766976475715637, -0.05655885487794876, 0.127412348985672, -0.022116851061582565, -0.08616705983877182, 0.2833022475242615, -0.19684836268424988, 0.1507243514060974, 0.154771432280...	4	Instrument Of The Week Instrument Of The Week The history of the saxophone can be traced back over 150 years. Although this seems like a long time, the saxophone is one of the newer instruments in the musical spectrum. It was invented by and named for Antoine-Joseph (Adolphe) Sax. He was an expert instrument maker and talented musician. The saxophone was patented on March 20, 1846. It has since become a necessity in every band due to its tonal beauty and versatility. Be sure to stop the music at the top of the page! Sax grew up in the trade of instrument making. Sax's father was an expert in instrument making. By the age of six, Sax had already become an expert in it as well. Sax, being the musician he was, became aware of the tonal disparity between strings and winds: moreover, that between brasses and woodwinds. The strings were being overpowered by the winds and the woodwinds were being overblown by the brasses. Sax needed an instrument that would balance the three sections. His answer to the problem was a horn with the body of a brass instrument and the mouthpiece of a woodwind instrument. When he combined these two elements, the saxophone was born. The first saxophone, a C bass, was displayed for the first time, in 1841, to the famous composer, Hector Berlioz. He was amazed at its versatility, unique tone, and control of dynamics. In 1842, Sax moved to Paris to introduce his new instrument to the rest of the world. Soon to follow was the creation of an entire saxophone family: fourteen different saxophones in all. Each differed by size and pitch. They were the: E flat sopranino, F sopranino, B flat soprano, C soprano, E flat alto, F alto, B flat tenor, C tenor, E flat baritone, B flat bass, C bass, E flat contrabass, and F contrabass. Many of these variations, however, are seldom used or have become obsolete. The saxophone finally became known as an integral part of all bands in 1845. This is the year of the famous "battle of the bands". The French Army band was still using "traditional" instrumentation. Sax saw this as an opportunity to show the world how the saxophone could improve the tonal quality in all bands. He suggested a contest between an army band composed of the original orchestral instrumentation against a band with an instrumentation that included saxophones. Sax’s band of twenty-eight men, compared to the French Army band of thirty-five, overwhelmed the crowd. That day, the saxophone was officially introduced into the French Army Band and soon to all other bands. Many composers began to write music for the saxophone, but it was not until about seventy-five years later that the saxophone began to be used to play dance music. However, to do this the saxophone needed to be altered. Originally, the sax was designed to have a smooth, mellow, and balanced tone. This had to be changed so it could compete with the blaring trumpets, noisy drums, shuffling feet, and loud talking that accompanied the surroundings of early twentieth century dance bands. The mouthpiece of the sax was made smaller and more parallel. This gave the sax the loud, obnoxious sound needed for jazz and dance music. Since this metamorphosis, the saxophone has been thought of as primarily a jazz instrument. Today, many people enjoy the wonderful music produced by the saxophone. The beautiful sound of a sax quintet or a blaring jazz soloist can be heard all around the world. The saxophone has become a part of almost every style of music. It is being played everywhere from night clubs to football fields. The saxophone is truly one of the great musical instruments in our existence. Call Me Maybe Saxophone Cover How It's Made Saxophones John Coltrane - Impressions - 1961 The History of the Saxophone . . January 31, 2013 . <>	862	ENGLISH	1
Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations. There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes. A common view is that the epithet "art", particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled.	<urn:uuid:1e6eef64-c7ef-4c90-a654-58ce4d6abdb0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.art.radinost.com/skill-and-craft/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00436.warc.gz	en	0.981547	279	3.328125	3	[ 0.10561716556549072, -0.016398007050156593, 0.20555301010608673, -0.15076135098934174, -0.6268150210380554, 0.23083704710006714, 0.5568395256996155, 0.009379101917147636, 0.050213057547807693, -0.2562733292579651, 0.16938883066177368, -0.15188710391521454, 0.14498336613178253, 0.4114925563...	2	Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations. There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes. A common view is that the epithet "art", particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled.	275	ENGLISH	1
With the very high water we are having on the Great Lakes, I have been asked the question "What if the peninsula becomes an island? Well, Presque Isle has done exactly that five times in the past. The name Presque Isle is French for almost island. Did you know that Presque Isle was an island five times in the past? Yes, that is true. The breaks were sometimes quite large and caused much discussion locally, within the state, and nationally. One break was wide but not very deep. As luck would have it, Mother Nature closed it in about eight months. The others were, at times, very wide and deep. All the breaks are as follows: 1828 closed 1829 1832 closed 1864/1865 1874 closed quickly mostly by the weather itself. 1890 closed 1895 1917 closed 1921-1922 The first breach, in 1828, appears to have taken place near what was known as "The Head" near where Sara's is now. It happened mid-winter, and the old records do not record exactly how wide or deep the channel to Presque Isle Bay was, although it has been recorded that many small boats could reach Lake Erie via the break. The federal government was quick to step forward to supply 20 workers plus about $ 7,500 for supplies to close the break. The total project was done in a period of about six months. At the time, the experts suggested that this was a one-time event due to very high winds over Lake Erie in the winter season. For the most part, they were right; however, the very narrowness of Presque Isle at where it was attached to the mainland was the real problem for all these the breaks. They ignored the fact of nature that Presque Isle is a sand spit that is moving constantly to the east. The next breakthrough was in 1832 and the largest, longest lasting and deepest of them all. At that point the state and federal governments sent Lt. Colonel J.C. Totten to Erie in the summer of 1833 to study and make recommendations about what to do to solve the problem. In his first report in late 1833, he suggested that one solution would be to maintain a new permanent west entrance to Presque Isle Bay. This, of course, would have made Presque Isle an island forever. He suggested that a two-year study of this idea should be made. In 1835, Lt. T.S. Brown officially submitted a plan for an entrance at the western end of Presque Isle Bay out into Lake Erie. By now, the breach had widened to a little over one mile and was over 20 feet deep. His plans showed extending extensive cribwork of huge rock enforced by steel sheets driven into the sandy soil. They would be arranged to allow a channel to the lake 400 feet wide with a minimum depth of 15 to 20 feet. These retaining walls and steel were to be backed by heavy hardwood timbers driven 15 feet into the sandy shoreline behind the cribs and steelwork. No provisions were made for people to get to Presque Isle except by boat. From 1836 to 1839, work commenced on Brown's plan and over 2,300 feet of cribs, steel, and hardwood timbers and the breakwaters were completed when work suddenly stopped due to lack of funds provided by the state and federal governments. It was noted by local newspapers that this was typical of political conditions at the time. Only 60 percent of the project ha been finished In 1844, the condition of Presque Isle was again reviewed. Then, the peninsula, which in 1823 joined the main shoreline, now seemed to be a permanent island. To prevent further damage to the harbor, a new and expanded extensive line of cribwork and breakwaters were built. The first part of the project that had been finished worked admirably for thepurposes for which it was designed. The gap, which in 1835 had been a mile wide, had by now been reduced to just three thousand feet, with a depth of less than six feet. Also, at this time, the two barracks built for the workmen years earlier were in danger of being threatened to be washed away by the waters of Lake Erie. To save them, a total of 470 feet of new supplemental cribwork was built to protect these barracks. That was the last work done for many years, and the area was not touched for the next nine years. Finally, in about 1865, Mother Nature again saw fit to close the breach on her own. As shown in the chart above, over the years, at least three other large and small breaches occurred. At the time, efforts were made to close them, and again, they worked for only a limited amount of time. Then something must have turned on a light in the engineers' heads because they realized what other actions had caused. Throughout the many investigations of these breaches, many townspeople began to realize that throughout the whole process of shoring up the neck of the peninsula, over 2,800 feet of beach to the west of Presque Isle had simply disappeared. They soon realized that The Head region of Presque Isle Bay and most of the neck of the peninsula where the hotels picnic grounds and a large dance hall were once built were now gone. The two smaller ponds and most of The Head area disappeared into the new channel over 20 or so years. This area at the peninsula's neck today does not extend as far west as it did when The Head was functioning in the 1800s. It is estimated that the whole area moved up to one-mile since the late 1800s. In part 2, I will cover information about The Head plus how the breaches were eventually stopped and how our current high water on the park is NOT like the reason for the older breaches that happen in the past. Until then, See you on the park!! Gene Ware is a published author of nine books including his newest, a children's picture book on Presque Isle, and is on the board of the Presque Isle Light Station, and past chairman of the board of the Tom Ridge Center Foundation, and the Presque Isle Partnership. He is also a www.goerie.com contributing writer. If you have questions and comments send them to firstname.lastname@example.org.	<urn:uuid:6e4dae75-91a3-4211-bfa7-21c2b4f69761>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.goerie.com/news/20190911/what-if-presque-isle-became-island-again-part-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00135.warc.gz	en	0.987758	1,302	3.328125	3	[ -0.2569780647754669, -0.5175052285194397, 0.21546687185764313, -0.22063611447811127, 0.15823976695537567, -0.17540311813354492, -0.03646569326519966, -0.26054900884628296, -0.24835307896137238, -0.11214689165353775, 0.03628138452768326, -0.00631930585950613, -0.35851114988327026, 0.4652101...	2	With the very high water we are having on the Great Lakes, I have been asked the question "What if the peninsula becomes an island? Well, Presque Isle has done exactly that five times in the past. The name Presque Isle is French for almost island. Did you know that Presque Isle was an island five times in the past? Yes, that is true. The breaks were sometimes quite large and caused much discussion locally, within the state, and nationally. One break was wide but not very deep. As luck would have it, Mother Nature closed it in about eight months. The others were, at times, very wide and deep. All the breaks are as follows: 1828 closed 1829 1832 closed 1864/1865 1874 closed quickly mostly by the weather itself. 1890 closed 1895 1917 closed 1921-1922 The first breach, in 1828, appears to have taken place near what was known as "The Head" near where Sara's is now. It happened mid-winter, and the old records do not record exactly how wide or deep the channel to Presque Isle Bay was, although it has been recorded that many small boats could reach Lake Erie via the break. The federal government was quick to step forward to supply 20 workers plus about $ 7,500 for supplies to close the break. The total project was done in a period of about six months. At the time, the experts suggested that this was a one-time event due to very high winds over Lake Erie in the winter season. For the most part, they were right; however, the very narrowness of Presque Isle at where it was attached to the mainland was the real problem for all these the breaks. They ignored the fact of nature that Presque Isle is a sand spit that is moving constantly to the east. The next breakthrough was in 1832 and the largest, longest lasting and deepest of them all. At that point the state and federal governments sent Lt. Colonel J.C. Totten to Erie in the summer of 1833 to study and make recommendations about what to do to solve the problem. In his first report in late 1833, he suggested that one solution would be to maintain a new permanent west entrance to Presque Isle Bay. This, of course, would have made Presque Isle an island forever. He suggested that a two-year study of this idea should be made. In 1835, Lt. T.S. Brown officially submitted a plan for an entrance at the western end of Presque Isle Bay out into Lake Erie. By now, the breach had widened to a little over one mile and was over 20 feet deep. His plans showed extending extensive cribwork of huge rock enforced by steel sheets driven into the sandy soil. They would be arranged to allow a channel to the lake 400 feet wide with a minimum depth of 15 to 20 feet. These retaining walls and steel were to be backed by heavy hardwood timbers driven 15 feet into the sandy shoreline behind the cribs and steelwork. No provisions were made for people to get to Presque Isle except by boat. From 1836 to 1839, work commenced on Brown's plan and over 2,300 feet of cribs, steel, and hardwood timbers and the breakwaters were completed when work suddenly stopped due to lack of funds provided by the state and federal governments. It was noted by local newspapers that this was typical of political conditions at the time. Only 60 percent of the project ha been finished In 1844, the condition of Presque Isle was again reviewed. Then, the peninsula, which in 1823 joined the main shoreline, now seemed to be a permanent island. To prevent further damage to the harbor, a new and expanded extensive line of cribwork and breakwaters were built. The first part of the project that had been finished worked admirably for thepurposes for which it was designed. The gap, which in 1835 had been a mile wide, had by now been reduced to just three thousand feet, with a depth of less than six feet. Also, at this time, the two barracks built for the workmen years earlier were in danger of being threatened to be washed away by the waters of Lake Erie. To save them, a total of 470 feet of new supplemental cribwork was built to protect these barracks. That was the last work done for many years, and the area was not touched for the next nine years. Finally, in about 1865, Mother Nature again saw fit to close the breach on her own. As shown in the chart above, over the years, at least three other large and small breaches occurred. At the time, efforts were made to close them, and again, they worked for only a limited amount of time. Then something must have turned on a light in the engineers' heads because they realized what other actions had caused. Throughout the many investigations of these breaches, many townspeople began to realize that throughout the whole process of shoring up the neck of the peninsula, over 2,800 feet of beach to the west of Presque Isle had simply disappeared. They soon realized that The Head region of Presque Isle Bay and most of the neck of the peninsula where the hotels picnic grounds and a large dance hall were once built were now gone. The two smaller ponds and most of The Head area disappeared into the new channel over 20 or so years. This area at the peninsula's neck today does not extend as far west as it did when The Head was functioning in the 1800s. It is estimated that the whole area moved up to one-mile since the late 1800s. In part 2, I will cover information about The Head plus how the breaches were eventually stopped and how our current high water on the park is NOT like the reason for the older breaches that happen in the past. Until then, See you on the park!! Gene Ware is a published author of nine books including his newest, a children's picture book on Presque Isle, and is on the board of the Presque Isle Light Station, and past chairman of the board of the Tom Ridge Center Foundation, and the Presque Isle Partnership. He is also a www.goerie.com contributing writer. If you have questions and comments send them to firstname.lastname@example.org.	1,367	ENGLISH	1
Nelson Mandela was huge hero and greatest personality in this world. Nelson was born in the year 1918 in South Africa. His father was the chief adviser of Tembu ruler. When his father died he was sent to live with the chief of Tembu Nation. There are many infinite reasons and causes because of which everyone like and admire Nelson Mandela and Nelson Mandela Quotes as well. Nelson was very upset and worried about Africans who were treated as slaves under British. He was also aware of the unjust nature of South African Society. The South African people had very little opportunities. Mandela was a lawyer and knew the principles of freedom, liberty, democracy, equality, political rights etc. He joined the (ANC) African National Congress which was leading for equal rights. And later he became the leader of (ANC) African National Congress. He opened the first Black Law firm and started to spread the message of equality for black. He faced a lot of difficulties. He was imprisoned for 27 years and then became the voice of inspiration and example. On 10 May 1994, he was the first democratically elected State President of South Africa until 1999. He also won the Nobel Peace Prize and many awards. Everyone loved and respect Nelson Mandela.He died at the aged of 95 on 5th of December, 2013. Here are the best collections of the Nelson Mandela Quotes. You can download them and can share them with others	<urn:uuid:d18602f2-310a-430c-be10-87b567bcbef9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.picshunger.com/quotes/nelson-mandela-qoutes/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00007.warc.gz	en	0.992568	284	3.28125	3	[ -0.6751912832260132, 1.0527358055114746, 0.06302792578935623, -0.46832188963890076, -0.23756402730941772, -0.047759052366018295, 0.7402006983757019, -0.17183548212051392, -0.26136136054992676, 0.1397162526845932, 0.41197094321250916, -0.330576092004776, 0.16010291874408722, 0.1503562033176...	3	Nelson Mandela was huge hero and greatest personality in this world. Nelson was born in the year 1918 in South Africa. His father was the chief adviser of Tembu ruler. When his father died he was sent to live with the chief of Tembu Nation. There are many infinite reasons and causes because of which everyone like and admire Nelson Mandela and Nelson Mandela Quotes as well. Nelson was very upset and worried about Africans who were treated as slaves under British. He was also aware of the unjust nature of South African Society. The South African people had very little opportunities. Mandela was a lawyer and knew the principles of freedom, liberty, democracy, equality, political rights etc. He joined the (ANC) African National Congress which was leading for equal rights. And later he became the leader of (ANC) African National Congress. He opened the first Black Law firm and started to spread the message of equality for black. He faced a lot of difficulties. He was imprisoned for 27 years and then became the voice of inspiration and example. On 10 May 1994, he was the first democratically elected State President of South Africa until 1999. He also won the Nobel Peace Prize and many awards. Everyone loved and respect Nelson Mandela.He died at the aged of 95 on 5th of December, 2013. Here are the best collections of the Nelson Mandela Quotes. You can download them and can share them with others	302	ENGLISH	1
Teaching our students to "Think like Engineers”….. Melissa Gough How does the integration of the Engineering Design Process during science instruction enhance student learning? My inquiry question was developed out of an opportunity I had while in my practicum that allowed me to be part of an Engineering Design Cohort, which brought together over 30 different teachers within the district to try and implement the Engineering Design Process into science instruction. After learning about the Engineering Design Process and how it is catered toward any science instruction, I came up with the inquiry question that I wanted to explore within my classroom. The goal of this project is that students would be more engaged with the Engineering Design Process because of the applications that could be used across the science curriculum, and because of the realistic applications that are embedded within the process. My method began by inquiring about what students thought about engineering and what it means to be an engineer. From there, we dove right into our own cycle of the Engineering Design Process where we came up with a realistic project for the students (build a structure that would be used in an outdoor space that the school was beginning to design). We separated students into Engineering Teams that they would be seated with for the length of the project. I created Engineering Notebooks for the students where they kept their group’s work separated into each stage of the process. There was also a picture of the Engineering Design Process on the front of their notebooks. As we went through each stage of the process, students had time to reflect on why engineers would use this stage and why it was important. They reflected on their own learning through this stage and how it would help them specifically for their own projects. We also had experts (carpenters, Lowe’s associates, airport personnel, etc.) come into our classroom to give our students tips and pointers, and to talk about the different applications of engineering. Something that was vital for this inquiry was documentation of student learning, and to make student learning visible. I created a large bulletin board display that had the Engineering Design Process and stages, with a large amount of photos of the students throughout the stages. This allowed for students to track their own learnings throughout the length of the project and they were able to reflect on those photos. At the end of our unit, we had a culminating exhibition during the student-led conferences, where we created posters for the students and they were to present their projects and posters to their parents (ensuring they go through all the stages of the Engineering Design Process). Melissa is originally from Calgary. She moved to Lethbridge in 2012 to pursue a combined Math and Education degree, anticipating graduation in Spring 2016. She completed PS3 in Chestermere, and is am hoping to get a job abroad once she graduates. She is extremely excited to integrate inquiry based learning into her classroom moving forward!	<urn:uuid:2cceaf8a-c009-4440-876d-e11256f58eaa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.uleth.ca/education/Celebrating_inquiry/Spring2016no8	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00127.warc.gz	en	0.981672	577	3.3125	3	[ -0.17555579543113708, 0.13376103341579437, 0.3982629179954529, -0.5640226602554321, -0.5474382638931274, 0.034477297216653824, 0.14535319805145264, 0.4852027893066406, -0.062040358781814575, 0.12363466620445251, 0.1300363838672638, -0.10972947627305984, 0.06765604019165039, 0.1897494643926...	2	Teaching our students to "Think like Engineers”….. Melissa Gough How does the integration of the Engineering Design Process during science instruction enhance student learning? My inquiry question was developed out of an opportunity I had while in my practicum that allowed me to be part of an Engineering Design Cohort, which brought together over 30 different teachers within the district to try and implement the Engineering Design Process into science instruction. After learning about the Engineering Design Process and how it is catered toward any science instruction, I came up with the inquiry question that I wanted to explore within my classroom. The goal of this project is that students would be more engaged with the Engineering Design Process because of the applications that could be used across the science curriculum, and because of the realistic applications that are embedded within the process. My method began by inquiring about what students thought about engineering and what it means to be an engineer. From there, we dove right into our own cycle of the Engineering Design Process where we came up with a realistic project for the students (build a structure that would be used in an outdoor space that the school was beginning to design). We separated students into Engineering Teams that they would be seated with for the length of the project. I created Engineering Notebooks for the students where they kept their group’s work separated into each stage of the process. There was also a picture of the Engineering Design Process on the front of their notebooks. As we went through each stage of the process, students had time to reflect on why engineers would use this stage and why it was important. They reflected on their own learning through this stage and how it would help them specifically for their own projects. We also had experts (carpenters, Lowe’s associates, airport personnel, etc.) come into our classroom to give our students tips and pointers, and to talk about the different applications of engineering. Something that was vital for this inquiry was documentation of student learning, and to make student learning visible. I created a large bulletin board display that had the Engineering Design Process and stages, with a large amount of photos of the students throughout the stages. This allowed for students to track their own learnings throughout the length of the project and they were able to reflect on those photos. At the end of our unit, we had a culminating exhibition during the student-led conferences, where we created posters for the students and they were to present their projects and posters to their parents (ensuring they go through all the stages of the Engineering Design Process). Melissa is originally from Calgary. She moved to Lethbridge in 2012 to pursue a combined Math and Education degree, anticipating graduation in Spring 2016. She completed PS3 in Chestermere, and is am hoping to get a job abroad once she graduates. She is extremely excited to integrate inquiry based learning into her classroom moving forward!	578	ENGLISH	1
The St. Louis Fire of 1849 was a devastating fire that occurred on May 17, 1849 and destroyed a significant part of St. Louis, Missouri and many of the steamboats using the Mississippi River and Missouri River. This was the first fire in United States history in which it is known that a firefighter was killed in the line of duty. Captain Thomas B. Targee was killed while trying to blast a fire break. In the spring of 1849, the population of St. Louis was about 63,000 with a western boundary of the city extending to 11th Street. The city was about three quarters of a mile in width and had about three miles of riverfront filled with steamboats and other river craft. St. Louis, located near the junction of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, was the last major city where travelers could get supplies before they headed west. Here travelers bought supplies and switched steamboats before going up the Missouri River to Omaha, Nebraska or other trail heads for the Oregon and California trails west. At the time of this fire, the city was also experiencing a cholera epidemic which would end up killing about 10% of the population (over 4,500). The town was booming as people came in from around the U.S. and abroad and bought supplies before heading overland to participate in the California Gold Rush. On May 17, 1849 at 9:00 p.m. a fire alarm sounded in St. Louis. The paddle wheeled steamboat White Cloud on the river at the foot of Cherry Street was on fire. The volunteer fire department with nine hand engines and hose reel wagons promptly responded. The moorings holding White Cloud burned through and the burning steamboat drifted slowly down the Mississippi River, setting 22 other steam boats and several flatboats and barges on fire. The flames leaped from the burning steamboats to buildings on the shore and was soon burning everything on the waterfront levee for four blocks. The fire extended to Main Street westward and crossing Olive Street. It completely gutted the three blocks between Olive and 2nd Street and went as far south as Market Street. It then ignited a large copper shop three blocks away and burned out two more city blocks. The volunteer firemen, after laboring for eight hours, were nearly completely demoralized and exhausted. The entire business district of the city appeared doomed unless something was done. Six businesses in front of the fire were loaded with kegs of black powder and blown up in succession. Captain Thomas B. Targee of Missouri Company No. 5 died while he was spreading powder into Phillips Music store, the last store chosen to be blown up. This fire was the largest and most destructive fire St. Louis has ever experienced. When the fire was finally contained after 11 hours, 430 buildings were destroyed, 23 steamboats along with over a dozen other boats were lost, and three people had died including a fire captain. As a result of these fires, a new building code required new structures to be built of stone or brick and an extensive new water and sewage system was started.	<urn:uuid:2d40008a-57b5-4a63-8d5e-f5f272ba62b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://popflock.com/learn?s=St._Louis_Fire_(1849)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00233.warc.gz	en	0.981155	627	3.375	3	[ 0.309810996055603, 0.2815795838832855, 0.413894385099411, -0.6987677812576294, 0.20516207814216614, -0.22023019194602966, -0.15809524059295654, 0.426450252532959, -0.35296106338500977, -0.20230144262313843, 0.4114896357059479, -0.19317567348480225, -0.25639796257019043, 0.3971477746963501,...	1	The St. Louis Fire of 1849 was a devastating fire that occurred on May 17, 1849 and destroyed a significant part of St. Louis, Missouri and many of the steamboats using the Mississippi River and Missouri River. This was the first fire in United States history in which it is known that a firefighter was killed in the line of duty. Captain Thomas B. Targee was killed while trying to blast a fire break. In the spring of 1849, the population of St. Louis was about 63,000 with a western boundary of the city extending to 11th Street. The city was about three quarters of a mile in width and had about three miles of riverfront filled with steamboats and other river craft. St. Louis, located near the junction of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, was the last major city where travelers could get supplies before they headed west. Here travelers bought supplies and switched steamboats before going up the Missouri River to Omaha, Nebraska or other trail heads for the Oregon and California trails west. At the time of this fire, the city was also experiencing a cholera epidemic which would end up killing about 10% of the population (over 4,500). The town was booming as people came in from around the U.S. and abroad and bought supplies before heading overland to participate in the California Gold Rush. On May 17, 1849 at 9:00 p.m. a fire alarm sounded in St. Louis. The paddle wheeled steamboat White Cloud on the river at the foot of Cherry Street was on fire. The volunteer fire department with nine hand engines and hose reel wagons promptly responded. The moorings holding White Cloud burned through and the burning steamboat drifted slowly down the Mississippi River, setting 22 other steam boats and several flatboats and barges on fire. The flames leaped from the burning steamboats to buildings on the shore and was soon burning everything on the waterfront levee for four blocks. The fire extended to Main Street westward and crossing Olive Street. It completely gutted the three blocks between Olive and 2nd Street and went as far south as Market Street. It then ignited a large copper shop three blocks away and burned out two more city blocks. The volunteer firemen, after laboring for eight hours, were nearly completely demoralized and exhausted. The entire business district of the city appeared doomed unless something was done. Six businesses in front of the fire were loaded with kegs of black powder and blown up in succession. Captain Thomas B. Targee of Missouri Company No. 5 died while he was spreading powder into Phillips Music store, the last store chosen to be blown up. This fire was the largest and most destructive fire St. Louis has ever experienced. When the fire was finally contained after 11 hours, 430 buildings were destroyed, 23 steamboats along with over a dozen other boats were lost, and three people had died including a fire captain. As a result of these fires, a new building code required new structures to be built of stone or brick and an extensive new water and sewage system was started.	661	ENGLISH	1
Living in the First Century World #2 While Rome ruled the world Jesus was born into his daily life–along with the Jews in Palestine–was a bit removed from that seat of power. Certainly the Roman influence was felt in Nazareth, Jerusalem and throughout Israel, but the Jewish culture and religion dominated locally. This often created culture wars between Rome and Jerusalem and Palestine became infamous as a place of insurrection. During both the life of Christ and the work of the apostles, the Herodian line of kings ruled the Palestine region. Herod the Great Perhaps the best starting point to understand Israel in the early first century is to understand the influence Herod had in that region. After a period of turmoil Pompey the Great finally took possession of Jerusalem for Rome in 63 B.C. This led to the rise of the Herodian dynasty. By the time of Christ’s birth Herod the Great had solidified power (at great cost of many lives including a wife, a mother-in-law and several sons) and was recognized as “King of the Jews” by the Roman senate. Originally he had been appointed governor of Galilee by his father, Antipater and used that position to expand his power by both brutal force and temporary alliances with such historical figures as Cleopatra, Antony and Octavian. After the former’s death he pledged loyalty to Caesar Octavian, which allowed him to have autonomous powers in ruling his region. (Rome preferred their territories to self-govern and to even maintain some independence as long as they paid taxes and kept Pax Romana. Once a region became officially recognized as a Roman province–it cost Rome more money to govern; more troops to garrison; etc.) So Herod was able to take full advantage of this. At the same time, however, he was never fully trusted by the Jewish people over whom he ruled. He was an Idumean (descendent of Esau) and therefore not considered fully Jewish. He did marry into the royal Hasmonean family (the rulers of Israel during the Maccabean period) but even that became troublesome (to the point of having this wife, her mother killed). As a result during his reign he had to fight off many real and many other perceived threats to his rule. This created such a sense of paranoia in and around him that he would later react to the news from some visiting astrologists from the east of a newborn being called “king of the Jews” by slaughtering baby and toddler boys under two years of age in and around Bethlehem (see Matthew 2:1-18). Besides his brutality Herod was great at building. His building legacy includes numerous fortifications in Israel including Masada. He also built the fabulous man-made seaport at Caesarea and his crowning achievement–the temple in Jerusalem. After his death his kingdom was divided between three sons– with Archelaus succeeding him as King of Judea (Jesus referred to him as “that fox” in Luke 13:32); Antipas becoming tetrarch over Galilee and Perea; and Philip being tetrarch over the remaining territory mainly composed of non Jews. Archelaus would eventually fail causing Rome to make Judea part of the Syrian province and bringing in a man named Pilate to govern. Antipas would later marry his brother Philip’s wife, be confronted as a result by a man named John the Baptist (Mark 6:14-29), meet with Jesus (Luke 23:6-11) before his crucifixion and eventually be exiled by Emperor Caligula; and Philip reigned until his death around 34 A.D. There are two other significant Herods in the New Testament. One is King Herod Agrippa I–grandson of Herod the Great and son of Aristobulus who was a half-brother of the three previously mentioned sons. He was appointed by Caligula as king of Judea. He is referenced in Acts 12 as being struck down by an angel of God and eaten by worms. The second is his son, Herod Agrippa II–the one Paul addressed in Acts 25-26. The Ruling Class The elite of Judea are more familiar to us as they were made up of the political/religious parties of Pharisees, Sadducees and Herodians (followers of Herod). The Pharisees were a nationalistic party with the focus of restoring Jerusalem and Israel to its former glory and might. They tended to be rather legalistic in their theology and clashed numerous times with Jesus over interpretation and practice of Torah. The Sadducees evolved from Hellenistic Jews; were more aristocratic than the Pharisees; had a much more liberal view of Scripture and sought to work more closely with other nations. The Herodians were simply an arm of Herod–dedicated to carrying out his agenda. All three were influential over segments of the population. In addition the scribes played a role politically as the trained theologians/lawyers whose interpretation of Scripture influenced the daily practice of religion. Also to this mix where the Essenes–while not necessarily the elite or ruling class did have influence through their monastic lifestyle and strict adherence to the Law (the Dead Sea Scrolls are their work). Some from the parties of the Pharisees and Sadducees formed a kind of Jewish Supreme Court–the Sanhedrin. It contained 71 members–the high priest (who by this point was a political appointee, no longer required to be from the linage of Aaron); twenty four “chief priests” representing all twenty four orders of the priesthood (1 Chronicles 24:4-6); twenty four elders representing the common people; and twenty two scribes who served as experts in interpreting the Law as it applied to civil and religious matters. Rome allowed this court to function and adjudicate local cases. Peter and John were to have a confrontation with this group (Acts 4). On the other side of these recognized parties were the zealots–the group of Jews dedicated to overthrowing Roman oppression at any cost. Many now think this was a militarized branch of the Pharisee party. One of the twelve apostles–Simon–came to Jesus from this group. The Common People People like Joseph and Mary of Nazareth were by far the majority in Palestine–having no power or position they simply lived day-to-day. They not only dealt with the oppression of Roman taxes but also with the burden of Pharisee-led religion. The synagogue would have been a large part of their life–going there to receive instruction from the local rabbis and to worship. Work was hard and difficult and the Sabbath was welcomed. They would structure their lives around the Jewish calendar (including celebrating Passover, the Feast of the Unleavened Bread; First Fruits; Pentecost; the Feast of Trumpets; the Day of Atonement; and the Feast of Tabernacles). So it was into all of this mix that Jesus came. The powerful saw him as threat and conspired to kill him while the common people received his message with faith and hope.	<urn:uuid:13755488-8da8-4208-87f9-1718801bf1fb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://levychurchofchrist.org/sermons/first-century-palestine/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00153.warc.gz	en	0.98614	1,471	3.484375	3	[ -0.22703790664672852, 0.5155173540115356, 0.3482134938240051, 0.05682062357664108, -0.47040069103240967, -0.008764302358031273, -0.032221369445323944, 0.7419778108596802, -0.059977248311042786, -0.04656081646680832, -0.15990638732910156, 0.12037661671638489, 0.46676105260849, 0.45488548278...	7	Living in the First Century World #2 While Rome ruled the world Jesus was born into his daily life–along with the Jews in Palestine–was a bit removed from that seat of power. Certainly the Roman influence was felt in Nazareth, Jerusalem and throughout Israel, but the Jewish culture and religion dominated locally. This often created culture wars between Rome and Jerusalem and Palestine became infamous as a place of insurrection. During both the life of Christ and the work of the apostles, the Herodian line of kings ruled the Palestine region. Herod the Great Perhaps the best starting point to understand Israel in the early first century is to understand the influence Herod had in that region. After a period of turmoil Pompey the Great finally took possession of Jerusalem for Rome in 63 B.C. This led to the rise of the Herodian dynasty. By the time of Christ’s birth Herod the Great had solidified power (at great cost of many lives including a wife, a mother-in-law and several sons) and was recognized as “King of the Jews” by the Roman senate. Originally he had been appointed governor of Galilee by his father, Antipater and used that position to expand his power by both brutal force and temporary alliances with such historical figures as Cleopatra, Antony and Octavian. After the former’s death he pledged loyalty to Caesar Octavian, which allowed him to have autonomous powers in ruling his region. (Rome preferred their territories to self-govern and to even maintain some independence as long as they paid taxes and kept Pax Romana. Once a region became officially recognized as a Roman province–it cost Rome more money to govern; more troops to garrison; etc.) So Herod was able to take full advantage of this. At the same time, however, he was never fully trusted by the Jewish people over whom he ruled. He was an Idumean (descendent of Esau) and therefore not considered fully Jewish. He did marry into the royal Hasmonean family (the rulers of Israel during the Maccabean period) but even that became troublesome (to the point of having this wife, her mother killed). As a result during his reign he had to fight off many real and many other perceived threats to his rule. This created such a sense of paranoia in and around him that he would later react to the news from some visiting astrologists from the east of a newborn being called “king of the Jews” by slaughtering baby and toddler boys under two years of age in and around Bethlehem (see Matthew 2:1-18). Besides his brutality Herod was great at building. His building legacy includes numerous fortifications in Israel including Masada. He also built the fabulous man-made seaport at Caesarea and his crowning achievement–the temple in Jerusalem. After his death his kingdom was divided between three sons– with Archelaus succeeding him as King of Judea (Jesus referred to him as “that fox” in Luke 13:32); Antipas becoming tetrarch over Galilee and Perea; and Philip being tetrarch over the remaining territory mainly composed of non Jews. Archelaus would eventually fail causing Rome to make Judea part of the Syrian province and bringing in a man named Pilate to govern. Antipas would later marry his brother Philip’s wife, be confronted as a result by a man named John the Baptist (Mark 6:14-29), meet with Jesus (Luke 23:6-11) before his crucifixion and eventually be exiled by Emperor Caligula; and Philip reigned until his death around 34 A.D. There are two other significant Herods in the New Testament. One is King Herod Agrippa I–grandson of Herod the Great and son of Aristobulus who was a half-brother of the three previously mentioned sons. He was appointed by Caligula as king of Judea. He is referenced in Acts 12 as being struck down by an angel of God and eaten by worms. The second is his son, Herod Agrippa II–the one Paul addressed in Acts 25-26. The Ruling Class The elite of Judea are more familiar to us as they were made up of the political/religious parties of Pharisees, Sadducees and Herodians (followers of Herod). The Pharisees were a nationalistic party with the focus of restoring Jerusalem and Israel to its former glory and might. They tended to be rather legalistic in their theology and clashed numerous times with Jesus over interpretation and practice of Torah. The Sadducees evolved from Hellenistic Jews; were more aristocratic than the Pharisees; had a much more liberal view of Scripture and sought to work more closely with other nations. The Herodians were simply an arm of Herod–dedicated to carrying out his agenda. All three were influential over segments of the population. In addition the scribes played a role politically as the trained theologians/lawyers whose interpretation of Scripture influenced the daily practice of religion. Also to this mix where the Essenes–while not necessarily the elite or ruling class did have influence through their monastic lifestyle and strict adherence to the Law (the Dead Sea Scrolls are their work). Some from the parties of the Pharisees and Sadducees formed a kind of Jewish Supreme Court–the Sanhedrin. It contained 71 members–the high priest (who by this point was a political appointee, no longer required to be from the linage of Aaron); twenty four “chief priests” representing all twenty four orders of the priesthood (1 Chronicles 24:4-6); twenty four elders representing the common people; and twenty two scribes who served as experts in interpreting the Law as it applied to civil and religious matters. Rome allowed this court to function and adjudicate local cases. Peter and John were to have a confrontation with this group (Acts 4). On the other side of these recognized parties were the zealots–the group of Jews dedicated to overthrowing Roman oppression at any cost. Many now think this was a militarized branch of the Pharisee party. One of the twelve apostles–Simon–came to Jesus from this group. The Common People People like Joseph and Mary of Nazareth were by far the majority in Palestine–having no power or position they simply lived day-to-day. They not only dealt with the oppression of Roman taxes but also with the burden of Pharisee-led religion. The synagogue would have been a large part of their life–going there to receive instruction from the local rabbis and to worship. Work was hard and difficult and the Sabbath was welcomed. They would structure their lives around the Jewish calendar (including celebrating Passover, the Feast of the Unleavened Bread; First Fruits; Pentecost; the Feast of Trumpets; the Day of Atonement; and the Feast of Tabernacles). So it was into all of this mix that Jesus came. The powerful saw him as threat and conspired to kill him while the common people received his message with faith and hope.	1,477	ENGLISH	1
Vietnam was a French colony from 1890 to 1954 (with an interruption of Japanese control from 1940-45); there were many nationalistic attacks against the French and Japanese colonial occupiers. (Even earlier, the Vietnamese people had been occupied and dominated by Imperial China until 1789, when the Chinese were finally driven out.) Independent-minded, the Vietnamese people revered their national heroes who fought for their freedom from domination and occupation. In the minds of many Vietnamese in the South as well as the North, Ho Chi Minh, the communist-nationalist leader, was such a patriot. After WWII, Ho Chi Minh tried to get US support for a free and independent Vietnam. President Harry S. Truman ignored his entreaties. Meanwhile, Truman encouraged and supported the French in reestablishing colonial domination in French Indo-China in order to “contain” Communism. 1954: In May, the French forces were defeated at Dien Bien Phu by the Viet Minh forces of Ho Chi Minh. The French military compound in northwestern Vietnam was heavily defended. It was, however, a vulnerable military location lacking an easily passable land route. It could only be resupplied and reinforced by air, which proved difficult with constant bombardment and foul weather. In a valley, it was heavily bombarded by artillery and mortars rounds from the surrounding hills. Its remote location doomed the French and their costly war to retain control of their colony. (Back in France, the public was growing weary of the on-going war in French Indo-China, which was costly in human and monetary terms. The French public’s eagerness to end their involvement there, along with the government’s faltering imperial policies, gave encouragement to the Algerians, who embarked in 1954 on their own war for independence.) Born Nguyen Sinh Cung in 1890, he assumed his nom de guerre, Ho Chi Minh (meaning: “one who enlightens”), in the late 1930s. He was near the end of his life when the Tet offensive was being planned and put into action. He died in September 1969. The son of a Confucian scholar, he was educated at a French Lyceum in Hue. As a young man, he traveled to France, England, the United States, the Soviet Union, and China. He became a Marxist while in France during the early 1920s. As a Marxist, he was enthralled by Lenin’s revolutionary writings and adhered to some of Mao Tse Tung’s revolutionary practices, especially in regard to guerrilla warfare and purging. He was also captivated by the French and American constitutions; he wanted to bring those democratic ideals to a free Vietnam. While in China in 1929, he would help form the Communist Party of Indo-China. A seasoned revolutionary and an ardent nationalist, he would marry nationalism to communism. Yet he would claim: “It was patriotism, not communism that inspired me.” He fought fiercely against the French, Japanese and Americans to bring independence to his people. Yet, his image in the West is that of a ruthless, authoritarian demagogue. To many Vietnamese, he was simply, Uncle Ho. 1954: The Geneva Accords of July divided French Indo-China into four countries: Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam (North and South). Vietnam was divided into two entities along the 17th parallel: The North became the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with Ho Chi Minh as president; and the South was ruled by the French puppet, Emperor Bao Dai whose government was weak and lacked popular support. Bao Dai was assassinated in 1955 and replaced by Nyugen Diem, a French educated Catholic in a predominately Buddhist society. (About 850,000 Catholics had fled the North and migrated to the South after the Geneva Accords were put into effect.) Fearing a communist takeover, the USA soon asserted its presence in the South. INVOLVEMENT IN SOUTH EAST ASIA President D.D. Eisenhower fearing the “domino effect” began aiding the Republic of South Vietnam economically and militarily with advisers to strengthen the Republic’s fledgling Army. Joint elections, called for by the Geneva Accords, to determine the “pending” reunification of the two Vietnams were never held. Eisenhower’s Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, a virulent anti-communist who responded to Senator Joseph McCarthy’s charges of communist infiltration into the State Dept, had purged it of leftists and New Dealers. This purge was particularly damaging in the Far East Section, where a nuanced interpretation of the facts, instead of a good versus evil Cold War mentality, was necessary to comprehend the complicated context of Southeast Asia. During the late 1950s, the North Vietnamese began to send troops south to assist the Viet Cong (VC) insurgents against the American occupiers. The US responded by sending more military advisers and aid. During John F Kennedy’s inaugural address in January 1961, the new president said, reflecting Cold War realities: “We’ll pay any price, bear any burden, support any friend, oppose any foe for the survival and success of liberty.” Soon after, his administration escalated American involvement in South Vietnam with the policies of “counter-insurgency” and “nation-building.” As a result, the number of advisers and the scale of aid increased. Just a week before Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, President Diem had been assassinated by a group of South Vietnamese generals with the assistance of the CIA. A military junta was soon installed and dominated by Generals von Nyugen Thieu and Cao Key, who were rivals for power. It was given a veneer of legitimacy by a Constitution, but the Republic of South Vietnam would remain a military regime characterized by elitism, nepotism and rampant corruption. It was also perceived as a puppet government of the USA by many South Vietnamese, especially in the rural areas, and by the North Vietnamese, which in the mid-1960s accelerated its military insurgency against the Republic of South Vietnam and the American imperialist “occupiers.” After JFK’s assassination, Vice President Lyndon Baines Johnson became president. As he admitted, his forte was domestic policy not foreign affairs. Under the influence of Robert McNamara, the Defense Secretary, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff, he was assured that the war against the Viet Cong and their northern ally was “winnable.” An air of arrogance prevailed in these deliberations as it was argued that American military technology and “firepower” would over-match the “third world” Vietnamese. Despite the concerns of some advisers, LBJ moved to increase American presence in SVN. AMERICANIZATION OF THE WAR AGAINST THE INSURGENCY In early July 1964, days after the Tonkin Gulf Incidents (which were then shrouded in the fog of war, but which now look like exaggerated engagements incited by U.S. provocations) Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, which gave the Johnson administration authorization to move against the North Vietnamese for their alleged attacks upon US Naval vessels in international waters. The Johnson administration conveniently interpreted the Tonkin Gulf Resolution as a declaration of war. Soon after, American presence in and support of South Vietnam (SVN) escalated dramatically. Given the weakness and ineffectiveness of the South Vietnamese military, LBJ, following the advice of the military, authorized the Americanization of the war effort. General William Westmoreland+, fresh from the command of West Point, was appointed to lead the Military Assistance Command in Vietnam, known as MAC-V. Westmoreland oversaw the dramatic build-up of American forces, developed the aggressive “search and destroy” strategy, and became indelibly linked to the optimistic daily reports of American success in Vietnam. By early 1968, over 500,000 American soldiers, marines, sailors and airmen were stationed in SEA to fight the communist-nationalist insurgency. +General William Westmoreland (b. March 26, 1914 in South Carolina), a 1936 graduate of West Point, saw combat as an artillery officer in Tunisia, Sicily, France and Germany during WWII; and in Korea in the early 1950s. In the early 1960s, he was the commanding officer at West Point. In 1964, he was assigned to command the Military Assistance Command in Vietnam. Under his command, there was a huge increase in American military personnel. He is noted for developing the aggressive “search and destroy” strategy in Vietnam. Its objective was to find and kill as many members of the insurgency as possible. That innocent people were caught in the middle and mistaken for the enemy was the sad reality of war. These victims were most often counted as enemy dead. “If he’s dead and Vietnamese, he’s VC”, the reasoning went. By the end of 1967, Westmoreland reported that the VC had lost 90,000 fighters. As he would later say, Vietnam “became a war of attrition, [and] we were winning the war of attrition.” The problem with this calculus was that “the price that the enemy was prone to pay greatly exceeded our expectations.” He also became associated with daily reports on the status of the war which were deemed by many to be overly optimistic statements of American success in Vietnam. Although there was some accuracy to his appraisals, his reports were increasingly questioned by the media. On the role of the media in Vietnam, he said in an interview: “Vietnam was the first war that we’ve ever fought on the television screen and it was the first war that our country fought where the media had full reign (sic)…they had no restraint.” This was LBJ’s policy, he said, “and the enemy exploited it.” AMERICANIZATION OF THE WAR – continued The guerrilla tactics of the Viet Cong and their northern allies proved to be quite troublesome for American forces. Ambushes, booby-traps and hit-and-run tactics represented classic guerrilla warfare, but our tactics and firepower were also a great challenge for the insurgents whose light weaponry included AK-47s, mortars, rocket propelled grenades (which were very effective against American tanks and armored personnel carriers) and small rockets (122mm and 140mm), which were not particularly accurate, were still very effective militarily and psychologically. Virtually all were supplied by the USSR. The NVN also had artillery situated in the DMZ that was used effectively against American camps and outposts in the north, particularly Khe Sanh. THE NATIONALIST-COMMUNIST INSURGENCY A relationship of mutual dependence existed between the Viet Cong, the insurgents in the South, and Ho Chi Minh’s nationalist/communist regime in the North. The VC were mostly organized at the local, usually rural level. But it had some regional and urban capabilities as well. The VC were largely dependent upon the North for supplies and arms which moved south via the numerous mountain trails collectively called the Ho Chi Minh Trail. A steady stream of arms, supplies and troops moved down these trails. The long trek was arduous with many natural obstacles but it became extremely dangerous beginning in early 1967 when there was the constant threat of bombings by American aircraft. Nonetheless, arms and supplies hauled by small carts and wagons, and by human travail made it to the South. Most of the supplies came from the Russians and, to a much lesser extent, the Chinese, who both made this conflict in Southeast Asia a proxy war against the USA. Tens of thousands of reinforcements were also going south to join the war against the American imperialists. The Viet Cong and their northern ally were driven by a nationalist mission: drive out the American imperialists and unify the Vietnamese people under one national government. The North wanted this unified country controlled by Ho Chi Minh. AMERICAN DOMESTIC OPPOSITION TO U.S. MILITARY IN SEA Meanwhile, there was growing domestic American opposition to our presence in Vietnam. This was primarily happening on American college campuses. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and other groups led the campaign against the war and the Selective Service drafts which were sweeping tens of thousands of middle and lower class young men into the Army and Marines. Exemptions to the draft allowed the rich and privileged to remove their sons from harm’s way by staying in school or enlisting in the National Guard or the Reserves. Vietnam was a war fought largely by draftees and those young men who volunteered to serve. The iniquities of the draft were obvious and morally repugnant to many. That the first opposition to the war arose on the college campuses was no surprise. The size and scope of the United States at war also attracted the attention of the American media. Television crews and newspapers reporters were drawn to the action that engulfed our nation’s young. The media served the traditional role of providing information about the war, but it also provided first-hand glimpses of the war, which in turn raised many questions about the war. The North Vietnamese understood that there were undercurrents of opposition and skepticism in the US. It also understood that the growing American presence was increasing its own casualties and undercutting its chances for a successful takeover of the South. Changing circumstances called for a different strategy. PLANNING THE TET OFFENSIVE In July 1967, facing aggressive and growing American military operations against its campaign to “liberate” the south, Ho Chi Minh, his military leaders, led by General Vo Nguyen Giap, the Defense Minister, and Vietnamese political leaders and diplomats met in Hanoi. They clearly understood that the dynamics of the war had changed. They felt compelled to dramatically alter the course of the war. They decided to use conventional military tactics, as the Viet Minh did at Dien Bien Phu against the French in 1954, and take the offensive in the South. The campaign was planned to coincide with the festive Lunar New Year, called Tet, in very late January and early February 1968. There were some misgivings about the timing of the attack during the festive holiday; but they were dismissed when reminded that in 1789 Vietnamese patriots drove the Chinese occupiers out during the Tet celebrations. Moreover, it was argued that the Tet provided a perfect cover for the “surprise” attacks. This plan represented a dramatic altering of their guerrilla tactics. By using battalions and regiments to attack the provincial capitals, cities, towns and hamlets of South Vietnam, as well as American bases and installations, the North Vietnamese hoped to incite a general uprising against the “puppet” South Vietnamese government and ‘the American imperialists.’ This plan incorporated a bold military plan which also had broad political implications. The North Vietnamese leaders hoped to affect the U.S. domestic scene where there was growing skepticism and opposition to the war and a presidential election to be held in late 1968. To underscore the political purpose, the plan included an attack on the American embassy in Saigon as well as American military bases and outposts. The Tet offensive also offered a great opportunity to assert the dominance of the North in the insurgency. This elaborate strategy would require months of planning and preparation. Arms and supplies had to be moved down the Ho Chi Minh trails. Troops had to be trained and redeployed in the south. Enemy targets needed to be reconnoitered. And arms and saboteur soldiers had to be secreted into the cities where “safe houses” would serve as bases of operation. The plan required extensive and complicated coordination as 65,000 to 70,000 troops were to attack over 150 targets in the South. It also had as an objective the seizure of the national radio station in Saigon and the broadcast of Ho Chi Minh’s appeal for a national uprising against the “puppet” regime and its American protectors. Leaders knew of the July 1967 meeting of the North Vietnamese leadership. The return of Vietnamese ambassadors and diplomats to Saigon led American officials, who were convinced that the aggressive US military actions might have sobered the North Vietnamese, to conclude that Ho Chi Minh’s men were deliberating a peace initiative. This perception was quickly dispelled when the NVA began shelling Khe Sanh with its artillery from the DMZ. These diversionary attacks also occurred upon northern and western provincial cities, like Pleiku, and remote American outposts. Intelligence garnered from a captured document indicated that large scale attacks upon South Vietnam’s cities and hamlets were being planned. This intelligence was counter-intuitive to the American military leadership. Classic guerrilla tactics, as practiced by the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese, did not include large group attacks, direct engagements with the enemy and holding seized territory. The Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese would not risk exposing its troops to the firepower of American forces, according to the American military’s perspective. The captured document was therefore determined to be propaganda. So, the signals of changed tactics by the Viet Cong and the NVA were not interpreted to suggest large North Vietnamese attacks ahead. A few American military leaders (Major General Charles Stone and General Earl Wheeler), however, suspected that something big was about to occur. In response, General Westmoreland redeployed several fighting units from the western highlands and stationed them around Saigon and other major US installations. Westmoreland also convinced President Thieu to reduce the Tet festival ceasefire to 36 hours. He preferred no ceasefire, but compromised to satisfy the South Vietnamese sensibilities. Westie also put US forces on “maximum alert,” but it was issued late and was ignored in many instances because it seemed like they were always on “maximum alert.” Crying wolf too often can cause a lax response. That 36-hour period gave the Viet Cong insurgents and their northern allies the window of opportunity that they needed. During the early hours of January 31th, the infiltrators began the Tet offensive throughout SVN. THE OFFENSIVE: January 31 – February 8, 1968 The surprise attacks began in the early hours of January 31. Hue, the imperial city, was attacked around 2:00 a.m. Saigon was hit at several locations beginning around 3:00 a.m. In the course of the next several days over 150 locations were attacked across South Vietnam. Saigon, the capitol of SVN and the heart of American and Vietnamese operations, was stunned by the attacks upon several sites in and around the city. The SVN military headquarters, Independence Place (President Thieu’s office), and American military installations were hit. Tan Son Nhut, the huge American airbase, was attacked with rockets and mortars. The SVN national radio station was seized. The VC ‘sappers’ were to broadcast a taped message of Ho Chi Minh calling for a national uprising against the SVN government and the American interlopers. This strategy was foiled by the Vietnamese officer who had in place a contingency plan to turn off the power and incapacitate the transmitter if there was an attack. The assault on the American Embassy, however, was the most dramatic. About 19 VC “sappers” attacked the embassy by blasting a hole in the wall surrounding the compound. A skeletal group of Marines held off the attack, killing several VC, until members of the 716 US Army Military Police Battalion arrived. Although the VC had penetrated the embassy compound, they did not get into the embassy itself. The “sappers” had lost their initiative when their two officers were killed in the initial assault on the embassy. American journalists, who lived near the embassy, soon arrived on the scene. And in the course of one interview, the fate of the American presence in SEA was determined. A journalist asked a MP sergeant if the enemy had gotten into the embassy, the sergeant perhaps misunderstanding the question, responded yes. That news quickly was communicated back to the US and spread rapidly across the country. The American military command tried in vain to correct the story by confirming that the compound had been breached but the embassy itself was never compromised. With much suspicion about the trustworthiness of the military’s version, MAC-V’s could neither change the perception nor the story. The die was cast. Westmoreland’s daily rosy comments about the US winning the war were now in doubt for many Americans. How could we be winning the war, it was commonly thought, when the VC managed to enter the US embassy in Saigon and successfully attack several targets in Saigon and numerous targets throughout Vietnam? The old imperial city of Hue saw the fiercest fighting of the offensive. Several VC and North Vietnamese battalions were committed to this battle. They captured the old Citadel fortress and seized most of the city. The attackers were not finished once Hue was under their control. Special units gathered the political, cultural and intellectual elite of Hue and murdered them. There was a second purge as their control of the city began to collapse. In total, several hundred were assassinated. It is a footnote in the history of the insurgency, but it was a clear indicator of what would happen if the North gained control of South Vietnam. There was initial success for the insurgents as the Tet campaign seized many cities and towns, including Hue and its Citadel, and the penetration of the U.S. Embassy compound. These attacks stunned American forces, the U.S. military command and mainstream America. They also put General Westmoreland and the Johnson administration on the defensive. Many felt “embarrassed,” but the impact went well beyond embarrassment. THE ALLIED COUNTER-OFFENSIVE The counter-offensive began almost immediately or as soon as the shock of the attacks ended. Within a week, Saigon was largely under control again as cells of the insurgents were captured or killed. Counter-actions around the country were undertaken quickly and in most cases were successful in routing the insurgents. Hue was a battleground for nearly a month. The VC had setup a formidable defense of the city. And the Citadel fortress had built-in defenses. The 1st Marine Division and the First Cavalry Division, along with some elite South Vietnamese units, carried the day. Reminiscent of World War II, there was house to house combat. Casualties were high on both sides, but especially for the VC and the North Vietnamese, who, characteristically, had no plan of retreat. They were to hold their ground until the reinforcements arrived. They never did. This was the case throughout South Vietnam. And it explains why the VC and their northern allies lost a total of 30,000 to 35,000 fighters. The VC incurred most of the losses. Those who were killed were quickly replaced by North Vietnamese. The counter-offensive had two other incidents that are worthy of brief mention. One occurred in the river city of Ben Tre in the Mekong delta region during mid-February. It gave us one of the most memorable and repeated quotes of the war. During Tet, the city of 35,000 was partially taken over by a VC regiment. As the counter-offensive began, the VC resistance was fierce. In response, the US Army resorted to a constant bombardment via air attacks and artillery shellings which caused extensive damage. An Army captain explained the city’s devastation to an AP journalist: “It became necessary to destroy it to save it.” That remark resonated for the remainder of the war. The second incident occurred during the aftermath of the Tet Offensive when three U.S. Army platoons descended upon the remote village, My Lai, which was strongly suspected of having an allegiance to the Viet Cong. This suspicion was reinforced by the fact that all the men and teenage boys had fled the scene. Frustrated and embittered about the loss of their buddies during the previous few months, the American troops, under the command of Lt. William Calley, rounded up the women, children and elderly and murdered them. Five hundred and four souls were cold-bloodedly massacred. Given the growing criticisms about the war, this tragic incident was covered up by the American military command. (It was covered up for over a year when Seymour Hersh, the acclaimed investigative reporter, finally lifted the cover and revealed the gruesome details.) It only added fuel to the anti-war movement, which by now was given credibility by VVAW, Vietnam Vets Against the War. THE IRONIC OUTCOME TO THE TET OFFENSIVE The Tet campaign was a short-term military success for the nationalist insurgency, but American and Vietnamese forces quickly struck back and over the course of several weeks had reversed the NVA and Viet Cong advances. The price for the fleeting success of the offensive was that more than 30,000 insurgents were killed; most were VC. Despite the subsequent defeats, the Tet Offensive was a psychological and propaganda triumph for Ho Chi Minh and the insurgency. Indeed, it proved to be a psychological blow to the American public, who perceived it as a defeat. All the military reports of success and body counts seemed hollow compared to the initial success of the Tet Offensive. Middle-class Americans on the home front began to question our military strategy and presence in SEA. The anti-war movement grew from being a campus phenomenon into a broader movement. Despite American success in rolling back the insurgent attacks during the ensuing weeks and months, skepticism among Americans about the optimistic military reports and the “body counts” accelerated after Tet. Yet in a poll during the aftermath of the Tet offensive, a majority of American still supported the war but they wanted stronger leadership. LBJ, having doubts about the war effort and the advice he had received, was unable to provide that leadership. THE AFTERMATH TO THE TET OFFENSIVE Media coverage of the war turned increasingly critical and even negative at times. This was especially true of the major TV networks, CBS and NBC. And the print media was led by the NY Times, Washington Post, Boston Globe and the LA Times, and involved a host of other newspapers. Perhaps the most memorable moment occurred on February 27, when Walter Cronkite, the venerable CBS news anchor, commented during his national broadcast – upon his return from a brief visit to Vietnam – that it was “more certain than ever that the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in a stalemate.” Cronkite’s remarks alarmed LBJ, who dejectedly said to an aide: “If we’ve lost Cronkite, we’ve lost middle America.” LBJ was becoming a tragic figure. On March 10, a front-page story in the NY Times, by Hedrick Smith and Neil Sheehan, reported that Westmoreland had requested an additional 206,000 troops for the war in Vietnam. Moreover, it stated that the request had set off an intense and “divisive internal debate” in the Johnson administration. Westmoreland was stunned and bewildered by the story because the plan was a contingency plan put together at the request of General Earl Wheeler of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Regardless, it set off a firestorm. Congress met the idea with scorn and disbelief. And Westmoreland, understandably, was on the defensive. On March 12, anti-war U.S, Senator Eugene McCarthy finished just 330 votes behind LBJ in the New Hampshire Democratic presidential primary. What a jolt it was for LBJ. Within days, Robert F. Kennedy also tossed his hat into the ring to become candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination. LBJ’s political viability was being directly challenged and the Democratic Party was openly and irrevocably divided over the war. Meanwhile, LBJ began polling his advisers and other noted experts on the war. Even men like Dean Acheson, who had favored the war, had a change of heart. He now viewed the war as hopeless. Arthur Goldberg, the UN Ambassador, saw the war as a stalemate and recommended stopping the bombing of the North as a goodwill gesture. McGeorge Bundy reported to LBJ that the “Wise Men,” former cabinet members, generals and ambassadors, thought it was time to “disengage.” Former hawks and supporters of the war had gone 180 degrees on the war. The American public’s views on the war were also changing. Gallup polls in the weeks after the Tet Offensive pointed to a declining confidence in LBJ and indicated a tipping point in American support for the war. In mid-February, a poll showed that 50% of the American public disapproved of the president’s handing of the war. In mid-March, poll results indicated for the first time that more Americans were against the war than those that supported it. Indeed, the times were a-changin’! March 23: Nothing reflected that change more than when General Westmoreland was reassigned to be the Army’s Chief of Staff back in Washington. For LBJ, the culmination of these events and new advice came on March 31. In a national televised address, the president, who had doubts about the war from the beginning, startled the nation when he announced: - He would send 13,500 additional troops to Vietnam. - He would limit the bombing of North Vietnam to just above the DMZ. - He named Averell Harriman as his personal representative to seek peace talks with Hanoi. - Then he dropped a bombshell, when he said: “I shall not seek…not accept,” the democratic nomination “for another term as your president.” Once again, the nation was stunned by this turn of events. After the Tet offensive, major media had a profound impact upon American perceptions of the war. Television images focused on the gruesome side of the war while mainstream journalists painted with words a cynical and critical view of the war and American policies. Even Walter Cronkite, the esteemed anchor of CBS Nightly News, became skeptical after the Tet offensive. In February, he visited Vietnam for a first-hand look at the war effort. In late February, on his nationally aired broadcast, Cronkite voiced his concerns about the war. His remarks were direct and unsettling. Upon hearing his remarks, LBJ uttered to one of his aides, “If I have lost Cronkite, I have lost middle-America.” THE IMPACT OF THE TET OFFENSIVE UPON AMERICAN POLITICS The anti-war movement spawned the candidacy of US Senator Eugene McCarthy to challenge LBJ for the Democratic nomination for the 1968 presidential election. Showing political viability in New Hampshire, McCarthy’s strong showing encouraged Robert F. Kennedy to join the primary race to be the Democratic candidate to displace LBJ, whose declining popularity and diminishing credibility made him a liability for the Democratic Party. The Tet Offensive had indeed undermined LBJ’s political standing. Embarrassed and feeling dejected, if not betrayed, LBJ dropped two bombshells on the American public in late March when called for negotiations to end the war and announced that he would not seek re-election in the November presidential election. Privately, LBJ lamented that he felt he had been deceived about the war. Within days of this shock wave, the social conscience of the United States and a vocal critic of the war, Martin Luther King was murdered in Memphis, Tennessee. Amid the divisions over the war, American society now had to deal with riots across the country. Indeed, the war had come home to the U.S. with draft dodgers fleeing to Canada and elsewhere, street demonstrations, sit-ins, candlelight vigils, and a greatly divided American public. The war in SEA also fractured the New Deal Coalition that had made the Democrats the dominant political party in the US. The Democratic Party had lost its unity and credibility. The pulse of America was irregular and the axis of America was now quite wobbly. By mid-Spring, Robert Kennedy, a fierce critic of the war, became the leading candidate for the anti-war Democrats, but his candidacy tragically ended in early June when he, like his brother John, was assassinated. The Democratic Party was in complete disarray. This was poignantly demonstrated at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. The party was split by the war. There was rancor in the convention hall and chaotic demonstrations on the streets. The public perception was that of a party devouring itself. It was not one to attract sympathy and support. Out of the mayhem, the Party made a safe choice in Hubert H. Humphrey to be their candidate. He was handicapped by his position as Vice President to LBJ, but he was a vigorous campaigner and in the end made a gallant try against the Republican candidate, Richard Milhous Nixon, who campaigned under the banner of “Peace with Honor.” Nixon had re-emerged from political exile as the Republican candidate and narrowly defeated Humphrey, despite his last-minute surge. Nixon continued the war for another four and a half years with massive bombings of North Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos and a futile attempt at ‘Vietnamizing’ of the allied war effort. Regardless, he never realized “peace with honor.” From the threat of defeat by the growing and aggressive presence of Americans in South Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh’s forces implemented the Tet Offensive, which, despite initial military success, turned into a costly defeat, yet turned the American media and people increasingly against the war and determined our inglorious defeat. It was, in the minds of many, a defeat of our will and not our military. The war, they would argue, had too many restrictions and lacked clear achievable objectives. Moreover, the major media had lost faith in the American military and trust of the president, and in turn it bombarded the American public with gruesome images and harsh words that fed doubt and fostered opposition to the war. The end result was a divided nation at war with itself and its cherished values.	<urn:uuid:aa69999c-8768-4ea1-93bd-103f47aa850c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.veteranstoday.com/2017/12/02/the-tet-offensive-and-its-aftermath/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00512.warc.gz	en	0.980923	7,093	3.5625	4	[ -0.09992267936468124, 0.5755330324172974, 0.12305669486522675, -0.2960259020328522, 0.36360180377960205, 0.22603976726531982, 0.1603868156671524, 0.17634929716587067, 0.016735777258872986, 0.09169963002204895, 0.33013689517974854, 0.02062584087252617, 0.47193703055381775, 0.679637908935546...	6	Vietnam was a French colony from 1890 to 1954 (with an interruption of Japanese control from 1940-45); there were many nationalistic attacks against the French and Japanese colonial occupiers. (Even earlier, the Vietnamese people had been occupied and dominated by Imperial China until 1789, when the Chinese were finally driven out.) Independent-minded, the Vietnamese people revered their national heroes who fought for their freedom from domination and occupation. In the minds of many Vietnamese in the South as well as the North, Ho Chi Minh, the communist-nationalist leader, was such a patriot. After WWII, Ho Chi Minh tried to get US support for a free and independent Vietnam. President Harry S. Truman ignored his entreaties. Meanwhile, Truman encouraged and supported the French in reestablishing colonial domination in French Indo-China in order to “contain” Communism. 1954: In May, the French forces were defeated at Dien Bien Phu by the Viet Minh forces of Ho Chi Minh. The French military compound in northwestern Vietnam was heavily defended. It was, however, a vulnerable military location lacking an easily passable land route. It could only be resupplied and reinforced by air, which proved difficult with constant bombardment and foul weather. In a valley, it was heavily bombarded by artillery and mortars rounds from the surrounding hills. Its remote location doomed the French and their costly war to retain control of their colony. (Back in France, the public was growing weary of the on-going war in French Indo-China, which was costly in human and monetary terms. The French public’s eagerness to end their involvement there, along with the government’s faltering imperial policies, gave encouragement to the Algerians, who embarked in 1954 on their own war for independence.) Born Nguyen Sinh Cung in 1890, he assumed his nom de guerre, Ho Chi Minh (meaning: “one who enlightens”), in the late 1930s. He was near the end of his life when the Tet offensive was being planned and put into action. He died in September 1969. The son of a Confucian scholar, he was educated at a French Lyceum in Hue. As a young man, he traveled to France, England, the United States, the Soviet Union, and China. He became a Marxist while in France during the early 1920s. As a Marxist, he was enthralled by Lenin’s revolutionary writings and adhered to some of Mao Tse Tung’s revolutionary practices, especially in regard to guerrilla warfare and purging. He was also captivated by the French and American constitutions; he wanted to bring those democratic ideals to a free Vietnam. While in China in 1929, he would help form the Communist Party of Indo-China. A seasoned revolutionary and an ardent nationalist, he would marry nationalism to communism. Yet he would claim: “It was patriotism, not communism that inspired me.” He fought fiercely against the French, Japanese and Americans to bring independence to his people. Yet, his image in the West is that of a ruthless, authoritarian demagogue. To many Vietnamese, he was simply, Uncle Ho. 1954: The Geneva Accords of July divided French Indo-China into four countries: Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam (North and South). Vietnam was divided into two entities along the 17th parallel: The North became the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with Ho Chi Minh as president; and the South was ruled by the French puppet, Emperor Bao Dai whose government was weak and lacked popular support. Bao Dai was assassinated in 1955 and replaced by Nyugen Diem, a French educated Catholic in a predominately Buddhist society. (About 850,000 Catholics had fled the North and migrated to the South after the Geneva Accords were put into effect.) Fearing a communist takeover, the USA soon asserted its presence in the South. INVOLVEMENT IN SOUTH EAST ASIA President D.D. Eisenhower fearing the “domino effect” began aiding the Republic of South Vietnam economically and militarily with advisers to strengthen the Republic’s fledgling Army. Joint elections, called for by the Geneva Accords, to determine the “pending” reunification of the two Vietnams were never held. Eisenhower’s Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, a virulent anti-communist who responded to Senator Joseph McCarthy’s charges of communist infiltration into the State Dept, had purged it of leftists and New Dealers. This purge was particularly damaging in the Far East Section, where a nuanced interpretation of the facts, instead of a good versus evil Cold War mentality, was necessary to comprehend the complicated context of Southeast Asia. During the late 1950s, the North Vietnamese began to send troops south to assist the Viet Cong (VC) insurgents against the American occupiers. The US responded by sending more military advisers and aid. During John F Kennedy’s inaugural address in January 1961, the new president said, reflecting Cold War realities: “We’ll pay any price, bear any burden, support any friend, oppose any foe for the survival and success of liberty.” Soon after, his administration escalated American involvement in South Vietnam with the policies of “counter-insurgency” and “nation-building.” As a result, the number of advisers and the scale of aid increased. Just a week before Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, President Diem had been assassinated by a group of South Vietnamese generals with the assistance of the CIA. A military junta was soon installed and dominated by Generals von Nyugen Thieu and Cao Key, who were rivals for power. It was given a veneer of legitimacy by a Constitution, but the Republic of South Vietnam would remain a military regime characterized by elitism, nepotism and rampant corruption. It was also perceived as a puppet government of the USA by many South Vietnamese, especially in the rural areas, and by the North Vietnamese, which in the mid-1960s accelerated its military insurgency against the Republic of South Vietnam and the American imperialist “occupiers.” After JFK’s assassination, Vice President Lyndon Baines Johnson became president. As he admitted, his forte was domestic policy not foreign affairs. Under the influence of Robert McNamara, the Defense Secretary, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff, he was assured that the war against the Viet Cong and their northern ally was “winnable.” An air of arrogance prevailed in these deliberations as it was argued that American military technology and “firepower” would over-match the “third world” Vietnamese. Despite the concerns of some advisers, LBJ moved to increase American presence in SVN. AMERICANIZATION OF THE WAR AGAINST THE INSURGENCY In early July 1964, days after the Tonkin Gulf Incidents (which were then shrouded in the fog of war, but which now look like exaggerated engagements incited by U.S. provocations) Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, which gave the Johnson administration authorization to move against the North Vietnamese for their alleged attacks upon US Naval vessels in international waters. The Johnson administration conveniently interpreted the Tonkin Gulf Resolution as a declaration of war. Soon after, American presence in and support of South Vietnam (SVN) escalated dramatically. Given the weakness and ineffectiveness of the South Vietnamese military, LBJ, following the advice of the military, authorized the Americanization of the war effort. General William Westmoreland+, fresh from the command of West Point, was appointed to lead the Military Assistance Command in Vietnam, known as MAC-V. Westmoreland oversaw the dramatic build-up of American forces, developed the aggressive “search and destroy” strategy, and became indelibly linked to the optimistic daily reports of American success in Vietnam. By early 1968, over 500,000 American soldiers, marines, sailors and airmen were stationed in SEA to fight the communist-nationalist insurgency. +General William Westmoreland (b. March 26, 1914 in South Carolina), a 1936 graduate of West Point, saw combat as an artillery officer in Tunisia, Sicily, France and Germany during WWII; and in Korea in the early 1950s. In the early 1960s, he was the commanding officer at West Point. In 1964, he was assigned to command the Military Assistance Command in Vietnam. Under his command, there was a huge increase in American military personnel. He is noted for developing the aggressive “search and destroy” strategy in Vietnam. Its objective was to find and kill as many members of the insurgency as possible. That innocent people were caught in the middle and mistaken for the enemy was the sad reality of war. These victims were most often counted as enemy dead. “If he’s dead and Vietnamese, he’s VC”, the reasoning went. By the end of 1967, Westmoreland reported that the VC had lost 90,000 fighters. As he would later say, Vietnam “became a war of attrition, [and] we were winning the war of attrition.” The problem with this calculus was that “the price that the enemy was prone to pay greatly exceeded our expectations.” He also became associated with daily reports on the status of the war which were deemed by many to be overly optimistic statements of American success in Vietnam. Although there was some accuracy to his appraisals, his reports were increasingly questioned by the media. On the role of the media in Vietnam, he said in an interview: “Vietnam was the first war that we’ve ever fought on the television screen and it was the first war that our country fought where the media had full reign (sic)…they had no restraint.” This was LBJ’s policy, he said, “and the enemy exploited it.” AMERICANIZATION OF THE WAR – continued The guerrilla tactics of the Viet Cong and their northern allies proved to be quite troublesome for American forces. Ambushes, booby-traps and hit-and-run tactics represented classic guerrilla warfare, but our tactics and firepower were also a great challenge for the insurgents whose light weaponry included AK-47s, mortars, rocket propelled grenades (which were very effective against American tanks and armored personnel carriers) and small rockets (122mm and 140mm), which were not particularly accurate, were still very effective militarily and psychologically. Virtually all were supplied by the USSR. The NVN also had artillery situated in the DMZ that was used effectively against American camps and outposts in the north, particularly Khe Sanh. THE NATIONALIST-COMMUNIST INSURGENCY A relationship of mutual dependence existed between the Viet Cong, the insurgents in the South, and Ho Chi Minh’s nationalist/communist regime in the North. The VC were mostly organized at the local, usually rural level. But it had some regional and urban capabilities as well. The VC were largely dependent upon the North for supplies and arms which moved south via the numerous mountain trails collectively called the Ho Chi Minh Trail. A steady stream of arms, supplies and troops moved down these trails. The long trek was arduous with many natural obstacles but it became extremely dangerous beginning in early 1967 when there was the constant threat of bombings by American aircraft. Nonetheless, arms and supplies hauled by small carts and wagons, and by human travail made it to the South. Most of the supplies came from the Russians and, to a much lesser extent, the Chinese, who both made this conflict in Southeast Asia a proxy war against the USA. Tens of thousands of reinforcements were also going south to join the war against the American imperialists. The Viet Cong and their northern ally were driven by a nationalist mission: drive out the American imperialists and unify the Vietnamese people under one national government. The North wanted this unified country controlled by Ho Chi Minh. AMERICAN DOMESTIC OPPOSITION TO U.S. MILITARY IN SEA Meanwhile, there was growing domestic American opposition to our presence in Vietnam. This was primarily happening on American college campuses. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and other groups led the campaign against the war and the Selective Service drafts which were sweeping tens of thousands of middle and lower class young men into the Army and Marines. Exemptions to the draft allowed the rich and privileged to remove their sons from harm’s way by staying in school or enlisting in the National Guard or the Reserves. Vietnam was a war fought largely by draftees and those young men who volunteered to serve. The iniquities of the draft were obvious and morally repugnant to many. That the first opposition to the war arose on the college campuses was no surprise. The size and scope of the United States at war also attracted the attention of the American media. Television crews and newspapers reporters were drawn to the action that engulfed our nation’s young. The media served the traditional role of providing information about the war, but it also provided first-hand glimpses of the war, which in turn raised many questions about the war. The North Vietnamese understood that there were undercurrents of opposition and skepticism in the US. It also understood that the growing American presence was increasing its own casualties and undercutting its chances for a successful takeover of the South. Changing circumstances called for a different strategy. PLANNING THE TET OFFENSIVE In July 1967, facing aggressive and growing American military operations against its campaign to “liberate” the south, Ho Chi Minh, his military leaders, led by General Vo Nguyen Giap, the Defense Minister, and Vietnamese political leaders and diplomats met in Hanoi. They clearly understood that the dynamics of the war had changed. They felt compelled to dramatically alter the course of the war. They decided to use conventional military tactics, as the Viet Minh did at Dien Bien Phu against the French in 1954, and take the offensive in the South. The campaign was planned to coincide with the festive Lunar New Year, called Tet, in very late January and early February 1968. There were some misgivings about the timing of the attack during the festive holiday; but they were dismissed when reminded that in 1789 Vietnamese patriots drove the Chinese occupiers out during the Tet celebrations. Moreover, it was argued that the Tet provided a perfect cover for the “surprise” attacks. This plan represented a dramatic altering of their guerrilla tactics. By using battalions and regiments to attack the provincial capitals, cities, towns and hamlets of South Vietnam, as well as American bases and installations, the North Vietnamese hoped to incite a general uprising against the “puppet” South Vietnamese government and ‘the American imperialists.’ This plan incorporated a bold military plan which also had broad political implications. The North Vietnamese leaders hoped to affect the U.S. domestic scene where there was growing skepticism and opposition to the war and a presidential election to be held in late 1968. To underscore the political purpose, the plan included an attack on the American embassy in Saigon as well as American military bases and outposts. The Tet offensive also offered a great opportunity to assert the dominance of the North in the insurgency. This elaborate strategy would require months of planning and preparation. Arms and supplies had to be moved down the Ho Chi Minh trails. Troops had to be trained and redeployed in the south. Enemy targets needed to be reconnoitered. And arms and saboteur soldiers had to be secreted into the cities where “safe houses” would serve as bases of operation. The plan required extensive and complicated coordination as 65,000 to 70,000 troops were to attack over 150 targets in the South. It also had as an objective the seizure of the national radio station in Saigon and the broadcast of Ho Chi Minh’s appeal for a national uprising against the “puppet” regime and its American protectors. Leaders knew of the July 1967 meeting of the North Vietnamese leadership. The return of Vietnamese ambassadors and diplomats to Saigon led American officials, who were convinced that the aggressive US military actions might have sobered the North Vietnamese, to conclude that Ho Chi Minh’s men were deliberating a peace initiative. This perception was quickly dispelled when the NVA began shelling Khe Sanh with its artillery from the DMZ. These diversionary attacks also occurred upon northern and western provincial cities, like Pleiku, and remote American outposts. Intelligence garnered from a captured document indicated that large scale attacks upon South Vietnam’s cities and hamlets were being planned. This intelligence was counter-intuitive to the American military leadership. Classic guerrilla tactics, as practiced by the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese, did not include large group attacks, direct engagements with the enemy and holding seized territory. The Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese would not risk exposing its troops to the firepower of American forces, according to the American military’s perspective. The captured document was therefore determined to be propaganda. So, the signals of changed tactics by the Viet Cong and the NVA were not interpreted to suggest large North Vietnamese attacks ahead. A few American military leaders (Major General Charles Stone and General Earl Wheeler), however, suspected that something big was about to occur. In response, General Westmoreland redeployed several fighting units from the western highlands and stationed them around Saigon and other major US installations. Westmoreland also convinced President Thieu to reduce the Tet festival ceasefire to 36 hours. He preferred no ceasefire, but compromised to satisfy the South Vietnamese sensibilities. Westie also put US forces on “maximum alert,” but it was issued late and was ignored in many instances because it seemed like they were always on “maximum alert.” Crying wolf too often can cause a lax response. That 36-hour period gave the Viet Cong insurgents and their northern allies the window of opportunity that they needed. During the early hours of January 31th, the infiltrators began the Tet offensive throughout SVN. THE OFFENSIVE: January 31 – February 8, 1968 The surprise attacks began in the early hours of January 31. Hue, the imperial city, was attacked around 2:00 a.m. Saigon was hit at several locations beginning around 3:00 a.m. In the course of the next several days over 150 locations were attacked across South Vietnam. Saigon, the capitol of SVN and the heart of American and Vietnamese operations, was stunned by the attacks upon several sites in and around the city. The SVN military headquarters, Independence Place (President Thieu’s office), and American military installations were hit. Tan Son Nhut, the huge American airbase, was attacked with rockets and mortars. The SVN national radio station was seized. The VC ‘sappers’ were to broadcast a taped message of Ho Chi Minh calling for a national uprising against the SVN government and the American interlopers. This strategy was foiled by the Vietnamese officer who had in place a contingency plan to turn off the power and incapacitate the transmitter if there was an attack. The assault on the American Embassy, however, was the most dramatic. About 19 VC “sappers” attacked the embassy by blasting a hole in the wall surrounding the compound. A skeletal group of Marines held off the attack, killing several VC, until members of the 716 US Army Military Police Battalion arrived. Although the VC had penetrated the embassy compound, they did not get into the embassy itself. The “sappers” had lost their initiative when their two officers were killed in the initial assault on the embassy. American journalists, who lived near the embassy, soon arrived on the scene. And in the course of one interview, the fate of the American presence in SEA was determined. A journalist asked a MP sergeant if the enemy had gotten into the embassy, the sergeant perhaps misunderstanding the question, responded yes. That news quickly was communicated back to the US and spread rapidly across the country. The American military command tried in vain to correct the story by confirming that the compound had been breached but the embassy itself was never compromised. With much suspicion about the trustworthiness of the military’s version, MAC-V’s could neither change the perception nor the story. The die was cast. Westmoreland’s daily rosy comments about the US winning the war were now in doubt for many Americans. How could we be winning the war, it was commonly thought, when the VC managed to enter the US embassy in Saigon and successfully attack several targets in Saigon and numerous targets throughout Vietnam? The old imperial city of Hue saw the fiercest fighting of the offensive. Several VC and North Vietnamese battalions were committed to this battle. They captured the old Citadel fortress and seized most of the city. The attackers were not finished once Hue was under their control. Special units gathered the political, cultural and intellectual elite of Hue and murdered them. There was a second purge as their control of the city began to collapse. In total, several hundred were assassinated. It is a footnote in the history of the insurgency, but it was a clear indicator of what would happen if the North gained control of South Vietnam. There was initial success for the insurgents as the Tet campaign seized many cities and towns, including Hue and its Citadel, and the penetration of the U.S. Embassy compound. These attacks stunned American forces, the U.S. military command and mainstream America. They also put General Westmoreland and the Johnson administration on the defensive. Many felt “embarrassed,” but the impact went well beyond embarrassment. THE ALLIED COUNTER-OFFENSIVE The counter-offensive began almost immediately or as soon as the shock of the attacks ended. Within a week, Saigon was largely under control again as cells of the insurgents were captured or killed. Counter-actions around the country were undertaken quickly and in most cases were successful in routing the insurgents. Hue was a battleground for nearly a month. The VC had setup a formidable defense of the city. And the Citadel fortress had built-in defenses. The 1st Marine Division and the First Cavalry Division, along with some elite South Vietnamese units, carried the day. Reminiscent of World War II, there was house to house combat. Casualties were high on both sides, but especially for the VC and the North Vietnamese, who, characteristically, had no plan of retreat. They were to hold their ground until the reinforcements arrived. They never did. This was the case throughout South Vietnam. And it explains why the VC and their northern allies lost a total of 30,000 to 35,000 fighters. The VC incurred most of the losses. Those who were killed were quickly replaced by North Vietnamese. The counter-offensive had two other incidents that are worthy of brief mention. One occurred in the river city of Ben Tre in the Mekong delta region during mid-February. It gave us one of the most memorable and repeated quotes of the war. During Tet, the city of 35,000 was partially taken over by a VC regiment. As the counter-offensive began, the VC resistance was fierce. In response, the US Army resorted to a constant bombardment via air attacks and artillery shellings which caused extensive damage. An Army captain explained the city’s devastation to an AP journalist: “It became necessary to destroy it to save it.” That remark resonated for the remainder of the war. The second incident occurred during the aftermath of the Tet Offensive when three U.S. Army platoons descended upon the remote village, My Lai, which was strongly suspected of having an allegiance to the Viet Cong. This suspicion was reinforced by the fact that all the men and teenage boys had fled the scene. Frustrated and embittered about the loss of their buddies during the previous few months, the American troops, under the command of Lt. William Calley, rounded up the women, children and elderly and murdered them. Five hundred and four souls were cold-bloodedly massacred. Given the growing criticisms about the war, this tragic incident was covered up by the American military command. (It was covered up for over a year when Seymour Hersh, the acclaimed investigative reporter, finally lifted the cover and revealed the gruesome details.) It only added fuel to the anti-war movement, which by now was given credibility by VVAW, Vietnam Vets Against the War. THE IRONIC OUTCOME TO THE TET OFFENSIVE The Tet campaign was a short-term military success for the nationalist insurgency, but American and Vietnamese forces quickly struck back and over the course of several weeks had reversed the NVA and Viet Cong advances. The price for the fleeting success of the offensive was that more than 30,000 insurgents were killed; most were VC. Despite the subsequent defeats, the Tet Offensive was a psychological and propaganda triumph for Ho Chi Minh and the insurgency. Indeed, it proved to be a psychological blow to the American public, who perceived it as a defeat. All the military reports of success and body counts seemed hollow compared to the initial success of the Tet Offensive. Middle-class Americans on the home front began to question our military strategy and presence in SEA. The anti-war movement grew from being a campus phenomenon into a broader movement. Despite American success in rolling back the insurgent attacks during the ensuing weeks and months, skepticism among Americans about the optimistic military reports and the “body counts” accelerated after Tet. Yet in a poll during the aftermath of the Tet offensive, a majority of American still supported the war but they wanted stronger leadership. LBJ, having doubts about the war effort and the advice he had received, was unable to provide that leadership. THE AFTERMATH TO THE TET OFFENSIVE Media coverage of the war turned increasingly critical and even negative at times. This was especially true of the major TV networks, CBS and NBC. And the print media was led by the NY Times, Washington Post, Boston Globe and the LA Times, and involved a host of other newspapers. Perhaps the most memorable moment occurred on February 27, when Walter Cronkite, the venerable CBS news anchor, commented during his national broadcast – upon his return from a brief visit to Vietnam – that it was “more certain than ever that the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in a stalemate.” Cronkite’s remarks alarmed LBJ, who dejectedly said to an aide: “If we’ve lost Cronkite, we’ve lost middle America.” LBJ was becoming a tragic figure. On March 10, a front-page story in the NY Times, by Hedrick Smith and Neil Sheehan, reported that Westmoreland had requested an additional 206,000 troops for the war in Vietnam. Moreover, it stated that the request had set off an intense and “divisive internal debate” in the Johnson administration. Westmoreland was stunned and bewildered by the story because the plan was a contingency plan put together at the request of General Earl Wheeler of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Regardless, it set off a firestorm. Congress met the idea with scorn and disbelief. And Westmoreland, understandably, was on the defensive. On March 12, anti-war U.S, Senator Eugene McCarthy finished just 330 votes behind LBJ in the New Hampshire Democratic presidential primary. What a jolt it was for LBJ. Within days, Robert F. Kennedy also tossed his hat into the ring to become candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination. LBJ’s political viability was being directly challenged and the Democratic Party was openly and irrevocably divided over the war. Meanwhile, LBJ began polling his advisers and other noted experts on the war. Even men like Dean Acheson, who had favored the war, had a change of heart. He now viewed the war as hopeless. Arthur Goldberg, the UN Ambassador, saw the war as a stalemate and recommended stopping the bombing of the North as a goodwill gesture. McGeorge Bundy reported to LBJ that the “Wise Men,” former cabinet members, generals and ambassadors, thought it was time to “disengage.” Former hawks and supporters of the war had gone 180 degrees on the war. The American public’s views on the war were also changing. Gallup polls in the weeks after the Tet Offensive pointed to a declining confidence in LBJ and indicated a tipping point in American support for the war. In mid-February, a poll showed that 50% of the American public disapproved of the president’s handing of the war. In mid-March, poll results indicated for the first time that more Americans were against the war than those that supported it. Indeed, the times were a-changin’! March 23: Nothing reflected that change more than when General Westmoreland was reassigned to be the Army’s Chief of Staff back in Washington. For LBJ, the culmination of these events and new advice came on March 31. In a national televised address, the president, who had doubts about the war from the beginning, startled the nation when he announced: - He would send 13,500 additional troops to Vietnam. - He would limit the bombing of North Vietnam to just above the DMZ. - He named Averell Harriman as his personal representative to seek peace talks with Hanoi. - Then he dropped a bombshell, when he said: “I shall not seek…not accept,” the democratic nomination “for another term as your president.” Once again, the nation was stunned by this turn of events. After the Tet offensive, major media had a profound impact upon American perceptions of the war. Television images focused on the gruesome side of the war while mainstream journalists painted with words a cynical and critical view of the war and American policies. Even Walter Cronkite, the esteemed anchor of CBS Nightly News, became skeptical after the Tet offensive. In February, he visited Vietnam for a first-hand look at the war effort. In late February, on his nationally aired broadcast, Cronkite voiced his concerns about the war. His remarks were direct and unsettling. Upon hearing his remarks, LBJ uttered to one of his aides, “If I have lost Cronkite, I have lost middle-America.” THE IMPACT OF THE TET OFFENSIVE UPON AMERICAN POLITICS The anti-war movement spawned the candidacy of US Senator Eugene McCarthy to challenge LBJ for the Democratic nomination for the 1968 presidential election. Showing political viability in New Hampshire, McCarthy’s strong showing encouraged Robert F. Kennedy to join the primary race to be the Democratic candidate to displace LBJ, whose declining popularity and diminishing credibility made him a liability for the Democratic Party. The Tet Offensive had indeed undermined LBJ’s political standing. Embarrassed and feeling dejected, if not betrayed, LBJ dropped two bombshells on the American public in late March when called for negotiations to end the war and announced that he would not seek re-election in the November presidential election. Privately, LBJ lamented that he felt he had been deceived about the war. Within days of this shock wave, the social conscience of the United States and a vocal critic of the war, Martin Luther King was murdered in Memphis, Tennessee. Amid the divisions over the war, American society now had to deal with riots across the country. Indeed, the war had come home to the U.S. with draft dodgers fleeing to Canada and elsewhere, street demonstrations, sit-ins, candlelight vigils, and a greatly divided American public. The war in SEA also fractured the New Deal Coalition that had made the Democrats the dominant political party in the US. The Democratic Party had lost its unity and credibility. The pulse of America was irregular and the axis of America was now quite wobbly. By mid-Spring, Robert Kennedy, a fierce critic of the war, became the leading candidate for the anti-war Democrats, but his candidacy tragically ended in early June when he, like his brother John, was assassinated. The Democratic Party was in complete disarray. This was poignantly demonstrated at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. The party was split by the war. There was rancor in the convention hall and chaotic demonstrations on the streets. The public perception was that of a party devouring itself. It was not one to attract sympathy and support. Out of the mayhem, the Party made a safe choice in Hubert H. Humphrey to be their candidate. He was handicapped by his position as Vice President to LBJ, but he was a vigorous campaigner and in the end made a gallant try against the Republican candidate, Richard Milhous Nixon, who campaigned under the banner of “Peace with Honor.” Nixon had re-emerged from political exile as the Republican candidate and narrowly defeated Humphrey, despite his last-minute surge. Nixon continued the war for another four and a half years with massive bombings of North Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos and a futile attempt at ‘Vietnamizing’ of the allied war effort. Regardless, he never realized “peace with honor.” From the threat of defeat by the growing and aggressive presence of Americans in South Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh’s forces implemented the Tet Offensive, which, despite initial military success, turned into a costly defeat, yet turned the American media and people increasingly against the war and determined our inglorious defeat. It was, in the minds of many, a defeat of our will and not our military. The war, they would argue, had too many restrictions and lacked clear achievable objectives. Moreover, the major media had lost faith in the American military and trust of the president, and in turn it bombarded the American public with gruesome images and harsh words that fed doubt and fostered opposition to the war. The end result was a divided nation at war with itself and its cherished values.	7,026	ENGLISH	1
Biography of William Dargan ‘An Honourable Life’ by author Fergus Mulligan William Dargan (28 February 1799 – 7 February 1867) was arguably the most important Irish engineer of the 19th century and certainly the most important figure in railway construction. Dargan designed and built Ireland’s first railway line froin Dublin to Dun Laoghaire in 1833. In total he constructed over 1,300 km (800 miles) of railway to important urban centres of Ireland. He was a member of the Royal Dublin Society and also helped establish the National Gallery of Ireland. He was also responsible for the Great Dublin Exhibition held at Leinster lawn in 1853. His achievements were honoured in 1995, when the Dargan Railway Bridge in Belfast was opened. In 2004 when the Dargan Bridge Dublin a new cable stayed bridge for Dublin’s Light Railway Luas was also named after him.	<urn:uuid:f2c5b025-f3ad-48aa-a203-18bd0148c368>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://theunitedartsclub.wordpress.com/2016/10/11/book-launch/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00444.warc.gz	en	0.982751	194	3.296875	3	[ -0.4513106942176819, 0.13061468303203583, 0.354903906583786, 0.1234407126903534, -0.18045853078365326, 0.07338067144155502, 0.2929803431034088, -0.31267860531806946, -0.3924652934074402, -0.27166464924812317, 0.02377847209572792, -0.509696364402771, 0.2562881410121918, 0.14844687283039093,...	3	Biography of William Dargan ‘An Honourable Life’ by author Fergus Mulligan William Dargan (28 February 1799 – 7 February 1867) was arguably the most important Irish engineer of the 19th century and certainly the most important figure in railway construction. Dargan designed and built Ireland’s first railway line froin Dublin to Dun Laoghaire in 1833. In total he constructed over 1,300 km (800 miles) of railway to important urban centres of Ireland. He was a member of the Royal Dublin Society and also helped establish the National Gallery of Ireland. He was also responsible for the Great Dublin Exhibition held at Leinster lawn in 1853. His achievements were honoured in 1995, when the Dargan Railway Bridge in Belfast was opened. In 2004 when the Dargan Bridge Dublin a new cable stayed bridge for Dublin’s Light Railway Luas was also named after him.	216	ENGLISH	1
Rene Skelton, Harriet Tubman: A Woman of Courage, 1st ed., (New York: Harper Collins, 2005), 14-15. Thousands of people in cities, villages, and farm areas of the United States, Canada, and Mexico were part of the network. Between 30,000 and 100,000 slaves escaped to freedom on the “Railroad” between the 1830s and the end of the Civil War. “Conductors” were people who helped the runaways. “Stations” were places such as overgrown areas in forests or attics or cellars in houses where slaves could hide. Conductors gave escaping slaves food, shelter, and clothing. They also helped the slaves get to the next station. At night conductors snuck the slaves out of their hiding places. Most of them went on foot, although some traveled in wagons, sleighs, and boats. Most conductors on the Underground Railroad were African Americans who lived in the North. But whites and others became part of the network, too. The conductors took great risk to help escaping slaves. If they were found out, the conductors could lose their jobs. And if escaping slaves were caught, they’d be dragged back to their owners and punished.	<urn:uuid:7e5c284c-cf1b-423b-a4bf-79c91013a784>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu/node/17131	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00277.warc.gz	en	0.984859	271	4.3125	4	[ 0.09878043830394745, 0.2272578924894333, 0.35957497358322144, 0.36870887875556946, 0.1472519338130951, -0.12460542470216751, 0.12733840942382812, -0.11298304051160812, -0.22601450979709625, 0.04533081501722336, 0.3918052315711975, 0.3339771330356598, 0.14847621321678162, -0.130357548594474...	2	Rene Skelton, Harriet Tubman: A Woman of Courage, 1st ed., (New York: Harper Collins, 2005), 14-15. Thousands of people in cities, villages, and farm areas of the United States, Canada, and Mexico were part of the network. Between 30,000 and 100,000 slaves escaped to freedom on the “Railroad” between the 1830s and the end of the Civil War. “Conductors” were people who helped the runaways. “Stations” were places such as overgrown areas in forests or attics or cellars in houses where slaves could hide. Conductors gave escaping slaves food, shelter, and clothing. They also helped the slaves get to the next station. At night conductors snuck the slaves out of their hiding places. Most of them went on foot, although some traveled in wagons, sleighs, and boats. Most conductors on the Underground Railroad were African Americans who lived in the North. But whites and others became part of the network, too. The conductors took great risk to help escaping slaves. If they were found out, the conductors could lose their jobs. And if escaping slaves were caught, they’d be dragged back to their owners and punished.	279	ENGLISH	1
Science of war 1: how to spot enemy guns using ancient geometry At the beginning of World War 1 neither side had effective methods that could pinpoint the location of enemy artillery. Dr Karl explains the maths of war in part one of a two-part series. In the First World War, the most effective weapon system was artillery — the big guns. And, as a countermeasure, the most effective way to locate enemy artilleries so you could find then destroy it was sound ranging, which gave you the enemy's guns' exact location. This technology was developed by a team led by 25-year-old Australian Nobel Prize winner and serving soldier William Lawrence Bragg, and his inspiration was that his bare bottom would get lifted off his toilet seat whenever a nearby artillery piece would fire even when he couldn't hear the gun being fired. The First World War, or The Great War, ran from mid-1914 to around late 1918, about four and a half years. Nine million military personnel and seven million civilians died in that bloody conflict. Furthermore over 22 million military were injured or seriously disabled. The artillery was not particularly efficient. Over a 100 shells had to be fired to kill just one soldier. But it was terribly effective. Millions of dead people. Overall, during the course of World War 1 exploding shells and shrapnel fired by artillery killed more soldiers than any other weapon system. At the beginning of The Great War neither side had effective methods that could pinpoint the location of enemy artillery. Sure they had flash spotters — brave men who would put themselves in locations where they could see the flash from the tip of the barrel as the big gun fired. Though, often the big guns were hidden out of sight. Another method was to use the recently developed aircraft for spotting, but that didn't work well in bad weather or at night. No, the solution lay in an ancient geometry technique called triangulation. About 2500 years ago, the Greek mathematician and philosopher Thales was using the technique called 'similar triangles' to estimate the height of the pyramids of Egypt. Around 250 AD, the Chinese scientist Pei Xui was using triangles to make accurate maps. Now the Romans didn't ever seem to use triangulation, but around 1000 Arabian scholars were very familiar with triangulation to measure distances make maps and even measure the size of the Earth. However, it took a few centuries for this Arabian mathematics to slowly percolate across to the West. So, in 1533, it was the cartographer Gemma Frisius who wrote about using triangulation to work out the exact locations of faraway places. The principle is simple: suppose there is a mountain peak clearly visible in the distance directly in front of you. You accurately mark out a baseline, say two kilometres long. You walk to one end of your baseline and measure the angle to your mountain peak, you then walk to the other end of your baseline and measure a different angle to the mountain peak. Then, with these two angles and the baseline, use simple millennia-old geometry to give you the exact location of your mountain peak. But then it gets messy on the battle field. The big problem is that you can't reliably see where the enemy artillery is. However, you can almost always hear it. Sound travels at around 300 metres in each second. You can easily pick up the sound with a microphone. However, because you usually can't see the gun's muzzle at the exact time it fired, you have no idea of the distance. But there is a way around this. Suppose you have lots of microphones located four kilometres back from the frontline and spread along the baseline, say nine kilometres long. The sound from the big artillery piece firing off would arrive at different microphones at different times. If you had enough microphones along a big enough baseline all you needed was some run-of-the-mill maths and you would know the exact location of the military regardless of the weather and the time of day. That all sounds fine. But there was yet another fundamental problem. This problem was that often they couldn't hear the enemy artillery firing off because of its location and the general din of war. That problem was solved after the 25-year-old Australian Nobel Prize winner who was serving at the front got lifted off the toilet seat by the firing of the big guns just once too often. I'll talk about that next time ... Published 03 March 2015 © 2020 Karl S. Kruszelnicki Pty Ltd	<urn:uuid:a775075e-bd98-4e58-b7f4-2e327c12d2da>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2015/03/03/4183839.htm?site=science/greatmomentsinscience	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00107.warc.gz	en	0.980811	926	3.640625	4	[ -0.35188028216362, 0.3982750177383423, 0.2577255666255951, -0.1423177272081375, -0.3439640998840332, -0.11938516795635223, 0.20156127214431763, 0.5119388103485107, -0.20039841532707214, -0.013285862281918526, 0.11091892421245575, -0.31805408000946045, 0.0474691316485405, 0.5278157591819763...	4	Science of war 1: how to spot enemy guns using ancient geometry At the beginning of World War 1 neither side had effective methods that could pinpoint the location of enemy artillery. Dr Karl explains the maths of war in part one of a two-part series. In the First World War, the most effective weapon system was artillery — the big guns. And, as a countermeasure, the most effective way to locate enemy artilleries so you could find then destroy it was sound ranging, which gave you the enemy's guns' exact location. This technology was developed by a team led by 25-year-old Australian Nobel Prize winner and serving soldier William Lawrence Bragg, and his inspiration was that his bare bottom would get lifted off his toilet seat whenever a nearby artillery piece would fire even when he couldn't hear the gun being fired. The First World War, or The Great War, ran from mid-1914 to around late 1918, about four and a half years. Nine million military personnel and seven million civilians died in that bloody conflict. Furthermore over 22 million military were injured or seriously disabled. The artillery was not particularly efficient. Over a 100 shells had to be fired to kill just one soldier. But it was terribly effective. Millions of dead people. Overall, during the course of World War 1 exploding shells and shrapnel fired by artillery killed more soldiers than any other weapon system. At the beginning of The Great War neither side had effective methods that could pinpoint the location of enemy artillery. Sure they had flash spotters — brave men who would put themselves in locations where they could see the flash from the tip of the barrel as the big gun fired. Though, often the big guns were hidden out of sight. Another method was to use the recently developed aircraft for spotting, but that didn't work well in bad weather or at night. No, the solution lay in an ancient geometry technique called triangulation. About 2500 years ago, the Greek mathematician and philosopher Thales was using the technique called 'similar triangles' to estimate the height of the pyramids of Egypt. Around 250 AD, the Chinese scientist Pei Xui was using triangles to make accurate maps. Now the Romans didn't ever seem to use triangulation, but around 1000 Arabian scholars were very familiar with triangulation to measure distances make maps and even measure the size of the Earth. However, it took a few centuries for this Arabian mathematics to slowly percolate across to the West. So, in 1533, it was the cartographer Gemma Frisius who wrote about using triangulation to work out the exact locations of faraway places. The principle is simple: suppose there is a mountain peak clearly visible in the distance directly in front of you. You accurately mark out a baseline, say two kilometres long. You walk to one end of your baseline and measure the angle to your mountain peak, you then walk to the other end of your baseline and measure a different angle to the mountain peak. Then, with these two angles and the baseline, use simple millennia-old geometry to give you the exact location of your mountain peak. But then it gets messy on the battle field. The big problem is that you can't reliably see where the enemy artillery is. However, you can almost always hear it. Sound travels at around 300 metres in each second. You can easily pick up the sound with a microphone. However, because you usually can't see the gun's muzzle at the exact time it fired, you have no idea of the distance. But there is a way around this. Suppose you have lots of microphones located four kilometres back from the frontline and spread along the baseline, say nine kilometres long. The sound from the big artillery piece firing off would arrive at different microphones at different times. If you had enough microphones along a big enough baseline all you needed was some run-of-the-mill maths and you would know the exact location of the military regardless of the weather and the time of day. That all sounds fine. But there was yet another fundamental problem. This problem was that often they couldn't hear the enemy artillery firing off because of its location and the general din of war. That problem was solved after the 25-year-old Australian Nobel Prize winner who was serving at the front got lifted off the toilet seat by the firing of the big guns just once too often. I'll talk about that next time ... Published 03 March 2015 © 2020 Karl S. Kruszelnicki Pty Ltd	946	ENGLISH	1
In 1932 the federal government commenced a medical study called The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Blacks with Syphilis in Macon County, Alabama. Four hundred and twelve men infected with the disease were selected for the study that faked long term treatment while really only giving placebos and liniments. The goal of this study was to determine if blacks reacted similar to the whites to the effects of the syphilis disease. After forty years it was discontinued and the Senate initiated an investigation of the study. At the time of the investigation, only one hundred and twenty-seven of the study’s original participants were still alive and had not died from the disease (Morehan, 2007). In the film, the story is told from the view point of …show more content… Miss Evers compares her struggle with her ethical and moral beliefs and the unethical issues presented in the study as climbing a series of mountains. Her challenge as presented in the film depicted her as a victim of the study instead of one that inflicted harm, because throughout the film she was seen as one who sacrificed the best years of her life to act as an emotional caring support system for the participants taking part in the study. The movie progress through a series of flashback describing what transpired during the forty years she was involved in the study. In the beginning, Miss Evers supported the goal of the initial plan, which was to provide care and treatment to those suffering from syphilis. She believed that “it was the dawn of a new day”, and she was excited that the government had send her patients and her city the best funding and medical support available. She was enthused by it and did an awesome job gathering patients to seek treatment. Miss Evers was also able to convince a long lost school mate Caleb and his friends who named their folk music and dance band after her, Miss Evers’ Boys to come and provide samples to be tested. As the film progressed, it revealed that all of Miss Evers’ Boys were tested positive for the syphilis disease. At this point in the movie, active treatment was provided to all	<urn:uuid:33507192-7d99-48d5-9393-23f7de0626a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/Miss-Evers-Boys/P3DRJF35C	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00137.warc.gz	en	0.981585	428	3.296875	3	[ -0.43507102131843567, 0.45261263847351074, 0.076125368475914, 0.18553803861141205, 0.08826323598623276, 0.10659899562597275, 0.29376208782196045, 0.0394340418279171, -0.5214211940765381, -0.021236158907413483, 0.2952777147293091, -0.17904670536518097, 0.40217864513397217, 0.243391439318656...	1	In 1932 the federal government commenced a medical study called The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Blacks with Syphilis in Macon County, Alabama. Four hundred and twelve men infected with the disease were selected for the study that faked long term treatment while really only giving placebos and liniments. The goal of this study was to determine if blacks reacted similar to the whites to the effects of the syphilis disease. After forty years it was discontinued and the Senate initiated an investigation of the study. At the time of the investigation, only one hundred and twenty-seven of the study’s original participants were still alive and had not died from the disease (Morehan, 2007). In the film, the story is told from the view point of …show more content… Miss Evers compares her struggle with her ethical and moral beliefs and the unethical issues presented in the study as climbing a series of mountains. Her challenge as presented in the film depicted her as a victim of the study instead of one that inflicted harm, because throughout the film she was seen as one who sacrificed the best years of her life to act as an emotional caring support system for the participants taking part in the study. The movie progress through a series of flashback describing what transpired during the forty years she was involved in the study. In the beginning, Miss Evers supported the goal of the initial plan, which was to provide care and treatment to those suffering from syphilis. She believed that “it was the dawn of a new day”, and she was excited that the government had send her patients and her city the best funding and medical support available. She was enthused by it and did an awesome job gathering patients to seek treatment. Miss Evers was also able to convince a long lost school mate Caleb and his friends who named their folk music and dance band after her, Miss Evers’ Boys to come and provide samples to be tested. As the film progressed, it revealed that all of Miss Evers’ Boys were tested positive for the syphilis disease. At this point in the movie, active treatment was provided to all	431	ENGLISH	1
A tragic event that went down in History I think it is important for people to understand the Holocaust because it was a major event in history where the Germans tried to wipe out and entire ethnic group of Jewish people. Adolf Hitler was one of the leaders who spewed his propaganda about, trying to influence people to turn their backs on the Jews. Hitler won over several people’s minds and eventually he convinced them to show hatred towards the Jews. It was easy to identify the Jews because they were forced to wear yellow stars on their clothes. The Germans thought that they were superior to the Jews, gays, the mentally sick, and the elderly. Hitler’s legacy is one of great cruelty and destruction. Adolf Hitler was born on April 20,1889, at Braunau-am-Inn, Austria-Hungary. In 1907, after death of his father, Hitler left home for Vienna, Austria. He hoped to study art and architecture there, but he was not admitted to the academy of Fine Arts. He fell into poverty and earned money by painting postcards. In 1913, Hitler moved to Munich Germany. Like may German-speaking citizens of Austria Hungary, he considered himself a German. He found few opportunities for work in Munich. During World War I (1914-18), Hitler joined the Germany army. He served mostly as a runner on the front line. He was wounded in the leg in 1916 and gassed in 1918. He was awarded many decorations for bravery. Germany’s defeat in the war had a blow to Hitler. But the war had taught him a great deal about violence and it’s use. It had a great influence on him. In Munich after the war, Hitler met people that shared his point views. Like him, they believed that the Jews where superior to others. He also read literature that blamed the democracy for Germany’s defeat in the war. In 1919, Hitler became interested in the German Workers’ Party. The German Workers’ party preached violent nationalism and anti-Semitism (hatred of Jews). The party was later reintroduced as the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi party. Hitler quickly saw the Nazi Party offered a route to political power. In 1920 he began to work full-time for the party. Hitler was a powerful speaker. In 1921 he became party chairman. In April 1932, Hitler ran for German presidency. He narrowly lost to Paul von Hindenburg, who had been president since 1925. Hitler had lost his insistence on “total power”. Then a conservative group arranged for him to enter the government. On January 30,1933, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor (prime minister) of Germany in a coalition government with the conservatives. The conservatives thought they could use Hitler for their own interests. But Hitler quickly established his mastery. A fire at the Reichstag (Germany’s legislative assembly) on February 1933, gave him an opening. Communists where blamed for the fire. The government suspended civil liberties. Hitler used mass rallies and propaganda to raise public alarm. Within months, the Reichstag voted to give him sweeping powers. Hitler then destroyed the Communists and Socialists parties and forced the right-wing parties to dissolve. Hindenburg died on August 2, 1934. Hitler then tool the title of supreme leader. He was now the undisputed master of Germany. The bases of his power were still his control over the masses, Hitler also held power through fear. The state secret police enforced Nazi rule. Hitler increased the persecution of the Jews. New laws deprived Jews of their citizenship and imposed other restrictions. Jew and many other people suffered tremendously during the war. The concentration camps and what the Jews went through Adolf Hitler gave top priority to removing the Jews from Germany. Between 1933 and 1938 the Nazis boycotted the Jewish businesses; they established quotas in Germany’s professions and schools and forbade intermarriage between Jews and Gentiles and they instituted the first concentration camps at Orangeburg, Buchenwald, and Dachau. They did all of this while the rest of the world looked. The Nazis used the assassination of Ernst vom Roth (a German legation secretary in Paris) as an excuse for Kristallnacht (“The Night of Broken Glass”): on the night of Nov.9-10, 1938, storm troopers burned 267 synagogues and arrested 20,000 people. Germany’s Jews were also required to pay a fine of $400 million for damage to their own property. After World War II began in September 1939, 3 million Polish Jews were subjected to a blitzpogrom of murder and rape. Reinhard Heydrich-an aide to Heinrich Himmler-issued a ghetto decree that month; Jews were progressively fenced off from the rest of the population. About 700,000 people died of disease and starvation during the next two years. Germany attacked the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) in June 1942 and four special Eisatzgruppen (“strike squads”) were deployed against Soviet Jewish Civilians. The worst atrocity committed by these squads occurred at the Babi Yar ravine in Kiev. Here 33,771 Jews were machined gunned on Sept.29-30,1941. A tragic event that went down in History	<urn:uuid:d15d620a-8ee7-4ef9-8a07-a090677d8bcf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://researchnetwork.net/a-tragic-event-that-went-down-in-history-i-think-it-is-important-for-people-to-understand-the-holocaust-because-it-was-a-major-event-in-history-where-the-germans-tried-to-wipe-out-and-entire-ethnic-gr/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00256.warc.gz	en	0.982219	1,093	3.453125	3	[ -0.20203202962875366, 0.8430436849594116, -0.023361865431070328, -0.09172272682189941, -0.16928592324256897, 0.5459338426589966, 0.3785538077354431, 0.18278853595256805, -0.07967483252286911, -0.19464656710624695, 0.12605154514312744, -0.08762327581644058, 0.19434863328933716, 0.4762679934...	3	A tragic event that went down in History I think it is important for people to understand the Holocaust because it was a major event in history where the Germans tried to wipe out and entire ethnic group of Jewish people. Adolf Hitler was one of the leaders who spewed his propaganda about, trying to influence people to turn their backs on the Jews. Hitler won over several people’s minds and eventually he convinced them to show hatred towards the Jews. It was easy to identify the Jews because they were forced to wear yellow stars on their clothes. The Germans thought that they were superior to the Jews, gays, the mentally sick, and the elderly. Hitler’s legacy is one of great cruelty and destruction. Adolf Hitler was born on April 20,1889, at Braunau-am-Inn, Austria-Hungary. In 1907, after death of his father, Hitler left home for Vienna, Austria. He hoped to study art and architecture there, but he was not admitted to the academy of Fine Arts. He fell into poverty and earned money by painting postcards. In 1913, Hitler moved to Munich Germany. Like may German-speaking citizens of Austria Hungary, he considered himself a German. He found few opportunities for work in Munich. During World War I (1914-18), Hitler joined the Germany army. He served mostly as a runner on the front line. He was wounded in the leg in 1916 and gassed in 1918. He was awarded many decorations for bravery. Germany’s defeat in the war had a blow to Hitler. But the war had taught him a great deal about violence and it’s use. It had a great influence on him. In Munich after the war, Hitler met people that shared his point views. Like him, they believed that the Jews where superior to others. He also read literature that blamed the democracy for Germany’s defeat in the war. In 1919, Hitler became interested in the German Workers’ Party. The German Workers’ party preached violent nationalism and anti-Semitism (hatred of Jews). The party was later reintroduced as the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi party. Hitler quickly saw the Nazi Party offered a route to political power. In 1920 he began to work full-time for the party. Hitler was a powerful speaker. In 1921 he became party chairman. In April 1932, Hitler ran for German presidency. He narrowly lost to Paul von Hindenburg, who had been president since 1925. Hitler had lost his insistence on “total power”. Then a conservative group arranged for him to enter the government. On January 30,1933, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor (prime minister) of Germany in a coalition government with the conservatives. The conservatives thought they could use Hitler for their own interests. But Hitler quickly established his mastery. A fire at the Reichstag (Germany’s legislative assembly) on February 1933, gave him an opening. Communists where blamed for the fire. The government suspended civil liberties. Hitler used mass rallies and propaganda to raise public alarm. Within months, the Reichstag voted to give him sweeping powers. Hitler then destroyed the Communists and Socialists parties and forced the right-wing parties to dissolve. Hindenburg died on August 2, 1934. Hitler then tool the title of supreme leader. He was now the undisputed master of Germany. The bases of his power were still his control over the masses, Hitler also held power through fear. The state secret police enforced Nazi rule. Hitler increased the persecution of the Jews. New laws deprived Jews of their citizenship and imposed other restrictions. Jew and many other people suffered tremendously during the war. The concentration camps and what the Jews went through Adolf Hitler gave top priority to removing the Jews from Germany. Between 1933 and 1938 the Nazis boycotted the Jewish businesses; they established quotas in Germany’s professions and schools and forbade intermarriage between Jews and Gentiles and they instituted the first concentration camps at Orangeburg, Buchenwald, and Dachau. They did all of this while the rest of the world looked. The Nazis used the assassination of Ernst vom Roth (a German legation secretary in Paris) as an excuse for Kristallnacht (“The Night of Broken Glass”): on the night of Nov.9-10, 1938, storm troopers burned 267 synagogues and arrested 20,000 people. Germany’s Jews were also required to pay a fine of $400 million for damage to their own property. After World War II began in September 1939, 3 million Polish Jews were subjected to a blitzpogrom of murder and rape. Reinhard Heydrich-an aide to Heinrich Himmler-issued a ghetto decree that month; Jews were progressively fenced off from the rest of the population. About 700,000 people died of disease and starvation during the next two years. Germany attacked the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) in June 1942 and four special Eisatzgruppen (“strike squads”) were deployed against Soviet Jewish Civilians. The worst atrocity committed by these squads occurred at the Babi Yar ravine in Kiev. Here 33,771 Jews were machined gunned on Sept.29-30,1941. A tragic event that went down in History	1,149	ENGLISH	1
Launching an amphibious operation was a risky choice in the days of sailboats. Not the kind where the Marines go aboard boats and row toward the shore and palm trees, but the kind where troops are mobilized with an aim to seize or conquer the coast in the long term. During those days, it was more likely for the troops to be swept away by the waves than to lose battles. Many people guess that the waves would be calm on the shores of the Mediterranean, but it is not the case. When Persia invaded Greece, King Xerxes lost more ships to wind and waves than the ones lost in the Battle of Salamis. Even if the troops succeeded in landing on the shore, they had to be completely isolated from the other forces, because supporting troops could not easily arrive through sailing with seasonal winds. Thus, they had to fight against enemies with limited resources. Given such difficulties of an amphibious operation, Kublai Khan’s attempt to invade Japan in the late 13th Century was unprecedentedly bold and ambitious, especially as a Mongolian whose troops were not familiar with sea battles. Kublai’s first attempt took place in 1274, with a force of 23,000 Mongolian and Korean troops. In 1281, the second invasion occurred with 900 ships carrying 40,000 Mongolian and Korean troops as well as a fleet of 3,500 ships with 100,000 Chinese troops. The Chinese ships were hastily made and ill-equipped for naval battles, and the troops already had a long journey from the mainland to Kyushu. Korean troops of the then Goryeo dynasty fought well in the following battles. Mongolian troops failed to live up to their reputation, while Chinese troops were buried at sea even before they landed on the shores. Those who hate Japan say that the history would have changed if it were not for typhoons. However, just like all other failures, this was also partially caused by human errors. While indecisiveness, a passive attitude, and Japan’s stronger than expected resistance all contributed to the failure of the combined forces, the biggest cause of defeat was their lack of information about Japan. What is needed to win a war is rationality, not passion, cause, or desire. Yet, it seems we are replacing rationality with cause these days. This is not the way that leads us to a triumph. Those who have read at least the first chapter of the Art of War would understand this.	<urn:uuid:94da1431-e1d7-4a7a-a7ae-a1eddf09c02a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20190813/1816338/1/Kublai-s-failure	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00169.warc.gz	en	0.980019	502	3.625	4	[ -0.22713901102542877, -0.009790279902517796, 0.0017158340197056532, -0.24103668332099915, -0.19811898469924927, -0.07897451519966125, -0.0305167343467474, 0.39809495210647583, 0.19831307232379913, 0.00048384160618297756, 0.04626379534602165, -0.11069338023662567, 0.20792800188064575, 0.613...	3	Launching an amphibious operation was a risky choice in the days of sailboats. Not the kind where the Marines go aboard boats and row toward the shore and palm trees, but the kind where troops are mobilized with an aim to seize or conquer the coast in the long term. During those days, it was more likely for the troops to be swept away by the waves than to lose battles. Many people guess that the waves would be calm on the shores of the Mediterranean, but it is not the case. When Persia invaded Greece, King Xerxes lost more ships to wind and waves than the ones lost in the Battle of Salamis. Even if the troops succeeded in landing on the shore, they had to be completely isolated from the other forces, because supporting troops could not easily arrive through sailing with seasonal winds. Thus, they had to fight against enemies with limited resources. Given such difficulties of an amphibious operation, Kublai Khan’s attempt to invade Japan in the late 13th Century was unprecedentedly bold and ambitious, especially as a Mongolian whose troops were not familiar with sea battles. Kublai’s first attempt took place in 1274, with a force of 23,000 Mongolian and Korean troops. In 1281, the second invasion occurred with 900 ships carrying 40,000 Mongolian and Korean troops as well as a fleet of 3,500 ships with 100,000 Chinese troops. The Chinese ships were hastily made and ill-equipped for naval battles, and the troops already had a long journey from the mainland to Kyushu. Korean troops of the then Goryeo dynasty fought well in the following battles. Mongolian troops failed to live up to their reputation, while Chinese troops were buried at sea even before they landed on the shores. Those who hate Japan say that the history would have changed if it were not for typhoons. However, just like all other failures, this was also partially caused by human errors. While indecisiveness, a passive attitude, and Japan’s stronger than expected resistance all contributed to the failure of the combined forces, the biggest cause of defeat was their lack of information about Japan. What is needed to win a war is rationality, not passion, cause, or desire. Yet, it seems we are replacing rationality with cause these days. This is not the way that leads us to a triumph. Those who have read at least the first chapter of the Art of War would understand this.	524	ENGLISH	1
The British were holding their own along the Niagara frontier during the summer of 1812, but the Americans were planning a major offensive when the campaign season opened in the spring of 1813. The British urgently needed reinforcements, which would have typically come by sea up the St. Lawrence River to Quebec City. But this route was closed by ice and would not open until April, too late for campaign season. Because of the quiet nature of the land war in the Maritimes, it was decided to send the 104th Regiment of Foot from Fredericton, N.B. to Kingston, Ontario. 554 men, split into companies of 100, began the long march to Kingston, during one of the coldest, snowiest winters on record. They left Fredericton on February 16th, 1813 and arrived in Kingston on April 12th. The 104th is an under-recognized military march on par with great marches in history, and most certainly one of the more significant feats accomplished during the War of 1812. The 104th Regiment is recognized by a plaque in Carleton & York Regiment Memorial Park, located next to the Armory on Carleton Street in Fredericton. This post has already been read 1153 times!Follow Us on Social Media	<urn:uuid:572b43c0-ccfb-4c4d-b8dd-22969064f949>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mynewbrunswick.ca/104th-new-brunswick-regiment/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00063.warc.gz	en	0.981271	257	3.5625	4	[ -0.4131307005882263, 0.22309821844100952, 0.6520319581031799, -0.030931714922189713, 0.23648200929164886, -0.24721968173980713, -0.359083354473114, 0.31142136454582214, -0.175654336810112, -0.3152485489845276, 0.14532573521137238, -0.2846921682357788, -0.39650681614875793, 0.09253467619419...	1	The British were holding their own along the Niagara frontier during the summer of 1812, but the Americans were planning a major offensive when the campaign season opened in the spring of 1813. The British urgently needed reinforcements, which would have typically come by sea up the St. Lawrence River to Quebec City. But this route was closed by ice and would not open until April, too late for campaign season. Because of the quiet nature of the land war in the Maritimes, it was decided to send the 104th Regiment of Foot from Fredericton, N.B. to Kingston, Ontario. 554 men, split into companies of 100, began the long march to Kingston, during one of the coldest, snowiest winters on record. They left Fredericton on February 16th, 1813 and arrived in Kingston on April 12th. The 104th is an under-recognized military march on par with great marches in history, and most certainly one of the more significant feats accomplished during the War of 1812. The 104th Regiment is recognized by a plaque in Carleton & York Regiment Memorial Park, located next to the Armory on Carleton Street in Fredericton. This post has already been read 1153 times!Follow Us on Social Media	286	ENGLISH	1
This week in History \| Week 3By The Cove December 20, 2019 13 January to 19 January 14 January 1942: The Battle of Gemas The Battle of Gemas was an action fought by Australian soldiers of the 2/30 Battalion, part of the 27th Brigade of the 8th Australian Division. Its aim was to slow the Japanese advance towards Singapore following the Japanese landings in Malaya at Kota Bahru on 07 December 1941. The 2/30th Battalion's commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Frederick "Black Jack" Galleghan, was ordered to mount an ambush on the main road, 11 kilometres west of Gemas in the hope of preventing the Japanese from advancing any further south. The ambush site was located at a point where a wooden bridge crossed the Sungei Gemencheh river, connecting Gemas with the larger neighbouring town of Tampin, and bringing traffic on the road into a long cutting through thick bushland. The 2/30th Battalion subsequently deployed one company in the ambush position 5 kilometres forward of the main body of the battalion. Private John Korsch, C Coy, 2/30th Battalion, recorded how the companies of 2/30 Battalion drew lots for the staging of the ambush after the bridge was blown. The Japanese had passed through Tampin and needed to cross the bridge to reach Gemas when, at 16:00 hours on 14 January 1942, "B" Company 2/30th Battalion under Captain Desmond Duffy, initiated the ambush. Duffy had deployed his troops atop the cuttings and below road level and maximised the effectiveness of his Bren machine guns by covering the approaches. As the Japanese passed through the engagement area in their hundreds—many of them on bicycles—the bridge was blown and the Australians opened fire with machine guns, rifles and grenades. However, faulty telephone lines back to the main battalion position prevented Duffy from being able to call in artillery fire on to the follow on Japanese forces and the forward company was subsequently forced to withdraw after a 20-minute engagement as the Japanese began to press their positions. The battle following the ambush lasted another two days and included a further action during which the Australian anti-tank gunners from the 2/4th Anti-Tank Regiment destroyed six out of eight Japanese tanks. The fighting ended with the Australians withdrawing through Gemas to the Fort Rose Estate. It was a brilliant ambush and the first AIF attack against the Japanese. The 2/30th suffered 20 killed or missing believed dead and 58 wounded. The Japanese casualties were thought to be about 1,000. The battalion had fulfilled its task of acting "as a shock-absorber" and inflicting as many casualties as possible before falling back. On 5 March 1942, Duffy was gazetted a Military Cross for leadership during the action. 15 January 1944: Capture of Sio by the 9th Australian Division 16 January 1963: Lieutenant Colonel Oliver David Jackson takes command of 3 RAR Brigadier Oliver David Jackson DSO, OBE joined the Australian Permanent Military Force as a regular officer in 1937 and saw action in the Second World War as a junior officer in North Africa, Syria and New Guniea. Unusually, after the war he commanded all three original battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment: 1 RAR from June 1956 to March 1957 (in Korea), 3 RAR from January 1963 to April 1963, and 2 RAR from August 1963 to December 1964. Jackson is best know for his service in Vietnam, including commanding the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam, establishing the Australian base at Nui Dat, and being appointed the first commander of the 1st Australian Task Force for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order. 18-22 January 1942: Lieutenant Colonel Charles Anderson, CO of the 2/19th Battalion, awarded the Victoria Cross Lieutenant Colonel Charles Anderson is the highest ranked Australian to have ever been awarded the Victoria Cross. Middle-aged, bespectacled, and a veteran of an earlier war, Anderson did not look like a Hollywood-style war hero. He had been born in South Africa and was awarded the Military Cross in the First World War before coming to Australia in 1934. Already an officer in the militia, he was appointed second-in-command of the 2/19th Battalion on its formation in 1940. The battalion was sent to Malaya and in August 1941 Anderson was appointed its commanding officer. During the Japanese advance in January 1942, the 2/19th was ordered to the Bakri area in a futile attempt to help stop the enemy. Following heavy casualties, Anderson took command of the brigade and led it in a fighting withdrawal towards Parit Sulong village. Cut-off, surrounded, and without air support, Anderson personally led attacks against road-blocks and enemy positions during the ensuing four-day action that became one of the most desperate in Australian military history. At Parit Sulong Anderson found his decimated force trapped with no hope of relief. Finally, he ordered that the vehicles and guns be destroyed and surviving troops form groups and try to make their own way southward. He was later distressed to learn that the Japanese had massacred the wounded who had been left behind. For his command and exploits he was awarded the Victoria Cross. Anderson was taken into captivity on 15 February 1942, when the British forces in Singapore surrendered. He endured the misery and squalor of being a prisoner of war, commanding “Anderson force” on the Burma–Thailand Railway. Despite a high rate of death and illness, “he maintained a high level of morale among his men … all of whom would have followed him to hell and back”. After the war he returned to farming. In 1949 he was elected to parliament as Country Party member for Hume, New South Wales, and served three terms.	<urn:uuid:5048e9a0-7cef-493e-9055-aa1204de83da>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cove.army.gov.au/article/week-history-week-3	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00294.warc.gz	en	0.981364	1,192	3.3125	3	[ -0.29116618633270264, 0.15852707624435425, -0.18150417506694794, 0.09508609771728516, 0.19927585124969482, 0.217329204082489, -0.11462534964084625, 0.05589912459254265, -0.5342283248901367, 0.28235822916030884, 0.3243502378463745, -0.7379032969474792, 0.2196248471736908, 0.8036774396896362...	2	This week in History \| Week 3By The Cove December 20, 2019 13 January to 19 January 14 January 1942: The Battle of Gemas The Battle of Gemas was an action fought by Australian soldiers of the 2/30 Battalion, part of the 27th Brigade of the 8th Australian Division. Its aim was to slow the Japanese advance towards Singapore following the Japanese landings in Malaya at Kota Bahru on 07 December 1941. The 2/30th Battalion's commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Frederick "Black Jack" Galleghan, was ordered to mount an ambush on the main road, 11 kilometres west of Gemas in the hope of preventing the Japanese from advancing any further south. The ambush site was located at a point where a wooden bridge crossed the Sungei Gemencheh river, connecting Gemas with the larger neighbouring town of Tampin, and bringing traffic on the road into a long cutting through thick bushland. The 2/30th Battalion subsequently deployed one company in the ambush position 5 kilometres forward of the main body of the battalion. Private John Korsch, C Coy, 2/30th Battalion, recorded how the companies of 2/30 Battalion drew lots for the staging of the ambush after the bridge was blown. The Japanese had passed through Tampin and needed to cross the bridge to reach Gemas when, at 16:00 hours on 14 January 1942, "B" Company 2/30th Battalion under Captain Desmond Duffy, initiated the ambush. Duffy had deployed his troops atop the cuttings and below road level and maximised the effectiveness of his Bren machine guns by covering the approaches. As the Japanese passed through the engagement area in their hundreds—many of them on bicycles—the bridge was blown and the Australians opened fire with machine guns, rifles and grenades. However, faulty telephone lines back to the main battalion position prevented Duffy from being able to call in artillery fire on to the follow on Japanese forces and the forward company was subsequently forced to withdraw after a 20-minute engagement as the Japanese began to press their positions. The battle following the ambush lasted another two days and included a further action during which the Australian anti-tank gunners from the 2/4th Anti-Tank Regiment destroyed six out of eight Japanese tanks. The fighting ended with the Australians withdrawing through Gemas to the Fort Rose Estate. It was a brilliant ambush and the first AIF attack against the Japanese. The 2/30th suffered 20 killed or missing believed dead and 58 wounded. The Japanese casualties were thought to be about 1,000. The battalion had fulfilled its task of acting "as a shock-absorber" and inflicting as many casualties as possible before falling back. On 5 March 1942, Duffy was gazetted a Military Cross for leadership during the action. 15 January 1944: Capture of Sio by the 9th Australian Division 16 January 1963: Lieutenant Colonel Oliver David Jackson takes command of 3 RAR Brigadier Oliver David Jackson DSO, OBE joined the Australian Permanent Military Force as a regular officer in 1937 and saw action in the Second World War as a junior officer in North Africa, Syria and New Guniea. Unusually, after the war he commanded all three original battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment: 1 RAR from June 1956 to March 1957 (in Korea), 3 RAR from January 1963 to April 1963, and 2 RAR from August 1963 to December 1964. Jackson is best know for his service in Vietnam, including commanding the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam, establishing the Australian base at Nui Dat, and being appointed the first commander of the 1st Australian Task Force for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order. 18-22 January 1942: Lieutenant Colonel Charles Anderson, CO of the 2/19th Battalion, awarded the Victoria Cross Lieutenant Colonel Charles Anderson is the highest ranked Australian to have ever been awarded the Victoria Cross. Middle-aged, bespectacled, and a veteran of an earlier war, Anderson did not look like a Hollywood-style war hero. He had been born in South Africa and was awarded the Military Cross in the First World War before coming to Australia in 1934. Already an officer in the militia, he was appointed second-in-command of the 2/19th Battalion on its formation in 1940. The battalion was sent to Malaya and in August 1941 Anderson was appointed its commanding officer. During the Japanese advance in January 1942, the 2/19th was ordered to the Bakri area in a futile attempt to help stop the enemy. Following heavy casualties, Anderson took command of the brigade and led it in a fighting withdrawal towards Parit Sulong village. Cut-off, surrounded, and without air support, Anderson personally led attacks against road-blocks and enemy positions during the ensuing four-day action that became one of the most desperate in Australian military history. At Parit Sulong Anderson found his decimated force trapped with no hope of relief. Finally, he ordered that the vehicles and guns be destroyed and surviving troops form groups and try to make their own way southward. He was later distressed to learn that the Japanese had massacred the wounded who had been left behind. For his command and exploits he was awarded the Victoria Cross. Anderson was taken into captivity on 15 February 1942, when the British forces in Singapore surrendered. He endured the misery and squalor of being a prisoner of war, commanding “Anderson force” on the Burma–Thailand Railway. Despite a high rate of death and illness, “he maintained a high level of morale among his men … all of whom would have followed him to hell and back”. After the war he returned to farming. In 1949 he was elected to parliament as Country Party member for Hume, New South Wales, and served three terms.	1,311	ENGLISH	1
Mulan Temple was once located on Mulan Mountain in Hubei, China. While the date of this temple’s construction is unknown, references to it have appeared in literature dating back to the Tang Dynasty, indicating that it could have been built as early as 700 AD. During the Yuan Dynasty (1332 AD), a memorial was inscribed into a large stone beside the temple. It reads: During the reign of Emperor Wen of Han, the Xiongnu invaded the land and (the emperor) ordered that all the men under heaven be gathered together to resist them. The goddess’ [Mulan’s] father was among those who were called upon to resist the invasion. Her father, who was extremely ill and had no son to take his place, lamented his fate. The goddess [Mulan], in her bedroom chamber, pitied her father. Washing the makeup from her face and stripping herself of her pearls, she donned a military uniform and hurried to join the army. She fought valiantly and returned victoriously after twelve years. For her meritorious service, she was offered a prominent position, which she declined, saying that she wished to return to her home to and serve her parents. Emperor Wen praised her noble aspirations. This memorial contains the first historical reference to Mulan by name. While earlier works of literature tell of Mulan’s story, they are typically regarded as works which have taken fictional or poetic license. Interestingly enough, this memorial seems to indicate that the Ballad of Mulan is a historical text, which counters the majority opinion among present-day scholars. (For information on why scholars doubt Mulan’s historicity, see the article on the Ballad of Mulan.) While the fact that this memorial references the Ballad of Mulan is not surprising, it is interesting that Du Mu’s Mulan Temple is also mentioned. Apparently, the Taoist sect which constructed Mulan Temple used Du Mu’s poem a sacred text to facilitate their worship of Mulan as a goddess.	<urn:uuid:55895721-e892-462c-a82b-0fba58587b3e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mulanbook.com/pages/yuan/memorial_filial_general	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00078.warc.gz	en	0.981854	428	3.765625	4	[ -0.13770774006843567, 0.32176220417022705, 0.40042024850845337, -0.002273597987368703, -0.4702068269252777, -0.08750032633543015, 0.02481898106634617, -0.1925816833972931, -0.057566069066524506, 0.059728581458330154, 0.3151666522026062, -0.7008775472640991, 0.24125616252422333, 0.488326072...	2	Mulan Temple was once located on Mulan Mountain in Hubei, China. While the date of this temple’s construction is unknown, references to it have appeared in literature dating back to the Tang Dynasty, indicating that it could have been built as early as 700 AD. During the Yuan Dynasty (1332 AD), a memorial was inscribed into a large stone beside the temple. It reads: During the reign of Emperor Wen of Han, the Xiongnu invaded the land and (the emperor) ordered that all the men under heaven be gathered together to resist them. The goddess’ [Mulan’s] father was among those who were called upon to resist the invasion. Her father, who was extremely ill and had no son to take his place, lamented his fate. The goddess [Mulan], in her bedroom chamber, pitied her father. Washing the makeup from her face and stripping herself of her pearls, she donned a military uniform and hurried to join the army. She fought valiantly and returned victoriously after twelve years. For her meritorious service, she was offered a prominent position, which she declined, saying that she wished to return to her home to and serve her parents. Emperor Wen praised her noble aspirations. This memorial contains the first historical reference to Mulan by name. While earlier works of literature tell of Mulan’s story, they are typically regarded as works which have taken fictional or poetic license. Interestingly enough, this memorial seems to indicate that the Ballad of Mulan is a historical text, which counters the majority opinion among present-day scholars. (For information on why scholars doubt Mulan’s historicity, see the article on the Ballad of Mulan.) While the fact that this memorial references the Ballad of Mulan is not surprising, it is interesting that Du Mu’s Mulan Temple is also mentioned. Apparently, the Taoist sect which constructed Mulan Temple used Du Mu’s poem a sacred text to facilitate their worship of Mulan as a goddess.	411	ENGLISH	1
Originally posted 2018-01-25 23:13:46. EVERY signer of our Declaration of Independence was facing a death penalty if caught — not just for himself, but for his entire family. England, at the time, was THE world power and would not have treasonous members in their Colonies. The lack of compassion of King George III before July 4, 1776 would only be stiffened and tested sorely for the next 8 years. Most of the signers were well to do at the time of the signing, most were near if not totally penniless by the time we won our Independence. 13 Colonies voted, 56 men signed… 5 signers were captured by the British as traitors, and tortured before they died. 12 had their homes ransacked and burned. 2 lost their sons serving in the Revolutionary Army; another had 2 sons captured. 9 of the 56 fought and died from wounds or hardships of the Revolutionary War. They signed and they pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor. What Kind of Men Were They? 24 were lawyers and jurists 11 were merchants 9 were farmers and large plantation owners They were men of means, well educated. But they signed the Declaration of Independence knowing full well that the penalty would be death if they were captured. Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw his ships swept from the seas by the British Navy. He sold his home and properties to pay his debts, and died in rags. Thomas McKeam was so hounded by the British that he was forced to move his family almost constantly. He served in the Congress without pay, and his family was kept in hiding. His possessions were taken from him, and poverty was his reward. Vandals or soldiers looted the properties of Dillery, Hall, Clymer, Walton, Gwinnett, Heyward, Ruttledge, and Middleton. At the battle of Yorktown, Thomas Nelson, Jr., noted that the British General Cornwallis had taken over the Nelson home for his headquarters. He quietly urged General George Washington to open fire. The home was destroyed, and Nelson died bankrupt. Francis Lewis had his home and properties destroyed. The enemy jailed his wife, and she died within a few months. John Hart was driven from his wife’s bedside as she was dying. Their 13 children fled for their lives. His fields and his gristmill were laid to waste. For more than a year he lived in forests and caves, returning home to find his wife dead and his children vanished. A few weeks later he died from exhaustion and a broken heart. Norris and Livingston suffered similar fates. Such were the stories and sacrifices of the American Revolution. These were not wild-eyed, rabble-rousing ruffians. They were soft-spoken men of means and education. They had security, but they valued liberty more. Standing tall, straight, and unwavering, they pledged: “For the support of this declaration, with firm reliance on the protection of the divine providence, we mutually pledge to each other, our fortunes, and our sacred honor.” Given the enormity that they knew was before them, the had to rely on something bigger that all of it – divine Providence. Did they also had mentors that guided them? They are due our utmost respect and honor. And truthfully, I have yet to watch this segment of the movie without breaking down. More Posts by This Writer - What Liberty, Even Decisive Liberty, Is Not - If Liberals Hate POTUS This Much, To What Level Of Hate Do They Have for Those On This List? - An Open Letter To Dennis Prager And Dave Rubin - Questions to Ask About Palestine — or About Any Country — Claiming History and Sovereignty - Weapons of Mass Deception Goes Beyond the News – Why You Should Totally Avoid MSM - What You Probably Did Not Know About the 56 Signers of Our Declaration of Independence - Veteran’s Day 2019 - DEVELOPING: Kathy Hall Gone Missing Enroute to SCOTUS to Assist In Lawsuit Against Arkansas CPS - Are Opinion Polls Underestimating Support For the Sweden Democrats? - Where are George Soros, Hillary Clinton, Podesta brothers? - Author Vanessa Neumann Shares a Passage of "Blood Profits" (How You Are Unwittingly Funding Terrorists)	<urn:uuid:8631799e-9c09-4b02-90ad-9ba8ac98a681>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://decisiveliberty.news/what-you-probably-did-not-know-about-the-56-signers-of-our-declaration-of-independence/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00353.warc.gz	en	0.984063	948	3.640625	4	[ -0.11949758231639862, 0.18883731961250305, 0.32844841480255127, -0.3782046437263489, 0.0034088254906237125, 0.006101896055042744, 0.33559179306030273, 0.05369219183921814, 0.1557454615831375, 0.09020528197288513, 0.2186988741159439, -0.09238691627979279, 0.16952736675739288, -0.21652045845...	1	Originally posted 2018-01-25 23:13:46. EVERY signer of our Declaration of Independence was facing a death penalty if caught — not just for himself, but for his entire family. England, at the time, was THE world power and would not have treasonous members in their Colonies. The lack of compassion of King George III before July 4, 1776 would only be stiffened and tested sorely for the next 8 years. Most of the signers were well to do at the time of the signing, most were near if not totally penniless by the time we won our Independence. 13 Colonies voted, 56 men signed… 5 signers were captured by the British as traitors, and tortured before they died. 12 had their homes ransacked and burned. 2 lost their sons serving in the Revolutionary Army; another had 2 sons captured. 9 of the 56 fought and died from wounds or hardships of the Revolutionary War. They signed and they pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor. What Kind of Men Were They? 24 were lawyers and jurists 11 were merchants 9 were farmers and large plantation owners They were men of means, well educated. But they signed the Declaration of Independence knowing full well that the penalty would be death if they were captured. Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw his ships swept from the seas by the British Navy. He sold his home and properties to pay his debts, and died in rags. Thomas McKeam was so hounded by the British that he was forced to move his family almost constantly. He served in the Congress without pay, and his family was kept in hiding. His possessions were taken from him, and poverty was his reward. Vandals or soldiers looted the properties of Dillery, Hall, Clymer, Walton, Gwinnett, Heyward, Ruttledge, and Middleton. At the battle of Yorktown, Thomas Nelson, Jr., noted that the British General Cornwallis had taken over the Nelson home for his headquarters. He quietly urged General George Washington to open fire. The home was destroyed, and Nelson died bankrupt. Francis Lewis had his home and properties destroyed. The enemy jailed his wife, and she died within a few months. John Hart was driven from his wife’s bedside as she was dying. Their 13 children fled for their lives. His fields and his gristmill were laid to waste. For more than a year he lived in forests and caves, returning home to find his wife dead and his children vanished. A few weeks later he died from exhaustion and a broken heart. Norris and Livingston suffered similar fates. Such were the stories and sacrifices of the American Revolution. These were not wild-eyed, rabble-rousing ruffians. They were soft-spoken men of means and education. They had security, but they valued liberty more. Standing tall, straight, and unwavering, they pledged: “For the support of this declaration, with firm reliance on the protection of the divine providence, we mutually pledge to each other, our fortunes, and our sacred honor.” Given the enormity that they knew was before them, the had to rely on something bigger that all of it – divine Providence. Did they also had mentors that guided them? They are due our utmost respect and honor. And truthfully, I have yet to watch this segment of the movie without breaking down. More Posts by This Writer - What Liberty, Even Decisive Liberty, Is Not - If Liberals Hate POTUS This Much, To What Level Of Hate Do They Have for Those On This List? - An Open Letter To Dennis Prager And Dave Rubin - Questions to Ask About Palestine — or About Any Country — Claiming History and Sovereignty - Weapons of Mass Deception Goes Beyond the News – Why You Should Totally Avoid MSM - What You Probably Did Not Know About the 56 Signers of Our Declaration of Independence - Veteran’s Day 2019 - DEVELOPING: Kathy Hall Gone Missing Enroute to SCOTUS to Assist In Lawsuit Against Arkansas CPS - Are Opinion Polls Underestimating Support For the Sweden Democrats? - Where are George Soros, Hillary Clinton, Podesta brothers? - Author Vanessa Neumann Shares a Passage of "Blood Profits" (How You Are Unwittingly Funding Terrorists)	925	ENGLISH	1
Columbus day is celebrated in U.S in Puerto Rico, in some parts of Canada and in the cities of Spain and Italy for discovering America in October 12,1492. The day was first celebrated in year 1792. It was also known as “Discovery day”. Parades and banquets were organized for this day. After four hundred years of the famous voyage of Columbus to America. This day became a legal holiday in year 1892. It is said that Columbus was not the first person to explore America but his voyage opened the way for the Europeans to America. In Latin America this day is also celebrated as “the day of race” .Many events are organized in celebration like parade, fiestas, honoring school children and other people of Latin America. Many people are against the celebration of Columbus day because they say that America was first discovered by Washington Irving and achievements of Columbus were not enough to honour him by celebrating this day. History says that Columbus was not the first explorer to land on America but we can say that he was the first European who bought European culture to America. Nowadays, some people has rejected this holiday and friendship day is celebrated in Virgin Islands of U.S and Puerto Rico Virgin on Columbus day. Italians living in America take it as a great matter of pride that an Italian sailor sailed to America . Banks, government offices are closed on Columbus day. It is observed as another day off by the public than the celebration of Columbus day . His voyage to America was important instead of his discovery of America.	<urn:uuid:687248b3-fcae-44ac-b4b4-22703364f2c7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.letusfindout.com/why-do-we-celebrate-columbus-day/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00535.warc.gz	en	0.985936	323	3.8125	4	[ -0.18958623707294464, 0.0842389240860939, 0.3717440366744995, 0.08936497569084167, -0.4987848997116089, -0.18552176654338837, 0.14115355908870697, 0.1607758104801178, -0.15700189769268036, 0.06715966016054153, 0.39698946475982666, 0.29285380244255066, -0.4155544638633728, 0.371905773878097...	6	Columbus day is celebrated in U.S in Puerto Rico, in some parts of Canada and in the cities of Spain and Italy for discovering America in October 12,1492. The day was first celebrated in year 1792. It was also known as “Discovery day”. Parades and banquets were organized for this day. After four hundred years of the famous voyage of Columbus to America. This day became a legal holiday in year 1892. It is said that Columbus was not the first person to explore America but his voyage opened the way for the Europeans to America. In Latin America this day is also celebrated as “the day of race” .Many events are organized in celebration like parade, fiestas, honoring school children and other people of Latin America. Many people are against the celebration of Columbus day because they say that America was first discovered by Washington Irving and achievements of Columbus were not enough to honour him by celebrating this day. History says that Columbus was not the first explorer to land on America but we can say that he was the first European who bought European culture to America. Nowadays, some people has rejected this holiday and friendship day is celebrated in Virgin Islands of U.S and Puerto Rico Virgin on Columbus day. Italians living in America take it as a great matter of pride that an Italian sailor sailed to America . Banks, government offices are closed on Columbus day. It is observed as another day off by the public than the celebration of Columbus day . His voyage to America was important instead of his discovery of America.	319	ENGLISH	1
A secret wartime deal drawn up a century ago by two men — one British, one French — continues to reverberate through modern conflicts. Named after the men who came up with it, the Sykes-Picot agreement divided up the Middle East between France and Britain. Sir Mark Sykes was appointed by the British government and François Georges-Picot by the French. According to Robin Wright, who has written about this for The New Yorker, Sykes famously explained in 1915 that “I should like to draw a line from the ‘E’ in Acre [in what is now Israel] to the last ‘K’ in Kirkuk [in iraq].” So the lines were drawn without much consideration for local identities and political preferences. At the time, the world was in the middle of World War I, and it was clear that the Ottoman Empire was about to collapse. "Both the British and the French wanted to make sure that they created spheres of influence in which they could play a role in the modern Middle East and creating its future," explains Wright. Wright points out, however, that Sykes' and Picot's map is not the Middle East we see today. Rather, it was the beginning of a process in defining what the region looked like that played out over years. Eventually, the countries within the region became independent, leading to a tremendous period of instability. "Between 1949 and 1970 there were 20 coups in Syria," Wright says. "Iraq was in many ways almost as unstable with a series of coups that ultimately brought Saddam Hussein to power." Sykes and Picot are often blamed for the many tragic events that followed their agreement, but Wright believes that is unfair. She says the problems the region grapples with didn't just come from the arbitrary creation of borders; these countries have also suffered from government repression. "These were not countries in which civil society was allowed to bloom, [in which] diverse political parties were nurtured," she says. In other words: The region had problems long before the Sykes-Picot agreement, and will continue to wrestle with problems for years ahead. Seeking to understand what Middle Easterners would have liked the region to look like, in 2013 Wright spent a year speaking with people there. She asked them what their map of the Middle East would look like today. "It was fascinating how people in the region, in looking at their future, deciding for themselves, carved out 14 different nations from the five that exist today," she says. Identity politics, she says, are even more vibrant today than a century ago.	<urn:uuid:582867c4-5a9f-4302-8f8f-8c4c703707a1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-05-16/secret-wartime-deal-drawn-century-ago-still-shapes-middle-east-today	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00374.warc.gz	en	0.98888	545	3.453125	3	[ -0.2182120680809021, 0.3980261981487274, 0.16332405805587769, -0.035824984312057495, -0.11876217275857925, 0.19963131844997406, 0.11122310161590576, 0.22077903151512146, -0.0787733718752861, 0.25120043754577637, 0.03672954440116882, -0.26336541771888733, -0.025564227253198624, 0.4956281483...	5	A secret wartime deal drawn up a century ago by two men — one British, one French — continues to reverberate through modern conflicts. Named after the men who came up with it, the Sykes-Picot agreement divided up the Middle East between France and Britain. Sir Mark Sykes was appointed by the British government and François Georges-Picot by the French. According to Robin Wright, who has written about this for The New Yorker, Sykes famously explained in 1915 that “I should like to draw a line from the ‘E’ in Acre [in what is now Israel] to the last ‘K’ in Kirkuk [in iraq].” So the lines were drawn without much consideration for local identities and political preferences. At the time, the world was in the middle of World War I, and it was clear that the Ottoman Empire was about to collapse. "Both the British and the French wanted to make sure that they created spheres of influence in which they could play a role in the modern Middle East and creating its future," explains Wright. Wright points out, however, that Sykes' and Picot's map is not the Middle East we see today. Rather, it was the beginning of a process in defining what the region looked like that played out over years. Eventually, the countries within the region became independent, leading to a tremendous period of instability. "Between 1949 and 1970 there were 20 coups in Syria," Wright says. "Iraq was in many ways almost as unstable with a series of coups that ultimately brought Saddam Hussein to power." Sykes and Picot are often blamed for the many tragic events that followed their agreement, but Wright believes that is unfair. She says the problems the region grapples with didn't just come from the arbitrary creation of borders; these countries have also suffered from government repression. "These were not countries in which civil society was allowed to bloom, [in which] diverse political parties were nurtured," she says. In other words: The region had problems long before the Sykes-Picot agreement, and will continue to wrestle with problems for years ahead. Seeking to understand what Middle Easterners would have liked the region to look like, in 2013 Wright spent a year speaking with people there. She asked them what their map of the Middle East would look like today. "It was fascinating how people in the region, in looking at their future, deciding for themselves, carved out 14 different nations from the five that exist today," she says. Identity politics, she says, are even more vibrant today than a century ago.	541	ENGLISH	1
Every year, a person or an organization is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Nobel Peace Prize is among the five Novel Prizes that were established by Alfred Nobel. The peace prize has been awarded annually since 1901 with a few exceptions. The Nobel Peace Prize has been traditionally awarded every December 10 in Oslo City Hall since 1990. The reward for the prize is 9 million SEK (2017). As of 2016, a total of 104 men and women have won the prize while 23 organizations have been awarded. But who was the first American Nobel Peace laureate? Theodore Roosevelt was the first American Nobel Peace laureate when he won the prize on December 10, 1906. He received the award for the role he played in the Treaty of Portsmouth that brought the Russo-Japanese War to an end. In the process, he became the eighth person to win the prestigious prize. The prize was collected by Herbert Peirce, who was the US ambassador to Norway, on behalf of Roosevelt who was unable to travel to Norway. Theodore Roosevelt delivered his belated Nobel lecture in Oslo in 1910. He donated the money rewarded to the Congress to fund a permanent Peace Industrial Committee that was to address the “fair dealings between different classes in the society.” However, the committee was never formed and Roosevelt requested the Congress to refund his money which he used to fund the war relief efforts and charities. Some sources have indicated that Theodore Roosevelt privately told one of his sons that he wished he could have secured the future of his children with the money. Edith, Roosevelt’s wife, believed that such a public figure could not keep the reward for himself or family but had to use it for the good of the people. How Did Theodore Roosevelt Help End The Russo-Japanese War? The Russo-Japanese War was fought from 1904 to 1905 between the Empires of Russia and Japan. The battle was mainly fought on the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden. At the beginning of the war, Theodore Roosevelt, who was then the US president, publicly expressed a pro-Japanese stance. However, as the war progressed, Roosevelt got concerned with the military strengthening of the Japanese and the impact of such a military strengthening to the interest of the US in Asia. In early 1905, Theodore sent messages to the Russian government, calling for a cease-fire and peace talks. Russia was however determined to defeat the Japanese while the Japanese were also not ready for any treaty since they were enjoying several victories over the Russians. However, the Battle of Mukden which proved costly to both sides pushed the Japanese to seek for settlement. The Japanese sent a word to Roosevelt that they were now ready to negotiate with the Russians. It was not until June 1905 that the Russians agreed to negotiations. Portsmouth was chosen by Roosevelt as the site for the negotiations. Roosevelt guided both teams through 12 sessions, leading to the Treaty of Portsmouth which was signed on September 5, 1905. Who Was the First American to Win the Nobel Peace Prize? Theodore Roosevelt was the first American Nobel Peace laureate when he won the prize on December 10, 1906. He received the award for the role he played in the Treaty of Portsmouth that brought the Russo-Japanese War to an end. I About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:795b77c5-1783-453d-98f5-82a598987664>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/who-was-the-first-american-to-win-the-nobel-peace-prize.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00527.warc.gz	en	0.982917	720	3.78125	4	[ -0.08916623890399933, 0.6451406478881836, 0.20461086928844452, -0.19434598088264465, -0.3470749258995056, 0.07509294152259827, 0.36375582218170166, 0.036307986825704575, -0.011773359030485153, 0.3570837080478668, 0.33749449253082275, 0.04909617826342583, 0.4176616072654724, 0.4599723517894...	2	Every year, a person or an organization is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Nobel Peace Prize is among the five Novel Prizes that were established by Alfred Nobel. The peace prize has been awarded annually since 1901 with a few exceptions. The Nobel Peace Prize has been traditionally awarded every December 10 in Oslo City Hall since 1990. The reward for the prize is 9 million SEK (2017). As of 2016, a total of 104 men and women have won the prize while 23 organizations have been awarded. But who was the first American Nobel Peace laureate? Theodore Roosevelt was the first American Nobel Peace laureate when he won the prize on December 10, 1906. He received the award for the role he played in the Treaty of Portsmouth that brought the Russo-Japanese War to an end. In the process, he became the eighth person to win the prestigious prize. The prize was collected by Herbert Peirce, who was the US ambassador to Norway, on behalf of Roosevelt who was unable to travel to Norway. Theodore Roosevelt delivered his belated Nobel lecture in Oslo in 1910. He donated the money rewarded to the Congress to fund a permanent Peace Industrial Committee that was to address the “fair dealings between different classes in the society.” However, the committee was never formed and Roosevelt requested the Congress to refund his money which he used to fund the war relief efforts and charities. Some sources have indicated that Theodore Roosevelt privately told one of his sons that he wished he could have secured the future of his children with the money. Edith, Roosevelt’s wife, believed that such a public figure could not keep the reward for himself or family but had to use it for the good of the people. How Did Theodore Roosevelt Help End The Russo-Japanese War? The Russo-Japanese War was fought from 1904 to 1905 between the Empires of Russia and Japan. The battle was mainly fought on the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden. At the beginning of the war, Theodore Roosevelt, who was then the US president, publicly expressed a pro-Japanese stance. However, as the war progressed, Roosevelt got concerned with the military strengthening of the Japanese and the impact of such a military strengthening to the interest of the US in Asia. In early 1905, Theodore sent messages to the Russian government, calling for a cease-fire and peace talks. Russia was however determined to defeat the Japanese while the Japanese were also not ready for any treaty since they were enjoying several victories over the Russians. However, the Battle of Mukden which proved costly to both sides pushed the Japanese to seek for settlement. The Japanese sent a word to Roosevelt that they were now ready to negotiate with the Russians. It was not until June 1905 that the Russians agreed to negotiations. Portsmouth was chosen by Roosevelt as the site for the negotiations. Roosevelt guided both teams through 12 sessions, leading to the Treaty of Portsmouth which was signed on September 5, 1905. Who Was the First American to Win the Nobel Peace Prize? Theodore Roosevelt was the first American Nobel Peace laureate when he won the prize on December 10, 1906. He received the award for the role he played in the Treaty of Portsmouth that brought the Russo-Japanese War to an end. I About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	771	ENGLISH	1
Welsh Independence Dies with Llywelyn Llywelyn is regarded by some as the last native Prince of Wales, though his brother Dafydd succeeded him briefly before meeting a horrible end in Shrewsbury in 1283. Llywelyn ambitiously proclaimed himself Prince of Wales in 1258; allied his cause to that of Simon de Montfort , with whom he agreed the Treaty of Pipton in 1265 not long before the latter died at Evesham ; and was recognized in his self-proclaimed status by Henry III in the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267. When Edward I returned from his crusade two years after his father’s death the situation changed; Edward and Llywelyn clashed for years until they reached a settlement at the Treaty of Aberconwy. That agreement effectively signalled the end to Welsh statehood in the coming years: Llywelyn was accorded limited territories in Northwest Wales, and his brother Dafydd a small fiefdom. But other lands were ceded to the English crown and its vassals, and significantly the Prince of Wales acknowledged Edward as his sovereign. Edward bled Wales. Eventually this led to a rebellion in 1282. How Llywelyn came to die near Builth Wells is not clear, but it is thought he was tricked and isolated either by being drawn to meet English leaders away from his force; or attacked at the head of his army when expecting to parlay. Either way, he was slain and his head displayed first in Anglesey , and then at the Tower of London where it remained on view for 15 years. Dafydd, his brother, survived less than a year, a fugitive in a Wales already effectively under English control. More famous dates here 6052 views since 22nd November 2010 On this day:	<urn:uuid:6cef650d-0532-446c-9c64-306519c143e6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://information-britain.co.uk/famdates.php?id=1203	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00112.warc.gz	en	0.98712	382	3.359375	3	[ -0.6328694820404053, 0.11399466544389725, 0.42972132563591003, 0.08695364743471146, -0.004493029788136482, -0.37703970074653625, 0.3753456771373749, 0.0036330821458250284, -0.283288836479187, -0.43899884819984436, 0.1975531131029129, -0.11779113858938217, 0.42635852098464966, 0.39540818333...	1	Welsh Independence Dies with Llywelyn Llywelyn is regarded by some as the last native Prince of Wales, though his brother Dafydd succeeded him briefly before meeting a horrible end in Shrewsbury in 1283. Llywelyn ambitiously proclaimed himself Prince of Wales in 1258; allied his cause to that of Simon de Montfort , with whom he agreed the Treaty of Pipton in 1265 not long before the latter died at Evesham ; and was recognized in his self-proclaimed status by Henry III in the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267. When Edward I returned from his crusade two years after his father’s death the situation changed; Edward and Llywelyn clashed for years until they reached a settlement at the Treaty of Aberconwy. That agreement effectively signalled the end to Welsh statehood in the coming years: Llywelyn was accorded limited territories in Northwest Wales, and his brother Dafydd a small fiefdom. But other lands were ceded to the English crown and its vassals, and significantly the Prince of Wales acknowledged Edward as his sovereign. Edward bled Wales. Eventually this led to a rebellion in 1282. How Llywelyn came to die near Builth Wells is not clear, but it is thought he was tricked and isolated either by being drawn to meet English leaders away from his force; or attacked at the head of his army when expecting to parlay. Either way, he was slain and his head displayed first in Anglesey , and then at the Tower of London where it remained on view for 15 years. Dafydd, his brother, survived less than a year, a fugitive in a Wales already effectively under English control. More famous dates here 6052 views since 22nd November 2010 On this day:	401	ENGLISH	1
On arrival Explorers created paper bags that would then be used to carry home other craft items and a bag of sunflower seeds . Imaginations ran riot and there were some fantastic designs – one bag even had a working drawbridge. The group learned why seeds are important in the life cycle of a plant and as a food source for other organisms. A ‘True of False’ quiz introduced some fascinating facts about seeds from across the world and even outer space! (Did you know there were seeds on the international Space Station?) Everyone then decorated a couple of small plant pots – this time faces (with whacky hairstyles and beards) and abstract patterns were big favourites . When they were complete they were planted with either a native tree seed or some meadow wildflowers in peat-free wildlife-friendly compost. Hopefully these seeds will germinate and become homes and food sources for lots more wildlife in the future. Thanks to everyone who came along to our meeting – good luck growing your wildflowers and trees!	<urn:uuid:60737f8e-74d9-4af6-8955-b0c928f82bad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wildlifeexplorersmacc.co.uk/2019/10/21/monday-21st-october-2019-secrets-of-seeds/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00517.warc.gz	en	0.980717	210	3.390625	3	[ -0.06374289840459824, -0.08165501058101654, 0.04764777049422264, -0.22677381336688995, 0.48266157507896423, 0.0730719044804573, 0.14914573729038239, 0.14231611788272858, -0.2855322062969208, 0.17260584235191345, 0.20455758273601532, -0.2264709174633026, 0.12242788821458817, 0.2732801437377...	6	On arrival Explorers created paper bags that would then be used to carry home other craft items and a bag of sunflower seeds . Imaginations ran riot and there were some fantastic designs – one bag even had a working drawbridge. The group learned why seeds are important in the life cycle of a plant and as a food source for other organisms. A ‘True of False’ quiz introduced some fascinating facts about seeds from across the world and even outer space! (Did you know there were seeds on the international Space Station?) Everyone then decorated a couple of small plant pots – this time faces (with whacky hairstyles and beards) and abstract patterns were big favourites . When they were complete they were planted with either a native tree seed or some meadow wildflowers in peat-free wildlife-friendly compost. Hopefully these seeds will germinate and become homes and food sources for lots more wildlife in the future. Thanks to everyone who came along to our meeting – good luck growing your wildflowers and trees!	200	ENGLISH	1
The Glass-Steagall Act was a 1933 U.S. law signed by President Franklin Roosevelt shortly after he took office that effectively separated commercial banking from investment banking. The act is named for its sponsors, Sen. Carter Glass, D-Virginia, a former Treasury secretary, and Rep. Henry Steagall, D-Alabama, the chairman of what was then called the House Banking and Currency Committee. Glass-Steagall was largely repealed in 1999 by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, which was known formally as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999. This once again allowed banks to own securities firms and vice versa. Although the name Glass-Steagall is now better known, the measure was part of the broader Banking Act of 1933 that was enacted in the wake of the stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression that followed. The Banking Act also created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. This resulted in bank deposits being insured by the federal government in order to restore public confidence in American banks, thousands of which failed during the Depression or were subject to runs by people concerned about the safety of their money. The act also established the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which is the Federal Reserve's monetary policy-making board. It included Regulation Q as well, which banned banks from paying interest on checking accounts and limited how much they could pay on other deposit products. Why Was The Glass-Steagall Act Created? The main motivation behind the passage of Glass-Steagall was concern that banks were using depositors' money to lend to stock speculators who were blamed for the market crash, especially where the banks owned a stake in those same securities. Essentially, the act prohibited commercial banks, which take deposits and make loans, from underwriting or dealing in securities. Likewise, investment banks, which underwrite and trade in securities, were prohibited from commercial banking activities. The two different kinds of companies were also banned from having common ownership or overlapping directorships in each other. Following enactment of the law in June 1933, banks were given a year to decide between commercial or investment banking. Commercial banks were restricted from earning more than 10% of their income from securities, although they were allowed to underwrite government bonds. Why Was The Glass-Steagall Act Repealed? As time passed and memories of the Great Depression faded, both U.S. banks and securities firms began to complain that Glass-Steagall prevented them from competing with banks in Europe and Japan, which had no similar restrictions, and limited their profit-making potential. During the 1980s and '90s, financial institutions began to gradually chip away at the law, taking advantage of various loopholes to broaden their businesses. In 1998, the final nail in the coffin of Glass-Steagall was driven in by the merger of Citibank, a commercial bank, with Travelers Insurance, which owned investment companies Salomon Brothers and Smith Barney. The combined entity became Citigroup, which at the time was the largest financial services company in the world, offering commercial and investment banking services as well as insurance. In 1999, President Clinton signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act, better known as the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act. It effectively repealed Glass-Steagall's prohibitions on commercial and investment banking under one roof. In 2005, there was speculation that J.P. Morgan, a commercial bank, and Morgan Stanley, an investment banking firm, may reunite. The two were once part of the same company but were forced to split after Glass-Steagall became law. However, that deal never came to pass, as Morgan Stanley is still an independent company and J.P. Morgan merged with Chase Manhattan to become JPMorgan Chase. Criticism Of Glass-Steagall Repeal The repeal of Glass-Steagall has been blamed in some circles for fomenting the 2008 financial crisis and resulting Great Recession. Many people believe that the crisis may not have happened at all, or wouldn't have been so bad, had the Glass-Steagall restrictions on mixing commercial and investment banking remained in place. However, during the financial crisis, several investment banks firms were merged into commercial banks at the insistence of the U.S. government. For example, JPMorgan Chase took over the failing Bear Stearns, Bank of America bought Merrill Lynch, and Barclays acquired several parts of Lehman Brothers after it went bankrupt. After the crisis, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Act was passed in 2010 that put some restrictions on banks' investment banking activities. A part of the Act, known as the Volcker Rule, prohibits American commercial banks and foreign banks that do business in the U.S. from trading for their own account. More specifically, it prevents them from owning or investing in hedge funds or private equity funds. Banks are permitted to trade when it's necessary to run their business, such as to offset foreign currency or interest rate risk. They are also allowed to make trades for their customers and to trade in bonds issued by the U.S. Treasury and other government agencies. The Glass-Steagall Act was a 1933 U.S. law signed by President Franklin Roosevelt during the Great Depression that separated commercial banking from investment banking. The main motivation of the act was to stop risky business activity by banks, specifically enabling people to speculate on stocks, which was one of the main causes of the 1929 stock market crash and the ensuing Great Depression. The act was largely repealed in 1999 by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, which once again allowed banks to own securities firms and vice versa.	<urn:uuid:aedbec61-01ef-4b95-88ec-19d8f3046b2b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.fxcm.com/markets/insights/the-glass-steagall-act/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00051.warc.gz	en	0.981934	1,141	3.453125	3	[ -0.24276915192604065, -0.18889591097831726, -0.04185458645224571, -0.22559669613838196, 0.17286378145217896, 0.029582131654024124, 0.32568350434303284, 0.14502905309200287, 0.12003018707036972, -0.12958118319511414, 0.1466519832611084, 0.08237319439649582, -0.2579091787338257, 0.0922234877...	9	The Glass-Steagall Act was a 1933 U.S. law signed by President Franklin Roosevelt shortly after he took office that effectively separated commercial banking from investment banking. The act is named for its sponsors, Sen. Carter Glass, D-Virginia, a former Treasury secretary, and Rep. Henry Steagall, D-Alabama, the chairman of what was then called the House Banking and Currency Committee. Glass-Steagall was largely repealed in 1999 by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, which was known formally as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999. This once again allowed banks to own securities firms and vice versa. Although the name Glass-Steagall is now better known, the measure was part of the broader Banking Act of 1933 that was enacted in the wake of the stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression that followed. The Banking Act also created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. This resulted in bank deposits being insured by the federal government in order to restore public confidence in American banks, thousands of which failed during the Depression or were subject to runs by people concerned about the safety of their money. The act also established the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which is the Federal Reserve's monetary policy-making board. It included Regulation Q as well, which banned banks from paying interest on checking accounts and limited how much they could pay on other deposit products. Why Was The Glass-Steagall Act Created? The main motivation behind the passage of Glass-Steagall was concern that banks were using depositors' money to lend to stock speculators who were blamed for the market crash, especially where the banks owned a stake in those same securities. Essentially, the act prohibited commercial banks, which take deposits and make loans, from underwriting or dealing in securities. Likewise, investment banks, which underwrite and trade in securities, were prohibited from commercial banking activities. The two different kinds of companies were also banned from having common ownership or overlapping directorships in each other. Following enactment of the law in June 1933, banks were given a year to decide between commercial or investment banking. Commercial banks were restricted from earning more than 10% of their income from securities, although they were allowed to underwrite government bonds. Why Was The Glass-Steagall Act Repealed? As time passed and memories of the Great Depression faded, both U.S. banks and securities firms began to complain that Glass-Steagall prevented them from competing with banks in Europe and Japan, which had no similar restrictions, and limited their profit-making potential. During the 1980s and '90s, financial institutions began to gradually chip away at the law, taking advantage of various loopholes to broaden their businesses. In 1998, the final nail in the coffin of Glass-Steagall was driven in by the merger of Citibank, a commercial bank, with Travelers Insurance, which owned investment companies Salomon Brothers and Smith Barney. The combined entity became Citigroup, which at the time was the largest financial services company in the world, offering commercial and investment banking services as well as insurance. In 1999, President Clinton signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act, better known as the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act. It effectively repealed Glass-Steagall's prohibitions on commercial and investment banking under one roof. In 2005, there was speculation that J.P. Morgan, a commercial bank, and Morgan Stanley, an investment banking firm, may reunite. The two were once part of the same company but were forced to split after Glass-Steagall became law. However, that deal never came to pass, as Morgan Stanley is still an independent company and J.P. Morgan merged with Chase Manhattan to become JPMorgan Chase. Criticism Of Glass-Steagall Repeal The repeal of Glass-Steagall has been blamed in some circles for fomenting the 2008 financial crisis and resulting Great Recession. Many people believe that the crisis may not have happened at all, or wouldn't have been so bad, had the Glass-Steagall restrictions on mixing commercial and investment banking remained in place. However, during the financial crisis, several investment banks firms were merged into commercial banks at the insistence of the U.S. government. For example, JPMorgan Chase took over the failing Bear Stearns, Bank of America bought Merrill Lynch, and Barclays acquired several parts of Lehman Brothers after it went bankrupt. After the crisis, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Act was passed in 2010 that put some restrictions on banks' investment banking activities. A part of the Act, known as the Volcker Rule, prohibits American commercial banks and foreign banks that do business in the U.S. from trading for their own account. More specifically, it prevents them from owning or investing in hedge funds or private equity funds. Banks are permitted to trade when it's necessary to run their business, such as to offset foreign currency or interest rate risk. They are also allowed to make trades for their customers and to trade in bonds issued by the U.S. Treasury and other government agencies. The Glass-Steagall Act was a 1933 U.S. law signed by President Franklin Roosevelt during the Great Depression that separated commercial banking from investment banking. The main motivation of the act was to stop risky business activity by banks, specifically enabling people to speculate on stocks, which was one of the main causes of the 1929 stock market crash and the ensuing Great Depression. The act was largely repealed in 1999 by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, which once again allowed banks to own securities firms and vice versa.	1,201	ENGLISH	1
We all love and treasure our horses and ponies; they are such an important part of our lives. It is hard to fathom, now when walking around a stable yard or visiting a show that horses and ponies had a very different role in our world. Not so many years ago much of the work done by machinery was carried out by horses. Britain hasn’t had any mining industry since the mid 1980’s but until then, at its peak, it was a thriving industry which employed over a million people. Mining was a tough way of life for those employed in the industry and especially for the ponies that were used to haul the coal to the surface. Ponies began to be used underground, often replacing child or female labour, as distances from the pit head to the coal face became greater. The first known recorded use in Britain was in the Durham coalfield in 1750. At the peak of this practice in 1913, there were some 70,000 ponies underground. The ponies tended to be used for the shorter runs from the coal face to the main road which were more difficult to mechanise. Probably the last colliery horse to work underground in a British coal mine, “Robbie”, was retired from Pant y Gasseg, near Pontypool, in May 1999. Tough little characters Larger horses, such as varieties of Cleveland Bay, could be used on higher underground roadways, but on many duties small ponies no more than 12 hands high were needed. Only geldings were used. Shetlands were a breed commonly used because of their small size and hardy nature. In the interwar period, ponies were imported into Britain from the Faroe Islands, Iceland and the United States. Donkeys were also used in the late 19th century. The type of pony used were low set, heavy bodied and heavy limbed with plenty of bone and substance, low-headed and sure-footed. Under the British Coal Mines Act of 1911, ponies had to be four years old and work ready (shod and vet checked) before going underground. They could work until their twenties, provided they were in good health. The selection of the pit pony was a matter of extreme importance. Various characteristics of the pony were considered before it was chosen for work in the mines. Because of low roofs, steep grades and the tough work, the pony needed to be low set, heavily bodied and heavily limbed with plenty of bone and substance. It also needed low head carriage and to be sure-footed. The weight of the animal was important because heavy loads had to be moved up and down steep grades that, in turn, necessitated sure-footedness because of road conditions. Another consideration was the temperament of the pony. A nervous or shy pony would be very expensive to break in and probably not be suitable for hard conditions. A good pit horse was one that was even tempered and kind. A vicious horse was a menace to the drivers, liable to cause bodily injury and/or fatal accidents. In shaft mines, ponies were normally stabled underground and fed on a diet with a high proportion of chopped hay and maize, coming to the surface only during the colliery’s annual holiday. In slope and drift mines, the stables were usually on the surface near the mine entrance. Typically, ponies would work an eight-hour shift each day, during which they might haul 30 tons of coal in tubs on the underground narrow gauge railway. While their lives must have seemed tough especially to our modern pampered darlings the pit ponies were well cared for. They represented a capital asset to the mine, the best work could be obtained from animals that were in good condition. It was desirable that the horse have only one driver who would take more pride in the animal and so that they might both understand one another. Their daily working shift was normally the same as a man’s and drivers did not like their ponies to be double-shifted. When the animal got older, their work period was usually reduced to four hours. The roadways were to be kept in the best possible condition to prevent accidents. The roof was also to be carefully brushed to rid it of protruding rocks that might cause a head injury to the pony. The ponies were taken below ground in a cage or were walked into the slope mines on the footpath. Ponies generally stayed below ground for approximately five years, unless killed or maimed, and then they were either moved or replaced. The daily routine Ponies pulled material in coal boxes from the shaft or slope bottom to the working places and pulled the filled boxes to the point near the surface in a similar manner to railway yard shunting engines. The efficiency of pit ponies depended upon the manner in which they were treated and the amount of food they received. A stableman was hired to take charge of the underground stable and also to take care of and feed the horses. Usually, an hour before work, they were fed hay, watered and grained. A constant supply of pure water was considered one of the best investments possible in animal care. At each landing, a generous supply of clean water was placed where it would always be available for the horse. This would prevent gorging and eliminate many ailments that often proved fatal. The stableman usually shod the horses with shoes made on the surface. Sometimes, a farrier went into the mine when a higher degree of shoeing skill was required. He would take the measurements underground and make the shoes on the surface. Stable conditions were very important and much was done to tend to the comfort of these animals and lengthen their term of usefulness. In the stable, the height of the roof was to be seven feet when a five-foot horse was in use. It should be able to raise its head and relax its muscles because it had to work all day carrying its head low. Ventilation was to be arranged so that the direct current would not strike the horses. As little wood as possible was used in the construction of the stables to lessen the chance of fire. All stables were well drained and white washed to ensure they were as clean and airy as possible. During the annual mine holidays and when they retied the ponies were sent to farms where they could spend their time at grass. Like all work mates the ponies were loved and appreciated by those who cared for them. Their handlers would ensure they got the best treatment, food and rest. Image credits: Wikipedia Commons0 Comments	<urn:uuid:a8c712af-104c-4b54-bc9f-bf5d917d73bd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.hay-net.co.uk/going-underground/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00511.warc.gz	en	0.988776	1,339	3.5625	4	[ -0.060779087245464325, -0.2191597819328308, 0.49914395809173584, 0.2034573256969452, -0.03445892035961151, 0.2951561212539673, -0.02787576988339424, -0.06406156718730927, 0.1739608347415924, 0.29948121309280396, -0.14108461141586304, -0.539431095123291, 0.2652522623538971, -0.0191124156117...	4	We all love and treasure our horses and ponies; they are such an important part of our lives. It is hard to fathom, now when walking around a stable yard or visiting a show that horses and ponies had a very different role in our world. Not so many years ago much of the work done by machinery was carried out by horses. Britain hasn’t had any mining industry since the mid 1980’s but until then, at its peak, it was a thriving industry which employed over a million people. Mining was a tough way of life for those employed in the industry and especially for the ponies that were used to haul the coal to the surface. Ponies began to be used underground, often replacing child or female labour, as distances from the pit head to the coal face became greater. The first known recorded use in Britain was in the Durham coalfield in 1750. At the peak of this practice in 1913, there were some 70,000 ponies underground. The ponies tended to be used for the shorter runs from the coal face to the main road which were more difficult to mechanise. Probably the last colliery horse to work underground in a British coal mine, “Robbie”, was retired from Pant y Gasseg, near Pontypool, in May 1999. Tough little characters Larger horses, such as varieties of Cleveland Bay, could be used on higher underground roadways, but on many duties small ponies no more than 12 hands high were needed. Only geldings were used. Shetlands were a breed commonly used because of their small size and hardy nature. In the interwar period, ponies were imported into Britain from the Faroe Islands, Iceland and the United States. Donkeys were also used in the late 19th century. The type of pony used were low set, heavy bodied and heavy limbed with plenty of bone and substance, low-headed and sure-footed. Under the British Coal Mines Act of 1911, ponies had to be four years old and work ready (shod and vet checked) before going underground. They could work until their twenties, provided they were in good health. The selection of the pit pony was a matter of extreme importance. Various characteristics of the pony were considered before it was chosen for work in the mines. Because of low roofs, steep grades and the tough work, the pony needed to be low set, heavily bodied and heavily limbed with plenty of bone and substance. It also needed low head carriage and to be sure-footed. The weight of the animal was important because heavy loads had to be moved up and down steep grades that, in turn, necessitated sure-footedness because of road conditions. Another consideration was the temperament of the pony. A nervous or shy pony would be very expensive to break in and probably not be suitable for hard conditions. A good pit horse was one that was even tempered and kind. A vicious horse was a menace to the drivers, liable to cause bodily injury and/or fatal accidents. In shaft mines, ponies were normally stabled underground and fed on a diet with a high proportion of chopped hay and maize, coming to the surface only during the colliery’s annual holiday. In slope and drift mines, the stables were usually on the surface near the mine entrance. Typically, ponies would work an eight-hour shift each day, during which they might haul 30 tons of coal in tubs on the underground narrow gauge railway. While their lives must have seemed tough especially to our modern pampered darlings the pit ponies were well cared for. They represented a capital asset to the mine, the best work could be obtained from animals that were in good condition. It was desirable that the horse have only one driver who would take more pride in the animal and so that they might both understand one another. Their daily working shift was normally the same as a man’s and drivers did not like their ponies to be double-shifted. When the animal got older, their work period was usually reduced to four hours. The roadways were to be kept in the best possible condition to prevent accidents. The roof was also to be carefully brushed to rid it of protruding rocks that might cause a head injury to the pony. The ponies were taken below ground in a cage or were walked into the slope mines on the footpath. Ponies generally stayed below ground for approximately five years, unless killed or maimed, and then they were either moved or replaced. The daily routine Ponies pulled material in coal boxes from the shaft or slope bottom to the working places and pulled the filled boxes to the point near the surface in a similar manner to railway yard shunting engines. The efficiency of pit ponies depended upon the manner in which they were treated and the amount of food they received. A stableman was hired to take charge of the underground stable and also to take care of and feed the horses. Usually, an hour before work, they were fed hay, watered and grained. A constant supply of pure water was considered one of the best investments possible in animal care. At each landing, a generous supply of clean water was placed where it would always be available for the horse. This would prevent gorging and eliminate many ailments that often proved fatal. The stableman usually shod the horses with shoes made on the surface. Sometimes, a farrier went into the mine when a higher degree of shoeing skill was required. He would take the measurements underground and make the shoes on the surface. Stable conditions were very important and much was done to tend to the comfort of these animals and lengthen their term of usefulness. In the stable, the height of the roof was to be seven feet when a five-foot horse was in use. It should be able to raise its head and relax its muscles because it had to work all day carrying its head low. Ventilation was to be arranged so that the direct current would not strike the horses. As little wood as possible was used in the construction of the stables to lessen the chance of fire. All stables were well drained and white washed to ensure they were as clean and airy as possible. During the annual mine holidays and when they retied the ponies were sent to farms where they could spend their time at grass. Like all work mates the ponies were loved and appreciated by those who cared for them. Their handlers would ensure they got the best treatment, food and rest. Image credits: Wikipedia Commons0 Comments	1,350	ENGLISH	1
Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th US president, and a the commander of the Union army in late Civil War. He was born as Hiram Ulysses Grant on April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio (biography.com). He was chosen as the hero was because he was great general, but a arguable man in his life. He finished the Civil War, and finished the splitting of US. He was not a really standout person when he was young, and he did not want to go after his father’s old route to become a business man. He went to the United States Military Academy at West Point, and his name was wrongly written as Ulysses S. Grant, so he changed his name because he was scared to be kicked out of school. He was good at math, geology, and horsemanship, but did not excel in the most other subjects. Because did not stand out while at West Point, he thought about resigning from military after the four mandatory years (biography.com). He was promoted to second lieutenant in the 4th infantry after his graduation. One year later he met his wife, Julia Dent, and got married in 1844 (history.com). He got his fame first in the Mexican-American War as a quartermaster under Generals Taylor and Scott and won a battle (Dr. Gamble). He resigned from the military on July, 31, 1854, because of strong alcohol drinking. That was a low point of his life. He lived far away from military and politics, with just his family. He became a clerk in his father’s tannery business after a unsuccessful try at farming (biography.com). He was ambitious. He had the desire to serve in the army again with this ambition in his heart. He was not satisfied with the job that he had. Grant wanted more than that, and once he said, “I was no clerk, nor I have any capacity to be one (Bunting 28).” The American Civil War started on April 12, 1861 with the Confederate troops attacking Charleston Harbor, South Carolina (biography.com). His patriotism was moved when the war started and he thought he should join and become a soldier again. He believed that the United States should stay as a Union. He was assigned to the 21st Illinois volunteer regiment and got them ready by September 1861. Hw won battles at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee in 1862 and got his nickname “Unconditional Surrender Grant.” From then on he began to gain fame in the northern army (Biography). However on the first day of the Battle of Shiloh, he was unlucky and suffered high casualties, which led other generals and politicians to write letters to Abraham Lincoln saying he should be removed from his place. Fortunately, Lincoln refused saying, “I can’t spare this man. He fights” (Biography). There were not a lot of Generals fighting at that time in the north. Because they are afraid they would lose their rank and reputation, they just built defenses and never attacked the south. Grant was not that kind of person. The day after that Grant proved Lincoln’s trust and defeated the Confederates with the help of Major General Don Carlos Buell (Biography). On May 1, 1863, he send a part of his troops to General Sherman to capture the state capital in Vicksburg, Mississippi, while he attacked Stonewall Jackson near the confederate supply base (Biography). 46 days after this hardship for the confederates, General John Pemberton surrendered his three hundred thousand man army (Biography). The Battle of Vicksburg (along with the Battle of Gettysburg) became the turning point of the Civil War. The north started to push into the south, and it was also a sign of hope. Grant was promoted by Lincoln to Lieutenant General in March, 1864, and he was also the General in Chief for the north (Biography). Those who had been General in Chief before him had not attacked the south aggressively. Grant, on the other hand, was determined to crush Robert E. Lee. The siege at Petersburg finished the Confederate’s hope and let the north win on April 9, 1865, which led Grant again to fame (Biography and Bunting 68). A few days before the surrender Grant wrote a letter to Lee to ask him to surrender under the command of Abraham Lincoln: April 7th 1865 Gen R.E. Lee The result of the last week must convince you of the hopelessness of further resistance on the part of the Army of Northern Va. in this struggle. I feel that it is so and regard it as my duty to shift from myself, the responsibility of any further effusion of blood by asking of you the surrender of that portion of the C.S. Army known as the Army of Northern Va. your obt. svt Lt. Gn. (Bunting 66) That was the highest point in Grant’s life and also Lees’. They ended the war. Here the honor should also be given to General Robert E. Lee. If he did not end the war at this point, they could still fight for a long time. During that time, US would really be ripped apart, because of what General Sherman did at the city of Atlanta. He would continuing do that to the south if General Robert E. Lee did not do it so kind to America. Lee was not happy to see Grant, he said, “There is nothing left for me to do but go and see General Grant, and I would rather die one thousand deaths (Bunting 68).” General Lee did not want to see Grant was because he did not want to see a person that led that much of a destruction to south, but also Lee was the headmaster of West Point, however Grant was a normal student in West Point. Grant was promoted to four star- General under President Andrew Johnson in 1866 (history.com). He was also replaced the Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton in 1867, however in January 1868 he resigned from the war post (history.com). That very month, Grant was nominated by the Republicans to run as president, and became the president at the age of 46 by wining 214 votes in the electoral college (history.com). He was also going to have risks during his presidency, because president is the person that every American look up to. He would lose lots of thing if he was a bad president. Grant was not the greatest president forever. However he was in favor of Reconstruction in south, and that was a great thing to America at that time period. Reconstruction helped to rebuild the south, and gave jobs to the slaves that had been freed during the Civil War. Aside from Reconstruction, he also tried to give a little more comfort to the Native Americans who were forgotten by few presidents before him (history.com). However, it was not really successful for Americans needed more land and the Indians needed to move further west. He also established America’s first National Park, which was Yellow Stone National Park (biography.com). He was pushing for the 15th amendment which would give African Americans the right to vote. He argued with Congress, I call the attention therefore of the newly enfranchised race to the importance of their striving in every honorable manner to make themselves worthy of their new privileges. To the race more favored heretofore by our laws I would say withhold no legal privileges of advancement to the new citizen (Bunting 112). For the foreign policies, he was good with British but bad with Caribbean nation of Santo Domingo, present-day Dominican Republic (history.com). He successfully had a second term. However everything went downhill after that. He was not a great president in people’s opinion. His choice for people under him was corrupt in people’s opinion. He would appoint friends to take offices, and his friends had profit from it (history.com). He had friends control the Gold market, and they failed on their job (history.com). The result was financial depression in September 24, 1869, called Black Friday (history.com). He was not successful in his later life after being the president. He went bankrupt in 1884 with his partner (biography.com). He also got throat cancer that year. For the money that he needed to use, he went and wrote memoirs with his friend Mark Twain (biography.com). Ulysses S. Grant died on July 23, 1885, at the age of 63, in Mount McGregor, New York (biography.com). He was a hero mainly because of the effort that he gave in the Civil War. He risked his life to fight the battles, and finished the war with a better ending than it could be. He was not a great President and a person, because the scandal that he had and he was usually drunk, however he was still a hero. He sacrificed his life and reputation to serve the country, and gain back his honor in military and with his two term presidency. Even though he was a bad president, he did not do that much of damage compared to what he did for US. He stopped the Civil War, which would have split the North and South apart if it continued. He was a normal guy, and that was also the reason that he did not have a great life as a civilian. However this showed if people are willing to do things, then they can become a hero. This is Ulysses S. Grant. America’s 18th president, and the General in Chief for the North.	<urn:uuid:093016e4-d6ba-402b-9b1e-14a85773b325>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alpinrunning.org/ulysses-civil-war-started-on-april-12-1861/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00474.warc.gz	en	0.99104	1,999	3.5	4	[ -0.35309064388275146, 0.4211130142211914, 0.5339597463607788, 0.1905858963727951, -0.11974617838859558, -0.19064021110534668, 0.29272592067718506, 0.06619899719953537, -0.23686020076274872, 0.13980355858802795, 0.17253178358078003, 0.03924126178026199, 0.36501142382621765, 0.46208503842353...	3	Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th US president, and a the commander of the Union army in late Civil War. He was born as Hiram Ulysses Grant on April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio (biography.com). He was chosen as the hero was because he was great general, but a arguable man in his life. He finished the Civil War, and finished the splitting of US. He was not a really standout person when he was young, and he did not want to go after his father’s old route to become a business man. He went to the United States Military Academy at West Point, and his name was wrongly written as Ulysses S. Grant, so he changed his name because he was scared to be kicked out of school. He was good at math, geology, and horsemanship, but did not excel in the most other subjects. Because did not stand out while at West Point, he thought about resigning from military after the four mandatory years (biography.com). He was promoted to second lieutenant in the 4th infantry after his graduation. One year later he met his wife, Julia Dent, and got married in 1844 (history.com). He got his fame first in the Mexican-American War as a quartermaster under Generals Taylor and Scott and won a battle (Dr. Gamble). He resigned from the military on July, 31, 1854, because of strong alcohol drinking. That was a low point of his life. He lived far away from military and politics, with just his family. He became a clerk in his father’s tannery business after a unsuccessful try at farming (biography.com). He was ambitious. He had the desire to serve in the army again with this ambition in his heart. He was not satisfied with the job that he had. Grant wanted more than that, and once he said, “I was no clerk, nor I have any capacity to be one (Bunting 28).” The American Civil War started on April 12, 1861 with the Confederate troops attacking Charleston Harbor, South Carolina (biography.com). His patriotism was moved when the war started and he thought he should join and become a soldier again. He believed that the United States should stay as a Union. He was assigned to the 21st Illinois volunteer regiment and got them ready by September 1861. Hw won battles at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee in 1862 and got his nickname “Unconditional Surrender Grant.” From then on he began to gain fame in the northern army (Biography). However on the first day of the Battle of Shiloh, he was unlucky and suffered high casualties, which led other generals and politicians to write letters to Abraham Lincoln saying he should be removed from his place. Fortunately, Lincoln refused saying, “I can’t spare this man. He fights” (Biography). There were not a lot of Generals fighting at that time in the north. Because they are afraid they would lose their rank and reputation, they just built defenses and never attacked the south. Grant was not that kind of person. The day after that Grant proved Lincoln’s trust and defeated the Confederates with the help of Major General Don Carlos Buell (Biography). On May 1, 1863, he send a part of his troops to General Sherman to capture the state capital in Vicksburg, Mississippi, while he attacked Stonewall Jackson near the confederate supply base (Biography). 46 days after this hardship for the confederates, General John Pemberton surrendered his three hundred thousand man army (Biography). The Battle of Vicksburg (along with the Battle of Gettysburg) became the turning point of the Civil War. The north started to push into the south, and it was also a sign of hope. Grant was promoted by Lincoln to Lieutenant General in March, 1864, and he was also the General in Chief for the north (Biography). Those who had been General in Chief before him had not attacked the south aggressively. Grant, on the other hand, was determined to crush Robert E. Lee. The siege at Petersburg finished the Confederate’s hope and let the north win on April 9, 1865, which led Grant again to fame (Biography and Bunting 68). A few days before the surrender Grant wrote a letter to Lee to ask him to surrender under the command of Abraham Lincoln: April 7th 1865 Gen R.E. Lee The result of the last week must convince you of the hopelessness of further resistance on the part of the Army of Northern Va. in this struggle. I feel that it is so and regard it as my duty to shift from myself, the responsibility of any further effusion of blood by asking of you the surrender of that portion of the C.S. Army known as the Army of Northern Va. your obt. svt Lt. Gn. (Bunting 66) That was the highest point in Grant’s life and also Lees’. They ended the war. Here the honor should also be given to General Robert E. Lee. If he did not end the war at this point, they could still fight for a long time. During that time, US would really be ripped apart, because of what General Sherman did at the city of Atlanta. He would continuing do that to the south if General Robert E. Lee did not do it so kind to America. Lee was not happy to see Grant, he said, “There is nothing left for me to do but go and see General Grant, and I would rather die one thousand deaths (Bunting 68).” General Lee did not want to see Grant was because he did not want to see a person that led that much of a destruction to south, but also Lee was the headmaster of West Point, however Grant was a normal student in West Point. Grant was promoted to four star- General under President Andrew Johnson in 1866 (history.com). He was also replaced the Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton in 1867, however in January 1868 he resigned from the war post (history.com). That very month, Grant was nominated by the Republicans to run as president, and became the president at the age of 46 by wining 214 votes in the electoral college (history.com). He was also going to have risks during his presidency, because president is the person that every American look up to. He would lose lots of thing if he was a bad president. Grant was not the greatest president forever. However he was in favor of Reconstruction in south, and that was a great thing to America at that time period. Reconstruction helped to rebuild the south, and gave jobs to the slaves that had been freed during the Civil War. Aside from Reconstruction, he also tried to give a little more comfort to the Native Americans who were forgotten by few presidents before him (history.com). However, it was not really successful for Americans needed more land and the Indians needed to move further west. He also established America’s first National Park, which was Yellow Stone National Park (biography.com). He was pushing for the 15th amendment which would give African Americans the right to vote. He argued with Congress, I call the attention therefore of the newly enfranchised race to the importance of their striving in every honorable manner to make themselves worthy of their new privileges. To the race more favored heretofore by our laws I would say withhold no legal privileges of advancement to the new citizen (Bunting 112). For the foreign policies, he was good with British but bad with Caribbean nation of Santo Domingo, present-day Dominican Republic (history.com). He successfully had a second term. However everything went downhill after that. He was not a great president in people’s opinion. His choice for people under him was corrupt in people’s opinion. He would appoint friends to take offices, and his friends had profit from it (history.com). He had friends control the Gold market, and they failed on their job (history.com). The result was financial depression in September 24, 1869, called Black Friday (history.com). He was not successful in his later life after being the president. He went bankrupt in 1884 with his partner (biography.com). He also got throat cancer that year. For the money that he needed to use, he went and wrote memoirs with his friend Mark Twain (biography.com). Ulysses S. Grant died on July 23, 1885, at the age of 63, in Mount McGregor, New York (biography.com). He was a hero mainly because of the effort that he gave in the Civil War. He risked his life to fight the battles, and finished the war with a better ending than it could be. He was not a great President and a person, because the scandal that he had and he was usually drunk, however he was still a hero. He sacrificed his life and reputation to serve the country, and gain back his honor in military and with his two term presidency. Even though he was a bad president, he did not do that much of damage compared to what he did for US. He stopped the Civil War, which would have split the North and South apart if it continued. He was a normal guy, and that was also the reason that he did not have a great life as a civilian. However this showed if people are willing to do things, then they can become a hero. This is Ulysses S. Grant. America’s 18th president, and the General in Chief for the North.	2,038	ENGLISH	1
The Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise was reached during the US Constitutional Convention of 1787. But what did this compromise accomplish? Historyplex answers this question, along with telling you about its significance. Did You Know? The Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise was the first time that the powers of the US Congress were curtailed. On 25 May 1787, fifty-five delegates from all the states of the American Union met in the town of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. This convention, called the Constitutional Convention, aimed to modify the Articles of Confederation by which the government was being run since the Great War of Independence, because it had weakened the government. Most of the delegates were veterans of the Great War themselves. Rhode Island did not send its representatives, because it was against the empowerment of the federal government, which, it feared, would weaken the states. It was soon clear to all the delegates at the meeting, that rather than modify the existing government, it was better to write a new constitution instead. However, the approval of this constitution required several compromises to allay the fears and disputes between various states. As a result, the final constitution is often called a ‘bundle of compromises’. These compromises were initially proposed by a committee formed in the convention, called the Committee of Detail. But since these were rejected, it was another committee, called the Committee of Eleven, who wrote the final compromises, which were then accepted to avoid the failure of the convention. Let us understand what was the significance of the Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, the northern states of the union had become more industrialized as compared to the southerners. They had begun to produce goods, and needed a market for them. The southern states, on the other hand, were agrarian, which produced crops like indigo and tobacco. These products were exported to Europe, which was a good market for them. They also imported goods from England. This import of British goods was resented by the northern states, which viewed it as competition, and wanted the southern states to buy goods produced from the north. However, the latter desired to keep up the import from England, as they preferred British goods. So, the delegates from the northern states who attended the convention expected Congress to impose tax on both, the import and export of agricultural produce of the southern states, which, besides reducing competition to the industries of the north, would also produce revenue for the country. Meanwhile, in the years leading to the convention, most of the northern states had already abolished slavery, and slaves were free men. All around Europe and the rest of the world at the time, slavery was beginning to be frowned upon. On the contrary, the southern states, being heavily dependent on agriculture, depended to a large extent on the slave trade. For more than a century, these states had imported slaves from African nations to work on their plantations. Many of the delegates from the southern states, attending the convention, themselves owned slaves, and thus had vested interests in allowing the trade to continue. As a result, slaves constituted about 1/5 of the country’s population, at the time. The northern states hoped that Congress would abolish the slave trade. In fact, some delegates even wished the setting up of national laws which abolished the entire Transatlantic slave trade. The delegates from the southern states, meanwhile, knew about the intentions of their northern countrymen, and heavily defended the slave trade, as their economies were dependent on it. They had reservations that the federal government would give in to the demands of the north, and abolish slave trade. Some delegates thought that the northern states were jealous of their progress. States like South Carolina and Georgia even threatened to secede from the union if slavery was abolished. Meanwhile, a previous compromise reached in the convention, allowing a slave’s vote to be considered as 3/5 of a normal vote, had already raised fears in the delegates from the north, that in order to increase their representation in the House of Representatives, the southern states would import more slaves, which would strengthen the slave trade even further. Compromise and Significance It was clear from the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention, that in order to keep the country united, another set of compromises would have to be reached. So, a Commerce Compromise was reached between the delegates, which imposed a tax on the import of goods from foreign countries, while protecting exports from any taxation. Moreover, interstate commerce (between states) was to be regulated by the federal government, while intrastate (within a state) trade was to be controlled by the state governments. While a taxation of the imports was meant to pacify the northern states by reducing their industrial competition, the relief on exports was intended to appease the southern states. The compromise also had a provision, that all commerce bills had to be passed by a 2/3 majority in the senate, which was another boon to the southern states, as all states had equal representation in the senate, irrespective of their population, so that the more populous north could not hamper their interests. Slave Trade Compromise The Constitutional Convention saw heated discussions on the slave trade. Finally, the delegates arrived at a compromise, called the Slave Trade Compromise . According to this, Congress could not abolish the slave trade before the year 1808. However, a provision of the compromise allowed it to levy a tax on the import of slaves, at $10 for each slave. Initially, the Committee of Detail formed by the convention recommended a grace period of twelve years, until the year 1800, but this was increased to 20 years at the behest of a South Carolina delegate named Gen. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. The arrangement pacified the fears of the southern states, who were free to carry on with the slave trade for another two decades. To protect the union, the northern states had no choice but to wait until then. The southern states agreed to this compromise, assuming that the opposition to slavery would eventually die out. In order to further appease the south, the ‘Fugitive State Law’ was passed, which ordered the northern states to deport any runaway slaves from the south. The taxing of the import of slaves showed that they were technically considered as commodities. The Slave Trade Compromise did not, however, mean that the state governments could not abolish slave trade of their own accord. Soon after the convention, New Jersey and Rhode Island were the first to take this initiative, and were followed by others like Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York. Congress also worked against the slave trade, using means which were not prohibited in the compromise. It passed a law in 1790, which prohibited US citizens from indulging in slave trade with foreign shores. Moreover, another law passed in 1794 banned the construction or repair of any vessels which were intended for slave trade. By 1806, South Carolina was the only US state which allowed slave trade. Finally, on 2 March 1807, President Thomas Jefferson approved a bill abolishing slave trade, which came into effect on January 1, 1808. Despite the abolition of international slave trade, internal slave trade continued, and over time, the number of slaves would rise to as high as 4 million. The conflict caused between the north and south over slavery would result in the devastating four-year American Civil War, when eleven southern states declared secession from the union and formed a ‘confederacy’. Slavery was completely abolished only when this confederacy was defeated in May, 1865. The importance of the Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise can be seen from the fact that, it was included in Article I of the US Constitution. It also reveals that the founding fathers did not always choose the moral path, and did what was necessary to keep the country united at the time.	<urn:uuid:58824ca0-ba81-4f66-93c8-cb2e1ab95d44>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historyplex.com/significance-of-commerce-slave-trade-compromise-in-us-constitution	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00361.warc.gz	en	0.982971	1,612	4.34375	4	[ -0.2333770990371704, 0.06259441375732422, 0.535698652267456, 0.08689361810684204, 0.037588514387607574, 0.11125820875167847, 0.22955307364463806, 0.1102461963891983, -0.5071951150894165, 0.040053851902484894, 0.25737500190734863, -0.0002578124403953552, -0.08114496618509293, 0.329682826995...	9	The Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise was reached during the US Constitutional Convention of 1787. But what did this compromise accomplish? Historyplex answers this question, along with telling you about its significance. Did You Know? The Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise was the first time that the powers of the US Congress were curtailed. On 25 May 1787, fifty-five delegates from all the states of the American Union met in the town of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. This convention, called the Constitutional Convention, aimed to modify the Articles of Confederation by which the government was being run since the Great War of Independence, because it had weakened the government. Most of the delegates were veterans of the Great War themselves. Rhode Island did not send its representatives, because it was against the empowerment of the federal government, which, it feared, would weaken the states. It was soon clear to all the delegates at the meeting, that rather than modify the existing government, it was better to write a new constitution instead. However, the approval of this constitution required several compromises to allay the fears and disputes between various states. As a result, the final constitution is often called a ‘bundle of compromises’. These compromises were initially proposed by a committee formed in the convention, called the Committee of Detail. But since these were rejected, it was another committee, called the Committee of Eleven, who wrote the final compromises, which were then accepted to avoid the failure of the convention. Let us understand what was the significance of the Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, the northern states of the union had become more industrialized as compared to the southerners. They had begun to produce goods, and needed a market for them. The southern states, on the other hand, were agrarian, which produced crops like indigo and tobacco. These products were exported to Europe, which was a good market for them. They also imported goods from England. This import of British goods was resented by the northern states, which viewed it as competition, and wanted the southern states to buy goods produced from the north. However, the latter desired to keep up the import from England, as they preferred British goods. So, the delegates from the northern states who attended the convention expected Congress to impose tax on both, the import and export of agricultural produce of the southern states, which, besides reducing competition to the industries of the north, would also produce revenue for the country. Meanwhile, in the years leading to the convention, most of the northern states had already abolished slavery, and slaves were free men. All around Europe and the rest of the world at the time, slavery was beginning to be frowned upon. On the contrary, the southern states, being heavily dependent on agriculture, depended to a large extent on the slave trade. For more than a century, these states had imported slaves from African nations to work on their plantations. Many of the delegates from the southern states, attending the convention, themselves owned slaves, and thus had vested interests in allowing the trade to continue. As a result, slaves constituted about 1/5 of the country’s population, at the time. The northern states hoped that Congress would abolish the slave trade. In fact, some delegates even wished the setting up of national laws which abolished the entire Transatlantic slave trade. The delegates from the southern states, meanwhile, knew about the intentions of their northern countrymen, and heavily defended the slave trade, as their economies were dependent on it. They had reservations that the federal government would give in to the demands of the north, and abolish slave trade. Some delegates thought that the northern states were jealous of their progress. States like South Carolina and Georgia even threatened to secede from the union if slavery was abolished. Meanwhile, a previous compromise reached in the convention, allowing a slave’s vote to be considered as 3/5 of a normal vote, had already raised fears in the delegates from the north, that in order to increase their representation in the House of Representatives, the southern states would import more slaves, which would strengthen the slave trade even further. Compromise and Significance It was clear from the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention, that in order to keep the country united, another set of compromises would have to be reached. So, a Commerce Compromise was reached between the delegates, which imposed a tax on the import of goods from foreign countries, while protecting exports from any taxation. Moreover, interstate commerce (between states) was to be regulated by the federal government, while intrastate (within a state) trade was to be controlled by the state governments. While a taxation of the imports was meant to pacify the northern states by reducing their industrial competition, the relief on exports was intended to appease the southern states. The compromise also had a provision, that all commerce bills had to be passed by a 2/3 majority in the senate, which was another boon to the southern states, as all states had equal representation in the senate, irrespective of their population, so that the more populous north could not hamper their interests. Slave Trade Compromise The Constitutional Convention saw heated discussions on the slave trade. Finally, the delegates arrived at a compromise, called the Slave Trade Compromise . According to this, Congress could not abolish the slave trade before the year 1808. However, a provision of the compromise allowed it to levy a tax on the import of slaves, at $10 for each slave. Initially, the Committee of Detail formed by the convention recommended a grace period of twelve years, until the year 1800, but this was increased to 20 years at the behest of a South Carolina delegate named Gen. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. The arrangement pacified the fears of the southern states, who were free to carry on with the slave trade for another two decades. To protect the union, the northern states had no choice but to wait until then. The southern states agreed to this compromise, assuming that the opposition to slavery would eventually die out. In order to further appease the south, the ‘Fugitive State Law’ was passed, which ordered the northern states to deport any runaway slaves from the south. The taxing of the import of slaves showed that they were technically considered as commodities. The Slave Trade Compromise did not, however, mean that the state governments could not abolish slave trade of their own accord. Soon after the convention, New Jersey and Rhode Island were the first to take this initiative, and were followed by others like Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York. Congress also worked against the slave trade, using means which were not prohibited in the compromise. It passed a law in 1790, which prohibited US citizens from indulging in slave trade with foreign shores. Moreover, another law passed in 1794 banned the construction or repair of any vessels which were intended for slave trade. By 1806, South Carolina was the only US state which allowed slave trade. Finally, on 2 March 1807, President Thomas Jefferson approved a bill abolishing slave trade, which came into effect on January 1, 1808. Despite the abolition of international slave trade, internal slave trade continued, and over time, the number of slaves would rise to as high as 4 million. The conflict caused between the north and south over slavery would result in the devastating four-year American Civil War, when eleven southern states declared secession from the union and formed a ‘confederacy’. Slavery was completely abolished only when this confederacy was defeated in May, 1865. The importance of the Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise can be seen from the fact that, it was included in Article I of the US Constitution. It also reveals that the founding fathers did not always choose the moral path, and did what was necessary to keep the country united at the time.	1,618	ENGLISH	1
[Logo by John Silver] The Adams Family Exhibit Opening date to be announced John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat and political theorist. A leading champion of independence in 1776, he was America's first choice after George Washington and became the second President of the United States (1797–1801). He was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. Adams came to prominence in the early stages of the American Revolution. As a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence (see exhibit #4), and assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776. As a representative of Congress in Europe, he was a major negotiator of the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain (see exhibit 11 and 11a), and chiefly responsible for obtaining important loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams' revolutionary credentials secured him two terms as George Washington's vice president and his own election in 1796 as the second president. He lost a battle for a second term as President with Thomas Jefferson. After inviting Congress to Jefferson's inauguration, he declined to attend himself. (see exhibit #14) John Quincy Adams (July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was the sixth President of the United States from 1825 to 1829. He was the son of President John Adams and Abigail Adams. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican, and later Anti-Masonic and Whig parties. He was also an American diplomat and served in both the Senate and House of Representatives. He served 17 years as U.S. Representative from Massachusetts after he served as President. Adams was involved in many international negotiations, and helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine as Secretary of State. (see exhibits #5 and #6). Historians agree he was one of the great diplomats in American history. Like his father, Adams lost a battle for a second term, the first President since his father to serve a single term. He announced the inauguration of Andrew Jackson to Congress (see exhibit 31), but again, like his father, he declined to attend himself. John Adams and John Quincy Adams were the only two Presidents to ever decline attending the inauguration of the next President. Samuel Adams (September 27 [O.S. September 16] 1722 – October 2, 1803) was an American statesman, political philosopher, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was a second cousin to President John Adams. As a politician in colonial Massachusetts, Adams was a leader of the movement that became the American Revolution. In particular he was closely involved in the protests of the Sugar Act, The Stamp Act, The Townsend Acts and was a heavily involved in the Tea Act, resulting in the Boston Tea Party. Referring to the negotiations for Independence with Great Britain, he stated "If by departing in any Degree from Instructions, our Negotiators have obtained better terms for us, than they could have done by a strict adherence to them." (see exhibit #13)	<urn:uuid:4b4cde19-3196-488b-b3cd-aab04bcd96c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://karpeles.com/cur/alv.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00419.warc.gz	en	0.98365	641	3.65625	4	[ -0.07163091003894806, 0.469066858291626, 0.25399714708328247, -0.283437043428421, -0.4616818428039551, 0.4828338623046875, 0.054220400750637054, 0.26509392261505127, -0.16868174076080322, -0.08006377518177032, 0.1527915745973587, 0.614689826965332, 0.13313934206962585, 0.2782638370990753, ...	3	[Logo by John Silver] The Adams Family Exhibit Opening date to be announced John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat and political theorist. A leading champion of independence in 1776, he was America's first choice after George Washington and became the second President of the United States (1797–1801). He was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. Adams came to prominence in the early stages of the American Revolution. As a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence (see exhibit #4), and assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776. As a representative of Congress in Europe, he was a major negotiator of the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain (see exhibit 11 and 11a), and chiefly responsible for obtaining important loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams' revolutionary credentials secured him two terms as George Washington's vice president and his own election in 1796 as the second president. He lost a battle for a second term as President with Thomas Jefferson. After inviting Congress to Jefferson's inauguration, he declined to attend himself. (see exhibit #14) John Quincy Adams (July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was the sixth President of the United States from 1825 to 1829. He was the son of President John Adams and Abigail Adams. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican, and later Anti-Masonic and Whig parties. He was also an American diplomat and served in both the Senate and House of Representatives. He served 17 years as U.S. Representative from Massachusetts after he served as President. Adams was involved in many international negotiations, and helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine as Secretary of State. (see exhibits #5 and #6). Historians agree he was one of the great diplomats in American history. Like his father, Adams lost a battle for a second term, the first President since his father to serve a single term. He announced the inauguration of Andrew Jackson to Congress (see exhibit 31), but again, like his father, he declined to attend himself. John Adams and John Quincy Adams were the only two Presidents to ever decline attending the inauguration of the next President. Samuel Adams (September 27 [O.S. September 16] 1722 – October 2, 1803) was an American statesman, political philosopher, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was a second cousin to President John Adams. As a politician in colonial Massachusetts, Adams was a leader of the movement that became the American Revolution. In particular he was closely involved in the protests of the Sugar Act, The Stamp Act, The Townsend Acts and was a heavily involved in the Tea Act, resulting in the Boston Tea Party. Referring to the negotiations for Independence with Great Britain, he stated "If by departing in any Degree from Instructions, our Negotiators have obtained better terms for us, than they could have done by a strict adherence to them." (see exhibit #13)	694	ENGLISH	1
Changes in Farming Changes in Farming For the farmers, crisis had followed crisis in the 1930s. No sooner were they free of depression conditions than there was a threat to the continuance of the free market for their products in the United Kingdom. It was only after very strong protests from New Zealand farmers that the United Kingdom Government in 1934 abandoned a proposal for an import quota on butter and cheese, and instead decided to subsidise United Kingdom milk production. Imports of meat were not so lucky. A compromise system of short-term quotas operated from 1935 until it was superseded by wartime bulk purchase arrangements.1 Meanwhile the economic depression had had its influence on many facets of Labour Party policy. It was the income-reducing effect of overseas price falls, perhaps more than their effect on overseas funds, which had enabled the world depression of the early 1930s to communicate itself so fully and disastrously to New Zealand. The Labour Party pledged itself to protect farmers against instability in their incomes. As part of its policy of insulation, it offered the farmers a guaranteed price for their products which would make them, in the short run, independent of price fluctuations in overseas markets. As it turned out, producers of meat and wool preferred to be without the guaranteed price, and the system applied only to dairy products. The guaranteed price for dairy products, introduced in August 1936, very quickly came under pressure when, in 1937–38, rising overseas prices led to a surplus in the account and the farmers promptly demanded a higher payout. They got it. 1 New Zealand's allocations under the short-term quota system were not unduly restrictive. In the following year prices fell and the guaranteed price protected dairy farmers against the fall, so to some extent insulating the internal economy. But this insulation did nothing to protect New Zealand's overseas reserves; in fact it may well have been one of many influences leading to continued high importing and to an exchange crisis towards the end of 1938. Meantime a more lasting change had been taking place in farming—a change which was to have a material influence on its manpower requirements under war conditions. The industry was being very rapidly mechanised and, stimulated by research work by the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, very considerable improvements in methods were being made. Between 1936 and 1939 the number of agricultural tractors increased by 69 per cent, and in 1940 there were almost twice as many tractors in use as in 1936. This was an amazing transition in only a four-year period. The number of electric motors on farms increased by 60 per cent between 1936 and 1940. Milking machines had been in quite widespread use by 1930, and after 1933 their numbers increased some 770 a year until there were nearly 29,000 by 1939. But, more important, hand stripping, which had always been regarded as an integral part of machine milking, was being eliminated on some farms. The Dairy Board reported:1 ‘In November and December, 1941, a survey was made of approximately thirty herds where no hand stripping had been carried out for one or more years…. The production data indicated very little, if any, fall in output per cow as a result of no hand stripping, whether analysed on the basis of the same cows before and after the introduction of non-stripping or on a herd basis.’ Because of these changes, farming, which had in earlier years steadily increased its labour force, was now able to maintain ever-increasing production with a comparatively stable labour force. The change in rate of growth of labour requirements for farming was apparently not widely recognised until after the war and this misunderstanding was to have a major effect on wartime manpower planning. Chart 4 shows changes in farm mechanisation between 1929 and 1940.page 15	<urn:uuid:81a53b1c-57e5-4ab4-b783-6878a31ea314>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Econ-c1-5.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00380.warc.gz	en	0.981295	765	3.859375	4	[ -0.24006466567516327, 0.030455876141786575, 0.19474029541015625, 0.21381038427352905, 0.47759485244750977, -0.14569464325904846, -0.31086888909339905, 0.1992752104997635, -0.024562060832977295, 0.2569245994091034, 0.026824181899428368, -0.35037726163864136, 0.5318485498428345, 0.2634729743...	5	Changes in Farming Changes in Farming For the farmers, crisis had followed crisis in the 1930s. No sooner were they free of depression conditions than there was a threat to the continuance of the free market for their products in the United Kingdom. It was only after very strong protests from New Zealand farmers that the United Kingdom Government in 1934 abandoned a proposal for an import quota on butter and cheese, and instead decided to subsidise United Kingdom milk production. Imports of meat were not so lucky. A compromise system of short-term quotas operated from 1935 until it was superseded by wartime bulk purchase arrangements.1 Meanwhile the economic depression had had its influence on many facets of Labour Party policy. It was the income-reducing effect of overseas price falls, perhaps more than their effect on overseas funds, which had enabled the world depression of the early 1930s to communicate itself so fully and disastrously to New Zealand. The Labour Party pledged itself to protect farmers against instability in their incomes. As part of its policy of insulation, it offered the farmers a guaranteed price for their products which would make them, in the short run, independent of price fluctuations in overseas markets. As it turned out, producers of meat and wool preferred to be without the guaranteed price, and the system applied only to dairy products. The guaranteed price for dairy products, introduced in August 1936, very quickly came under pressure when, in 1937–38, rising overseas prices led to a surplus in the account and the farmers promptly demanded a higher payout. They got it. 1 New Zealand's allocations under the short-term quota system were not unduly restrictive. In the following year prices fell and the guaranteed price protected dairy farmers against the fall, so to some extent insulating the internal economy. But this insulation did nothing to protect New Zealand's overseas reserves; in fact it may well have been one of many influences leading to continued high importing and to an exchange crisis towards the end of 1938. Meantime a more lasting change had been taking place in farming—a change which was to have a material influence on its manpower requirements under war conditions. The industry was being very rapidly mechanised and, stimulated by research work by the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, very considerable improvements in methods were being made. Between 1936 and 1939 the number of agricultural tractors increased by 69 per cent, and in 1940 there were almost twice as many tractors in use as in 1936. This was an amazing transition in only a four-year period. The number of electric motors on farms increased by 60 per cent between 1936 and 1940. Milking machines had been in quite widespread use by 1930, and after 1933 their numbers increased some 770 a year until there were nearly 29,000 by 1939. But, more important, hand stripping, which had always been regarded as an integral part of machine milking, was being eliminated on some farms. The Dairy Board reported:1 ‘In November and December, 1941, a survey was made of approximately thirty herds where no hand stripping had been carried out for one or more years…. The production data indicated very little, if any, fall in output per cow as a result of no hand stripping, whether analysed on the basis of the same cows before and after the introduction of non-stripping or on a herd basis.’ Because of these changes, farming, which had in earlier years steadily increased its labour force, was now able to maintain ever-increasing production with a comparatively stable labour force. The change in rate of growth of labour requirements for farming was apparently not widely recognised until after the war and this misunderstanding was to have a major effect on wartime manpower planning. Chart 4 shows changes in farm mechanisation between 1929 and 1940.page 15	843	ENGLISH	1
The Bamberg Cathedral is a late Romanesque building with four imposing towers. It was founded in 1002 by the emperor Henry II, finished in 1012 and consecrated on May 6, 1012. It was later partially destroyed by fire in 1081. The new cathedral, built by St. Otto of Bamberg, was consecrated in 1111, and in the 13th century received its present late-Romanesque form. Due to its long construction process, several styles were used in different parts of the cathedral, particularly the Romanesque and Gothic ones. Between these two styles is the Transitional style, and this is the style which is characteristic of the nave. The cathedral is about 94 m long, 28 m broad, 26 m high, and the four towers are each about 81 m high. Of its many works of art may be mentioned the magnificent marble tomb of the founder and his wife, the empress Cunigunde, considered the masterpiece of the sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider, and carved between 1499 and 1513. Another treasure of the cathedral is an equestrian statue called the Bamberg Horseman (Bamberger Reiter). People have tried to guess for years who this knight on horseback really was. During the cathedral’s history people have often made up stories about who he was. The Romantics thought he was a German emperor from the Hohenstaufen family. The Nazis thought he was a knight who symbolized German perfection, looking towards the east for new lands to conquer. This was Nazi propaganda. The knight on the statue does not, in fact, look east at all. It is now thought that he was probably the 11th century Hungarian king Stephen I. Modern technology has made it possible for us to know what the original colours were, and this has helped scientists to identify him. The sculptor carved only his mask into the sculpture, leaving his identity a mystery. Pope Clement II (1005–47) is buried in the Bamberg Cathedral. He was the local bishop before he became Pope in 1046, but he died in 1047 after having been pope for only twelve months. Bamberg Cathedral is the site of the only papal burial outside of Italy and France.References: The Temple of Portunus or Temple of Fortuna Virilis ('manly fortune') is one of the best preserved of all Roman temples. Its dedication remains unclear, as ancient sources mention several temples in this area of Rome, without saying enough to make it clear which this is. The temple was originally built in the third or fourth century BC but was rebuilt between 120-80 BC, the rectangular building consists of a tetrastyle portico and cella, raised on a high podium reached by a flight of steps, which it retains. The temple owes its state of preservation to its being converted for use as a church in 872 and rededicated to Santa Maria Egyziaca (Saint Mary of Egypt). Its Ionic order has been much admired, drawn and engraved and copied since the 16th century. The original coating of stucco over its tufa and travertine construction has been lost.	<urn:uuid:79e12eea-b30a-4a75-9ba3-dcf3b265bd14>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.spottinghistory.com/view/5694/bamberg-cathedral/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00530.warc.gz	en	0.983747	658	3.390625	3	[ -0.04194742441177368, 0.7995249629020691, -0.12301450967788696, -0.15472237765789032, -0.24872948229312897, 0.5406187176704407, -0.4274023473262787, -0.224646657705307, 0.11427363753318787, -0.06681103259325027, -0.343082070350647, -0.6763213872909546, -0.20483283698558807, 0.2931733131408...	1	The Bamberg Cathedral is a late Romanesque building with four imposing towers. It was founded in 1002 by the emperor Henry II, finished in 1012 and consecrated on May 6, 1012. It was later partially destroyed by fire in 1081. The new cathedral, built by St. Otto of Bamberg, was consecrated in 1111, and in the 13th century received its present late-Romanesque form. Due to its long construction process, several styles were used in different parts of the cathedral, particularly the Romanesque and Gothic ones. Between these two styles is the Transitional style, and this is the style which is characteristic of the nave. The cathedral is about 94 m long, 28 m broad, 26 m high, and the four towers are each about 81 m high. Of its many works of art may be mentioned the magnificent marble tomb of the founder and his wife, the empress Cunigunde, considered the masterpiece of the sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider, and carved between 1499 and 1513. Another treasure of the cathedral is an equestrian statue called the Bamberg Horseman (Bamberger Reiter). People have tried to guess for years who this knight on horseback really was. During the cathedral’s history people have often made up stories about who he was. The Romantics thought he was a German emperor from the Hohenstaufen family. The Nazis thought he was a knight who symbolized German perfection, looking towards the east for new lands to conquer. This was Nazi propaganda. The knight on the statue does not, in fact, look east at all. It is now thought that he was probably the 11th century Hungarian king Stephen I. Modern technology has made it possible for us to know what the original colours were, and this has helped scientists to identify him. The sculptor carved only his mask into the sculpture, leaving his identity a mystery. Pope Clement II (1005–47) is buried in the Bamberg Cathedral. He was the local bishop before he became Pope in 1046, but he died in 1047 after having been pope for only twelve months. Bamberg Cathedral is the site of the only papal burial outside of Italy and France.References: The Temple of Portunus or Temple of Fortuna Virilis ('manly fortune') is one of the best preserved of all Roman temples. Its dedication remains unclear, as ancient sources mention several temples in this area of Rome, without saying enough to make it clear which this is. The temple was originally built in the third or fourth century BC but was rebuilt between 120-80 BC, the rectangular building consists of a tetrastyle portico and cella, raised on a high podium reached by a flight of steps, which it retains. The temple owes its state of preservation to its being converted for use as a church in 872 and rededicated to Santa Maria Egyziaca (Saint Mary of Egypt). Its Ionic order has been much admired, drawn and engraved and copied since the 16th century. The original coating of stucco over its tufa and travertine construction has been lost.	695	ENGLISH	1
The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain Essay The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain is about a young boy, named Huck, who was raised by a race that thinks they are superior than others and were taught the same way. He did not have a mother and his father was never home, but when he was home he mistreated Huck. Due to the abuse from his father, Huck decided to run away from home, but Huck was not the only one that ran away. Jim, a slave, ran away as well the same day that Huck day. Though Huck knew Jim before everything happened, he got to learn more about him while they traveled together and they became more than just a runaway slave and a white kid. Huck learned how to stand up for himself and others, he learned how to become dependent and do things his own ways. Throughout The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Huck becomes a dynamic character because he changed his view of society, relationship with Jim and is no longer impressionable. Huck changed in many more ways than people think, he may be only a kid now, but he will become a great adult. Huck changed his view of society and the way he did things, not only because of where he was but also who he was with. Huck only thought of himself when he did something he neverFor example, after Huck ran away and found Jim he did not think of the outcomes his actions would bring. “I went to the cavern to get some, and found a rattlesnake in there. I killed him, and curled him up on the foot of Jim 's blanket, ever so natural, thinking there…	<urn:uuid:f0bc6896-2815-4d5b-866b-98260e83730a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/The-Adventures-Of-Huckleberry-Finn-By-Mark/F3K3PMPNMXZQ	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00479.warc.gz	en	0.993204	342	3.265625	3	[ -0.2990444004535675, 0.003858050564303994, 0.08044391870498657, -0.11322189122438431, -0.6172651648521423, 0.07620225846767426, 0.6314013600349426, 0.2028414011001587, -0.463125616312027, -0.0023042766842991114, 0.053528666496276855, -0.12967361509799957, 0.44048017263412476, 0.28290969133...	1	The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain Essay The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain is about a young boy, named Huck, who was raised by a race that thinks they are superior than others and were taught the same way. He did not have a mother and his father was never home, but when he was home he mistreated Huck. Due to the abuse from his father, Huck decided to run away from home, but Huck was not the only one that ran away. Jim, a slave, ran away as well the same day that Huck day. Though Huck knew Jim before everything happened, he got to learn more about him while they traveled together and they became more than just a runaway slave and a white kid. Huck learned how to stand up for himself and others, he learned how to become dependent and do things his own ways. Throughout The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Huck becomes a dynamic character because he changed his view of society, relationship with Jim and is no longer impressionable. Huck changed in many more ways than people think, he may be only a kid now, but he will become a great adult. Huck changed his view of society and the way he did things, not only because of where he was but also who he was with. Huck only thought of himself when he did something he neverFor example, after Huck ran away and found Jim he did not think of the outcomes his actions would bring. “I went to the cavern to get some, and found a rattlesnake in there. I killed him, and curled him up on the foot of Jim 's blanket, ever so natural, thinking there…	338	ENGLISH	1
Definition of Nursing Nursing has a long history as a way to provide help to patients as they work toward health goals. From the earliest nuns who cared for the sick and dying to the modern men and women who work in hospitals, clinics, and homes to help people achieve and maintain health, nursing is a way to get involved in the health care industry and work with patients on a personal level. Though different nursing jobs require different duties and responsibilities, the definition of nursing has not gone through as many changes as the career itself. The history of nursing Nursing began, simply enough, as a practice to help people get healthy. Nurses would help physicians care for patients, which included things like helping them eat, tending to their hygiene, and making sure the physician’s orders were followed for the patient. However, there was no formal education for nurses initially, and nursing duties were most often carried out by nuns or people in the military. It wasn’t until Florence Nightingale worked as a nurse that nursing began to resemble what it is today. Nightingale and modern nursing Florence Nightingale is considered the mother of modern nursing. After observing men dying in military hospitals during war, Nightingale worked to make changes that improved sanitation and conditions for patients in both military and civilian hospitals. She also founded the first nursing school, which formalized education for nurses. This ensured that certain standards could be followed and specific nursing techniques and procedures taught to nurses, which provided better care for patients. Nursing remained a helping profession within the field of health care, but with the changes made by Nightingale, it became recognized as a professional field rather than charity or opportunity for volunteer work. Nursing in modern society has stayed close to the definition created by Florence Nightingale. Essentially, nurses provide care for people of all ages, including individuals, families, and communities. Nursing also often includes education; nurses provide information and resources for patients to deal with illnesses or disabilities, or to maintain health. Different nurses provide different types of care. Some provide general care to patients such as administering medication, taking vitals, and helping them dress or bathe, while other nurses have more specialized responsibilities such as performing tests for physicians or monitoring patients undergoing procedures. Nursing has changed as nursing technology and medicine have advanced, but the core of nursing has remained the same, and that is to help people get and stay healthy. Nursing is a helping profession that can ensure that patients have what they need to get healthy. Whether they provide general care for patients in hospitals or educate communities and families about how to stay healthy at home, nursing is about helping people. Finding your own specialty in the field of nursing will allow you to get involved in a career that has a long history of working with patients toward health, and be a part of the noble helping profession.	<urn:uuid:418fdd99-5c9a-42e1-a04f-faf94714b03f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nursing-theory.org/articles/Definition_of_Nursing.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00279.warc.gz	en	0.981839	584	3.5625	4	[ -0.16105268895626068, 0.01397562213242054, 0.5321892499923706, -0.25444287061691284, 0.1130613461136818, 0.20398564636707306, 0.3004830777645111, -0.16518080234527588, 0.06510405242443085, -0.023930057883262634, -0.2325085997581482, 0.11022327840328217, -0.24802592396736145, 0.084339886903...	4	Definition of Nursing Nursing has a long history as a way to provide help to patients as they work toward health goals. From the earliest nuns who cared for the sick and dying to the modern men and women who work in hospitals, clinics, and homes to help people achieve and maintain health, nursing is a way to get involved in the health care industry and work with patients on a personal level. Though different nursing jobs require different duties and responsibilities, the definition of nursing has not gone through as many changes as the career itself. The history of nursing Nursing began, simply enough, as a practice to help people get healthy. Nurses would help physicians care for patients, which included things like helping them eat, tending to their hygiene, and making sure the physician’s orders were followed for the patient. However, there was no formal education for nurses initially, and nursing duties were most often carried out by nuns or people in the military. It wasn’t until Florence Nightingale worked as a nurse that nursing began to resemble what it is today. Nightingale and modern nursing Florence Nightingale is considered the mother of modern nursing. After observing men dying in military hospitals during war, Nightingale worked to make changes that improved sanitation and conditions for patients in both military and civilian hospitals. She also founded the first nursing school, which formalized education for nurses. This ensured that certain standards could be followed and specific nursing techniques and procedures taught to nurses, which provided better care for patients. Nursing remained a helping profession within the field of health care, but with the changes made by Nightingale, it became recognized as a professional field rather than charity or opportunity for volunteer work. Nursing in modern society has stayed close to the definition created by Florence Nightingale. Essentially, nurses provide care for people of all ages, including individuals, families, and communities. Nursing also often includes education; nurses provide information and resources for patients to deal with illnesses or disabilities, or to maintain health. Different nurses provide different types of care. Some provide general care to patients such as administering medication, taking vitals, and helping them dress or bathe, while other nurses have more specialized responsibilities such as performing tests for physicians or monitoring patients undergoing procedures. Nursing has changed as nursing technology and medicine have advanced, but the core of nursing has remained the same, and that is to help people get and stay healthy. Nursing is a helping profession that can ensure that patients have what they need to get healthy. Whether they provide general care for patients in hospitals or educate communities and families about how to stay healthy at home, nursing is about helping people. Finding your own specialty in the field of nursing will allow you to get involved in a career that has a long history of working with patients toward health, and be a part of the noble helping profession.	577	ENGLISH	1
Saturday marks the anniversary of the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act, which in 1887 created the first federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). Although those who created the ICC had no intention of establishing the modern administrative state we now have, the creation of the ICC was an inadvertent first step toward the federal leviathan that governs us today. The ICC was originally created to address growing problems created by the expansion of railroads in America. It was the outgrowth of the “Granger” movement, which took hold in many Midwestern states such as Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Kansas. The Grangers were farmers who were angry over the immense power held by railroads, banks, and other economic combinations as a result of the Industrial Revolution. While some of the Grangers were radical, they were as fearful of unaccountable bureaucrats in centralized agencies as they were of centralized economic power. (One might even say that the Grangers were the first “occupiers,” but unlike today’s Occupy movement, the Grangers did not think that big government was the solution.) Since there was little clamor for big government during the 1880s, the ICC’s powers were carefully limited. For years after it was created, the ICC did not have the power to set railroad rates. The main powers held by the ICC were investigatory. It could investigate railroad abuses and corruption and could issue cease-and-desist orders, but courts were charged with enforcing those orders. The turning point for the ICC came in 1906, when Congress passed the Hepburn Act, which gave the ICC the power to set railroad rates—essentially a legislative power to set standards for action that the railroads had to follow. Theodore Roosevelt campaigned extensively for the Hepburn Act, circumventing Congress and going straight to the American people to lobby for its passage. Despite the limited powers originally entrusted to the ICC in 1887, Roosevelt and other Progressive reformers had big plans for the expansion and centralization of government, and they used the precedent of the ICC to establish what has now become our administrative state. When the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) was created in 1913, for instance, legislators recognized that they were giving a massive grant of power to a commission vested with legislative, executive, and judicial powers. The Federal Trade Commission Act authorized the FTC to prohibit “unfair methods of competition in commerce” without defining that phrase. The FTC Act authorized the FTC to make laws that were to be carried out and enforced by the FTC itself. And like the FTC, many of the alphabet-soup agencies we have today make law, execute law, and even adjudicate cases like a court. In Federalist No. 47, James Madison called this “the very definition of tyranny,” but few citizens today recognize how far we’ve strayed from Madison’s wisdom. In 1995, the ICC was abolished, but its legacy lives on today. Though it was not intended to serve as a precursor to the administrative state, the birth of the ICC in 1887 in many ways set precedents that would be used to put us on our current path. Source material can be found at this site.	<urn:uuid:b13fffbb-0326-4f8f-bdb2-daf886246748>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://conservativepapers.com/news/2012/02/05/the-first-step-toward-creating-the-administrative-state/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00452.warc.gz	en	0.98443	662	3.609375	4	[ -0.6714351773262024, -0.04877148196101189, 0.34300440549850464, 0.24197401106357574, -0.42589420080184937, 0.06827844679355621, 0.06682460010051727, 0.22104540467262268, -0.3401631712913513, 0.023130662739276886, 0.3153439164161682, -0.010376264341175556, -0.03314470872282982, 0.4492576122...	2	Saturday marks the anniversary of the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act, which in 1887 created the first federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). Although those who created the ICC had no intention of establishing the modern administrative state we now have, the creation of the ICC was an inadvertent first step toward the federal leviathan that governs us today. The ICC was originally created to address growing problems created by the expansion of railroads in America. It was the outgrowth of the “Granger” movement, which took hold in many Midwestern states such as Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Kansas. The Grangers were farmers who were angry over the immense power held by railroads, banks, and other economic combinations as a result of the Industrial Revolution. While some of the Grangers were radical, they were as fearful of unaccountable bureaucrats in centralized agencies as they were of centralized economic power. (One might even say that the Grangers were the first “occupiers,” but unlike today’s Occupy movement, the Grangers did not think that big government was the solution.) Since there was little clamor for big government during the 1880s, the ICC’s powers were carefully limited. For years after it was created, the ICC did not have the power to set railroad rates. The main powers held by the ICC were investigatory. It could investigate railroad abuses and corruption and could issue cease-and-desist orders, but courts were charged with enforcing those orders. The turning point for the ICC came in 1906, when Congress passed the Hepburn Act, which gave the ICC the power to set railroad rates—essentially a legislative power to set standards for action that the railroads had to follow. Theodore Roosevelt campaigned extensively for the Hepburn Act, circumventing Congress and going straight to the American people to lobby for its passage. Despite the limited powers originally entrusted to the ICC in 1887, Roosevelt and other Progressive reformers had big plans for the expansion and centralization of government, and they used the precedent of the ICC to establish what has now become our administrative state. When the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) was created in 1913, for instance, legislators recognized that they were giving a massive grant of power to a commission vested with legislative, executive, and judicial powers. The Federal Trade Commission Act authorized the FTC to prohibit “unfair methods of competition in commerce” without defining that phrase. The FTC Act authorized the FTC to make laws that were to be carried out and enforced by the FTC itself. And like the FTC, many of the alphabet-soup agencies we have today make law, execute law, and even adjudicate cases like a court. In Federalist No. 47, James Madison called this “the very definition of tyranny,” but few citizens today recognize how far we’ve strayed from Madison’s wisdom. In 1995, the ICC was abolished, but its legacy lives on today. Though it was not intended to serve as a precursor to the administrative state, the birth of the ICC in 1887 in many ways set precedents that would be used to put us on our current path. Source material can be found at this site.	662	ENGLISH	1
In May 1864, after the Confederate troops under Robert E. Lee were unable to stop Ulysses S. Grant’s army’s march through Virginia at the Battle of Spotsylvania, Lee would attempt once more and the two armies would meet again. Grant’s march continued, and at North Anna River, Virginia, the two armies met. Lee had established his position on the side of the river opposite Grant’s march after securing a strategic railroad junction, Hanover Junction. Grant’s army was divided by the terrain of the river, and Lee’s position looked as if it would pay off until Lee missed his opportunity to attack Grant’s displaced army. The fighting began on May 31at Cold Harbor, Virginia, where Lee hoped once more to stop the Union march toward Richmond. There was little decisive action on either side on the first few days, and on the 3rd of June Grant decided to go on the offensive against the defensive and well-entrenched position. Grant hoped that this attack would catch Lee off guard and believe that sending waves of men at Lee would send his men retreating. The Union civilians, headed by Abraham Lincoln, were anxious and pressing Grant for a victory that would secure Union victory in the war. Despite outnumbering the enemy by over ten thousand Grant was unable to push the Confederates out of their position. One key aspect to his attack was that it diverted Lee’s attention away from the Union troops that were marching toward Petersburg, Virginia. P.G.T Beauregard was in charge of defending Petersburg, and when Grant’s troops were marching toward his position, Beauregard requested reinforcements from Lee’s position. Later that month Lee was able to reinforce Beauregard’s troops, though some time had passed before he did so. Despite Lee’s late action, Grant did not take advantage of the relatively light defenses of Petersburg before Lee reinforced the troops there, and Grant did not capture Petersburg, a railway junction that supplied Richmond. Grant’s troops were unable to take Petersburg after several days of fighting, and the casualties on each side began to increase. For more than a month since the Battle of Spotsylvania Union and Confederate troops were in near-constant fighting and both sides began to become weary. Because Grant did not deliver success during the offensive that failed on many different levels, the Northern people began to get restless with Grant more and more by the day. Lincoln had replaced generals he believed were incapable or unwilling to do their duties, and it seemed as if Grant was dangerously close to being replaced. There had not been much good news from Grant despite the fact that Grant’s troops were currently in Virginia, and the territory he had gained in the past year was astounding and pushed the Confederates to the brink of collapse. In spite of this, Northern morale dropped because of the constant casualties that were mounting and Grant’s indecisiveness costing him Petersburg as well as being unable to push Lee’s troops out of their entrenchment at Cold Harbor. Grant’s days as the General-in-Chief, it seemed, were surely numbered under Lincoln’s leadership. College level lecture Archer Jones and Herman Hattaway – “How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War” James McPherson – “Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era”	<urn:uuid:ac7408cb-fc7f-4ac0-b1e4-421204b8fbc0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://yuptab.com/grants-march-to-petersburg-losing-support-in-1864/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00506.warc.gz	en	0.984039	713	3.640625	4	[ -0.6100265383720398, 0.05125629901885986, 0.3356248438358307, 0.40102529525756836, 0.024852991104125977, -0.13528725504875183, -0.12125058472156525, -0.19844485819339752, -0.3746644854545593, 0.02943548560142517, 0.05479602515697479, -0.11470378190279007, 0.1971350610256195, 0.210730671882...	2	In May 1864, after the Confederate troops under Robert E. Lee were unable to stop Ulysses S. Grant’s army’s march through Virginia at the Battle of Spotsylvania, Lee would attempt once more and the two armies would meet again. Grant’s march continued, and at North Anna River, Virginia, the two armies met. Lee had established his position on the side of the river opposite Grant’s march after securing a strategic railroad junction, Hanover Junction. Grant’s army was divided by the terrain of the river, and Lee’s position looked as if it would pay off until Lee missed his opportunity to attack Grant’s displaced army. The fighting began on May 31at Cold Harbor, Virginia, where Lee hoped once more to stop the Union march toward Richmond. There was little decisive action on either side on the first few days, and on the 3rd of June Grant decided to go on the offensive against the defensive and well-entrenched position. Grant hoped that this attack would catch Lee off guard and believe that sending waves of men at Lee would send his men retreating. The Union civilians, headed by Abraham Lincoln, were anxious and pressing Grant for a victory that would secure Union victory in the war. Despite outnumbering the enemy by over ten thousand Grant was unable to push the Confederates out of their position. One key aspect to his attack was that it diverted Lee’s attention away from the Union troops that were marching toward Petersburg, Virginia. P.G.T Beauregard was in charge of defending Petersburg, and when Grant’s troops were marching toward his position, Beauregard requested reinforcements from Lee’s position. Later that month Lee was able to reinforce Beauregard’s troops, though some time had passed before he did so. Despite Lee’s late action, Grant did not take advantage of the relatively light defenses of Petersburg before Lee reinforced the troops there, and Grant did not capture Petersburg, a railway junction that supplied Richmond. Grant’s troops were unable to take Petersburg after several days of fighting, and the casualties on each side began to increase. For more than a month since the Battle of Spotsylvania Union and Confederate troops were in near-constant fighting and both sides began to become weary. Because Grant did not deliver success during the offensive that failed on many different levels, the Northern people began to get restless with Grant more and more by the day. Lincoln had replaced generals he believed were incapable or unwilling to do their duties, and it seemed as if Grant was dangerously close to being replaced. There had not been much good news from Grant despite the fact that Grant’s troops were currently in Virginia, and the territory he had gained in the past year was astounding and pushed the Confederates to the brink of collapse. In spite of this, Northern morale dropped because of the constant casualties that were mounting and Grant’s indecisiveness costing him Petersburg as well as being unable to push Lee’s troops out of their entrenchment at Cold Harbor. Grant’s days as the General-in-Chief, it seemed, were surely numbered under Lincoln’s leadership. College level lecture Archer Jones and Herman Hattaway – “How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War” James McPherson – “Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era”	664	ENGLISH	1
Kabuki: The people's dramatic art - Amanda Mattes - 575,967 Views - 3,735 Questions Answered - TEDEd Animation For more information about Kabuki stages, please visit this site. Bunraku was developed as an easier means to tell the more fantastical stories. Kabuki actors are trained in a set role and maintain that role for the rest of their careers. Such as the Onnagata, which is the female impersonator, meant that these actors were trained in very specific movements, and wore restrictive clothing. They could not easily adapt to the more dangerous stunts, and thus, puppets were introduced. The Kabuki and Bunraku play equivalents usually only differ in how the action is carried out, often when death and murder are portrayed. Or when a supernatural being is introduced. Though, this became easier in the mid-19th-century, during the Meiji era, when "Chunori," a way to wire costumes so the actors could fly, was invented. Later in the 18th-century, the Kuroko were added, as a way to shift scenery, along with the Mawari Butai. They were small performers dressed all in black, with their faces covered. The idea was that when they appeared, the backdrop would also be black, and they would blend in- giving an impression that the pieces were moving on their own. Please visit this site for more resources about Bunraku. This video depicts a modern interpretation and rehearsal of the Nembutsu Odori Shrine dance, which is what Okuni was said to be imitating. Instead of the flags and drums seen here, Okuni was known to use fans, lengths of silk, and at times, Samurai swords. Create and share a new lesson based on this one.	<urn:uuid:2e58b14d-26fa-481a-ac06-36a14c67abf7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ed.ted.com/lessons/kabuki-the-people-s-dramatic-art-amanda-mattes	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00459.warc.gz	en	0.988042	375	3.390625	3	[ -0.3613695502281189, -0.26667529344558716, 0.47102728486061096, 0.16571995615959167, 0.07326985150575638, 0.28123804926872253, 0.18897241353988647, -0.03145866096019745, -0.23703967034816742, -0.1828266978263855, 0.06349273025989532, -0.36640965938568115, 0.08294719457626343, 0.29314890503...	1	Kabuki: The people's dramatic art - Amanda Mattes - 575,967 Views - 3,735 Questions Answered - TEDEd Animation For more information about Kabuki stages, please visit this site. Bunraku was developed as an easier means to tell the more fantastical stories. Kabuki actors are trained in a set role and maintain that role for the rest of their careers. Such as the Onnagata, which is the female impersonator, meant that these actors were trained in very specific movements, and wore restrictive clothing. They could not easily adapt to the more dangerous stunts, and thus, puppets were introduced. The Kabuki and Bunraku play equivalents usually only differ in how the action is carried out, often when death and murder are portrayed. Or when a supernatural being is introduced. Though, this became easier in the mid-19th-century, during the Meiji era, when "Chunori," a way to wire costumes so the actors could fly, was invented. Later in the 18th-century, the Kuroko were added, as a way to shift scenery, along with the Mawari Butai. They were small performers dressed all in black, with their faces covered. The idea was that when they appeared, the backdrop would also be black, and they would blend in- giving an impression that the pieces were moving on their own. Please visit this site for more resources about Bunraku. This video depicts a modern interpretation and rehearsal of the Nembutsu Odori Shrine dance, which is what Okuni was said to be imitating. Instead of the flags and drums seen here, Okuni was known to use fans, lengths of silk, and at times, Samurai swords. Create and share a new lesson based on this one.	381	ENGLISH	1
Why the Rosenhan Experiment still matters One flew east, one flew west, eight shrinks flew into the cuckoo's nest. - In 1973, eight experimenters faked insanity to see how easy it was to get into a mental hospital. The hard part was getting out. - Their findings sparked a great debate over how psychiatry treated patients and how accurate diagnostic procedures were. - In an age marked by a lack of proper mental health care, the finding that it was too easy to get a doctor's attention seems shocking. In the United States, mental health care can be difficult to come by. One-third of Americans live in a "mental health professional shortage area" and lack access to mental health facilities; this probably explains why less than half of the people who need treatment get it. It can almost seem like you have to be at the end of your rope to get help sometimes. It didn't use to be this way though; there was that one time that a psychologist found it was easier to fake your way into a mental hospital than it was to get out. The Rosenhan experiment In 1973, after hearing a lecture from the anti-psychiatry figure R.D. Laing the psychologist David Rosenhan decided to test how rigorous psychiatric diagnoses were at modern hospitals by first trying to get into them with fake symptoms and then trying to get out by acting normally. Eight experimenters participated, including Dr. Rosenhan. All but two of them were somehow involved in medicine, so fake names and occupations were created to both avoid the enhanced scrutiny they expected members of their field to be given when claiming insanity and to prevent the test subjects from facing the stigmas of mental illness after the experiment ended. The pseudopatients all reported the same symptoms, an auditory hallucination saying the words "empty," "hollow," and "thud." These words were chosen to invoke the idea of an existential crisis. They were also chosen because, at the time, there was no literature on an "existential psychosis." Much to the pseudopatients' surprise, they were all admitted to all 12 hospitals they went to with little difficulty. In all but one case, they were given a diagnosis of schizophrenia. In the outlier, a private hospital gave them a slightly more optimistic diagnosis of "manic-depressive psychosis." Once admitted to the hospital, the patients were instructed to act normally and do what they could to be released. This led them all to be "paragons of cooperation" and to fully participate in ward life. They attended therapy, socialized with others, and even accepted their medications which they then disposed of. If asked, they were to say their symptoms had disappeared entirely. Shockingly, the staff had no idea any of them were faking. Their normal behavior was medicalized into symptoms of their schizophrenia. For example, since all of the pseudopatients were taking notes on the hospital, naturally one of them had the note "patient engages in writing behavior" added to their file. Also, simply lining up early to get food was cited as an example of "oral-acquisitive" psychotic behavior. The life details of the subjects, all fairly typical for the time, were suddenly signs of pathological behavior. One pseudopatient reported that he had a happy marriage though he occasionally fought with his wife and that he did spank his children on rare occasions. While this might seem like a standard 1960s life, his file read: "His attempts to control emotionality with his wife and children are punctuated by angry outbursts and, in the case of the children, spankings." Schizophrenia’s Identity Crisis Amusingly, while the staff at the hospitals had no idea they had fakers in the ward, the real patients often caught on very quickly. The participants reported dozens of cases of their wardmates coming up to them and accusing them of being either a journalist or professor playing sick in order to take notes about the hospital. Disturbingly, the fakers also reported that the staff was dehumanizing and often brutal. Conversations with staff were limited by their frequent absence. When the staff did have time to talk, they were often curt and dismissive. Orderlies would often be both physically and verbally abusive when other workers were absent. The pseudopatients reported they often felt invisible, as the staff would act like they weren't even there. These details were made worse by the powerlessness felt by the pseudopatients, which was reinforced both by hospital hierarchy and then current law. Despite all the evidence that the experimenters were faking it, the shortest stay lasted a week, and the longest was 52 days. The typical stint lasted almost three weeks. All of the patients diagnosed with schizophrenia were deemed "in remission" upon being discharged, leading Dr. Rosenhan to write: "At no time during any hospitalization had any question been raised about any pseudopatient's simulation. Nor are there any indications in the hospital records that the pseudopatient's status was suspect. Rather the evidence is strong that, once labeled schizophrenic, the pseudopatient was stuck with that label. If the pseudopatient was to be discharged, he must naturally be 'in remission'; but he was not sane, nor, in the institution's view, had he ever been sane." Dr. Rosenhan concluded that, "It is clear that we cannot distinguish the sane from the insane in psychiatric hospitals." He was forgiving, however, and noted that at least some of the problem could be attributed to a desire to err on the side of caution and admit a potential faker with only one reported symptom before letting somebody in serious need of treatment go without. He went on to explain how another hospital challenged him to send an actor which they would then identify. After presenting him with their lengthy list of suspected actors they had admitted, Dr. Rosenhan revealed that he hadn't sent anybody at all. He saw this as further evidence of his conclusion. How did people take this report? The report, published in Science, was a minor bombshell that landed on a profession that was already reevaluating its methods in the wake of a society suddenly coming to grips with the conditions of mental asylums, an increasing number of findings that suggested institutionalization wasn't the only way to treat mental illness, and the discovery by a group of British shrinks that American doctors were handing out diagnoses of schizophrenia left and right when other conditions were really at work. When the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the big book of mental illnesses and their symptoms, was updated in 1980 for its third edition, the debate around Rosenhan's experiment likely motivated the authors to make the symptom descriptions used to define various conditions more stringent. What’s the catch? There has to be a catch with a study like this. The methods of this experiment were questioned immediately, as they are atypical at best and unscientific at worst. Physician Fred Hunter pointed out in his letter to Science that if the patients were acting "normally" during their stays, they would have revealed their lie and asked to leave shortly after arriving. He also criticized both the methods and the findings of the stunt. Psychiatrist Robert Spitzer also dismissed the whole thing as pseudoscience in a strongly worded academic article. There is also the question of whether the conclusion is meaningful at all. Neuroscientist Seymour S. Kety pointed out that a similar stunt in an emergency room would hardly be considered a groundbreaking study, given how important honest reporting is in medicine: "If I were to drink a quart of blood and, concealing what I had done, come to the emergency room of any hospital vomiting blood, the behavior of the staff would be quite predictable. If they labeled and treated me as having a bleeding peptic ulcer, I doubt that I could argue convincingly that medical science does not know how to diagnose that condition." The continuing problems of dehumanization and deinstitutionalization The findings of the study on how the mentally ill were treated, even in cases where they were paragons of cooperation, was widely accepted as a valid and needed critique. Even Dr. Hunter admitted that Rosenhan's experiment did a good thing by exposing these horrors. Regrettably, today we still have need of Rosenhan's reports on this subject. In the United States, sixteen percent of people in jails have a mental illness. This is three times as many people as are seeking care for these conditions in hospitals and is creating new forms of institutionalization. The stigma around mental illness remains as strong as ever. While many people think the mentally ill are dangerous, statistics show they are much more likely to be the victims of violence themselves rather than hurt anybody else. It seems that Dr. Rosenhan's lament that "The mentally ill are society's lepers" has yet to be made obsolete by progress. Are there any other experiments like this? Could this have just been a disturbing blip? Depressingly, this isn't the only experiment to use these methods to conclude that how we treat mental illness needs work. In 1887, almost a century before Rosenhan's article, Nellie Bly faked insanity to enter the Woman's Lunatic Asylum in New York City. The book she wrote about her experience, Ten Days in a Madhouse, revealed the horrific conditions in the hospital and led to an inquiry that resulted in increased funding and more rigorous standards. Modern attempts to recreate the study have shown some changes in the field of psychiatry. In 2001, seven people who had schizophrenia presented themselves to intake offices in search of treatment; all of them were denied care due to lack of resources. In 2004, writer Lauren Slater claimed to have repeated Rosenhan's experiment herself but was only given medication to go with her quick diagnosis. If she actually carried out this experiment remains a subject of debate. Psychiatry has improved dramatically since the days of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and David Rosenhan's stings. Studies have shown the objectivity of psychiatric diagnoses remains comparable to that of the rest of medical science while acknowledging that some subjectivity is inevitable. Better methods of integration have made it difficult to tell who has a diagnosed mental illness and who doesn't in normal circumstances. Deinstitutionalization has improved the lives of many people who would otherwise be locked away. But while asylums are largely gone, there is still much work to be done. Rosenhan's experiment will continue to remind us that being labeled as crazy can lead to a dehumanization with consequences just as isolating as any mental illness. When it comes to foreign intervention, we often overlook the practices that creep into life back home.	<urn:uuid:75a309d5-d058-4a5e-89c1-630d41350fb5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bigthink.com/rosenhan-experiment-mental-institution	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00151.warc.gz	en	0.984694	2,211	3.578125	4	[ -0.057797424495220184, 0.0469113364815712, -0.09072022140026093, 0.07476408779621124, 0.03159409388899803, 0.5389419198036194, 0.45748794078826904, 0.06712247431278229, -0.22304891049861908, -0.43883204460144043, 0.2731824517250061, -0.1509743630886078, 0.0066754017025232315, 0.06848712265...	1	Why the Rosenhan Experiment still matters One flew east, one flew west, eight shrinks flew into the cuckoo's nest. - In 1973, eight experimenters faked insanity to see how easy it was to get into a mental hospital. The hard part was getting out. - Their findings sparked a great debate over how psychiatry treated patients and how accurate diagnostic procedures were. - In an age marked by a lack of proper mental health care, the finding that it was too easy to get a doctor's attention seems shocking. In the United States, mental health care can be difficult to come by. One-third of Americans live in a "mental health professional shortage area" and lack access to mental health facilities; this probably explains why less than half of the people who need treatment get it. It can almost seem like you have to be at the end of your rope to get help sometimes. It didn't use to be this way though; there was that one time that a psychologist found it was easier to fake your way into a mental hospital than it was to get out. The Rosenhan experiment In 1973, after hearing a lecture from the anti-psychiatry figure R.D. Laing the psychologist David Rosenhan decided to test how rigorous psychiatric diagnoses were at modern hospitals by first trying to get into them with fake symptoms and then trying to get out by acting normally. Eight experimenters participated, including Dr. Rosenhan. All but two of them were somehow involved in medicine, so fake names and occupations were created to both avoid the enhanced scrutiny they expected members of their field to be given when claiming insanity and to prevent the test subjects from facing the stigmas of mental illness after the experiment ended. The pseudopatients all reported the same symptoms, an auditory hallucination saying the words "empty," "hollow," and "thud." These words were chosen to invoke the idea of an existential crisis. They were also chosen because, at the time, there was no literature on an "existential psychosis." Much to the pseudopatients' surprise, they were all admitted to all 12 hospitals they went to with little difficulty. In all but one case, they were given a diagnosis of schizophrenia. In the outlier, a private hospital gave them a slightly more optimistic diagnosis of "manic-depressive psychosis." Once admitted to the hospital, the patients were instructed to act normally and do what they could to be released. This led them all to be "paragons of cooperation" and to fully participate in ward life. They attended therapy, socialized with others, and even accepted their medications which they then disposed of. If asked, they were to say their symptoms had disappeared entirely. Shockingly, the staff had no idea any of them were faking. Their normal behavior was medicalized into symptoms of their schizophrenia. For example, since all of the pseudopatients were taking notes on the hospital, naturally one of them had the note "patient engages in writing behavior" added to their file. Also, simply lining up early to get food was cited as an example of "oral-acquisitive" psychotic behavior. The life details of the subjects, all fairly typical for the time, were suddenly signs of pathological behavior. One pseudopatient reported that he had a happy marriage though he occasionally fought with his wife and that he did spank his children on rare occasions. While this might seem like a standard 1960s life, his file read: "His attempts to control emotionality with his wife and children are punctuated by angry outbursts and, in the case of the children, spankings." Schizophrenia’s Identity Crisis Amusingly, while the staff at the hospitals had no idea they had fakers in the ward, the real patients often caught on very quickly. The participants reported dozens of cases of their wardmates coming up to them and accusing them of being either a journalist or professor playing sick in order to take notes about the hospital. Disturbingly, the fakers also reported that the staff was dehumanizing and often brutal. Conversations with staff were limited by their frequent absence. When the staff did have time to talk, they were often curt and dismissive. Orderlies would often be both physically and verbally abusive when other workers were absent. The pseudopatients reported they often felt invisible, as the staff would act like they weren't even there. These details were made worse by the powerlessness felt by the pseudopatients, which was reinforced both by hospital hierarchy and then current law. Despite all the evidence that the experimenters were faking it, the shortest stay lasted a week, and the longest was 52 days. The typical stint lasted almost three weeks. All of the patients diagnosed with schizophrenia were deemed "in remission" upon being discharged, leading Dr. Rosenhan to write: "At no time during any hospitalization had any question been raised about any pseudopatient's simulation. Nor are there any indications in the hospital records that the pseudopatient's status was suspect. Rather the evidence is strong that, once labeled schizophrenic, the pseudopatient was stuck with that label. If the pseudopatient was to be discharged, he must naturally be 'in remission'; but he was not sane, nor, in the institution's view, had he ever been sane." Dr. Rosenhan concluded that, "It is clear that we cannot distinguish the sane from the insane in psychiatric hospitals." He was forgiving, however, and noted that at least some of the problem could be attributed to a desire to err on the side of caution and admit a potential faker with only one reported symptom before letting somebody in serious need of treatment go without. He went on to explain how another hospital challenged him to send an actor which they would then identify. After presenting him with their lengthy list of suspected actors they had admitted, Dr. Rosenhan revealed that he hadn't sent anybody at all. He saw this as further evidence of his conclusion. How did people take this report? The report, published in Science, was a minor bombshell that landed on a profession that was already reevaluating its methods in the wake of a society suddenly coming to grips with the conditions of mental asylums, an increasing number of findings that suggested institutionalization wasn't the only way to treat mental illness, and the discovery by a group of British shrinks that American doctors were handing out diagnoses of schizophrenia left and right when other conditions were really at work. When the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the big book of mental illnesses and their symptoms, was updated in 1980 for its third edition, the debate around Rosenhan's experiment likely motivated the authors to make the symptom descriptions used to define various conditions more stringent. What’s the catch? There has to be a catch with a study like this. The methods of this experiment were questioned immediately, as they are atypical at best and unscientific at worst. Physician Fred Hunter pointed out in his letter to Science that if the patients were acting "normally" during their stays, they would have revealed their lie and asked to leave shortly after arriving. He also criticized both the methods and the findings of the stunt. Psychiatrist Robert Spitzer also dismissed the whole thing as pseudoscience in a strongly worded academic article. There is also the question of whether the conclusion is meaningful at all. Neuroscientist Seymour S. Kety pointed out that a similar stunt in an emergency room would hardly be considered a groundbreaking study, given how important honest reporting is in medicine: "If I were to drink a quart of blood and, concealing what I had done, come to the emergency room of any hospital vomiting blood, the behavior of the staff would be quite predictable. If they labeled and treated me as having a bleeding peptic ulcer, I doubt that I could argue convincingly that medical science does not know how to diagnose that condition." The continuing problems of dehumanization and deinstitutionalization The findings of the study on how the mentally ill were treated, even in cases where they were paragons of cooperation, was widely accepted as a valid and needed critique. Even Dr. Hunter admitted that Rosenhan's experiment did a good thing by exposing these horrors. Regrettably, today we still have need of Rosenhan's reports on this subject. In the United States, sixteen percent of people in jails have a mental illness. This is three times as many people as are seeking care for these conditions in hospitals and is creating new forms of institutionalization. The stigma around mental illness remains as strong as ever. While many people think the mentally ill are dangerous, statistics show they are much more likely to be the victims of violence themselves rather than hurt anybody else. It seems that Dr. Rosenhan's lament that "The mentally ill are society's lepers" has yet to be made obsolete by progress. Are there any other experiments like this? Could this have just been a disturbing blip? Depressingly, this isn't the only experiment to use these methods to conclude that how we treat mental illness needs work. In 1887, almost a century before Rosenhan's article, Nellie Bly faked insanity to enter the Woman's Lunatic Asylum in New York City. The book she wrote about her experience, Ten Days in a Madhouse, revealed the horrific conditions in the hospital and led to an inquiry that resulted in increased funding and more rigorous standards. Modern attempts to recreate the study have shown some changes in the field of psychiatry. In 2001, seven people who had schizophrenia presented themselves to intake offices in search of treatment; all of them were denied care due to lack of resources. In 2004, writer Lauren Slater claimed to have repeated Rosenhan's experiment herself but was only given medication to go with her quick diagnosis. If she actually carried out this experiment remains a subject of debate. Psychiatry has improved dramatically since the days of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and David Rosenhan's stings. Studies have shown the objectivity of psychiatric diagnoses remains comparable to that of the rest of medical science while acknowledging that some subjectivity is inevitable. Better methods of integration have made it difficult to tell who has a diagnosed mental illness and who doesn't in normal circumstances. Deinstitutionalization has improved the lives of many people who would otherwise be locked away. But while asylums are largely gone, there is still much work to be done. Rosenhan's experiment will continue to remind us that being labeled as crazy can lead to a dehumanization with consequences just as isolating as any mental illness. When it comes to foreign intervention, we often overlook the practices that creep into life back home.	2,197	ENGLISH	1
If this is okay with you, please close this message. Explains what mental health problems are, what may cause them, and the many different kinds of help, treatment and support that are available. Also provides guidance on where to find more information, and tips for friends and family. In many ways, mental health is just like physical health: everybody has it and we need to take care of it. Good mental health means being generally able to think, feel and react in the ways that you need and want to live your life. But if you go through a period of poor mental health you might find the ways you're frequently thinking, feeling or reacting become difficult, or even impossible, to cope with. This can feel just as bad as a physical illness, or even worse. Mental health problems affect around one in four people in any given year. They range from common problems, such as depression and anxiety, to rarer problems such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. "I now know that if I felt there was something wrong, it's because there was, but I didn't understand mental health fully... it's a spectrum and you should feel able to decide where and when you [are] on that spectrum." This animation explains what mental health problems are and how they can affect us. Experiencing a mental health problem is often upsetting, confusing and frightening – particularly at first. If you become unwell, you may feel that it's a sign of weakness, or that you are 'losing your mind'. These fears are often reinforced by the negative (and often unrealistic) way that people experiencing mental health problems are shown on TV, in films and by the media. This may stop you from talking about your problems, or seeking help. This, in turn, is likely to increase your distress and sense of isolation. However, in reality, mental health problems are a common human experience. Most people know someone who has experienced a mental health problem. They can happen to all kinds of people from all walks of life. And it's likely that, when you find a combination of self-care, treatment and support that works for you, you will get better. "It wasn't until I had a breakdown that I felt my condition was 'serious enough' to qualify as an issue. I could have got help much earlier but I didn't because of this – it's never too early to seek advice." This information was published in October 2017. We will revise it in 2020. References are available on request. If you would like to reproduce any of this information, see our page on permissions and licensing.	<urn:uuid:30bc20b7-1fed-4de9-8256-79cbd251bc7f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/mental-health-problems-introduction/about-mental-health-problems/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00366.warc.gz	en	0.980661	539	3.28125	3	[ -0.20678584277629852, 0.008989278227090836, 0.28123870491981506, -0.049087271094322205, 0.11046822369098663, 0.4098171591758728, 0.6392320394515991, -0.09158361703157425, -0.14084108173847198, -0.21619293093681335, 0.5038803815841675, -0.25327742099761963, 0.1250791996717453, 0.14658522605...	2	If this is okay with you, please close this message. Explains what mental health problems are, what may cause them, and the many different kinds of help, treatment and support that are available. Also provides guidance on where to find more information, and tips for friends and family. In many ways, mental health is just like physical health: everybody has it and we need to take care of it. Good mental health means being generally able to think, feel and react in the ways that you need and want to live your life. But if you go through a period of poor mental health you might find the ways you're frequently thinking, feeling or reacting become difficult, or even impossible, to cope with. This can feel just as bad as a physical illness, or even worse. Mental health problems affect around one in four people in any given year. They range from common problems, such as depression and anxiety, to rarer problems such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. "I now know that if I felt there was something wrong, it's because there was, but I didn't understand mental health fully... it's a spectrum and you should feel able to decide where and when you [are] on that spectrum." This animation explains what mental health problems are and how they can affect us. Experiencing a mental health problem is often upsetting, confusing and frightening – particularly at first. If you become unwell, you may feel that it's a sign of weakness, or that you are 'losing your mind'. These fears are often reinforced by the negative (and often unrealistic) way that people experiencing mental health problems are shown on TV, in films and by the media. This may stop you from talking about your problems, or seeking help. This, in turn, is likely to increase your distress and sense of isolation. However, in reality, mental health problems are a common human experience. Most people know someone who has experienced a mental health problem. They can happen to all kinds of people from all walks of life. And it's likely that, when you find a combination of self-care, treatment and support that works for you, you will get better. "It wasn't until I had a breakdown that I felt my condition was 'serious enough' to qualify as an issue. I could have got help much earlier but I didn't because of this – it's never too early to seek advice." This information was published in October 2017. We will revise it in 2020. References are available on request. If you would like to reproduce any of this information, see our page on permissions and licensing.	530	ENGLISH	1
Here’s what happened to Robert E. Lee after the Civil War You learned about the American Civil War in your history classes. You know the North was victorious and Commanding General of the Union Army Ulysses S. Grant went on to become the 18th President of the United States. But what about Confederate Army Commanding Officer Robert E. Lee? What happened to him? We study his history during the war, but what happened to him after the war ended? He had an interesting life, but one that isn’t well-known to the public — because he preferred it that way. Facing an uncertain future After the Confederate Army surrendered to the Union Army on April 9, 1865, Lee had no idea where he would go from there. He faced an uncertain future. His military career had ended, and he decided to move his family to the country in Powhatan County, Virginia. He could never leave Virginia — his beloved state. “I cannot desert my native state in the hour of her adversity,” Lee remarked. But Lee’s family didn’t stay in Powhatan County for very long. Lee’s future was set for Lexington, Virginia, with a career in an entirely new field: higher education. From leading an army to leading a university Lexington’s Washington College (now Washington and Lee University) needed a new president. They figured Lee was the best choice, given his highly recognizable name. Lee’s family arrived in Lexington in mid-September of 1865, and he began to work right away. Washington College faced many financial difficulties, but that was before Lee arrived. Over the next five years, the college grew physically (student enrollment increased) and financially. Because of Lee’s efforts, Washington and Lee University still has its doors open today. His unfortunate decline But being the president of a university isn’t an easy job, even for someone who survived the Civil War. The heart condition that plagued him during the war grew more apparent in the late 1860s. But just like his ethics during the war, Lee wasn’t about to quit and leave the university. Unfortunately, Lee had a massive stroke on September 28, 1870. Two weeks later, on October 12, Lee died at his home on the college campus. He was 63 years old.	<urn:uuid:b34dc0af-fabc-4437-896e-527eb522b300>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.history101.com/robert-e-lee-civil-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00046.warc.gz	en	0.983892	489	3.390625	3	[ -0.303331583738327, 0.5035507678985596, 0.4888865649700165, -0.033180221915245056, 0.12601147592067719, 0.14724397659301758, 0.2765752077102661, -0.12030644714832306, -0.1445431262254715, 0.3482339084148407, 0.2963753938674927, 0.2411530464887619, 0.2848852276802063, 0.18298937380313873, ...	3	Here’s what happened to Robert E. Lee after the Civil War You learned about the American Civil War in your history classes. You know the North was victorious and Commanding General of the Union Army Ulysses S. Grant went on to become the 18th President of the United States. But what about Confederate Army Commanding Officer Robert E. Lee? What happened to him? We study his history during the war, but what happened to him after the war ended? He had an interesting life, but one that isn’t well-known to the public — because he preferred it that way. Facing an uncertain future After the Confederate Army surrendered to the Union Army on April 9, 1865, Lee had no idea where he would go from there. He faced an uncertain future. His military career had ended, and he decided to move his family to the country in Powhatan County, Virginia. He could never leave Virginia — his beloved state. “I cannot desert my native state in the hour of her adversity,” Lee remarked. But Lee’s family didn’t stay in Powhatan County for very long. Lee’s future was set for Lexington, Virginia, with a career in an entirely new field: higher education. From leading an army to leading a university Lexington’s Washington College (now Washington and Lee University) needed a new president. They figured Lee was the best choice, given his highly recognizable name. Lee’s family arrived in Lexington in mid-September of 1865, and he began to work right away. Washington College faced many financial difficulties, but that was before Lee arrived. Over the next five years, the college grew physically (student enrollment increased) and financially. Because of Lee’s efforts, Washington and Lee University still has its doors open today. His unfortunate decline But being the president of a university isn’t an easy job, even for someone who survived the Civil War. The heart condition that plagued him during the war grew more apparent in the late 1860s. But just like his ethics during the war, Lee wasn’t about to quit and leave the university. Unfortunately, Lee had a massive stroke on September 28, 1870. Two weeks later, on October 12, Lee died at his home on the college campus. He was 63 years old.	481	ENGLISH	1
The balloon factories were now to supply the new demand of the balloon barrages that had been set up to protect such vulnerable points as the Firth of Forth and the Thames Estuary. The Thames balloon barrage, one of the units of which is seen below was worked from mobile barges. The men of the R.A.F. who manned the balloon sections had arduous work to do, for they had to face the bitter winds and rough water that winter brought to the North Sea area. Normally the crews did turns of 48 hours straight off, but in case it should be impossible to relieve them within that time the barrage barges were provisioned for six days. Each vessel carried a balloon crew of four men in addition to the crew of the barge. On each vessel were a balloon platform, winch, and a stack of hydrogen tubes. This was one of the first photographs taken of the new balloon barrage over the Thames Estuary which helped upset the nerves of the German airmen who were attempting to lay "murder mines" in the way of British and neutral shipping. In this case the anchorage of the balloon was a motor barge.	<urn:uuid:7b9287e9-a5f0-455c-81c7-5520e40a6a9d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.ww2f.com/threads/barrage-balloons.60744/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00249.warc.gz	en	0.986152	234	3.8125	4	[ 0.06675108522176743, -0.0002244840288767591, -0.005583116784691811, -0.16946248710155487, 0.2552753984928131, -0.22143064439296722, 0.14126046001911163, -0.142337828874588, -0.4988597631454468, -0.13844941556453705, -0.10894597321748734, -0.5420030951499939, -0.23299838602542877, 0.2913451...	4	The balloon factories were now to supply the new demand of the balloon barrages that had been set up to protect such vulnerable points as the Firth of Forth and the Thames Estuary. The Thames balloon barrage, one of the units of which is seen below was worked from mobile barges. The men of the R.A.F. who manned the balloon sections had arduous work to do, for they had to face the bitter winds and rough water that winter brought to the North Sea area. Normally the crews did turns of 48 hours straight off, but in case it should be impossible to relieve them within that time the barrage barges were provisioned for six days. Each vessel carried a balloon crew of four men in addition to the crew of the barge. On each vessel were a balloon platform, winch, and a stack of hydrogen tubes. This was one of the first photographs taken of the new balloon barrage over the Thames Estuary which helped upset the nerves of the German airmen who were attempting to lay "murder mines" in the way of British and neutral shipping. In this case the anchorage of the balloon was a motor barge.	237	ENGLISH	1
Print this page The Buddha The history of Buddhism is the story of one man's spiritual journey to Enlightenment, and of the teachings and ways of living that developed from it. Siddhartha Gautama - The Buddha By finding the path to Enlightenment, Siddhartha was led from the pain of suffering and rebirth towards the path of Enlightenment and became known as the Buddha or 'awakened one'. Historians have dated his birth and death as circa BCE but more recent research suggests that he lived later than this, from around BCE until circa BCE. His original name was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. His father, Karamchand Gandhi, was a noble and pious man. In his early age, Gandhiji was deeply influenced by the religious and pious behaviour of her mother. Gandhiji received his early education and training from such pious parents. He grew up to be deeply religious, truthful, honest, and fearless from his very boyhood. He was married to Kasturba Gandhi in As a child, he was a brilliant student. He completed his matriculation examination in Inhe became a barrister and returned back to home country. At the age of 24, Mahatma Gandhi went to South Africa as a lawyer. He himself faced discrimination on several occasions. He was once disallowed to travel on first-class and thrown out of the train. Throughout his struggle, he taught people to fight for their rights through non-violence. He returned to India in Later, he was the president of Indian National Congress. Indira Gandhi’s soft-spoken, attractive personality masked her iron will and autocratic ambition, and most of her Congress contemporaries underestimated her drive and pfmlures.com her first year in office, she visited Washington, D.C., where she won substantial support for India’s weakened economy, Early life and rise to prominence. This lesson will explore the Hindu belief system by explaining the concepts of karma, dharma and moksha. It will also highlight the importance of atman within the Hindu faith. pfmlures.com is the place to go to get the answers you need and to ask the questions you want. He protested against the mis-rule of the British Government. On several occasions, he was sent to prison. There was wide participation of women in the freedom movements led by Gandhi. Non-cooperation was his great weapon. It was a movement of the masses of India. Gandhiji produced salt at Dandi without paying the salt tax. The Civil Disobediance Movement movement got support of millions of common people. He followed the principles of non-violence, truth and peace throughout his life. He proved that Ahimsa non-violence is more powerful than the sword. Gandhian era in Indian History: He shook off the British imperialism. The British were compelled to quit India. He was, thus, a saintly leader. Finally, India won its independence on 15th day of August in In India, Gandhi Jayanti is celebrated every-year on the day of his birth-anniversary. It is a national holiday. The world celebrates 2nd October as the International day of non-violence. He was a simple, pure, unselfish and religious person. He did most of his personal jobs of his own. He fought for the freedom of India through non-violent and peaceful methods. He tried hard to raise the distressed sections of the society. He fought against illiteracy. He wanted to abolish untouchability from Indian society. The life and teachings of Mahatma Gandhi were so glorious that people around the world still pay homage to him. We will always remember his in our hearts.Mahatma Gandhi is Ejected from a South African Train, Motivating Him to Fight for Indian Rights in the British Colony Pietermaritzburg is also famous for an incident early in the life of Mahatma Gandhi. Early life and education. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born to a Hindu family on 2 October , in Porbandar, Gujarat, India. He was the last child of Karamchand Gandhi, his father and his father's fourth wife Putlibai. Mohandas Gandhi was a leader for Indian civil rights and was the face of India's push for independence from British control. While in South Africa, Gandhi became acquainted with the methods of peaceful resistance and his methods continue to influence people today. Essay on Mahatma Gandhi (Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi) Early life: The birth of Mahatma Gandhi took place on 2nd day of October in at Porbandar (Gujarat). His father, Karamchand Gandhi, was a noble and pious man. Mr. Karamchand was the chief Dewan of the State of Rajkot. A timeline listing the important events during Mohandas Gandhi. Welcome to the new SparkNotes! Your book-smartest friend just got a makeover. Our most popular lit guides now have twice as much helpful stuff, . This lesson will explore the Hindu belief system by explaining the concepts of karma, dharma and moksha. It will also highlight the importance of atman within the Hindu faith.	<urn:uuid:b0c2f7ad-e978-4b0a-9c62-57078e891509>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://puwiwureto.pfmlures.com/the-early-life-and-travels-of-mohandas-gandhi-14253mt.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00009.warc.gz	en	0.981525	1,076	3.28125	3	[ 0.009882069192826748, 0.4606434106826782, -0.025352369993925095, 0.004334452096372843, -0.5576304197311401, 0.25257986783981323, 0.8466208577156067, -0.3698204457759857, 0.014955056831240654, 0.13994157314300537, -0.03944510221481323, -0.08981379121541977, 0.10882852226495743, 0.4259898364...	1	Print this page The Buddha The history of Buddhism is the story of one man's spiritual journey to Enlightenment, and of the teachings and ways of living that developed from it. Siddhartha Gautama - The Buddha By finding the path to Enlightenment, Siddhartha was led from the pain of suffering and rebirth towards the path of Enlightenment and became known as the Buddha or 'awakened one'. Historians have dated his birth and death as circa BCE but more recent research suggests that he lived later than this, from around BCE until circa BCE. His original name was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. His father, Karamchand Gandhi, was a noble and pious man. In his early age, Gandhiji was deeply influenced by the religious and pious behaviour of her mother. Gandhiji received his early education and training from such pious parents. He grew up to be deeply religious, truthful, honest, and fearless from his very boyhood. He was married to Kasturba Gandhi in As a child, he was a brilliant student. He completed his matriculation examination in Inhe became a barrister and returned back to home country. At the age of 24, Mahatma Gandhi went to South Africa as a lawyer. He himself faced discrimination on several occasions. He was once disallowed to travel on first-class and thrown out of the train. Throughout his struggle, he taught people to fight for their rights through non-violence. He returned to India in Later, he was the president of Indian National Congress. Indira Gandhi’s soft-spoken, attractive personality masked her iron will and autocratic ambition, and most of her Congress contemporaries underestimated her drive and pfmlures.com her first year in office, she visited Washington, D.C., where she won substantial support for India’s weakened economy, Early life and rise to prominence. This lesson will explore the Hindu belief system by explaining the concepts of karma, dharma and moksha. It will also highlight the importance of atman within the Hindu faith. pfmlures.com is the place to go to get the answers you need and to ask the questions you want. He protested against the mis-rule of the British Government. On several occasions, he was sent to prison. There was wide participation of women in the freedom movements led by Gandhi. Non-cooperation was his great weapon. It was a movement of the masses of India. Gandhiji produced salt at Dandi without paying the salt tax. The Civil Disobediance Movement movement got support of millions of common people. He followed the principles of non-violence, truth and peace throughout his life. He proved that Ahimsa non-violence is more powerful than the sword. Gandhian era in Indian History: He shook off the British imperialism. The British were compelled to quit India. He was, thus, a saintly leader. Finally, India won its independence on 15th day of August in In India, Gandhi Jayanti is celebrated every-year on the day of his birth-anniversary. It is a national holiday. The world celebrates 2nd October as the International day of non-violence. He was a simple, pure, unselfish and religious person. He did most of his personal jobs of his own. He fought for the freedom of India through non-violent and peaceful methods. He tried hard to raise the distressed sections of the society. He fought against illiteracy. He wanted to abolish untouchability from Indian society. The life and teachings of Mahatma Gandhi were so glorious that people around the world still pay homage to him. We will always remember his in our hearts.Mahatma Gandhi is Ejected from a South African Train, Motivating Him to Fight for Indian Rights in the British Colony Pietermaritzburg is also famous for an incident early in the life of Mahatma Gandhi. Early life and education. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born to a Hindu family on 2 October , in Porbandar, Gujarat, India. He was the last child of Karamchand Gandhi, his father and his father's fourth wife Putlibai. Mohandas Gandhi was a leader for Indian civil rights and was the face of India's push for independence from British control. While in South Africa, Gandhi became acquainted with the methods of peaceful resistance and his methods continue to influence people today. Essay on Mahatma Gandhi (Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi) Early life: The birth of Mahatma Gandhi took place on 2nd day of October in at Porbandar (Gujarat). His father, Karamchand Gandhi, was a noble and pious man. Mr. Karamchand was the chief Dewan of the State of Rajkot. A timeline listing the important events during Mohandas Gandhi. Welcome to the new SparkNotes! Your book-smartest friend just got a makeover. Our most popular lit guides now have twice as much helpful stuff, . This lesson will explore the Hindu belief system by explaining the concepts of karma, dharma and moksha. It will also highlight the importance of atman within the Hindu faith.	1,054	ENGLISH	1
There is a lot of brutality and abuse in the story as we can see by the scenes portrayed in the book. Brutality is a very common theme in puritan communities with their violence towards the church and other religious beliefs. The definition of brutality is: “A great violence but is not only physical but can be mental.” Brutality is shown many times in the scarlet letter showing how brutal this world is, not only for hester, but for many people living in the puritan community. The mark that brands Hester is just for everyone else to see but even if she did not have it the guilt would still be on her as shown in this quote, “Ah, but let her cover the mark as she will, the pang of it will be always in her heart.” Chapter 2, ‘The Market-Place”. The quote shows how if she did not have this mark gleaming on her chest that she would still feel the guilt but not everyone else would be so terrible to her. In my opinion I think that the the quote is quite sarcastic in a way because she is dealing with the brutality of how people are treating her because the does have this mark which is shown off to everyone. Dimsdale is an important character in this novel and there is what many would think is physical brutality occurring to him when he is aging and not in a good state. The problem is that this is not as much of a physical pain as it is a mental pain making it seem to Dimsdale that he is enduring this crazy pain and suffering moment. “A bodily disease, which we look upon as whole and entire within itself, may, after all, be but a symptom of some ailment in the spiritual part.” Chapter 10, ‘The Leech and His Patient’. Often times the brain can make us feel pain when really there is not pain there at all. Dimsdale is thought to have a heart problem but it is really just his mental anguish that he is going through because of all the sins he has committed.	<urn:uuid:d0fe2568-2595-44c8-bbe9-5a978ee2fca7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://lotusstudy.com/there-is-a-lot-of-brutality-and-abuse-in-the-story-as-we-can-see-by-the-scenes-portrayed-in-the-book/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00407.warc.gz	en	0.987635	425	3.265625	3	[ -0.46678975224494934, 0.09740845859050751, 0.03662814572453499, 0.05706748366355896, -0.0511048287153244, 0.4296475648880005, 0.1503540724515915, 0.16920088231563568, 0.14917226135730743, -0.12836259603500366, -0.13314545154571533, 0.20603761076927185, 0.12756387889385223, 0.25803279876708...	3	There is a lot of brutality and abuse in the story as we can see by the scenes portrayed in the book. Brutality is a very common theme in puritan communities with their violence towards the church and other religious beliefs. The definition of brutality is: “A great violence but is not only physical but can be mental.” Brutality is shown many times in the scarlet letter showing how brutal this world is, not only for hester, but for many people living in the puritan community. The mark that brands Hester is just for everyone else to see but even if she did not have it the guilt would still be on her as shown in this quote, “Ah, but let her cover the mark as she will, the pang of it will be always in her heart.” Chapter 2, ‘The Market-Place”. The quote shows how if she did not have this mark gleaming on her chest that she would still feel the guilt but not everyone else would be so terrible to her. In my opinion I think that the the quote is quite sarcastic in a way because she is dealing with the brutality of how people are treating her because the does have this mark which is shown off to everyone. Dimsdale is an important character in this novel and there is what many would think is physical brutality occurring to him when he is aging and not in a good state. The problem is that this is not as much of a physical pain as it is a mental pain making it seem to Dimsdale that he is enduring this crazy pain and suffering moment. “A bodily disease, which we look upon as whole and entire within itself, may, after all, be but a symptom of some ailment in the spiritual part.” Chapter 10, ‘The Leech and His Patient’. Often times the brain can make us feel pain when really there is not pain there at all. Dimsdale is thought to have a heart problem but it is really just his mental anguish that he is going through because of all the sins he has committed.	413	ENGLISH	1
Sortie of Mesolonghi The city of Mesolonghi had been subjected to its third siege from Ottoman forces, from April 15, 1825 until April 10, 1826. The situation of the defenders and the inhabitants of Mesolonghi was growing desperate as the food supplies were dwindling and there was no hope of relief. Commanders Kitsos Tzavelas, Dimitris Makris and Notis Botsaris realised the situation inside the city walls was hopeless and decided, on April 10, 1826 - which was the day before Palm Sunday in the Orthodox Church - to make a mass sortie from the city. The armed men would lead the rest of the population outside the city gates, through the enemy lines and towards freedom. There were roughly 3,500 armed men from a population of some 10,500. By nightfall, most of the Greek garrison was outside the city. Unfortunately, their plan had been betrayed to the Ottomans who attacked with cannons and gunfire. The Greeks charged towards the enemy lines but many of the unarmed civilians fell back into the city. A slaughter ensued. Of the 3,500 armed men, only 1,300 made it to safety with a very small number of women and children. The rest were killed in battle. The Ottoman forces charged into the city and a second slaughter began. A city elder, named Christos Kapsalis, when his house was surrounded, set fire to the gunpowder that was stored there and blew up himself, all who had sought refuge in his home and the enemy soldiers who had besieged it. Similarly, Metropolitan Iosif of Rogoi blew himself up in Anemomylos island where he and others had taken refuge. 3,000 Greeks were killed while 6,000 women and children were captured and sold into slavery. Ottoman casualties were about 5,000 dead. The Sortie of Mesolonghi touched the hearts of many Europeans who were now fully sympathetic with the Greek cause as evidenced by Eugene Delacroix's famous painting "Greece Expiring on the Ruins of Mesolonghi". This public sympathy for the Greeks had a significant influence on the eventual decision of Britain, France and Russia to intervene militarily at Navarino.	<urn:uuid:53d4158b-7fdf-41e6-b287-f59dc2472dd6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://wiki.phantis.com/index.php/Sortie_of_Mesolonghi	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00487.warc.gz	en	0.985276	461	3.796875	4	[ -0.1889091581106186, 0.23875436186790466, 0.23907266557216644, -0.035764873027801514, -0.014605551958084106, -0.32420873641967773, -0.002225890988484025, 0.36956310272216797, -0.23195071518421173, 0.1520499289035797, -0.21760612726211548, -0.5074998736381531, -0.07562151551246643, 0.302034...	3	Sortie of Mesolonghi The city of Mesolonghi had been subjected to its third siege from Ottoman forces, from April 15, 1825 until April 10, 1826. The situation of the defenders and the inhabitants of Mesolonghi was growing desperate as the food supplies were dwindling and there was no hope of relief. Commanders Kitsos Tzavelas, Dimitris Makris and Notis Botsaris realised the situation inside the city walls was hopeless and decided, on April 10, 1826 - which was the day before Palm Sunday in the Orthodox Church - to make a mass sortie from the city. The armed men would lead the rest of the population outside the city gates, through the enemy lines and towards freedom. There were roughly 3,500 armed men from a population of some 10,500. By nightfall, most of the Greek garrison was outside the city. Unfortunately, their plan had been betrayed to the Ottomans who attacked with cannons and gunfire. The Greeks charged towards the enemy lines but many of the unarmed civilians fell back into the city. A slaughter ensued. Of the 3,500 armed men, only 1,300 made it to safety with a very small number of women and children. The rest were killed in battle. The Ottoman forces charged into the city and a second slaughter began. A city elder, named Christos Kapsalis, when his house was surrounded, set fire to the gunpowder that was stored there and blew up himself, all who had sought refuge in his home and the enemy soldiers who had besieged it. Similarly, Metropolitan Iosif of Rogoi blew himself up in Anemomylos island where he and others had taken refuge. 3,000 Greeks were killed while 6,000 women and children were captured and sold into slavery. Ottoman casualties were about 5,000 dead. The Sortie of Mesolonghi touched the hearts of many Europeans who were now fully sympathetic with the Greek cause as evidenced by Eugene Delacroix's famous painting "Greece Expiring on the Ruins of Mesolonghi". This public sympathy for the Greeks had a significant influence on the eventual decision of Britain, France and Russia to intervene militarily at Navarino.	491	ENGLISH	1
By Arnold Blumberg During World War II, after the Royal Navy’s traumatic departure from the Pacific Ocean in early 1942, the 4th Submarine Flotilla and its depot ship, the HMS Adamant, operated with the Eastern Fleet based at Trincomalee––a large, natural harbor located on the coast of Sri Lanka in the heart of the Indian Ocean. Dutch submarines joined them and were placed under British operational control after the fall of the Dutch East Indies to the Japanese. The number of boats making up British submarine operations in the Pacific remained small, sometimes no more than four at any one time, until after the Italian surrender in September 1943 when reinforcements began to be deployed to the Indian Ocean. By late 1944 a maximum of 40 submarines were active with the Eastern Fleet. However, the length of individual boat deployment was limited by the fact that they could not be refitted in India and had to return to Britain for major repairs. During all of 1944 through January 1945, three British subs were sunk and one severely damaged by enemy action in the Indian Ocean. In September 1944 British submarines commenced combat patrols in the Pacific under the command of Vice Admiral Thomas. C. Kinkaid, commander of the U.S. Seventh Fleet. Since British subs were smaller and had less endurance than American boats, they were considered more suitable for inshore operations in the Southwest Pacific. By this stage of the war the force had grown to three flotillas: the 2nd, 4th, and 8th. The last moved to Fremantle, Australia, and comprised six “S” and three “T’ class vessels. The former operated in the Java Sea, the latter in the Sea of China. The “S “ class had a speed of 10 nautical knots and a range of up to 7,000 miles and carried enough supplies on board to allow it to remain at sea for 30 days. “T” class subs, having roughly the same performance capability as the latest American submarines, could cover 12,000 miles and stay at sea for 50 days. American subs had been based at Fremantle since 1942, and the 8th Flotilla had to fit in with the established American routines and practices. This was greatly facilitated when the U.S. Navy made available to their British counterparts Fremantle’s repair facilities as well as two U.S. Navy submarine tenders. The 8th Flotilla’s day-to-day activities were controlled by the Commander Submarines U.S. Seventh Fleet, Rear Admiral J. Fife, who was headquartered at Perth. In April 1945, he moved his command post along with the 8th Flotilla to Subic Bay in the Philippines; the 8th Flotilla was replaced at Fremantle by the 4th Flotilla. At Subic Bay the Americans did all they could to share their repair facilities with the British submariners. On April 1, 1945, the 2nd and 8th Submarine Flotillas were transferred to the administrative control of the British Pacific Fleet, although they still came under the operational control of the U.S. Seventh Fleet. Rather more than half the days on patrol were spent on passage, and by mid-1945 there were few Japanese targets to intercept. British submarines were capable of operating a “wolf pack,” or coordinated patrol by two or more submarines working together. In this way they achieved success against low-speed targets. During this time, they sank 13 vessels, of which six were warships, in the Java and Flores Seas. One of these victims was the heavy cruiser Ashigara, the last major Japanese warship to be sunk by a submarine in World War II. She was sunk by HMS Trenchant, which had sailed on patrol to Pulo Tengol in May 1945. Five of eight aimed torpedoes from the British sub fired at 4,000 yards found their mark, and the Japanese vessel sank 30 minutes after the attack. She had been carrying a large number of soldiers from Java intended to reinforce the Japanese garrison at Singapore; most of them went down with the ship. In addition to looking for enemy shipping to sink, a number of submarines carried out special operations. These included landing clandestine parties on islands involved in intelligence work and resupplying or recovering them. The sphere where submarines interfaced most closely with the British Pacific Fleet’s surface task forces was in the provision of air and sea rescue to retrieve downed Allied pilots. These boats normally operated near enemy-held coasts, and the proximity to Japanese territory posed grave danger to them. A typical example of this type of sub operation was the 55-day patrol (the longest for a British submarine during World War II) of the Tantalus,part of the 8th Flotilla. From early January to late February 1945, she prowled the South China Sea looking for downed Allied pilots. Although she was never called upon to rescue any ditched airmen, her travels took her across the paths of several enemy luggers, lighters, and a tug boat, which she destroyed using gunfire.	<urn:uuid:4cacd550-ea46-4108-b678-1e037edb2e5a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2019/12/18/world-war-ii-british-submarine-operations-in-the-pacific/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00036.warc.gz	en	0.984372	1,053	3.265625	3	[ -0.0034394534304738045, -0.19857069849967957, 0.07647034525871277, -0.6739359498023987, 0.13380278646945953, -0.1584693342447281, -0.5538756251335144, 0.2546629309654236, -0.09226877987384796, -0.07450984418392181, 0.19231802225112915, -0.30501627922058105, 0.054190754890441895, 0.46325451...	9	By Arnold Blumberg During World War II, after the Royal Navy’s traumatic departure from the Pacific Ocean in early 1942, the 4th Submarine Flotilla and its depot ship, the HMS Adamant, operated with the Eastern Fleet based at Trincomalee––a large, natural harbor located on the coast of Sri Lanka in the heart of the Indian Ocean. Dutch submarines joined them and were placed under British operational control after the fall of the Dutch East Indies to the Japanese. The number of boats making up British submarine operations in the Pacific remained small, sometimes no more than four at any one time, until after the Italian surrender in September 1943 when reinforcements began to be deployed to the Indian Ocean. By late 1944 a maximum of 40 submarines were active with the Eastern Fleet. However, the length of individual boat deployment was limited by the fact that they could not be refitted in India and had to return to Britain for major repairs. During all of 1944 through January 1945, three British subs were sunk and one severely damaged by enemy action in the Indian Ocean. In September 1944 British submarines commenced combat patrols in the Pacific under the command of Vice Admiral Thomas. C. Kinkaid, commander of the U.S. Seventh Fleet. Since British subs were smaller and had less endurance than American boats, they were considered more suitable for inshore operations in the Southwest Pacific. By this stage of the war the force had grown to three flotillas: the 2nd, 4th, and 8th. The last moved to Fremantle, Australia, and comprised six “S” and three “T’ class vessels. The former operated in the Java Sea, the latter in the Sea of China. The “S “ class had a speed of 10 nautical knots and a range of up to 7,000 miles and carried enough supplies on board to allow it to remain at sea for 30 days. “T” class subs, having roughly the same performance capability as the latest American submarines, could cover 12,000 miles and stay at sea for 50 days. American subs had been based at Fremantle since 1942, and the 8th Flotilla had to fit in with the established American routines and practices. This was greatly facilitated when the U.S. Navy made available to their British counterparts Fremantle’s repair facilities as well as two U.S. Navy submarine tenders. The 8th Flotilla’s day-to-day activities were controlled by the Commander Submarines U.S. Seventh Fleet, Rear Admiral J. Fife, who was headquartered at Perth. In April 1945, he moved his command post along with the 8th Flotilla to Subic Bay in the Philippines; the 8th Flotilla was replaced at Fremantle by the 4th Flotilla. At Subic Bay the Americans did all they could to share their repair facilities with the British submariners. On April 1, 1945, the 2nd and 8th Submarine Flotillas were transferred to the administrative control of the British Pacific Fleet, although they still came under the operational control of the U.S. Seventh Fleet. Rather more than half the days on patrol were spent on passage, and by mid-1945 there were few Japanese targets to intercept. British submarines were capable of operating a “wolf pack,” or coordinated patrol by two or more submarines working together. In this way they achieved success against low-speed targets. During this time, they sank 13 vessels, of which six were warships, in the Java and Flores Seas. One of these victims was the heavy cruiser Ashigara, the last major Japanese warship to be sunk by a submarine in World War II. She was sunk by HMS Trenchant, which had sailed on patrol to Pulo Tengol in May 1945. Five of eight aimed torpedoes from the British sub fired at 4,000 yards found their mark, and the Japanese vessel sank 30 minutes after the attack. She had been carrying a large number of soldiers from Java intended to reinforce the Japanese garrison at Singapore; most of them went down with the ship. In addition to looking for enemy shipping to sink, a number of submarines carried out special operations. These included landing clandestine parties on islands involved in intelligence work and resupplying or recovering them. The sphere where submarines interfaced most closely with the British Pacific Fleet’s surface task forces was in the provision of air and sea rescue to retrieve downed Allied pilots. These boats normally operated near enemy-held coasts, and the proximity to Japanese territory posed grave danger to them. A typical example of this type of sub operation was the 55-day patrol (the longest for a British submarine during World War II) of the Tantalus,part of the 8th Flotilla. From early January to late February 1945, she prowled the South China Sea looking for downed Allied pilots. Although she was never called upon to rescue any ditched airmen, her travels took her across the paths of several enemy luggers, lighters, and a tug boat, which she destroyed using gunfire.	1,111	ENGLISH	1
The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War (1939–1945). The Allies promoted the alliance as a means to control German, Japanese and Italian aggression. At the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, as well as their dependent states, such as British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth: Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. After the start of the German invasion of North Europe until the Balkan Campaign, the Netherlands, Belgium, Greece, and Yugoslavia joined the Allies. After first having cooperated with Germany in invading Poland whilst remaining neutral in the Allied-Axis conflict, the Soviet Union perforce joined the Allies in June 1941 after being invaded by Germany. The United States provided war materiel and money all along, and officially joined in December 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. China had already been in a prolonged war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, but officially joined the Allies in 1941. The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942. However, the name “United Nations” was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the “Big Three”—the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States—controlled Allied strategy; relations between the United Kingdom and the United States were especially close. The Big Three together with China were referred as a “trusteeship of the powerful”, then were recognized as the Allied “Big Four” in the Declaration by United Nations and later as the “Four Policemen” of the United Nations. After the war ended, the Allied nations became the basis of the modern United Nations. The Union Jack Flag was used while Britain was exploring the world. Most of the places they founded or discovered have the American Flag 48 Stars used 1912 to 1959 On July 4th 1912 two new states were added Arizona and New Mexico Made The 48 Star USA Flag was used from 1912 to 1959. This was the flag flown during WWII. Each of the stars Union Jack – United Kingdom Flag – USA MADE This is an American made flag of tough, durable and long-lasting nylon fabric, with	<urn:uuid:be52fd55-5048-4788-ad1f-fa5844f452e1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wwii.ultimateflags.com/product-category/allies/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00394.warc.gz	en	0.981121	490	4.15625	4	[ -0.39249545335769653, 0.2928800880908966, 0.09739714860916138, -0.05077793821692467, 0.04187976196408272, 0.23107293248176575, 0.03840959072113037, 0.0853983536362648, 0.19592750072479248, -0.13369707763195038, 0.519328236579895, -0.37456151843070984, 0.5691187381744385, 0.3391452133655548...	1	The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War (1939–1945). The Allies promoted the alliance as a means to control German, Japanese and Italian aggression. At the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, as well as their dependent states, such as British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth: Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. After the start of the German invasion of North Europe until the Balkan Campaign, the Netherlands, Belgium, Greece, and Yugoslavia joined the Allies. After first having cooperated with Germany in invading Poland whilst remaining neutral in the Allied-Axis conflict, the Soviet Union perforce joined the Allies in June 1941 after being invaded by Germany. The United States provided war materiel and money all along, and officially joined in December 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. China had already been in a prolonged war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, but officially joined the Allies in 1941. The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942. However, the name “United Nations” was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the “Big Three”—the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States—controlled Allied strategy; relations between the United Kingdom and the United States were especially close. The Big Three together with China were referred as a “trusteeship of the powerful”, then were recognized as the Allied “Big Four” in the Declaration by United Nations and later as the “Four Policemen” of the United Nations. After the war ended, the Allied nations became the basis of the modern United Nations. The Union Jack Flag was used while Britain was exploring the world. Most of the places they founded or discovered have the American Flag 48 Stars used 1912 to 1959 On July 4th 1912 two new states were added Arizona and New Mexico Made The 48 Star USA Flag was used from 1912 to 1959. This was the flag flown during WWII. Each of the stars Union Jack – United Kingdom Flag – USA MADE This is an American made flag of tough, durable and long-lasting nylon fabric, with	533	ENGLISH	1
Hoover: An Extraordinary Life in Extraordinary Times. By Kenneth Whyte. Knopf; 752 pages; $35. FOR his philanthropic efforts during the first world war, Herbert Hoover was described as a “man who began his career in California and will end it in heaven”. In a new biography, Kenneth Whyte lists the many hardships Hoover went through. Generally, he used them to his advantage—to increase his wealth, achieve fame and become America’s 31st president. At least, that is, until the Great Depression, which ruined him politically. Born in Iowa in 1874, Hoover became determined early in life to earn a fortune for the security and independence it would bring. After graduating as a geologist from Stanford, he managed gold mines on the hot Australian frontier and mines in China during the dying days of the Qing empire. His career brought him the money he craved. Hoover learned that the best way to thrive in a hellish place is by being a self-described devil. He fudged his age and experience to get his job in Australia. He overworked his employees. During the Boxer rebellion in China he swindled a captive mandarin to gain control of mines there (an action later judicially overturned). Ultimately, though, his own diligence was most important to his success. Fortunately, Hoover was a devil with a conscience. After securing his wealth, he longed to work for the public good. The first world war gave him the opportunity to lead a great philanthropic mission. Working as a mining financier in London when the war began, Hoover learned of the dire food situation in occupied Belgium. He abandoned his career and, between 1914 and 1917, when America entered the war, he led thousands of volunteers to raise money, buy food and ship it to Belgium and other occupied areas. They sent more than 2.5m tonnes of food in all, feeding over 9m people. Hoover gathered an intelligent group around him, worked astoundingly hard and expected the same from his staff. He also engaged in a vigorous propaganda campaign to get donations, portraying the relief as a “bottom-up” effort on the part of ordinary people while quietly seeking government support. Success brought admiration and further opportunities. Hoover was put in charge of America’s food supply after it entered the war, and he oversaw its aid to Europe after the armistice. He served as secretary of commerce under Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge throughout much of the 1920s, using his position to make government more efficient. In 1927 the flooding of the Mississippi River provided the perfect opportunity for a man with disaster-relief experience. Hoover’s success there provided him with a springboard to the presidency. He won the Republican nomination on the first ballot in 1928. The prosperous mood, attributed to the Republicans, ensured that Hoover easily won that year’s election. He began his presidency in March 1929 with ambitious plans for reform. The Great Depression, which began seven months later, dashed his hopes. Banks failed, people queued in soup lines and Hoover lost control of events. He became embroiled in disputes with Congress, and balked at using federal funds to solve problems he felt should be left to the states. Blamed for presiding over the crash and failing to deal with its aftermath, he was soundly defeated in the election in 1932. After losing office, Hoover became a spectator to events. Though he lived until 1964, he would never influence events as he had before his defeat. Why was it that Hoover, hitherto so talented at overcoming crises, was unable to overcome the Great Depression? Perhaps he had come to believe his own propaganda about ordinary people collectively solving problems without government aid. Or maybe the scale of the problem was too great even for someone of Hoover’s abilities. Mr Whyte does an excellent job of describing the qualities that brought Hoover his early successes—but provides too little guidance as to why, in the end, he failed his severest test. This article appeared in the Books and arts section of the print edition under the headline "The crazy career of Herbert Hoover"	<urn:uuid:78aa2407-868d-452c-80a0-3bb39bb693dc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.economist.com/books-and-arts/2017/10/19/the-crazy-career-of-herbert-hoover	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00413.warc.gz	en	0.984522	859	3.59375	4	[ -0.12376159429550171, 0.2816343605518341, 0.27980464696884155, 0.16204844415187836, 0.3367984890937805, 0.024077873677015305, 0.5163714289665222, -0.02689882181584835, 0.1113259419798851, 0.16789469122886658, 0.46323516964912415, -0.14447373151779175, 0.1716330200433731, 0.3769081532955169...	1	Hoover: An Extraordinary Life in Extraordinary Times. By Kenneth Whyte. Knopf; 752 pages; $35. FOR his philanthropic efforts during the first world war, Herbert Hoover was described as a “man who began his career in California and will end it in heaven”. In a new biography, Kenneth Whyte lists the many hardships Hoover went through. Generally, he used them to his advantage—to increase his wealth, achieve fame and become America’s 31st president. At least, that is, until the Great Depression, which ruined him politically. Born in Iowa in 1874, Hoover became determined early in life to earn a fortune for the security and independence it would bring. After graduating as a geologist from Stanford, he managed gold mines on the hot Australian frontier and mines in China during the dying days of the Qing empire. His career brought him the money he craved. Hoover learned that the best way to thrive in a hellish place is by being a self-described devil. He fudged his age and experience to get his job in Australia. He overworked his employees. During the Boxer rebellion in China he swindled a captive mandarin to gain control of mines there (an action later judicially overturned). Ultimately, though, his own diligence was most important to his success. Fortunately, Hoover was a devil with a conscience. After securing his wealth, he longed to work for the public good. The first world war gave him the opportunity to lead a great philanthropic mission. Working as a mining financier in London when the war began, Hoover learned of the dire food situation in occupied Belgium. He abandoned his career and, between 1914 and 1917, when America entered the war, he led thousands of volunteers to raise money, buy food and ship it to Belgium and other occupied areas. They sent more than 2.5m tonnes of food in all, feeding over 9m people. Hoover gathered an intelligent group around him, worked astoundingly hard and expected the same from his staff. He also engaged in a vigorous propaganda campaign to get donations, portraying the relief as a “bottom-up” effort on the part of ordinary people while quietly seeking government support. Success brought admiration and further opportunities. Hoover was put in charge of America’s food supply after it entered the war, and he oversaw its aid to Europe after the armistice. He served as secretary of commerce under Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge throughout much of the 1920s, using his position to make government more efficient. In 1927 the flooding of the Mississippi River provided the perfect opportunity for a man with disaster-relief experience. Hoover’s success there provided him with a springboard to the presidency. He won the Republican nomination on the first ballot in 1928. The prosperous mood, attributed to the Republicans, ensured that Hoover easily won that year’s election. He began his presidency in March 1929 with ambitious plans for reform. The Great Depression, which began seven months later, dashed his hopes. Banks failed, people queued in soup lines and Hoover lost control of events. He became embroiled in disputes with Congress, and balked at using federal funds to solve problems he felt should be left to the states. Blamed for presiding over the crash and failing to deal with its aftermath, he was soundly defeated in the election in 1932. After losing office, Hoover became a spectator to events. Though he lived until 1964, he would never influence events as he had before his defeat. Why was it that Hoover, hitherto so talented at overcoming crises, was unable to overcome the Great Depression? Perhaps he had come to believe his own propaganda about ordinary people collectively solving problems without government aid. Or maybe the scale of the problem was too great even for someone of Hoover’s abilities. Mr Whyte does an excellent job of describing the qualities that brought Hoover his early successes—but provides too little guidance as to why, in the end, he failed his severest test. This article appeared in the Books and arts section of the print edition under the headline "The crazy career of Herbert Hoover"	868	ENGLISH	1
How many times have you been grossed out by wads of gum stuck to the sidewalk or the bottom of your chair — or really anything? But did you think about the fact that the complete genetic info for the person who once chewed that gum could be hiding in there? If you go back 5,700 years, you couldn’t just buy a pack of gum. The alternative in those days was tree sap, like the birch pitch that ancient Danes used to chew on. Now a research team has unearthed the entire genome of a Neolithic girl who spit out such a thing. What is even more amazing is that, without a skull or any bones at all, they were able to use the DNA extracted from that piece of (extremely) stale gum to create an eerily lifelike digital reconstruction of “Lola” that seems to gaze at you across thousands of years. “The DNA is so exceptionally well preserved that we were able to recover a complete ancient human genome from the sample… which is particularly significant since, so far, no human remains have been recovered from the site,” said team lead Hannes Schroeder in a study recently published in Nature Communications, while noting that genes frozen in time “can be used to shed light on the population history, health status, and even subsistence strategies of ancient populations.” There was more than just human DNA in the birch pitch, which was produced by heating birch bark and possibly used as medicine because of its antiseptic properties. It may have even been used as toothpaste, in addition to being an ancient form of chewing gum. Schroeder’s team was also able to get microbial DNA out of the pitch, piecing together Lola’s oral microbiome. There was also plant and animal DNA that could have clued in the scientists as to what she might have eaten before getting rid of the gum. Radiocarbon dating found out that Lola was alive during the Neolithic period, the last phase of the Stone Age. Her DNA revealed genotypes for dark skin, dark hair, and blue eyes. Despite having lived in Denmark, she has the genetics of western hunter-gatherers, who had those physical characteristics rather than the Neolithic farmers she might have been assumed to come from otherwise. There is also a legit reason to believe she was chewing that birch pitch for medicinal reasons. Based on bacteria found in the specimen, she possibly had strep. Think about that next time you spit out your gum. (via Nature Communications)	<urn:uuid:de30f762-abf5-455e-8df4-2322971670b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.syfy.com/syfywire/ancient-gum-was-hiding-an-entire-human-genome	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00277.warc.gz	en	0.982132	529	3.6875	4	[ -0.46883293986320496, 0.1271301805973053, 0.02648409642279148, 0.10914044827222824, 0.08401146531105042, -0.2348993718624115, 0.19669120013713837, 0.19297444820404053, -0.29389798641204834, 0.1965368092060089, 0.0000626314285909757, -0.5461353063583374, 0.14049609005451202, 0.1302678436040...	8	How many times have you been grossed out by wads of gum stuck to the sidewalk or the bottom of your chair — or really anything? But did you think about the fact that the complete genetic info for the person who once chewed that gum could be hiding in there? If you go back 5,700 years, you couldn’t just buy a pack of gum. The alternative in those days was tree sap, like the birch pitch that ancient Danes used to chew on. Now a research team has unearthed the entire genome of a Neolithic girl who spit out such a thing. What is even more amazing is that, without a skull or any bones at all, they were able to use the DNA extracted from that piece of (extremely) stale gum to create an eerily lifelike digital reconstruction of “Lola” that seems to gaze at you across thousands of years. “The DNA is so exceptionally well preserved that we were able to recover a complete ancient human genome from the sample… which is particularly significant since, so far, no human remains have been recovered from the site,” said team lead Hannes Schroeder in a study recently published in Nature Communications, while noting that genes frozen in time “can be used to shed light on the population history, health status, and even subsistence strategies of ancient populations.” There was more than just human DNA in the birch pitch, which was produced by heating birch bark and possibly used as medicine because of its antiseptic properties. It may have even been used as toothpaste, in addition to being an ancient form of chewing gum. Schroeder’s team was also able to get microbial DNA out of the pitch, piecing together Lola’s oral microbiome. There was also plant and animal DNA that could have clued in the scientists as to what she might have eaten before getting rid of the gum. Radiocarbon dating found out that Lola was alive during the Neolithic period, the last phase of the Stone Age. Her DNA revealed genotypes for dark skin, dark hair, and blue eyes. Despite having lived in Denmark, she has the genetics of western hunter-gatherers, who had those physical characteristics rather than the Neolithic farmers she might have been assumed to come from otherwise. There is also a legit reason to believe she was chewing that birch pitch for medicinal reasons. Based on bacteria found in the specimen, she possibly had strep. Think about that next time you spit out your gum. (via Nature Communications)	509	ENGLISH	1
Manners and Customs of the Jews by Henry Benton CHAPTER 21 -- BOOKS, AND SUBSTANCES WRITTEN UPON. We are plainly told that the commandments were "the writing of God, graven upon the tables." These tables were flat, thin pieces of stone. Also the names of the children of Israel, worn upon the high priest's shoulders, were to be engraved on different sorts of precious stone, with the work of an engraver, like the engravings of a signet. And for the high priest's mitre it was directed, "Thou shalt make a plate of pure gold, and engrave upon it like the engravings of a signet, Holiness unto the Lord." The letters were engraved or cut into these hard substances that they might last, and not be rubbed out like common writing. When Job wished that his words should be preserved, he says, "Oh, that they were graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever," Job 19:24. This method of writing is still used for inscriptions on buildings, etc., but it was much more used formerly. Among the ruins of ancient cities in Persia, Egypt, Greece, etc., many very long inscriptions are found, engraved upon the walls of buildings, and upon rocks. In a part of Arabia, near mount Sinai, there are large mountains or rocks covered with writing, though the meaning of the words cannot be made out. Among the ruins of Babylon, bricks are found with inscriptions upon them. The letters or marks are something like the heads of arrows or nails, but no one has yet been able to make out their meaning. It is supposed they may have been part of the tower of Babel; whether this is correct or not, they must be very ancient. The writing has been engraved or impressed into these bricks. Major Denham, who lately traveled in Africa, also found long inscriptions cut into the rocks in several places. This engraving of writing, or cutting the letters upon hard substances, was very generally practiced in cases of importance, as being much more lasting than other methods. When Dr. Buchanan was in India, the Jews in Malabar showed him a brass plate, on which was engraved the grant of some privileges from an ancient king, about the year AD 490. He also found similar tablets in the possession of the Syrian Christians in the south of India. Some of these, and copies of others, are now in the public library at Cambridge. And some persons have supposed that Samuel engraved the word Ebenezer upon the stone he set up when God had smitten the Philistines, I Samuel 7:12. This method of writing was practiced in later times, upon wood and other substances. To the law of God being engraven the apostle refers, when describing the work of the Holy Spirit upon the heart of the believer; he speaks of it as written, not with ink, (which might be rubbed out,) but as engraved or cut into the substance, and not upon tables of stone, but upon the heart of the believer, II Corinthians 3:3, see also Jeremiah 31:33, Ezekiel 11:19. O That this may be the case with our hearts. My dear readers, may the Lord write his law in your hearts, and be your God, making you his children, forgiving your iniquity, and blotting out the writing that is against you. For dreadful is the state of those in whom sin is graven upon the table of their hearts, Jeremiah 17:1. O let us earnestly pray, that this may not be our case; but that God will put his truths into our minds, enabling us to do his will in all things. And if the law of the Lord be thus engraved on our hearts, we must beware lest we should be satisfied to let it be obscured or covered with the evil which by nature cleaves to our hearts, even as a writing engraved upon a stone may be covered over with dirt or rubbish. Remember, God says, "My son, give me thy heart," Proverbs 23:26. He will not be satisfied with a divided heart, and he also commanded, "Keep thy heart with all diligence; for out of it are the issues of life," Proverbs 4:23. But it is the Lord himself who engraves the graving thereof, Zechariah 3:9, and upon him that overcometh will be written the name of the Lord; see Revelation 3:12, and that writing shall not perish or decay. Reader, watch over your heart; pray that the Holy Spirit may sanctify or make it holy. We may inquire farther respecting the substances used for writing upon. Job, chapter 19:24, expresses his desire, that his words should be written upon lead as well as upon a rock. Montfaucon says, that in the year 1699, he purchase at Rome an ancient book, entirely of lead, about four inches long and three inches wide; it had six leaves, and two covers, and was written over with ancient Egyptian figures, and writing which he could not understand. Brass was used for matters of importance. In the first book of Maccabees we read of treaties between the Romans and the Jews, written on tables of brass, chapter 8:22 and 14:18, and although the books of Maccabees are not the word of God, yet they may be referred to for information as to history and customs, as they were certainly written a very long time ago. It was the custom of the Romans to preserve their laws and records upon tablets of brass; and it is related that a fire in the capitol at Rome, in Vespasian's reign, destroyed three thousand of these tablets. The ancient tablets of brass, discovered by Dr. Buchanan in India, have been already noticed; they are six in number, and, upon the plate said to be the oldest, the writing is very like that upon the bricks found at Babylon. Wood was very frequently used. Sometimes the tablets of wood were engraved, the letters being cut into them. Or a thin coat of wax was spread over the wood, and the words were scratched upon the wax, with a sharp pointed metal bodkin, or a stick. And sometimes the words were written with ink upon the tablets. The writing upon sticks, mentioned in Ezekiel 37:16 appears to have been engraved or cut into them. In our own country, in former times, words were engraved upon sticks, which were put into a wooden frame; some of these still exist. Almanacs also were cut upon sticks; these may be found among the inhabitants of Sweden. The ancient letters sent by persons one to another were in general written upon tablets of wood. The different pieces were tied together with a thread or string, and a seal put upon the knot, so that no one could read what was written till the seal was broken. Among the natives of Africa and the east it is very common to have writing boards, like schoolboys' slates, upon which persons write with ink, and rub it out when done with. When Mr. Park was at Koolkooro, in Africa, his landlord brought him a writing board, asking him to write upon it. Mr. Park did so; the African then washed the writing from the board and drank the water, for the poor ignorant man thought it would be of use to protect him from harm! Such tablets of wood are commonly used in schools in those countries. The prophets sometimes wrote upon tables of wood; see Isaiah 30:8, Habakkuk 2:2 and the writing table which Zacharias made signs for, when desired to name his son, Luke 1:63, was a wooden tablet; perhaps it was covered with wax. Such tablets are mentioned by Greek and Roman writers, and were used in England till after the year 1300. Leaves were formerly used, and still are so, for writing upon; many ancient authors mention them. In India, and particularly in Ceylon, they make use of the leaves of some trees which are very broad and thick; these are cut into slips, and smoothed, and they write upon them with sharp pointed bodkins. To make a book, several leaves are strung together. These leaves are called Ollas, and the missionaries have frequently used them for writing tracts upon. But this way of preparing tracts is very expensive, and the leaves are liable to break, so that they now use paper, and print the tracts. For this purpose, large quantities of paper are sent out every year, by the Religious Tract Society. The missionaries are very glad to receive this paper, but they wish to have a great deal more, as the grown people and children are very eager for the books they print. The bark of trees has been used in all countries to write upon., The word book, in Latin, (liber) is the name by which the inner bark of trees is called in that language. In Sumatra bark is still much used for books; and the North American Indians have made great use of it for their picture writing. Linen was used in former times, particularly by the Egyptians; many of their linen books, and writings upon linen, remain to this day. They are frequently found with the mummies, or dead bodies of persons who died a long time ago, which have preserved or embalmed in the same manner as the bodies of Jacob and Joseph. See Genesis 1, 2, 26. Skins of animals were also used, and that long before people had found out how to make them into parchment. These leather and linen books were in the form of long rolls. It is probably that the book of the law, written by Moses, and given by him to the priests, Deuteronomy 31:24ff was of linen or leather; and that the book of the law, found by Hilkiah, II Chronicles 34:14, was of this sort. It may have been the same book that was written by Moses. When Dr. Buchanan was in India, he found a very old copy of the law, written on a roll of leather about fifteen feet long. Many such rolls exist; some of them more than a hundred feet in length. Perhaps you will wonder how they could read in such a book or rolls, which was the general form of books in ancient times. I will try to describe it. The rolls were several feet long, but not very wide, generally about twelve or fourteen inches; the writing upon them was in pages, beginning at one end of the roll and so proceeding to the other. The ends of the rolls were often fastened upon sticks; the roll was opened at the beginning just enough to allow of a page or two being read. The ancient manuscripts were all written in capital letters, and without divisions of the words, so that the roll when first opened looked something like this: INTHEBEGI WORDWASG EMADEBYHI INHIMWASLI NNINGWAST ODTHESAME MANDWITHO FEANDTHELI HEWORDAN WASINTHEB UTHIMWASN FEWASTHELI DTHEWORD EGINNINGW OTANYTHIN GHTOFMENA WASWITHG ITHGODALL GMADETHA NDTHELIGHT ODANDTHE THINGSWER TWASMADE SHINETHIND Of course there were more lines in a page, and more letters in a line than in this representation; see also the representation on an ancient manuscript, page xxx. How it would puzzle my readers if their books were printed in this manner. It shows how improvements are introduced by degrees. The part read was then rolled up, and more opened, so that the whole book could be read without the difficulty which there must have been if the lines had gone all along, from one end to the other, so as to require the whole roll to be opened at once. Sometimes both sides of the roll were written upon, Ezekiel 2:10. The rolls, or books rolled up, are often mentioned or alluded to in the Bible, Ezra 6:2, Isaiah 8:1, 34:4, Ezekiel 2:9, Revelation 6:14. The scribes, or persons employed in writing, were considered to be persons of some importance. From Ezekiel 9:3,5,11, it appears they wore their inkbottles, or inkhorns, at their girdles. The prophecy of Jeremiah, sent to Jehoiakim, was written by Baruch, with ink, in the roll of a book; and it is plain that this book was of some soft substance, as the king was able to cut it to pieces with a penknife, before he cast it into the fire, Jeremiah 36:23. That is an awful instance of the way in which many despise the word of God, and refuse to listen to its precepts and threatenings; often rejecting the promises of mercy, and the declarations of the love of God toward us, which are contained therein. It is indeed painful to think that some have even acted like Jehoiakim, and destroyed the word of God. The Romish priests often do so when they find Bibles or Testaments in the hands of people in Ireland; but it is very pleasant to find that there is an increasing desire to read the word of truth. There have been many instances of children refusing to give up their books, and rescuing them from the grasp of the priests. One very pleasing anecdote I must mention. A priest succeeded in tearing a Testament from the hand of a child; but the little Bible scholar had endeavored to hide the word of God in his heart, and exclaimed, "You may take away my Testament, sir; but you cannot take away the chapters I have learned by heart." In the days when popery prevailed in England, many persons learned the Psalms, and as many chapters as they could, for they knew that they would not be allowed to possess the word of God, when the papists had power to take it away. One of these excellent men had learned all the epistles. My dear reader, if you have been taught to prize the word of God, and the truths it contains, pray earnestly, and implore the Most High that the bloody, persecuting religion of the church of Rome may never prevail in our land, as in former times, and as it now does in some countries. Read the accounts of the poor Lollards, and the martyrs in the days of queen Mary; and be thankful that you live in the present times. There were no Sunday schools in those days, no instruction for the young in the truths of the gospel, none of the beautiful hymns children now have to learn, no prayers which people in general could understand, but only prayers in Latin, and bowing down to images; and if, parents attempted to teach their children any thing better they were punished. In the year 1519, six men and a woman were burned alive at Coventry, for teaching their children the Lord's Prayer and ten commandments in English! Be thankful, children, for your privileges, and be diligent in improving them. Parchment is made of the skins of goats, sheep, or calves prepared with care. It was known to the Jews, and being a later invention, and more valuable than skins of leather, was used for writings of the greatest importance; thus the apostle Paul, when writing to Timothy, desires him to bring the books he had left at Troas, but especially the parchments, II Timothy 4:13. The value and scarcity of parchment was so great before the invention of paper, that the writing was frequently effaced from rolls or books already written, and other works written instead. Some of the most ancient manuscripts of the Bible now know, had been written over in this manner, but the first writing can still be made out, thought not without difficulty. Another substance much used for writing upon, was a kind of paper, made from the thin skin or film which covered a sort of bulrush that grows in Egypt, and is called papyrus or biblos. It is found in abundance on the banks of the Nile and other streams, Isaiah 19:7. Among these reeds, or bulrushes, Moses was placed when his parents dared not keep him any longer. The daughter of the king found him there as is related in Exodus 2:3. These bulrushes are also mentioned in Isaiah 18:2. This paper was much used by the Romans and other nations. The manuscripts or books found in Herculaneum, the city which was buried under the ashes and lava from mount Vesuvius, in the year 79, and which remained unknown till about a hundred years ago, are all written on this sort of paper. They are rolls or long slips of different lengths, and about twelve inches wide; but the heart of the lava, and the length of time they remained untouched, it is very difficult to unroll or open them. Different sorts of paper have been made of bark of trees, cotton, silk, straw, and many other substances, but these as well as our paper, made of linen rags, were unknown to the ancient Jews. The paper mentioned in II John 12 was made of papyrus. The ancients wrote upon many of these substances with ink. The first mention of this is in the writing of the prophecy of Jeremiah, by Baruch, which we read was written "with ink in a book," or roll, Jeremiah 36:18. The prophet Ezekiel speaks of a writer's inkhorn; and the apostle John mentions writing with ink and pen, III John 13. Also the apostle Paul, II Corinthians 3:3. The pens were not of quills like ours, but of reeds, which are still used by eastern nations. Persons could write quicker with them than with the iron pens, or bodkins, which engraved or scratched the writing, this is alluded to in Psalm 45:1. There were pens in some inkhorns found in Herculaneum, but they were merely pointed sticks like skewers. And now I have said all that occurs to me respecting books and writing. Printing was not discovered till about the year 1450; before that time books were but few in number, and cost much money. Yet, even in those times, Solomon could say, "Of making books there is no end," Ecclesiastes 12:12. How much more is this the case in our days, and how many vain, trifling, silly, and even wicked or profane books there are! My readers, beware of bad books. We read, I Corinthians 15:33, that "evil communications corrupt good manners;" and, as the writer of the book of Ecclesiastes has well observed, a man cannot touch pitch without being defiled. Be assured that you cannot read bad books without injury. Flee the temptation, and if a bad book comes into your possession, as soon as you are aware of its contents, commit it to the flames. Remember what is said of the heavenly Jerusalem, "There shall in no wise enter into it any thing that defileth, neither whatsoever worketh abomination or maketh a lie, but they which are written in the Lamb's Book of Life."	<urn:uuid:650087ce-b4b2-4b7d-9f91-ede7e2300686>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.lightofword.org/articles/bible-customs/104-manners-and-customs-of-the-jews-by-henry-benton	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00557.warc.gz	en	0.983161	4,002	3.265625	3	[ -0.0935496985912323, 0.49086612462997437, 0.3391965627670288, -0.26042115688323975, -0.36473894119262695, -0.03342604264616966, 0.49303221702575684, -0.16302114725112915, -0.21881979703903198, 0.051058970391750336, -0.26552295684814453, -0.07604661583900452, -0.030272318050265312, 0.136660...	12	Manners and Customs of the Jews by Henry Benton CHAPTER 21 -- BOOKS, AND SUBSTANCES WRITTEN UPON. We are plainly told that the commandments were "the writing of God, graven upon the tables." These tables were flat, thin pieces of stone. Also the names of the children of Israel, worn upon the high priest's shoulders, were to be engraved on different sorts of precious stone, with the work of an engraver, like the engravings of a signet. And for the high priest's mitre it was directed, "Thou shalt make a plate of pure gold, and engrave upon it like the engravings of a signet, Holiness unto the Lord." The letters were engraved or cut into these hard substances that they might last, and not be rubbed out like common writing. When Job wished that his words should be preserved, he says, "Oh, that they were graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever," Job 19:24. This method of writing is still used for inscriptions on buildings, etc., but it was much more used formerly. Among the ruins of ancient cities in Persia, Egypt, Greece, etc., many very long inscriptions are found, engraved upon the walls of buildings, and upon rocks. In a part of Arabia, near mount Sinai, there are large mountains or rocks covered with writing, though the meaning of the words cannot be made out. Among the ruins of Babylon, bricks are found with inscriptions upon them. The letters or marks are something like the heads of arrows or nails, but no one has yet been able to make out their meaning. It is supposed they may have been part of the tower of Babel; whether this is correct or not, they must be very ancient. The writing has been engraved or impressed into these bricks. Major Denham, who lately traveled in Africa, also found long inscriptions cut into the rocks in several places. This engraving of writing, or cutting the letters upon hard substances, was very generally practiced in cases of importance, as being much more lasting than other methods. When Dr. Buchanan was in India, the Jews in Malabar showed him a brass plate, on which was engraved the grant of some privileges from an ancient king, about the year AD 490. He also found similar tablets in the possession of the Syrian Christians in the south of India. Some of these, and copies of others, are now in the public library at Cambridge. And some persons have supposed that Samuel engraved the word Ebenezer upon the stone he set up when God had smitten the Philistines, I Samuel 7:12. This method of writing was practiced in later times, upon wood and other substances. To the law of God being engraven the apostle refers, when describing the work of the Holy Spirit upon the heart of the believer; he speaks of it as written, not with ink, (which might be rubbed out,) but as engraved or cut into the substance, and not upon tables of stone, but upon the heart of the believer, II Corinthians 3:3, see also Jeremiah 31:33, Ezekiel 11:19. O That this may be the case with our hearts. My dear readers, may the Lord write his law in your hearts, and be your God, making you his children, forgiving your iniquity, and blotting out the writing that is against you. For dreadful is the state of those in whom sin is graven upon the table of their hearts, Jeremiah 17:1. O let us earnestly pray, that this may not be our case; but that God will put his truths into our minds, enabling us to do his will in all things. And if the law of the Lord be thus engraved on our hearts, we must beware lest we should be satisfied to let it be obscured or covered with the evil which by nature cleaves to our hearts, even as a writing engraved upon a stone may be covered over with dirt or rubbish. Remember, God says, "My son, give me thy heart," Proverbs 23:26. He will not be satisfied with a divided heart, and he also commanded, "Keep thy heart with all diligence; for out of it are the issues of life," Proverbs 4:23. But it is the Lord himself who engraves the graving thereof, Zechariah 3:9, and upon him that overcometh will be written the name of the Lord; see Revelation 3:12, and that writing shall not perish or decay. Reader, watch over your heart; pray that the Holy Spirit may sanctify or make it holy. We may inquire farther respecting the substances used for writing upon. Job, chapter 19:24, expresses his desire, that his words should be written upon lead as well as upon a rock. Montfaucon says, that in the year 1699, he purchase at Rome an ancient book, entirely of lead, about four inches long and three inches wide; it had six leaves, and two covers, and was written over with ancient Egyptian figures, and writing which he could not understand. Brass was used for matters of importance. In the first book of Maccabees we read of treaties between the Romans and the Jews, written on tables of brass, chapter 8:22 and 14:18, and although the books of Maccabees are not the word of God, yet they may be referred to for information as to history and customs, as they were certainly written a very long time ago. It was the custom of the Romans to preserve their laws and records upon tablets of brass; and it is related that a fire in the capitol at Rome, in Vespasian's reign, destroyed three thousand of these tablets. The ancient tablets of brass, discovered by Dr. Buchanan in India, have been already noticed; they are six in number, and, upon the plate said to be the oldest, the writing is very like that upon the bricks found at Babylon. Wood was very frequently used. Sometimes the tablets of wood were engraved, the letters being cut into them. Or a thin coat of wax was spread over the wood, and the words were scratched upon the wax, with a sharp pointed metal bodkin, or a stick. And sometimes the words were written with ink upon the tablets. The writing upon sticks, mentioned in Ezekiel 37:16 appears to have been engraved or cut into them. In our own country, in former times, words were engraved upon sticks, which were put into a wooden frame; some of these still exist. Almanacs also were cut upon sticks; these may be found among the inhabitants of Sweden. The ancient letters sent by persons one to another were in general written upon tablets of wood. The different pieces were tied together with a thread or string, and a seal put upon the knot, so that no one could read what was written till the seal was broken. Among the natives of Africa and the east it is very common to have writing boards, like schoolboys' slates, upon which persons write with ink, and rub it out when done with. When Mr. Park was at Koolkooro, in Africa, his landlord brought him a writing board, asking him to write upon it. Mr. Park did so; the African then washed the writing from the board and drank the water, for the poor ignorant man thought it would be of use to protect him from harm! Such tablets of wood are commonly used in schools in those countries. The prophets sometimes wrote upon tables of wood; see Isaiah 30:8, Habakkuk 2:2 and the writing table which Zacharias made signs for, when desired to name his son, Luke 1:63, was a wooden tablet; perhaps it was covered with wax. Such tablets are mentioned by Greek and Roman writers, and were used in England till after the year 1300. Leaves were formerly used, and still are so, for writing upon; many ancient authors mention them. In India, and particularly in Ceylon, they make use of the leaves of some trees which are very broad and thick; these are cut into slips, and smoothed, and they write upon them with sharp pointed bodkins. To make a book, several leaves are strung together. These leaves are called Ollas, and the missionaries have frequently used them for writing tracts upon. But this way of preparing tracts is very expensive, and the leaves are liable to break, so that they now use paper, and print the tracts. For this purpose, large quantities of paper are sent out every year, by the Religious Tract Society. The missionaries are very glad to receive this paper, but they wish to have a great deal more, as the grown people and children are very eager for the books they print. The bark of trees has been used in all countries to write upon., The word book, in Latin, (liber) is the name by which the inner bark of trees is called in that language. In Sumatra bark is still much used for books; and the North American Indians have made great use of it for their picture writing. Linen was used in former times, particularly by the Egyptians; many of their linen books, and writings upon linen, remain to this day. They are frequently found with the mummies, or dead bodies of persons who died a long time ago, which have preserved or embalmed in the same manner as the bodies of Jacob and Joseph. See Genesis 1, 2, 26. Skins of animals were also used, and that long before people had found out how to make them into parchment. These leather and linen books were in the form of long rolls. It is probably that the book of the law, written by Moses, and given by him to the priests, Deuteronomy 31:24ff was of linen or leather; and that the book of the law, found by Hilkiah, II Chronicles 34:14, was of this sort. It may have been the same book that was written by Moses. When Dr. Buchanan was in India, he found a very old copy of the law, written on a roll of leather about fifteen feet long. Many such rolls exist; some of them more than a hundred feet in length. Perhaps you will wonder how they could read in such a book or rolls, which was the general form of books in ancient times. I will try to describe it. The rolls were several feet long, but not very wide, generally about twelve or fourteen inches; the writing upon them was in pages, beginning at one end of the roll and so proceeding to the other. The ends of the rolls were often fastened upon sticks; the roll was opened at the beginning just enough to allow of a page or two being read. The ancient manuscripts were all written in capital letters, and without divisions of the words, so that the roll when first opened looked something like this: INTHEBEGI WORDWASG EMADEBYHI INHIMWASLI NNINGWAST ODTHESAME MANDWITHO FEANDTHELI HEWORDAN WASINTHEB UTHIMWASN FEWASTHELI DTHEWORD EGINNINGW OTANYTHIN GHTOFMENA WASWITHG ITHGODALL GMADETHA NDTHELIGHT ODANDTHE THINGSWER TWASMADE SHINETHIND Of course there were more lines in a page, and more letters in a line than in this representation; see also the representation on an ancient manuscript, page xxx. How it would puzzle my readers if their books were printed in this manner. It shows how improvements are introduced by degrees. The part read was then rolled up, and more opened, so that the whole book could be read without the difficulty which there must have been if the lines had gone all along, from one end to the other, so as to require the whole roll to be opened at once. Sometimes both sides of the roll were written upon, Ezekiel 2:10. The rolls, or books rolled up, are often mentioned or alluded to in the Bible, Ezra 6:2, Isaiah 8:1, 34:4, Ezekiel 2:9, Revelation 6:14. The scribes, or persons employed in writing, were considered to be persons of some importance. From Ezekiel 9:3,5,11, it appears they wore their inkbottles, or inkhorns, at their girdles. The prophecy of Jeremiah, sent to Jehoiakim, was written by Baruch, with ink, in the roll of a book; and it is plain that this book was of some soft substance, as the king was able to cut it to pieces with a penknife, before he cast it into the fire, Jeremiah 36:23. That is an awful instance of the way in which many despise the word of God, and refuse to listen to its precepts and threatenings; often rejecting the promises of mercy, and the declarations of the love of God toward us, which are contained therein. It is indeed painful to think that some have even acted like Jehoiakim, and destroyed the word of God. The Romish priests often do so when they find Bibles or Testaments in the hands of people in Ireland; but it is very pleasant to find that there is an increasing desire to read the word of truth. There have been many instances of children refusing to give up their books, and rescuing them from the grasp of the priests. One very pleasing anecdote I must mention. A priest succeeded in tearing a Testament from the hand of a child; but the little Bible scholar had endeavored to hide the word of God in his heart, and exclaimed, "You may take away my Testament, sir; but you cannot take away the chapters I have learned by heart." In the days when popery prevailed in England, many persons learned the Psalms, and as many chapters as they could, for they knew that they would not be allowed to possess the word of God, when the papists had power to take it away. One of these excellent men had learned all the epistles. My dear reader, if you have been taught to prize the word of God, and the truths it contains, pray earnestly, and implore the Most High that the bloody, persecuting religion of the church of Rome may never prevail in our land, as in former times, and as it now does in some countries. Read the accounts of the poor Lollards, and the martyrs in the days of queen Mary; and be thankful that you live in the present times. There were no Sunday schools in those days, no instruction for the young in the truths of the gospel, none of the beautiful hymns children now have to learn, no prayers which people in general could understand, but only prayers in Latin, and bowing down to images; and if, parents attempted to teach their children any thing better they were punished. In the year 1519, six men and a woman were burned alive at Coventry, for teaching their children the Lord's Prayer and ten commandments in English! Be thankful, children, for your privileges, and be diligent in improving them. Parchment is made of the skins of goats, sheep, or calves prepared with care. It was known to the Jews, and being a later invention, and more valuable than skins of leather, was used for writings of the greatest importance; thus the apostle Paul, when writing to Timothy, desires him to bring the books he had left at Troas, but especially the parchments, II Timothy 4:13. The value and scarcity of parchment was so great before the invention of paper, that the writing was frequently effaced from rolls or books already written, and other works written instead. Some of the most ancient manuscripts of the Bible now know, had been written over in this manner, but the first writing can still be made out, thought not without difficulty. Another substance much used for writing upon, was a kind of paper, made from the thin skin or film which covered a sort of bulrush that grows in Egypt, and is called papyrus or biblos. It is found in abundance on the banks of the Nile and other streams, Isaiah 19:7. Among these reeds, or bulrushes, Moses was placed when his parents dared not keep him any longer. The daughter of the king found him there as is related in Exodus 2:3. These bulrushes are also mentioned in Isaiah 18:2. This paper was much used by the Romans and other nations. The manuscripts or books found in Herculaneum, the city which was buried under the ashes and lava from mount Vesuvius, in the year 79, and which remained unknown till about a hundred years ago, are all written on this sort of paper. They are rolls or long slips of different lengths, and about twelve inches wide; but the heart of the lava, and the length of time they remained untouched, it is very difficult to unroll or open them. Different sorts of paper have been made of bark of trees, cotton, silk, straw, and many other substances, but these as well as our paper, made of linen rags, were unknown to the ancient Jews. The paper mentioned in II John 12 was made of papyrus. The ancients wrote upon many of these substances with ink. The first mention of this is in the writing of the prophecy of Jeremiah, by Baruch, which we read was written "with ink in a book," or roll, Jeremiah 36:18. The prophet Ezekiel speaks of a writer's inkhorn; and the apostle John mentions writing with ink and pen, III John 13. Also the apostle Paul, II Corinthians 3:3. The pens were not of quills like ours, but of reeds, which are still used by eastern nations. Persons could write quicker with them than with the iron pens, or bodkins, which engraved or scratched the writing, this is alluded to in Psalm 45:1. There were pens in some inkhorns found in Herculaneum, but they were merely pointed sticks like skewers. And now I have said all that occurs to me respecting books and writing. Printing was not discovered till about the year 1450; before that time books were but few in number, and cost much money. Yet, even in those times, Solomon could say, "Of making books there is no end," Ecclesiastes 12:12. How much more is this the case in our days, and how many vain, trifling, silly, and even wicked or profane books there are! My readers, beware of bad books. We read, I Corinthians 15:33, that "evil communications corrupt good manners;" and, as the writer of the book of Ecclesiastes has well observed, a man cannot touch pitch without being defiled. Be assured that you cannot read bad books without injury. Flee the temptation, and if a bad book comes into your possession, as soon as you are aware of its contents, commit it to the flames. Remember what is said of the heavenly Jerusalem, "There shall in no wise enter into it any thing that defileth, neither whatsoever worketh abomination or maketh a lie, but they which are written in the Lamb's Book of Life."	4,084	ENGLISH	1
Things that need to learn and understand with regards to this subject are; the definition of equity, the nature of equity and the functions of equity in terms of the emergence of the English Legal System. Equity Law and Equity Essay a Outline the development of common law and equity. There was no system of law in England and Wales beforeas it was mainly based on customs which were just rules of behaviour and the other used to be the decisions of judges. The law in England and Wales built over the centuries. However, in the 18th Century Parliament became more powerful which lead the Acts of Parliament statues to be the main sources of law today. During the twentieth century statue law and judicial decisions continued to be the major sources of law but, in addition there were two new sources became increasingly important these were delegated legislation and European law. Delegated legislation is law made by a body other than Parliament. Parliament gives others the power to pass delegated legislation in a parent or enabling Act. Customs are rules of behaviour that develop in a community without being deliberately invented. There are two main types of Customs: Local Customs and General Customs. Local customs is when a person claims to have some sort of a local right as they believe that right has always been accepted locally and they are claiming the right is local custom. Judges developed tests to decide whether to uphold such customs. It was very unusual for a new custom to be considered by the judges, but there have been some case such as Egerton v Harding the court decided that there was a customary duty to fence land against cattle staying from the common. It is believed that the General custom was effectively the basis of the common law. This court consisted of nobleman who acted as judges. A practice was started of sending judges around the country to hold assizes or sittings to hear cases locally. In when King Henry II came to the throne he divided the country into circuits which lead the tours of the judges to be more regular. This enabled the judges, over a period of roughly years, to take the best local laws and apply them throughout the land. There were many problems with the common law. The first problem with the writ system was that it was too rigid; if it was filled out incorrectly it would be completely ignored. The other problem was that the nobleman limited the type of writs due to the Provisions of Oxfordso that certain categories of claim existed. The last problem was that the only remedy that the courts could give was the damages. This was not appropriate as in some cases such as in land disputes where money could not compensate the loss of land. People were disappointed therefore they wrote to the king to complain. The chancellor had a reputation of solving the cases fairly and based on justice. Equity historically had been an important source and still plays a vital role with many of our legal concepts having developed from equitable principles. Equity and Common Law both systems functioned side by side and eventually a conflict developed between these two systems and in that equity would frequently overruled common law decisions and denied them. The problem was that the Common law courts would make an order in the favour of the other party whereas the Chancery court would make an order in the favour of the other party. However, once the equity became a body of law rather that arbitrary exercise of conscience, there was no reason that it needed its own court. Therefore, the two systems merged together by Judicature Acts which established that equity and common law could both be administered by all courts and provide the system we have today.“Equity is merely a gloss to the Common Law.” Discuss the accuracy of this statement, with cases and example. (25marks) Before the Norman Conquest , different areas of England were governed by different systems of law%(1). Equity is a sort of justice, which was emerged in England besides from Common Law, which was the responsibility of the Common Law Courts. There were many issues, which were not fallen in the jurisdiction of the Common Law Courts. 'Equity was nothing more than a gloss on the common law'. Critically evaluate this statement and assess the past and present contributions of equity to the growth of the common law.5/5(1). One of the major differences between common law and equitable rights lies in the deficiencies of the common law remedy. When equity originally developed as a “gloss on the common law" according to Pettit, [ 3 ] it developed new remedies and recognized new rights where the common law fails to act. “The contribution of Equity to the development of the law lies in the creation of new rights and remedies, but the maxims of Equity have also played an important role in many areas of law.” Discuss this statement giving examples of rights, remedies and maxims introduced by Equity. Nov 23, · " Equity as a venerable group of right and procedures to provide fairness, unhampered by the narrow strictures of the old common law or other technical requirements of the law." A simple introduction on the definition of equity which also includes the nature of equity, I may say.	<urn:uuid:e1b193da-269a-464f-9bf4-39c251a36381>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://faqurehuxumisowo.rutadeltambor.com/equity-is-gloss-on-the-common-law-a-level-63400yx.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00343.warc.gz	en	0.984157	1,049	3.53125	4	[ -0.34504181146621704, -0.19921335577964783, 0.047961704432964325, -0.25171464681625366, -0.31771478056907654, -0.055940061807632446, 0.26243045926094055, -0.22046661376953125, 0.29382631182670593, 0.31699466705322266, -0.4129888117313385, -0.04778445512056351, -0.0014763781800866127, 0.166...	1	Things that need to learn and understand with regards to this subject are; the definition of equity, the nature of equity and the functions of equity in terms of the emergence of the English Legal System. Equity Law and Equity Essay a Outline the development of common law and equity. There was no system of law in England and Wales beforeas it was mainly based on customs which were just rules of behaviour and the other used to be the decisions of judges. The law in England and Wales built over the centuries. However, in the 18th Century Parliament became more powerful which lead the Acts of Parliament statues to be the main sources of law today. During the twentieth century statue law and judicial decisions continued to be the major sources of law but, in addition there were two new sources became increasingly important these were delegated legislation and European law. Delegated legislation is law made by a body other than Parliament. Parliament gives others the power to pass delegated legislation in a parent or enabling Act. Customs are rules of behaviour that develop in a community without being deliberately invented. There are two main types of Customs: Local Customs and General Customs. Local customs is when a person claims to have some sort of a local right as they believe that right has always been accepted locally and they are claiming the right is local custom. Judges developed tests to decide whether to uphold such customs. It was very unusual for a new custom to be considered by the judges, but there have been some case such as Egerton v Harding the court decided that there was a customary duty to fence land against cattle staying from the common. It is believed that the General custom was effectively the basis of the common law. This court consisted of nobleman who acted as judges. A practice was started of sending judges around the country to hold assizes or sittings to hear cases locally. In when King Henry II came to the throne he divided the country into circuits which lead the tours of the judges to be more regular. This enabled the judges, over a period of roughly years, to take the best local laws and apply them throughout the land. There were many problems with the common law. The first problem with the writ system was that it was too rigid; if it was filled out incorrectly it would be completely ignored. The other problem was that the nobleman limited the type of writs due to the Provisions of Oxfordso that certain categories of claim existed. The last problem was that the only remedy that the courts could give was the damages. This was not appropriate as in some cases such as in land disputes where money could not compensate the loss of land. People were disappointed therefore they wrote to the king to complain. The chancellor had a reputation of solving the cases fairly and based on justice. Equity historically had been an important source and still plays a vital role with many of our legal concepts having developed from equitable principles. Equity and Common Law both systems functioned side by side and eventually a conflict developed between these two systems and in that equity would frequently overruled common law decisions and denied them. The problem was that the Common law courts would make an order in the favour of the other party whereas the Chancery court would make an order in the favour of the other party. However, once the equity became a body of law rather that arbitrary exercise of conscience, there was no reason that it needed its own court. Therefore, the two systems merged together by Judicature Acts which established that equity and common law could both be administered by all courts and provide the system we have today.“Equity is merely a gloss to the Common Law.” Discuss the accuracy of this statement, with cases and example. (25marks) Before the Norman Conquest , different areas of England were governed by different systems of law%(1). Equity is a sort of justice, which was emerged in England besides from Common Law, which was the responsibility of the Common Law Courts. There were many issues, which were not fallen in the jurisdiction of the Common Law Courts. 'Equity was nothing more than a gloss on the common law'. Critically evaluate this statement and assess the past and present contributions of equity to the growth of the common law.5/5(1). One of the major differences between common law and equitable rights lies in the deficiencies of the common law remedy. When equity originally developed as a “gloss on the common law" according to Pettit, [ 3 ] it developed new remedies and recognized new rights where the common law fails to act. “The contribution of Equity to the development of the law lies in the creation of new rights and remedies, but the maxims of Equity have also played an important role in many areas of law.” Discuss this statement giving examples of rights, remedies and maxims introduced by Equity. Nov 23, · " Equity as a venerable group of right and procedures to provide fairness, unhampered by the narrow strictures of the old common law or other technical requirements of the law." A simple introduction on the definition of equity which also includes the nature of equity, I may say.	1,024	ENGLISH	1
The Civil Conflict The City War was obviously a fight between Southern says and the North states. This began in 1861 and ended in 1865. The northerners referred to this kind of war as the conflict to preserve the Union mainly because that became the main target of the City War. Captivity was one of the causes of the war, in the end Lincoln's goal started to be preserving the union. When Eli Whitney made the Silk cotton Gin in 1783, natural cotton then became very lucrative. Many farmers that acquired plantations although were not at the moment in the organic cotton business had been then convinced to expand cotton instead of what they were growing previously thus causing a very high with regard to slaves. However , unlike the southern claims agricultural centered economy, the northern says economy was based on sector, and to develop a strong advanced society many people coming from all different classes and nationalities had to work together. The south thought that Abraham Lincoln compared with slavery and favored the northern says more than the the southern part of states. Consequently , seven declares were trying to secede from your union ahead of Abraham Lincoln even became president. The southern says believed which the 10th Modification in the Costs of Legal rights entitled them to have the right to secession. Abraham Lincoln believed it to be wrong pertaining to the claims to try and secede, naturally Abraham Lincoln and congress declared war on the southern declares. The Civil Battle began in 1861 about April twelfth. The initial shots with the war had been fired by Fort Sumter. After this episode, Abraham Lincoln subsequently called for seventy five, 000 volunteers to serve in the army for ninety days. Lincoln planned to get the northerners to focus on conserving the union to avoid producing the war about captivity. Slave claims in the union had to pick a side for that reason; they all chose to stand together with the south. The goals of the the southern part of states were to be their own independent nation also to continue to continue with slavery unchanged. That they made a massive profit from captivity;...	<urn:uuid:472278bf-a6b0-40e5-9316-0c7bb53c9c8f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://oldschoolnewbodypdf.com/the-civil-conflict/94499-the-city-war-article.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00436.warc.gz	en	0.98097	414	3.8125	4	[ -0.28599274158477783, 0.28517305850982666, 0.07558305561542511, 0.038882628083229065, 0.17722590267658234, 0.19808268547058105, 0.11010431498289108, 0.0013614407507702708, -0.2276076376438141, 0.16182418167591095, -0.07695960253477097, 0.10925270617008209, -0.06846728175878525, 0.534847915...	1	The Civil Conflict The City War was obviously a fight between Southern says and the North states. This began in 1861 and ended in 1865. The northerners referred to this kind of war as the conflict to preserve the Union mainly because that became the main target of the City War. Captivity was one of the causes of the war, in the end Lincoln's goal started to be preserving the union. When Eli Whitney made the Silk cotton Gin in 1783, natural cotton then became very lucrative. Many farmers that acquired plantations although were not at the moment in the organic cotton business had been then convinced to expand cotton instead of what they were growing previously thus causing a very high with regard to slaves. However , unlike the southern claims agricultural centered economy, the northern says economy was based on sector, and to develop a strong advanced society many people coming from all different classes and nationalities had to work together. The south thought that Abraham Lincoln compared with slavery and favored the northern says more than the the southern part of states. Consequently , seven declares were trying to secede from your union ahead of Abraham Lincoln even became president. The southern says believed which the 10th Modification in the Costs of Legal rights entitled them to have the right to secession. Abraham Lincoln believed it to be wrong pertaining to the claims to try and secede, naturally Abraham Lincoln and congress declared war on the southern declares. The Civil Battle began in 1861 about April twelfth. The initial shots with the war had been fired by Fort Sumter. After this episode, Abraham Lincoln subsequently called for seventy five, 000 volunteers to serve in the army for ninety days. Lincoln planned to get the northerners to focus on conserving the union to avoid producing the war about captivity. Slave claims in the union had to pick a side for that reason; they all chose to stand together with the south. The goals of the the southern part of states were to be their own independent nation also to continue to continue with slavery unchanged. That they made a massive profit from captivity;...	429	ENGLISH	1
We had all noticed lots of changes outside as Autumn started. Children started to comment as they came into Nursery. Miss Parker collected some of the items they brought and added to it on our Nature Shelf. We decided to go to the Secret Garden to look for some different Autumn objects and everyone brought a leaf back to class. We looked carefully at the different leaves and talked about what we could see. You can see our learning in the Floor Book. We also decided to use our leaves to do some leaf printing back in Nursery. The children enjoyed exploring the items on the Nature Shelf. They particularly loved the conkers and the pumpkins. We decided to focus on Pumpkins more the week after. We looked very carefully at the pumpkins and tried to draw them. We also spent a lot of time talking about the pumpkins and thinking about as many words as we could to describe them. What have we been learning? - About seasonal changes all around us. - To talk about what we can see using words and sentences. - To go on a visit in school to see a new places. How can you continue the learning at home? - Can you talk about the leaves we found? What colour are they? What shape are they? Do you know which tree they came from? - Which other signs of Autumn can you see? Go to the Park and see what is happening to the trees there. - How many words can you think of to describe a pumpkin?	<urn:uuid:294ff74f-9084-4790-8f8d-339f03f40725>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://diamondclassfs1.wordpress.com/tag/science/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00113.warc.gz	en	0.982009	311	3.734375	4	[ 0.04021482169628143, -0.2985939383506775, 0.627936840057373, 0.10022997111082077, 0.5261564254760742, 0.007393260952085257, 0.4243626594543457, -0.18034079670906067, -0.12665392458438873, 0.19028908014297485, 0.13351313769817352, -0.06634882092475891, -0.2796751856803894, 0.267069160938262...	2	We had all noticed lots of changes outside as Autumn started. Children started to comment as they came into Nursery. Miss Parker collected some of the items they brought and added to it on our Nature Shelf. We decided to go to the Secret Garden to look for some different Autumn objects and everyone brought a leaf back to class. We looked carefully at the different leaves and talked about what we could see. You can see our learning in the Floor Book. We also decided to use our leaves to do some leaf printing back in Nursery. The children enjoyed exploring the items on the Nature Shelf. They particularly loved the conkers and the pumpkins. We decided to focus on Pumpkins more the week after. We looked very carefully at the pumpkins and tried to draw them. We also spent a lot of time talking about the pumpkins and thinking about as many words as we could to describe them. What have we been learning? - About seasonal changes all around us. - To talk about what we can see using words and sentences. - To go on a visit in school to see a new places. How can you continue the learning at home? - Can you talk about the leaves we found? What colour are they? What shape are they? Do you know which tree they came from? - Which other signs of Autumn can you see? Go to the Park and see what is happening to the trees there. - How many words can you think of to describe a pumpkin?	294	ENGLISH	1
Ralph Waldo Emerson Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Ralph Waldo Emerson was born on May 25th, in 1803. He is best remembered for being an essayist, transcendentalist poet, and a philosopher. Emerson was perceived by many as an advocate of individualism. His initial essays were at first written in the form of lectures. They were later revised and printed. His notable essays include "The Over-Soul," Self-Reliance," The Poet," “Experience” and “Circles.” Ralph Waldo Emerson was born on May 25th, in 1803. His place of birth was in Boston, Massachusetts. His father, Rev. William Emerson served as a Unitarian minister. His mother was called Ruth Haskins. Emerson was one of the five sons in the family that managed to survive to adulthood. On May 12th, in 1811, tragedy struck the family as Emerson’s father kicked the bucket following his long battle with stomach cancer. In 1812, Ralph Waldo Emerson enrolled with the Boston Latin School. Five years later, he joined Harvard College. In 1826, he became a licensed minister. Shortly after, in 1829, he was ordained to serve as a Unitarian minister. Emerson’s career revolved around traveling and writing. During his trip to Europe in 1832, for example, he crossed paths with notable writers such as William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor, and Thomas Carlyle. Upon his return home, he lectured on ethical living and spiritual experience related topics. During the 1830s, Ralph Waldo Emerson continued with his lectures. These lectures would later be revised and printed in the form of essays. He then went ahead and earned the recognition for leading a group called the transcendentalists. Ralph Waldo Emerson tied the knot with Ellen Louise Tucker in 1829. Unfortunately, she died from tuberculosis in 1831. After this, Emerson wedded Lidian Jackson Emerson as his second wife in 1835. Ralph Waldo Emerson passed away on April 27th, in 1882. He died at the age of 78.	<urn:uuid:f16b1e5e-fc98-4cd7-9a3e-a17b765fa60b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/ralph-waldo-emerson/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00300.warc.gz	en	0.986276	459	3.5	4	[ 0.03522535413503647, -0.03989003226161003, 0.496429979801178, -0.34040066599845886, -0.35804417729377747, 0.25926899909973145, 0.5105451345443726, 0.02649889513850212, -0.03380657359957695, 0.04394608736038208, 0.3566516935825348, -0.058899689465761185, 0.3765358030796051, 0.19967925548553...	8	Ralph Waldo Emerson Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Ralph Waldo Emerson was born on May 25th, in 1803. He is best remembered for being an essayist, transcendentalist poet, and a philosopher. Emerson was perceived by many as an advocate of individualism. His initial essays were at first written in the form of lectures. They were later revised and printed. His notable essays include "The Over-Soul," Self-Reliance," The Poet," “Experience” and “Circles.” Ralph Waldo Emerson was born on May 25th, in 1803. His place of birth was in Boston, Massachusetts. His father, Rev. William Emerson served as a Unitarian minister. His mother was called Ruth Haskins. Emerson was one of the five sons in the family that managed to survive to adulthood. On May 12th, in 1811, tragedy struck the family as Emerson’s father kicked the bucket following his long battle with stomach cancer. In 1812, Ralph Waldo Emerson enrolled with the Boston Latin School. Five years later, he joined Harvard College. In 1826, he became a licensed minister. Shortly after, in 1829, he was ordained to serve as a Unitarian minister. Emerson’s career revolved around traveling and writing. During his trip to Europe in 1832, for example, he crossed paths with notable writers such as William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor, and Thomas Carlyle. Upon his return home, he lectured on ethical living and spiritual experience related topics. During the 1830s, Ralph Waldo Emerson continued with his lectures. These lectures would later be revised and printed in the form of essays. He then went ahead and earned the recognition for leading a group called the transcendentalists. Ralph Waldo Emerson tied the knot with Ellen Louise Tucker in 1829. Unfortunately, she died from tuberculosis in 1831. After this, Emerson wedded Lidian Jackson Emerson as his second wife in 1835. Ralph Waldo Emerson passed away on April 27th, in 1882. He died at the age of 78.	484	ENGLISH	1
St. Nicholas (died c. 350) was the bishop of Myra in what is now Turkey, where he was famous for his generosity to the poor. The details of his life… St. Nicholas (died c. 350) was the bishop of Myra in what is now Turkey, where he was famous for his generosity to the poor. The details of his life have not come down to us, but a host of legends have sprung up to fill the void, almost all of them emphasizing Nicholas’ goodness to people in need. It is said that St. Nicholas rescued three innocent men who had been falsely accused of robbery and were about to be executed, and that he saved the crew of a ship that had lost its mast in a storm and was about to sink. The most famous legend tells of a widowed merchant whose business went bankrupt. He and his three unmarried daughters survived by pawning their valuables, one by one. At last there was nothing left to sell and no hope that any man would ask for the hand of a young woman who was a pauper; the father feared that his daughters would be forced to become prostitutes. St. Nicholas heard about the family’s desperate situation, and, so, after dark one evening he walked to the merchant’s house and tossed a bag of gold coins through an open window. Now the eldest daughter had enough for a respectable dowry. The next night, he went again to the merchant’s house and threw in a second bag of gold for the second daughter. Finally, on third night, the merchant and his daughters were waiting for him. As the third bag of coins sailed through the window, the grateful family flung open the door and rushed outside to thank their benefactor. The story of the three bags of gold is the origin of giving gifts on St. Nicholas Day (Dec. 6). But how he became the patron saint of children comes from another legend, which is not for the squeamish. Nicholas was traveling, and when night came he stopped at an inn where he asked for a room and a meal. The inn-keeper, proud of the opportunity to entertain a bishop, declared he would serve Nicholas a splendid dinner, including meat that had been delivered fresh that day. Bishop Nicholas did not say a word, but pushed the man aside and walked into the kitchen. There, in the middle of the room, stood a large wooden tub brimming with fresh meat. Nicholas made the Sign of the Cross over the tub, and the meat vanished, replaced by three little boys. The innkeeper had murdered the children and planned to serve them to his guests. After his death, St. Nicholas’ tomb in his cathedral in Myra became a destination for pilgrims. Then, around the year 1085, the Seljuk Turks conquered Myra. Christians across Europe feared that the Turks would desecrate or destroy the saint’s relics. In Italy, city officials in Venice and Bari resolved to rescue St. Nicholas, but the men from Bari got to Myra first. They took the saint’s casket from the cathedral, and on May 9, 1087, sailed into the Bari harbor bearing the relics of the saint. The relics are still in Bari, enshrined in a crypt beneath the Basilica of St. Nicholas. For centuries, St. Nicholas was one of the most popular saints, with many churches, chapels and altars raised in his honor. Before the Reformation, there were more than 400 churches dedicated to St. Nicholas just in England. He was named the patron of Greece, Russia, Sicily, the French province of Loraine, as well as many cities and towns. Newlyweds, longshoremen, sailors, pawnbrokers, thieves and children venerated him as their patron saint. Today, St. Nicholas is still widely venerated in the Orthodox Church and among Catholics of the Eastern rites, and in many parts of Central and Northern Europe his feast day is still celebrated, especially by children. But in the United States, devotion to the saint is virtually nonexistent. Blame it on Clement Clarke Moore, a professor of biblical studies at the Episcopal Church’s General Theological Seminary in New York City. In 1823 Moore published a poem titled “A Visit from St. Nicholas,” better known today as “’Twas the Night before Christmas.” There was a popular trend among New Yorkers of the early 19th century to try to “recapture” their city’s Dutch heritage. Influential men such as Moore and the author Washington Irving (who wrote the stories of Rip Van Winkle and the Headless Horseman) invented a host of traditions and folklore that they claimed had been part of day-to-day life in old New Amsterdam. Moore, Irving and their friends were especially enchanted by the stories of St. Nicholas, and so claimed that the first Dutch colonists arrived in Manhattan aboard a ship bearing a figurehead of St. Nicholas (it didn’t); that the first church in New Amsterdam was dedicated to St. Nicholas (it wasn’t); and that the Dutch colonists celebrated St. Nicholas Day (they didn’t). Moore took these innocent fabrications and used them as the basis for a full-blown treatment of a brand-new Christmas legend, complete with eight flying reindeer, a sleigh full of toys and an elderly overweight man in a red suit who climbed up and down chimneys. It is a delightful poem; and in Santa Claus, Moore has given the world one of the most memorable characters ever, one that is recognized all across the globe. Moore’s poem kicked off a Santa Claus phenomenon, but it had an unintended side effect — it all but guaranteed that devotion to the real St. Nicholas would not take root in the United States. We shouldn’t be surprised: How could anyone be expected to pray to a saint who is described as “a right jolly old elf”? We don’t have to choose between St. Nicholas and Santa Claus; they are two different figures, and we can have them both. Let Santa keep what’s his — the big chair in the department store, the reindeer and the sleigh, the magic of presents under the Christmas tree. And let St. Nicholas have what is his — the Mass in his honor on Dec. 6, the tradition of giving children a little gift or some chocolates on his feast day as a prelude to Christmas. Most importantly, let us honor St. Nicholas by imitating his virtues, especially his generosity to people in need. Thomas J. Craughwell is the author of “Patron Saints” (OSV, $14.95) and “Saints Behaving Badly” (Doubleday, $15.95). This article first appeared in Our Sunday Visitor.	<urn:uuid:20bb3173-485d-4813-b4c0-493130bc09b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simplycatholic.com/tag/feast-day/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00143.warc.gz	en	0.982898	1,443	3.390625	3	[ 0.3522711396217346, 0.12118728458881378, 0.16884569823741913, -0.06169312819838524, -0.04125303775072098, -0.47168534994125366, 0.4464123845100403, 0.14604440331459045, 0.12367050349712372, -0.3268449306488037, -0.3580230176448822, 0.04944334924221039, 0.29207301139831543, 0.17263562977313...	17	St. Nicholas (died c. 350) was the bishop of Myra in what is now Turkey, where he was famous for his generosity to the poor. The details of his life… St. Nicholas (died c. 350) was the bishop of Myra in what is now Turkey, where he was famous for his generosity to the poor. The details of his life have not come down to us, but a host of legends have sprung up to fill the void, almost all of them emphasizing Nicholas’ goodness to people in need. It is said that St. Nicholas rescued three innocent men who had been falsely accused of robbery and were about to be executed, and that he saved the crew of a ship that had lost its mast in a storm and was about to sink. The most famous legend tells of a widowed merchant whose business went bankrupt. He and his three unmarried daughters survived by pawning their valuables, one by one. At last there was nothing left to sell and no hope that any man would ask for the hand of a young woman who was a pauper; the father feared that his daughters would be forced to become prostitutes. St. Nicholas heard about the family’s desperate situation, and, so, after dark one evening he walked to the merchant’s house and tossed a bag of gold coins through an open window. Now the eldest daughter had enough for a respectable dowry. The next night, he went again to the merchant’s house and threw in a second bag of gold for the second daughter. Finally, on third night, the merchant and his daughters were waiting for him. As the third bag of coins sailed through the window, the grateful family flung open the door and rushed outside to thank their benefactor. The story of the three bags of gold is the origin of giving gifts on St. Nicholas Day (Dec. 6). But how he became the patron saint of children comes from another legend, which is not for the squeamish. Nicholas was traveling, and when night came he stopped at an inn where he asked for a room and a meal. The inn-keeper, proud of the opportunity to entertain a bishop, declared he would serve Nicholas a splendid dinner, including meat that had been delivered fresh that day. Bishop Nicholas did not say a word, but pushed the man aside and walked into the kitchen. There, in the middle of the room, stood a large wooden tub brimming with fresh meat. Nicholas made the Sign of the Cross over the tub, and the meat vanished, replaced by three little boys. The innkeeper had murdered the children and planned to serve them to his guests. After his death, St. Nicholas’ tomb in his cathedral in Myra became a destination for pilgrims. Then, around the year 1085, the Seljuk Turks conquered Myra. Christians across Europe feared that the Turks would desecrate or destroy the saint’s relics. In Italy, city officials in Venice and Bari resolved to rescue St. Nicholas, but the men from Bari got to Myra first. They took the saint’s casket from the cathedral, and on May 9, 1087, sailed into the Bari harbor bearing the relics of the saint. The relics are still in Bari, enshrined in a crypt beneath the Basilica of St. Nicholas. For centuries, St. Nicholas was one of the most popular saints, with many churches, chapels and altars raised in his honor. Before the Reformation, there were more than 400 churches dedicated to St. Nicholas just in England. He was named the patron of Greece, Russia, Sicily, the French province of Loraine, as well as many cities and towns. Newlyweds, longshoremen, sailors, pawnbrokers, thieves and children venerated him as their patron saint. Today, St. Nicholas is still widely venerated in the Orthodox Church and among Catholics of the Eastern rites, and in many parts of Central and Northern Europe his feast day is still celebrated, especially by children. But in the United States, devotion to the saint is virtually nonexistent. Blame it on Clement Clarke Moore, a professor of biblical studies at the Episcopal Church’s General Theological Seminary in New York City. In 1823 Moore published a poem titled “A Visit from St. Nicholas,” better known today as “’Twas the Night before Christmas.” There was a popular trend among New Yorkers of the early 19th century to try to “recapture” their city’s Dutch heritage. Influential men such as Moore and the author Washington Irving (who wrote the stories of Rip Van Winkle and the Headless Horseman) invented a host of traditions and folklore that they claimed had been part of day-to-day life in old New Amsterdam. Moore, Irving and their friends were especially enchanted by the stories of St. Nicholas, and so claimed that the first Dutch colonists arrived in Manhattan aboard a ship bearing a figurehead of St. Nicholas (it didn’t); that the first church in New Amsterdam was dedicated to St. Nicholas (it wasn’t); and that the Dutch colonists celebrated St. Nicholas Day (they didn’t). Moore took these innocent fabrications and used them as the basis for a full-blown treatment of a brand-new Christmas legend, complete with eight flying reindeer, a sleigh full of toys and an elderly overweight man in a red suit who climbed up and down chimneys. It is a delightful poem; and in Santa Claus, Moore has given the world one of the most memorable characters ever, one that is recognized all across the globe. Moore’s poem kicked off a Santa Claus phenomenon, but it had an unintended side effect — it all but guaranteed that devotion to the real St. Nicholas would not take root in the United States. We shouldn’t be surprised: How could anyone be expected to pray to a saint who is described as “a right jolly old elf”? We don’t have to choose between St. Nicholas and Santa Claus; they are two different figures, and we can have them both. Let Santa keep what’s his — the big chair in the department store, the reindeer and the sleigh, the magic of presents under the Christmas tree. And let St. Nicholas have what is his — the Mass in his honor on Dec. 6, the tradition of giving children a little gift or some chocolates on his feast day as a prelude to Christmas. Most importantly, let us honor St. Nicholas by imitating his virtues, especially his generosity to people in need. Thomas J. Craughwell is the author of “Patron Saints” (OSV, $14.95) and “Saints Behaving Badly” (Doubleday, $15.95). This article first appeared in Our Sunday Visitor.	1,407	ENGLISH	1
The “inn” is not what you think it was. The owner of the local Motel 6 slams the door in Joseph’s face, saying that there is “no vacancy.” Then Joseph finally finds a stable where animals are kept and brings Mary to the humble place just in time before Jesus is born. While it is an engaging story, it doesn’t match-up with the biblical account and the original Greek text. Luke sets the stage, “And she gave birth to her first-born son and wrapped him in swaddling cloths, and laid him in a manger, because there was no place for them in the inn” (Luke 2:7). The last word, “inn,” is what usually fosters the narratives as described above. However, the English word is not a full translation of the Greek. The word used in the original text is kataluma and is best understood as a “guest room,” not a type of commercial inn used for travelers. For that type of lodging Luke uses the word pandokheion. Additionally, Bethlehem was Joseph’s “hometown” and he likely had relatives to stay with. Even more to the point, very few people would want to give birth in a type of public motel. Inns at that time did not have a good reputation and Mary would have wanted privacy for such an intimate event. Furthermore, a close reading of the text reveals that Joseph and Mary had been in Bethlehem for a number of days before her birth. And Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the city of Nazareth, to Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to be enrolled with Mary, his betrothed, who was with child. And while they were there, the time came for her to be delivered. (Luke 2:4-6) According to Luke, the holy couple were already staying in Bethlehem when Mary went into labor. In other words, they weren’t rushing to find somewhere to stay on Christmas Eve, but looking for a proper place with enough space and privacy for the birthing process. Since the census forced everyone to come back home, the “inn” or “guest room” was full. Mary and Joseph had to find another place. Peasant homes included a stable Archeological studies can help paint a better picture of what a house in Bethlehem looked like and where Mary likely gave birth. A typical Judean house of that day consisted of an area near the door, often with a dirt floor, where the family’s animals were kept at night—so they wouldn’t be stolen or preyed upon and so their body heat could help warm the home on cool nights. The family lived and slept in a raised part of the same room set back from the door. There was also usually a guest room either upstairs on a second floor or adjoining the family common room on the lower floor. Typically the lower area near the door had a manger for food and/or water for the animals. Another description explains how, “houses in Bethlehem and its vicinity often had caves as the back of the house where they kept their prized ox or beast of burden, lest it be stolen. The guest room was in the front of the house, the animal shelter in the back.” So instead of subjecting the other guests of the home to the delivery of a child, Mary gave birth in a more private area where the animals were kept and laid Jesus in the feeding trough that was there. This historical rendering of the biblical account is quite different from the narrative many of us grew up with, but it doesn’t diminish the humility of Christ’s birth. Jesus was still born in a place where animals were kept and in a simple peasant cave in Bethlehem. It remains a beautiful scene that changed the world forever. Since you are here… …we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you?	<urn:uuid:c4b0713f-692e-439d-9633-313e0dd370f0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://aleteia.org/2017/12/21/the-real-reason-why-there-was-no-room-at-the-inn/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00327.warc.gz	en	0.981666	976	3.390625	3	[ 0.07658183574676514, -0.0660196840763092, -0.09545763581991196, 0.2197246551513672, -0.2009403258562088, 0.03439275547862053, 0.30494970083236694, 0.15277743339538574, 0.3630201518535614, 0.04715660586953163, -0.025417927652597427, 0.2900815010070801, 0.11080951988697052, 0.287672638893127...	1	The “inn” is not what you think it was. The owner of the local Motel 6 slams the door in Joseph’s face, saying that there is “no vacancy.” Then Joseph finally finds a stable where animals are kept and brings Mary to the humble place just in time before Jesus is born. While it is an engaging story, it doesn’t match-up with the biblical account and the original Greek text. Luke sets the stage, “And she gave birth to her first-born son and wrapped him in swaddling cloths, and laid him in a manger, because there was no place for them in the inn” (Luke 2:7). The last word, “inn,” is what usually fosters the narratives as described above. However, the English word is not a full translation of the Greek. The word used in the original text is kataluma and is best understood as a “guest room,” not a type of commercial inn used for travelers. For that type of lodging Luke uses the word pandokheion. Additionally, Bethlehem was Joseph’s “hometown” and he likely had relatives to stay with. Even more to the point, very few people would want to give birth in a type of public motel. Inns at that time did not have a good reputation and Mary would have wanted privacy for such an intimate event. Furthermore, a close reading of the text reveals that Joseph and Mary had been in Bethlehem for a number of days before her birth. And Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the city of Nazareth, to Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to be enrolled with Mary, his betrothed, who was with child. And while they were there, the time came for her to be delivered. (Luke 2:4-6) According to Luke, the holy couple were already staying in Bethlehem when Mary went into labor. In other words, they weren’t rushing to find somewhere to stay on Christmas Eve, but looking for a proper place with enough space and privacy for the birthing process. Since the census forced everyone to come back home, the “inn” or “guest room” was full. Mary and Joseph had to find another place. Peasant homes included a stable Archeological studies can help paint a better picture of what a house in Bethlehem looked like and where Mary likely gave birth. A typical Judean house of that day consisted of an area near the door, often with a dirt floor, where the family’s animals were kept at night—so they wouldn’t be stolen or preyed upon and so their body heat could help warm the home on cool nights. The family lived and slept in a raised part of the same room set back from the door. There was also usually a guest room either upstairs on a second floor or adjoining the family common room on the lower floor. Typically the lower area near the door had a manger for food and/or water for the animals. Another description explains how, “houses in Bethlehem and its vicinity often had caves as the back of the house where they kept their prized ox or beast of burden, lest it be stolen. The guest room was in the front of the house, the animal shelter in the back.” So instead of subjecting the other guests of the home to the delivery of a child, Mary gave birth in a more private area where the animals were kept and laid Jesus in the feeding trough that was there. This historical rendering of the biblical account is quite different from the narrative many of us grew up with, but it doesn’t diminish the humility of Christ’s birth. Jesus was still born in a place where animals were kept and in a simple peasant cave in Bethlehem. It remains a beautiful scene that changed the world forever. Since you are here… …we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you?	912	ENGLISH	1
The Militia Ordinance was a piece of legislation passed by the Long Parliament of England in March 1642, which was a major step towards the Civil War between the King and Parliament of England. Previously the King had the sole right to appoint the Lord Lieutenants, who were in charge of the county militias (also known as the trained bands). These militias were the only land forces available in peacetime, because England had no regular standing army. As relations between King and Parliament deteriorated, control of the militia became a very controversial issue. Parliament did not trust Charles and tried to deny him control of any military forces which he might use against them. Charles I attempted to arrest five members of the Commons and one Lord in January 1642, but the episode resulted in the five members being hailed heroes and Charles' departure from London. On 5 March 1642 the anti-royalist majority in the House of Lords passed an Ordinance appointing their choice of Lieutenants, although a royalist minority protested. The House of Commons agreed to the Ordinance the same day, but according to English custom no legislation could become law until it received the royal assent. The King refused to give his assent to the bill, but on 15 March 1642 Parliament declared that "the People are bound by the Ordinance for the Militia, though it has not received the Royal Assent". This was the first time that Parliament had ever put a law into effect without royal assent. Such an unprecedented assertion of Parliamentary sovereignty made war far more likely. The Militia Ordinance and the King's Commissions of Array were statements of intent and tests of loyalty but had little practical impact on the raising of armies. The main Parliamentarian army commanded by the Earl of Essex was formed entirely with regular regiments raised from volunteers who enlisted in the summer of 1642. Local trained bands often had divided loyalties or refused to serve outside their own counties. The biggest exception was the London Militia, which was placed under the control of the London Militia Committee by the Militia Ordinance. London was by far the most populous city in England and had a large and well trained militia. The London trained bands marched out to link up with Essex's army at Turnham Green in November 1642, blocking a royalist advance on London. In subsequent years London trained bands regiments were used to reinforce the armies of the Earl of Essex and Sir William Waller, and the Essex trained bands took part in the siege of Reading in 1643. The Long Parliament continued to pass and enforce Ordinances without the royal assent throughout the 1640s. Most of these were declared void after the Restoration, but Charles II continued the excise duty, which was originally brought in by an Ordinance of Parliament in 1643.	<urn:uuid:c5255fad-d47d-4183-8bc6-2b9eabde6347>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Militia_Ordinance	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00096.warc.gz	en	0.984409	556	3.5	4	[ -0.17452089488506317, 0.0445348396897316, 0.5198842883110046, -0.1451006978750229, -0.041982658207416534, 0.012177877128124237, 0.2314586639404297, -0.37114471197128296, -0.12708789110183716, -0.055363334715366364, 0.18298819661140442, -0.0937379002571106, -0.052205927670001984, 0.29479447...	1	The Militia Ordinance was a piece of legislation passed by the Long Parliament of England in March 1642, which was a major step towards the Civil War between the King and Parliament of England. Previously the King had the sole right to appoint the Lord Lieutenants, who were in charge of the county militias (also known as the trained bands). These militias were the only land forces available in peacetime, because England had no regular standing army. As relations between King and Parliament deteriorated, control of the militia became a very controversial issue. Parliament did not trust Charles and tried to deny him control of any military forces which he might use against them. Charles I attempted to arrest five members of the Commons and one Lord in January 1642, but the episode resulted in the five members being hailed heroes and Charles' departure from London. On 5 March 1642 the anti-royalist majority in the House of Lords passed an Ordinance appointing their choice of Lieutenants, although a royalist minority protested. The House of Commons agreed to the Ordinance the same day, but according to English custom no legislation could become law until it received the royal assent. The King refused to give his assent to the bill, but on 15 March 1642 Parliament declared that "the People are bound by the Ordinance for the Militia, though it has not received the Royal Assent". This was the first time that Parliament had ever put a law into effect without royal assent. Such an unprecedented assertion of Parliamentary sovereignty made war far more likely. The Militia Ordinance and the King's Commissions of Array were statements of intent and tests of loyalty but had little practical impact on the raising of armies. The main Parliamentarian army commanded by the Earl of Essex was formed entirely with regular regiments raised from volunteers who enlisted in the summer of 1642. Local trained bands often had divided loyalties or refused to serve outside their own counties. The biggest exception was the London Militia, which was placed under the control of the London Militia Committee by the Militia Ordinance. London was by far the most populous city in England and had a large and well trained militia. The London trained bands marched out to link up with Essex's army at Turnham Green in November 1642, blocking a royalist advance on London. In subsequent years London trained bands regiments were used to reinforce the armies of the Earl of Essex and Sir William Waller, and the Essex trained bands took part in the siege of Reading in 1643. The Long Parliament continued to pass and enforce Ordinances without the royal assent throughout the 1640s. Most of these were declared void after the Restoration, but Charles II continued the excise duty, which was originally brought in by an Ordinance of Parliament in 1643.	596	ENGLISH	1
Digital inequity means that the major differences in the digital material and cognitive resources that are available to make the information and digital communication good for us. There are some countries that consider that if a student has access to a computer or a tablet, it means that they are making the students become computer literate. According to a study, there is also a great difference between the achievement levels of the students in the same nation. Performance of South Korea and Kazakhstan Students: In order to get an idea about the computer literacy skills, a survey was conducted in South Korea. The people who have participated in this survey were able to do an average score of 682. In order to get an idea about their ability level, they have used a scale from 1 to 700. In a similar way, they have also conducted a survey in Kazakhstan. On the basis of these results, they were able to know that the average score of Kazakhstan is 118 points less than the average score of South Korea. On the other hand, if we compare the average score of 5% lowest students in South Korea and Kazakhstan, their differences are shocking for them. Its reason is that now, Kazakhstan is 312 points higher than South Korea. For this reason, they have also concluded that the students who have lots of books in their homes and whom living standard is high are able to perform well in these computer literacy tests than other students. Socio-Economic Status and Computer Literacy: We can also observe differences in computer literacy on the basis of socio-economic status. This study has also provided different results of computer literacy of different students with different socio-economic status. For example, the students whom parents have got bachelor’s degrees are able to acquire an average score of 518 points. The students whose parents have not got a bachelor’s degree are able to acquire only 487 points. The students whom parents have the high status of living are able to acquire 522 points. In a similar way, the students whom parents have the lower status of living are able to acquire only 485 points. Middling Performance from US Students: In order to assess the computer literacy skills of the students, the researchers have chosen a sample of 40 students and they have assessed their abilities by providing them questionnaires. For this reason, they have chosen students from 14 different countries. In these samples, they have also assessed more than 46,000 students and 26,000 teachers. In order to get an idea about computer literacy of the students, they have asked questions about different things like MS Office, digital photography, database and information relevant to the internet. In this research, it is also found that most of the students have got these basic skills from their homes. In the developed countries, it is also found that if their students are not able to acquire these skills from their homes and they are able to acquire these skills from the schools. Some students urged that they got these skills from dissertation writing services. They have also provided some suggestions for the teachers that they should not assume that their students have these skills. They should take an overview of these skills of the students and try to teach skills to their students. In the research, they have also concluded that 95% of students in the advanced countries are confident in digital collaboration. On the basis of these results, we can also conclude that the US is in the middle. Strong Showing for Girls: In these sample groups, there were also some girls and boys. They have taken an overview of the computer literacy of the girls as well as boys. The results of this research have shown that girls have performed well than boys. The average score of the girls was 505 and the average score of the boys was 498. These results are also similar to the results of the National Assessment for Educational Progress. The results of the National Assessment for Educational Progress also show that girls have strong computer skills than boys. Before this survey, it was considered that boys are better than girls in the computer and technology but the results of this survey have proven that it was a myth because girls can perform better in both computer and technology than boys. The results of this survey also show that most of the students don’t have advance level computer skills.	<urn:uuid:5a6954de-c3c8-45f8-a76d-50ab657dcc39>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.publishmyarticle.co.uk/2020/01/06/major-inequities-in-computer-literacy-that-most-of-students-face/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00468.warc.gz	en	0.980879	858	3.5	4	[ 0.01643085852265358, -0.054113440215587616, 0.3128952980041504, -0.4884994924068451, -0.015948528423905373, -0.02762356400489807, 0.05934402346611023, 0.18620996177196503, 0.13210538029670715, 0.006618469953536987, 0.31745731830596924, -0.024888698011636734, 0.39132916927337646, -0.0842168...	8	Digital inequity means that the major differences in the digital material and cognitive resources that are available to make the information and digital communication good for us. There are some countries that consider that if a student has access to a computer or a tablet, it means that they are making the students become computer literate. According to a study, there is also a great difference between the achievement levels of the students in the same nation. Performance of South Korea and Kazakhstan Students: In order to get an idea about the computer literacy skills, a survey was conducted in South Korea. The people who have participated in this survey were able to do an average score of 682. In order to get an idea about their ability level, they have used a scale from 1 to 700. In a similar way, they have also conducted a survey in Kazakhstan. On the basis of these results, they were able to know that the average score of Kazakhstan is 118 points less than the average score of South Korea. On the other hand, if we compare the average score of 5% lowest students in South Korea and Kazakhstan, their differences are shocking for them. Its reason is that now, Kazakhstan is 312 points higher than South Korea. For this reason, they have also concluded that the students who have lots of books in their homes and whom living standard is high are able to perform well in these computer literacy tests than other students. Socio-Economic Status and Computer Literacy: We can also observe differences in computer literacy on the basis of socio-economic status. This study has also provided different results of computer literacy of different students with different socio-economic status. For example, the students whom parents have got bachelor’s degrees are able to acquire an average score of 518 points. The students whose parents have not got a bachelor’s degree are able to acquire only 487 points. The students whom parents have the high status of living are able to acquire 522 points. In a similar way, the students whom parents have the lower status of living are able to acquire only 485 points. Middling Performance from US Students: In order to assess the computer literacy skills of the students, the researchers have chosen a sample of 40 students and they have assessed their abilities by providing them questionnaires. For this reason, they have chosen students from 14 different countries. In these samples, they have also assessed more than 46,000 students and 26,000 teachers. In order to get an idea about computer literacy of the students, they have asked questions about different things like MS Office, digital photography, database and information relevant to the internet. In this research, it is also found that most of the students have got these basic skills from their homes. In the developed countries, it is also found that if their students are not able to acquire these skills from their homes and they are able to acquire these skills from the schools. Some students urged that they got these skills from dissertation writing services. They have also provided some suggestions for the teachers that they should not assume that their students have these skills. They should take an overview of these skills of the students and try to teach skills to their students. In the research, they have also concluded that 95% of students in the advanced countries are confident in digital collaboration. On the basis of these results, we can also conclude that the US is in the middle. Strong Showing for Girls: In these sample groups, there were also some girls and boys. They have taken an overview of the computer literacy of the girls as well as boys. The results of this research have shown that girls have performed well than boys. The average score of the girls was 505 and the average score of the boys was 498. These results are also similar to the results of the National Assessment for Educational Progress. The results of the National Assessment for Educational Progress also show that girls have strong computer skills than boys. Before this survey, it was considered that boys are better than girls in the computer and technology but the results of this survey have proven that it was a myth because girls can perform better in both computer and technology than boys. The results of this survey also show that most of the students don’t have advance level computer skills.	882	ENGLISH	1
It is commonly accepted today that perceptions form the views of reality. Our perceptions shape our world view. "It is the gift that enables you to become acquainted with the world around you." What happens when people who perceive things differently meet? Their realities collide and conflict often results unless the gap which exists between their worlds is bridged. This has never been truer than in the case of the Native Americans. In this essay, I will not be looking specifically at the conflicts which took place between Native Americans and the Europeans, but rather looking to see what the causes of these conflicts were, in order to establish if conflict was, indeed, inevitable. . There is an abundance of reasons that explain the inevitability of the conflict, but the different philosophies that confronted each other at that time, the sudden feeling of superiority that grew on Europeans toward the Native Americans, and also the "clash of cultures" which occurred when Europeans reached America, were the ones I consider most relevant and influential to the inability of stopping "the war". One of the fundamental differences between the two peoples" philosophies lay in the question of land ownership. "The Europeans, taking their preconceived views with them to America, believed in the concept of land ownership. They believed that a land that is not owned could be claimed, and from then on could be sold at will." The Indians, on the other hand, had a limited concept of private ownership. It would be wrong to suggest that they did not believe in the concept at all, "since often Indian chiefs would allot a piece of land to a particular family, on which they could build their home and farm with almost the same private property rights as the Europeans." The Indian viewpoint was that land is supposed to be beneficial to all of them. . This proved to be the largest cause of problems between the Native Americans and the Europeans.	<urn:uuid:c5be5645-b2cf-40cd-92b7-f489b571c265>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/64772.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00208.warc.gz	en	0.982302	375	3.453125	3	[ 0.005024423357099295, 0.3863148093223572, 0.23604317009449005, 0.09660689532756805, 0.002580445259809494, 0.041204966604709625, 0.47695839405059814, 0.09661822021007538, 0.2629663646221161, 0.27230891585350037, 0.32749098539352417, -0.15946584939956665, -0.13451942801475525, 0.293638974428...	6	It is commonly accepted today that perceptions form the views of reality. Our perceptions shape our world view. "It is the gift that enables you to become acquainted with the world around you." What happens when people who perceive things differently meet? Their realities collide and conflict often results unless the gap which exists between their worlds is bridged. This has never been truer than in the case of the Native Americans. In this essay, I will not be looking specifically at the conflicts which took place between Native Americans and the Europeans, but rather looking to see what the causes of these conflicts were, in order to establish if conflict was, indeed, inevitable. . There is an abundance of reasons that explain the inevitability of the conflict, but the different philosophies that confronted each other at that time, the sudden feeling of superiority that grew on Europeans toward the Native Americans, and also the "clash of cultures" which occurred when Europeans reached America, were the ones I consider most relevant and influential to the inability of stopping "the war". One of the fundamental differences between the two peoples" philosophies lay in the question of land ownership. "The Europeans, taking their preconceived views with them to America, believed in the concept of land ownership. They believed that a land that is not owned could be claimed, and from then on could be sold at will." The Indians, on the other hand, had a limited concept of private ownership. It would be wrong to suggest that they did not believe in the concept at all, "since often Indian chiefs would allot a piece of land to a particular family, on which they could build their home and farm with almost the same private property rights as the Europeans." The Indian viewpoint was that land is supposed to be beneficial to all of them. . This proved to be the largest cause of problems between the Native Americans and the Europeans.	376	ENGLISH	1
Postclassical era is a period of civilization in Europe also known as the middle Ages. It covers the time after the collapse of the Roman ancient empire, and how civilization later on stretched gradually afar the Mediterranean to other parts of Western Europe. The unified Roman Empire was collapsing gradually and therefore, it was divided into half, the western and eastern blocks, so as to make it easier to govern. The Western Roman Empire was rocked with internal strife, and as a result, it further disintegrated into smaller states. However, the eastern Roman Empire remained extremely stable with its capital city in Constantinople. It was later referred to as the Byzantine Empire. This paper will address the differences between the eastern and western roman empires during the postclassical period. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! During this time, Christianity was the greatest religion in the region. It is worth noting that since the Roman Empire in the east was grounded on the entire roman practices, its followers were also initially Christians. However, later on there were sharp differences based on the manner in which both groups worshiped. The Christian leaders in the east did not agree with the western Rome especially since they found it unecessary to worship icons. Consequently, the first divisions in Christian religion took place; the Western Roman Empire went ahead with their practice of Catholicism whereas those in the eastern Roman Empire practiced Eastern Orthodox (Neiberg, 2001, p 21). The wider the drift between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires grew, the more their differences became evident. Ways of worship of the Christians in Rome and Constantinople were quite different. Western Romans used to carry out their religious services in Latin language whereas those in Eastern Rome did it in Greek. Furthermore, roman priests used to shave their beards, and they were even not supposed to marry and raise a family (Marelich, 2006, para. 13). On the other hand, those in Byzantine used to wear beards and marry. Another difference between the two dynasties is that church bishops in western Rome were not controlled by the political institutions. However, those in Byzantine Empire headed the church, and at the same time, they had an influential role in the government. Priests in Byzantine were also chosen by the emperor. Emperors in Byzantine were opposed to the idea of popes’ control of the church as it used to occur in the Western Europe (Marelich, 2006, para. 13). Religgion in Byzantine was regarded as more liberal than Catholicism which was the dominant religion in Western Rome. The Byzantine Empire was located between the Black sea and the Mediterranean Sea, which gave it a strategic position. This allowed the empire to generate a lot of wealth since this was the route by traders from North Africa, Asia and Europe. This can help to explain the reason as to why the empire established itself and developed a strong base in the region (Neiberg, 2001, p 22). Collapse of the unified Roman Empire was accompanied by successive wars. Consequently, there was total destruction of a lot of resources especially those that had been preserved in the libraries. This was quite disastrous since much of the information on civilization by the Greeks and the Romans was destroyed. However, survival of the eastern Roman Empire allowed for preservation of much of the information on Roman and Greek culture (Neiberg, 2001, p 21). For instance, the Byzantine helped to preserve the coded Roman law by Emperor Justinian, which has served as the platform for most of the current legal structures in the West. Byzantines also facilitated the establishment and development of Muslim faith and culture. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:369ef900-c886-4b54-ab31-b470b9dab0cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/eastern-and-western-christendom.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00066.warc.gz	en	0.98324	776	4	4	[ 0.04166640341281891, 0.40149036049842834, 0.5044393539428711, -0.38433003425598145, -0.5591038465499878, 0.1334286630153656, -0.6422300338745117, 0.44474297761917114, 0.2657371163368225, -0.03519844636321068, -0.07227371633052826, -0.24213764071464539, -0.011082686483860016, 0.036171112209...	2	Postclassical era is a period of civilization in Europe also known as the middle Ages. It covers the time after the collapse of the Roman ancient empire, and how civilization later on stretched gradually afar the Mediterranean to other parts of Western Europe. The unified Roman Empire was collapsing gradually and therefore, it was divided into half, the western and eastern blocks, so as to make it easier to govern. The Western Roman Empire was rocked with internal strife, and as a result, it further disintegrated into smaller states. However, the eastern Roman Empire remained extremely stable with its capital city in Constantinople. It was later referred to as the Byzantine Empire. This paper will address the differences between the eastern and western roman empires during the postclassical period. First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! During this time, Christianity was the greatest religion in the region. It is worth noting that since the Roman Empire in the east was grounded on the entire roman practices, its followers were also initially Christians. However, later on there were sharp differences based on the manner in which both groups worshiped. The Christian leaders in the east did not agree with the western Rome especially since they found it unecessary to worship icons. Consequently, the first divisions in Christian religion took place; the Western Roman Empire went ahead with their practice of Catholicism whereas those in the eastern Roman Empire practiced Eastern Orthodox (Neiberg, 2001, p 21). The wider the drift between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires grew, the more their differences became evident. Ways of worship of the Christians in Rome and Constantinople were quite different. Western Romans used to carry out their religious services in Latin language whereas those in Eastern Rome did it in Greek. Furthermore, roman priests used to shave their beards, and they were even not supposed to marry and raise a family (Marelich, 2006, para. 13). On the other hand, those in Byzantine used to wear beards and marry. Another difference between the two dynasties is that church bishops in western Rome were not controlled by the political institutions. However, those in Byzantine Empire headed the church, and at the same time, they had an influential role in the government. Priests in Byzantine were also chosen by the emperor. Emperors in Byzantine were opposed to the idea of popes’ control of the church as it used to occur in the Western Europe (Marelich, 2006, para. 13). Religgion in Byzantine was regarded as more liberal than Catholicism which was the dominant religion in Western Rome. The Byzantine Empire was located between the Black sea and the Mediterranean Sea, which gave it a strategic position. This allowed the empire to generate a lot of wealth since this was the route by traders from North Africa, Asia and Europe. This can help to explain the reason as to why the empire established itself and developed a strong base in the region (Neiberg, 2001, p 22). Collapse of the unified Roman Empire was accompanied by successive wars. Consequently, there was total destruction of a lot of resources especially those that had been preserved in the libraries. This was quite disastrous since much of the information on civilization by the Greeks and the Romans was destroyed. However, survival of the eastern Roman Empire allowed for preservation of much of the information on Roman and Greek culture (Neiberg, 2001, p 21). For instance, the Byzantine helped to preserve the coded Roman law by Emperor Justinian, which has served as the platform for most of the current legal structures in the West. Byzantines also facilitated the establishment and development of Muslim faith and culture. Most popular orders	808	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 5 (1182 words) The cathedral was the most important building in the town of Chartres. It was the centre of the economy, the most famous landmark and the focal point of almost every activity that is provided by civic buildings in towns today. Chartres cathedral has upheld its importance in the life of the people within the community, and has lived up to its labour and expectations. The cathedral was important in the everyday life of all, whether it was used as a church, a marketplace, or just a marvel for all to view. Because of its diversity, it brought a lot of attention and prosperity to the city of Chartres, which helped it grow more, which then created a magnificent cycle to be lived up to. Chartres cathedral was an important structure in Medieval Europe because of its religious aspects, socio-economic impact and architectural styles that it brought forward. Religion plays a key role in many lives today, and has been for many years—Chartres cathedral fed this appetite with the stories behind the windows, the history behind the sacred tunic and the uses behind the labyrinth. For the longest time, the stained glass in Chartres were one of the main sources of religious knowledge. The windows have been supplying all around it with the stories of the Old Testament, the Virgin Mary and the life of Christ—many of the windows were used as “a ready source of instruction for the illiterate population” because education was not as valued in these times. These windows, through their extreme importance, proved to be a huge benefactor in the lives of the inhabitants of Chartres. In addition, the cathedral was said to have housed a tunic that supposedly belonged to Blessed Virgin Mary. This tunic was thought to be lost when the first cathedral burned down, but “after three days of cooling, priests who had taken shelter in the underground vaults emerged from the ruins, amongst many witnesses, with the relic intact. ” This in itself had proven to the people of Chartres to be a miracle, and it was believed to be a sign from Mary herself, therefore the construction was begun again. It was also believed that this tunic provided the community and the church with a protection, and when the townspeople believed they had been deserted by their protector in the fire, they thought that “the rebuilding was futile. The labyrinth also provided to the religion aspect of Chartres cathedral. This labyrinth was used as a pilgrimage or for repentance, though “as a pilgrimage it was a questing, searching journey with the hope of becoming closer to God. ” The labyrinth was considered to be a religious, protected part of the church because it survived the fire, and once you get to the middle, you are greeted by a cross, a symbol of enlightenment. Although the religion makes up a good portion of the history of Chartres, the socio-economic aspects have to be considered when judging its importance. Chartres cathedral gained its importance socially and economically by its mysteries, its uses as a market and its uses as a social club. The mysteries of Chartres cathedral, such as the tunic and the windows, attract much attention to the community, which helps increase population as well as the money created from tourists. It is the fact that “Chartres’ windows are unique in the sense that a stained glass window became the object of devotion” that makes people keep coming back for more. Also, Chartres cathedral was used socio-economically in the ways that it had been used as a marketplace within the community; “The cathedral was the most important building in the town of Chartres. It was the centre of the economy, the most famous landmark and the focal point of almost every activity that is provided by civic buildings in towns today. ” As well as there being merchants within the doors of the cathedral, there were also the odd workers who were “gathered in the cathedral seeking jobs, such as carpenters and masons. ” To add to that, Chartres cathedral was used as a social club during World War II. While the windows were removed from it, the Germans would use the cathedral as a social club during their occupation in France. This cathedral is first seen as …a place of worship and reverence, sacred to God. But crossing that threshold in the Middle Ages took you into many places at once: a town hall, a social club, even a marketplace, and yet also a temple, a place of authority, and indeed nothing less than a kind of heaven itself. Although Chartres is known for its socio-economic success, its architecture is also a renowned subject pertaining to this cathedral. This cathedral is important because it has changed the way that many people look at architecture by looking at new architectural features, structural defeats and architect’s modesty. “In 1194, the master-builder of Chartres outlined new principles which would inspire all the great architects of the 13th century…”—Chartres cathedral had “established several new architectural features never seen before (flying buttresses and the arches used) and pioneered new techniques for construction at high elevations above ground (…war machines… into hoisting cranes). This would later change some of the techniques used to build and create other Gothic styled cathedrals. Also, this cathedral had overcome a couple structural defeats to add to its list of greatness. Chartres had to succumb to many different fires over its span, and it had to keep on getting rebuilt time after time. Also, with towers standing at around 115 metres tall, this cathedral had been the tallest of its kind around—“before this, nothing had ever been built at such heights. ”Another aspect adding to the importance of this building architecturally is the modesty and selflessness of the architects that planned its building. Many of the architects involved in the creation of this cathedral have went on nameless because it doesn’t matter who made it, but what was made—“ To make something as exquisite as this without wanting to smash your… name all over it. All you hear about nowadays is people making names, not things. ” The religious aspects, socio-economic impacts and architectural styles of the Chartres cathedral are the reason it deserves to be known as an important structure. Chartres was built and rebuilt based on its religious hopes and beliefs, and it served to be an occupant to the people while the other problems of the time were occurring. This building was also beneficial for the townsfolk because they had a way to get together, trade, and communicate in a safe and forgiving place, under the eyes of God. The architecture in itself is enough to consider this building important: it provided architects with ways of getting around their problems and it bettered things to use and do to improve what I being done. Chartres has been a very helpful and important building in helping us study past beliefs, life and helping us to acquire the knowledge we need for innovations and the construction of future great buildings, much like this one. Cite this page Architecture in the Middle Ages: Chartres Cathedral. (2017, Feb 21). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/architecture-in-the-middle-ages-chartres-cathedral-essay	<urn:uuid:5a0c16bd-ce91-4c15-b92b-2cb1d14da701>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/architecture-in-the-middle-ages-chartres-cathedral-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00194.warc.gz	en	0.982113	1,497	3.453125	3	[ 0.2107524573802948, 0.19800353050231934, 0.14840754866600037, 0.06758101284503937, -0.19212669134140015, 0.4012907147407532, -0.21035853028297424, 0.278944730758667, 0.00790970865637064, -0.0743507444858551, -0.32768484950065613, -0.16676640510559082, 0.21838361024856567, 0.248957663774490...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 5 (1182 words) The cathedral was the most important building in the town of Chartres. It was the centre of the economy, the most famous landmark and the focal point of almost every activity that is provided by civic buildings in towns today. Chartres cathedral has upheld its importance in the life of the people within the community, and has lived up to its labour and expectations. The cathedral was important in the everyday life of all, whether it was used as a church, a marketplace, or just a marvel for all to view. Because of its diversity, it brought a lot of attention and prosperity to the city of Chartres, which helped it grow more, which then created a magnificent cycle to be lived up to. Chartres cathedral was an important structure in Medieval Europe because of its religious aspects, socio-economic impact and architectural styles that it brought forward. Religion plays a key role in many lives today, and has been for many years—Chartres cathedral fed this appetite with the stories behind the windows, the history behind the sacred tunic and the uses behind the labyrinth. For the longest time, the stained glass in Chartres were one of the main sources of religious knowledge. The windows have been supplying all around it with the stories of the Old Testament, the Virgin Mary and the life of Christ—many of the windows were used as “a ready source of instruction for the illiterate population” because education was not as valued in these times. These windows, through their extreme importance, proved to be a huge benefactor in the lives of the inhabitants of Chartres. In addition, the cathedral was said to have housed a tunic that supposedly belonged to Blessed Virgin Mary. This tunic was thought to be lost when the first cathedral burned down, but “after three days of cooling, priests who had taken shelter in the underground vaults emerged from the ruins, amongst many witnesses, with the relic intact. ” This in itself had proven to the people of Chartres to be a miracle, and it was believed to be a sign from Mary herself, therefore the construction was begun again. It was also believed that this tunic provided the community and the church with a protection, and when the townspeople believed they had been deserted by their protector in the fire, they thought that “the rebuilding was futile. The labyrinth also provided to the religion aspect of Chartres cathedral. This labyrinth was used as a pilgrimage or for repentance, though “as a pilgrimage it was a questing, searching journey with the hope of becoming closer to God. ” The labyrinth was considered to be a religious, protected part of the church because it survived the fire, and once you get to the middle, you are greeted by a cross, a symbol of enlightenment. Although the religion makes up a good portion of the history of Chartres, the socio-economic aspects have to be considered when judging its importance. Chartres cathedral gained its importance socially and economically by its mysteries, its uses as a market and its uses as a social club. The mysteries of Chartres cathedral, such as the tunic and the windows, attract much attention to the community, which helps increase population as well as the money created from tourists. It is the fact that “Chartres’ windows are unique in the sense that a stained glass window became the object of devotion” that makes people keep coming back for more. Also, Chartres cathedral was used socio-economically in the ways that it had been used as a marketplace within the community; “The cathedral was the most important building in the town of Chartres. It was the centre of the economy, the most famous landmark and the focal point of almost every activity that is provided by civic buildings in towns today. ” As well as there being merchants within the doors of the cathedral, there were also the odd workers who were “gathered in the cathedral seeking jobs, such as carpenters and masons. ” To add to that, Chartres cathedral was used as a social club during World War II. While the windows were removed from it, the Germans would use the cathedral as a social club during their occupation in France. This cathedral is first seen as …a place of worship and reverence, sacred to God. But crossing that threshold in the Middle Ages took you into many places at once: a town hall, a social club, even a marketplace, and yet also a temple, a place of authority, and indeed nothing less than a kind of heaven itself. Although Chartres is known for its socio-economic success, its architecture is also a renowned subject pertaining to this cathedral. This cathedral is important because it has changed the way that many people look at architecture by looking at new architectural features, structural defeats and architect’s modesty. “In 1194, the master-builder of Chartres outlined new principles which would inspire all the great architects of the 13th century…”—Chartres cathedral had “established several new architectural features never seen before (flying buttresses and the arches used) and pioneered new techniques for construction at high elevations above ground (…war machines… into hoisting cranes). This would later change some of the techniques used to build and create other Gothic styled cathedrals. Also, this cathedral had overcome a couple structural defeats to add to its list of greatness. Chartres had to succumb to many different fires over its span, and it had to keep on getting rebuilt time after time. Also, with towers standing at around 115 metres tall, this cathedral had been the tallest of its kind around—“before this, nothing had ever been built at such heights. ”Another aspect adding to the importance of this building architecturally is the modesty and selflessness of the architects that planned its building. Many of the architects involved in the creation of this cathedral have went on nameless because it doesn’t matter who made it, but what was made—“ To make something as exquisite as this without wanting to smash your… name all over it. All you hear about nowadays is people making names, not things. ” The religious aspects, socio-economic impacts and architectural styles of the Chartres cathedral are the reason it deserves to be known as an important structure. Chartres was built and rebuilt based on its religious hopes and beliefs, and it served to be an occupant to the people while the other problems of the time were occurring. This building was also beneficial for the townsfolk because they had a way to get together, trade, and communicate in a safe and forgiving place, under the eyes of God. The architecture in itself is enough to consider this building important: it provided architects with ways of getting around their problems and it bettered things to use and do to improve what I being done. Chartres has been a very helpful and important building in helping us study past beliefs, life and helping us to acquire the knowledge we need for innovations and the construction of future great buildings, much like this one. Cite this page Architecture in the Middle Ages: Chartres Cathedral. (2017, Feb 21). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/architecture-in-the-middle-ages-chartres-cathedral-essay	1,464	ENGLISH	1
‘The Frogs Asking for a King’, like Hans Christian Andersen’s fairy tale of the emperor’s new clothes, is a children’s story that also carries a strong political message. Often included in editions of Aesop’s fables, ‘The Frogs Asking for a King’ is summarised below, accompanied by a few words of analysis. Once upon a time, the Frogs were discontented because they had no one to rule over them: so they sent a deputation to Jupiter to ask him to give them a King. Jupiter, despising the folly of their request, cast a log into the pool where they lived, and said that the log should be their King. The Frogs were terrified at first by the splash, and scuttled away into the deepest parts of the pool; but gradually, when they saw that the log remained motionless, one by one they began to venture to the surface again, and before long, growing bolder, they began to feel such contempt for the log that they even took to sitting on it. Thinking that a King of that sort was an insult to their dignity, they sent to Jupiter a second time, and begged him to take away the sluggish King he had given them, and to give them another and a better one. Jupiter, annoyed at being pestered in this way, sent a Stork to rule over them. No sooner had the Stork arrived among them than he began to catch and eat the Frogs as fast as he could. What’s the moral of ‘The Frogs Asking for a King’? One moral that’s often supplied is: ‘When you seek to change your condition, be sure that you can better it.’ Another might run: be careful who you’re voting for when making political decisions. For although ‘The Frogs Asking for a King’ can clearly be interpreted as a fable about making decisions of all kinds, the fact that it focuses on a group of animals asking for a king to rule over them suggests that it may have been designed to carry a more specific, politically-themed message. The poet Tom Paulin once attacked the English poet Geoffrey Hill for titling his 1968 volume King Log, after this Aesopian fable. For Paulin, this was an indication of a right-wing tendency in Hill’s work, even an antidemocratic tendency, since the fable of the frogs asking for a king was about the failure of democracy. In this interpretation, the fable has a very sinister meaning: let the people decide what they want, and most of them will vote for their own destruction. Now, who would ever imagine that a voting system would result in such self-destructive behaviour from an electorate?	<urn:uuid:e903879c-260a-4b50-8afa-1925f04ba975>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://interestingliterature.com/2019/12/a-summary-and-analysis-of-aesops-the-frogs-asking-for-a-king-fable/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00143.warc.gz	en	0.983797	588	3.5	4	[ -0.25791019201278687, 0.5472570657730103, 0.3104899525642395, -0.26811641454696655, -0.28442806005477905, -0.14494140446186066, 0.21175898611545563, 0.1354423463344574, -0.031061992049217224, 0.3186877369880676, 0.08344094455242157, 0.18164324760437012, -0.04390108957886696, 0.257429718971...	11	‘The Frogs Asking for a King’, like Hans Christian Andersen’s fairy tale of the emperor’s new clothes, is a children’s story that also carries a strong political message. Often included in editions of Aesop’s fables, ‘The Frogs Asking for a King’ is summarised below, accompanied by a few words of analysis. Once upon a time, the Frogs were discontented because they had no one to rule over them: so they sent a deputation to Jupiter to ask him to give them a King. Jupiter, despising the folly of their request, cast a log into the pool where they lived, and said that the log should be their King. The Frogs were terrified at first by the splash, and scuttled away into the deepest parts of the pool; but gradually, when they saw that the log remained motionless, one by one they began to venture to the surface again, and before long, growing bolder, they began to feel such contempt for the log that they even took to sitting on it. Thinking that a King of that sort was an insult to their dignity, they sent to Jupiter a second time, and begged him to take away the sluggish King he had given them, and to give them another and a better one. Jupiter, annoyed at being pestered in this way, sent a Stork to rule over them. No sooner had the Stork arrived among them than he began to catch and eat the Frogs as fast as he could. What’s the moral of ‘The Frogs Asking for a King’? One moral that’s often supplied is: ‘When you seek to change your condition, be sure that you can better it.’ Another might run: be careful who you’re voting for when making political decisions. For although ‘The Frogs Asking for a King’ can clearly be interpreted as a fable about making decisions of all kinds, the fact that it focuses on a group of animals asking for a king to rule over them suggests that it may have been designed to carry a more specific, politically-themed message. The poet Tom Paulin once attacked the English poet Geoffrey Hill for titling his 1968 volume King Log, after this Aesopian fable. For Paulin, this was an indication of a right-wing tendency in Hill’s work, even an antidemocratic tendency, since the fable of the frogs asking for a king was about the failure of democracy. In this interpretation, the fable has a very sinister meaning: let the people decide what they want, and most of them will vote for their own destruction. Now, who would ever imagine that a voting system would result in such self-destructive behaviour from an electorate?	552	ENGLISH	1
The data collected from the gradebook in my classroom helped to narrow in on what was truly needed moving forward in the lesson planning and what skills my students seemed to have mastered. Each assignment was based on a certain number of standards, and then graded as such. The trends showed that the students generally were performing well when given assignments based on recall, such as the first two Japanese Internment Quizzes as well as the Vocabulary Quiz. When tasked with the challenge of adding analysis to their answers, or synthesizing different sources, such as with the Diary Entry, they struggled more in that regard. With this in mind, I then chose to lead classroom workshops on structuring an argument and analyzing the evidence that is found or known. This took the form of not only workhops, but also in the final summative Japanese Internment essay. By taking these grades and translating them also into a workbook on standards, I could see how the class as a whole was meeting certain standards and what to focus on, as well as which individual students might need additional supports or scaffolds. To view the Second Trimester Gradebook, please select the following link: 2013-2014 Second Trimester Grades - Patton.pdf *Note: Paul Cuffee School grades on a standards based curriculum. 1 is the lowest grade that a student can receive and translates to not meeting the standard. 2 is developing towards the standard. 3 is meeting the standard and 4 is exceeding the standard. + and - are used to provide levels within each number.	<urn:uuid:4dad9a7e-4698-4673-8d70-04229949aa86>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brown.digication.com/sally_patton/Second_Trimester_Gradebook	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00167.warc.gz	en	0.981377	311	3.328125	3	[ -0.2569696605205536, 0.027504032477736473, -0.014891119673848152, -0.5085760354995728, -0.07260601967573166, 0.47475743293762207, -0.21788428723812103, 0.4167941212654114, 0.08518396317958832, -0.14814972877502441, 0.1519518345594406, 0.000342303334036842, 0.25415199995040894, 0.4851173758...	2	The data collected from the gradebook in my classroom helped to narrow in on what was truly needed moving forward in the lesson planning and what skills my students seemed to have mastered. Each assignment was based on a certain number of standards, and then graded as such. The trends showed that the students generally were performing well when given assignments based on recall, such as the first two Japanese Internment Quizzes as well as the Vocabulary Quiz. When tasked with the challenge of adding analysis to their answers, or synthesizing different sources, such as with the Diary Entry, they struggled more in that regard. With this in mind, I then chose to lead classroom workshops on structuring an argument and analyzing the evidence that is found or known. This took the form of not only workhops, but also in the final summative Japanese Internment essay. By taking these grades and translating them also into a workbook on standards, I could see how the class as a whole was meeting certain standards and what to focus on, as well as which individual students might need additional supports or scaffolds. To view the Second Trimester Gradebook, please select the following link: 2013-2014 Second Trimester Grades - Patton.pdf *Note: Paul Cuffee School grades on a standards based curriculum. 1 is the lowest grade that a student can receive and translates to not meeting the standard. 2 is developing towards the standard. 3 is meeting the standard and 4 is exceeding the standard. + and - are used to provide levels within each number.	318	ENGLISH	1
Jackson County History Jackson County, Kentucky was established February 2, 1858, formed from small parts of Madison, Estill, Owsley, Clay, Laurel, and Rockcastle counties; every surrounding county except Lee, which would not be formed until 1870. The population then was about 3,000. Jackson County was named after the 7th President of the United States, Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson, and was the 106th to be formed of Kentucky's 120 counties. The county seat, McKee, Kentucky, is located geographically in the center of the county. Before being named McKee, the town was known as Yellow Dog. In 1827, a disaster destroyed many records from before Jackson County was formed. The town of McKee was also established in 1858, on April 25, and was probably named after state legislator, Judge George Robertson McKee, (1810-1889) from Garrard County, Kentucky. The first McKee Post Office was also established in 1858 on October 25, and the first Post Master was Harris Freeman. McKee, Kentucky was incorporated as a city in 1882. First Woman Sheriff While not the first woman sheriff in Kentucky, Sarah Jane Morris was the first, and so far the only, woman to be elected Sheriff of Jackson County. Her husband, Johnnie Morris, was elected Sheriff of Jackson County, Kentucky on August 5th, 1933. During the course of his duties, Sheriff Johnnie Morris was tragically shot down while attempting to arrest two suspects of a disturbance in Sand Gap on September 23, 1934. Appointed by Judge John Davis to serve in her late husband's place, a practice not altogether uncommon at the time, Sarah Morris served as sheriff until the next election on August 6, 1935. Exactly two years after her husband had been elected, Sheriff Sarah Jane Morris officially became the first elected female Sheriff of Jackson County. Sheriff Sarah Jane Morris, the first, and as yet only, woman to be elected Sheriff of Jackson County. This book on the history of Jackson County was produced by the Jackson County Development Association, and provides a fascinating look into the lives and times of historic Appalachia.	<urn:uuid:4bfa7459-036d-49e9-b8d6-0f1ab54ccc9a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.visitjacksoncountyky.org/history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00306.warc.gz	en	0.981205	446	3.3125	3	[ -0.15511184930801392, -0.18393152952194214, 0.5237759947776794, -0.2481726109981537, -0.34090229868888855, 0.22418545186519623, 0.09483333677053452, -0.18631529808044434, 0.042202550917863846, 0.058968935161828995, 0.061691123992204666, -0.09998007118701935, 0.2195042073726654, 0.137805342...	7	Jackson County History Jackson County, Kentucky was established February 2, 1858, formed from small parts of Madison, Estill, Owsley, Clay, Laurel, and Rockcastle counties; every surrounding county except Lee, which would not be formed until 1870. The population then was about 3,000. Jackson County was named after the 7th President of the United States, Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson, and was the 106th to be formed of Kentucky's 120 counties. The county seat, McKee, Kentucky, is located geographically in the center of the county. Before being named McKee, the town was known as Yellow Dog. In 1827, a disaster destroyed many records from before Jackson County was formed. The town of McKee was also established in 1858, on April 25, and was probably named after state legislator, Judge George Robertson McKee, (1810-1889) from Garrard County, Kentucky. The first McKee Post Office was also established in 1858 on October 25, and the first Post Master was Harris Freeman. McKee, Kentucky was incorporated as a city in 1882. First Woman Sheriff While not the first woman sheriff in Kentucky, Sarah Jane Morris was the first, and so far the only, woman to be elected Sheriff of Jackson County. Her husband, Johnnie Morris, was elected Sheriff of Jackson County, Kentucky on August 5th, 1933. During the course of his duties, Sheriff Johnnie Morris was tragically shot down while attempting to arrest two suspects of a disturbance in Sand Gap on September 23, 1934. Appointed by Judge John Davis to serve in her late husband's place, a practice not altogether uncommon at the time, Sarah Morris served as sheriff until the next election on August 6, 1935. Exactly two years after her husband had been elected, Sheriff Sarah Jane Morris officially became the first elected female Sheriff of Jackson County. Sheriff Sarah Jane Morris, the first, and as yet only, woman to be elected Sheriff of Jackson County. This book on the history of Jackson County was produced by the Jackson County Development Association, and provides a fascinating look into the lives and times of historic Appalachia.	496	ENGLISH	1
We are all used to celebrating Jesus Christ’s birthday on December 25 even though some say that this was not the day of his birth. I have long thought that one of the reasons why there were doubts was that there have been many calendar changes through the ages. Basically the thing was that no one was really sure of the day and year of his birth. There was a Christ’s Nativity Festival led by the Church of Rome in 336 A.D. The most important holiday for early Christians on their calendar was Easter, commemorating the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Then in the early fourth-century church leaders had trouble with Roman pagan holidays when the winter solstice came. Every winter, Romans would honor the pagan god Saturn, the god of agriculture and the festival started on December 17 and ended about December 25. The festival included merrymaking and people would exchange gifts. During this same time Mithraism – the worship of the ancient Persian god of light – was popular among soldiers in the Roman army. In 312 the Roman Emperor Constantine I converted to Christianity. To put an end to pagan festivities the church leaders reasoned that since the world was created on the spring equinox in late March and at about that time the Virgin Mary found herself with a child the baby, in this case, Jesus Christ would have been born on the winter solstice. Then from Rome, the Christ’s Nativity celebration spread to other Christian churches and soon there was Christmas Day celebrated on December 25. The word Christmas was originally entered in the English language as Christes maesse or “Christ’s mass” or festival of Christ in Old English. At this time there was also a popular medieval feast – St. Nicholas of Myra – a saint who visited children with gifts. A derivative of the Dutch name for St. Nicholas – Sinterklaas became Santa Claus.	<urn:uuid:8b518bee-22a6-46c0-94a0-ca793671abaa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://virily.com/celebration-events/the-truth-about-christmas-day/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00138.warc.gz	en	0.983303	385	3.484375	3	[ 0.08245128393173218, 0.536713719367981, 0.5118173360824585, -0.1973627358675003, -0.1818622201681137, -0.1500159651041031, -0.11022398620843887, 0.2804766595363617, 0.04360995441675186, 0.1754647195339203, 0.13228438794612885, 0.5102747678756714, -0.06435254216194153, 0.15821205079555511, ...	1	We are all used to celebrating Jesus Christ’s birthday on December 25 even though some say that this was not the day of his birth. I have long thought that one of the reasons why there were doubts was that there have been many calendar changes through the ages. Basically the thing was that no one was really sure of the day and year of his birth. There was a Christ’s Nativity Festival led by the Church of Rome in 336 A.D. The most important holiday for early Christians on their calendar was Easter, commemorating the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Then in the early fourth-century church leaders had trouble with Roman pagan holidays when the winter solstice came. Every winter, Romans would honor the pagan god Saturn, the god of agriculture and the festival started on December 17 and ended about December 25. The festival included merrymaking and people would exchange gifts. During this same time Mithraism – the worship of the ancient Persian god of light – was popular among soldiers in the Roman army. In 312 the Roman Emperor Constantine I converted to Christianity. To put an end to pagan festivities the church leaders reasoned that since the world was created on the spring equinox in late March and at about that time the Virgin Mary found herself with a child the baby, in this case, Jesus Christ would have been born on the winter solstice. Then from Rome, the Christ’s Nativity celebration spread to other Christian churches and soon there was Christmas Day celebrated on December 25. The word Christmas was originally entered in the English language as Christes maesse or “Christ’s mass” or festival of Christ in Old English. At this time there was also a popular medieval feast – St. Nicholas of Myra – a saint who visited children with gifts. A derivative of the Dutch name for St. Nicholas – Sinterklaas became Santa Claus.	387	ENGLISH	1
On 25 Aug 74, at 2207 hrs, US Air Defense radar detected an unknown object approaching US airspace from the Gulf of Mexico. Originally the object was tracked at 2,200 (2,530 mph) knots on a bearing of 325 degrees and at an altitude of 75,000 feet, a course that would intercept US territory about forty miles southwest of Corpus Christi, Texas. After approximately sixty seconds of observation, at a position 155 miles southeast of Corpus Christi, the object decelerated to approximately 1700 (1,955 mph) knots, turned to a heading of 290 degrees, and began a slow descent. It entered Mexican airspace approximately forty miles south of Brownsville, Texas. Radar tracked it approximately 500 miles to a point near the town of Coyame, in the state of Chihuahua, not far from the US border. There the object suddenly disappeared from the radar screens. During the flight over Mexican airspace, the object leveled off at 45,000 feet, then descended to 20,000 feet. The descent was in level steps, not a smooth curve or straight line, and each level was maintained for approximately five minutes. The object was tracked by two different military radar installations. It would have been within range of Brownsville civilian radar, but it is assumed that no civilian radar detected the object due to a lack of any such reports. The point of disappearance from the radar screens was over a barren and sparsely populated area of Northern Mexico. At first it was assumed that the object had descended below the radar’s horizon and a watch was kept for any re-emergence of the object. None occurred. At first it was assumed that the object might be a meteor because of the high speed and descending flight path. But meteors normally travel at higher speeds, and descend in a smooth arc, not in «steps.» And meteors do not normally make a thirty-five degree change in course. Shortly after detection an air defense alert was called. However, before any form of interception could be scrambled, the object turned to a course that would not immediately take it over US territory. The alert was called off within twenty minutes after the object’s disappearance from the radar screen. Fifty-two minutes after the disappearance, civilian radio traffic indicated that a civilian aircraft had gone down in that area. But it was clear that the missing aircraft had departed El Paso International with a destination of Mexico City, and could not, therefore, have been the object tracked over the Gulf of Mexico. It was noted, however, that they both disappeared in the same area and at the same time. With daylight the next day, Mexican authorities began a search for the missing plane. At Approximately 10:35 hours, there came a radio report that wreckage from the missing plane had been spotted from the air. Almost immediately came a report of a second plane on the ground a few miles from the first. A few minutes later an additional report stated that the second «plane» was circular shaped and apparently in one piece although damaged. A few minutes after that the Mexican military clamped a radio silence on all search efforts. The radio interceptions were reported through channels to the CIA. Possibly as many as two additional government agencies also received reports, but such has not been confirmed as of this date. The CIA immediately began forming a recovery team. The speed with which this team and its equipment was assembled suggests that this was either a well-rehearsed exercise or one that had been performed prior to this event.In the meantime, requests were initiated at the highest levels between the United States and Mexican governments that the US recovery team be allowed onto Mexican territory to «assist.» These requests were met with professed ignorance and a flat refusal of any cooperation. By 21:00 hrs, 26 Aug 1974, the recovery team had assembled and been staged at Fort Bliss. Several helicopters were flown in from some unknown source and assembled in a secured area. These helicopters were painted a neutral sand color and bore no markings. Eye witness indicates that there were three smaller craft, very probably UHl Hueys from the description. There was also a larger helicopter, possibly a Sea Stallion. Personnel from this team remained with their craft and had no contact with other Ft. Bliss personnel. Satellite and aircraft overflight that day indicated that both the crashed disk and the civilian aircraft had been removed from the crash sites and loaded on flat bed trucks. Later flights confirmed that the convoy had departed the area heading south. At that point the CIA had to make a choice; either to allow this unknown aircraft to stay in the hands of the Mexican government, or to launch the recovery team, supplemented by any required military support, to take the craft. There occurred, however, an event that took the choice out of their hands. High altitude overflights indicated that the convoy had stopped before reaching any inhabited areas or major roads. Recon showed no activity, and radio contact between the Mexican recovery team and its headquarters had ceased. A low altitude, high speed overflight was ordered. The photos returned by that aircraft showed all trucks and jeeps stopped, some with open doors, and two human bodies laying on the ground beside two vehicles. The decision was immediately made to launch the recovery team, but the actual launching was held up for the arrival of additional equipment and two additional personnel. It was not until 14:38 hrs that the helicopters departed Ft. Bliss. The four helicopters followed the border down towards Presidio then turned and entered Mexican airspace north of Candelaria. They were over the convoy site at 16:53 hrs. All convoy personnel were dead, most within the trucks. Some recovery team members, dressed in bioprotection suits, reconfigured the straps holding the object on the flatbed truck, then attached them to a cargo cable from the Sea Stallion. By 17:14 hrs the recovered object was on its way to US territory. Before leaving the convoy site, members of the recovery team gathered together the Mexican vehicles and bodies, then destroyed all with high explosives. This included the pieces of the civilian light plane which had been involved in the mid-air collision. At 17:46 hrs the Hueys departed. The Hueys caught up with the Sea Stallion as it reentered US airspace. The recovery team then proceeded to a point in the Davis Mountains, approximately twenty-five miles northeast of Valentine. There they landed and waited until 02:25 hrs the next morning. At that time they resumed the flight and rendezvoused with a small convoy on a road between Van Horn and Kent. The recovered disk was transferred to a truck large enough to handle it and capable of being sealed totally. Some of the personnel from the Huey’s transferred to the convoy. All helicopters then returned to their original bases for decontamination procedures. The convoy continued non-stop, using back roads and smaller highways, and staying away from cities. The destination of the convoy reportedly was Altanta, Georgia. Here the hard evidence thins out. One unconfirmed report says the disk was eventually transferred to Wright-Patterson AF Base. Another says that the disk was either transferred after that to another unnamed base, or was taken directly to this unknown base directly from Atlanta. The best description of the disk was that it was sixteen feet, five inches in diameter, convex on both upper and lower surfaces to the same degree, possessing no visible doors or windows. The thickness was slightly less than five feet. The color was silver, much like polished steel. There were no visible lights nor any propulsion means. There were no markings. There were two areas of the rim that showed damage, one showing an irregular hole approximately twelve inches in diameter with indented material around it. The other damage was described as a «dent» about two feet wide. The weight of the object was estimated as approximately one thousand, five hundred pounds, based on the effect of the weight on the carrying helicopter and those who transferred it to the truck. There was no indication in the documentation available as to whether anything was visible in the «hole.» It seems likely that the damage with the hole was caused by the collision with the civilian aircraft. That collision occurred while the object was traveling approximately 1700 knots (1,955 mph). Even ignoring the speed of the civilian aircraft, the impact would have been considerable at that speed. This is in agreement with the description of the civilian aircraft as being «almost totally destroyed.» What was being taken from the crash site was pieces of the civilian aircraft. The second damage may have resulted when the object impacted with the ground. The speed in that case should have been considerably less than that of the first impact. No mention is made of the occupants of the civilian aircraft. It is not known if any body or bodies were recovered. Considering the destruction of the civilian light aircraft in mid-air, bodies may well not have come down near the larger pieces. Unfortunately what caused the deaths of the Mexican recovery team is not known. Speculation ranges from a chemical released from the disk as a result of the damage, to a microbiological agent. There are no indications of death or illness by any of the recovery team. It would not have been illogical for the recovery team to have taken one of the bodies back with them for analysis. But there is no indication of that having happened. Perhaps they did not have adequate means of transporting what might have been a biologically contaminated body. Inquires to the FAA reveal no documents concerning the civilian aircraft crash, probably because it did not involve a US aircraft.	<urn:uuid:6a626a92-bf00-4f66-bb5a-c0ad6230476d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://tall-white-aliens.com/?p=5501	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00400.warc.gz	en	0.980883	1,967	3.28125	3	[ -0.16169215738773346, -0.0656321719288826, 0.07712201029062271, 0.05789535120129585, 0.5852575302124023, 0.18556100130081177, 0.10004380345344543, 0.4326423704624176, -0.0376574769616127, -0.10479292273521423, 0.18467319011688232, -0.24564556777477264, 0.11552603542804718, -0.1772585809230...	3	On 25 Aug 74, at 2207 hrs, US Air Defense radar detected an unknown object approaching US airspace from the Gulf of Mexico. Originally the object was tracked at 2,200 (2,530 mph) knots on a bearing of 325 degrees and at an altitude of 75,000 feet, a course that would intercept US territory about forty miles southwest of Corpus Christi, Texas. After approximately sixty seconds of observation, at a position 155 miles southeast of Corpus Christi, the object decelerated to approximately 1700 (1,955 mph) knots, turned to a heading of 290 degrees, and began a slow descent. It entered Mexican airspace approximately forty miles south of Brownsville, Texas. Radar tracked it approximately 500 miles to a point near the town of Coyame, in the state of Chihuahua, not far from the US border. There the object suddenly disappeared from the radar screens. During the flight over Mexican airspace, the object leveled off at 45,000 feet, then descended to 20,000 feet. The descent was in level steps, not a smooth curve or straight line, and each level was maintained for approximately five minutes. The object was tracked by two different military radar installations. It would have been within range of Brownsville civilian radar, but it is assumed that no civilian radar detected the object due to a lack of any such reports. The point of disappearance from the radar screens was over a barren and sparsely populated area of Northern Mexico. At first it was assumed that the object had descended below the radar’s horizon and a watch was kept for any re-emergence of the object. None occurred. At first it was assumed that the object might be a meteor because of the high speed and descending flight path. But meteors normally travel at higher speeds, and descend in a smooth arc, not in «steps.» And meteors do not normally make a thirty-five degree change in course. Shortly after detection an air defense alert was called. However, before any form of interception could be scrambled, the object turned to a course that would not immediately take it over US territory. The alert was called off within twenty minutes after the object’s disappearance from the radar screen. Fifty-two minutes after the disappearance, civilian radio traffic indicated that a civilian aircraft had gone down in that area. But it was clear that the missing aircraft had departed El Paso International with a destination of Mexico City, and could not, therefore, have been the object tracked over the Gulf of Mexico. It was noted, however, that they both disappeared in the same area and at the same time. With daylight the next day, Mexican authorities began a search for the missing plane. At Approximately 10:35 hours, there came a radio report that wreckage from the missing plane had been spotted from the air. Almost immediately came a report of a second plane on the ground a few miles from the first. A few minutes later an additional report stated that the second «plane» was circular shaped and apparently in one piece although damaged. A few minutes after that the Mexican military clamped a radio silence on all search efforts. The radio interceptions were reported through channels to the CIA. Possibly as many as two additional government agencies also received reports, but such has not been confirmed as of this date. The CIA immediately began forming a recovery team. The speed with which this team and its equipment was assembled suggests that this was either a well-rehearsed exercise or one that had been performed prior to this event.In the meantime, requests were initiated at the highest levels between the United States and Mexican governments that the US recovery team be allowed onto Mexican territory to «assist.» These requests were met with professed ignorance and a flat refusal of any cooperation. By 21:00 hrs, 26 Aug 1974, the recovery team had assembled and been staged at Fort Bliss. Several helicopters were flown in from some unknown source and assembled in a secured area. These helicopters were painted a neutral sand color and bore no markings. Eye witness indicates that there were three smaller craft, very probably UHl Hueys from the description. There was also a larger helicopter, possibly a Sea Stallion. Personnel from this team remained with their craft and had no contact with other Ft. Bliss personnel. Satellite and aircraft overflight that day indicated that both the crashed disk and the civilian aircraft had been removed from the crash sites and loaded on flat bed trucks. Later flights confirmed that the convoy had departed the area heading south. At that point the CIA had to make a choice; either to allow this unknown aircraft to stay in the hands of the Mexican government, or to launch the recovery team, supplemented by any required military support, to take the craft. There occurred, however, an event that took the choice out of their hands. High altitude overflights indicated that the convoy had stopped before reaching any inhabited areas or major roads. Recon showed no activity, and radio contact between the Mexican recovery team and its headquarters had ceased. A low altitude, high speed overflight was ordered. The photos returned by that aircraft showed all trucks and jeeps stopped, some with open doors, and two human bodies laying on the ground beside two vehicles. The decision was immediately made to launch the recovery team, but the actual launching was held up for the arrival of additional equipment and two additional personnel. It was not until 14:38 hrs that the helicopters departed Ft. Bliss. The four helicopters followed the border down towards Presidio then turned and entered Mexican airspace north of Candelaria. They were over the convoy site at 16:53 hrs. All convoy personnel were dead, most within the trucks. Some recovery team members, dressed in bioprotection suits, reconfigured the straps holding the object on the flatbed truck, then attached them to a cargo cable from the Sea Stallion. By 17:14 hrs the recovered object was on its way to US territory. Before leaving the convoy site, members of the recovery team gathered together the Mexican vehicles and bodies, then destroyed all with high explosives. This included the pieces of the civilian light plane which had been involved in the mid-air collision. At 17:46 hrs the Hueys departed. The Hueys caught up with the Sea Stallion as it reentered US airspace. The recovery team then proceeded to a point in the Davis Mountains, approximately twenty-five miles northeast of Valentine. There they landed and waited until 02:25 hrs the next morning. At that time they resumed the flight and rendezvoused with a small convoy on a road between Van Horn and Kent. The recovered disk was transferred to a truck large enough to handle it and capable of being sealed totally. Some of the personnel from the Huey’s transferred to the convoy. All helicopters then returned to their original bases for decontamination procedures. The convoy continued non-stop, using back roads and smaller highways, and staying away from cities. The destination of the convoy reportedly was Altanta, Georgia. Here the hard evidence thins out. One unconfirmed report says the disk was eventually transferred to Wright-Patterson AF Base. Another says that the disk was either transferred after that to another unnamed base, or was taken directly to this unknown base directly from Atlanta. The best description of the disk was that it was sixteen feet, five inches in diameter, convex on both upper and lower surfaces to the same degree, possessing no visible doors or windows. The thickness was slightly less than five feet. The color was silver, much like polished steel. There were no visible lights nor any propulsion means. There were no markings. There were two areas of the rim that showed damage, one showing an irregular hole approximately twelve inches in diameter with indented material around it. The other damage was described as a «dent» about two feet wide. The weight of the object was estimated as approximately one thousand, five hundred pounds, based on the effect of the weight on the carrying helicopter and those who transferred it to the truck. There was no indication in the documentation available as to whether anything was visible in the «hole.» It seems likely that the damage with the hole was caused by the collision with the civilian aircraft. That collision occurred while the object was traveling approximately 1700 knots (1,955 mph). Even ignoring the speed of the civilian aircraft, the impact would have been considerable at that speed. This is in agreement with the description of the civilian aircraft as being «almost totally destroyed.» What was being taken from the crash site was pieces of the civilian aircraft. The second damage may have resulted when the object impacted with the ground. The speed in that case should have been considerably less than that of the first impact. No mention is made of the occupants of the civilian aircraft. It is not known if any body or bodies were recovered. Considering the destruction of the civilian light aircraft in mid-air, bodies may well not have come down near the larger pieces. Unfortunately what caused the deaths of the Mexican recovery team is not known. Speculation ranges from a chemical released from the disk as a result of the damage, to a microbiological agent. There are no indications of death or illness by any of the recovery team. It would not have been illogical for the recovery team to have taken one of the bodies back with them for analysis. But there is no indication of that having happened. Perhaps they did not have adequate means of transporting what might have been a biologically contaminated body. Inquires to the FAA reveal no documents concerning the civilian aircraft crash, probably because it did not involve a US aircraft.	1,996	ENGLISH	1
- Join over 1.2 million students every month - Accelerate your learning by 29% - Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month GCSE: Russia, USSR 1905-1941 Meet our team of inspirational teachers The Dnieper Dam and Magnitogorsk are one of the remarkable achievements of the First Five Year Plan. The Second Five Year Plan (1933-1937) still prioritised heavy industry but it also concentrated on building communications especially railways, which became important to link cities and industrial centres. A major achievement was the Moscow Underground. The Second Plan also focused on chemicals, and lead, tin and zinc. The Third Five Year Plan (1938-1941) was interrupted by the outbreak of the Second World War, and was mainly focused around rearmament and weapon production to help with the war against Germany. - Word count: 1231 Steel factory workers marched down the streets of Petrograd to express their discontentment. They numbered more than 20,000 by the end of the day. Workers from other factories also went on strike to support them. By the following day the number of protesting workers in the streets had quadrupled. Every following day the number of striking workers kept increasing dramatically. By Sunday the 11th of March the President of the Duma described the situation in Petrograd as anarchy. The Army confronted the people and workers in the streets and the soldiers opened fire on the crowd. - Word count: 791 Were the mistakes made by the provisional government the main reasons why the Bolsheviks came to power? Furthermore over 150,000 soldiers deserted to claim land. This is a major reason why the provisional government lost power. However, another important reason the Bolsheviks came to power was the Kornilov revolt. Kerensky found out that Kornilov was marching his army to Petrograd because Kornilov thought martial law should be introduced. Kerensky armed the Red Guard to defend Petrograd in the end the Bolsheviks negotiated with Kornilov not to attack. Kerensky failed to take the weapons back off the Red Guard. - Word count: 465 Doomed to failure from the start. How far do you agree with this assessment of the Provisional Governments chances in 1917? Furthermore, they developed an order, named number 1. Which indicated that the soldiers, sailors and workers would only work with the consent of the Petrograd Soviet and not take commands from the Provisional Government. This act limited the Governments actions and enabled lower class Russian citizens to have a say in matters. The arrival of Lenin meant that the Provisional Government was doomed to failure because they lost support. Lenin returned from Switzerland, with a new slogan; ?Peace, Bread, Land.? Everything Russian lower classes lacked. - Word count: 651 Life was good . 8)The workers lived in cheap lodging houses and ate soup, black bread, cabbage and drank vodka. Often lived in barraks and disease was easily spread due to lack of hygiene. How was Russia governed in 1900? 1)Nicolas was the Tsar of Russia from 1894. He was an autocratic leader and thought of himself as gods chosen one. He was not elected. 2)Council of ministers who ran the government 3)Governing was painfully slow due to the vast size of the country 4)A lot of bribery and corruption 5)No parliament 6)Newspapers and books were censored 7)Opposition was not - Word count: 761 All these groups wanted change in Russia, something had to be done. One of the main causes of the revolution was the Russo-Japanese war. This war completely humiliated the Tsar because he thought that he could start a war with a weak nation, Japan and by winning, he could distract the people of Russia from the problems at home. Not only did it humiliate the Tsar it also caused shortage of resources in Russia. - Word count: 546 The Outcome of the power struggle owes more to the weakness of Trotsky than the skill of Stalin. How far do you agree? It was Stalin?s manipulation skills and ability to make the best of Trotsky?s mistakes that catapulted him into power. Trotsky had a firm reputation for being lazy, arrogant and ignorant; a perception later confirmed when he failed to turn up to Lenin?s funeral. Although many argue that Trotsky was in the Crimea during the funeral and return in time, his absence, whatever the cause had severely negative impacts on his name. However, it was Stalin?s manipulation of Trotsky?s absence and the way he used it to his own advantage rather than Trotsky?s absence alone that led to Stalin?s substantial gain in popularity. - Word count: 806 Source A is very positive but it is not that useful as the fact that he is a left wing American shows that he is communist and biast. He is also American so when he came to visit Russia he was only shown the decent collective farms. What is not shown in this source is that the grain harvests had dropped dramatically in the early 1930s when grain was most needed and in 1928 there was a 2 million ton shortfall in grains purchased by the state. Stalin claimed the grain had been produced but was being hoarded by "kulaks." - Word count: 1337 That?s why he felt that there was an urgent need to build up the country?s supplies. According to Stalin, there had to be more workers working in the factories than in the farms so industrialization can take place quicker, however he also realized that there had to be plenty of food production to feed the workforce. - Word count: 450 ?Iskra ? the spark? and ?Pravda ? the truth? may have partially helped influence the soldiers in deserting (if they were reading it of course). Lenin?s ideas may have also influenced the people in Russia slightly with its anti-tsarist ideas and the idea that the war was imperialist and caused by the capitalist?s to gain power over the people and make money. These ideas probably stirred around the cities and gave extra solidity and foundation for people?s argument to turn against the Tsar. - Word count: 1951 In 1900, he founded the Iskra, an underground newspaper published in Germany, to organise a Russian Marxist Party. As Lenin said, ?A newspaper is not only a collective propagandist and a collective agitator; it is also a collective organiser.? Unlike Trotsky who favoured ?well-organised violence? as the ?shortest distance between two points?, Lenin used such method of propaganda of written texts and messages without any physical violence to convey the Bolshevik set of mind to the people. Lenin said, ?Crowds are in a state of expectant attention which renders suggestion easy.? This is why Lenin?s genuine talent as a great public speaker and propagandist in manipulating crowds was crucial in holding the Bolshevik Party together and sustaining consistent support. - Word count: 2137 Political youth groups were also introduced to train children in socialism along with various activities such as sports and camps. This ultimately gave Stalin control over the young generation of the Soviet Union, as they were lead to believe in what was taught to them. Another method that was carried out was based around the arts and the sciences. Writers and artists were regarded dangerous to Stalin and so they were forced to produce work that suited Stalin and the soviet workers. - Word count: 917 A sharp increase in the production of food was also a great improvement to Russian industry and made food more widely available to the vast Russian population. The production of grain more than doubled in 1913 since 1890. In 1890 an average of 38 million tonnes of grain were produced per year. In the year of 1913 alone, Russia was able produce a gigantic 90 million tonnes of grain. Although the figures of the improvement in the amount of food produced in Russia were very promising, this still could not successfully quell the ever growing problem of poverty in Russia. - Word count: 2287 The main reason lie in the early 1900?s, a time period where economic problems and conflicts between Japan had sprung. Plans of boosting Russia?s economy had affected all of its people and so when the development of agriculture and industry had begun, many more of peasants and workingmen started to revolt due to heavy taxes. In 1904, Russia had involved itself in a conflict against Japan, which ultimately made the situation worse for everyone. The war had made prices of goods increase in the cities and there was a shortage of industrial materials. - Word count: 931 Matters on the front line were looking very bleak, by Christmas 1916 1.6 million Russian soldiers were dead, 3.6 million were wounded and a further 2.4 million were taken as prisoners. However, not only the front line was looking dismal but back in Russia, Nicholas II?s wife Alexandra and the devious monk Rasputin were left to govern the gargantuan country. Alexandra often sent word to Nicholas, advising him on policies, transport and communication, but even herself admitted it all ?made her head spin?. - Word count: 1478 Who The chains of events were triggered by one man called Lenin whose role in the February Revolution must be studied first. Looking back at the aftermath of the previous revolution in February, with Tsar Nicholas II being overthrown by the people and the military, a provisional government was formed by the leading members of Tsar?s parliamentary body called Duma which was led by Kerensky until further election can be held. - Word count: 415 Stalin was able to obtain total power in the USSR by the end of the 1920s because of his cunning and ruthlessness. Do you agree? Yet Stalin only succeeded in this event because of the power and the responsibility his job had given him and Trotsky?s character, for Trotsky had always been over-confident in himself and assumed that everyone would just accept him as the leader and so never regarded Stalin as his rival. If he had regarded Stalin as a rival, he wouldn?t have trusted him totally on the date of Lenin?s funeral, therefore he had to bear some responsibility for himself too. If only Trotsky was more aware of Stalin?s cunning and ambition, he would have confirmed that date of the funeral with other Party members and go back to Petrograd a few days before Lenin?s funeral even though he was sick. - Word count: 2808 Unlike Stalin, Trotsky was heavily distrusted, especially by older Party members because they had feared that he might become a dictator, especially since the Red Army was loyal to him. Even though Trotsky seemed the most likely candidate to become the new leader, his loyalty was also heavily doubted because he had originally been a member of the Menshevik Party until 1917. Another reason why Trotsky had failed to defeat Stalin was basically because he underestimated his opponent?s powers. Trotsky did not feel threatened by Stalin nor ever felt he could become Party leader. - Word count: 795 In 1921, Lenin decided to introduce the New Economic Policy, or the NEP, for two reasons. Firstly, War Communism was starting to become ineffective and in 1921, there was a great famine because peasants stopped growing more grain than they needed. Secondly, the Kronstadt Rebellion scared Lenin and the Communist party into believing that Russia needed a new economic system. In March 1921, the Kronstadt sailors mutinied and Trotsky delt with quickly, killing thousands of soldiers. This wouldn?t have been to important, except that The Kronstadt sailors had been good supporters of The Bolsheviks during the Revolutions of 1917. - Word count: 447 I find it appalling that there is no basic education in Russia and most peasants 1cannot read or write making it very hard for them to get decent work. This forces them and leaves them no choice but to work within the farming industry, they have very little space and still use ancient farming techniques to survive. For those peasants who are fortunate enough to get work in factories the brutal discipline and safety for these workers is diabolical. - Word count: 577 Like his father before him he ruled under the conservative Autocratic rule. However unlike his father, Tsar Nicholas was ill-prepared to be Tsar and payed little attention to the political and social status?s of Russia. This was the main reason of Russia's Backwardness compared to the modernized, democratic Europe in the 19th Century. Tsar Nicholas with the help of his mentor Pobedonostev, focused on a Conservative Empire where the Tsar had all power. However he found the Russian Empire hard to control as it was a huge land mass and was very multicultural - the main religions being: Russian Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Islamic. - Word count: 545 (Ben Walsh 98) Nicholas proved himself incapable of leading; he tended to avoid making important decisions and insisted in the tiniest of details of government. Nicholas was also incapable of choosing officials, sacking many potentially good ones and replacing them with his friends whom were often corrupt and incompetent. (Ben Walsh 102) Many peasants went into the cities to find jobs in the industries. However with terrible working conditions, the peasants were starting to get unhappy. The unhappiness resulted in the Bloody Sunday where Father Gapon led a crowd to give a peaceful petition to the Tsar, but ended up getting killed or injured. - Word count: 1895	<urn:uuid:e5bacfd5-3ed6-4fbe-9f22-a71bb446aa04>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/history/modern-world-history/russia-ussr-1905-1941/?p=24	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00270.warc.gz	en	0.981967	2,777	3.390625	3	[ -0.6201891899108887, -0.2032502293586731, 0.06262382119894028, 0.05481091886758804, -0.11839860677719116, 0.061424367129802704, -0.24226191639900208, 0.6196874380111694, -0.12825176119804382, -0.06452400982379913, 0.15202537178993225, -0.11784812808036804, 0.016723956912755966, 0.250993758...	4	- Join over 1.2 million students every month - Accelerate your learning by 29% - Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month GCSE: Russia, USSR 1905-1941 Meet our team of inspirational teachers The Dnieper Dam and Magnitogorsk are one of the remarkable achievements of the First Five Year Plan. The Second Five Year Plan (1933-1937) still prioritised heavy industry but it also concentrated on building communications especially railways, which became important to link cities and industrial centres. A major achievement was the Moscow Underground. The Second Plan also focused on chemicals, and lead, tin and zinc. The Third Five Year Plan (1938-1941) was interrupted by the outbreak of the Second World War, and was mainly focused around rearmament and weapon production to help with the war against Germany. - Word count: 1231 Steel factory workers marched down the streets of Petrograd to express their discontentment. They numbered more than 20,000 by the end of the day. Workers from other factories also went on strike to support them. By the following day the number of protesting workers in the streets had quadrupled. Every following day the number of striking workers kept increasing dramatically. By Sunday the 11th of March the President of the Duma described the situation in Petrograd as anarchy. The Army confronted the people and workers in the streets and the soldiers opened fire on the crowd. - Word count: 791 Were the mistakes made by the provisional government the main reasons why the Bolsheviks came to power? Furthermore over 150,000 soldiers deserted to claim land. This is a major reason why the provisional government lost power. However, another important reason the Bolsheviks came to power was the Kornilov revolt. Kerensky found out that Kornilov was marching his army to Petrograd because Kornilov thought martial law should be introduced. Kerensky armed the Red Guard to defend Petrograd in the end the Bolsheviks negotiated with Kornilov not to attack. Kerensky failed to take the weapons back off the Red Guard. - Word count: 465 Doomed to failure from the start. How far do you agree with this assessment of the Provisional Governments chances in 1917? Furthermore, they developed an order, named number 1. Which indicated that the soldiers, sailors and workers would only work with the consent of the Petrograd Soviet and not take commands from the Provisional Government. This act limited the Governments actions and enabled lower class Russian citizens to have a say in matters. The arrival of Lenin meant that the Provisional Government was doomed to failure because they lost support. Lenin returned from Switzerland, with a new slogan; ?Peace, Bread, Land.? Everything Russian lower classes lacked. - Word count: 651 Life was good . 8)The workers lived in cheap lodging houses and ate soup, black bread, cabbage and drank vodka. Often lived in barraks and disease was easily spread due to lack of hygiene. How was Russia governed in 1900? 1)Nicolas was the Tsar of Russia from 1894. He was an autocratic leader and thought of himself as gods chosen one. He was not elected. 2)Council of ministers who ran the government 3)Governing was painfully slow due to the vast size of the country 4)A lot of bribery and corruption 5)No parliament 6)Newspapers and books were censored 7)Opposition was not - Word count: 761 All these groups wanted change in Russia, something had to be done. One of the main causes of the revolution was the Russo-Japanese war. This war completely humiliated the Tsar because he thought that he could start a war with a weak nation, Japan and by winning, he could distract the people of Russia from the problems at home. Not only did it humiliate the Tsar it also caused shortage of resources in Russia. - Word count: 546 The Outcome of the power struggle owes more to the weakness of Trotsky than the skill of Stalin. How far do you agree? It was Stalin?s manipulation skills and ability to make the best of Trotsky?s mistakes that catapulted him into power. Trotsky had a firm reputation for being lazy, arrogant and ignorant; a perception later confirmed when he failed to turn up to Lenin?s funeral. Although many argue that Trotsky was in the Crimea during the funeral and return in time, his absence, whatever the cause had severely negative impacts on his name. However, it was Stalin?s manipulation of Trotsky?s absence and the way he used it to his own advantage rather than Trotsky?s absence alone that led to Stalin?s substantial gain in popularity. - Word count: 806 Source A is very positive but it is not that useful as the fact that he is a left wing American shows that he is communist and biast. He is also American so when he came to visit Russia he was only shown the decent collective farms. What is not shown in this source is that the grain harvests had dropped dramatically in the early 1930s when grain was most needed and in 1928 there was a 2 million ton shortfall in grains purchased by the state. Stalin claimed the grain had been produced but was being hoarded by "kulaks." - Word count: 1337 That?s why he felt that there was an urgent need to build up the country?s supplies. According to Stalin, there had to be more workers working in the factories than in the farms so industrialization can take place quicker, however he also realized that there had to be plenty of food production to feed the workforce. - Word count: 450 ?Iskra ? the spark? and ?Pravda ? the truth? may have partially helped influence the soldiers in deserting (if they were reading it of course). Lenin?s ideas may have also influenced the people in Russia slightly with its anti-tsarist ideas and the idea that the war was imperialist and caused by the capitalist?s to gain power over the people and make money. These ideas probably stirred around the cities and gave extra solidity and foundation for people?s argument to turn against the Tsar. - Word count: 1951 In 1900, he founded the Iskra, an underground newspaper published in Germany, to organise a Russian Marxist Party. As Lenin said, ?A newspaper is not only a collective propagandist and a collective agitator; it is also a collective organiser.? Unlike Trotsky who favoured ?well-organised violence? as the ?shortest distance between two points?, Lenin used such method of propaganda of written texts and messages without any physical violence to convey the Bolshevik set of mind to the people. Lenin said, ?Crowds are in a state of expectant attention which renders suggestion easy.? This is why Lenin?s genuine talent as a great public speaker and propagandist in manipulating crowds was crucial in holding the Bolshevik Party together and sustaining consistent support. - Word count: 2137 Political youth groups were also introduced to train children in socialism along with various activities such as sports and camps. This ultimately gave Stalin control over the young generation of the Soviet Union, as they were lead to believe in what was taught to them. Another method that was carried out was based around the arts and the sciences. Writers and artists were regarded dangerous to Stalin and so they were forced to produce work that suited Stalin and the soviet workers. - Word count: 917 A sharp increase in the production of food was also a great improvement to Russian industry and made food more widely available to the vast Russian population. The production of grain more than doubled in 1913 since 1890. In 1890 an average of 38 million tonnes of grain were produced per year. In the year of 1913 alone, Russia was able produce a gigantic 90 million tonnes of grain. Although the figures of the improvement in the amount of food produced in Russia were very promising, this still could not successfully quell the ever growing problem of poverty in Russia. - Word count: 2287 The main reason lie in the early 1900?s, a time period where economic problems and conflicts between Japan had sprung. Plans of boosting Russia?s economy had affected all of its people and so when the development of agriculture and industry had begun, many more of peasants and workingmen started to revolt due to heavy taxes. In 1904, Russia had involved itself in a conflict against Japan, which ultimately made the situation worse for everyone. The war had made prices of goods increase in the cities and there was a shortage of industrial materials. - Word count: 931 Matters on the front line were looking very bleak, by Christmas 1916 1.6 million Russian soldiers were dead, 3.6 million were wounded and a further 2.4 million were taken as prisoners. However, not only the front line was looking dismal but back in Russia, Nicholas II?s wife Alexandra and the devious monk Rasputin were left to govern the gargantuan country. Alexandra often sent word to Nicholas, advising him on policies, transport and communication, but even herself admitted it all ?made her head spin?. - Word count: 1478 Who The chains of events were triggered by one man called Lenin whose role in the February Revolution must be studied first. Looking back at the aftermath of the previous revolution in February, with Tsar Nicholas II being overthrown by the people and the military, a provisional government was formed by the leading members of Tsar?s parliamentary body called Duma which was led by Kerensky until further election can be held. - Word count: 415 Stalin was able to obtain total power in the USSR by the end of the 1920s because of his cunning and ruthlessness. Do you agree? Yet Stalin only succeeded in this event because of the power and the responsibility his job had given him and Trotsky?s character, for Trotsky had always been over-confident in himself and assumed that everyone would just accept him as the leader and so never regarded Stalin as his rival. If he had regarded Stalin as a rival, he wouldn?t have trusted him totally on the date of Lenin?s funeral, therefore he had to bear some responsibility for himself too. If only Trotsky was more aware of Stalin?s cunning and ambition, he would have confirmed that date of the funeral with other Party members and go back to Petrograd a few days before Lenin?s funeral even though he was sick. - Word count: 2808 Unlike Stalin, Trotsky was heavily distrusted, especially by older Party members because they had feared that he might become a dictator, especially since the Red Army was loyal to him. Even though Trotsky seemed the most likely candidate to become the new leader, his loyalty was also heavily doubted because he had originally been a member of the Menshevik Party until 1917. Another reason why Trotsky had failed to defeat Stalin was basically because he underestimated his opponent?s powers. Trotsky did not feel threatened by Stalin nor ever felt he could become Party leader. - Word count: 795 In 1921, Lenin decided to introduce the New Economic Policy, or the NEP, for two reasons. Firstly, War Communism was starting to become ineffective and in 1921, there was a great famine because peasants stopped growing more grain than they needed. Secondly, the Kronstadt Rebellion scared Lenin and the Communist party into believing that Russia needed a new economic system. In March 1921, the Kronstadt sailors mutinied and Trotsky delt with quickly, killing thousands of soldiers. This wouldn?t have been to important, except that The Kronstadt sailors had been good supporters of The Bolsheviks during the Revolutions of 1917. - Word count: 447 I find it appalling that there is no basic education in Russia and most peasants 1cannot read or write making it very hard for them to get decent work. This forces them and leaves them no choice but to work within the farming industry, they have very little space and still use ancient farming techniques to survive. For those peasants who are fortunate enough to get work in factories the brutal discipline and safety for these workers is diabolical. - Word count: 577 Like his father before him he ruled under the conservative Autocratic rule. However unlike his father, Tsar Nicholas was ill-prepared to be Tsar and payed little attention to the political and social status?s of Russia. This was the main reason of Russia's Backwardness compared to the modernized, democratic Europe in the 19th Century. Tsar Nicholas with the help of his mentor Pobedonostev, focused on a Conservative Empire where the Tsar had all power. However he found the Russian Empire hard to control as it was a huge land mass and was very multicultural - the main religions being: Russian Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Islamic. - Word count: 545 (Ben Walsh 98) Nicholas proved himself incapable of leading; he tended to avoid making important decisions and insisted in the tiniest of details of government. Nicholas was also incapable of choosing officials, sacking many potentially good ones and replacing them with his friends whom were often corrupt and incompetent. (Ben Walsh 102) Many peasants went into the cities to find jobs in the industries. However with terrible working conditions, the peasants were starting to get unhappy. The unhappiness resulted in the Bloody Sunday where Father Gapon led a crowd to give a peaceful petition to the Tsar, but ended up getting killed or injured. - Word count: 1895	2,901	ENGLISH	1
The tragedy, ‘Romeo and Juliet’ was written in the year of 1593. The play includes a number of universal themes such as love, hate, death and loyalty so as to capture the imagination of a range of audiences. In this essay I am going to start by including a very brief history of the Globe Theatre. Then I am not only going to go through the play act by act to highlight the main examples of dramatic irony in each act. But also I am going to say how it affected the audience at all times. Finally, I am going to end with a conclusion, which sums up the main points that will be included in the essay. The Globe Theatre was built in 1598-99 by the Chamberlain’s Company, it stood on the Southern shore of the Thames River in London. At this time Shakespeare was a member of the Chamberlain’s Company. The first recorded performance was of Julius Caesar in September 1599. Many of Shakespeare’s plays were written for and performed at the Globe, which burnt down in 1613. It was rebuilt in 1614, only to be destroyed by Oliver Cromwell’s Puritan troops thirty years later. But if you want to get an idea of what the original Globe Theatre was like, the best thing to do is to visit the new Globe Theatre which was opened in 1997 about two hundred yards from the original site. It has lime plastered walls and a thatched roof, imitating the original in every possible detail. Shakespeare himself was an actor as well as playwright and probably tailored a few of his roles to suit his own stage skills. It was however neither his writing, nor acting skills that were the direct source of his income, for actors and playwrights were both poorly paid positions to hold. Instead it was because he was a good businessman and held a share in the company itself. Although without his writing skills they would not have done nearly so well. The Elizabethan audiences commonly talked throughout the performances, despite pleas from playwrights for silence. If a gallant was sitting on-stage talking it would be very difficult for the audience to hear what was being said by the actors. And that was defiantly the reason why Shakespeare tends to repeat important information throughout his plays. In contrast modern audiences are required to keep silent during the performance. Modern audiences mainly clap at the interval and conclusion. In opposition, the Elizabethan audience might well applaud, but they booed and hissed as well if they felt like it and hurled things at the actors when they disapproved of them. At the same time Food and drink were served as yet another distraction. One of the things actors complained most about was the cracking of nuts, which caused quite a lot of noise and disturbance. Absolutely not like modern audiences as they not eat or drink during performances. Most of the modern audiences keep their attention on what is happening on the stage. Of course, all members of all modern audiences don’t necessarily fulfill all the conditions mentioned above, but most people do, most of the time. The Elizabethan audiences however were obviously not always attending to what was happening on-stage. Because conversations were going on and food and drink were being consumed. The power of an actor would be shown by his ability to command the attention of the audience. Acting at the Globe was radically different from viewing modern Shakespeare on screen. The plays were staged in the afternoons, using the light of day, and the audience surrounded the stage on all sides. No scenery was used, except for occasional emblematic devices like a throne or a bed. It was almost impossible not to see the other half of the audience standing behind the players. The actors (all males) would not have worn costumes as such, instead they tended to wear clothing cast off by the aristocracy and sold on by their servants. There also would have been little in the way of props. The female roles were acted by young boys before their voices broke, as women were forbidden by law to act on a public stage. The theatre was divided up into several distinct sections, and the types of people to be found in each part would have been quite different. The Globe catered to everyone; common people, merchants, professionals, soldiers, and even the aristocracy. Shakespeare in his turn had to do the same, creating plays that would appeal to every strata of society. It also has been estimated that about 20 to 25 per cent of the population attended the playhouses, which is a far higher percentage than today. The cheapest portion of the theatre was the yard that lies alongside the stage on three sides. It would have cost 1 penny for a place in the yard, and as such was affordable to almost everyone. The people who paid for such a place would tend to be the poorest playgoers, such as the city’s common labourers. They were known as Groundlings-they earned that name because of the fact that they had to watch from the ground-and 1000 of them could be squeezed into the Globe’s yard. They could usually expect to share that space with members of various professions such as thieves and prostitutes. The three galleries between them held another 2000 audiences. Unlike the yard, they, like the stage were covered against the elements. They also had the added luxury of seating. For these benefits you would have had to pay 2 pennies, and could hire a cushion for a third. Although all three galleries cost the same to sit in, the middle gallery was considered the highest status. The lower gallery was still uncomfortably close to the yard The most expensive seats in the house were those known as the Lords Rooms. They were located immediately above and behind the stage in the area also used by the musicians. Although such a location may not seem ideal to the modern day theatergoer, these seats had a number of key advantages to the rich of the day. Firstly, they were well removed from the messes -noises and the smell- in the rest of the theatre. Second, they were themselves on display, so they could show off the latest fashions, and even the fact that they were rich enough to sit there. Third, although they could not see the play very well, they could hear it. This last point is actually extremely significant, since it was to hear plays that Elizabethans went to the theatre; there are many references of people going to hear a play rather than going to see one in the literature of the time. It is from this concept that the modern word audience is derived. Places in the Lords Rooms would have cost 6 pennies each. There is no such thing as a late comer in Shakespeare’s time. The audience may arrive at any time and will always be allowed to assume their places. If people wish to see only one act, or maybe they have a meeting they can’t get out of that overruns, then there is no difficulty about them turning up whenever they are ready, and indeed leaving at any time they so choose. Moving on to dramatic irony in the play ‘Romeo and Juliet’ firstly, I am going to give a definition of dramatic irony. Dramatic irony occurs in fiction or drama where the reader knows more about the true state of affairs than the characters do. ‘Romeo and Juliet’ have lots of examples of dramatic irony. The biggest example is in the prologue. A prologue is a kind of blurb that can give you a vague idea on what the play is about and what is about to happen. It could decide if the play was to be a success or a failure. A sonnet was the form in which Shakespeare wrote his prologue, a short, fourteen-line poem that was made up of quatrains. The prologue of ‘Romeo and Juliet’ gives us an idea of what the story is about. We are given nearly all of the key points about the play. We know, from what is said in the prologue, even before the play begins that the two lovers will die. They are immediately set across to the audience as star-crossed lovers. This seems to suggest that the lovers will be ill fated. This dramatic irony will immediately draw the audience into the story by setting up expectations of what will happen to the lovers in the play. Consequently, the audience will be aware of any reference in the language used, to love and death, as they know these are important themes in the play. In act -1- (scenes 1-4) the audience are drawn more into the story. As they know that Rosaline is not the one that Romeo is going to be infatuated with. They know this from the prologue, as Romeo is supposed to fall in love with someone who loves him back. They also use their common sense, as the play’s title is ‘Romeo and Juliet’; therefore, the other half of the story is going to be about Juliet. This piece of dramatic irony would make the audience more aware to any suggestions to the name ‘Juliet’. It will also give them a sense of expectation. Act 1 scene 4 (lines 106-11) creates tension for the audience. As it mentions death for the first time in the play – after the prologue. In this piece of dramatic irony Romeo looks uneasily into the future and has premonition of death. His tone is ominous, filled with foreboding. He uses legal language prophesying that his premature (‘untimely’) death will result from what he begins tonight (‘date’) by going to the Capulet’s feast. His life will be the penalty (‘forfeit’) he must pay when the time is up (‘expire the term’). As a result, the audience will be setting up expectations. The audiences know that Romeo’s end is going to be death; they also know that going to the Capulet’s party means meeting their daughter and falling in love with her. Hence, the audience will consider this as the lovers’ first step towards death. And so it will amplify their sense of expectation. Shakespeare used puns in act-1- scene 4 not only to enhance the effect of dramatic irony for the audience, but also as an entertaining device. Elizabethans were amused and fascinated by language, especially puns. However, nowadays theatergoers are more interested in stage decors and direction, as well as actors and costumes more than language used in script. In act 1 scene -5- audience will take their first look at Juliet. Accordingly, they will assume each and every act of her as a step towards her fatal doom. Accordingly, suspense is created as audiences are setting up expectations. They know that the end of the lovers is going to be death, so they will be more affected by any suggestion to death in the language used. Also in the scene dramatic irony used draws the audience into the story. As the two lovers Romeo and Juliet meet for the first time in the Capulet’s party. The audience also know that Romeo and Juliet’s love was destined for destruction .so the viewers will be aware of any death indications in the play, as it’s a major theme in the play. Act 1 Scene 5 (line134) is the first time Juliet speaks in such a somber mood, imagining her death as her bridegroom. The metaphor is used to portray a strong sense of dramatic irony as the information spectators gained mainly from the prologue tells them of the death of the two lovers-” A pair of star-cross’d lovers take their life;”. The audiences are already aware that both lovers have met and are from different families, and then they realize that they are the pair. Therefore, they are aware that they will take their lives. In this play Shakespeare used images of death which symbolize sorrow. One example of such imagery involves the time when Romeo leaves the Capulet party and leaves Juliet behind (act 2-scene 1). He uses images of a lifeless body and death to show the sorrow he feels when he is not with his beloved Juliet. He shows that he cannot live without her when he says, “Can I go forward when my heart is here? Turn back, dull earth, and find thy center out”. In this way, death represents his inner sorrow. This piece of dramatic irony would draw the audience into the story by setting up expectations of what will happen. As they know that the lovers end is death. In the same scene a basic dramatic irony occurs when the audiences know that Romeo is cheerless because he is away from his love Juliet. However, Bonvolio and Mercutio are teasing Romeo because they think that his misery is because of his unrequited love for Rosaline. As a result, the audiences would be setting up expectations of what will happen. The dramatic irony in act 2 scene 2 is based around the fact of Juliet being unwary of Romeo’s presence in the Capulet house, as she declares her love for Romeo (lines 33- 36). The use of dramatic irony here is able to build up suspense for the audience, as well as they will be setting up anticipation as they are waiting for something to happen. Act 2 scene 3 (lines 91 and 92) includes a very important case of dramatic irony. In these two lines Friar Lawrence reveals that Romeo and Juliet’s covenant marriage will eventually lead to virtue amongst both families. This is a source of dramatic irony as the audiences know from the prologue that death will arise, whereas Romeo has no idea. This will result apprehension to be created as the viewers will be waiting for something to happen. In scene 5 of act 2 Juliet is very abrupt and inquisitive towards the Nurse. In spite of Juliet’s anxiety the Nurse still remains webbed within her own issues as she stresses her aches and pains. Dramatic irony present in this scene is portrayed from the action s of the Nurse as she continually seems to deviate from Juliet’s ceaseless demands concerning the response from her beloved Romeo. The way the Nurse’s behaviour is presented in this scene foreshadows her knowledge concerning Juliet’s questions. This scene revolves around Juliet and her constant worry expressed in her language. The effect to the audience is a comical moment as the Nurse deliberately keeps Juliet in suspense. In act 2 scene 6 (lines 1 and 2) Friar Lawrence says that he wants the heavens to smile upon this holy act so that they are not punished with sadness later. This indicates that something bad is going to happen in the play that only audiences know about. In lines (9-15) Friar Lawrence made a suggestion that Romeo and Juliet’s love is going to end tragically. He used an image of joyous love as fire and gunpowder which destroy (‘consume’) at the very moment (‘triumph’) of meeting (‘kiss’). This example of dramatic irony will affect the addressees’ prospects of what is going to happen later on in the play. Therefore, the addressees will be affected by any reference to death as they know this is an important subject in the play. Act -3- scene 1 is pivotal in the play as it sees bloodshed of two major characters which leads to the parting of the two star crossed lovers. The first example of dramatic irony in this scene takes place when Romeo tries to tell Tybalt how much he loves him but Tybalt can’t understand, not knowing that Romeo and his cousin Juliet were bride and groom. However, viewers acknowledge the reason for why Romeo wants to create peace rather than violence, as he does not want to create any hazards with the Capulet family. Hence, the audiences will be more attentive; they also set up anticipation as they are waiting for something to occur. The second and the most important piece of dramatic irony in this scene is when Mercutio is stabbed. Dramatic irony is created by the repetition of the statement “A plague o’ both your houses!” by the wounded Mercutio. He curses both households, unaware that the victim of his curse will be his dear companion and his lady Juliet. This will create a moment of sympathy between the audiences, as they know that Romeo and Juliet are suffering only because it occurred to happen that they were destined by the stars to bad fortune. The audiences would be also waiting for Romeo to do something to Tybalt, to take revenge for instance. So suspense is building up for them. In lines 110 and 111 Romeo fears that the evil outcomes (‘black fate’) of today’s violence lie in the future (‘Moe (more) days’). Personally I think this is the point in the play where the tragedy really begins. I think so because after this point a lot of dreadful events start to occur. These few lines are the height of dramatic irony as Romeo is for-telling his own future. This case of dramatic irony creates tension for the audiences; they would also be setting up prospect as they are waiting for something to happen. Moreover, Shakespeare has heightened the effect of dramatic irony by making the two lines rhyme at the end. Following this, there are numerous references to death in this scene. Another example of dramatic irony is when Romeo threatens Tybalt that either he or Tybalt would have to die (line 120). Above all, the audiences already acknowledge that Romeo is going to die. On the other hand, Romeo is unaware that he is speaking of his own death. Furthermore, in line 140 Lady Capulet confirms’ shed blood of Montague’. She is focusing the matter on none other than Romeo. The repetition of the word blood also enhances the effect of death as well as dramatic irony. This is an example of dramatic irony as the audiences know that Lady Capulet’s daughter Juliet is married to Romeo which she is clueless about. Finally, when the Prince announces his final decision over the whole matter, he also threatens to kill Romeo. The concluding account from the prince includes rhyming phrases as this is the solution made for the whole massacre, therefore it is important. This scene ( scene 1) is very important for the viewers as they will recognize that they are approaching the end of the play. As almost all the prophesies in the prologue has occurred and they are only waiting for the lovers fatal doom to end both the strife of their families, as well as the whole play. This scene also affects the audiences in numerous ways, they would be more focused, and it will also give them a sense of expectation of what will happen later on in the play. Moreover, they will be also affected by the language as death is mentions a lot in this scene. Thus, tension is building up. In scene 2 Juliet’s thirty-one lines epithalamium (wedding song) in which she describes how much she is filled with love for Romeo, longing for the night to come so that Romeo will come to her “untalked of and unseen”, is an example of dramatic irony as it shows her unawareness of both Tybalt’s death, as well as Romeo’s banishment. This will generate an instant of sympathy among the audiences, as they know she is would get devastated by these awful news. Suspense would be created too as the audiences would wonder whether Juliet is still going to love Romeo after she hears these news? In scene 3 Romeo seems in despair with his sentence of banishment. He would rather die than be exiled. Exile brings more terror to him; he also can’t imagine not being behind Verona’s walls and being in the big bad world full of torture and suffering. He doesn’t want to leave his “heaven” with Juliet. He keeps referring to exile being like death to the Friar. And When the Nurse enters, Romeo asks her if Juliet thinks him an old murderer and does she still love him. All the Nurse says is that she weeps and weeps making Romeo try and kill himself. Then she told him that he is to see Juliet to say farewell and when he has her ring the Nurse has passed on to him he is comforted. The idea of seeing Juliet again has consoled him, as he loves her so much. This instance of dramatic irony has a great effect on the audiences, as they know from the prologue that Romeo is going to die. This dramatic irony will attract the audience more to the play. They also would be wondering whether Romeo is going to make it to Juliet’s bedchamber or would the Prince find out and kill him? Scene 4 is a very short scene, maybe the shortest in the whole play. However, it contains a great number of dramatic irony. In this scene when everyone on the stage thinks that Juliet is crying over Tybalt’s death, the viewers’ know that the crying is for Romeo. Another example of dramatic irony is when Capulet arranges Juliet’s marriage with Paris in two days time (line 20). As he thought she needs a man so she would not be so sad, and the whole time she has her marriage with Romeo of which everyone else is clueless about. Shakespeare used the repetition of the word ‘Thursday’ to show how important this word is , so if any one of the audiences was chatting or if they were not paying attention this device will successfully draw them into the story , as they would expect something vital to occur on this day . Also such repetition increases the tension in the plot as well as it adds to the sense of fast moving action.	<urn:uuid:83e679e5-1288-4431-bb5e-2ded1cde7727>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://paperap.com/paper-on-tragedy-romeo-juliet/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00322.warc.gz	en	0.983381	4,501	3.609375	4	[ 0.21776802837848663, -0.25689855217933655, 0.6738520264625549, -0.04033984988927841, -0.3112797141075134, 0.286826491355896, 0.07566124200820923, 0.3807503581047058, 0.05057695508003235, -0.32292473316192627, 0.2232317179441452, 0.0963938981294632, 0.3778075575828552, 0.24880096316337585, ...	2	The tragedy, ‘Romeo and Juliet’ was written in the year of 1593. The play includes a number of universal themes such as love, hate, death and loyalty so as to capture the imagination of a range of audiences. In this essay I am going to start by including a very brief history of the Globe Theatre. Then I am not only going to go through the play act by act to highlight the main examples of dramatic irony in each act. But also I am going to say how it affected the audience at all times. Finally, I am going to end with a conclusion, which sums up the main points that will be included in the essay. The Globe Theatre was built in 1598-99 by the Chamberlain’s Company, it stood on the Southern shore of the Thames River in London. At this time Shakespeare was a member of the Chamberlain’s Company. The first recorded performance was of Julius Caesar in September 1599. Many of Shakespeare’s plays were written for and performed at the Globe, which burnt down in 1613. It was rebuilt in 1614, only to be destroyed by Oliver Cromwell’s Puritan troops thirty years later. But if you want to get an idea of what the original Globe Theatre was like, the best thing to do is to visit the new Globe Theatre which was opened in 1997 about two hundred yards from the original site. It has lime plastered walls and a thatched roof, imitating the original in every possible detail. Shakespeare himself was an actor as well as playwright and probably tailored a few of his roles to suit his own stage skills. It was however neither his writing, nor acting skills that were the direct source of his income, for actors and playwrights were both poorly paid positions to hold. Instead it was because he was a good businessman and held a share in the company itself. Although without his writing skills they would not have done nearly so well. The Elizabethan audiences commonly talked throughout the performances, despite pleas from playwrights for silence. If a gallant was sitting on-stage talking it would be very difficult for the audience to hear what was being said by the actors. And that was defiantly the reason why Shakespeare tends to repeat important information throughout his plays. In contrast modern audiences are required to keep silent during the performance. Modern audiences mainly clap at the interval and conclusion. In opposition, the Elizabethan audience might well applaud, but they booed and hissed as well if they felt like it and hurled things at the actors when they disapproved of them. At the same time Food and drink were served as yet another distraction. One of the things actors complained most about was the cracking of nuts, which caused quite a lot of noise and disturbance. Absolutely not like modern audiences as they not eat or drink during performances. Most of the modern audiences keep their attention on what is happening on the stage. Of course, all members of all modern audiences don’t necessarily fulfill all the conditions mentioned above, but most people do, most of the time. The Elizabethan audiences however were obviously not always attending to what was happening on-stage. Because conversations were going on and food and drink were being consumed. The power of an actor would be shown by his ability to command the attention of the audience. Acting at the Globe was radically different from viewing modern Shakespeare on screen. The plays were staged in the afternoons, using the light of day, and the audience surrounded the stage on all sides. No scenery was used, except for occasional emblematic devices like a throne or a bed. It was almost impossible not to see the other half of the audience standing behind the players. The actors (all males) would not have worn costumes as such, instead they tended to wear clothing cast off by the aristocracy and sold on by their servants. There also would have been little in the way of props. The female roles were acted by young boys before their voices broke, as women were forbidden by law to act on a public stage. The theatre was divided up into several distinct sections, and the types of people to be found in each part would have been quite different. The Globe catered to everyone; common people, merchants, professionals, soldiers, and even the aristocracy. Shakespeare in his turn had to do the same, creating plays that would appeal to every strata of society. It also has been estimated that about 20 to 25 per cent of the population attended the playhouses, which is a far higher percentage than today. The cheapest portion of the theatre was the yard that lies alongside the stage on three sides. It would have cost 1 penny for a place in the yard, and as such was affordable to almost everyone. The people who paid for such a place would tend to be the poorest playgoers, such as the city’s common labourers. They were known as Groundlings-they earned that name because of the fact that they had to watch from the ground-and 1000 of them could be squeezed into the Globe’s yard. They could usually expect to share that space with members of various professions such as thieves and prostitutes. The three galleries between them held another 2000 audiences. Unlike the yard, they, like the stage were covered against the elements. They also had the added luxury of seating. For these benefits you would have had to pay 2 pennies, and could hire a cushion for a third. Although all three galleries cost the same to sit in, the middle gallery was considered the highest status. The lower gallery was still uncomfortably close to the yard The most expensive seats in the house were those known as the Lords Rooms. They were located immediately above and behind the stage in the area also used by the musicians. Although such a location may not seem ideal to the modern day theatergoer, these seats had a number of key advantages to the rich of the day. Firstly, they were well removed from the messes -noises and the smell- in the rest of the theatre. Second, they were themselves on display, so they could show off the latest fashions, and even the fact that they were rich enough to sit there. Third, although they could not see the play very well, they could hear it. This last point is actually extremely significant, since it was to hear plays that Elizabethans went to the theatre; there are many references of people going to hear a play rather than going to see one in the literature of the time. It is from this concept that the modern word audience is derived. Places in the Lords Rooms would have cost 6 pennies each. There is no such thing as a late comer in Shakespeare’s time. The audience may arrive at any time and will always be allowed to assume their places. If people wish to see only one act, or maybe they have a meeting they can’t get out of that overruns, then there is no difficulty about them turning up whenever they are ready, and indeed leaving at any time they so choose. Moving on to dramatic irony in the play ‘Romeo and Juliet’ firstly, I am going to give a definition of dramatic irony. Dramatic irony occurs in fiction or drama where the reader knows more about the true state of affairs than the characters do. ‘Romeo and Juliet’ have lots of examples of dramatic irony. The biggest example is in the prologue. A prologue is a kind of blurb that can give you a vague idea on what the play is about and what is about to happen. It could decide if the play was to be a success or a failure. A sonnet was the form in which Shakespeare wrote his prologue, a short, fourteen-line poem that was made up of quatrains. The prologue of ‘Romeo and Juliet’ gives us an idea of what the story is about. We are given nearly all of the key points about the play. We know, from what is said in the prologue, even before the play begins that the two lovers will die. They are immediately set across to the audience as star-crossed lovers. This seems to suggest that the lovers will be ill fated. This dramatic irony will immediately draw the audience into the story by setting up expectations of what will happen to the lovers in the play. Consequently, the audience will be aware of any reference in the language used, to love and death, as they know these are important themes in the play. In act -1- (scenes 1-4) the audience are drawn more into the story. As they know that Rosaline is not the one that Romeo is going to be infatuated with. They know this from the prologue, as Romeo is supposed to fall in love with someone who loves him back. They also use their common sense, as the play’s title is ‘Romeo and Juliet’; therefore, the other half of the story is going to be about Juliet. This piece of dramatic irony would make the audience more aware to any suggestions to the name ‘Juliet’. It will also give them a sense of expectation. Act 1 scene 4 (lines 106-11) creates tension for the audience. As it mentions death for the first time in the play – after the prologue. In this piece of dramatic irony Romeo looks uneasily into the future and has premonition of death. His tone is ominous, filled with foreboding. He uses legal language prophesying that his premature (‘untimely’) death will result from what he begins tonight (‘date’) by going to the Capulet’s feast. His life will be the penalty (‘forfeit’) he must pay when the time is up (‘expire the term’). As a result, the audience will be setting up expectations. The audiences know that Romeo’s end is going to be death; they also know that going to the Capulet’s party means meeting their daughter and falling in love with her. Hence, the audience will consider this as the lovers’ first step towards death. And so it will amplify their sense of expectation. Shakespeare used puns in act-1- scene 4 not only to enhance the effect of dramatic irony for the audience, but also as an entertaining device. Elizabethans were amused and fascinated by language, especially puns. However, nowadays theatergoers are more interested in stage decors and direction, as well as actors and costumes more than language used in script. In act 1 scene -5- audience will take their first look at Juliet. Accordingly, they will assume each and every act of her as a step towards her fatal doom. Accordingly, suspense is created as audiences are setting up expectations. They know that the end of the lovers is going to be death, so they will be more affected by any suggestion to death in the language used. Also in the scene dramatic irony used draws the audience into the story. As the two lovers Romeo and Juliet meet for the first time in the Capulet’s party. The audience also know that Romeo and Juliet’s love was destined for destruction .so the viewers will be aware of any death indications in the play, as it’s a major theme in the play. Act 1 Scene 5 (line134) is the first time Juliet speaks in such a somber mood, imagining her death as her bridegroom. The metaphor is used to portray a strong sense of dramatic irony as the information spectators gained mainly from the prologue tells them of the death of the two lovers-” A pair of star-cross’d lovers take their life;”. The audiences are already aware that both lovers have met and are from different families, and then they realize that they are the pair. Therefore, they are aware that they will take their lives. In this play Shakespeare used images of death which symbolize sorrow. One example of such imagery involves the time when Romeo leaves the Capulet party and leaves Juliet behind (act 2-scene 1). He uses images of a lifeless body and death to show the sorrow he feels when he is not with his beloved Juliet. He shows that he cannot live without her when he says, “Can I go forward when my heart is here? Turn back, dull earth, and find thy center out”. In this way, death represents his inner sorrow. This piece of dramatic irony would draw the audience into the story by setting up expectations of what will happen. As they know that the lovers end is death. In the same scene a basic dramatic irony occurs when the audiences know that Romeo is cheerless because he is away from his love Juliet. However, Bonvolio and Mercutio are teasing Romeo because they think that his misery is because of his unrequited love for Rosaline. As a result, the audiences would be setting up expectations of what will happen. The dramatic irony in act 2 scene 2 is based around the fact of Juliet being unwary of Romeo’s presence in the Capulet house, as she declares her love for Romeo (lines 33- 36). The use of dramatic irony here is able to build up suspense for the audience, as well as they will be setting up anticipation as they are waiting for something to happen. Act 2 scene 3 (lines 91 and 92) includes a very important case of dramatic irony. In these two lines Friar Lawrence reveals that Romeo and Juliet’s covenant marriage will eventually lead to virtue amongst both families. This is a source of dramatic irony as the audiences know from the prologue that death will arise, whereas Romeo has no idea. This will result apprehension to be created as the viewers will be waiting for something to happen. In scene 5 of act 2 Juliet is very abrupt and inquisitive towards the Nurse. In spite of Juliet’s anxiety the Nurse still remains webbed within her own issues as she stresses her aches and pains. Dramatic irony present in this scene is portrayed from the action s of the Nurse as she continually seems to deviate from Juliet’s ceaseless demands concerning the response from her beloved Romeo. The way the Nurse’s behaviour is presented in this scene foreshadows her knowledge concerning Juliet’s questions. This scene revolves around Juliet and her constant worry expressed in her language. The effect to the audience is a comical moment as the Nurse deliberately keeps Juliet in suspense. In act 2 scene 6 (lines 1 and 2) Friar Lawrence says that he wants the heavens to smile upon this holy act so that they are not punished with sadness later. This indicates that something bad is going to happen in the play that only audiences know about. In lines (9-15) Friar Lawrence made a suggestion that Romeo and Juliet’s love is going to end tragically. He used an image of joyous love as fire and gunpowder which destroy (‘consume’) at the very moment (‘triumph’) of meeting (‘kiss’). This example of dramatic irony will affect the addressees’ prospects of what is going to happen later on in the play. Therefore, the addressees will be affected by any reference to death as they know this is an important subject in the play. Act -3- scene 1 is pivotal in the play as it sees bloodshed of two major characters which leads to the parting of the two star crossed lovers. The first example of dramatic irony in this scene takes place when Romeo tries to tell Tybalt how much he loves him but Tybalt can’t understand, not knowing that Romeo and his cousin Juliet were bride and groom. However, viewers acknowledge the reason for why Romeo wants to create peace rather than violence, as he does not want to create any hazards with the Capulet family. Hence, the audiences will be more attentive; they also set up anticipation as they are waiting for something to occur. The second and the most important piece of dramatic irony in this scene is when Mercutio is stabbed. Dramatic irony is created by the repetition of the statement “A plague o’ both your houses!” by the wounded Mercutio. He curses both households, unaware that the victim of his curse will be his dear companion and his lady Juliet. This will create a moment of sympathy between the audiences, as they know that Romeo and Juliet are suffering only because it occurred to happen that they were destined by the stars to bad fortune. The audiences would be also waiting for Romeo to do something to Tybalt, to take revenge for instance. So suspense is building up for them. In lines 110 and 111 Romeo fears that the evil outcomes (‘black fate’) of today’s violence lie in the future (‘Moe (more) days’). Personally I think this is the point in the play where the tragedy really begins. I think so because after this point a lot of dreadful events start to occur. These few lines are the height of dramatic irony as Romeo is for-telling his own future. This case of dramatic irony creates tension for the audiences; they would also be setting up prospect as they are waiting for something to happen. Moreover, Shakespeare has heightened the effect of dramatic irony by making the two lines rhyme at the end. Following this, there are numerous references to death in this scene. Another example of dramatic irony is when Romeo threatens Tybalt that either he or Tybalt would have to die (line 120). Above all, the audiences already acknowledge that Romeo is going to die. On the other hand, Romeo is unaware that he is speaking of his own death. Furthermore, in line 140 Lady Capulet confirms’ shed blood of Montague’. She is focusing the matter on none other than Romeo. The repetition of the word blood also enhances the effect of death as well as dramatic irony. This is an example of dramatic irony as the audiences know that Lady Capulet’s daughter Juliet is married to Romeo which she is clueless about. Finally, when the Prince announces his final decision over the whole matter, he also threatens to kill Romeo. The concluding account from the prince includes rhyming phrases as this is the solution made for the whole massacre, therefore it is important. This scene ( scene 1) is very important for the viewers as they will recognize that they are approaching the end of the play. As almost all the prophesies in the prologue has occurred and they are only waiting for the lovers fatal doom to end both the strife of their families, as well as the whole play. This scene also affects the audiences in numerous ways, they would be more focused, and it will also give them a sense of expectation of what will happen later on in the play. Moreover, they will be also affected by the language as death is mentions a lot in this scene. Thus, tension is building up. In scene 2 Juliet’s thirty-one lines epithalamium (wedding song) in which she describes how much she is filled with love for Romeo, longing for the night to come so that Romeo will come to her “untalked of and unseen”, is an example of dramatic irony as it shows her unawareness of both Tybalt’s death, as well as Romeo’s banishment. This will generate an instant of sympathy among the audiences, as they know she is would get devastated by these awful news. Suspense would be created too as the audiences would wonder whether Juliet is still going to love Romeo after she hears these news? In scene 3 Romeo seems in despair with his sentence of banishment. He would rather die than be exiled. Exile brings more terror to him; he also can’t imagine not being behind Verona’s walls and being in the big bad world full of torture and suffering. He doesn’t want to leave his “heaven” with Juliet. He keeps referring to exile being like death to the Friar. And When the Nurse enters, Romeo asks her if Juliet thinks him an old murderer and does she still love him. All the Nurse says is that she weeps and weeps making Romeo try and kill himself. Then she told him that he is to see Juliet to say farewell and when he has her ring the Nurse has passed on to him he is comforted. The idea of seeing Juliet again has consoled him, as he loves her so much. This instance of dramatic irony has a great effect on the audiences, as they know from the prologue that Romeo is going to die. This dramatic irony will attract the audience more to the play. They also would be wondering whether Romeo is going to make it to Juliet’s bedchamber or would the Prince find out and kill him? Scene 4 is a very short scene, maybe the shortest in the whole play. However, it contains a great number of dramatic irony. In this scene when everyone on the stage thinks that Juliet is crying over Tybalt’s death, the viewers’ know that the crying is for Romeo. Another example of dramatic irony is when Capulet arranges Juliet’s marriage with Paris in two days time (line 20). As he thought she needs a man so she would not be so sad, and the whole time she has her marriage with Romeo of which everyone else is clueless about. Shakespeare used the repetition of the word ‘Thursday’ to show how important this word is , so if any one of the audiences was chatting or if they were not paying attention this device will successfully draw them into the story , as they would expect something vital to occur on this day . Also such repetition increases the tension in the plot as well as it adds to the sense of fast moving action.	4,422	ENGLISH	1
Our Special Books This term, we are learning about special books for us and for religious groups. We thought about our special books and talked about what they mean to us. We talked about who we read our special books with and how we treat them. We talked about Christians and thought about Tammy, who had visited us. Some children remembered that her special book was the Bible. We learned that the Bible is a special book for Christians and it has lots of different stories in it. These stories help them to live their lives in a certain way – the way that God would want them to. We explored lots of different Bibles. Bibles for adults, Bibles for children and Bibles for very young children. We looked through some of them with a friend and noticed that the ones for children had some lovely pictures in to go with the stories. We even found the story about our class – Noah’s Ark and reminded ourselves what the story was about.	<urn:uuid:98aa6334-f54c-4924-9546-20f1dcbd1930>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bostonstnicholas.co.uk/re-6/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00482.warc.gz	en	0.983228	197	3.375	3	[ 0.057206280529499054, 0.7431520819664001, 0.2648509442806244, -0.2078665941953659, 0.00045556138502433896, 0.044646646827459335, 0.042645905166864395, 0.01571667566895485, 0.16934172809123993, 0.09287907183170319, 0.1480875313282013, 0.04264528676867485, -0.10520915687084198, 0.06069719046...	5	Our Special Books This term, we are learning about special books for us and for religious groups. We thought about our special books and talked about what they mean to us. We talked about who we read our special books with and how we treat them. We talked about Christians and thought about Tammy, who had visited us. Some children remembered that her special book was the Bible. We learned that the Bible is a special book for Christians and it has lots of different stories in it. These stories help them to live their lives in a certain way – the way that God would want them to. We explored lots of different Bibles. Bibles for adults, Bibles for children and Bibles for very young children. We looked through some of them with a friend and noticed that the ones for children had some lovely pictures in to go with the stories. We even found the story about our class – Noah’s Ark and reminded ourselves what the story was about.	193	ENGLISH	1
The story of a slave struggling to maintain his dignity during the pre-Civil War era, Uncle Tom’s Cabin was published in 1852 to tremendous success. Since then, the book has received significant acclaim and invoked controversy. Many believe it was an important step on the road to the Civil War, but others feel it encouraged stereotypes still fought against today. Yet all can agree that Harriett Beecher Stowe’s novel was been incredibly influential. Following the slave Tom as he is bought and sold to one owner after another, as well as other slaves who escape to freedom with much difficulty, Uncle Tom’s Cabin is a crucial part of our American history. Harriet Beecher Stowe (June 14, 1811 – July 1, 1896) was an American abolitionist and author. Her novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) was a depiction of life for African-Americans under slavery; it reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and United Kingdom. It energized anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. She wrote more than 20 books, including novels, three travel memoirs, and collections of articles and letters. She was born in Litchfield, CT. Get our latest book recommendations, author news, and competitions right to your inbox.	<urn:uuid:763e1592-8821-4dd1-9b54-0dd4e75e26b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.simonandschuster.co.in/books/Uncle-Toms-Cabin/Harriet-Beecher-Stowe/Word-Cloud-Classics/9781607108528	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00331.warc.gz	en	0.983024	280	4.1875	4	[ 0.1454412341117859, 0.4106440842151642, 0.3230476379394531, 0.09600328654050827, 0.07295134663581848, 0.3348993957042694, 0.059655867516994476, -0.11402519047260284, -0.16304583847522736, 0.20273961126804352, 0.24029262363910675, 0.3292721211910248, -0.2364002913236618, 0.34099772572517395...	3	The story of a slave struggling to maintain his dignity during the pre-Civil War era, Uncle Tom’s Cabin was published in 1852 to tremendous success. Since then, the book has received significant acclaim and invoked controversy. Many believe it was an important step on the road to the Civil War, but others feel it encouraged stereotypes still fought against today. Yet all can agree that Harriett Beecher Stowe’s novel was been incredibly influential. Following the slave Tom as he is bought and sold to one owner after another, as well as other slaves who escape to freedom with much difficulty, Uncle Tom’s Cabin is a crucial part of our American history. Harriet Beecher Stowe (June 14, 1811 – July 1, 1896) was an American abolitionist and author. Her novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) was a depiction of life for African-Americans under slavery; it reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and United Kingdom. It energized anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. She wrote more than 20 books, including novels, three travel memoirs, and collections of articles and letters. She was born in Litchfield, CT. Get our latest book recommendations, author news, and competitions right to your inbox.	284	ENGLISH	1
Outlaws, Rivals, Nationalists and Freedom Fighters The term 'adversaries' can refer to a wide variety of individuals. On the one hand, it can refer to those who dared to stand up to the British as they expanded across the border. It can also refer to those who fought back against the authorities, either as individuals or as part of a wider group. Of course, one man's freedom fighter is another man's terrorist and many of the people who will be included in this section were often hunted down one day only to be negotiated with the next and feted as statesmen even after that. Adversaries therefore did have a complicated relationship with empire. The authorities could be unforgiving at certain stages of empire, but more lenient in their treatment at other stages.	<urn:uuid:c784c380-4430-49a4-97af-888994475cbb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.britishempire.co.uk/biography/adversaries.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00405.warc.gz	en	0.986799	159	3.265625	3	[ -0.18142905831336975, 0.041742146015167236, -0.222676619887352, -0.07152649760246277, -0.06783664971590042, -0.2350826859474182, 1.0667760372161865, -0.0537249892950058, 0.08317495137453079, -0.13851803541183472, -0.045826733112335205, -0.23906640708446503, -0.2306760996580124, -0.07205093...	4	Outlaws, Rivals, Nationalists and Freedom Fighters The term 'adversaries' can refer to a wide variety of individuals. On the one hand, it can refer to those who dared to stand up to the British as they expanded across the border. It can also refer to those who fought back against the authorities, either as individuals or as part of a wider group. Of course, one man's freedom fighter is another man's terrorist and many of the people who will be included in this section were often hunted down one day only to be negotiated with the next and feted as statesmen even after that. Adversaries therefore did have a complicated relationship with empire. The authorities could be unforgiving at certain stages of empire, but more lenient in their treatment at other stages.	161	ENGLISH	1
After his sojourn in Egypt in 450 B.C., the historian Herodotus, who is famous for his Histories, wrote about many things from his travels, including boats found in the ancient Egyptian world. Now that archaeologists have recently recovered an undisturbed shipwreck along the Nile, it has been found that the description Herodotus gave of these boats was astonishingly accurate when he wrote about them 2,500 years ago. As Science Alert reports, the Egyptian boat that Herodotus wrote about thousands of years ago was known as a “baris,” which was a cargo boat that was frequently used along the Nile. The historian wrote that the inside of this boat was filled with papyrus which was used to line the vessel and that the boat itself was so strong that it was almost like brickwork. While there have been images left behind from the Pharaonic era which show what the steering system for this baris might have looked like, up until very recently no real boats had actually been discovered to prove whether these images, or Herodotus’s descriptions, were truly accurate. At least until now. Ship 17, which is the name of the ship that was discovered submerged along the Nile close to what was once the ancient city of Thonis-Heracleion, has been dated to between 664 and 332 B.C. and has been hidden in the river for thousands of years. However, despite this length of time, the ancient Egyptian boat has still retained 70 percent of its hull, according to archaeologists. This Nile Shipwreck Is First Evidence That Herodotus Wasn't Lying About Egyptian Boats https://t.co/Rs8oz27I7o— ScienceAlert (@ScienceAlert) March 18, 2019 As archaeologist Damian Robinson from the Oxford Center for Maritime Archaeology explained of the incredible find, “It wasn’t until we discovered this wreck that we realized Herodotus was right.” According to archaeologist Alexander Belov of the Center for Egyptological Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, there are many aspects of the Egyptian Ship 17 which have attributes described by Herodotus, including the boat’s planking. “The joints of the planking of Ship 17 are staggered in a way that gives it the appearance of ‘courses of bricks’, as described by Herodotus. The planking of Ship 17 is assembled transversally by remarkably long tenons that can reach 1.99 m in length and that pass through up to 11 strakes. These tenons correspond to the ‘long and close-set stakes’ in Herodotus’ narrative.” Herodotus also spoke about the keel of these cargo ships, and Ship 17 was discovered to have a keel so strong that it was found to have twice the thickness of the ship’s planking. There are, of course, a few things which don’t match up completely, including the fact that Herodotus spoke about the tenons as being much shorter than they were found to be. The ship that the historian wrote about was also constructed without any reinforcing frames. However, archaeologists believe that Ship 17 may just be larger than the ship Herodotus described 2,500 years, which would account for these differences. The new research into the ancient Egyptian shipwreck found along the Nile which has proven that the description Herodotus gave of these boats was accurate has been published in a monograph which can be found at the Oxford Center for Maritime Archaeology.	<urn:uuid:ea59eaf3-900a-4b92-be78-02620b04d621>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.inquisitr.com/5352550/an-ancient-nile-shipwreck-has-proven-that-herodotus-accurately-described-the-ships-he-wrote-about-in-450-b-c/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00469.warc.gz	en	0.98814	736	3.75	4	[ 0.09504583477973938, 0.3681277930736542, 0.315804123878479, -0.08720466494560242, -0.5002766847610474, -0.606231153011322, 0.09676772356033325, 0.3281259834766388, -0.3900522291660309, 0.1453675627708435, 0.4112788438796997, -0.6422892808914185, -0.2854328751564026, 0.2511366009712219, -...	1	After his sojourn in Egypt in 450 B.C., the historian Herodotus, who is famous for his Histories, wrote about many things from his travels, including boats found in the ancient Egyptian world. Now that archaeologists have recently recovered an undisturbed shipwreck along the Nile, it has been found that the description Herodotus gave of these boats was astonishingly accurate when he wrote about them 2,500 years ago. As Science Alert reports, the Egyptian boat that Herodotus wrote about thousands of years ago was known as a “baris,” which was a cargo boat that was frequently used along the Nile. The historian wrote that the inside of this boat was filled with papyrus which was used to line the vessel and that the boat itself was so strong that it was almost like brickwork. While there have been images left behind from the Pharaonic era which show what the steering system for this baris might have looked like, up until very recently no real boats had actually been discovered to prove whether these images, or Herodotus’s descriptions, were truly accurate. At least until now. Ship 17, which is the name of the ship that was discovered submerged along the Nile close to what was once the ancient city of Thonis-Heracleion, has been dated to between 664 and 332 B.C. and has been hidden in the river for thousands of years. However, despite this length of time, the ancient Egyptian boat has still retained 70 percent of its hull, according to archaeologists. This Nile Shipwreck Is First Evidence That Herodotus Wasn't Lying About Egyptian Boats https://t.co/Rs8oz27I7o— ScienceAlert (@ScienceAlert) March 18, 2019 As archaeologist Damian Robinson from the Oxford Center for Maritime Archaeology explained of the incredible find, “It wasn’t until we discovered this wreck that we realized Herodotus was right.” According to archaeologist Alexander Belov of the Center for Egyptological Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, there are many aspects of the Egyptian Ship 17 which have attributes described by Herodotus, including the boat’s planking. “The joints of the planking of Ship 17 are staggered in a way that gives it the appearance of ‘courses of bricks’, as described by Herodotus. The planking of Ship 17 is assembled transversally by remarkably long tenons that can reach 1.99 m in length and that pass through up to 11 strakes. These tenons correspond to the ‘long and close-set stakes’ in Herodotus’ narrative.” Herodotus also spoke about the keel of these cargo ships, and Ship 17 was discovered to have a keel so strong that it was found to have twice the thickness of the ship’s planking. There are, of course, a few things which don’t match up completely, including the fact that Herodotus spoke about the tenons as being much shorter than they were found to be. The ship that the historian wrote about was also constructed without any reinforcing frames. However, archaeologists believe that Ship 17 may just be larger than the ship Herodotus described 2,500 years, which would account for these differences. The new research into the ancient Egyptian shipwreck found along the Nile which has proven that the description Herodotus gave of these boats was accurate has been published in a monograph which can be found at the Oxford Center for Maritime Archaeology.	754	ENGLISH	1
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is set in the fictional town of St. Petersburg, Missouri by the Mississippi River during the mid-1840s. Although the time period is not explicitly mentioned in the book, the readers can still infer that it is during the 1840’s where slaves were widely common in almost every house in the village. In the small village, everybody knew each other and adults worked together to discipline their children by forcing them to go to school and memorize Bible verses because, for them, a good image is necessary to have a good life. Twain believes that hypocrisy is one of the evil natures of man, just like the adults in the village who would rather pretend to be someone else than actually become one. On the other hand, Twain also shows the natural goodness of man when the villagers worked together to help search for Tom and Becky when they were lost in a cave. “Before the horror was half an hour old two hundred men were pouring down the high road and river towards the cave… Many women visited Aunt Polly and Mrs. Thatcher and tried to comfort them. They cried with them too…” The story’s town, which is based upon Mark Twain’s boyhood home of Hannibal, Missouri, is very important to the novel because it is the ideal town for a boy to grow up in and is the perfect setting in which to make fun of adult society with all of its customs and rules. The Mississippi River was a place where travelers embarked and disembarked to ride steamboats along the river. The access to the river makes the characters in the book eager to go on adventures, as does the town’s proximity to the unsettled west. In the book, the town also has features in which Tom and Huck Finn have their adventures, including the graveyard where they see Injun Joe murder Dr. Robinson. Twain’s setting on the Mississippi River is essential in formulating the tone of the novel. The story is narrated by an adult who views the adult world critically and looks back nostalgically on the sentiments and pastimes of childhood. While Twain did not go into a lot of detail in describing the town itself, he created a setting that the reader could imagine and visualize which made the village a character by itself. The narrator tells the story from a limited third person point of view, with a special insight into the workings of a young boy’s heart and mind. The setting provides places in which the characters can have adventures and escape from the confines of school and home.	<urn:uuid:33a87f20-400b-478e-8556-10dce678421b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://relatewithkatypark.com/the-aunt-polly-and-mrs-thatcher-and-tried/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00440.warc.gz	en	0.980439	512	3.5	4	[ 0.22689621150493622, -0.06788092106580734, 0.10174781084060669, -0.19669200479984283, -0.4547354578971863, -0.20259296894073486, 0.05699877813458443, -0.1728924959897995, -0.41945236921310425, -0.0316043384373188, 0.17257216572761536, -0.15495437383651733, -0.02142912894487381, 0.343905150...	1	The Adventures of Tom Sawyer is set in the fictional town of St. Petersburg, Missouri by the Mississippi River during the mid-1840s. Although the time period is not explicitly mentioned in the book, the readers can still infer that it is during the 1840’s where slaves were widely common in almost every house in the village. In the small village, everybody knew each other and adults worked together to discipline their children by forcing them to go to school and memorize Bible verses because, for them, a good image is necessary to have a good life. Twain believes that hypocrisy is one of the evil natures of man, just like the adults in the village who would rather pretend to be someone else than actually become one. On the other hand, Twain also shows the natural goodness of man when the villagers worked together to help search for Tom and Becky when they were lost in a cave. “Before the horror was half an hour old two hundred men were pouring down the high road and river towards the cave… Many women visited Aunt Polly and Mrs. Thatcher and tried to comfort them. They cried with them too…” The story’s town, which is based upon Mark Twain’s boyhood home of Hannibal, Missouri, is very important to the novel because it is the ideal town for a boy to grow up in and is the perfect setting in which to make fun of adult society with all of its customs and rules. The Mississippi River was a place where travelers embarked and disembarked to ride steamboats along the river. The access to the river makes the characters in the book eager to go on adventures, as does the town’s proximity to the unsettled west. In the book, the town also has features in which Tom and Huck Finn have their adventures, including the graveyard where they see Injun Joe murder Dr. Robinson. Twain’s setting on the Mississippi River is essential in formulating the tone of the novel. The story is narrated by an adult who views the adult world critically and looks back nostalgically on the sentiments and pastimes of childhood. While Twain did not go into a lot of detail in describing the town itself, he created a setting that the reader could imagine and visualize which made the village a character by itself. The narrator tells the story from a limited third person point of view, with a special insight into the workings of a young boy’s heart and mind. The setting provides places in which the characters can have adventures and escape from the confines of school and home.	510	ENGLISH	1
Bancroft Basin, the site of a canal wharf, where vessels would have loaded and unloaded goods during the Imperial period. It is located 150m west of Clopton Bridge, Stratford on Avon. 1 The terminal basin is one of the two that existed until 1930 when one was infilled to form Bancroft Gardens. The basins were surrounded by the lines of the Stratford on Avon and Moreton Tramway completed in 1826 and extended to Shipston in 1836. Southbound coal was exchanged for stone and farm produce (see WA 1013). ‘Not until 1815 was the canal authorized to make a junction with the Avon. It finally did so in 1816. The river had been navigable from Tewkesbury during the 17th and 18th centuries, both canal and river came under GWR control during the 1860s. From 1875 the GWR refused to maintain the Upper Avon and it became derelict.’ It was restored in 1974 (see WA 4340). 2 By 1845 Stratford had become a considerable merchanting centre. In this year the canal brought some 50 000 tonnes of coal into Stratford of which 18 000 was used there. 15 000 went down the tramway, 8 000 to Evesham and the rest countrywide. 3 ‘In 1883 there were two basins with 10 coal wharves, 1 lead and glass wharf, a cider press, a cooperage, a skin yard and a timber yard.’ 4 Evidence for the construction and use of the canal basin was recorded during archaeological observation at Bancroft Gardens.	<urn:uuid:e63c4f79-62e2-4e10-84a4-0bb78f77bd83>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ourwarwickshire.org.uk/content/catalogue_her/bancroft-basin	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00188.warc.gz	en	0.983882	341	3.375	3	[ 0.2329888790845871, -0.3132421374320984, 0.591303825378418, -0.057546477764844894, -0.4270922839641571, -0.48117631673812866, 0.10849122703075409, 0.09345594048500061, -0.2719944715499878, -0.20973362028598785, 0.1015317514538765, -1.1363749504089355, 0.11597912758588791, 0.527925252914428...	5	Bancroft Basin, the site of a canal wharf, where vessels would have loaded and unloaded goods during the Imperial period. It is located 150m west of Clopton Bridge, Stratford on Avon. 1 The terminal basin is one of the two that existed until 1930 when one was infilled to form Bancroft Gardens. The basins were surrounded by the lines of the Stratford on Avon and Moreton Tramway completed in 1826 and extended to Shipston in 1836. Southbound coal was exchanged for stone and farm produce (see WA 1013). ‘Not until 1815 was the canal authorized to make a junction with the Avon. It finally did so in 1816. The river had been navigable from Tewkesbury during the 17th and 18th centuries, both canal and river came under GWR control during the 1860s. From 1875 the GWR refused to maintain the Upper Avon and it became derelict.’ It was restored in 1974 (see WA 4340). 2 By 1845 Stratford had become a considerable merchanting centre. In this year the canal brought some 50 000 tonnes of coal into Stratford of which 18 000 was used there. 15 000 went down the tramway, 8 000 to Evesham and the rest countrywide. 3 ‘In 1883 there were two basins with 10 coal wharves, 1 lead and glass wharf, a cider press, a cooperage, a skin yard and a timber yard.’ 4 Evidence for the construction and use of the canal basin was recorded during archaeological observation at Bancroft Gardens.	398	ENGLISH	1
(21 May 1688 - 30 May 1744) was an eighteenth-century English poet, best known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer. He is the third most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, after Shakespeare and Tennyson. Pope is famous for his use of the heroic couplet. Pope was born to Edith Pope (1643-1733) and Alexander Pope Senior. (1646-1717) a linen merchant of Plough Court, Lombard Street, London, who were both Catholics. Pope's education was affected by the penal law in force at the time upholding the status of the established Church of England, which banned Catholics from teaching, attending a university, voting, or holding public office on pain of perpetual imprisonment. Pope was taught to read by his aunt, then went to Twyford School in about 1698-9. He then went to two Catholic schools in London. Such schools, while illegal, were tolerated in some areas. In 1700, his family moved to a small estate at Popeswood in Binfield, Berkshire, close to the royal Windsor Forest. This was due to strong anti-Catholic sentiment and a statute preventing Catholics from living within 10 miles (16 km) of either London or Westminster. Pope would later describe the countryside around the house in his poem Windsor Forest. Pope's formal education ended at this time, and from then on he mostly educated himself by reading the works of classical writers such as the satirists Horace and Juvenal, the epic poets Homer and Virgil, as well as English authors such as Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare and John Dryden. He also studied many languages and read works by English, French, Italian, Latin, and Greek poets. After five years of study, Pope came into contact with figures from the London literary society such as William Wycherley, William Congreve, Samuel Garth, William Trumbull, and William Walsh. At Binfield, he also began to make many important friends. One of them, John Caryll (the future dedicatee of The Rape of the Lock), was twenty years older than the poet and had made many acquaintances in the London literary world. He introduced the young Pope to the aging playwright William Wycherley and to William Walsh, a minor poet, who helped Pope revise his first major work, The Pastorals. He also met the Blount sisters, Teresa and (his alleged future lover) Martha, both of whom would remain lifelong friends. From the age of 12, he suffered numerous health problems, such as Pott's disease (a form of tuberculosis that affects the bone) which deformed his body and stunted his growth, leaving him with a severe hunchback. His tuberculosis infection caused other health problems including respiratory difficulties, high fevers, inflamed eyes, and abdominal pain. He never grew beyond 1.37 m (4 ft 6 in) tall. Pope was already removed from society because he was Catholic; his poor health only alienated him further. Although he never married, he had many female friends to whom he wrote witty letters. He did have one alleged lover, Related Paintings of Alexander Pope :. \| The Tower of Babel \| The Triumph of Bacchus \| Neger Othello \| Seascape gh \| The Entombment (detail) st \| Related Artists:Petrov-Vodkin, Kozma Russian Painter, 1878-1939John Kensett John Kensett Art Galleries Artist John Frederick Kensett was born on March 22, 1816 in Cheshire, Connecticut, and died on December 14, 1872 in New York City. He attended school at Cheshire Academy, and studied engraving with his immigrant father, Thomas Kensett, and later with his uncle, Alfred Dagget. He worked as engraver in the New Haven area until about 1838, after which he went to work as a bank note engraver in New York City. In 1840, along with Asher Durand and John William Casilear, Kensett traveled to Europe in order to study painting. There he met and traveled with Benjamin Champney. The two sketched and painted throughout Europe, refining their talents. During this period, Kensett developed an appreciation and affinity for 17th century Dutch landscape painting. Kensett and Champney returned to the United States in 1847. After establishing his studio and settling in New York, Kensett traveled extensively throughout the Northeast and the Colorado Rockies as well as making several trips back to Europe. Kensett is best known for his landscape of upstate New York and New England and seascapes of coastal New Jersey, Long Island and New England. He is most closely associated with the so-called "second generation" of the Hudson River School. Along with Sanford Robinson Gifford, Fitz Hugh Lane, Jasper Francis Cropsey, Martin Johnson Heade and others, the works of the "Luminists," as they came to be known, were characterized by unselfconscious, nearly invisible brushstrokes used to convey the qualities and effects of atmospheric light. It could be considered the spiritual, if not stylistic, cousin to Impressionism. Such spiritualism stemmed from Transcendentalist philosophies of sublime nature and contemplation bringing one closer to a spiritual truth. In 1851 Kensett painted a monumental canvas of Mount Washington that has become an icon of White Mountain art. Mount Washington from the Valley of Conway was purchased by the American Art Union, made into an engraving by James Smillie, and distributed to 13,000 Art Union subscribers throughout the country. Other artists painted copies of this scene from the print. Currier and Ives published a similar print in about 1860. This single painting by Kensett helped to popularize the White Mountain region of New Hampshire. Kensett's style evolved gradually, from the traditional Hudson River School manner in the 1850s into the more refined Luminist style in his later years. By the early 1870s Kensett was spending considerable time at his home on Contentment Island, on Long Island Sound near Darien, Connecticut.Frederick goodall,R.A. son of Edward Goodall. He was taught by his father and first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1838. His earliest subjects were rural genre scenes and landscapes, many derived from sketching trips made between 1838 and 1857 in Normandy, Brittany, Wales, Ireland, Scotland and Venice. In the 1850s he also painted subjects from British history. More significant for his subsequent career was his visit to Egypt from September 1858 to April 1859. In Cairo he lived in a house in the Coptic quarter with Carl Haag. Together the two artists went on expeditions to Giza to draw the Nile, the Sphinx and Pyramids, and to Suez and across the Red Sea to the Wells of Moses at 'Uyen Mesa. Goodall also made rapid sketches in the crowded streets of Cairo. 'My sole object in paying my first visit to Egypt', he wrote, 'was to paint Scriptural subjects'. The first of these, Early Morning in the Wilderness of Shur (London, Guildhall A.G.), was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1860 and won him critical and popular acclaim. In 1864 he was elected RA. Much of the rest of Goodall's long career was devoted to painting similar scenes of Egyptian life with biblical associations, for which he made reference to his sketches and to Egyptian artefacts and clothing. Their success prompted a second visit to Egypt in 1870-71.	<urn:uuid:d3f1a68c-b3ab-4c22-bbb2-c22c05afb92d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://bierstadt.org/painting-Alexander%20Pope-Emblems%20of%20the%20Civil%20War-71085.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00318.warc.gz	en	0.980184	1,551	3.4375	3	[ 0.13485097885131836, -0.08308432251214981, 0.29901188611984253, 0.08878111094236374, -0.21042832732200623, -0.14174750447273254, -0.23830372095108032, 0.213835209608078, 0.37087729573249817, -0.3434324264526367, -0.4380875825881958, -0.25095120072364807, -0.1966501921415329, 0.022738009691...	1	(21 May 1688 - 30 May 1744) was an eighteenth-century English poet, best known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer. He is the third most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, after Shakespeare and Tennyson. Pope is famous for his use of the heroic couplet. Pope was born to Edith Pope (1643-1733) and Alexander Pope Senior. (1646-1717) a linen merchant of Plough Court, Lombard Street, London, who were both Catholics. Pope's education was affected by the penal law in force at the time upholding the status of the established Church of England, which banned Catholics from teaching, attending a university, voting, or holding public office on pain of perpetual imprisonment. Pope was taught to read by his aunt, then went to Twyford School in about 1698-9. He then went to two Catholic schools in London. Such schools, while illegal, were tolerated in some areas. In 1700, his family moved to a small estate at Popeswood in Binfield, Berkshire, close to the royal Windsor Forest. This was due to strong anti-Catholic sentiment and a statute preventing Catholics from living within 10 miles (16 km) of either London or Westminster. Pope would later describe the countryside around the house in his poem Windsor Forest. Pope's formal education ended at this time, and from then on he mostly educated himself by reading the works of classical writers such as the satirists Horace and Juvenal, the epic poets Homer and Virgil, as well as English authors such as Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare and John Dryden. He also studied many languages and read works by English, French, Italian, Latin, and Greek poets. After five years of study, Pope came into contact with figures from the London literary society such as William Wycherley, William Congreve, Samuel Garth, William Trumbull, and William Walsh. At Binfield, he also began to make many important friends. One of them, John Caryll (the future dedicatee of The Rape of the Lock), was twenty years older than the poet and had made many acquaintances in the London literary world. He introduced the young Pope to the aging playwright William Wycherley and to William Walsh, a minor poet, who helped Pope revise his first major work, The Pastorals. He also met the Blount sisters, Teresa and (his alleged future lover) Martha, both of whom would remain lifelong friends. From the age of 12, he suffered numerous health problems, such as Pott's disease (a form of tuberculosis that affects the bone) which deformed his body and stunted his growth, leaving him with a severe hunchback. His tuberculosis infection caused other health problems including respiratory difficulties, high fevers, inflamed eyes, and abdominal pain. He never grew beyond 1.37 m (4 ft 6 in) tall. Pope was already removed from society because he was Catholic; his poor health only alienated him further. Although he never married, he had many female friends to whom he wrote witty letters. He did have one alleged lover, Related Paintings of Alexander Pope :. \| The Tower of Babel \| The Triumph of Bacchus \| Neger Othello \| Seascape gh \| The Entombment (detail) st \| Related Artists:Petrov-Vodkin, Kozma Russian Painter, 1878-1939John Kensett John Kensett Art Galleries Artist John Frederick Kensett was born on March 22, 1816 in Cheshire, Connecticut, and died on December 14, 1872 in New York City. He attended school at Cheshire Academy, and studied engraving with his immigrant father, Thomas Kensett, and later with his uncle, Alfred Dagget. He worked as engraver in the New Haven area until about 1838, after which he went to work as a bank note engraver in New York City. In 1840, along with Asher Durand and John William Casilear, Kensett traveled to Europe in order to study painting. There he met and traveled with Benjamin Champney. The two sketched and painted throughout Europe, refining their talents. During this period, Kensett developed an appreciation and affinity for 17th century Dutch landscape painting. Kensett and Champney returned to the United States in 1847. After establishing his studio and settling in New York, Kensett traveled extensively throughout the Northeast and the Colorado Rockies as well as making several trips back to Europe. Kensett is best known for his landscape of upstate New York and New England and seascapes of coastal New Jersey, Long Island and New England. He is most closely associated with the so-called "second generation" of the Hudson River School. Along with Sanford Robinson Gifford, Fitz Hugh Lane, Jasper Francis Cropsey, Martin Johnson Heade and others, the works of the "Luminists," as they came to be known, were characterized by unselfconscious, nearly invisible brushstrokes used to convey the qualities and effects of atmospheric light. It could be considered the spiritual, if not stylistic, cousin to Impressionism. Such spiritualism stemmed from Transcendentalist philosophies of sublime nature and contemplation bringing one closer to a spiritual truth. In 1851 Kensett painted a monumental canvas of Mount Washington that has become an icon of White Mountain art. Mount Washington from the Valley of Conway was purchased by the American Art Union, made into an engraving by James Smillie, and distributed to 13,000 Art Union subscribers throughout the country. Other artists painted copies of this scene from the print. Currier and Ives published a similar print in about 1860. This single painting by Kensett helped to popularize the White Mountain region of New Hampshire. Kensett's style evolved gradually, from the traditional Hudson River School manner in the 1850s into the more refined Luminist style in his later years. By the early 1870s Kensett was spending considerable time at his home on Contentment Island, on Long Island Sound near Darien, Connecticut.Frederick goodall,R.A. son of Edward Goodall. He was taught by his father and first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1838. His earliest subjects were rural genre scenes and landscapes, many derived from sketching trips made between 1838 and 1857 in Normandy, Brittany, Wales, Ireland, Scotland and Venice. In the 1850s he also painted subjects from British history. More significant for his subsequent career was his visit to Egypt from September 1858 to April 1859. In Cairo he lived in a house in the Coptic quarter with Carl Haag. Together the two artists went on expeditions to Giza to draw the Nile, the Sphinx and Pyramids, and to Suez and across the Red Sea to the Wells of Moses at 'Uyen Mesa. Goodall also made rapid sketches in the crowded streets of Cairo. 'My sole object in paying my first visit to Egypt', he wrote, 'was to paint Scriptural subjects'. The first of these, Early Morning in the Wilderness of Shur (London, Guildhall A.G.), was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1860 and won him critical and popular acclaim. In 1864 he was elected RA. Much of the rest of Goodall's long career was devoted to painting similar scenes of Egyptian life with biblical associations, for which he made reference to his sketches and to Egyptian artefacts and clothing. Their success prompted a second visit to Egypt in 1870-71.	1,655	ENGLISH	1
The Hoodoo War was the common name for the Mason County War, which took place in the middle 1870s in the area and arose over the killing and rustling of cattle. This was typified by attacks from vigilantes wearing masks to conceal their identities and to generate terror. These vigilantes essentially took the law into their own hands in an effort to defend against the alleged perpetrators. Fort Mason had been established in 1851 as a frontier outpost to aid settlers against Indian attacks. A number of settlers were attracted to the area because of the fort, which remained in service until it was abandoned around 1868. As was sometimes experienced in other parts of Texas, the post Civil War years were sometimes characterized by an increase in crime. Whereas, the federal troops had previously aided in keeping the peace, after their departure it took some time before law enforcement increased in response to crime. Though the Mason County conflict was officially between cattle owners and cattle rustlers, there was another strong theme that involved ethnic differences. Mason County had become home to a number of German immigrants and there was a general air of suspicion between them and the other Anglo settlers. Some of the Texas residents of German heritage had also tended to be Union sympathisers, or “unionists,” during the Civil War and some of the old Civil War hostility carried over after the war ended. Though there may have been incidents where German vigilantes attacked Anglos, the violence seems to have generally been directed by Anglos against those of German heritage. One of the seminal events occurred in February of 1875, when a group of about forty masked individuals (thought to be from the Anglo side) broke into the county jail to apprehend suspected rustlers in Mason, easily overpowering the local law officers. Nine suspected rustlers of the Backus or Baccus gang had previously been arrested by newly elected Sheriff John Clark, but four had already escaped. The remaining five suspected cattle thieves were dragged out of the jail and hung, though two of the five somehow survived. The hangings were investigated, including a pursuit by Texas Ranger Daniel W. Roberts, but no charges were brought. The February hangings touched off other incidents of violence including the alleged murder of an Anglo rancher named Tim Williamson in May of 1875. Williamson had been wanted for cattle rustling, specifically the suspected theft of a yearling, while Williamson had been in the employ of a German rancher named Lehmberg. Williamson made bail for the arrest. Sheriff Clark was said to have come to the home of Williamson in connection with an unpaid tax debt. In Williamson’s absence, Clark was accused of somehow abusing Williamson’s wife (the accounts are vague on this point), causing bad blood between Williamson and the law. Williamson was later arrested and happened to be in the custody of a deputy named John Worley, in an incident in which the prisoner Williamson was shot and killed by a group of about a dozen riders, unidentifiable because they had blackened faces. The deputy was able to escape. In response to the killing of Williamson, a friend of, or an adopted son of, Williamson named Scott Cooley retaliated by gathering his own group of vigilantes, shooting and scalping deputy Worley several weeks later in August, 1875. After killing Worley, Cooley and some of his associates continued to commit acts of violence in the area. A local judge had appealed to Governor Coke in Austin many months earlier, requesting that troops (Texas Rangers) be sent to the area to assist the cattle ranchers in dealing with the rustling problem. After the Worley killing, another appeal was made to Austin for Texas Ranger support. There followed more violent incidents until a company of Rangers headed up by Major John B. Jones arrived. Cooley (a former Ranger himself) eluded capture but, along with some of his cohorts, he continued to prey on mostly German ranches. Cooley was eventually arrested in Burnet but was later freed by friends reportedly from Lampasas County. In the months that followed there was more violence back and forth, with numerous killings at the hands of vigilante groups. Cooley was never again captured, and some accounts say that his former experience as a Ranger caused some Rangers under Major Jones’ command to be unenthusiastic about finding him. However, Cooley died several months later of “brain fever.” Another account said he had died while riding out of Fredericksburg after a night of eating and heavy whiskey drinking. The latter account speculated that Cooley, under the influence, fell from his horse, suffered a head injury and never recovered. To the best of our knowledge, no one was ever tried in Mason for any of the various attacks, though some individuals were known to have been arrested and tried in other jurisdictions. Some say that the outlaw Johnny Ringo (better known for his activities in Tombstone, Arizona) got his start in Mason County and that he played some part in the rustling and violence in the Mason County events. He is also sometimes referred to as Johnny Ringgold. There is a bit of confusion about his identity, with some stories saying that the last name of Ringgold came from a mistake in a newspaper account and that it was really Ringo, while other accounts actually attribute the Mason County actions to someone with the actual last name of Ringgold. However, most accounts we have found favor Ringo’s participation in the Hoodoo War. Ringo was known to have taken the side of Ike Clanton and his associates against Wyatt Earp and died in Arizona at the age of thirty two in 1882. His death was due to a single gunshot wound to the head, either by suicide or a murder that was made to look like suicide. Finally, after over a year, the Mason County incidents died down and the feuding appears to have worn itself out. Just over a dozen people had died in the months of Mason County violence, though many more were injured. In January of 1877, a fire suspected to be arson burned down the court house in Mason, and along with it, many of the legal documents pertaining to the conflict. (Paul Mosley narrates this post here.) © 2019, all rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:e0ffea58-b7b0-4d94-92e0-bc7d6902455e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://texoso66.com/2019/08/01/hoo-doo-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00173.warc.gz	en	0.98906	1,272	3.703125	4	[ 0.11813986301422119, 0.09662534296512604, 0.24246610701084137, 0.2627924680709839, 0.3024113178253174, -0.23646171391010284, 0.17818564176559448, -0.28367823362350464, -0.17855514585971832, -0.042070284485816956, 0.32552093267440796, -0.3021658957004547, 0.09663297235965729, 0.143366694450...	6	The Hoodoo War was the common name for the Mason County War, which took place in the middle 1870s in the area and arose over the killing and rustling of cattle. This was typified by attacks from vigilantes wearing masks to conceal their identities and to generate terror. These vigilantes essentially took the law into their own hands in an effort to defend against the alleged perpetrators. Fort Mason had been established in 1851 as a frontier outpost to aid settlers against Indian attacks. A number of settlers were attracted to the area because of the fort, which remained in service until it was abandoned around 1868. As was sometimes experienced in other parts of Texas, the post Civil War years were sometimes characterized by an increase in crime. Whereas, the federal troops had previously aided in keeping the peace, after their departure it took some time before law enforcement increased in response to crime. Though the Mason County conflict was officially between cattle owners and cattle rustlers, there was another strong theme that involved ethnic differences. Mason County had become home to a number of German immigrants and there was a general air of suspicion between them and the other Anglo settlers. Some of the Texas residents of German heritage had also tended to be Union sympathisers, or “unionists,” during the Civil War and some of the old Civil War hostility carried over after the war ended. Though there may have been incidents where German vigilantes attacked Anglos, the violence seems to have generally been directed by Anglos against those of German heritage. One of the seminal events occurred in February of 1875, when a group of about forty masked individuals (thought to be from the Anglo side) broke into the county jail to apprehend suspected rustlers in Mason, easily overpowering the local law officers. Nine suspected rustlers of the Backus or Baccus gang had previously been arrested by newly elected Sheriff John Clark, but four had already escaped. The remaining five suspected cattle thieves were dragged out of the jail and hung, though two of the five somehow survived. The hangings were investigated, including a pursuit by Texas Ranger Daniel W. Roberts, but no charges were brought. The February hangings touched off other incidents of violence including the alleged murder of an Anglo rancher named Tim Williamson in May of 1875. Williamson had been wanted for cattle rustling, specifically the suspected theft of a yearling, while Williamson had been in the employ of a German rancher named Lehmberg. Williamson made bail for the arrest. Sheriff Clark was said to have come to the home of Williamson in connection with an unpaid tax debt. In Williamson’s absence, Clark was accused of somehow abusing Williamson’s wife (the accounts are vague on this point), causing bad blood between Williamson and the law. Williamson was later arrested and happened to be in the custody of a deputy named John Worley, in an incident in which the prisoner Williamson was shot and killed by a group of about a dozen riders, unidentifiable because they had blackened faces. The deputy was able to escape. In response to the killing of Williamson, a friend of, or an adopted son of, Williamson named Scott Cooley retaliated by gathering his own group of vigilantes, shooting and scalping deputy Worley several weeks later in August, 1875. After killing Worley, Cooley and some of his associates continued to commit acts of violence in the area. A local judge had appealed to Governor Coke in Austin many months earlier, requesting that troops (Texas Rangers) be sent to the area to assist the cattle ranchers in dealing with the rustling problem. After the Worley killing, another appeal was made to Austin for Texas Ranger support. There followed more violent incidents until a company of Rangers headed up by Major John B. Jones arrived. Cooley (a former Ranger himself) eluded capture but, along with some of his cohorts, he continued to prey on mostly German ranches. Cooley was eventually arrested in Burnet but was later freed by friends reportedly from Lampasas County. In the months that followed there was more violence back and forth, with numerous killings at the hands of vigilante groups. Cooley was never again captured, and some accounts say that his former experience as a Ranger caused some Rangers under Major Jones’ command to be unenthusiastic about finding him. However, Cooley died several months later of “brain fever.” Another account said he had died while riding out of Fredericksburg after a night of eating and heavy whiskey drinking. The latter account speculated that Cooley, under the influence, fell from his horse, suffered a head injury and never recovered. To the best of our knowledge, no one was ever tried in Mason for any of the various attacks, though some individuals were known to have been arrested and tried in other jurisdictions. Some say that the outlaw Johnny Ringo (better known for his activities in Tombstone, Arizona) got his start in Mason County and that he played some part in the rustling and violence in the Mason County events. He is also sometimes referred to as Johnny Ringgold. There is a bit of confusion about his identity, with some stories saying that the last name of Ringgold came from a mistake in a newspaper account and that it was really Ringo, while other accounts actually attribute the Mason County actions to someone with the actual last name of Ringgold. However, most accounts we have found favor Ringo’s participation in the Hoodoo War. Ringo was known to have taken the side of Ike Clanton and his associates against Wyatt Earp and died in Arizona at the age of thirty two in 1882. His death was due to a single gunshot wound to the head, either by suicide or a murder that was made to look like suicide. Finally, after over a year, the Mason County incidents died down and the feuding appears to have worn itself out. Just over a dozen people had died in the months of Mason County violence, though many more were injured. In January of 1877, a fire suspected to be arson burned down the court house in Mason, and along with it, many of the legal documents pertaining to the conflict. (Paul Mosley narrates this post here.) © 2019, all rights reserved.	1,280	ENGLISH	1
St. Martin de Porres FREE Catholic School Enroll Now St. Martin de Porres was born in Lima, Peru on December 9, 1579. Martin was the illegitimate son to a Spanish gentlemen and a freed slave from Panama, of African or possibly Native American descent. At a young age, Martin's father abandoned him, his mother and his younger sister, leaving Martin to grow up in deep poverty. After spending just two years in primary school, Martin was placed with a barber/surgeon where he would learn to cut hair and the medical arts. As Martin grew older, he experienced a great deal of ridicule for being of mixed-race. In Peru, by law, all descendants of African or Indians were not allowed to become full members of religious orders. Martin, who spent long hours in prayer, found his only way into the community he longed for was to ask the Dominicans of Holy Rosary Priory in Lima to accept him as a volunteer who performed the most menial tasks in the monastery. In return, he would be allowed to wear the habit and live within the religious community. When Martin was 15, he asked for admission into the Dominican Convent of the Rosary in Lima and was received as a servant boy and eventually was moved up to the church officer in charge of distributing money to deserving poor. During his time in the Convent, Martin took on his old trades of barbering and healing. He also worked in the kitchen, did laundry and cleaned. After eight more years with the Holy Rosary, Martin was granted the privilege to take his vows as a member of the Third Order of Saint Dominic by the prior Juan de Lorenzana who decided to disregard the law restricting Martin based on race. However, not all of the members in the Holy Rosary were as open-minded as Lorenzana; Martin was called horrible names and mocked for being illegitimate and descending from slaves. Martin grew to become a Dominican lay brother in 1603 at the age of 24. Ten years later, after he had been presented with the religious habit of a lay brother, Martin was assigned to the infirmary where he would remain in charge until his death. He became known for encompassing the virtues need to carefully and patiently care for the sick, even in the most difficult situations. Martin was praised for his unconditional care of all people, regardless of race or wealth. He took care of everyone from the Spanish nobles to the African slaves. Martin didn't care if the person was diseased or dirty, he would welcome them into his own home. Martin's life reflected his great love for God and all of God's gifts. It is said he had many extraordinary abilities, including aerial flights, bilocation, instant cures, miraculous knowledge, spiritual knowledge and an excellent relationship with animals. Martin also founded an orphanage for abandoned children and slaves and is known for raising dowry for young girls in short amounts of time. During an epidemic in Lima, many of the friars in the Convent of the Rosary became very ill. Locked away in a distant section of the convent, they were kept away from the professed. However, on more than one occasion, Martin passed through the locked doors to care for the sick. However, he became disciplined for not following the rules of the Convent, but after replying, "Forgive my error, and please instruct me, for I did not know that the precept of obedience took precedence over that of charity," he was given full liberty to follow his heart in mercy. Martin was great friends with both St. Juan Macías, a fellow Dominican lay brother, and St. Rose of Lima, a lay Dominican. In January of 1639, when Martin was 60-years-old, he became very ill with chills, fevers and tremors causing him agonizing pain. He would experience almost a year full of illness until he passed away on November 3, 1639. By the time he died, he was widely known and accepted. Talks of his miracles in medicine and caring for the sick were everywhere. After his death, the miracles received when he was invoked in such greatness that when he was exhumed 25 years later, his body exhaled a splendid fragrance and he was still intact. St. Martin de Porres was beatified by Pope Gregory XVI on October 29, 1837 and canonized by Pope John XXIII on May 6, 1962. He has become the patron saint of people of mixed race, innkeepers, barbers, public health workers and more. His feast day is November 3. St. Maria Goretti Find SaintsPopular Saints Saints by Alphabet Saint of the Day Saint Feast Days by Month Patron Saints by Alphabet CONFIRMED: Kobe Bryant and daughter Gianna attended Mass before fatal crash - Celebrity Kobe Bryant - a soul transformed by the Catholic faith - Celebrity Female / Women Saints St. Thomas Aquinas Unfailing Prayer to St. Anthony Mysteries of the Rosary Saint of the Day for Tuesday, Jan 28th, 2020 Saints A to Z: A Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:850ae489-6091-4257-961b-1311ede2bab4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=306	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00429.warc.gz	en	0.983935	1,190	3.40625	3	[ 0.15133491158485413, 0.6485254764556885, 0.2218571901321411, -0.13906171917915344, -0.0715712383389473, -0.035674799233675, -0.3109031915664673, 0.09741602092981339, 0.4813329577445984, -0.13654080033302307, -0.22452372312545776, -0.20698808133602142, 0.019937051460146904, -0.0006845324533...	1	St. Martin de Porres FREE Catholic School Enroll Now St. Martin de Porres was born in Lima, Peru on December 9, 1579. Martin was the illegitimate son to a Spanish gentlemen and a freed slave from Panama, of African or possibly Native American descent. At a young age, Martin's father abandoned him, his mother and his younger sister, leaving Martin to grow up in deep poverty. After spending just two years in primary school, Martin was placed with a barber/surgeon where he would learn to cut hair and the medical arts. As Martin grew older, he experienced a great deal of ridicule for being of mixed-race. In Peru, by law, all descendants of African or Indians were not allowed to become full members of religious orders. Martin, who spent long hours in prayer, found his only way into the community he longed for was to ask the Dominicans of Holy Rosary Priory in Lima to accept him as a volunteer who performed the most menial tasks in the monastery. In return, he would be allowed to wear the habit and live within the religious community. When Martin was 15, he asked for admission into the Dominican Convent of the Rosary in Lima and was received as a servant boy and eventually was moved up to the church officer in charge of distributing money to deserving poor. During his time in the Convent, Martin took on his old trades of barbering and healing. He also worked in the kitchen, did laundry and cleaned. After eight more years with the Holy Rosary, Martin was granted the privilege to take his vows as a member of the Third Order of Saint Dominic by the prior Juan de Lorenzana who decided to disregard the law restricting Martin based on race. However, not all of the members in the Holy Rosary were as open-minded as Lorenzana; Martin was called horrible names and mocked for being illegitimate and descending from slaves. Martin grew to become a Dominican lay brother in 1603 at the age of 24. Ten years later, after he had been presented with the religious habit of a lay brother, Martin was assigned to the infirmary where he would remain in charge until his death. He became known for encompassing the virtues need to carefully and patiently care for the sick, even in the most difficult situations. Martin was praised for his unconditional care of all people, regardless of race or wealth. He took care of everyone from the Spanish nobles to the African slaves. Martin didn't care if the person was diseased or dirty, he would welcome them into his own home. Martin's life reflected his great love for God and all of God's gifts. It is said he had many extraordinary abilities, including aerial flights, bilocation, instant cures, miraculous knowledge, spiritual knowledge and an excellent relationship with animals. Martin also founded an orphanage for abandoned children and slaves and is known for raising dowry for young girls in short amounts of time. During an epidemic in Lima, many of the friars in the Convent of the Rosary became very ill. Locked away in a distant section of the convent, they were kept away from the professed. However, on more than one occasion, Martin passed through the locked doors to care for the sick. However, he became disciplined for not following the rules of the Convent, but after replying, "Forgive my error, and please instruct me, for I did not know that the precept of obedience took precedence over that of charity," he was given full liberty to follow his heart in mercy. Martin was great friends with both St. Juan Macías, a fellow Dominican lay brother, and St. Rose of Lima, a lay Dominican. In January of 1639, when Martin was 60-years-old, he became very ill with chills, fevers and tremors causing him agonizing pain. He would experience almost a year full of illness until he passed away on November 3, 1639. By the time he died, he was widely known and accepted. Talks of his miracles in medicine and caring for the sick were everywhere. After his death, the miracles received when he was invoked in such greatness that when he was exhumed 25 years later, his body exhaled a splendid fragrance and he was still intact. St. Martin de Porres was beatified by Pope Gregory XVI on October 29, 1837 and canonized by Pope John XXIII on May 6, 1962. He has become the patron saint of people of mixed race, innkeepers, barbers, public health workers and more. His feast day is November 3. St. Maria Goretti Find SaintsPopular Saints Saints by Alphabet Saint of the Day Saint Feast Days by Month Patron Saints by Alphabet CONFIRMED: Kobe Bryant and daughter Gianna attended Mass before fatal crash - Celebrity Kobe Bryant - a soul transformed by the Catholic faith - Celebrity Female / Women Saints St. Thomas Aquinas Unfailing Prayer to St. Anthony Mysteries of the Rosary Saint of the Day for Tuesday, Jan 28th, 2020 Saints A to Z: A Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	1,225	ENGLISH	1
America was changed when it was struck by the surprise attack at Pearl Harbor. Overnight, America went from having a non-interventionist policy to a declaration of war against Japan. The sleeping giant woke up and began to mobilize. The Pacific War began and America moved towards a new kind of enemy, one that they had never faced before. The Japanese forces were all over the Pacific, controlling several strategic points that allowed them to conduct warfare and disrupt trade routes. The cluster of islands that the American military decided would be the first point of the invasion were known as the Solomon Islands and consisted of Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Island. The Solomon’s were a suitable base for the Japanese because it gave them the capacity to stop trade movements from between Australia and the United States. With the American Navy beginning to turn things around, having achieved a critical victory at the Battle of Midway, it was time for America to go on the offensive. Their first stop? Guadalcanal. An airfield had been constructed by the Japanese, and that was one of the primary targets of the Invasion of Guadalcanal. The goal was simple: seize control of the island from the Japanese and secure the airfield. The men who were sent into that territory were green, fresh soldiers who weren’t the most experienced nor well equipped. Their weapons were bolt action rifles and their ammunition was relatively low. For the Americans, this would be the first time they faced their Japanese foe on land. The conditions were abysmal. The island was hot and humid, full of mosquitos and not nearly supplied with enough natural resources to feed either side. Disease would quickly ravage the American soldiers, with as many as one out every five marines getting dysentery. It was a wretched, hot place and it would only get worse once the fighting began. The Japanese were cocky, believing that they were a superior force. They had won many a victory before against their foes in China and they viewed the Westerners as weak. Their belief that the Americans would fall before their might was quickly brought to an end when the Marines fought back with intensity. Yet, even for the Americans, the battles were horrifying and strange. The Japanese were unlike any other foe they had fought before, as the Japanese had very little fear of death. The Japanese government had worked hard to create a culture of honor in their military, creating the idea that death would be far more honorable than capture. This coupled with a great amount of lies about how savagely the Americans would treat a captured soldier, created for a very deadly foe. The Japanese soldiers would fight to the death, no matter what. They would not surrender, even when it was clear that they were going to die. Rather than give up, they would often perform banzai charges, grouping up and charging enemy soldiers with their bayonets, choosing to get gunned down than surrender. To say that this was met with horror by the Americans was an understatement. The sheer tenacity that the Japanese fought with quickly showed the American soldiers that this was going to be a different kind of war. It was one that would be fought to the very last soldier. This meant that the casualty rate of the Japanese would be much higher than the American forces. From the American perspective, it was almost unconscionable that their enemies would fight so savagely, and this contributed directly to the American propaganda machine that stated that the Japanese were less than human. Both sides would grow to hate each other more and more as the war raged on. The Battle of Guadalcanal was one of the most crucial combined arms operation done by the Americans. The Navy, the Army and the Marines were present in the conflict, working to support each other. Naval bombings had ensured that the airfield would be clear of enemy presence and when Marine boots hit the ground, there was very little trouble taking it. The real struggle in this conflict would be in the months to come. With the airfield in control of the American military, they were quick to name it Henderson Airfield, after an aviator who had given his life for America. With the Japanese mechanics who had been working on the airfield driven off so quickly, there was plenty of material and tools left for continuing construction on the airfield. Repairs began at once and soon the airfield was operational enough for naval aircraft to land. The Japanese were not ones who were willing to let the airfield out of their control so willingly and instead gathered up their forces and tried to seize it back. Wave after wave of soldier would come at the American Marines, but they held their ground. No matter what, the Americans refused to let their enemy take it back. Nearly 6,000 Japanese soldiers were killed in the first serious attempt to rescue the base. Henderson Airfield would stay in Marine hands for the rest of the war. Tulagi and Florida Island had been secured at this point, leaving only Guadalcanal itself to be the major point of contention. The Japanese had quickly begun to send reinforcements to the island and a series of naval battles would determine who would be the winner in this conflict. With Japanese bombing runs successfully damaging Henderson field and destroying several American fighters, it was clear that this would be a battle of both land, sea and air. As the war between both sides became a game of naval dominance, the Japanese were able to devise a cunning method of transporting soldiers discreetly into the island of Guadalcanal. What they did was send their faster ships straight through a sound to under the cover of night. The ships were fast enough to move troops and supplies into the island and back to the naval base that they came from in a single night. This wouldn’t allow for heavy supplies to be brought with them, but was enough to smuggle fighters into the island to put pressure against the Marines. This transportation tactic was dubbed the Tokyo Express by the Americans. The cover of night would protect them from air attacks and would ensure that the fighting would continue for many more months. The air raids and sea battles continued, with both sides fighting endlessly until October, where a major Japanese offensive was being planned. Dubbed the Battle For Henderson Field, nearly 20,000 Japanese troops were prepared to launch an attack against the field. Using artillery strikes to convince the Americans that they were attacking from the west, the Japanese came from the south with several divisions, prepared to overrun the field. Latest US History Articles However, there was a breakdown in communication between the Japanese leaders and the troops, and the attack was launched a day early. The Japanese tank unit, moving toward the defensive perimeters at the Mantinaku river, was quickly obliterated by the American soldiers. The breakdown in communication cost the entire unit their tanks and many of the Japanese their lives. On October 24th, the major offensive began, but the Japanese were unable to punch through the American perimeters, being repelled wave after wave. It didn’t matter which direction the Japanese tried coming from, the American military was just too well dug in. Only a few units were able to breach the perimeter but were quickly killed before they had a chance to reach Henderson. The attack was a disaster for the Japanese, with them losing somewhere around 3,000 soldiers and their enemies only losing 80. The attack on Henderson was called off and the Japanese forces retreated. During the attack on Henderson, the Japanese navy had attempted to move their carriers into a strategic position, only to be met with by the US Navy’s carriers. The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands began and the air attacks were brutal. The Japanese were able to claim victory at this battle, forcing the American’s to retreat after sinking one of their carriers, but ultimately it was pyrrhic victory. The damage the Japanese carriers had sustained and the aircraft that they had lost was too much for them. They would be unable to support the island with the losses that they had sustained. By November, the Japanese were ready to try and retake the airfield, however, it would require a significantly larger number of soldiers to achieve. Admiral Yamamoto decided that they would cease sneaking ships in and instead would try to handle things with naval superiority. The plan was to send reinforcements, heavy weapons and firepower to the island, accompanied by two battleships. This would be enough firepower to obliterate the airfield and allow for the Japanese to punch through the American defences. The Americans had a different plan, however. Rear Admiral Daniel Callaghan chose to respond to the threat by sending his own forces to provide a counterattack to the fleet lead by Hiroaki Abe. The ships met in the middle of the night and were at a very close range. A melee erupted between the two sides with guns being fired and torpedoes launched. The Japanese were victorious in this affair, destroying the majority of the American response force and killing Callaghan. Yet, despite the victory, this spooked Rear Admiral Abe, who chose to pull back instead of pressing forward to bombard Henderson field. Yamamoto responded by relieving Abe of duty and putting a new commander in charge. The plan did not change: destroy Henderson field via naval artillery. With an exhausted fleet, the Americans didn’t have many options. If the attack were to happen at night, there would be no way to respond. All that remained in top condition were two battleships, however, the area in which they would be tasked with defending were very tight quarters. Naval doctrine explicitly made a point to disallow the use of battleships in such a small area. Yet, there wasn’t much else to do, so the two ships, the South Dakota and the Washington were dispatched to defend Henderson at all costs. Accompanying them would be four destroyers. The Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal was a rough one. The small force was in position, waiting for the Japanese to arrive. Led by Nobutake Kondo, the Japanese warships moved into the line of sight and began to attack the American forces. Three destroyers were obliterated and one was heavily damaged. The South Dakota held longer, fighting back against the warships fiercely. What the Japanese hadn’t been counting on, however, was the Washington stealthily moving into position where they quickly opened fire on a Japanese battleship, blowing it to pieces with their artillery. The Washington was quick to flee after that, causing the Japanese to give chase, however, they were unable to catch up with the American ship. Kondo called off the attempted barrage of Henderson field. Only 3,000 Japanese soldiers were able to be transported onto the island, as the daylight hours had made the transports an easy target for the airplanes. The deadlock continued for quite some time, until finally on December 12th, the Japanese Navy gave up and submitted an official request to abandon Guadalcanal. It was clear that they just wouldn’t be able to capture the island again. A secret evacuation was planned and took place over the next few months. By February 9th, the Americans realized that the Japanese had abandoned the mission and that Guadalcanal was theirs for good. This would be the first major victory that the Americans would achieve in the Pacific War and it would set the tone for the rest of their campaign. Rather than just press to mainland Japan, they would hop from island to island, overrunning the Japanese and securing each base until they were able to reach their final target: The Home Island. Explore More US History Articles Despite the fact that it was a victory, there was still a lot to be learned for the American soldiers. They had not realized that their enemy would dig in so fiercely and dedicate themselves to a losing cause. They had not foreseen their foes turning what should have been a short campaign into a 6-month affair. Mistakes were made, lessons were learned but ultimately, this was the turning point in the Pacific War. The American engine was running now and it was ready to move full steam ahead. READ MORE: History of Guns Battle of Guadalcanal at a Glance: http://www.nationalww2museum.org/learn/education/for-students/ww2-history/at-a-glance/guadalcanal.html?referrer=https://www.google.com/ Timeline of Guadalcanal: http://www.secondworldwarhistory.com/battle-of-guadalcanal.asp Guadalcanal Naval Battles: http://combinedfleet.com/battles/Guadalcanal_Campaign Turning Point in the Pacific War: http://www.historynet.com/second-naval-battle-of-guadalcanal-turning-point-in-the-pacific-war.htm	<urn:uuid:bc5d2438-89ca-4fda-82e0-3fa7a21fc6ff>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historycooperative.org/airfield-hell-guadalcanal-campaign/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00268.warc.gz	en	0.988161	2,636	3.34375	3	[ -0.17756743729114532, 0.1737387627363205, 0.19606174528598785, -0.0962536484003067, 0.31714510917663574, 0.22033774852752686, 0.1463795006275177, 0.36588254570961, -0.03326163440942764, 0.1365744024515152, 0.4388114809989929, 0.013361791148781776, 0.06817470490932465, 0.43227750062942505, ...	1	America was changed when it was struck by the surprise attack at Pearl Harbor. Overnight, America went from having a non-interventionist policy to a declaration of war against Japan. The sleeping giant woke up and began to mobilize. The Pacific War began and America moved towards a new kind of enemy, one that they had never faced before. The Japanese forces were all over the Pacific, controlling several strategic points that allowed them to conduct warfare and disrupt trade routes. The cluster of islands that the American military decided would be the first point of the invasion were known as the Solomon Islands and consisted of Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Island. The Solomon’s were a suitable base for the Japanese because it gave them the capacity to stop trade movements from between Australia and the United States. With the American Navy beginning to turn things around, having achieved a critical victory at the Battle of Midway, it was time for America to go on the offensive. Their first stop? Guadalcanal. An airfield had been constructed by the Japanese, and that was one of the primary targets of the Invasion of Guadalcanal. The goal was simple: seize control of the island from the Japanese and secure the airfield. The men who were sent into that territory were green, fresh soldiers who weren’t the most experienced nor well equipped. Their weapons were bolt action rifles and their ammunition was relatively low. For the Americans, this would be the first time they faced their Japanese foe on land. The conditions were abysmal. The island was hot and humid, full of mosquitos and not nearly supplied with enough natural resources to feed either side. Disease would quickly ravage the American soldiers, with as many as one out every five marines getting dysentery. It was a wretched, hot place and it would only get worse once the fighting began. The Japanese were cocky, believing that they were a superior force. They had won many a victory before against their foes in China and they viewed the Westerners as weak. Their belief that the Americans would fall before their might was quickly brought to an end when the Marines fought back with intensity. Yet, even for the Americans, the battles were horrifying and strange. The Japanese were unlike any other foe they had fought before, as the Japanese had very little fear of death. The Japanese government had worked hard to create a culture of honor in their military, creating the idea that death would be far more honorable than capture. This coupled with a great amount of lies about how savagely the Americans would treat a captured soldier, created for a very deadly foe. The Japanese soldiers would fight to the death, no matter what. They would not surrender, even when it was clear that they were going to die. Rather than give up, they would often perform banzai charges, grouping up and charging enemy soldiers with their bayonets, choosing to get gunned down than surrender. To say that this was met with horror by the Americans was an understatement. The sheer tenacity that the Japanese fought with quickly showed the American soldiers that this was going to be a different kind of war. It was one that would be fought to the very last soldier. This meant that the casualty rate of the Japanese would be much higher than the American forces. From the American perspective, it was almost unconscionable that their enemies would fight so savagely, and this contributed directly to the American propaganda machine that stated that the Japanese were less than human. Both sides would grow to hate each other more and more as the war raged on. The Battle of Guadalcanal was one of the most crucial combined arms operation done by the Americans. The Navy, the Army and the Marines were present in the conflict, working to support each other. Naval bombings had ensured that the airfield would be clear of enemy presence and when Marine boots hit the ground, there was very little trouble taking it. The real struggle in this conflict would be in the months to come. With the airfield in control of the American military, they were quick to name it Henderson Airfield, after an aviator who had given his life for America. With the Japanese mechanics who had been working on the airfield driven off so quickly, there was plenty of material and tools left for continuing construction on the airfield. Repairs began at once and soon the airfield was operational enough for naval aircraft to land. The Japanese were not ones who were willing to let the airfield out of their control so willingly and instead gathered up their forces and tried to seize it back. Wave after wave of soldier would come at the American Marines, but they held their ground. No matter what, the Americans refused to let their enemy take it back. Nearly 6,000 Japanese soldiers were killed in the first serious attempt to rescue the base. Henderson Airfield would stay in Marine hands for the rest of the war. Tulagi and Florida Island had been secured at this point, leaving only Guadalcanal itself to be the major point of contention. The Japanese had quickly begun to send reinforcements to the island and a series of naval battles would determine who would be the winner in this conflict. With Japanese bombing runs successfully damaging Henderson field and destroying several American fighters, it was clear that this would be a battle of both land, sea and air. As the war between both sides became a game of naval dominance, the Japanese were able to devise a cunning method of transporting soldiers discreetly into the island of Guadalcanal. What they did was send their faster ships straight through a sound to under the cover of night. The ships were fast enough to move troops and supplies into the island and back to the naval base that they came from in a single night. This wouldn’t allow for heavy supplies to be brought with them, but was enough to smuggle fighters into the island to put pressure against the Marines. This transportation tactic was dubbed the Tokyo Express by the Americans. The cover of night would protect them from air attacks and would ensure that the fighting would continue for many more months. The air raids and sea battles continued, with both sides fighting endlessly until October, where a major Japanese offensive was being planned. Dubbed the Battle For Henderson Field, nearly 20,000 Japanese troops were prepared to launch an attack against the field. Using artillery strikes to convince the Americans that they were attacking from the west, the Japanese came from the south with several divisions, prepared to overrun the field. Latest US History Articles However, there was a breakdown in communication between the Japanese leaders and the troops, and the attack was launched a day early. The Japanese tank unit, moving toward the defensive perimeters at the Mantinaku river, was quickly obliterated by the American soldiers. The breakdown in communication cost the entire unit their tanks and many of the Japanese their lives. On October 24th, the major offensive began, but the Japanese were unable to punch through the American perimeters, being repelled wave after wave. It didn’t matter which direction the Japanese tried coming from, the American military was just too well dug in. Only a few units were able to breach the perimeter but were quickly killed before they had a chance to reach Henderson. The attack was a disaster for the Japanese, with them losing somewhere around 3,000 soldiers and their enemies only losing 80. The attack on Henderson was called off and the Japanese forces retreated. During the attack on Henderson, the Japanese navy had attempted to move their carriers into a strategic position, only to be met with by the US Navy’s carriers. The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands began and the air attacks were brutal. The Japanese were able to claim victory at this battle, forcing the American’s to retreat after sinking one of their carriers, but ultimately it was pyrrhic victory. The damage the Japanese carriers had sustained and the aircraft that they had lost was too much for them. They would be unable to support the island with the losses that they had sustained. By November, the Japanese were ready to try and retake the airfield, however, it would require a significantly larger number of soldiers to achieve. Admiral Yamamoto decided that they would cease sneaking ships in and instead would try to handle things with naval superiority. The plan was to send reinforcements, heavy weapons and firepower to the island, accompanied by two battleships. This would be enough firepower to obliterate the airfield and allow for the Japanese to punch through the American defences. The Americans had a different plan, however. Rear Admiral Daniel Callaghan chose to respond to the threat by sending his own forces to provide a counterattack to the fleet lead by Hiroaki Abe. The ships met in the middle of the night and were at a very close range. A melee erupted between the two sides with guns being fired and torpedoes launched. The Japanese were victorious in this affair, destroying the majority of the American response force and killing Callaghan. Yet, despite the victory, this spooked Rear Admiral Abe, who chose to pull back instead of pressing forward to bombard Henderson field. Yamamoto responded by relieving Abe of duty and putting a new commander in charge. The plan did not change: destroy Henderson field via naval artillery. With an exhausted fleet, the Americans didn’t have many options. If the attack were to happen at night, there would be no way to respond. All that remained in top condition were two battleships, however, the area in which they would be tasked with defending were very tight quarters. Naval doctrine explicitly made a point to disallow the use of battleships in such a small area. Yet, there wasn’t much else to do, so the two ships, the South Dakota and the Washington were dispatched to defend Henderson at all costs. Accompanying them would be four destroyers. The Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal was a rough one. The small force was in position, waiting for the Japanese to arrive. Led by Nobutake Kondo, the Japanese warships moved into the line of sight and began to attack the American forces. Three destroyers were obliterated and one was heavily damaged. The South Dakota held longer, fighting back against the warships fiercely. What the Japanese hadn’t been counting on, however, was the Washington stealthily moving into position where they quickly opened fire on a Japanese battleship, blowing it to pieces with their artillery. The Washington was quick to flee after that, causing the Japanese to give chase, however, they were unable to catch up with the American ship. Kondo called off the attempted barrage of Henderson field. Only 3,000 Japanese soldiers were able to be transported onto the island, as the daylight hours had made the transports an easy target for the airplanes. The deadlock continued for quite some time, until finally on December 12th, the Japanese Navy gave up and submitted an official request to abandon Guadalcanal. It was clear that they just wouldn’t be able to capture the island again. A secret evacuation was planned and took place over the next few months. By February 9th, the Americans realized that the Japanese had abandoned the mission and that Guadalcanal was theirs for good. This would be the first major victory that the Americans would achieve in the Pacific War and it would set the tone for the rest of their campaign. Rather than just press to mainland Japan, they would hop from island to island, overrunning the Japanese and securing each base until they were able to reach their final target: The Home Island. Explore More US History Articles Despite the fact that it was a victory, there was still a lot to be learned for the American soldiers. They had not realized that their enemy would dig in so fiercely and dedicate themselves to a losing cause. They had not foreseen their foes turning what should have been a short campaign into a 6-month affair. Mistakes were made, lessons were learned but ultimately, this was the turning point in the Pacific War. The American engine was running now and it was ready to move full steam ahead. READ MORE: History of Guns Battle of Guadalcanal at a Glance: http://www.nationalww2museum.org/learn/education/for-students/ww2-history/at-a-glance/guadalcanal.html?referrer=https://www.google.com/ Timeline of Guadalcanal: http://www.secondworldwarhistory.com/battle-of-guadalcanal.asp Guadalcanal Naval Battles: http://combinedfleet.com/battles/Guadalcanal_Campaign Turning Point in the Pacific War: http://www.historynet.com/second-naval-battle-of-guadalcanal-turning-point-in-the-pacific-war.htm	2,589	ENGLISH	1
As usual, this year’s emancipation celebrations will present the same worn-out tale of how our “innocent” and “defenseless” African ancestors were “brutalized” by the “wicked” white people. Africans in the West take it for granted that slavery was a strictly white versus black affair. However, did you know that, as far as the United States at least is concerned, slavery was the first racially integrated institution in the West? We all know of the motion pictures “Roots” and “12 Years A Slave” that tried to portray the impression that blacks were always the victims and whites were always the oppressors. However, did you know that there were indeed thousands of free African Americans who owned slaves before the civil war? According to the United States census of 1860, there were over 3,000 free African–American slave owners in the state of New Orleans alone — out of a population of over ten thousand. This means that almost thirty percent of African Americans in that state owned slaves! It must be noted that the national average for white Americans was less than five percent. Indeed, in many instances, there were more black slave owners than white ones. It must be noted that the impression that a lot of whites owned dozens or even hundreds of slaves couldn’t be any more untrue. Indeed, the majority of people in America — both black and white, did not own any slave and most of those who did, own only a few — less than five. The rest were too poor to afford any slave. Some African American slave owners were very rich. In 1860, in the state of Louisiana, the widow of C. Richards and her son P. C. Richards owned a large sugar plantation with over 150 slaves. Another African American, Antoine Dubuclet, owned over 100 slaves and his financial worth was $264,000 — a very large sum at the time. The average wealth of a typical white man in that state was less than $4,000. Ever heard of the African American named William Ellison? He was a slave originally called April. Though he started out as a slave, Ellison eventually became a very wealthy and famous African–American slave magnate. He became one of the country’s major cotton-gin manufacturers. Indeed, due to his use of cheap slave labour, Ellison even managed to drive many of his white competitors out of business. Also, in addition to his cotton gin business, Ellison made a large part of his fortune breeding slaves. Yes, here was an African American slave owner who was also a major slave breeder! Based on these census figures, the phenomenon of Africa-American slave owners was not only common, it was widespread across America. So when these anti-slavery propagandists try to do all they can to convince you that slavery was the worst evil that the white man has ever visited on us “poor” blacks, remember this: Slavery was seen as such a normal institution that even many Africans, once they got here, were as much involved in the “corruption” as those whites. History is clear and it cannot be changed — there is no doubt that slavery was truly the first racially integrated institution for “New World”. History must be told by those who understand it and not those who want to change it! NOW Grenada is not responsible for the opinions, statements or media content presented by contributors. In case of abuse, click here to report.	<urn:uuid:884fd5fb-15f5-4006-8bcd-78b542f0857c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nowgrenada.com/2015/07/slavery-wests-first-racially-integrated-institution/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00530.warc.gz	en	0.987107	730	3.453125	3	[ -0.21471992135047913, 0.3452421724796295, 0.08302917331457138, 0.007750683464109898, 0.07218383252620697, 0.062832772731781, -0.12367286533117294, -0.31163936853408813, -0.00803347397595644, 0.32494544982910156, 0.40938901901245117, 0.28132516145706177, -0.28002700209617615, 0.169063329696...	6	As usual, this year’s emancipation celebrations will present the same worn-out tale of how our “innocent” and “defenseless” African ancestors were “brutalized” by the “wicked” white people. Africans in the West take it for granted that slavery was a strictly white versus black affair. However, did you know that, as far as the United States at least is concerned, slavery was the first racially integrated institution in the West? We all know of the motion pictures “Roots” and “12 Years A Slave” that tried to portray the impression that blacks were always the victims and whites were always the oppressors. However, did you know that there were indeed thousands of free African Americans who owned slaves before the civil war? According to the United States census of 1860, there were over 3,000 free African–American slave owners in the state of New Orleans alone — out of a population of over ten thousand. This means that almost thirty percent of African Americans in that state owned slaves! It must be noted that the national average for white Americans was less than five percent. Indeed, in many instances, there were more black slave owners than white ones. It must be noted that the impression that a lot of whites owned dozens or even hundreds of slaves couldn’t be any more untrue. Indeed, the majority of people in America — both black and white, did not own any slave and most of those who did, own only a few — less than five. The rest were too poor to afford any slave. Some African American slave owners were very rich. In 1860, in the state of Louisiana, the widow of C. Richards and her son P. C. Richards owned a large sugar plantation with over 150 slaves. Another African American, Antoine Dubuclet, owned over 100 slaves and his financial worth was $264,000 — a very large sum at the time. The average wealth of a typical white man in that state was less than $4,000. Ever heard of the African American named William Ellison? He was a slave originally called April. Though he started out as a slave, Ellison eventually became a very wealthy and famous African–American slave magnate. He became one of the country’s major cotton-gin manufacturers. Indeed, due to his use of cheap slave labour, Ellison even managed to drive many of his white competitors out of business. Also, in addition to his cotton gin business, Ellison made a large part of his fortune breeding slaves. Yes, here was an African American slave owner who was also a major slave breeder! Based on these census figures, the phenomenon of Africa-American slave owners was not only common, it was widespread across America. So when these anti-slavery propagandists try to do all they can to convince you that slavery was the worst evil that the white man has ever visited on us “poor” blacks, remember this: Slavery was seen as such a normal institution that even many Africans, once they got here, were as much involved in the “corruption” as those whites. History is clear and it cannot be changed — there is no doubt that slavery was truly the first racially integrated institution for “New World”. History must be told by those who understand it and not those who want to change it! NOW Grenada is not responsible for the opinions, statements or media content presented by contributors. In case of abuse, click here to report.	717	ENGLISH	1
Sleep should play an important part in your daily life. It helps your brain reconsolidate the previous day’s memories, while also helping your body regenerate and get ready for the upcoming day. When you fail to get enough sleep, you may start to experience some health problems such as consistent fatigue, weight gain, a higher risk of heart disease, and more. While having a snack before going to bed might seem like a great way to curb those cravings, it could actually have a negative effect on your sleep. We explore the effects of diet on sleep in this post to help you understand what to eat and what you should try to avoid. Diet And Sleep: What’s The Connection? What you put into your body has a significant impact on your overall health. Your physical and mental health is dependent on a diet that is rich in several nutrients, including vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and fatty acids. The right diet helps your heart effectively pump blood through your body, ensures your immune system can fight against disease and ensures everything else works effectively. When you fail to eat a healthy diet, however, you can experience several adverse effects – and one of these lies with your ability to sleep well at night. While research is still relatively new in this area, scientists are starting to notice that diet actually plays an important role in how you sleep. Not only could your diet affect your ability actually to fall asleep, but it may also have an impact on how well you sleep. Current Scientific Evidence Linking Diet And Sleep In 2016, researchers at Columbia University in New York conducted a study to determine how food affects sleep. At this time, it was already known that there is a definite connection, but these researchers wanted to see which food might actually impact your ability to sleep. The study was conducted on 26 participants. All participants were considered generally healthy and slept between seven and nine hours each night. The study was divided into two phases and lasted for a total period of five days. A controlled diet was used during the initial four days of the study, but the participants were told to decide what to eat themselves on the fifth day. Researchers reported changes in sleep on the fourth night after the controlled diet was implemented. Changes were also detected during the fifth night when the participants were told to choose their own foods to consume. Findings suggested that a higher intake of fiber may help to provide an improvement in the restorative effect of sleep. There was a significant improvement in slow-wave sleep. This means the quality of sleep was improved. The duration in which patients remained in stage one sleep was reduced with a higher sleep intake, which also indicates a deeper sleep. In addition to these findings, researchers reported a lighter sleep that also seems to be less restorative among those participants who consumed a diet that was high in food products that contain more saturated fats. Other carbohydrates, which included sugar, also led to an increase in nighttime arousals and increased the time spent in stage one sleep. This essentially means the participant experienced a lighter sleep. What Foods Should You Avoid To Sleep Better? When it comes to looking at how you could potentially improve your sleep pattern by adjusting your diet, it is definitely a good idea to start by considering foods you should avoid. This should be step one, as it will allow you to reduce the intake of specific foods that might cause you to remain in sleep stage one for a prolonged period of time – and this means you will start to experience deeper sleep. As noted in the study, we have considered previously, and sleep is adversely affected when you eat too many carbohydrates, and when your diet is rich in saturated fats. Thus, these are the first foods that you really want to exclude from your diet – or at least limit, especially a few hours before you go to bed. These are only some of the foods that are high in added sugars. When you eat or drink too much of these, especially just before you go to sleep, then your blood sugar levels are sure to spike. This may cause you to find that you are unable to experience deep sleep – which means your time in bed will not be as restorative as it should really be. The same goes for foods that are high in saturated fats, as revealed by the study we considered. There are many foods that are loaded with saturated fats – and if you eat too much of these foods, then you may not sleep as well as you need to. While some of these foods might usually be associated with health benefits – take a look at coconut oil; for example – having too much of them or eating these foods too close to your bedtime might have an adverse impact on your ability to have a restorative night of sleep. What Should You Eat For Better Sleep Now that we have looked at some foods that could have an adverse impact on your sleep let’s switch our focus to some options that are healthy for sleeping. As noted in the study, we looked at, and higher fiber intake may help you experience a deeper and higher quality sleep in general. Fortunately, it is not too hard to include fiber-rich foods into your diet. Some of the best fiber-rich foods that you should consider, including more in your daily meals, such as carrots or broccoli There are also some types of breakfast cereals that are made from whole grains. While these are high in fiber, it is important always to take note of the carb content and any added sugars that might be included in these foods. You need to find foods that contain the right balance – they should be high in fiber, but low in saturated fats and sugars. At the same time, your diet should still offer your body access to all the essential nutrients that it needs to stay functional. While you may often hear that spending too much time on your smartphone or laptop before going to bed is bad for you, publications often fail to mention the major impact that diet may also play on sleep. A diet that is high in certain ingredients, such as sugar, seems to reduce the restorative effect that sleep has on the body. On the other hand, eating healthily could enhance your sleep and ensure you gain maximum benefits from your six-to-nine hours in bed each night.	<urn:uuid:c1c31e63-2512-444d-ae99-64ed300b52bd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cyberparent.com/wellness/how-diet-affects-your-sleep/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00440.warc.gz	en	0.980994	1,275	3.390625	3	[ 0.16455134749412537, 0.1704014241695404, 0.2543591856956482, 0.14407643675804138, -0.11459182947874069, 0.50702303647995, 0.21991956233978271, 0.06452618539333344, 0.021987874060869217, -0.09392686188220978, -0.06646356731653214, -0.288827121257782, 0.21717745065689087, 0.30445507168769836...	10	Sleep should play an important part in your daily life. It helps your brain reconsolidate the previous day’s memories, while also helping your body regenerate and get ready for the upcoming day. When you fail to get enough sleep, you may start to experience some health problems such as consistent fatigue, weight gain, a higher risk of heart disease, and more. While having a snack before going to bed might seem like a great way to curb those cravings, it could actually have a negative effect on your sleep. We explore the effects of diet on sleep in this post to help you understand what to eat and what you should try to avoid. Diet And Sleep: What’s The Connection? What you put into your body has a significant impact on your overall health. Your physical and mental health is dependent on a diet that is rich in several nutrients, including vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and fatty acids. The right diet helps your heart effectively pump blood through your body, ensures your immune system can fight against disease and ensures everything else works effectively. When you fail to eat a healthy diet, however, you can experience several adverse effects – and one of these lies with your ability to sleep well at night. While research is still relatively new in this area, scientists are starting to notice that diet actually plays an important role in how you sleep. Not only could your diet affect your ability actually to fall asleep, but it may also have an impact on how well you sleep. Current Scientific Evidence Linking Diet And Sleep In 2016, researchers at Columbia University in New York conducted a study to determine how food affects sleep. At this time, it was already known that there is a definite connection, but these researchers wanted to see which food might actually impact your ability to sleep. The study was conducted on 26 participants. All participants were considered generally healthy and slept between seven and nine hours each night. The study was divided into two phases and lasted for a total period of five days. A controlled diet was used during the initial four days of the study, but the participants were told to decide what to eat themselves on the fifth day. Researchers reported changes in sleep on the fourth night after the controlled diet was implemented. Changes were also detected during the fifth night when the participants were told to choose their own foods to consume. Findings suggested that a higher intake of fiber may help to provide an improvement in the restorative effect of sleep. There was a significant improvement in slow-wave sleep. This means the quality of sleep was improved. The duration in which patients remained in stage one sleep was reduced with a higher sleep intake, which also indicates a deeper sleep. In addition to these findings, researchers reported a lighter sleep that also seems to be less restorative among those participants who consumed a diet that was high in food products that contain more saturated fats. Other carbohydrates, which included sugar, also led to an increase in nighttime arousals and increased the time spent in stage one sleep. This essentially means the participant experienced a lighter sleep. What Foods Should You Avoid To Sleep Better? When it comes to looking at how you could potentially improve your sleep pattern by adjusting your diet, it is definitely a good idea to start by considering foods you should avoid. This should be step one, as it will allow you to reduce the intake of specific foods that might cause you to remain in sleep stage one for a prolonged period of time – and this means you will start to experience deeper sleep. As noted in the study, we have considered previously, and sleep is adversely affected when you eat too many carbohydrates, and when your diet is rich in saturated fats. Thus, these are the first foods that you really want to exclude from your diet – or at least limit, especially a few hours before you go to bed. These are only some of the foods that are high in added sugars. When you eat or drink too much of these, especially just before you go to sleep, then your blood sugar levels are sure to spike. This may cause you to find that you are unable to experience deep sleep – which means your time in bed will not be as restorative as it should really be. The same goes for foods that are high in saturated fats, as revealed by the study we considered. There are many foods that are loaded with saturated fats – and if you eat too much of these foods, then you may not sleep as well as you need to. While some of these foods might usually be associated with health benefits – take a look at coconut oil; for example – having too much of them or eating these foods too close to your bedtime might have an adverse impact on your ability to have a restorative night of sleep. What Should You Eat For Better Sleep Now that we have looked at some foods that could have an adverse impact on your sleep let’s switch our focus to some options that are healthy for sleeping. As noted in the study, we looked at, and higher fiber intake may help you experience a deeper and higher quality sleep in general. Fortunately, it is not too hard to include fiber-rich foods into your diet. Some of the best fiber-rich foods that you should consider, including more in your daily meals, such as carrots or broccoli There are also some types of breakfast cereals that are made from whole grains. While these are high in fiber, it is important always to take note of the carb content and any added sugars that might be included in these foods. You need to find foods that contain the right balance – they should be high in fiber, but low in saturated fats and sugars. At the same time, your diet should still offer your body access to all the essential nutrients that it needs to stay functional. While you may often hear that spending too much time on your smartphone or laptop before going to bed is bad for you, publications often fail to mention the major impact that diet may also play on sleep. A diet that is high in certain ingredients, such as sugar, seems to reduce the restorative effect that sleep has on the body. On the other hand, eating healthily could enhance your sleep and ensure you gain maximum benefits from your six-to-nine hours in bed each night.	1,247	ENGLISH	1
FREE Catholic Classes The Magna Carta has long been considered by the English-speaking peoples as the earliest of the great constitutional documents which give the history of England so unique a character ; it has even been spoken of by some great authorities as the "foundation of our liberties". That the charter enjoyed an exaggerated reputation in the days of Coke and of Blackstone, no one will now deny, and a more accurate knowledge of the meaning of its different provisions has shown that a number of them used to be interpreted quite erroneously. When allowance, however, has been made for the mistakes due to several centuries of indiscriminating admiration, the charter remains an astonishingly complete record of the limitations placed on the Crown at the beginning of the thirteenth century, and an impressive illustration of what is perhaps national capacity for putting resistance to arbitrary government on a legal basis. The memories of feudal excess during the reign of Stephen were strong enough and universal enough to give Henry II twenty years of internal peace for the establishment of his masterful administration, and, even when the barons tried to "wrest the club from Hercules" in 1173-74, they trusted largely to the odium which the king had incurred from the murder of St. Thomas. The revolt failed and the Angevin system was stronger than ever, so strong indeed that it was able to maintain its existence, and even to develop its operations, during the absence of Richard I. The heavy taxation of his reign and the constant encroachments of royal justice roused a feeling among the barons, which showed itself in a demand for their " rights " put forward at John's accession. It is indeed obvious that, quite apart from acts of individual injustice, the royal administration was attacking in every direction the traditional rights of the barons and not theirs only. St. Thomas had saved the independence of the Church, and it now remained for the other sections of the community to assert themselves. Historians have probably been over tender to the Angevins, for to them feudalism is the enemy; and the increase of the royal power, to be checked later on by a parliamentary system, is the clear line of constitutional development.; but, however satisfactory we may think the ultimate result, there was the immediate danger of a rule which was arbitrary and might be tyrannical. The king had acquired a power which he might abuse, and the acts of the reign of John are sufficiently on record to show how much a bad king could do before he became intolerable. Those who drew up the Great Charter never pretended to be formulating a syllabus of fundamental principles, nor was it a code any more than it was a declaration of rights. It was a rehearsal of traditional principles and practices which had been violated by John, and the universality of its scope is a measure of the king's misgovernment. During the early part of John's reign the loss of the greater part of his French possessions discredited him, and led to constant demands for money. Scutage, which had originally been an alternative for military service, occasionally permitted, became practically a new annual tax, while fines were exacted from individuals on many pretexts and by arbitrary means. Any sign of resistance was followed by a demand for a son as a hostage, an intensely irritating practice which continued throughout the reign. The quarrel with Innocent III and the interdict (1206-13) followed hard on the foreign collapse, and during that period John's hand lay so heavily on the churchmen that the lay barons had a temporary respite from taxation, though not from ill government. When peace was finally made with the Pope, the king seems to have thought that the Church would now support him against the mutinous barons of the North; but he counted without the new archbishop. Langton showed from the first that he intended to enforce the clause in John's submission to the pope, which promised a general reform of abuses, and his support provided the cause with the statesmanlike leadership it had hitherto lacked. The discontented barons met at St. Alban's and St.Paul's in 1213, and Langton produced the Charter of Henry I to act as a model for their demands. Civil war was deferred by John's absence abroad, but the defeat of Bouvines sent him back still more discredited, and war practically broke out early in 1215. Special charters granted to the Church and to London failed to divide his enemies, and John had to meet the "Army of god and Holy Church " on the field of Runnymede between Staines and Windsor. He gave way on nearly every point, and peace was concluded probably on 19 June. The charter which was then sealed was really a treaty of peace, though in form it was a grant of liberties. The clauses or chapters of the Magna Carta are not arranged on any logical plan, and a number of systems of classification have been suggested, but without attempting to summarize a document so complex, it may be sufficient here to point out the general character of the liberties which it guaranteed. In the opening clause the "freedom" of the Church was secured, and that vague phrase was defined at least in one direction by a special mention of canonical election to bishoprics. Of the remaining sixty clauses the largest class is that dealing directly with the abuses from which the baronage had suffered, fixing the amount of reliefs, protecting heirs and widows from the Crown and from Jewish creditors, preserving the feudal courts from the invasions of royal justice, and securing the rights of baronial founders over monasteries. The clauses enforcing legal reforms were of more general interest, for Henry II's "possessory assizes" were popular among all classes, and all suffered from arbitrary amercements and from insufficiently controlled officials. These assizes were to be held four times a year, and amercements were to be assessed by the oath of honest men of the neighborhood. John had allowed the royal officials a very great and very unpopular latitude, and many clauses of the charter were directed to the control of the sheriffs, constables of royal castles, and especially of the numerous forest officials. The commercial classes were not altogether neglected. London and the other boroughs were to have their ancient liberties, and an effort was made to secure uniformity of weights and measures. The clause, however, which protected foreign merchants, was more to the advantage of the consumer than to that of the English competitor. There is little in the charter which can be called a statement of constitutional principle; two articles have, however, been treated, not without reason, as such by succeeding generations. Chapter xii, which declares that no extraordinary scutage or aid shall be imposed except by common counsel of the kingdom, may be taken as an assertion of the principle "no taxation without consent ". How the counsel of the kingdom was to be taken is explained in chapter xiv which describes the composition of the Great Council. Chapter xxxix prescribes that "no freeman shall be arrested or detained in prison or deprived of his freehold . . .or in any way molested. . .unless by the lawful judgment of his peers and by the law of the land". The chief object of this clause was to prevent execution before trial, and so far as is certainly the assertion of a far-reaching constitutional principle, but the last two phrases have been the subject of much wild interpretation. "Judgment by his peers" was taken to mean "trial by jury", and "the law of the land" to mean "by due process of law "; as a matter of fact both taken together expressed the preference of the barons for the older tradition and feudal forms of trial rather than by judgment of the court of royal nominees instituted by Henry II and abused by john. The principle asserted by this clause was, therefore, of great constitutional importance, and had a long future before it, but the actual remedy proposed was reactionary. The final chapter was in a sense the most important of all for the moment, for it was an effort to secure the execution of the charter by establishing a baronial committee of twenty-five with the admitted right to make war on the king, should they consider that he had violated any of the liberties that he had guaranteed. Two chief criticisms have been brought against the Magna Carta, that of being behind the times, reactionary, and that of being concerned almost entirely with the "selfish" interests of the baronage. Reactionary the charter certainly was; in many respects it was a protest against the system established by Henry II, and, even when it adopted some of the results of his reign such as the possessory assizes and the distinction between greater and lesser barons, it neglected the latest constitutional developments. It said nothing on taxation of personalty or of the spirituality of the clergy ; It gave no hint of the introduction of the principle of representation into the Great Council: yet the early stages of all these financial and constitutional measures can be found in the reign of John. Bishop Stubbs expressed in a pregnant phrase this characteristic of the charter when he called it "the translation into the language of the thirteenth century of the ideas of the eleventh, through the forms of the twelfth". It is a reproach, however, which it bears in good company, for all the Constitutional documents of English history are in a sense reactionary; they are in the main statements of principles or rights acquired in the past but recently violated. The charge of "baronial selfishness" is a more serious matter, for one of the merits claimed for the charter, even by its more sober admirers, is that of being a national document. It must be admitted that many of the clauses are directed solely to the grievances of the barons; that some of the measures enforced, such as the revival of the baronial courts, would be injurious to the national interests; that, even when the rights of freemen were protected, little security if any was given to the numerous villein class. Nor are these criticisms disallowed by chapter lx, which declares in general terms that liberties granted by the king to his men shall in turn be granted by them to their vassals. Such a statement is so general that it need not mean much. It is more important to notice that all the numerous clauses directed to the controlling of the royal officials would benefit directly or indirectly all classes, that after all what the country had been suffering from was royal and not baronial tyranny, and that it was the barons and the clergy who had been, for the most part, the immediate victims. Finally the word "selfish" must be used cautiously in an age when, by universal consent, each class had its own liberties , and might quite legitimately contend for them. Though in form a free grant of liberties, the charter had really been won from John at sword's point. It could not in any sense be looked upon as an act of legislation. He had accepted the terms demanded by the barons, but he would do so only so long as he was compelled to. He had already taken measures to acquire both juridical and physical weapons against his enemies by appealing to his suzerain, the pope, and sending abroad for mercenary troops. By a Bull dated 24 August at Anagni, Innocent III revoked the charter and later on excommunicated the rebellious barons. The motive of Innocent's actions are not far to seek. To begin with, he was probably misled as to the facts, and trusted too much to the king's account of what had happened. He was naturally inclined to protect the interests of a professed crusader and a vassal, and he took up the position that the barons could not be judges in their own cause, but should have referred the matter to him, the king's suzerain, for arbitration. But, more than this, he maintained quite correctly that the king had made the concessions under compulsion, and that the barons were in open rebellion against the Crown. It is indeed manifest that the charter could not have been a final settlement; it was accepted as such by neither extreme party, and even before the gathering at Runnymede had separated, the archbishop had grown suspicious of the executive committee of twenty-five. War over the French king's son, and, during the sixteen troubled months that intervened between the signing of the charter and the end of the reign, John had on the whole the advantage. Shortly after the accession of the young Henry III, the charter was reissued by the regent, William Marshall. This charter of 1216 differed in a good many respects from that accepted by john at Runnymede. To begin with, the clauses dealing with the royal forests were formed into a separate charter, the Charter of the Forests; the other clauses were considerably modified, points were more accurately defined, matters of a temporary nature, including naturally the old executive clause, were left out, but the chief change was to restore to the Crown a number of powers which had been abandoned during the previous year. Amongst these the most important was the right of taxation, chapters xii and xiv being omitted. On the other hand, there is this all-important difference that the new charter was a genuine grant by the Crown. It may be called a piece of honest legislation; and to this charter the papal legate gave the fullest consent. A few further changes were introduced in 1217, and for a third time the Magna Carta was reissued in 1225. The form it then received was final, and the charters which the Crown was so repeatedly asked to confirm for many years to come, meant the Charter of Liberties of 1225 and the Forest Charter. In time the Charters became almost symbolical; the precise meaning of many of the clauses was forgotten, and much more was read into some of them than their authors had ever intended to imply. They came to represent, like the "Laws of Good King Edward" in an earlier age, the ancient liberties of Englishmen, and in Stuart days when men looked behind the Tudor absolutism to a time of greater independence, lawyers like E. Coke continued the process of idealization which had been begun even in the thirteenth century. This symbolical use of the Great Charter has played a great part in English constitutional history, but it would have been impossible, had not the original document in its original sense been a thorough, an intelligent, and in the main a moderate expression of the determination of Englishmen to be ruled by law and tradition and not by arbitrary will. The most convenient text of the Great charter is that printed in Bemont's Chartes des Libertés anglaises" (Paris, 1892), but, it will also be found in Stubb's "Select Charters" and similar compilations. W.S. McKechnie ("Magna Carta", Glasgow, 1905) has published a very thorough commentary, clause by clause, together with an historical introduction and a discussion of the criticisms brought against the Charter. His book also contains a bibliography. Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:1bc820a3-edc6-44cb-84df-544c9433596a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=7392	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00189.warc.gz	en	0.982962	3,222	3.375	3	[ -0.10684825479984283, -0.039244167506694794, 0.31277042627334595, -0.26088619232177734, 0.04452960193157196, -0.3125104010105133, 0.3315070867538452, 0.06102440133690834, 0.3136720061302185, -0.0705655962228775, -0.3712652921676636, 0.041787195950746536, -0.05317414551973343, 0.23768353462...	2	FREE Catholic Classes The Magna Carta has long been considered by the English-speaking peoples as the earliest of the great constitutional documents which give the history of England so unique a character ; it has even been spoken of by some great authorities as the "foundation of our liberties". That the charter enjoyed an exaggerated reputation in the days of Coke and of Blackstone, no one will now deny, and a more accurate knowledge of the meaning of its different provisions has shown that a number of them used to be interpreted quite erroneously. When allowance, however, has been made for the mistakes due to several centuries of indiscriminating admiration, the charter remains an astonishingly complete record of the limitations placed on the Crown at the beginning of the thirteenth century, and an impressive illustration of what is perhaps national capacity for putting resistance to arbitrary government on a legal basis. The memories of feudal excess during the reign of Stephen were strong enough and universal enough to give Henry II twenty years of internal peace for the establishment of his masterful administration, and, even when the barons tried to "wrest the club from Hercules" in 1173-74, they trusted largely to the odium which the king had incurred from the murder of St. Thomas. The revolt failed and the Angevin system was stronger than ever, so strong indeed that it was able to maintain its existence, and even to develop its operations, during the absence of Richard I. The heavy taxation of his reign and the constant encroachments of royal justice roused a feeling among the barons, which showed itself in a demand for their " rights " put forward at John's accession. It is indeed obvious that, quite apart from acts of individual injustice, the royal administration was attacking in every direction the traditional rights of the barons and not theirs only. St. Thomas had saved the independence of the Church, and it now remained for the other sections of the community to assert themselves. Historians have probably been over tender to the Angevins, for to them feudalism is the enemy; and the increase of the royal power, to be checked later on by a parliamentary system, is the clear line of constitutional development.; but, however satisfactory we may think the ultimate result, there was the immediate danger of a rule which was arbitrary and might be tyrannical. The king had acquired a power which he might abuse, and the acts of the reign of John are sufficiently on record to show how much a bad king could do before he became intolerable. Those who drew up the Great Charter never pretended to be formulating a syllabus of fundamental principles, nor was it a code any more than it was a declaration of rights. It was a rehearsal of traditional principles and practices which had been violated by John, and the universality of its scope is a measure of the king's misgovernment. During the early part of John's reign the loss of the greater part of his French possessions discredited him, and led to constant demands for money. Scutage, which had originally been an alternative for military service, occasionally permitted, became practically a new annual tax, while fines were exacted from individuals on many pretexts and by arbitrary means. Any sign of resistance was followed by a demand for a son as a hostage, an intensely irritating practice which continued throughout the reign. The quarrel with Innocent III and the interdict (1206-13) followed hard on the foreign collapse, and during that period John's hand lay so heavily on the churchmen that the lay barons had a temporary respite from taxation, though not from ill government. When peace was finally made with the Pope, the king seems to have thought that the Church would now support him against the mutinous barons of the North; but he counted without the new archbishop. Langton showed from the first that he intended to enforce the clause in John's submission to the pope, which promised a general reform of abuses, and his support provided the cause with the statesmanlike leadership it had hitherto lacked. The discontented barons met at St. Alban's and St.Paul's in 1213, and Langton produced the Charter of Henry I to act as a model for their demands. Civil war was deferred by John's absence abroad, but the defeat of Bouvines sent him back still more discredited, and war practically broke out early in 1215. Special charters granted to the Church and to London failed to divide his enemies, and John had to meet the "Army of god and Holy Church " on the field of Runnymede between Staines and Windsor. He gave way on nearly every point, and peace was concluded probably on 19 June. The charter which was then sealed was really a treaty of peace, though in form it was a grant of liberties. The clauses or chapters of the Magna Carta are not arranged on any logical plan, and a number of systems of classification have been suggested, but without attempting to summarize a document so complex, it may be sufficient here to point out the general character of the liberties which it guaranteed. In the opening clause the "freedom" of the Church was secured, and that vague phrase was defined at least in one direction by a special mention of canonical election to bishoprics. Of the remaining sixty clauses the largest class is that dealing directly with the abuses from which the baronage had suffered, fixing the amount of reliefs, protecting heirs and widows from the Crown and from Jewish creditors, preserving the feudal courts from the invasions of royal justice, and securing the rights of baronial founders over monasteries. The clauses enforcing legal reforms were of more general interest, for Henry II's "possessory assizes" were popular among all classes, and all suffered from arbitrary amercements and from insufficiently controlled officials. These assizes were to be held four times a year, and amercements were to be assessed by the oath of honest men of the neighborhood. John had allowed the royal officials a very great and very unpopular latitude, and many clauses of the charter were directed to the control of the sheriffs, constables of royal castles, and especially of the numerous forest officials. The commercial classes were not altogether neglected. London and the other boroughs were to have their ancient liberties, and an effort was made to secure uniformity of weights and measures. The clause, however, which protected foreign merchants, was more to the advantage of the consumer than to that of the English competitor. There is little in the charter which can be called a statement of constitutional principle; two articles have, however, been treated, not without reason, as such by succeeding generations. Chapter xii, which declares that no extraordinary scutage or aid shall be imposed except by common counsel of the kingdom, may be taken as an assertion of the principle "no taxation without consent ". How the counsel of the kingdom was to be taken is explained in chapter xiv which describes the composition of the Great Council. Chapter xxxix prescribes that "no freeman shall be arrested or detained in prison or deprived of his freehold . . .or in any way molested. . .unless by the lawful judgment of his peers and by the law of the land". The chief object of this clause was to prevent execution before trial, and so far as is certainly the assertion of a far-reaching constitutional principle, but the last two phrases have been the subject of much wild interpretation. "Judgment by his peers" was taken to mean "trial by jury", and "the law of the land" to mean "by due process of law "; as a matter of fact both taken together expressed the preference of the barons for the older tradition and feudal forms of trial rather than by judgment of the court of royal nominees instituted by Henry II and abused by john. The principle asserted by this clause was, therefore, of great constitutional importance, and had a long future before it, but the actual remedy proposed was reactionary. The final chapter was in a sense the most important of all for the moment, for it was an effort to secure the execution of the charter by establishing a baronial committee of twenty-five with the admitted right to make war on the king, should they consider that he had violated any of the liberties that he had guaranteed. Two chief criticisms have been brought against the Magna Carta, that of being behind the times, reactionary, and that of being concerned almost entirely with the "selfish" interests of the baronage. Reactionary the charter certainly was; in many respects it was a protest against the system established by Henry II, and, even when it adopted some of the results of his reign such as the possessory assizes and the distinction between greater and lesser barons, it neglected the latest constitutional developments. It said nothing on taxation of personalty or of the spirituality of the clergy ; It gave no hint of the introduction of the principle of representation into the Great Council: yet the early stages of all these financial and constitutional measures can be found in the reign of John. Bishop Stubbs expressed in a pregnant phrase this characteristic of the charter when he called it "the translation into the language of the thirteenth century of the ideas of the eleventh, through the forms of the twelfth". It is a reproach, however, which it bears in good company, for all the Constitutional documents of English history are in a sense reactionary; they are in the main statements of principles or rights acquired in the past but recently violated. The charge of "baronial selfishness" is a more serious matter, for one of the merits claimed for the charter, even by its more sober admirers, is that of being a national document. It must be admitted that many of the clauses are directed solely to the grievances of the barons; that some of the measures enforced, such as the revival of the baronial courts, would be injurious to the national interests; that, even when the rights of freemen were protected, little security if any was given to the numerous villein class. Nor are these criticisms disallowed by chapter lx, which declares in general terms that liberties granted by the king to his men shall in turn be granted by them to their vassals. Such a statement is so general that it need not mean much. It is more important to notice that all the numerous clauses directed to the controlling of the royal officials would benefit directly or indirectly all classes, that after all what the country had been suffering from was royal and not baronial tyranny, and that it was the barons and the clergy who had been, for the most part, the immediate victims. Finally the word "selfish" must be used cautiously in an age when, by universal consent, each class had its own liberties , and might quite legitimately contend for them. Though in form a free grant of liberties, the charter had really been won from John at sword's point. It could not in any sense be looked upon as an act of legislation. He had accepted the terms demanded by the barons, but he would do so only so long as he was compelled to. He had already taken measures to acquire both juridical and physical weapons against his enemies by appealing to his suzerain, the pope, and sending abroad for mercenary troops. By a Bull dated 24 August at Anagni, Innocent III revoked the charter and later on excommunicated the rebellious barons. The motive of Innocent's actions are not far to seek. To begin with, he was probably misled as to the facts, and trusted too much to the king's account of what had happened. He was naturally inclined to protect the interests of a professed crusader and a vassal, and he took up the position that the barons could not be judges in their own cause, but should have referred the matter to him, the king's suzerain, for arbitration. But, more than this, he maintained quite correctly that the king had made the concessions under compulsion, and that the barons were in open rebellion against the Crown. It is indeed manifest that the charter could not have been a final settlement; it was accepted as such by neither extreme party, and even before the gathering at Runnymede had separated, the archbishop had grown suspicious of the executive committee of twenty-five. War over the French king's son, and, during the sixteen troubled months that intervened between the signing of the charter and the end of the reign, John had on the whole the advantage. Shortly after the accession of the young Henry III, the charter was reissued by the regent, William Marshall. This charter of 1216 differed in a good many respects from that accepted by john at Runnymede. To begin with, the clauses dealing with the royal forests were formed into a separate charter, the Charter of the Forests; the other clauses were considerably modified, points were more accurately defined, matters of a temporary nature, including naturally the old executive clause, were left out, but the chief change was to restore to the Crown a number of powers which had been abandoned during the previous year. Amongst these the most important was the right of taxation, chapters xii and xiv being omitted. On the other hand, there is this all-important difference that the new charter was a genuine grant by the Crown. It may be called a piece of honest legislation; and to this charter the papal legate gave the fullest consent. A few further changes were introduced in 1217, and for a third time the Magna Carta was reissued in 1225. The form it then received was final, and the charters which the Crown was so repeatedly asked to confirm for many years to come, meant the Charter of Liberties of 1225 and the Forest Charter. In time the Charters became almost symbolical; the precise meaning of many of the clauses was forgotten, and much more was read into some of them than their authors had ever intended to imply. They came to represent, like the "Laws of Good King Edward" in an earlier age, the ancient liberties of Englishmen, and in Stuart days when men looked behind the Tudor absolutism to a time of greater independence, lawyers like E. Coke continued the process of idealization which had been begun even in the thirteenth century. This symbolical use of the Great Charter has played a great part in English constitutional history, but it would have been impossible, had not the original document in its original sense been a thorough, an intelligent, and in the main a moderate expression of the determination of Englishmen to be ruled by law and tradition and not by arbitrary will. The most convenient text of the Great charter is that printed in Bemont's Chartes des Libertés anglaises" (Paris, 1892), but, it will also be found in Stubb's "Select Charters" and similar compilations. W.S. McKechnie ("Magna Carta", Glasgow, 1905) has published a very thorough commentary, clause by clause, together with an historical introduction and a discussion of the criticisms brought against the Charter. His book also contains a bibliography. Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	3,256	ENGLISH	1
The oil painting technique was to become dominant in the 15th and 16th centuries, it has remained as the artists favourite medium only being challenged in the latter years of the twentieth century by the advent of acrylic paint. Artists working in tempera found that their colours lacked the covering power of oils while the fresco painter was unable to make alterations to his work. Oil provided a versatile medium in which the artist was allowed the freedom to change the composition of his painting. Because the colour saturation of the paint was enhanced by the use of oil, no other medium could reproduce its range of both transparency and opacity. The methods of applying oil paints to a surface have become varied in the extreme; from the traditional use of brushes and palette knives; to the use of hands and feet; or the splattering of paint direct from tubes and cans; in the modern era it seems that just about anything is used by artists to achieve the desired effect.	<urn:uuid:3ae50048-5154-48e4-99b2-fc0c0c0155d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.italian-renaissance-art.com/Oil-Painting.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00418.warc.gz	en	0.985496	190	3.359375	3	[ -0.035992205142974854, 0.11920513957738876, 0.03256339952349663, -0.01688370294868946, -0.09600228816270828, 0.12779514491558075, -0.1673475056886673, -0.26113566756248474, -0.2826189696788788, -0.168396458029747, 0.08422485738992691, -0.35819122195243835, -0.11224576085805893, 0.313962966...	2	The oil painting technique was to become dominant in the 15th and 16th centuries, it has remained as the artists favourite medium only being challenged in the latter years of the twentieth century by the advent of acrylic paint. Artists working in tempera found that their colours lacked the covering power of oils while the fresco painter was unable to make alterations to his work. Oil provided a versatile medium in which the artist was allowed the freedom to change the composition of his painting. Because the colour saturation of the paint was enhanced by the use of oil, no other medium could reproduce its range of both transparency and opacity. The methods of applying oil paints to a surface have become varied in the extreme; from the traditional use of brushes and palette knives; to the use of hands and feet; or the splattering of paint direct from tubes and cans; in the modern era it seems that just about anything is used by artists to achieve the desired effect.	191	ENGLISH	1
1809 On the 12th of February, near Hodgenville, Kentucky, USA, the 16th president of USA, Abraham Lincoln, was born, a man who kept the Union during American Civil War. Born in a region 5km South to Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln was two years old when he went to a neighbouring farm in Knob Creek Valley. He was son of Thomas Lincoln and had a step-mother, Nancy. Thomas and Nancy had other three children: Sarah, Avraam and Thomas. His step-mother undoubtedly supported Lincoln’s pleasure for reading, but his wish to learn is still a mystery. His both parents were almost illiterate, but he got a little formal education. 1816 On December, he faced a trial that contested the title for his father’s farm in Kentucky. Thomas Lincoln moved with his family in the South-West of Indiana State. 1830 On March, Lincolns undertook a second emigration, this time to Illinois. When he was only 21 years old, Lincoln began life on his own. After coming to Illinois, having no desire to be a farmer, Lincoln tried a variety of jobs: rail splitter, filling responsible, controller. Because he had learnt grammar and Maths by himself, he started to study law books. While they were living to New Salem, Lincoln met Ann Rutledge. Her premature death, in 1835, 22 years old, made Lincoln extremely sad because they had a great love story, but not attested in history. One year later, Lincoln reluctantly courted Maria Owens who discovered his distress and refused his proposals. 1836 After an exam he started to practice law. 1837 He moved to Springfield, Illinois, the capital of the new state, which offered him many possibilities for his job. At the beginning, Lincoln was John T. Stuart’s partner and then Stephen T. Logan’s. 1844 He became William H. Herndon’s partner. During few years, Lincoln earned 1.200 – 1.500 dollars every year while the state’s governor won 1.200 dollars and judges got only 750 dollars. He had to work hard for this income. While he started to be important within national politics, about 20 years after his legal career had started, Lincoln became one of the most distinguished and successful lawyers in Illinois. He was remarked not only for his cunning and common sawy that allowed him feel each legal case, but also for his invariable fairness and total honesty. 1842 On the 4th of November he married Mary Todd. They had four boys: Edward Baker, William Wallace, Robert Todd and Thomas (“Tad”), Lincoln’s favourite. 1847 He was elected within Chamber of Representatives in USA and during his unique mandate he became known because of his both oppositions to Mexican war and slavery institution. 1856 Lincoln was founder of Republican Party and left USA Senate against his old enemy, “Little Giant”, Stephen A. Douglas. He caught the attention at national level because of debates regarding slavery problem. 1860 Lincoln’s fame was improved on the 27th of February when, before an influential audience in New York City, he uttered his wonderful speech, “Cooper Union”, through which he sustained governments’ power to limit slavery in federal territories. On July, Republicans nominated him for chairmanship at the third round of voting at Convention at Chicago. Democratic Party was spread into Northern and Southern factions, each of them having its own candidate for chairmanship. Lincoln’s election on November, over other three candidates, only 40% of popular vote, was unacceptable for Southern political men and it became a reason for South Carolina and other 10 states to secede from the Union. Until the moment when Lincoln arrived to Washington in order to be instated as a president, on the 4th of March 1861, Confederate States of America had been established. In the first line of his opening speech, Lincoln tried to attract back to Union the states that had got out. He did not recognize this separation. Southerners tried to impose by arms. So, a long and hard civil war of secession started – between Northerners and Southerners, ended by Southerners’ capitulation in the summer of 1865. 1865 On the 15th of April, 5 days later after war’s ending, President Abraham Lincoln was murdered by J. W. Booth, a Southern zealot, when he was to a theatre show. Among American heroes, Lincoln continued to have a unique appeal for his people and also for people in other places. This charm derived from his remarkable life story, his growth from humble origins, his dramatic death and distinct human personality, but also from his historical role as Union’s saver and slaves’ emancipator. - Created on . - Last updated on . - Hits: 946	<urn:uuid:a389a610-235a-42c0-a01d-9f1d4e089f5a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.biography.name/leaders/56-usa/62-abraham-lincoln-1809-1865?tmpl=component&print=1&layout=default	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00351.warc.gz	en	0.985639	1,022	3.6875	4	[ -0.05724429339170456, 0.4858925938606262, 0.1709216684103012, -0.012120779603719711, -0.5321232080459595, -0.06143709272146225, 0.0606284961104393, -0.24065974354743958, -0.2759791314601898, -0.1846354901790619, -0.050163980573415756, -0.15562954545021057, -0.04430239647626877, 0.357516527...	1	1809 On the 12th of February, near Hodgenville, Kentucky, USA, the 16th president of USA, Abraham Lincoln, was born, a man who kept the Union during American Civil War. Born in a region 5km South to Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln was two years old when he went to a neighbouring farm in Knob Creek Valley. He was son of Thomas Lincoln and had a step-mother, Nancy. Thomas and Nancy had other three children: Sarah, Avraam and Thomas. His step-mother undoubtedly supported Lincoln’s pleasure for reading, but his wish to learn is still a mystery. His both parents were almost illiterate, but he got a little formal education. 1816 On December, he faced a trial that contested the title for his father’s farm in Kentucky. Thomas Lincoln moved with his family in the South-West of Indiana State. 1830 On March, Lincolns undertook a second emigration, this time to Illinois. When he was only 21 years old, Lincoln began life on his own. After coming to Illinois, having no desire to be a farmer, Lincoln tried a variety of jobs: rail splitter, filling responsible, controller. Because he had learnt grammar and Maths by himself, he started to study law books. While they were living to New Salem, Lincoln met Ann Rutledge. Her premature death, in 1835, 22 years old, made Lincoln extremely sad because they had a great love story, but not attested in history. One year later, Lincoln reluctantly courted Maria Owens who discovered his distress and refused his proposals. 1836 After an exam he started to practice law. 1837 He moved to Springfield, Illinois, the capital of the new state, which offered him many possibilities for his job. At the beginning, Lincoln was John T. Stuart’s partner and then Stephen T. Logan’s. 1844 He became William H. Herndon’s partner. During few years, Lincoln earned 1.200 – 1.500 dollars every year while the state’s governor won 1.200 dollars and judges got only 750 dollars. He had to work hard for this income. While he started to be important within national politics, about 20 years after his legal career had started, Lincoln became one of the most distinguished and successful lawyers in Illinois. He was remarked not only for his cunning and common sawy that allowed him feel each legal case, but also for his invariable fairness and total honesty. 1842 On the 4th of November he married Mary Todd. They had four boys: Edward Baker, William Wallace, Robert Todd and Thomas (“Tad”), Lincoln’s favourite. 1847 He was elected within Chamber of Representatives in USA and during his unique mandate he became known because of his both oppositions to Mexican war and slavery institution. 1856 Lincoln was founder of Republican Party and left USA Senate against his old enemy, “Little Giant”, Stephen A. Douglas. He caught the attention at national level because of debates regarding slavery problem. 1860 Lincoln’s fame was improved on the 27th of February when, before an influential audience in New York City, he uttered his wonderful speech, “Cooper Union”, through which he sustained governments’ power to limit slavery in federal territories. On July, Republicans nominated him for chairmanship at the third round of voting at Convention at Chicago. Democratic Party was spread into Northern and Southern factions, each of them having its own candidate for chairmanship. Lincoln’s election on November, over other three candidates, only 40% of popular vote, was unacceptable for Southern political men and it became a reason for South Carolina and other 10 states to secede from the Union. Until the moment when Lincoln arrived to Washington in order to be instated as a president, on the 4th of March 1861, Confederate States of America had been established. In the first line of his opening speech, Lincoln tried to attract back to Union the states that had got out. He did not recognize this separation. Southerners tried to impose by arms. So, a long and hard civil war of secession started – between Northerners and Southerners, ended by Southerners’ capitulation in the summer of 1865. 1865 On the 15th of April, 5 days later after war’s ending, President Abraham Lincoln was murdered by J. W. Booth, a Southern zealot, when he was to a theatre show. Among American heroes, Lincoln continued to have a unique appeal for his people and also for people in other places. This charm derived from his remarkable life story, his growth from humble origins, his dramatic death and distinct human personality, but also from his historical role as Union’s saver and slaves’ emancipator. - Created on . - Last updated on . - Hits: 946	1,031	ENGLISH	1
We finished our study of the Victorian era by asking our overarching question: golden age or dark age? On the one hand, we’d learned that Victorian Britain was a world superpower, controlling the largest empire ever to exist, rich and prosperous, trading across the world, leading the industrial revolution and advancing science, technology and medicine. On the other, we knew that many of these achievements had come at a high cost. The empire had involved violence and exploitation, cities were polluted, there was terrible poverty, and many children (especially orphans, as we’d learned from Oliver) suffered hard lives and cruel treatment. How were we to weigh all this up? The children worked together to produce short ‘Team Statements’ summarising their evaluation of the Victorians. As you can see, different teams had different perspectives and priorities, perhaps showing us that studying history will always be a matter of interpretation. The Victorian age can be seen as a golden age and a dark age because there were a lot of new inventions like railways and medicine but the people who invented these things used violence to make their money. Lots of people were poor and lived in very harsh conditions and children who went to school and were naughty would be humiliated and physically harmed. (Tom, Abdi, Thanh and Reuben) The Victorian era was a golden age in British history because without steam ships and trains we couldn’t travel and transport goods as quickly and there was also wider education and improved healthcare. It was also a dark age because there were lots of terrible punishments and orphaned children were treated the worst. (Adam, Sam, Macie and Kia) The Victorian age was a dark age because the Victorians tricked the empire into making them rich and did lots of bad things to the countries they controlled. Children’s punishments were very bad and the workhouses were cruel places. (Annie, Chyanne, Jake and Lynden) The Victorian era was a dark age because if it was a golden age there shouldn’t be any faults, kids shouldn’t have been made to work in factories, and they should have been able to choose what they wanted to do with their lives. Britain was also a very polluted country and only the rich people got home schooled and were treated much better than the poor. (Oscar, Meli, Kenza and Alamine) The Victorian era was part golden, part dark age because they invented lots of important things but schools used cruel and humiliating punishments and children were treated badly in other ways too including being made to work in factories from a very young age. (Nate, Kingsley, Juliette and Nyah) The Victorian era was a golden age because they controlled the biggest empire in history but it was also a dark age because there was a big difference between the rich and the poor and the Victorians did lots of horrible things like forcing children to work from a very young age. (Lilah, Azeeza, Niccolo and Harry) The Victorian era is a dark age because lots of children were treated very badly, even the ones that went to school and the streets were crime ridden and polluted. (Hetty, Elwood and Rafi) In today’s history lesson we thought about the impact of the coming of the railways in the Victorian era. Pictured below are early images and photos of Herne Hill station, built in 1862 on the line from central London to Kent and Dover harbour. For many, the railways meant new opportunities and markets, while for others it was a disruption to traditional ways of life. We tried to understand the impact on the lives of different groups of people including factory owners, shopkeepers, landowners, canal workers, and owners of coaching inns. Then each of the children had to imagine that they were a member one of these groups of stakeholders and speak at a public inquiry – imaginary date 1860 – held to decide whether the railway should be built at Herne Hill. At the end of the inquiry, there was a solid majority in the class against building the railway – perhaps some modern day environmental concerns formed part of the children’s thinking. The railways allowed many people to travel significant distances for the first time and, on balance, probably had the effect of moving families more apart. But they could also bring people back together and – if only tenuously connected to this lesson – we enjoyed this famous moment from The Railway Children. We studied a series of photographs from the Victorian era (that is, primary historical sources) to see what we could find out about Victorian classrooms. It was interesting to see how much we could work out from the photos – more than we found in the extracts from books on Victorian schooling that we also looked at. This gave us a picture in our minds of a Victorian classroom – but what was it really like to be at the school? For this we had to go to use secondary information from textbooks. We learned about the three Rs, Victorian ‘drill,’ regimented teaching including lots of copying and chanting, and the strict discipline and appalling ‘dunce’s hat.’ (The children who had read the horrible histories’ Vile Victorians knew about more and worse!) We also learned that for most of the Victorian era it was only the relatively well-off children who went to school. The poorer children were working in factories and the rich ones educated at home by governesses and then (the boys at least) at private schools. It was only in the later part of the Victorian era that school was made compulsory and all children started to attend (even if their parents wanted them to continue earning money in the factories). This required a large school building programme, of course, of which Rosendale was a part. The style of teaching is different today. But it’s interesting to ask whether, 150 years later, it is at all surprising that children are still sitting at tables, in the same classrooms, learning roughly the same subjects, for roughly the same period of the day and week. This week in history we found out about the use of child labour in Victorian times. We had a primary source of information: the evidence given by eight different witnesses to a parliamentary investigation into child labour in Victorian factories. The investigation followed allegations in the newspapers that the factory owners of Yorkshire were more cruel to their child workers than slave owners were to their slaves. We listened to the evidence and discussed how reliable a description we thought it was of the conditions experienced by child factory workers. The children looked at information about British rule of India covering jobs, education, transport, farming, economic development and human rights and freedoms and discussed whether each of the changes the British introduced had been good for India, bad for India, or a bit of both. Today in history we learned about how, by the end of the Victorian era, Britain controlled an empire – the largest in the history of the world – that covered almost a quarter of the surface of the Earth and included almost a quarter of its people. We discussed what was meant when it was said that “the sun never set on the British empire.” We talked about how Britain became rich from trade with the empire and London became the world’s largest and wealthiest city and port. We looked at images of the wharfs and warehouses along the Thames at that time and at some of London’s grand, iconic Victorian buildings. On Monday, we’ll continue the lesson by looking in more detail at the British control of India – the so-called “jewel in the crown” of the empire – when we’ll try also to see the empire from the point of view and through the experience of the Indian nation and people. Several members of the class come from families that once lived in countries formerly part of the empire. If there is any family history that they could share, then that would be incredibly valuable to our learning. In today’s history lesson we learned about the difference between primary and secondary sources of historical information and then used this engraving from 1870 by Gustav Dore as part of our research into cities in Victorian England. You could ask your son or daughter to discuss the picture and see what they can tell you about it – there’s more to consider than meets the eye.	<urn:uuid:8a1cbf26-ac61-40a9-a0c9-6462c4340f2d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://rps4tbm2019.wordpress.com/tag/victorians/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00267.warc.gz	en	0.984087	1,711	3.4375	3	[ -0.2159242182970047, 0.17042042315006256, 0.6362707018852234, 0.15578633546829224, 0.32994288206100464, 0.16625487804412842, -0.38264963030815125, 0.11656518280506134, -0.19584788382053375, 0.18988554179668427, 0.23642107844352722, -0.4212843179702759, -0.15011107921600342, 0.2978505790233...	1	We finished our study of the Victorian era by asking our overarching question: golden age or dark age? On the one hand, we’d learned that Victorian Britain was a world superpower, controlling the largest empire ever to exist, rich and prosperous, trading across the world, leading the industrial revolution and advancing science, technology and medicine. On the other, we knew that many of these achievements had come at a high cost. The empire had involved violence and exploitation, cities were polluted, there was terrible poverty, and many children (especially orphans, as we’d learned from Oliver) suffered hard lives and cruel treatment. How were we to weigh all this up? The children worked together to produce short ‘Team Statements’ summarising their evaluation of the Victorians. As you can see, different teams had different perspectives and priorities, perhaps showing us that studying history will always be a matter of interpretation. The Victorian age can be seen as a golden age and a dark age because there were a lot of new inventions like railways and medicine but the people who invented these things used violence to make their money. Lots of people were poor and lived in very harsh conditions and children who went to school and were naughty would be humiliated and physically harmed. (Tom, Abdi, Thanh and Reuben) The Victorian era was a golden age in British history because without steam ships and trains we couldn’t travel and transport goods as quickly and there was also wider education and improved healthcare. It was also a dark age because there were lots of terrible punishments and orphaned children were treated the worst. (Adam, Sam, Macie and Kia) The Victorian age was a dark age because the Victorians tricked the empire into making them rich and did lots of bad things to the countries they controlled. Children’s punishments were very bad and the workhouses were cruel places. (Annie, Chyanne, Jake and Lynden) The Victorian era was a dark age because if it was a golden age there shouldn’t be any faults, kids shouldn’t have been made to work in factories, and they should have been able to choose what they wanted to do with their lives. Britain was also a very polluted country and only the rich people got home schooled and were treated much better than the poor. (Oscar, Meli, Kenza and Alamine) The Victorian era was part golden, part dark age because they invented lots of important things but schools used cruel and humiliating punishments and children were treated badly in other ways too including being made to work in factories from a very young age. (Nate, Kingsley, Juliette and Nyah) The Victorian era was a golden age because they controlled the biggest empire in history but it was also a dark age because there was a big difference between the rich and the poor and the Victorians did lots of horrible things like forcing children to work from a very young age. (Lilah, Azeeza, Niccolo and Harry) The Victorian era is a dark age because lots of children were treated very badly, even the ones that went to school and the streets were crime ridden and polluted. (Hetty, Elwood and Rafi) In today’s history lesson we thought about the impact of the coming of the railways in the Victorian era. Pictured below are early images and photos of Herne Hill station, built in 1862 on the line from central London to Kent and Dover harbour. For many, the railways meant new opportunities and markets, while for others it was a disruption to traditional ways of life. We tried to understand the impact on the lives of different groups of people including factory owners, shopkeepers, landowners, canal workers, and owners of coaching inns. Then each of the children had to imagine that they were a member one of these groups of stakeholders and speak at a public inquiry – imaginary date 1860 – held to decide whether the railway should be built at Herne Hill. At the end of the inquiry, there was a solid majority in the class against building the railway – perhaps some modern day environmental concerns formed part of the children’s thinking. The railways allowed many people to travel significant distances for the first time and, on balance, probably had the effect of moving families more apart. But they could also bring people back together and – if only tenuously connected to this lesson – we enjoyed this famous moment from The Railway Children. We studied a series of photographs from the Victorian era (that is, primary historical sources) to see what we could find out about Victorian classrooms. It was interesting to see how much we could work out from the photos – more than we found in the extracts from books on Victorian schooling that we also looked at. This gave us a picture in our minds of a Victorian classroom – but what was it really like to be at the school? For this we had to go to use secondary information from textbooks. We learned about the three Rs, Victorian ‘drill,’ regimented teaching including lots of copying and chanting, and the strict discipline and appalling ‘dunce’s hat.’ (The children who had read the horrible histories’ Vile Victorians knew about more and worse!) We also learned that for most of the Victorian era it was only the relatively well-off children who went to school. The poorer children were working in factories and the rich ones educated at home by governesses and then (the boys at least) at private schools. It was only in the later part of the Victorian era that school was made compulsory and all children started to attend (even if their parents wanted them to continue earning money in the factories). This required a large school building programme, of course, of which Rosendale was a part. The style of teaching is different today. But it’s interesting to ask whether, 150 years later, it is at all surprising that children are still sitting at tables, in the same classrooms, learning roughly the same subjects, for roughly the same period of the day and week. This week in history we found out about the use of child labour in Victorian times. We had a primary source of information: the evidence given by eight different witnesses to a parliamentary investigation into child labour in Victorian factories. The investigation followed allegations in the newspapers that the factory owners of Yorkshire were more cruel to their child workers than slave owners were to their slaves. We listened to the evidence and discussed how reliable a description we thought it was of the conditions experienced by child factory workers. The children looked at information about British rule of India covering jobs, education, transport, farming, economic development and human rights and freedoms and discussed whether each of the changes the British introduced had been good for India, bad for India, or a bit of both. Today in history we learned about how, by the end of the Victorian era, Britain controlled an empire – the largest in the history of the world – that covered almost a quarter of the surface of the Earth and included almost a quarter of its people. We discussed what was meant when it was said that “the sun never set on the British empire.” We talked about how Britain became rich from trade with the empire and London became the world’s largest and wealthiest city and port. We looked at images of the wharfs and warehouses along the Thames at that time and at some of London’s grand, iconic Victorian buildings. On Monday, we’ll continue the lesson by looking in more detail at the British control of India – the so-called “jewel in the crown” of the empire – when we’ll try also to see the empire from the point of view and through the experience of the Indian nation and people. Several members of the class come from families that once lived in countries formerly part of the empire. If there is any family history that they could share, then that would be incredibly valuable to our learning. In today’s history lesson we learned about the difference between primary and secondary sources of historical information and then used this engraving from 1870 by Gustav Dore as part of our research into cities in Victorian England. You could ask your son or daughter to discuss the picture and see what they can tell you about it – there’s more to consider than meets the eye.	1,662	ENGLISH	1
What does China’s first currency look like? when did inflation first occur? Why are banknotes burned every year and what is “Hell Bank”? 10 facts you probably did not know about Chinese money: - The first bronze pieces that were used in China as currency, around the 7th-6th centuries BC, were spade-shaped coins. A spade-shaped coin from the 6th century BC 2. The first round coin appeared during the 5-4th century BC. The coinage in China then underwent a transition in means of payment, and a new shape of coins was cast in the form of a round disc with a hole in the center. The holed disc remained the basic shape of Chinese coins until the 20th century. A Chineses coin from the 5th century BC 3. Originally, the value of the coin was equal to its weight. However, from the 2nd century BC, the actual content of the coin was reduced, and the central hole was enlarged. From then on, a difference between the face value and the actual value of the metal became common. 4. The first occurrence of inflation in China was in the 2nd century BC, due to the massive recruitment of workers building the Great Wall, and a series of wars. 5. Due to the low value of a single coin, it was customary to form a string of 1000 coins into a purchasing unit. 6. The ancient Chinese currency was a means of exchange and a measure of value alone. In other words, the purpose of the Chinese currency was not to store value, and hence why it remained low in value for centuries. The Chinese believed that currency had to circulate in the social structure as blood flows in the human body. 7. The first time paper money was used was in China in the 9th century. Chinese paper money from the 9th century 8. When Marco Polo arrived in China in the 13th century, he was impressed by the use of paper money. He described this amazing innovation in his journey records: “All these pieces of paper are issued with as much solemnity and authority as if they were of pure gold or silver”. When he returned to Italy, people did not believe his stories about the paper money in China. The West started printing banknotes centuries later. 9. The Chinese invented a method to detect forgeries. They hid secret marks on the bills and enforced strict regulations. Forgers were punished by the death penalty, while the informer received a reward in addition to the property of the criminal. 10. In Chinese tradition, it is customary to make offerings in honor of one’s ancestors. One of these offerings is burning “Hell banknotes”, a tribute to the King of Hell that is meant to ensure that the spirits are treated well in the afterlife. From the 19th century, millions of these paper notes have been burnt every year in celebration during the Chinese New Year festival. Managing the financials of your operation in China with maximum efficiency and transparency is not a luxury. It’s an absolute must in order to do business in China.	<urn:uuid:e5efaabe-c788-479a-9cfd-01fb0d42d86b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ptl-group.com/chinese-money-currency/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00088.warc.gz	en	0.981142	650	3.46875	3	[ -0.4501628279685974, 0.12644891440868378, 0.08063842356204987, -0.059930600225925446, -0.06457041949033737, 0.1068488284945488, 0.4686771035194397, -0.12324078381061554, 0.18444868922233582, -0.20090176165103912, 0.546118974685669, -0.23202833533287048, -0.08060552179813385, 0.340339004993...	10	What does China’s first currency look like? when did inflation first occur? Why are banknotes burned every year and what is “Hell Bank”? 10 facts you probably did not know about Chinese money: - The first bronze pieces that were used in China as currency, around the 7th-6th centuries BC, were spade-shaped coins. A spade-shaped coin from the 6th century BC 2. The first round coin appeared during the 5-4th century BC. The coinage in China then underwent a transition in means of payment, and a new shape of coins was cast in the form of a round disc with a hole in the center. The holed disc remained the basic shape of Chinese coins until the 20th century. A Chineses coin from the 5th century BC 3. Originally, the value of the coin was equal to its weight. However, from the 2nd century BC, the actual content of the coin was reduced, and the central hole was enlarged. From then on, a difference between the face value and the actual value of the metal became common. 4. The first occurrence of inflation in China was in the 2nd century BC, due to the massive recruitment of workers building the Great Wall, and a series of wars. 5. Due to the low value of a single coin, it was customary to form a string of 1000 coins into a purchasing unit. 6. The ancient Chinese currency was a means of exchange and a measure of value alone. In other words, the purpose of the Chinese currency was not to store value, and hence why it remained low in value for centuries. The Chinese believed that currency had to circulate in the social structure as blood flows in the human body. 7. The first time paper money was used was in China in the 9th century. Chinese paper money from the 9th century 8. When Marco Polo arrived in China in the 13th century, he was impressed by the use of paper money. He described this amazing innovation in his journey records: “All these pieces of paper are issued with as much solemnity and authority as if they were of pure gold or silver”. When he returned to Italy, people did not believe his stories about the paper money in China. The West started printing banknotes centuries later. 9. The Chinese invented a method to detect forgeries. They hid secret marks on the bills and enforced strict regulations. Forgers were punished by the death penalty, while the informer received a reward in addition to the property of the criminal. 10. In Chinese tradition, it is customary to make offerings in honor of one’s ancestors. One of these offerings is burning “Hell banknotes”, a tribute to the King of Hell that is meant to ensure that the spirits are treated well in the afterlife. From the 19th century, millions of these paper notes have been burnt every year in celebration during the Chinese New Year festival. Managing the financials of your operation in China with maximum efficiency and transparency is not a luxury. It’s an absolute must in order to do business in China.	644	ENGLISH	1
At the time of Caesar’s , life there were two leading political factions in Rome: the Optimates and Populares. The Optimares was a conservative group gathering old senators attached to their positions. They were accustomed to the ongoing republican system and did not see its weaknesses. It was impossible for them to predict that this system would not be able to maintain the growing Empire without any centralize power and with the corruption spreading all over. Much earlier there were people who had been trying to change something(eg. Gracchus brothers), but it was not until the Caesar’s (head of Populares) reforms when it was possible to see any effects. To gain real power he contracted an alliance with Pompey and Marcus Crassus and established the First Triumvirate. After Crassus’ tragic death in 53 BCE Caesar and Pompey got into a conflict. Why? Obviously, it turned out that Pompey was the Rebublic’s defender whereas Caesar, despite not being eager for power, clearly pursued it. According to the anecdotal evidence, Caesar was supposed to say the famous words alea iacta est – “the die is cast” while crossing the Rubicon. Doing that, at the army’s head, was an evident opposition to the Senate’s legal power and there was no going back. The civil war (bellum civile). between Caesar and Pompey began. Caesar starts his account of the Civil War from within, he does not write about its causes directly, but we get to know them along with the story development. In the very beginning we find out why the Senate favored Pompey in the war. It turns out that two messengers arrived in the Senate Caesar’s and Pompey’s, but it was Pompey who was close to the city and his messenger’s speech worked as if the commander was speaking himself. Moreover, it turned out that Caesar had been taken away two legions which then could be used against him by Pompey who had the Senate’s (reluctant) support. The Scipio’s request put in the Senate was supposed to order Caesar to disband the army, otherwise he would be considered a traitor. Pompey managed to gather the soldiers from the city and the environs while also setting some influential figures against Caesar. Political situation was rather unfavorable for Caesar. His supporters had no voice and his adversaries gathered against him around Pompey, tempted with future trophies and fortune. At that time Caesar was staying in Ravenna, by the Adriatic (today – Ravenna1). Pompey started army recruitment in the whole Italy. Senate divided provinces between consuls and praetors, however it was only a formal division. Caesar, of course, did not intend to comply with the Senate’s orders and addressed his soldiers speaking of his opponents’ law violation. Pompey’s messengers came to Caesar asking for disbanding his army and turning himself in the Senate, for the good of republic. However Caesar’s conditions were simple as he obviously did not purse war – he demanded dismissing the soldiers and ceasing the recruitment from Pompey in order to restore peace in Italy. Caesar, outraged with Pompey’s claims which he even did not fill himself, began a recruitment in Arimium2 and put his people in the cities that he had already controlled: Arretium3, Pisaurum4, Fanum 5and Ancona6. At short notice his commander, Curio7 (Caesar’s supporter, he contributed to inflaming the conflict between Caesar and Pompey before the war), took over two cities which so far had been in Pompey’s hand. We know what a threat it was to have Caesar as an enemy. Even the tidings about his approaching the city caused the commanders’ escapes and the gates were open for the emperor. Even false rumors made his influential opponents leave Rome. Meanwhile Caesar continued his campaign in Italy, taking over the next cities which welcomed him as a commander. The army disbanded by Lentulus8 he incorporated to his legions. It is important to say that at this time Caesar had only two legions because the rest of them did not come back from the winter quarters. Afterwards Caesar went on a siege of Corfinium9, defended by the Domitius’10 forces (Caesar’s enemy, consul in 54 BCE). Domitius, being afraid of Caesar and having 30 shorts (approximately 3 legions) asked Pompey for help. At the same time Caesar took over Salmon which opened its gates and welcomed Antony’s army, sent by Caesar, with the ovations. Luckily, Caesar got reinforcements three days later (VII Legion, 22 cohorts from Gaul and about 30 from the nordic king). For those reinforcements there was built a camp under Curio’s leadership. After that Caesar built fortifications around the city. Earlier Domitius had received letters from Pompey saying that he did not want to risk and would not help. Meanwhile the siege foiled Domitius’ escape. When the army found out about this plan, they captured him and sent the messengers to Caesar, stating that they were able to surrender the city and give Domitius up. The emperor though ordered the soldiers to stay in and defend the city because of the possible sallies during the night. Nonetheless, Caesar was aware that getting the city at little cost is in his interest and so he was acting preventively. The following day Lentulus hiding in the city came to Caesar and asked for the rescue. It is a rather crucial moment as Caesar says here what are the reasons for his campaign. He mentiones that he fights in order to defend himself against the insults and protect the tribunes exiled from the city. It meant that Caesar actually did not care about capturing Lentulus or Domitius, or making a massacre on his enemies. Of course, it was one of the reasons for this war but it is important not to forget that Caesar was not only an excellent commander but also an exquisite politician and orator. At bottom Caesar took care about defeating Pompey but he was still not able to face him head-on. His efforts show what a great orator he was. He pardoned Lentulus temporarily and thereby gained endorsement of the scared army and access to the next city of his enemy. In reality Caesar for sure wanted wealth and development for Rome but as a mean to an end he decided to defeat Pompey. Here Caesar appears also as a brilliant expert in human nature. On the next day when the Senators, Roman knights and military tribunes were brought to him he forbade his soldiers to put them down not to incite them. He only accused them of ungratefulness and then let go not taking 6 million sesterces from the public treasury which were intended to be the pay for Pompey’s army (he knew that perfectly well). He wanted to seem guarded. The same day he broke the camp and started the march. Near Corfinium11 he spent a week (15th-21st February 49 BCE). Finding out what happened there, Pompey accelerated the recruitment and set off to Brundisium12. Caesar managed to take over some of his cohorts which had been deserted. In order to prevent Pompey from the escape by sea, Caesar strewed the part of the sound with rocks around the shoal and built there rafts from where it was easy to defend. In order to knock through that, Pompey armed the traders (which he had taken over in the city) with the towers from which he could throw the rounds. When after nine days Caesar’s work were half done, Pompey’s vessels arrived (which previously had transferred part of the army). Pompey, planning to leave Italy, prepared for the crossing. Since the inhabitants supported Caesar, they signaled from the roofs that Pompey was transferring the soldiers on the vessels. Caesar got to Brundisium13 at night on March 17th 49 BCE when Pompey had already detached the vessels but Caesar managed anyway to take over two of them. He dropped the idea of chasing Pompey because of the lack of ships and decided to go to Spain. Curio was sent back with three legions to Africa. Meanwhile, Caesar went to the Senate in order to cast the insults up to them. Nobody ventured messaging Pompey so after few days the matter remained not adjusted and Caesar went to Cisalpine Gaul14. Thereby he finished his campaign in Italy and completely succeeded. Marseille did not let Caesar in excusing with its neutrality in the conflict with Pompey. However, when Domitius arrived on the vessels, he was acclaimed as a commander in chief. Outraged Caesar ordered to build the towers and draft in 3 legions. He appointed Gaius Trebonius as a commander of the siege. He sent his legate Gaius Fabius to Hispania to take the gaps in the Pyrenees, controlled by Afranius15. According to Caesar’s words in Spain there were 3 Pompey’s legates with 7 legions, the reinforcement of heavy infantrymen from the provinces standing with them and 5000 of cavalry. Caesar sent to Hispania 6 legions, 5000 of auxiliary infantry and 6000 of cavalry. On the river Skyros Fabius16 built two bridges on which he transported feed. They were placed near the Afranius’ bridges and close to the Pompey’s legates so the cavalry clashes were quite often. While reading the descriptions of the small battles, it is clearly visible that both Caesar’s and Pompey’s legates were well trained. They were able to use wisely the lay of the land and the situations which would let them to win. After only two days Caesar appeared at Afranius’ camp, near Ilreda17, with 900 auxiliary soldiers. He camped approximately 300 meters from the hill on which climbed Afranius’ forces. Then he managed to dig the fosse and fortify the camp before the Pompey’s legates had noticed that Caesar carried out work. He did it because he wanted only the third row of the soldiers to work whereas the first two would wait fully armed as if prepared for the fight, hiding the working. During the next days Caesar digged in and after a few clashes he ordered to check the tabors and the rest of the cohorts left in the old camp. He was planning to fortify the hill between Ilreda where were his enemies’ supplies and the camps of Pompey’s legates. Having noticed the move of Caesar, Afranius sent the part of his legions to stop him. At short notice a fight ensued. In the beginning Caesar had to pull out because there was a mess in the troop formation. He called the IX legion for help. Thanks to the reinforcement Caesar forced his enemies to retreat under the walls of Ilreda, but in the pursuit of the escaping, the IX legion went too far and the Afranius’ counterattack began. The battle lasted for 5 hours in the narrow corridor where the cavalry’s help was impossible. A heroic attack let the Caesar’s army to resist the enemy and return safely with the cavalry’s cover. Approximately 70 of Caesar’s soldiers died in this battle and more than 600 suffered an injury. 200 people were supposed to die in Afranius’ troops. Both sites credited themselves with the victory. Finally Afranius managed to fortify the hill which was the subject of the fight. Because of the heavy rain the level of the rivers increased and Caesar became cut off of the food supplies so the army became to starve. Afranius had his stores in the city in abundance. The reinforcements gathered for Caesar beyond the river had to hide in the mountains from Afranius’ attack. Caesar built small light ships which allowed him to go across the river at night and fortify the nearby hill. Thanks to that he built a bridge in two days and could send the cavalry to take over some of the enemies’ supplies. Meanwhile there was Marseille where there was build a fleet consisting of 17 huge vessels by order of Domitius. Caesar’s fleet, stationed around, was headed by Decimus Brutus. Although both the number and the equipment of Brutus’ fleet was worse, he made up for it with the greater soldiers. Their enemies were better prepared for the naval battle but each time there was a chance for boarding, the advantage was all Caesar’s. In the end they won the battle and the Marseilles lost 9 vessels. Let’s get back to Ilreda though. After rebuilding the bridge, Caesar’s situation significantly improve. Many Iberian tribes declared dependency. Caesar built the canals, carried out the water and thus got a ford. Afranius, together with the two other legates, decided to move the war into the more advantageous place – Celtiberia18 (inhabited by Celts who arrived in Iberian Peninsula and mixed with the Iberians; the Celtiberians were extremely combative and difficult to harness). The retreat was possible because the bridge that Caesar was using caused that he had to make a detour. So he sent the cavalry to delay the march and himself swam across the river which took a lot of time. After a few hours of intense chase they managed to catch up the Afranius’ rearguard. Pompey’s legates did not expect that and quickly garrisoned the hill and prepared for the battle. They were planning to take the gorges in the nearby mountains but because of their exhaustion they postponed it for the next day and only fortified themselves on the hill, the same as Caesar did. At night Caesar managed to caught a group of Afranius’ people who revealed to him that Afranius was going to strike his camps, so Caesar did the same thing. Hearing the signals from Caesar’s camp, those canceled the march. Both commanders knew that the first one to take the gorged would be able to hold the enemy off. In the morning Caesar decided to set off sidestepping Afranius. The march look as if Caesar’s soldiers were starving (without the tabors and the pack animals) and coming back to Ilreda – and that was the exact Afranius’ intepretation. He did not find out the truth until Caesar started turning back and the front guards passed his camp. Then Afranius quickly ordered to leave and block Caesar’s road. Thus began a chase which ended with Caesar’s victory. He hit the plain in front of the gorges where he disposed the troop formations. Having Caesar’s army in front and the cavalry behind, Afranius hide in the nearby hill. He changed his past plans because as the thing were he decided to take the highest hill in order to be able to get across the mountain paths to Octogesa (today – Ebro). Pompey’s legate sent 4 cohorts for getting the hill but they were slaughtered by the enemy’s cavalry. Despite the centurions’ requests, Caesar did not start the battle – he did not want to expose his army to even the smallest loss. He had a hope that Afranius would give up anyway as he was cut off the water and supplies. In reality Afranius had two options: either get back to Ilreda or go to Tarraco20 (today – Tarragona) but he could not set off without water. His soldiers began to build the rampart to the nearby stream to stock up on water. However, thanks to the fact that Caesar had spared some terrified opponents the day earlier, they were asking for incorporation to his army because they considered him to be the better commander. The only thing they wanted was the guarantee that they commanders would survive, just to make sure that the troopers would not be accused of betrayal. Under these circumstances two hostile camps became one. The vast majority of Afranius’ soldiers was looking for people who could introduce them to Caesar who was congratulated on his tactic. Although, if Afranius was prone to peace talks, Petreius (the other legate) gathered a group of soldiers and drove away fraternizing army, killing the rest of the people. After a short speech in the camps he forced the soldiers to make a vow saying that they would never leave their commanders and then he killed some of the Caesar’s troopers hiding in the camp. State of war returned to its previous state. The lack of food started having influence on Afranius’ army. If the legionaries had 7-day food supplies taken from Ilreda, the reinforcements had no provision and every day some of they sneaked out to Caesar’s camp. Because of such situation Caesar’s opponents were pressured to get back to Ilreda. Traditionally, Caesar followed them bothering their rearguard with his cavalry. The Afranius’ cavalry was frightened because of the previous battles which made them useless. The army bothered by the cavalry could neither go forward nor find a proper place for the camp. In these circumstances they were forced to stay in the inconvenient place, far from water. Caesar was still avoiding the battle and was trying to surround Afranius with the banks. Afranius decided to arrange a formation for the battle. Caesar canceled the works and also arranged an order but he was waiting for the enemy’s attack. Afranius only wanted Caesar to stop his works and after sunset the soldiers scattered to their camps and Caesar continued the works. Pompey’s legates was trying to get across the Sicoris river on a ford but Caesar quickly transferred the troopers and part of the cavalry on the other side and set out the guards. After four days of misery they asked for help. In the place chosen by Caesar they begged for peace and saving them. Caesar mentioned Afranius that he had spurned the peace request He did not demand incorporating soldiers to his legions but disbanding the army and leaving the province. The soldiers took this massage joyously. It was settled that those who had houses in Hispanic would be dismissed immediately whereas the rest by the Varus21 (today – Var). This way the second Caesar’s campaign ended and, again, he gained the victory. Without any significant loss he managed to win the war in Hispanic Citerior. He again showed his genius, both political and military. At that moment he had wielded power in Italy and Hispania. Soon it was to turn out that the cities remaining faithful to Pompey in Gaul would not be able to resist any more. The second book brings us again to Marseille where Trebonius’ siege was still going on. The city was surrounded by water from the three sides so it was possible to get into only from the one side and thus there began a building of a levee. Marseille turned out to be a defensible city, well-prepared for the siege. The Romans could built the levee with difficulty. The Albices22 (combative montane tribe living north of Marseille) often made sallies with a view to starting a fire which hardly ever worked out. Meanwhile, Lucius Nasidius23, Pompey’s supporter, was sent with the fleet to Marseille to help them. A message about a coming fleet arrived in the city so the Marseillians repaired their vessels, equipped them and set off against the commander of Caesar’s fleet. Before the battle they joined each other. On the battle field two trims attacked Decimus Brutus’ ship (Caesar’s commander) who avoided the collision at the last moment and the opponent’s vessels collided. An instant later they were sunk by the Caesar’s fleet. The great expectations concerning Nesidus’ fleet were gone as he was forced to pull out from the battlefield because of the soldiers’ low morale. The Marseillians lost 9 vessels (5 sunk, 4 taken over) and only one was able to escape with the Nasidius’ fleet. In the concern about the sallies, Caesar’s soldiers built a brick tower which was fire-proof and as high as the fortified tower in the city which allowed to throw the round effectively. Having such a shelter they started building a gallery covered with roof leading from their tower to the Marseillians. Caesar described the process of building a gallery in detail but I have decided to spare the readers all of them. When it comes to the effects of the soldiers’ works, thanks to the gallery they managed to get to the opponents tower and jemmy its back rocks. Part of the building collapsed and the rest was falling apart. Terrified Marseillians ran out of the city without the weapons begging for mercy. They begged to wait for Caesar because the city looked almost conquered. The fortifying works were almost done and people did not want to defend any longer. The soldiers wanted to ravage the city, probably killing lots of people. Finally, the works were called off leaving only guards. The siege looked finished but everybody waited for Caesar. However, few days later in Trebonius’ ranks set in chaos and the Marseillians made a sudden sally during which they managed to torch the levee, other siege engines built beneath the city, including the tower and the gallery. The next day they tried the same movement with the second tower and the gallery (built simultaneously on the other side of the wall) but the soldiers where prepared for that and easily countered the attack. Furious Romans started building the wall which was supposed to cut off the city from the land. Trebonius’ walls were so close to the city walls that it was possible to throw the manual rounds. On the other hand the wall was not thick enough that the siege engines turned out not to be successful. Under those circumstances the Marseillians began the armistice negotiations. Few days earlier Domitius had predicted that Marseille would give up.He took two ships for his friends and one for himself and during the stormy weather he got out. The chase caught only his friends’ ships, Domitius himself managed to escape. Writing about how he took the control over Hispania Ulterior, Caesar mentioned in his diary about Marcus Varro. He was one of Pompey’s legates, but, on the other hand, sympathized with Caesar. When he was informed about the Caesar’s stop in Marseille and after that about the supply scarceness in Ilreda, he started the recruitment in Hispanic Ulterior and speak against Caesar, about his failures and fiascos. In his provinces he levied high taxes on Caesar’s supporters and chased convicted criminals. After Caesar’s victory in Hispanic Citerior he sent for the tribune Quintus Casius with the two legions from the other province. Meanwhile Caesar convoked an administration meeting in Corduba24 (today: Cordova), the first Roman colonia on this peninsula. It turned out that the vast majority of the provinces supports Caesar and Corduba and Carmona25 closed its gates for Varro. Knowing that he was not welcomed in the provinces he hurried to the city (where were supplies) not to be cut off the road. Before he had arrived, he got a message that his troops were exiled from the city which was secured for Caesar. One of the legions left Varro who, being completely terrified and cut off, went to Caesar and offered him the second legion, all the money and supplies. This way Caesar took the control over the other Spanish province. Then he went to Marseille where he received a message saying that he was appointed Dictator. Caesar spared the city but he left in there two legions and himself went to Rome. Meanwhile Curio, sent by Caesar to Sicily a while ago, transited to Africa26. Curio appeared in Africa in August 48 BCE. Ignoring the stationed forces of Caesar’s biggest enemy, Attius Varus, he took only two legions out of four and 500 riders. He docked in Anquilaria27 and sent after one of commanders, Rufus, to Utica28 and himself set off with the hole army. Then, in a very convenient place, Cornelius29, Caesar’s friend, encamped. Varus’ camp was connected to the walls and also well-located. During the observations of the hostile camp made by Curio, he noticed that people were frantically bringing in all their goods from the countryside behind the wall so he sent there the cavalry to get the east haul. His riders won the clash with the Varus’ forces sent as reinforcement and came back with the trophy. At the same time some warships came to Curio so he ordered to announce the each ship that would not leave the harbor in the city would be consider hostile. This way Curio managed to source about 200 traders and, as a result, provide the army with the necessary supplies. When Curio came back to his camp by Bargada30 (river disgorging to the Gulf of Carthage around Utica) he was appointed the emperor31. The next day he set his troops around Utica. He received an information that the king of Numidia and Pompey’s supporter, Juba31, had sent huge reinforcements to Varus. Curio canceled the worlds and sent the cavalry to stop the march. The riders destroyed the reinforcements and came back to the camp, none of the sites accumulated looses. It was the next day when the commanders posted their armies. Varus Sexts Quinctilius, whom Caesar released in Corfinium, tried to convince the Curio’s legions with screaming to keep their promise for Domitius, but he did not succeed. Both armies went back to their camps. Curio was suggested to start the siege of the enemy’s camp or the retreat to Cornelius’ camp from where it would be easier to get back to Sicily. Curio rejected both ideas fearing that the siege could not bring desired effects and the retreat would be shameful. Eventually he decided to dress the soldiers. He mentioned the circumstances from Corfinium and the reason why did they made a vow to Caesar. He was convinced about winning this war, particularly after Caesar’s accomplishments in Hispania. He was talking about the honors that would surely wait for the soldiers remaining faithfully with Caesar. He also presented his own success in the African campaign such as transiting the army without prejudice, taking over the traders, causing the enemy off the supplies and finally, two cavalry victories. His speech affected the soldiers who especially did not want to be accused of infidelity. Finally, after the change in the army;s mood he decided to incite the battle whenever there is would be a chance for that. The following day he walked the army and the same did Attius Varus. Between the armies there was a valley with rather sheer slopes. Various was the first to run his cavalry with the troops down the valley. In response to that Curio sent his riders and won the clash. He forced the enemy’s cavalry to escape and slaughtered the troops. The Attius’ army scattered and meanwhile Curio already started the attack with the infantry. Various thought that he had been surrounded by the cavalry so before Curio managed to leave the valley, the opponents ran away to their camp. Some Varus’ soldiers escaped to the city so he decided to do the same thing with the whole army. As a result Curio decided to close the city with a bank and besiege it. In the city Atius was thinking whether not to surrender it, but a massage from king Juba came saying that he was approaching with the big forces and ordering to defend the city. These information got also to Curio but he did not want to believe in it. He was so proud of his past success that he did not provide for any attack from the king. When he found out that his forces were near Utica he decided to cancel the bank works, came back to Cornelius’ camp and stock up supplies of wood and grain. He was informed that the king had been stopped by the local war and only his prefect Saburra came for help with are reinforcements. Curio believed in those rumors and decided to change the plans and settle the matter with one battle. He was driven by the desire to win, intensified with the faith in luck and previous success. He was a young and good commander, but he was lacking experience. In reality, Juba’s prefect was in front and only a few kilometers behind there was the king himself with the whole army. At night Curio sent the cavalry to destroy the army of prefect Suburra. It worked out because the soldiers came back with the captives who being asked about who was by Bagrada, answered that it was Suburra. The soldiers’ enthusiasm was as big as the commander’ s confidence. Subbura in the meantime set his army and released the cavalry for the attack. Curio had only 200 riders left, the rest was tired after the march. Gradually, the Numidian cavalry began to outflank the Romans. After some time the Curio’s soldier were exhausted and injured and thus practically unable to fight. In the meantime Suburra sent more and more reinforcements. The Romans could not escape because they were surrounded by the hostile cavalry. People started to panic as they were sure they were going to die. Curio ordered the attack and getting the nearby hill to hide here. Unfortunately, he was cut off by the cavalry. He died in a fight. Only a few riders managed to escape from the battle and also those who were in the rear wanting for their horses to rest. The infantry was slaughtered. Finding out about the fiasco a quaestor Martius Rufus who remained in Curio’s camp wanted to uplift the people but they exacted coming back to Sicily from him. Rufus ordered the ships to put in an appearance but it turned out that the rumors about the approaching Varus’ fleet caused panic among the soldiers. Only a few ships appeared at a call, the rest ran away. The soldiers started to fight over who should first go aboard. Overcrowded ships were sinking and only few managed to get to Sicily safely. Those who stayed in Africa wanted to give in to Varus but Juba considered them as his war trophy and ordered to kill all. After a few days spent in the city, he returned to his kingdom with the army. This way ended the first part of the African campaign, in which Caesar did not take part personally. Curio’s total military disaster was a huge loss for the whole army. It seems though that it did not have a major impact on the whole war. The soldier serving Caesar were feeling rather safe. After defeating Pompey, Caesar came back to Africa to get even with Curio’s slayers.	<urn:uuid:68bcc1a7-7521-40d0-af5c-96e4937a715f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.imperiumromanum.edu.pl/en/roman-wars-and-uprisings/great-roman-civil-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00355.warc.gz	en	0.985522	6,470	3.515625	4	[ -0.5521292686462402, 0.1418410688638687, 0.2509029507637024, 0.1613488793373108, -0.23548012971878052, -0.30608314275741577, -0.04563472792506218, 0.37050873041152954, 0.07625223696231842, 0.1480461061000824, 0.3317345380783081, -0.3015516996383667, -0.1316094994544983, 0.20987340807914734...	3	At the time of Caesar’s , life there were two leading political factions in Rome: the Optimates and Populares. The Optimares was a conservative group gathering old senators attached to their positions. They were accustomed to the ongoing republican system and did not see its weaknesses. It was impossible for them to predict that this system would not be able to maintain the growing Empire without any centralize power and with the corruption spreading all over. Much earlier there were people who had been trying to change something(eg. Gracchus brothers), but it was not until the Caesar’s (head of Populares) reforms when it was possible to see any effects. To gain real power he contracted an alliance with Pompey and Marcus Crassus and established the First Triumvirate. After Crassus’ tragic death in 53 BCE Caesar and Pompey got into a conflict. Why? Obviously, it turned out that Pompey was the Rebublic’s defender whereas Caesar, despite not being eager for power, clearly pursued it. According to the anecdotal evidence, Caesar was supposed to say the famous words alea iacta est – “the die is cast” while crossing the Rubicon. Doing that, at the army’s head, was an evident opposition to the Senate’s legal power and there was no going back. The civil war (bellum civile). between Caesar and Pompey began. Caesar starts his account of the Civil War from within, he does not write about its causes directly, but we get to know them along with the story development. In the very beginning we find out why the Senate favored Pompey in the war. It turns out that two messengers arrived in the Senate Caesar’s and Pompey’s, but it was Pompey who was close to the city and his messenger’s speech worked as if the commander was speaking himself. Moreover, it turned out that Caesar had been taken away two legions which then could be used against him by Pompey who had the Senate’s (reluctant) support. The Scipio’s request put in the Senate was supposed to order Caesar to disband the army, otherwise he would be considered a traitor. Pompey managed to gather the soldiers from the city and the environs while also setting some influential figures against Caesar. Political situation was rather unfavorable for Caesar. His supporters had no voice and his adversaries gathered against him around Pompey, tempted with future trophies and fortune. At that time Caesar was staying in Ravenna, by the Adriatic (today – Ravenna1). Pompey started army recruitment in the whole Italy. Senate divided provinces between consuls and praetors, however it was only a formal division. Caesar, of course, did not intend to comply with the Senate’s orders and addressed his soldiers speaking of his opponents’ law violation. Pompey’s messengers came to Caesar asking for disbanding his army and turning himself in the Senate, for the good of republic. However Caesar’s conditions were simple as he obviously did not purse war – he demanded dismissing the soldiers and ceasing the recruitment from Pompey in order to restore peace in Italy. Caesar, outraged with Pompey’s claims which he even did not fill himself, began a recruitment in Arimium2 and put his people in the cities that he had already controlled: Arretium3, Pisaurum4, Fanum 5and Ancona6. At short notice his commander, Curio7 (Caesar’s supporter, he contributed to inflaming the conflict between Caesar and Pompey before the war), took over two cities which so far had been in Pompey’s hand. We know what a threat it was to have Caesar as an enemy. Even the tidings about his approaching the city caused the commanders’ escapes and the gates were open for the emperor. Even false rumors made his influential opponents leave Rome. Meanwhile Caesar continued his campaign in Italy, taking over the next cities which welcomed him as a commander. The army disbanded by Lentulus8 he incorporated to his legions. It is important to say that at this time Caesar had only two legions because the rest of them did not come back from the winter quarters. Afterwards Caesar went on a siege of Corfinium9, defended by the Domitius’10 forces (Caesar’s enemy, consul in 54 BCE). Domitius, being afraid of Caesar and having 30 shorts (approximately 3 legions) asked Pompey for help. At the same time Caesar took over Salmon which opened its gates and welcomed Antony’s army, sent by Caesar, with the ovations. Luckily, Caesar got reinforcements three days later (VII Legion, 22 cohorts from Gaul and about 30 from the nordic king). For those reinforcements there was built a camp under Curio’s leadership. After that Caesar built fortifications around the city. Earlier Domitius had received letters from Pompey saying that he did not want to risk and would not help. Meanwhile the siege foiled Domitius’ escape. When the army found out about this plan, they captured him and sent the messengers to Caesar, stating that they were able to surrender the city and give Domitius up. The emperor though ordered the soldiers to stay in and defend the city because of the possible sallies during the night. Nonetheless, Caesar was aware that getting the city at little cost is in his interest and so he was acting preventively. The following day Lentulus hiding in the city came to Caesar and asked for the rescue. It is a rather crucial moment as Caesar says here what are the reasons for his campaign. He mentiones that he fights in order to defend himself against the insults and protect the tribunes exiled from the city. It meant that Caesar actually did not care about capturing Lentulus or Domitius, or making a massacre on his enemies. Of course, it was one of the reasons for this war but it is important not to forget that Caesar was not only an excellent commander but also an exquisite politician and orator. At bottom Caesar took care about defeating Pompey but he was still not able to face him head-on. His efforts show what a great orator he was. He pardoned Lentulus temporarily and thereby gained endorsement of the scared army and access to the next city of his enemy. In reality Caesar for sure wanted wealth and development for Rome but as a mean to an end he decided to defeat Pompey. Here Caesar appears also as a brilliant expert in human nature. On the next day when the Senators, Roman knights and military tribunes were brought to him he forbade his soldiers to put them down not to incite them. He only accused them of ungratefulness and then let go not taking 6 million sesterces from the public treasury which were intended to be the pay for Pompey’s army (he knew that perfectly well). He wanted to seem guarded. The same day he broke the camp and started the march. Near Corfinium11 he spent a week (15th-21st February 49 BCE). Finding out what happened there, Pompey accelerated the recruitment and set off to Brundisium12. Caesar managed to take over some of his cohorts which had been deserted. In order to prevent Pompey from the escape by sea, Caesar strewed the part of the sound with rocks around the shoal and built there rafts from where it was easy to defend. In order to knock through that, Pompey armed the traders (which he had taken over in the city) with the towers from which he could throw the rounds. When after nine days Caesar’s work were half done, Pompey’s vessels arrived (which previously had transferred part of the army). Pompey, planning to leave Italy, prepared for the crossing. Since the inhabitants supported Caesar, they signaled from the roofs that Pompey was transferring the soldiers on the vessels. Caesar got to Brundisium13 at night on March 17th 49 BCE when Pompey had already detached the vessels but Caesar managed anyway to take over two of them. He dropped the idea of chasing Pompey because of the lack of ships and decided to go to Spain. Curio was sent back with three legions to Africa. Meanwhile, Caesar went to the Senate in order to cast the insults up to them. Nobody ventured messaging Pompey so after few days the matter remained not adjusted and Caesar went to Cisalpine Gaul14. Thereby he finished his campaign in Italy and completely succeeded. Marseille did not let Caesar in excusing with its neutrality in the conflict with Pompey. However, when Domitius arrived on the vessels, he was acclaimed as a commander in chief. Outraged Caesar ordered to build the towers and draft in 3 legions. He appointed Gaius Trebonius as a commander of the siege. He sent his legate Gaius Fabius to Hispania to take the gaps in the Pyrenees, controlled by Afranius15. According to Caesar’s words in Spain there were 3 Pompey’s legates with 7 legions, the reinforcement of heavy infantrymen from the provinces standing with them and 5000 of cavalry. Caesar sent to Hispania 6 legions, 5000 of auxiliary infantry and 6000 of cavalry. On the river Skyros Fabius16 built two bridges on which he transported feed. They were placed near the Afranius’ bridges and close to the Pompey’s legates so the cavalry clashes were quite often. While reading the descriptions of the small battles, it is clearly visible that both Caesar’s and Pompey’s legates were well trained. They were able to use wisely the lay of the land and the situations which would let them to win. After only two days Caesar appeared at Afranius’ camp, near Ilreda17, with 900 auxiliary soldiers. He camped approximately 300 meters from the hill on which climbed Afranius’ forces. Then he managed to dig the fosse and fortify the camp before the Pompey’s legates had noticed that Caesar carried out work. He did it because he wanted only the third row of the soldiers to work whereas the first two would wait fully armed as if prepared for the fight, hiding the working. During the next days Caesar digged in and after a few clashes he ordered to check the tabors and the rest of the cohorts left in the old camp. He was planning to fortify the hill between Ilreda where were his enemies’ supplies and the camps of Pompey’s legates. Having noticed the move of Caesar, Afranius sent the part of his legions to stop him. At short notice a fight ensued. In the beginning Caesar had to pull out because there was a mess in the troop formation. He called the IX legion for help. Thanks to the reinforcement Caesar forced his enemies to retreat under the walls of Ilreda, but in the pursuit of the escaping, the IX legion went too far and the Afranius’ counterattack began. The battle lasted for 5 hours in the narrow corridor where the cavalry’s help was impossible. A heroic attack let the Caesar’s army to resist the enemy and return safely with the cavalry’s cover. Approximately 70 of Caesar’s soldiers died in this battle and more than 600 suffered an injury. 200 people were supposed to die in Afranius’ troops. Both sites credited themselves with the victory. Finally Afranius managed to fortify the hill which was the subject of the fight. Because of the heavy rain the level of the rivers increased and Caesar became cut off of the food supplies so the army became to starve. Afranius had his stores in the city in abundance. The reinforcements gathered for Caesar beyond the river had to hide in the mountains from Afranius’ attack. Caesar built small light ships which allowed him to go across the river at night and fortify the nearby hill. Thanks to that he built a bridge in two days and could send the cavalry to take over some of the enemies’ supplies. Meanwhile there was Marseille where there was build a fleet consisting of 17 huge vessels by order of Domitius. Caesar’s fleet, stationed around, was headed by Decimus Brutus. Although both the number and the equipment of Brutus’ fleet was worse, he made up for it with the greater soldiers. Their enemies were better prepared for the naval battle but each time there was a chance for boarding, the advantage was all Caesar’s. In the end they won the battle and the Marseilles lost 9 vessels. Let’s get back to Ilreda though. After rebuilding the bridge, Caesar’s situation significantly improve. Many Iberian tribes declared dependency. Caesar built the canals, carried out the water and thus got a ford. Afranius, together with the two other legates, decided to move the war into the more advantageous place – Celtiberia18 (inhabited by Celts who arrived in Iberian Peninsula and mixed with the Iberians; the Celtiberians were extremely combative and difficult to harness). The retreat was possible because the bridge that Caesar was using caused that he had to make a detour. So he sent the cavalry to delay the march and himself swam across the river which took a lot of time. After a few hours of intense chase they managed to catch up the Afranius’ rearguard. Pompey’s legates did not expect that and quickly garrisoned the hill and prepared for the battle. They were planning to take the gorges in the nearby mountains but because of their exhaustion they postponed it for the next day and only fortified themselves on the hill, the same as Caesar did. At night Caesar managed to caught a group of Afranius’ people who revealed to him that Afranius was going to strike his camps, so Caesar did the same thing. Hearing the signals from Caesar’s camp, those canceled the march. Both commanders knew that the first one to take the gorged would be able to hold the enemy off. In the morning Caesar decided to set off sidestepping Afranius. The march look as if Caesar’s soldiers were starving (without the tabors and the pack animals) and coming back to Ilreda – and that was the exact Afranius’ intepretation. He did not find out the truth until Caesar started turning back and the front guards passed his camp. Then Afranius quickly ordered to leave and block Caesar’s road. Thus began a chase which ended with Caesar’s victory. He hit the plain in front of the gorges where he disposed the troop formations. Having Caesar’s army in front and the cavalry behind, Afranius hide in the nearby hill. He changed his past plans because as the thing were he decided to take the highest hill in order to be able to get across the mountain paths to Octogesa (today – Ebro). Pompey’s legate sent 4 cohorts for getting the hill but they were slaughtered by the enemy’s cavalry. Despite the centurions’ requests, Caesar did not start the battle – he did not want to expose his army to even the smallest loss. He had a hope that Afranius would give up anyway as he was cut off the water and supplies. In reality Afranius had two options: either get back to Ilreda or go to Tarraco20 (today – Tarragona) but he could not set off without water. His soldiers began to build the rampart to the nearby stream to stock up on water. However, thanks to the fact that Caesar had spared some terrified opponents the day earlier, they were asking for incorporation to his army because they considered him to be the better commander. The only thing they wanted was the guarantee that they commanders would survive, just to make sure that the troopers would not be accused of betrayal. Under these circumstances two hostile camps became one. The vast majority of Afranius’ soldiers was looking for people who could introduce them to Caesar who was congratulated on his tactic. Although, if Afranius was prone to peace talks, Petreius (the other legate) gathered a group of soldiers and drove away fraternizing army, killing the rest of the people. After a short speech in the camps he forced the soldiers to make a vow saying that they would never leave their commanders and then he killed some of the Caesar’s troopers hiding in the camp. State of war returned to its previous state. The lack of food started having influence on Afranius’ army. If the legionaries had 7-day food supplies taken from Ilreda, the reinforcements had no provision and every day some of they sneaked out to Caesar’s camp. Because of such situation Caesar’s opponents were pressured to get back to Ilreda. Traditionally, Caesar followed them bothering their rearguard with his cavalry. The Afranius’ cavalry was frightened because of the previous battles which made them useless. The army bothered by the cavalry could neither go forward nor find a proper place for the camp. In these circumstances they were forced to stay in the inconvenient place, far from water. Caesar was still avoiding the battle and was trying to surround Afranius with the banks. Afranius decided to arrange a formation for the battle. Caesar canceled the works and also arranged an order but he was waiting for the enemy’s attack. Afranius only wanted Caesar to stop his works and after sunset the soldiers scattered to their camps and Caesar continued the works. Pompey’s legates was trying to get across the Sicoris river on a ford but Caesar quickly transferred the troopers and part of the cavalry on the other side and set out the guards. After four days of misery they asked for help. In the place chosen by Caesar they begged for peace and saving them. Caesar mentioned Afranius that he had spurned the peace request He did not demand incorporating soldiers to his legions but disbanding the army and leaving the province. The soldiers took this massage joyously. It was settled that those who had houses in Hispanic would be dismissed immediately whereas the rest by the Varus21 (today – Var). This way the second Caesar’s campaign ended and, again, he gained the victory. Without any significant loss he managed to win the war in Hispanic Citerior. He again showed his genius, both political and military. At that moment he had wielded power in Italy and Hispania. Soon it was to turn out that the cities remaining faithful to Pompey in Gaul would not be able to resist any more. The second book brings us again to Marseille where Trebonius’ siege was still going on. The city was surrounded by water from the three sides so it was possible to get into only from the one side and thus there began a building of a levee. Marseille turned out to be a defensible city, well-prepared for the siege. The Romans could built the levee with difficulty. The Albices22 (combative montane tribe living north of Marseille) often made sallies with a view to starting a fire which hardly ever worked out. Meanwhile, Lucius Nasidius23, Pompey’s supporter, was sent with the fleet to Marseille to help them. A message about a coming fleet arrived in the city so the Marseillians repaired their vessels, equipped them and set off against the commander of Caesar’s fleet. Before the battle they joined each other. On the battle field two trims attacked Decimus Brutus’ ship (Caesar’s commander) who avoided the collision at the last moment and the opponent’s vessels collided. An instant later they were sunk by the Caesar’s fleet. The great expectations concerning Nesidus’ fleet were gone as he was forced to pull out from the battlefield because of the soldiers’ low morale. The Marseillians lost 9 vessels (5 sunk, 4 taken over) and only one was able to escape with the Nasidius’ fleet. In the concern about the sallies, Caesar’s soldiers built a brick tower which was fire-proof and as high as the fortified tower in the city which allowed to throw the round effectively. Having such a shelter they started building a gallery covered with roof leading from their tower to the Marseillians. Caesar described the process of building a gallery in detail but I have decided to spare the readers all of them. When it comes to the effects of the soldiers’ works, thanks to the gallery they managed to get to the opponents tower and jemmy its back rocks. Part of the building collapsed and the rest was falling apart. Terrified Marseillians ran out of the city without the weapons begging for mercy. They begged to wait for Caesar because the city looked almost conquered. The fortifying works were almost done and people did not want to defend any longer. The soldiers wanted to ravage the city, probably killing lots of people. Finally, the works were called off leaving only guards. The siege looked finished but everybody waited for Caesar. However, few days later in Trebonius’ ranks set in chaos and the Marseillians made a sudden sally during which they managed to torch the levee, other siege engines built beneath the city, including the tower and the gallery. The next day they tried the same movement with the second tower and the gallery (built simultaneously on the other side of the wall) but the soldiers where prepared for that and easily countered the attack. Furious Romans started building the wall which was supposed to cut off the city from the land. Trebonius’ walls were so close to the city walls that it was possible to throw the manual rounds. On the other hand the wall was not thick enough that the siege engines turned out not to be successful. Under those circumstances the Marseillians began the armistice negotiations. Few days earlier Domitius had predicted that Marseille would give up.He took two ships for his friends and one for himself and during the stormy weather he got out. The chase caught only his friends’ ships, Domitius himself managed to escape. Writing about how he took the control over Hispania Ulterior, Caesar mentioned in his diary about Marcus Varro. He was one of Pompey’s legates, but, on the other hand, sympathized with Caesar. When he was informed about the Caesar’s stop in Marseille and after that about the supply scarceness in Ilreda, he started the recruitment in Hispanic Ulterior and speak against Caesar, about his failures and fiascos. In his provinces he levied high taxes on Caesar’s supporters and chased convicted criminals. After Caesar’s victory in Hispanic Citerior he sent for the tribune Quintus Casius with the two legions from the other province. Meanwhile Caesar convoked an administration meeting in Corduba24 (today: Cordova), the first Roman colonia on this peninsula. It turned out that the vast majority of the provinces supports Caesar and Corduba and Carmona25 closed its gates for Varro. Knowing that he was not welcomed in the provinces he hurried to the city (where were supplies) not to be cut off the road. Before he had arrived, he got a message that his troops were exiled from the city which was secured for Caesar. One of the legions left Varro who, being completely terrified and cut off, went to Caesar and offered him the second legion, all the money and supplies. This way Caesar took the control over the other Spanish province. Then he went to Marseille where he received a message saying that he was appointed Dictator. Caesar spared the city but he left in there two legions and himself went to Rome. Meanwhile Curio, sent by Caesar to Sicily a while ago, transited to Africa26. Curio appeared in Africa in August 48 BCE. Ignoring the stationed forces of Caesar’s biggest enemy, Attius Varus, he took only two legions out of four and 500 riders. He docked in Anquilaria27 and sent after one of commanders, Rufus, to Utica28 and himself set off with the hole army. Then, in a very convenient place, Cornelius29, Caesar’s friend, encamped. Varus’ camp was connected to the walls and also well-located. During the observations of the hostile camp made by Curio, he noticed that people were frantically bringing in all their goods from the countryside behind the wall so he sent there the cavalry to get the east haul. His riders won the clash with the Varus’ forces sent as reinforcement and came back with the trophy. At the same time some warships came to Curio so he ordered to announce the each ship that would not leave the harbor in the city would be consider hostile. This way Curio managed to source about 200 traders and, as a result, provide the army with the necessary supplies. When Curio came back to his camp by Bargada30 (river disgorging to the Gulf of Carthage around Utica) he was appointed the emperor31. The next day he set his troops around Utica. He received an information that the king of Numidia and Pompey’s supporter, Juba31, had sent huge reinforcements to Varus. Curio canceled the worlds and sent the cavalry to stop the march. The riders destroyed the reinforcements and came back to the camp, none of the sites accumulated looses. It was the next day when the commanders posted their armies. Varus Sexts Quinctilius, whom Caesar released in Corfinium, tried to convince the Curio’s legions with screaming to keep their promise for Domitius, but he did not succeed. Both armies went back to their camps. Curio was suggested to start the siege of the enemy’s camp or the retreat to Cornelius’ camp from where it would be easier to get back to Sicily. Curio rejected both ideas fearing that the siege could not bring desired effects and the retreat would be shameful. Eventually he decided to dress the soldiers. He mentioned the circumstances from Corfinium and the reason why did they made a vow to Caesar. He was convinced about winning this war, particularly after Caesar’s accomplishments in Hispania. He was talking about the honors that would surely wait for the soldiers remaining faithfully with Caesar. He also presented his own success in the African campaign such as transiting the army without prejudice, taking over the traders, causing the enemy off the supplies and finally, two cavalry victories. His speech affected the soldiers who especially did not want to be accused of infidelity. Finally, after the change in the army;s mood he decided to incite the battle whenever there is would be a chance for that. The following day he walked the army and the same did Attius Varus. Between the armies there was a valley with rather sheer slopes. Various was the first to run his cavalry with the troops down the valley. In response to that Curio sent his riders and won the clash. He forced the enemy’s cavalry to escape and slaughtered the troops. The Attius’ army scattered and meanwhile Curio already started the attack with the infantry. Various thought that he had been surrounded by the cavalry so before Curio managed to leave the valley, the opponents ran away to their camp. Some Varus’ soldiers escaped to the city so he decided to do the same thing with the whole army. As a result Curio decided to close the city with a bank and besiege it. In the city Atius was thinking whether not to surrender it, but a massage from king Juba came saying that he was approaching with the big forces and ordering to defend the city. These information got also to Curio but he did not want to believe in it. He was so proud of his past success that he did not provide for any attack from the king. When he found out that his forces were near Utica he decided to cancel the bank works, came back to Cornelius’ camp and stock up supplies of wood and grain. He was informed that the king had been stopped by the local war and only his prefect Saburra came for help with are reinforcements. Curio believed in those rumors and decided to change the plans and settle the matter with one battle. He was driven by the desire to win, intensified with the faith in luck and previous success. He was a young and good commander, but he was lacking experience. In reality, Juba’s prefect was in front and only a few kilometers behind there was the king himself with the whole army. At night Curio sent the cavalry to destroy the army of prefect Suburra. It worked out because the soldiers came back with the captives who being asked about who was by Bagrada, answered that it was Suburra. The soldiers’ enthusiasm was as big as the commander’ s confidence. Subbura in the meantime set his army and released the cavalry for the attack. Curio had only 200 riders left, the rest was tired after the march. Gradually, the Numidian cavalry began to outflank the Romans. After some time the Curio’s soldier were exhausted and injured and thus practically unable to fight. In the meantime Suburra sent more and more reinforcements. The Romans could not escape because they were surrounded by the hostile cavalry. People started to panic as they were sure they were going to die. Curio ordered the attack and getting the nearby hill to hide here. Unfortunately, he was cut off by the cavalry. He died in a fight. Only a few riders managed to escape from the battle and also those who were in the rear wanting for their horses to rest. The infantry was slaughtered. Finding out about the fiasco a quaestor Martius Rufus who remained in Curio’s camp wanted to uplift the people but they exacted coming back to Sicily from him. Rufus ordered the ships to put in an appearance but it turned out that the rumors about the approaching Varus’ fleet caused panic among the soldiers. Only a few ships appeared at a call, the rest ran away. The soldiers started to fight over who should first go aboard. Overcrowded ships were sinking and only few managed to get to Sicily safely. Those who stayed in Africa wanted to give in to Varus but Juba considered them as his war trophy and ordered to kill all. After a few days spent in the city, he returned to his kingdom with the army. This way ended the first part of the African campaign, in which Caesar did not take part personally. Curio’s total military disaster was a huge loss for the whole army. It seems though that it did not have a major impact on the whole war. The soldier serving Caesar were feeling rather safe. After defeating Pompey, Caesar came back to Africa to get even with Curio’s slayers.	6,343	ENGLISH	1
Myanmar Traditional Pottery About 2000 years ago the Pyu people. a Tibeto-Burman tribe settled in the upper part of Myanmar. their first capital established in Sriksetra near present day Pyay. Since the city was located near the great Ayeyarwaddy River. The economic and strategic use for migrating the pots became an important role at that time. Around the 8th century the Pyus relocated their capital north to Halin in the region of Shwebo. The making of the pots with clay and decorations were descended from such a time. The ceramic trading had been a popular and interesting deal. The Mottama harbour on the seacost. formerly known as Martaban. have been an important link in the ceramic pottery trade with the Southeast Asian countries. Pottery has been the earliest craft in the history of human civilization. People in the terrain area had began to make use of pots. which could be easily and cheaply produced. Although pots are fragile. these can be made use in many useful ways. Pots were not only used to store or cook food but also as burial urns to bury gold and jewelries. The remains of some old pots used during the Pyu civilizations were discovered. giving evidences that pots had been used since then. Remains were also found in Bagan and Mrauk-U regions. Today. the main pottery works in Myanmar are situated in Nwe Nyein village near Kyauk Myaung. a river-side town near Shwebo and Twante near Yangon. The making of Pots Thick clay is mixed with the silt from the river to make a suitable consistency. then it is allowed to dry after which it is pounded into a fine powder. After sieving several times. the powder is allowed to seep in water for some days. After the silt has settled. the clear water is poured away and the remaining clay worked over until smooth. After that. lumps of it are rolled and given over to the potter. Even though plastic. steel. aluminium wares are available. hand-made pottery is still very much preferred by Myanmar and still in use in the cultural traditions.	<urn:uuid:b4484b5f-3b64-46c3-a311-aa49a91b776b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thutatravel.com/myanmar-traditional-pottery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00228.warc.gz	en	0.987955	456	3.296875	3	[ -0.024749036878347397, 0.4728454649448395, 0.4992482364177704, -0.3535853326320648, -0.09688641875982285, 0.1482163965702057, 0.3698675334453583, -0.3173026144504547, -0.5948821902275085, -0.13091789186000824, -0.11452886462211609, -0.5214323997497559, -0.12332437932491302, 0.6157268285751...	1	Myanmar Traditional Pottery About 2000 years ago the Pyu people. a Tibeto-Burman tribe settled in the upper part of Myanmar. their first capital established in Sriksetra near present day Pyay. Since the city was located near the great Ayeyarwaddy River. The economic and strategic use for migrating the pots became an important role at that time. Around the 8th century the Pyus relocated their capital north to Halin in the region of Shwebo. The making of the pots with clay and decorations were descended from such a time. The ceramic trading had been a popular and interesting deal. The Mottama harbour on the seacost. formerly known as Martaban. have been an important link in the ceramic pottery trade with the Southeast Asian countries. Pottery has been the earliest craft in the history of human civilization. People in the terrain area had began to make use of pots. which could be easily and cheaply produced. Although pots are fragile. these can be made use in many useful ways. Pots were not only used to store or cook food but also as burial urns to bury gold and jewelries. The remains of some old pots used during the Pyu civilizations were discovered. giving evidences that pots had been used since then. Remains were also found in Bagan and Mrauk-U regions. Today. the main pottery works in Myanmar are situated in Nwe Nyein village near Kyauk Myaung. a river-side town near Shwebo and Twante near Yangon. The making of Pots Thick clay is mixed with the silt from the river to make a suitable consistency. then it is allowed to dry after which it is pounded into a fine powder. After sieving several times. the powder is allowed to seep in water for some days. After the silt has settled. the clear water is poured away and the remaining clay worked over until smooth. After that. lumps of it are rolled and given over to the potter. Even though plastic. steel. aluminium wares are available. hand-made pottery is still very much preferred by Myanmar and still in use in the cultural traditions.	450	ENGLISH	1
Irony and Symbolism in Willa Cather's Paul's Case "Paul's Case," by Willa Cather, is a story that deals with a young boy who does not feel that he lives a life befitting of him. Upon a close reading, it is evident that "Paul's Case" is ruled by irony and symbolism, which are apparent in the story through the words of the narrator. The irony woven throughout the text builds up to an epiphonic moment, a main paradox in the story, which reveals to the reader Paul's true nature. Paul believes that everyone around him is beneath him. He is convinced that he is superior to everyone else in his school and in his neighborhood. He is even condescending to his teachers, and shows an appalling amount of contempt for them, of which they are very aware. In one class he habitually sat with his hand shading his eyes; in another he always looked out of the window during the recitation; in another he made a running commentary on the lecture, with humorous intention. Paul wanted everyone to think he was better than they were. Not only did he try to dress as if he were rich and important, his very actions displayed a great amount of disdain for everyone around him. Paul sees himself as superior. He carries himself with a haughty countenance and air about him, apparent in the description "Paul entered the faculty room suave and smiling." His attempts to portray himself as elegant is obvious in the adornments with which he tries to accentuate his attire: "he wore an opal pin in his neatly knotted black fourin-hand, and a red carnation in his button-hole." The irony in Paul's self-delusion lies in the way he is, in reality, seen by the rest of the world. While he thinks that he is dapper and winning in his ornamented garb, the reader is informed how Paul is seen by everyone else, "His clothes were a trifle out-grown and the tan velvet on the collar of his open overcoat was frayed and worn... Paul was tall for his age and very thin, with high, cramped shoulders and a narrow chest." There are several instances of this contrast between Paul's self perception and the perception of Paul by the people around him. The irony in these situations is that Paul wants to be seen in a particular way -- he perceives himself to actually be that particular way -- while it is obvious to the reader that he is seen quite differently by those around him. Paul thought he was important and should be admired like the people on stage in the place he worked. The irony is that he worked for those kinds of people (the rich, privileged, haughty, admired)... he was a servant who seated them, he was not one of them. He thought that because he was allowed into the theater with them, since they were in the same place, that they were equal. However, in reality the guests and Paul were admitted to the theater under different circumstances: Paul's being one of servitude while the guests were those served by Paul. "It was very much as though these were a great...	<urn:uuid:fd4a9ca1-7d90-430e-9aaa-068a8dd0d663>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/irony-and-symbolism-in-willa-cather-s-paul-s-instance	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00289.warc.gz	en	0.995052	650	3.265625	3	[ -0.08165833353996277, 0.3046359121799469, 0.3296697437763214, 0.002594280056655407, -0.4409836530685425, 0.038124121725559235, 0.7369952201843262, -0.2591966986656189, 0.3199329376220703, -0.03670662268996239, 0.1961636245250702, 0.09011086821556091, 0.22530308365821838, -0.051376312971115...	1	Irony and Symbolism in Willa Cather's Paul's Case "Paul's Case," by Willa Cather, is a story that deals with a young boy who does not feel that he lives a life befitting of him. Upon a close reading, it is evident that "Paul's Case" is ruled by irony and symbolism, which are apparent in the story through the words of the narrator. The irony woven throughout the text builds up to an epiphonic moment, a main paradox in the story, which reveals to the reader Paul's true nature. Paul believes that everyone around him is beneath him. He is convinced that he is superior to everyone else in his school and in his neighborhood. He is even condescending to his teachers, and shows an appalling amount of contempt for them, of which they are very aware. In one class he habitually sat with his hand shading his eyes; in another he always looked out of the window during the recitation; in another he made a running commentary on the lecture, with humorous intention. Paul wanted everyone to think he was better than they were. Not only did he try to dress as if he were rich and important, his very actions displayed a great amount of disdain for everyone around him. Paul sees himself as superior. He carries himself with a haughty countenance and air about him, apparent in the description "Paul entered the faculty room suave and smiling." His attempts to portray himself as elegant is obvious in the adornments with which he tries to accentuate his attire: "he wore an opal pin in his neatly knotted black fourin-hand, and a red carnation in his button-hole." The irony in Paul's self-delusion lies in the way he is, in reality, seen by the rest of the world. While he thinks that he is dapper and winning in his ornamented garb, the reader is informed how Paul is seen by everyone else, "His clothes were a trifle out-grown and the tan velvet on the collar of his open overcoat was frayed and worn... Paul was tall for his age and very thin, with high, cramped shoulders and a narrow chest." There are several instances of this contrast between Paul's self perception and the perception of Paul by the people around him. The irony in these situations is that Paul wants to be seen in a particular way -- he perceives himself to actually be that particular way -- while it is obvious to the reader that he is seen quite differently by those around him. Paul thought he was important and should be admired like the people on stage in the place he worked. The irony is that he worked for those kinds of people (the rich, privileged, haughty, admired)... he was a servant who seated them, he was not one of them. He thought that because he was allowed into the theater with them, since they were in the same place, that they were equal. However, in reality the guests and Paul were admitted to the theater under different circumstances: Paul's being one of servitude while the guests were those served by Paul. "It was very much as though these were a great...	639	ENGLISH	1

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