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Between May and June 1760, Jamaica was the stage for Tacky’s War. It was ignited by Fante royalty, King Takyi—or Tacky—in a bid to take the British colony. One of the pivotal rebellions in the Caribbean during that century, it predated the Haitian Revolution by over 30 years.
He had roots in Ghana as the leader of his village where he participated in the slave trade. Tacky was eventually captured by rival forces and sold into slavery where he arrived in Jamaica.
With several of his closest confidants, Tacky plotted the rebellion in a cave. Their targets were the Trinity and Frontier plantations, which they hit at the start of the rebellion. Killing the masters and picking up more people for their forces, they would move on to Fort Haldane. This fort was strategic as it held the weaponry meant to defend Port Maria. Tacky’s group would make off with gunpowder, guns, and ammo leaving a dead shopkeeper.
Tacky’s forces moved their attention towards two other plantations and their numbers swelled. While resting and celebrating, a slave who joined their force from a previous plantation gave away their location. The rebels prepared for a fight with a ceremony to protect them and their Obeahmen or religious leaders and Tacky’s advisors. This spiked the rebels’ morale but it would come crashing down shortly.
Queen Cubah’s War
Even though Tacky’s War was short-lived, several smaller rebellions popped up throughout the colony. One sub-war was that by “The Queen of Kingston” Cubah. Known among the Ashanti as Akua, she was the leader of a completely different rebel group that possibly worked in tandem with Tacky’s forces.
With the militia who were outnumbered but bolstered by the Maroons who signed a treaty with Britain following the First Maroon War. An obeahman was killed and hang, decimating the rebels’ will to fight. This shifted the numbers in the militia-Maroons favor with Tacky having under 30 men.
The Maroons had an extremely skilled sharpshooter by the name of Davy who led a group in hunting Tacky’s rebels through the woods. He would catch up shoot Tacky, killing him. After removing the rebel leader’s head, he returned with it as proof.
As was customary with defeated and killed rebel leaders, Tacky’s head was put on a pole in Spanish Town, St. Catherine Parish. As for Queen Cubah, she was captured sometime after Tacky’s death and banished from the colony. She managed to bribe her way into being dropped off in western Jamaica where she attempted to rally more forces.
It took several months for the British militia to establish order with the other rebellions. Eventually, Britain succeeded and Cubah is captured again, meeting the same death as Tacky.
In his death, Tacky was remembered with a monument in Port Maria, a high school, and Tacky Falls. | <urn:uuid:455cc450-cb22-4d03-a775-380ee117de44> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blackthen.com/tackys-war-queen-cubahs-rebellion/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.985208 | 633 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.12277035415... | 11 | Between May and June 1760, Jamaica was the stage for Tacky’s War. It was ignited by Fante royalty, King Takyi—or Tacky—in a bid to take the British colony. One of the pivotal rebellions in the Caribbean during that century, it predated the Haitian Revolution by over 30 years.
He had roots in Ghana as the leader of his village where he participated in the slave trade. Tacky was eventually captured by rival forces and sold into slavery where he arrived in Jamaica.
With several of his closest confidants, Tacky plotted the rebellion in a cave. Their targets were the Trinity and Frontier plantations, which they hit at the start of the rebellion. Killing the masters and picking up more people for their forces, they would move on to Fort Haldane. This fort was strategic as it held the weaponry meant to defend Port Maria. Tacky’s group would make off with gunpowder, guns, and ammo leaving a dead shopkeeper.
Tacky’s forces moved their attention towards two other plantations and their numbers swelled. While resting and celebrating, a slave who joined their force from a previous plantation gave away their location. The rebels prepared for a fight with a ceremony to protect them and their Obeahmen or religious leaders and Tacky’s advisors. This spiked the rebels’ morale but it would come crashing down shortly.
Queen Cubah’s War
Even though Tacky’s War was short-lived, several smaller rebellions popped up throughout the colony. One sub-war was that by “The Queen of Kingston” Cubah. Known among the Ashanti as Akua, she was the leader of a completely different rebel group that possibly worked in tandem with Tacky’s forces.
With the militia who were outnumbered but bolstered by the Maroons who signed a treaty with Britain following the First Maroon War. An obeahman was killed and hang, decimating the rebels’ will to fight. This shifted the numbers in the militia-Maroons favor with Tacky having under 30 men.
The Maroons had an extremely skilled sharpshooter by the name of Davy who led a group in hunting Tacky’s rebels through the woods. He would catch up shoot Tacky, killing him. After removing the rebel leader’s head, he returned with it as proof.
As was customary with defeated and killed rebel leaders, Tacky’s head was put on a pole in Spanish Town, St. Catherine Parish. As for Queen Cubah, she was captured sometime after Tacky’s death and banished from the colony. She managed to bribe her way into being dropped off in western Jamaica where she attempted to rally more forces.
It took several months for the British militia to establish order with the other rebellions. Eventually, Britain succeeded and Cubah is captured again, meeting the same death as Tacky.
In his death, Tacky was remembered with a monument in Port Maria, a high school, and Tacky Falls. | 609 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Red Crown and the White
Maximilian Kolbe, the Saint of Auschwitz
by Brian Radcliffe
Suitable for Whole School (Sec)
To explore our understanding of self-sacrifice (SEAL theme: Motivation).
Preparation and materials
You will need a leader and two readers.
You will also need two paper crowns, one white and one red.
Leader: Were you mischievous when you were younger? Most boys and girls are at some point. Raymund Kolbe certainly was . . .
Reader 1: Raymund was born in Poland in 1894, the son of a poor weaver. Following one incident of mischievous behaviour, for which he received a justifiable scolding, Raymund fell asleep. While he slept, he had a dream. In the dream, Mary, the mother of Jesus, came to him and offered him two crowns. One crown was white, and the other was red. Mary said that the white crown would help him to live a life in which he was good, and the red crown meant that he would become a martyr, someone who died for the sake of a cause. When he was offered a choice, Raymund chose both crowns.
Leader: As he grew older, Raymund felt that his life should be lived as part of the church. He became a Franciscan monk and took on a religious name, Maximilian. He was an important teacher who opened monasteries in Poland, Japan and India. In 1939, when Germany invaded Poland, Kolbe was back in his home country. Under his leadership, the monastery near Warsaw became a shelter for refugees, most of whom were Jewish. It wasn’t long before the Nazi authorities arrested Kolbe and his fellow priests and sent them to the death camp at Auschwitz.
Reader 2: Conditions for prisoners at Auschwitz were awful, yet Maximilian adopted a life in which he served those around him. He allowed others to take the meagre rations of food placed before him and shared with others the little he was able to get. Each night, he moved from inmate to inmate, asking what he might do for them, particularly as a priest. He taught them to forgive their guards and to overcome the evil around them with good. When he was beaten and tortured, he prayed for those who were hurting him. Yet his most important act was still to come.
Leader: One day, three prisoners disappeared from Auschwitz, and the camp commandant ordered that ten men should be starved to death in an underground bunker in retribution. One of the ten was a young man who was distraught at the thought of leaving his young family. Maximilian stepped forward and offered to take his place, which the commandant accepted.
On 14 August 1941, after two weeks of starvation, Maximilian Kolbe died. He had become a martyr. The story of his actions spread through the camp. One prisoner described it as ‘like a powerful shaft of light in the darkness of the camp’. The young man who was saved lived to see the end of the war and was reunited with his wife. He died in 1995, at the age of 93.
Time for reflection
Leader: Christians believe that, in the same way that Maximilian Kolbe gave his life for the sake of another, likewise Jesus gave his life for the sake of others. Jesus’ choice became an example for all those who follow him, including Father Maximilian. Christians do not believe that Jesus calls us all to be martyrs, but they do believe that Jesus wants us to live a life of self-sacrifice, by putting the needs of others before our own needs. So how might that pan out for you and me? I’ve thought of just three ways, but I’m sure you will be able to think of many more!
Reader 1: A simple way to start is to think about the phrase, ‘After you’. Do you dislike queues? Most of us do. We want to get to the front, to have our turn without a wait, particularly if there’s a chance that the opportunity won’t last. However, even when he was hungry, Father Maximilian allowed others to go before him. Self-sacrifice is not about merely taking the place that we are given, but also being gracious enough to allow others ahead of us, particularly when they are younger, less able or less dominant.
Reader 2: A second way to be self-sacrificing is to accept the blame without question when we are guilty. Others may also be involved and try to deny their guilt, but hopefully, our example would have an effect on others, so justice would be done.
Reader 1: Finally, we can show self-sacrifice by developing an attitude where the needs of others are put before our own needs. In Auschwitz, Father Maximilian went around asking a simple question, ‘What can I do for you?’
Why not try that today? Before saying anything about ourselves, why not ask how someone else is feeling? Before looking at what we can get out of a situation, why not ask what anyone else needs? Rather than thinking about ourselves as we go around school, why not look around at others, spot the lonely, the unhappy and the nervous, and ask what we can do to help. It's an outward-looking rather than inward-looking attitude.
Take out the two crowns and offer them to students.
I wonder if you’d accept the white crown and be a sensitive, hard-working, good student?
I wonder if you’d accept the red crown and be willing to be self-sacrificing?
I wonder how many of you would, like Father Maximilian, accept both?
Thank you for the opportunities in community life to help one another.
May we be sensitive in spotting the opportunities and active in taking them up.
‘Reach out (I’ll be there)’ by the Four Tops | <urn:uuid:c1b5fc03-4ce7-476b-b4cb-eb79133ea69d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.assemblies.org.uk/sec/2697/the-red-crown-and-the-white | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.984259 | 1,256 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.31279748678... | 5 | The Red Crown and the White
Maximilian Kolbe, the Saint of Auschwitz
by Brian Radcliffe
Suitable for Whole School (Sec)
To explore our understanding of self-sacrifice (SEAL theme: Motivation).
Preparation and materials
You will need a leader and two readers.
You will also need two paper crowns, one white and one red.
Leader: Were you mischievous when you were younger? Most boys and girls are at some point. Raymund Kolbe certainly was . . .
Reader 1: Raymund was born in Poland in 1894, the son of a poor weaver. Following one incident of mischievous behaviour, for which he received a justifiable scolding, Raymund fell asleep. While he slept, he had a dream. In the dream, Mary, the mother of Jesus, came to him and offered him two crowns. One crown was white, and the other was red. Mary said that the white crown would help him to live a life in which he was good, and the red crown meant that he would become a martyr, someone who died for the sake of a cause. When he was offered a choice, Raymund chose both crowns.
Leader: As he grew older, Raymund felt that his life should be lived as part of the church. He became a Franciscan monk and took on a religious name, Maximilian. He was an important teacher who opened monasteries in Poland, Japan and India. In 1939, when Germany invaded Poland, Kolbe was back in his home country. Under his leadership, the monastery near Warsaw became a shelter for refugees, most of whom were Jewish. It wasn’t long before the Nazi authorities arrested Kolbe and his fellow priests and sent them to the death camp at Auschwitz.
Reader 2: Conditions for prisoners at Auschwitz were awful, yet Maximilian adopted a life in which he served those around him. He allowed others to take the meagre rations of food placed before him and shared with others the little he was able to get. Each night, he moved from inmate to inmate, asking what he might do for them, particularly as a priest. He taught them to forgive their guards and to overcome the evil around them with good. When he was beaten and tortured, he prayed for those who were hurting him. Yet his most important act was still to come.
Leader: One day, three prisoners disappeared from Auschwitz, and the camp commandant ordered that ten men should be starved to death in an underground bunker in retribution. One of the ten was a young man who was distraught at the thought of leaving his young family. Maximilian stepped forward and offered to take his place, which the commandant accepted.
On 14 August 1941, after two weeks of starvation, Maximilian Kolbe died. He had become a martyr. The story of his actions spread through the camp. One prisoner described it as ‘like a powerful shaft of light in the darkness of the camp’. The young man who was saved lived to see the end of the war and was reunited with his wife. He died in 1995, at the age of 93.
Time for reflection
Leader: Christians believe that, in the same way that Maximilian Kolbe gave his life for the sake of another, likewise Jesus gave his life for the sake of others. Jesus’ choice became an example for all those who follow him, including Father Maximilian. Christians do not believe that Jesus calls us all to be martyrs, but they do believe that Jesus wants us to live a life of self-sacrifice, by putting the needs of others before our own needs. So how might that pan out for you and me? I’ve thought of just three ways, but I’m sure you will be able to think of many more!
Reader 1: A simple way to start is to think about the phrase, ‘After you’. Do you dislike queues? Most of us do. We want to get to the front, to have our turn without a wait, particularly if there’s a chance that the opportunity won’t last. However, even when he was hungry, Father Maximilian allowed others to go before him. Self-sacrifice is not about merely taking the place that we are given, but also being gracious enough to allow others ahead of us, particularly when they are younger, less able or less dominant.
Reader 2: A second way to be self-sacrificing is to accept the blame without question when we are guilty. Others may also be involved and try to deny their guilt, but hopefully, our example would have an effect on others, so justice would be done.
Reader 1: Finally, we can show self-sacrifice by developing an attitude where the needs of others are put before our own needs. In Auschwitz, Father Maximilian went around asking a simple question, ‘What can I do for you?’
Why not try that today? Before saying anything about ourselves, why not ask how someone else is feeling? Before looking at what we can get out of a situation, why not ask what anyone else needs? Rather than thinking about ourselves as we go around school, why not look around at others, spot the lonely, the unhappy and the nervous, and ask what we can do to help. It's an outward-looking rather than inward-looking attitude.
Take out the two crowns and offer them to students.
I wonder if you’d accept the white crown and be a sensitive, hard-working, good student?
I wonder if you’d accept the red crown and be willing to be self-sacrificing?
I wonder how many of you would, like Father Maximilian, accept both?
Thank you for the opportunities in community life to help one another.
May we be sensitive in spotting the opportunities and active in taking them up.
‘Reach out (I’ll be there)’ by the Four Tops | 1,218 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hursley Parish Church History in Detail
“The glass windows in a church are Holy Scriptures, which expel the wind and the rain, that is all things hurtful, but transmit the light of the True Sun, that is God, into the hearts of the faithful”
William Durandus (c 1220 – 1296) from “The Symbolism of Churches and Church Ornaments”
John Keble (1792 – 1866), the vicar of Hursley parish from 1835, was one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement which brought about a revolution in church building and decoration, which in turn brought about a revival in the art of stained glass manufacture.
As part of that Movement, the church at Hursley was rebuilt at Keble’s instigation in 1847/48 in its present form, although the stained glass windows were made a few years later. Many 19th century designers attempted to recreate or replace medieval glass in effecting church restorations, but the previous church at Hursley had had clear glass in the windows, so there was no medieval glass for Keble to re-use. Accordingly, instead of creating a pastiche of old glass, new designs were used.
The stained glass windows at Hursley were planned by Keble, based on the scheme of the medieval windows at his childhood home of Fairford in Gloucestershire. The scheme was prepared by the architect,
William Butterfield (1814 – 1900), but as Fairford Church is much larger than Hursley, that plan could not be exactly followed. According to Keble’s sister, Elisabeth, “The Hursley windows are meant to be a course of instruction in Sacred History from Adam to the last day; the church being dedicated to All Saints”.
The designs were suggested by the artists William Dyce (1806 – 1864) and Anthony Vandyke Copley Fielding (1787 – 1855) and executed under the supervision of Butterfield by William Wailes (1808 – 1881), who was seen as a Gothic Revival artist. Having trained with Franz Mayer & Co. of Munich, Wailes established his own stained glass business in 1838 which became one of the largest in England and was in great demand for use in new and restored churches of the period.
His work retained the style of stained glass produced in Germany and Limoges, being often a little paler and more brightly coloured than many English works. It tended to have distinctive colour combinations in the clothing of the figures (for example in the West window Christ’s red robe is lined with green), and he often used pink glass, which is noticeable in many windows at Hursley. His bright colours have been used throughout the windows at Hursley and, as commented by Charles Winston (1814 – 1864), an English historian of stained glass, dark interiors require more richly coloured glass than light interiors, and indeed Keble found that his new church was so dark that he later installed clerestory windows in the roof.
It was originally intended that the cost of the windows would have been raised from contributions of friends and readers of Keble’s writings but in the end only the four three-light windows and the repentance window were given, two others were paid for by special offertories and the rest were finally given by Keble from his published writings.
The stained glass windows at Hursley are typical of their time, and are a reflection of the changes effected by the Oxford Movement. Yet they have their roots in the past, in that the Hursley windows follow the same plan as the medieval windows at Fairford: from the Garden of Eden, through the Prophets and other Old Testament characters, the life of Christ, the Apostles and Saints to the Judgement Window. These windows will be looked at in detail in subsequent issues of the Parish Magazine.
Although the Fairford windows receive almost universal acclaim and astonishment at their longevity, the windows at Hursley arouse mixed opinions. Some consider that the Hursley windows “are an excellent example of early Victorian stained glass”, whereas others regard them “as lurid as a row of jars in a candy shop”. Charlotte Yonge’s view was that” ... though the colours are deeper, and what is now called more crude, than suits the taste of the present day, they must be looked upon with reverence as the outcome of [Keble’s] meditations and his great delight”.
Adam and Noah
The first window in the plan depicts Adam and Noah. Noah was a descendant of Adam and thus started the lineage of Christ. The early Church likened the flood to Christ’s baptism in washing away man’s sin.
In the quatrefoil window at the top is a depiction of an angel, an Old Testament being who conveys God’s will to the people. The angel is holding a flaming sword, as a symbol of authority and of the administration of justice, and with which the angel guarded the way to the tree of life in the Garden of Eden. There is a foliage design in the background of both lights.
Adam (Genesis 2:5 – 3:24)
In this window there is a cross above Adam’s head with foliage sprouting from it (thus linking the image to Christ’s cross and the tree of life). Adam is carrying a bunch of purple grapes (a link to the true vine) and is holding a spade. He is standing on grass with a tilled field and a tree and plants behind him. His job in the Garden was to tend the plants.
After Adam and Eve had succumbed to the Temptation, God clothed them in animal skins. By using this part of the creation story and showing the figures in furs, this also avoided the Victorian aversion to nudity as the pair were created naked.
The small light at the bottom shows a picture of Adam and Eve being driven from the Garden of Eden by an angel. There is a tree shaped like a crook (suggesting Christ as the Good Shepherd) behind the figures with leaves and flowers to represent the tree of knowledge of good and evil, alongside a part of an arch, symbolising the exit from the Garden. Adam and Eve are walking on a path through fields and plants with the setting sun on the horizon, as the Expulsion took place when the Lord was walking in the Garden in the cool of the evening. After the Expulsion Adam was condemned to toil in the fields for the rest of his life, and Eve to suffer in childbirth.
Noah (Genesis 6:9 – 9:1)
The figure of Noah is shown in the right-hand light. He carries the plans for the ark over his right arm and a T-square in his left hand.
The small light at the bottom of the window shows Noah after the waters have subsided, with a wooden ark (ignoring the structural details given in Genesis) in the background and a tricoloured rainbow (the three colours representing the Trinity) in blue, red and yellow in the clouds, signifying God’s promise that never again will flood waters destroy all living creatures or lay waste the earth. Other figures are behind Noah, two men representing his sons and a woman representing either his wife or one of his daughters-in-law.
The animals to the right of Noah (an ox prefiguring an animal generally present at scenes of the Nativity; a lion symbolising the Resurrection or representing strength and fortitude; a deer being a sacred animal, a fleet-footed messenger or a symbol of piety; a rescued sheep symbolising the repentant sinner; and a rabbit as a symbol of the fecundity required of Noah and his family) represent some of the creatures which came out of the ark.
To the left of Noah is a wood fire on a brick or stone pillar, representing the altar which Noah built to make offerings to the Lord in thanks that they were all saved, and behind it is a pot with steam showing the soothing odour of the sacrifice rising out of it.
Abraham and Melchizedek
The second window in the plan has lights depicting Melchizedek and Abraham. Melchizedek was a figure of importance in biblical tradition because he was connected with Jerusalem, and was revered by Abraham, who paid a tithe to him. It is speculated that the story of Melchizedek has possibly been added to give validity to the idea of the priesthood and tithes connected with the Church.
The quatrefoil at the top of this window pictures a woman's head and shoulders and her crossed hands show humility. The word "Sara" is written across the window, indicating that she is Sara or Sarai (she would later be re-named Sarah), the wife of Abram (or, later, Abraham) and mother of Isaac. Her relevance in this window is that God keeps his promises; He promised to give her a son (Genesis 21), even though she was then 90 years old, and her tomb at Hebron (Genesis 23) was a sign of Abraham's faith that God's promise of the land would also be kept.
The backgrounds of the principal lights have vine branches at the top and show oak foliage with acorns. The use of an oak in art has many meanings, including faithfulness and endurance as shown by Sara and Abram, but in this instance could represent Abram’s journey from his own country to Canaan and God’s promise to make him into a great nation - in some versions of the Bible: “Abram passed through the country to the sanctuary at Shechem, the oak tree of Moreh” (Genesis 12:6). The background also shows a castellated parapet, perhaps symbolising Jerusalem and the other cities mentioned in Abram’s journey.
Melchizedek (Genesis 14:18-24)
He is shown in the left-hand light. Melchizedek was the king and high priest in Salem or Jerusalem. The god whom Melchizedek served as priest was probably the high god of the Canaanite pantheon. Later, the early worship of Yahweh was centred around the cultic temple at Salem, as this was David's capital, and the town was given exclusive right of sacrifice to Yahweh. Hebrews 6:20 refers to Jesus “having become a high priest for ever in the succession of Melchizedek”, which is foretold in Psalm 110:4, where the psalmist says “The LORD said unto my Lord: Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchizedek”.
Melchizedek’s name means “My king is righteousness” or, as referred to in Hebrews 7:2, “King of Righteousness”. He wears a yellow mitre with Hebrew characters round the lower edge which translate as “Sanctify the LORD”.
When Abram and his nephew Lot travelled north from Egypt, Abram went to Canaan and Lot to Sodom. There Lot was captured by raiders. Abram pursued them and released Lot, returning in triumph. At Jerusalem he was received by Melchizedek who blessed Abram and gave him food and wine; the figure in the window is shown holding a cloth with a loaf of bread in his left hand and a chalice in his right. This may also symbolise the idea of eucharist. One of the tenets of the Oxford Movement, of which John Keble was a major influence, was to get back to a fundamental form of worship, through a revival of Holy Communion as the principal act of Christian worship.
Abraham (Genesis 22:1-19)
Abraham was the first of the great Hebrew patriarchs of the Old Testament.
This window illustrates the test which God put to Abram - now called Abraham (Genesis 17:5), to offer his son, Isaac, as a sacrifice. They travelled for three days, alone in the latter part while Isaac carried the wood for the fire and Abraham carried the fire and the knife, as shown in the window. When Abraham went to kill his son, he was stopped by God who acknowledged his obedience, and provided instead a ram caught by its horns in a thicket. As a result, Abraham was blessed by God andwas promised many descendants.
This story was considered to show a parallel with the New Testament story of the God’s sacrifice of his beloved only Son, Jesus Christ. The image of Isaac carrying the wood prefigured Christ carrying the Cross, the ram became Christ crucified, and the thorns of the thicket were the crown of thorns.
Joseph and Job
The third window in the plan has lights depicting Joseph and Job. Both of these stories illustrate that even though we do not understand why God, who is good and just, allows bad things to happen to good people, we must continue to trust in Him and we will be rewarded.
The small quatrefoil light at the top of the window shows a woman’s head and shoulders and her hands. The name ‘Rebecca’ is written across the light, showing that she represents Rebecca, the wife of Abraham’s son, Isaac, and the mother of Esau and Jacob. She was a kinswoman of Abraham and was selected for Isaac by his father when she drew water from the well for his servant and his camels (Genesis 24:14). She was taken to Canaan to meet Isaac and when she first met him, she covered her face with a veil (Genesis 24:65).
Joseph (Genesis 37; 39 – 40; 41:1-49; and 42 – 47)
Joseph was the elder son of the Hebrew patriarch, Jacob by his wife Rachel, and a grandson of Isaac and Rebecca. His numerous other brothers, mentioned in the various stories about him, were strictly only half-brothers with different mothers, apart from Benjamin who was his full brother.
He was sold into slavery in Egypt by his older brothers who hated him because he described dreams he had had which predicted that they would all be subject to him. He was eventually made steward of the household of the Pharaoh’s guard (Genesis 39:4). Later he became chief administrator or vizier to the Pharaoh (Genesis 41:40), on account of having interpreted the Pharaoh’s dreams as being a sign of seven good harvests followed by seven years of famine to come and of giving good advice to reserve some of the bounty against times of hardship. His rich clothing in the window is an indication of his high-ranking position. He is also shown holding seven ears of wheat illustrating one of those dreams.
Joseph became very wealthy and had two sons; and it was foretold that the descendants of the younger “shall be a whole nation in themselves” (Genesis 48:19). When Joseph’s father was dying, he declared that “Joseph is a fruitful vine….with branches climbing over the wall” (Genesis 49:22), which is illustrated at the top of the principal lights of this window.
Job (Job 2:1-10)
Job refused to abandon his God despite a series of disasters which befell him and his family, his health, and his property, and which were imposed during an argument between God and Satan as to whether Job’s faith was strong enough to survive adversity.
Job is shown naked, and covered in boils, which was one of the disasters. In his left hand he carries a scroll which states “Wherefore I abhor myself and repent in dust and ashes” (Job42:6). He carries a broken plate in his right hand illustrating that “He took a potsherd to scrape himself” (Job 2:8) when the pain of his boils became almost too much to bear.
Job was a good and prosperous man until the misfortunes fell on him. In the book of Job, he and his three friends debate the cause of his suffering and possible solutions, but Job simply regarded them as God’s will. Eventually Job is restored to an even better position than he had originally. The stories of the suffering and resilience of Job show that obedience to God, who is just and merciful, will be rewarded, but that ultimately what is mankind to question the ways of God. Few Christian theologians today regard this an adequate answer to the problem of suffering.
St Paul quotes from Job twice in his letters. Firstly, in Romans 11:35 “who has ever given to God, that God should repay him?”, quoting Job 41:11, and secondly in 1 Corinthians 3:19 “As it is written: “He catches the wise in their craftiness”” quoting Job 5:13.
Also, in the letter of James (5:11), the writer praised Job for his patience and said “as an example of patience in the face of suffering, take the prophets who spoke in the name of the LORD …You have heard of Job’s perseverance and have seen what the LORD finally brought about”. | <urn:uuid:5005bfc9-1f72-4d22-b98b-a0a488fdae1e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://chobenefice.co.uk/parish-church-histories/1569-2-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00462.warc.gz | en | 0.980103 | 3,590 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.071214884519... | 4 | Hursley Parish Church History in Detail
“The glass windows in a church are Holy Scriptures, which expel the wind and the rain, that is all things hurtful, but transmit the light of the True Sun, that is God, into the hearts of the faithful”
William Durandus (c 1220 – 1296) from “The Symbolism of Churches and Church Ornaments”
John Keble (1792 – 1866), the vicar of Hursley parish from 1835, was one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement which brought about a revolution in church building and decoration, which in turn brought about a revival in the art of stained glass manufacture.
As part of that Movement, the church at Hursley was rebuilt at Keble’s instigation in 1847/48 in its present form, although the stained glass windows were made a few years later. Many 19th century designers attempted to recreate or replace medieval glass in effecting church restorations, but the previous church at Hursley had had clear glass in the windows, so there was no medieval glass for Keble to re-use. Accordingly, instead of creating a pastiche of old glass, new designs were used.
The stained glass windows at Hursley were planned by Keble, based on the scheme of the medieval windows at his childhood home of Fairford in Gloucestershire. The scheme was prepared by the architect,
William Butterfield (1814 – 1900), but as Fairford Church is much larger than Hursley, that plan could not be exactly followed. According to Keble’s sister, Elisabeth, “The Hursley windows are meant to be a course of instruction in Sacred History from Adam to the last day; the church being dedicated to All Saints”.
The designs were suggested by the artists William Dyce (1806 – 1864) and Anthony Vandyke Copley Fielding (1787 – 1855) and executed under the supervision of Butterfield by William Wailes (1808 – 1881), who was seen as a Gothic Revival artist. Having trained with Franz Mayer & Co. of Munich, Wailes established his own stained glass business in 1838 which became one of the largest in England and was in great demand for use in new and restored churches of the period.
His work retained the style of stained glass produced in Germany and Limoges, being often a little paler and more brightly coloured than many English works. It tended to have distinctive colour combinations in the clothing of the figures (for example in the West window Christ’s red robe is lined with green), and he often used pink glass, which is noticeable in many windows at Hursley. His bright colours have been used throughout the windows at Hursley and, as commented by Charles Winston (1814 – 1864), an English historian of stained glass, dark interiors require more richly coloured glass than light interiors, and indeed Keble found that his new church was so dark that he later installed clerestory windows in the roof.
It was originally intended that the cost of the windows would have been raised from contributions of friends and readers of Keble’s writings but in the end only the four three-light windows and the repentance window were given, two others were paid for by special offertories and the rest were finally given by Keble from his published writings.
The stained glass windows at Hursley are typical of their time, and are a reflection of the changes effected by the Oxford Movement. Yet they have their roots in the past, in that the Hursley windows follow the same plan as the medieval windows at Fairford: from the Garden of Eden, through the Prophets and other Old Testament characters, the life of Christ, the Apostles and Saints to the Judgement Window. These windows will be looked at in detail in subsequent issues of the Parish Magazine.
Although the Fairford windows receive almost universal acclaim and astonishment at their longevity, the windows at Hursley arouse mixed opinions. Some consider that the Hursley windows “are an excellent example of early Victorian stained glass”, whereas others regard them “as lurid as a row of jars in a candy shop”. Charlotte Yonge’s view was that” ... though the colours are deeper, and what is now called more crude, than suits the taste of the present day, they must be looked upon with reverence as the outcome of [Keble’s] meditations and his great delight”.
Adam and Noah
The first window in the plan depicts Adam and Noah. Noah was a descendant of Adam and thus started the lineage of Christ. The early Church likened the flood to Christ’s baptism in washing away man’s sin.
In the quatrefoil window at the top is a depiction of an angel, an Old Testament being who conveys God’s will to the people. The angel is holding a flaming sword, as a symbol of authority and of the administration of justice, and with which the angel guarded the way to the tree of life in the Garden of Eden. There is a foliage design in the background of both lights.
Adam (Genesis 2:5 – 3:24)
In this window there is a cross above Adam’s head with foliage sprouting from it (thus linking the image to Christ’s cross and the tree of life). Adam is carrying a bunch of purple grapes (a link to the true vine) and is holding a spade. He is standing on grass with a tilled field and a tree and plants behind him. His job in the Garden was to tend the plants.
After Adam and Eve had succumbed to the Temptation, God clothed them in animal skins. By using this part of the creation story and showing the figures in furs, this also avoided the Victorian aversion to nudity as the pair were created naked.
The small light at the bottom shows a picture of Adam and Eve being driven from the Garden of Eden by an angel. There is a tree shaped like a crook (suggesting Christ as the Good Shepherd) behind the figures with leaves and flowers to represent the tree of knowledge of good and evil, alongside a part of an arch, symbolising the exit from the Garden. Adam and Eve are walking on a path through fields and plants with the setting sun on the horizon, as the Expulsion took place when the Lord was walking in the Garden in the cool of the evening. After the Expulsion Adam was condemned to toil in the fields for the rest of his life, and Eve to suffer in childbirth.
Noah (Genesis 6:9 – 9:1)
The figure of Noah is shown in the right-hand light. He carries the plans for the ark over his right arm and a T-square in his left hand.
The small light at the bottom of the window shows Noah after the waters have subsided, with a wooden ark (ignoring the structural details given in Genesis) in the background and a tricoloured rainbow (the three colours representing the Trinity) in blue, red and yellow in the clouds, signifying God’s promise that never again will flood waters destroy all living creatures or lay waste the earth. Other figures are behind Noah, two men representing his sons and a woman representing either his wife or one of his daughters-in-law.
The animals to the right of Noah (an ox prefiguring an animal generally present at scenes of the Nativity; a lion symbolising the Resurrection or representing strength and fortitude; a deer being a sacred animal, a fleet-footed messenger or a symbol of piety; a rescued sheep symbolising the repentant sinner; and a rabbit as a symbol of the fecundity required of Noah and his family) represent some of the creatures which came out of the ark.
To the left of Noah is a wood fire on a brick or stone pillar, representing the altar which Noah built to make offerings to the Lord in thanks that they were all saved, and behind it is a pot with steam showing the soothing odour of the sacrifice rising out of it.
Abraham and Melchizedek
The second window in the plan has lights depicting Melchizedek and Abraham. Melchizedek was a figure of importance in biblical tradition because he was connected with Jerusalem, and was revered by Abraham, who paid a tithe to him. It is speculated that the story of Melchizedek has possibly been added to give validity to the idea of the priesthood and tithes connected with the Church.
The quatrefoil at the top of this window pictures a woman's head and shoulders and her crossed hands show humility. The word "Sara" is written across the window, indicating that she is Sara or Sarai (she would later be re-named Sarah), the wife of Abram (or, later, Abraham) and mother of Isaac. Her relevance in this window is that God keeps his promises; He promised to give her a son (Genesis 21), even though she was then 90 years old, and her tomb at Hebron (Genesis 23) was a sign of Abraham's faith that God's promise of the land would also be kept.
The backgrounds of the principal lights have vine branches at the top and show oak foliage with acorns. The use of an oak in art has many meanings, including faithfulness and endurance as shown by Sara and Abram, but in this instance could represent Abram’s journey from his own country to Canaan and God’s promise to make him into a great nation - in some versions of the Bible: “Abram passed through the country to the sanctuary at Shechem, the oak tree of Moreh” (Genesis 12:6). The background also shows a castellated parapet, perhaps symbolising Jerusalem and the other cities mentioned in Abram’s journey.
Melchizedek (Genesis 14:18-24)
He is shown in the left-hand light. Melchizedek was the king and high priest in Salem or Jerusalem. The god whom Melchizedek served as priest was probably the high god of the Canaanite pantheon. Later, the early worship of Yahweh was centred around the cultic temple at Salem, as this was David's capital, and the town was given exclusive right of sacrifice to Yahweh. Hebrews 6:20 refers to Jesus “having become a high priest for ever in the succession of Melchizedek”, which is foretold in Psalm 110:4, where the psalmist says “The LORD said unto my Lord: Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchizedek”.
Melchizedek’s name means “My king is righteousness” or, as referred to in Hebrews 7:2, “King of Righteousness”. He wears a yellow mitre with Hebrew characters round the lower edge which translate as “Sanctify the LORD”.
When Abram and his nephew Lot travelled north from Egypt, Abram went to Canaan and Lot to Sodom. There Lot was captured by raiders. Abram pursued them and released Lot, returning in triumph. At Jerusalem he was received by Melchizedek who blessed Abram and gave him food and wine; the figure in the window is shown holding a cloth with a loaf of bread in his left hand and a chalice in his right. This may also symbolise the idea of eucharist. One of the tenets of the Oxford Movement, of which John Keble was a major influence, was to get back to a fundamental form of worship, through a revival of Holy Communion as the principal act of Christian worship.
Abraham (Genesis 22:1-19)
Abraham was the first of the great Hebrew patriarchs of the Old Testament.
This window illustrates the test which God put to Abram - now called Abraham (Genesis 17:5), to offer his son, Isaac, as a sacrifice. They travelled for three days, alone in the latter part while Isaac carried the wood for the fire and Abraham carried the fire and the knife, as shown in the window. When Abraham went to kill his son, he was stopped by God who acknowledged his obedience, and provided instead a ram caught by its horns in a thicket. As a result, Abraham was blessed by God andwas promised many descendants.
This story was considered to show a parallel with the New Testament story of the God’s sacrifice of his beloved only Son, Jesus Christ. The image of Isaac carrying the wood prefigured Christ carrying the Cross, the ram became Christ crucified, and the thorns of the thicket were the crown of thorns.
Joseph and Job
The third window in the plan has lights depicting Joseph and Job. Both of these stories illustrate that even though we do not understand why God, who is good and just, allows bad things to happen to good people, we must continue to trust in Him and we will be rewarded.
The small quatrefoil light at the top of the window shows a woman’s head and shoulders and her hands. The name ‘Rebecca’ is written across the light, showing that she represents Rebecca, the wife of Abraham’s son, Isaac, and the mother of Esau and Jacob. She was a kinswoman of Abraham and was selected for Isaac by his father when she drew water from the well for his servant and his camels (Genesis 24:14). She was taken to Canaan to meet Isaac and when she first met him, she covered her face with a veil (Genesis 24:65).
Joseph (Genesis 37; 39 – 40; 41:1-49; and 42 – 47)
Joseph was the elder son of the Hebrew patriarch, Jacob by his wife Rachel, and a grandson of Isaac and Rebecca. His numerous other brothers, mentioned in the various stories about him, were strictly only half-brothers with different mothers, apart from Benjamin who was his full brother.
He was sold into slavery in Egypt by his older brothers who hated him because he described dreams he had had which predicted that they would all be subject to him. He was eventually made steward of the household of the Pharaoh’s guard (Genesis 39:4). Later he became chief administrator or vizier to the Pharaoh (Genesis 41:40), on account of having interpreted the Pharaoh’s dreams as being a sign of seven good harvests followed by seven years of famine to come and of giving good advice to reserve some of the bounty against times of hardship. His rich clothing in the window is an indication of his high-ranking position. He is also shown holding seven ears of wheat illustrating one of those dreams.
Joseph became very wealthy and had two sons; and it was foretold that the descendants of the younger “shall be a whole nation in themselves” (Genesis 48:19). When Joseph’s father was dying, he declared that “Joseph is a fruitful vine….with branches climbing over the wall” (Genesis 49:22), which is illustrated at the top of the principal lights of this window.
Job (Job 2:1-10)
Job refused to abandon his God despite a series of disasters which befell him and his family, his health, and his property, and which were imposed during an argument between God and Satan as to whether Job’s faith was strong enough to survive adversity.
Job is shown naked, and covered in boils, which was one of the disasters. In his left hand he carries a scroll which states “Wherefore I abhor myself and repent in dust and ashes” (Job42:6). He carries a broken plate in his right hand illustrating that “He took a potsherd to scrape himself” (Job 2:8) when the pain of his boils became almost too much to bear.
Job was a good and prosperous man until the misfortunes fell on him. In the book of Job, he and his three friends debate the cause of his suffering and possible solutions, but Job simply regarded them as God’s will. Eventually Job is restored to an even better position than he had originally. The stories of the suffering and resilience of Job show that obedience to God, who is just and merciful, will be rewarded, but that ultimately what is mankind to question the ways of God. Few Christian theologians today regard this an adequate answer to the problem of suffering.
St Paul quotes from Job twice in his letters. Firstly, in Romans 11:35 “who has ever given to God, that God should repay him?”, quoting Job 41:11, and secondly in 1 Corinthians 3:19 “As it is written: “He catches the wise in their craftiness”” quoting Job 5:13.
Also, in the letter of James (5:11), the writer praised Job for his patience and said “as an example of patience in the face of suffering, take the prophets who spoke in the name of the LORD …You have heard of Job’s perseverance and have seen what the LORD finally brought about”. | 3,552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When the Chinese came to America, they sought out to earn fortunes from the California Gold Rush. After the Gold Rush though, they continued to stay in the US as laborers for projects like building railroads. They came from regions of China that were suffering from extreme poverty, so the prospect of a new life appealed to them and returning to China was not an option. They kept to themselves but increasing competition for work further marginalized the community.
Due to pressures from the white community, Congress passed several acts of legislation that restricted Chinese immigration and rights. White Americans blamed Chinese immigrants and eventually Chinese Americans for unemployment problems, so the Chinese resorted to the court system to stand up for themselves. They carved out a foundation for civil rights and pointed out the much larger issues among the American population. Their cases provide insight on class and gender restrictions with Asian communities that also affected other immigrant communities of color.
Despite white communities complaining about the influx of Chinese workers, the Chinese were not the largest immigrant group during the 1800s.
Yet, they were blamed for taking jobs, corrupting the public with opium dens and prostitutes, and underpaid for the same work that white immigrants did. They were forced to rely on each other and lived in “Chinatowns” because they were not welcomed in other communities. Their exclusion was perpetuated by anti-Chinese sentiments, yet their exclusionary way of living seemed to anger white communities just as much as they claimed the Chinese did not fit in and were not even trying to conform to American life.
How did the discrimination against Chinese Americans mirror issues other minorities had?
Why did the Chinese stay in the US and continue to come if tensions were so high?
With strong anti-Chinese sentiments growing, the Chinese resorted to legal defense. If they could prove they had legal standing to be in the US, then perhaps white Americans would accept them. The Constitution was the law of the land, so they used it with the hopes of establishing credible protection against anti-Chinese credibility. They used any resource they had to combat anti-Chinese attitudes. | <urn:uuid:6c2b931e-2e88-45ac-885f-ce2fd4a8cef0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://expectasian.com/lessonplans/watch-full-movie-streaming-and-download-the-autopsy-of-jane-doe-2016-subtitle-english/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.980777 | 418 | 4.53125 | 5 | [
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0.1367130428552... | 5 | When the Chinese came to America, they sought out to earn fortunes from the California Gold Rush. After the Gold Rush though, they continued to stay in the US as laborers for projects like building railroads. They came from regions of China that were suffering from extreme poverty, so the prospect of a new life appealed to them and returning to China was not an option. They kept to themselves but increasing competition for work further marginalized the community.
Due to pressures from the white community, Congress passed several acts of legislation that restricted Chinese immigration and rights. White Americans blamed Chinese immigrants and eventually Chinese Americans for unemployment problems, so the Chinese resorted to the court system to stand up for themselves. They carved out a foundation for civil rights and pointed out the much larger issues among the American population. Their cases provide insight on class and gender restrictions with Asian communities that also affected other immigrant communities of color.
Despite white communities complaining about the influx of Chinese workers, the Chinese were not the largest immigrant group during the 1800s.
Yet, they were blamed for taking jobs, corrupting the public with opium dens and prostitutes, and underpaid for the same work that white immigrants did. They were forced to rely on each other and lived in “Chinatowns” because they were not welcomed in other communities. Their exclusion was perpetuated by anti-Chinese sentiments, yet their exclusionary way of living seemed to anger white communities just as much as they claimed the Chinese did not fit in and were not even trying to conform to American life.
How did the discrimination against Chinese Americans mirror issues other minorities had?
Why did the Chinese stay in the US and continue to come if tensions were so high?
With strong anti-Chinese sentiments growing, the Chinese resorted to legal defense. If they could prove they had legal standing to be in the US, then perhaps white Americans would accept them. The Constitution was the law of the land, so they used it with the hopes of establishing credible protection against anti-Chinese credibility. They used any resource they had to combat anti-Chinese attitudes. | 418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
International Standard Version
1The residents of Jerusalem made Jehoram's son Ahaziah king in his place after the raiding party that had invaded the city with the Arabs had killed all of the older sons. That's how Jehoram's son Ahaziah became king of Judah. 2Ahaziah was 22 years old when he became king, and he reigned for one year in Jerusalem. His mother was Athaliah, Omri's granddaughter. 3He followed the example of Ahab's dynasty because his mother gave him evil counsel. 4So he practiced what the LORD considered to be evil, just like Ahab's dynasty had done, because after his father died, he was given advice that resulted in his destruction.
5He followed their counsel and accompanied Ahab's son Joram, king of Israel, to wage war against King Hazael of Aram at Ramoth-gilead. But the Arameans wounded Joram, 6so he returned to Jezreel to recover from the wounds that he had received at Ramah in the battle against King Hazael of Aram. King Ahaziah of Judah, Jehoram's son, went to visit Ahab's son Joram, because he was wounded.
7God used Ahaziah's visit to Joram to destroy Ahaziah. As soon as he arrived, Ahaziah went out with Joram to attack Nimshi's son Jehu, whom the LORD had appointed to eliminate Ahab's dynasty.
8And that's exactly what happened. While Jehu was punishing Ahab's dynasty, he located the princes of Judah and the sons of Ahaziah's brothers who were ministering to Ahaziah, and he put them to death. 9Jehu also searched for Ahaziah, had him apprehended while Ahaziah was hiding out in Samaria, and had Ahaziah brought to him. Jehu had Ahaziah executed and buried. It was said of Jehu, "He is the son of Jehoshaphat, who sought the LORD with all of his heart." As a result, there was no one left in the household of Ahaziah strong enough to reign in the kingdom.
10As soon as Ahaziah's mother Athaliah learned that her son had died, she set out to destroy the entire royal family of Judah. 11However, the king's daughter Jehoshabeath took Ahaziah's son Joash away from the king's children who were about to be assassinated and hid him and his nurse in a bedroom. That's how King Jehoram's daughter Jehoshabeath, who was also the priest Jehoiada's wife and Ahaziah's sister, hid him from Athaliah. As a result, she was not able to kill him. 12Joash remained with them for six years, hidden in God's Temple while Athaliah reigned over the land. | <urn:uuid:e73f4a9c-0697-4fba-9aa5-f50bd6fc3ec1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://biblehub.com/isv/m/2_chronicles/22.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00369.warc.gz | en | 0.991324 | 607 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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1The residents of Jerusalem made Jehoram's son Ahaziah king in his place after the raiding party that had invaded the city with the Arabs had killed all of the older sons. That's how Jehoram's son Ahaziah became king of Judah. 2Ahaziah was 22 years old when he became king, and he reigned for one year in Jerusalem. His mother was Athaliah, Omri's granddaughter. 3He followed the example of Ahab's dynasty because his mother gave him evil counsel. 4So he practiced what the LORD considered to be evil, just like Ahab's dynasty had done, because after his father died, he was given advice that resulted in his destruction.
5He followed their counsel and accompanied Ahab's son Joram, king of Israel, to wage war against King Hazael of Aram at Ramoth-gilead. But the Arameans wounded Joram, 6so he returned to Jezreel to recover from the wounds that he had received at Ramah in the battle against King Hazael of Aram. King Ahaziah of Judah, Jehoram's son, went to visit Ahab's son Joram, because he was wounded.
7God used Ahaziah's visit to Joram to destroy Ahaziah. As soon as he arrived, Ahaziah went out with Joram to attack Nimshi's son Jehu, whom the LORD had appointed to eliminate Ahab's dynasty.
8And that's exactly what happened. While Jehu was punishing Ahab's dynasty, he located the princes of Judah and the sons of Ahaziah's brothers who were ministering to Ahaziah, and he put them to death. 9Jehu also searched for Ahaziah, had him apprehended while Ahaziah was hiding out in Samaria, and had Ahaziah brought to him. Jehu had Ahaziah executed and buried. It was said of Jehu, "He is the son of Jehoshaphat, who sought the LORD with all of his heart." As a result, there was no one left in the household of Ahaziah strong enough to reign in the kingdom.
10As soon as Ahaziah's mother Athaliah learned that her son had died, she set out to destroy the entire royal family of Judah. 11However, the king's daughter Jehoshabeath took Ahaziah's son Joash away from the king's children who were about to be assassinated and hid him and his nurse in a bedroom. That's how King Jehoram's daughter Jehoshabeath, who was also the priest Jehoiada's wife and Ahaziah's sister, hid him from Athaliah. As a result, she was not able to kill him. 12Joash remained with them for six years, hidden in God's Temple while Athaliah reigned over the land. | 611 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sir Henry Morgan (born January 24 in 1637 in Wales – died on 23 August 1688 in Jamaica), was a privateer who often tasted piracy, he was a pirate or buccaneer who often accepted missions as a privateer. Violent and ruthless, he led a life of a bandit, stealing and killing but its his bold expeditions, most of which took place on land, which made him one of the most respected captains in the Caribbean. He saw the boats as an effective means of transport, but not as a valuable weapon. He knew in fact many shipwrecks due to his lack of talent as a master. Despite his cruelty, he was knighted at the end of his life.
Henry Morgan was the eldest son of Robert Morgan, a squire of Llanrhymny in Glamorganshire (Wales).
A legend tells that he was kidnapped child in Bristol and sold as slaves in Barbados, and then he would have managed to reach Jamaica. English historians believe he would have rather been Captain Morgan who accompanied the expedition of John Morris and Jackman who captured the Spanish colonies of Vildemos, Trujillo and Granada. In 1666, Morgan commanded a ship of the expedition, Edward Mansfield, which captured the island of New Providence and Santa Catalina (near Panama). When Mansfield was captured and killed by the Spanish some time later, Morgan was chosen by the buccaneers to be their admiral.
It was unclear, however, how a young man with no experience could get the command of a vessel for such an expedition. Another source, this one French (Stories Flibuste and the Caribbean seas George Fronval) indicates that the young Henry Morgan had hired as simple foam England. Arrived in Barbados, he deserted and wandered into the island, which is in turn vagrant, begging and even brigand. It would then be sought and pursued. It is to escape the gallows that would have left in Jamaica, where he would join English buccaneers. Skillful play, he would have expanded quickly and bought a small ship. With several colleagues, they would have made an expedition to the coast of Campeche and would be back with a valuable loot. Morgan, being aware of his lack of experience, would have offered his services to Edward Mansfield, an old corsair, who died in 1668. At this level, the two versions come together, with some differences in the motivations of the privateer. Contrary to what is written below, it has not always been on the orders of the governor of Jamaica. One may think that the English historians wanted to legitimize the actions of Morgan giving them a degree of respectability because he was knighted at the end of his life, but it is much more likely than all his fellows is First, the greed that determined his actions.
Cordingley, David (1995). Life Among the Pirates. London: Abacus.
Pope, Dudley Harry Morgan’s Way: The Biography of Sir Henry Morgan.
Stephan Talty’s Empire of Blue Water: Henry Morgan and the Pirates Who Rules the Caribbean Waves | <urn:uuid:bfe88a20-5547-4f99-8b8e-7876c551362a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yuptab.com/real-pirates-of-the-caribbean-henry-morgan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.987711 | 650 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.3474985361... | 2 | Sir Henry Morgan (born January 24 in 1637 in Wales – died on 23 August 1688 in Jamaica), was a privateer who often tasted piracy, he was a pirate or buccaneer who often accepted missions as a privateer. Violent and ruthless, he led a life of a bandit, stealing and killing but its his bold expeditions, most of which took place on land, which made him one of the most respected captains in the Caribbean. He saw the boats as an effective means of transport, but not as a valuable weapon. He knew in fact many shipwrecks due to his lack of talent as a master. Despite his cruelty, he was knighted at the end of his life.
Henry Morgan was the eldest son of Robert Morgan, a squire of Llanrhymny in Glamorganshire (Wales).
A legend tells that he was kidnapped child in Bristol and sold as slaves in Barbados, and then he would have managed to reach Jamaica. English historians believe he would have rather been Captain Morgan who accompanied the expedition of John Morris and Jackman who captured the Spanish colonies of Vildemos, Trujillo and Granada. In 1666, Morgan commanded a ship of the expedition, Edward Mansfield, which captured the island of New Providence and Santa Catalina (near Panama). When Mansfield was captured and killed by the Spanish some time later, Morgan was chosen by the buccaneers to be their admiral.
It was unclear, however, how a young man with no experience could get the command of a vessel for such an expedition. Another source, this one French (Stories Flibuste and the Caribbean seas George Fronval) indicates that the young Henry Morgan had hired as simple foam England. Arrived in Barbados, he deserted and wandered into the island, which is in turn vagrant, begging and even brigand. It would then be sought and pursued. It is to escape the gallows that would have left in Jamaica, where he would join English buccaneers. Skillful play, he would have expanded quickly and bought a small ship. With several colleagues, they would have made an expedition to the coast of Campeche and would be back with a valuable loot. Morgan, being aware of his lack of experience, would have offered his services to Edward Mansfield, an old corsair, who died in 1668. At this level, the two versions come together, with some differences in the motivations of the privateer. Contrary to what is written below, it has not always been on the orders of the governor of Jamaica. One may think that the English historians wanted to legitimize the actions of Morgan giving them a degree of respectability because he was knighted at the end of his life, but it is much more likely than all his fellows is First, the greed that determined his actions.
Cordingley, David (1995). Life Among the Pirates. London: Abacus.
Pope, Dudley Harry Morgan’s Way: The Biography of Sir Henry Morgan.
Stephan Talty’s Empire of Blue Water: Henry Morgan and the Pirates Who Rules the Caribbean Waves | 659 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below.
Pope Damasus I (366 – 384) began his reign after the death of Pope Liberius in September of 366 and he continued until 384. He did not gain his position, however, without much struggle.
One must not underestimate the importance of the role of bishop in the 4th century. The Roman bishop had not yet achieved full papal status—such authority would have to wait at least a century—but as possibly the most powerful bishop in the empire, the throne in the Roman church was full of political power:
All bishops had an influence in the 4th century that they could never have dreamed of in the 3rd. If ambitious and corrupt men were pursuing lesser bishoprics, you can be assured that the most ambitious were pursuing the holy see, Peter's throne.
At this point, the people of the church were still choosing their bishops with the approval of the elders and surrounding bishops. In a see this important, however, the emperor would want to approve the choice as well. His disapproval had led to the exile of Pope Liberius and a 2-year rule by the antipope Felix II (whom the historian Socrates Scholasticus says was Arian, but his contemporary Sozomen denies this).
I read some conflicting reports about the election of Damasus. Sozomen and Socrates, the 5th century historians, say that the Arian doctrine had nothing to do with this election. Philip Schaff, from the 19th century, says it did, but his report has some problems with it.
Wikipedia, using respected church historian JND Kelly as its source, says that Damasus was supported by upper class, while his opponent, Ursinus, was the choice of the deacons and laity.
What seems to be consistent is this. Damasus was duly elected, but Ursicinus—moved by ambition as most likely were—got some fellow deacons to hold a clandestine election on the side. He then had some lesser bishops declare him bishop publicly.
This may be why Schaff says Arianism was involved. In the 4th century, Arian and Nicene bishops were like Democrats and Republicans in America. They were very partisan, and one could always find bishops on his side of the Arian controversy to try to push him to power. This all feels like the Arian controversy to me, and perhaps that is what motivated Schaff to suggest Arianism was involved.
Arianism was much more popular in the east, it did rear its head when the see of Peter was in question, and the conquering Germanic tribes of the 5th and 6th centuries were almost exclusively Arian, though peacefully so. (Peaceful over theology; not peaceful when they were conquering!)
It's hard to know what moved Schaff, though, as he seems to have read everything available historically; he cites a Latin author that I can't read for some of his information on Ursicinus.
Be that as it may, whatever the motivations, except for numbers, there is no doubt about what happened next …
As was very common in the 4th century, the "church" solved the problem with violence. JND Kelly says that Damasus "hired a gang of thugs" to go after Ursicinus. I have no idea if that is true, but it must have been Damasus' side who had the upper hand because Ursicinus had to hide himself in a church building. The "Christians" battled outside until 137 people were killed. There are no numbers for the injured.
The prefect of Rome was thus obliged to quell the uprising. He decided on behalf of Pope Damasus I, and the issue, for the most part, was settled. The following year the emperor Valentinian got involved, banished Ursicinus, and Pope Damasus I was able to settle into an 18-year reign that included the final triumph of the Nicene faith—or something similar to it, anyway— under emperor Theodosius I.
Pope Damasus I was familiar with and a supporter of Jerome's Latin translation of the Bible, which would become the Vulgate, and he is also the one who introduced the Latin Psalter.
Though his enemies accused him of being a violent man, his steadfastness in defense of the Council of Nicea likely had much to do with virtually ending the Arian heresy in 383 under Theodosius (except among the Germanic tribes that would invade Italy within about 20 years).
My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1! | <urn:uuid:11be1b76-1b1e-4c37-8991-71dd90167e80> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.christian-history.org/pope-damasus-i.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.99163 | 952 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.0524768... | 1 | Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below.
Pope Damasus I (366 – 384) began his reign after the death of Pope Liberius in September of 366 and he continued until 384. He did not gain his position, however, without much struggle.
One must not underestimate the importance of the role of bishop in the 4th century. The Roman bishop had not yet achieved full papal status—such authority would have to wait at least a century—but as possibly the most powerful bishop in the empire, the throne in the Roman church was full of political power:
All bishops had an influence in the 4th century that they could never have dreamed of in the 3rd. If ambitious and corrupt men were pursuing lesser bishoprics, you can be assured that the most ambitious were pursuing the holy see, Peter's throne.
At this point, the people of the church were still choosing their bishops with the approval of the elders and surrounding bishops. In a see this important, however, the emperor would want to approve the choice as well. His disapproval had led to the exile of Pope Liberius and a 2-year rule by the antipope Felix II (whom the historian Socrates Scholasticus says was Arian, but his contemporary Sozomen denies this).
I read some conflicting reports about the election of Damasus. Sozomen and Socrates, the 5th century historians, say that the Arian doctrine had nothing to do with this election. Philip Schaff, from the 19th century, says it did, but his report has some problems with it.
Wikipedia, using respected church historian JND Kelly as its source, says that Damasus was supported by upper class, while his opponent, Ursinus, was the choice of the deacons and laity.
What seems to be consistent is this. Damasus was duly elected, but Ursicinus—moved by ambition as most likely were—got some fellow deacons to hold a clandestine election on the side. He then had some lesser bishops declare him bishop publicly.
This may be why Schaff says Arianism was involved. In the 4th century, Arian and Nicene bishops were like Democrats and Republicans in America. They were very partisan, and one could always find bishops on his side of the Arian controversy to try to push him to power. This all feels like the Arian controversy to me, and perhaps that is what motivated Schaff to suggest Arianism was involved.
Arianism was much more popular in the east, it did rear its head when the see of Peter was in question, and the conquering Germanic tribes of the 5th and 6th centuries were almost exclusively Arian, though peacefully so. (Peaceful over theology; not peaceful when they were conquering!)
It's hard to know what moved Schaff, though, as he seems to have read everything available historically; he cites a Latin author that I can't read for some of his information on Ursicinus.
Be that as it may, whatever the motivations, except for numbers, there is no doubt about what happened next …
As was very common in the 4th century, the "church" solved the problem with violence. JND Kelly says that Damasus "hired a gang of thugs" to go after Ursicinus. I have no idea if that is true, but it must have been Damasus' side who had the upper hand because Ursicinus had to hide himself in a church building. The "Christians" battled outside until 137 people were killed. There are no numbers for the injured.
The prefect of Rome was thus obliged to quell the uprising. He decided on behalf of Pope Damasus I, and the issue, for the most part, was settled. The following year the emperor Valentinian got involved, banished Ursicinus, and Pope Damasus I was able to settle into an 18-year reign that included the final triumph of the Nicene faith—or something similar to it, anyway— under emperor Theodosius I.
Pope Damasus I was familiar with and a supporter of Jerome's Latin translation of the Bible, which would become the Vulgate, and he is also the one who introduced the Latin Psalter.
Though his enemies accused him of being a violent man, his steadfastness in defense of the Council of Nicea likely had much to do with virtually ending the Arian heresy in 383 under Theodosius (except among the Germanic tribes that would invade Italy within about 20 years).
My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1! | 983 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Joy Hakim, Liberty for All? (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 177-178.
But that didn’t mean they were free. According to the Fugitive Slave Law, anyone who found them in Ohio was obliged to return them to their owner. If you broke the law you could go to jail, or be fined, or both.
John, Dinah, and Frank were lucky: the first person they met was a Quaker man who would not obey that law. He was willing to risk a jail sentence. He fed them and gave them a place to rest.
The fugitives were heading for Canada, where slavery had been abolished. Before they went on they let their horses go, sending them back toward Kentucky, where their owner found them. Then Dinah started out; she thought it was safer to go by herself. No one knows what happened to her. John and Frank went next. The Quaker man sent them all traveling on the Underground Railroad.
You may have heard of that railroad. Well, it wasn’t a real railroad, and it wasn’t underground. Still, the name made sense. The Underground Railroad was a secret way of travel, with conductors and stations and passengers. The passengers were blacks escaping from slavery. The conductors – who were blacks and white – helped them along the way. The stations were places where people could be trusted to feed and house and help the runaways. Some of those places were houses with special hidden rooms; some were barns; some were even riverboats.
The fugitives traveled at night, following the North Star. Sometimes the nights were cloudy and there were no stars to follow. Sometimes hunting dogs were sent to track them down. Usually the passengers traveled through places they had never been before. Often they were hungry. Always they were scared. But the idea of freedom gave them the courage they needed. As they went they whispered the locations of the railroad’s stations to one another. | <urn:uuid:d41c7fe7-37df-4433-973d-e56ca1501600> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu/node/17090 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.994147 | 409 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.1754687577... | 2 | Joy Hakim, Liberty for All? (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 177-178.
But that didn’t mean they were free. According to the Fugitive Slave Law, anyone who found them in Ohio was obliged to return them to their owner. If you broke the law you could go to jail, or be fined, or both.
John, Dinah, and Frank were lucky: the first person they met was a Quaker man who would not obey that law. He was willing to risk a jail sentence. He fed them and gave them a place to rest.
The fugitives were heading for Canada, where slavery had been abolished. Before they went on they let their horses go, sending them back toward Kentucky, where their owner found them. Then Dinah started out; she thought it was safer to go by herself. No one knows what happened to her. John and Frank went next. The Quaker man sent them all traveling on the Underground Railroad.
You may have heard of that railroad. Well, it wasn’t a real railroad, and it wasn’t underground. Still, the name made sense. The Underground Railroad was a secret way of travel, with conductors and stations and passengers. The passengers were blacks escaping from slavery. The conductors – who were blacks and white – helped them along the way. The stations were places where people could be trusted to feed and house and help the runaways. Some of those places were houses with special hidden rooms; some were barns; some were even riverboats.
The fugitives traveled at night, following the North Star. Sometimes the nights were cloudy and there were no stars to follow. Sometimes hunting dogs were sent to track them down. Usually the passengers traveled through places they had never been before. Often they were hungry. Always they were scared. But the idea of freedom gave them the courage they needed. As they went they whispered the locations of the railroad’s stations to one another. | 406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
No one knows exactly how homosexuality entered into human history. I would imagine that the practices associated with the erotic attraction of people to ones own gender have been around since the dawn of humanity. The earliest accounts of homosexual behavior seem to be found in ancient pagan religious practices. At least, the pagans included homosexuality in the worship of various gods. Whether the inclusion in worship was because the practice was already a part of the society-at-large or if the pagan worship introduced the practice is impossible to determine, although some understandings of Pauls writings argue for the latter.
Human beings began to worship many gods very early in human ...view middle of the document...
Since sex was required for fertility in humans, they believed having sex with a god was all the more crucial and beneficial.
Giving the Male God More Male-ness
Most likely, additional homosexual practices became a part of polytheistic worship as a successor to masturbation. Evidence suggests pagan priests orally stimulated the sexual organs of the worshippers in order to facilitate masturbation in ancient mid-eastern cults. If one believed that having sex with a god would bring fertility, it was easy to also believe that, if a man added his male-ness, through his semen, to a male god, fertility would be multiplied all the more. Male gods could plant seeds and were therefore seen as more productive than the female gods to some. When a man ejaculated his semen into another mans anus at the shrine, he was depositing more male power to the gods. With the additional strength of the semen of many men, the god could then insure a bountiful crop, a larger herd, and many children to care for the field. This practice grew into, not only forms of pagan worship, but also a means of supplying money for the temple. Catamites, boys and men who were exclusively used for passive anal sex, began to serve the temples. One must wonder whether boys were sometimes forced into this kind of sexual contact due to economic circumstances, much like their female counterparts. Women often survived only by prostitution since they were allowed no inheritance. Orphan boys may often have found themselves in the same predicament. Regardless, it was very early in human history that both male and female prostitutes were used in temple worship in order to raise funds for the temple, as well as support themselves.
Homosexuality in Ancient Greece
Greek culture is often promoted as the most accepting of homosexuality. To some extent, this may be true. The Greeks developed a hedonistic attitude toward the human body and sexuality. Although we may think of hedonism as lustful today, Greek philosophers wrote of hedonism in much more glowing terms. They believed that the naked human body, both male and female, was worthy of respect and admiration. They took great pride in the physical form. Public nudity was both tolerated and often encouraged.
The art and statuary of the ancient Greeks reflects this love for the body, particularly the male body. A major negative of this attitude is that those who were handicapped or unattractive children were often left to die, killed, or used in sacrifice to a god. It was not unusual for men to comment on the attractiveness of other men, or for them to express affection for one another. At least part of the reason for this fascination with physical attractiveness and sex is that the Greeks had developed into a culture that had a great deal of leisure time. They were not required to work constantly in order to survive. Blumenfeld and Raymond wrote: “Similarly, the Greek attitude toward sex was, for the most part,... | <urn:uuid:b7d64024-b656-4ec6-9428-3feee60b3b2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.avsabonline.org/papers/homosexuality-117 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.985679 | 727 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.020115682855... | 1 | No one knows exactly how homosexuality entered into human history. I would imagine that the practices associated with the erotic attraction of people to ones own gender have been around since the dawn of humanity. The earliest accounts of homosexual behavior seem to be found in ancient pagan religious practices. At least, the pagans included homosexuality in the worship of various gods. Whether the inclusion in worship was because the practice was already a part of the society-at-large or if the pagan worship introduced the practice is impossible to determine, although some understandings of Pauls writings argue for the latter.
Human beings began to worship many gods very early in human ...view middle of the document...
Since sex was required for fertility in humans, they believed having sex with a god was all the more crucial and beneficial.
Giving the Male God More Male-ness
Most likely, additional homosexual practices became a part of polytheistic worship as a successor to masturbation. Evidence suggests pagan priests orally stimulated the sexual organs of the worshippers in order to facilitate masturbation in ancient mid-eastern cults. If one believed that having sex with a god would bring fertility, it was easy to also believe that, if a man added his male-ness, through his semen, to a male god, fertility would be multiplied all the more. Male gods could plant seeds and were therefore seen as more productive than the female gods to some. When a man ejaculated his semen into another mans anus at the shrine, he was depositing more male power to the gods. With the additional strength of the semen of many men, the god could then insure a bountiful crop, a larger herd, and many children to care for the field. This practice grew into, not only forms of pagan worship, but also a means of supplying money for the temple. Catamites, boys and men who were exclusively used for passive anal sex, began to serve the temples. One must wonder whether boys were sometimes forced into this kind of sexual contact due to economic circumstances, much like their female counterparts. Women often survived only by prostitution since they were allowed no inheritance. Orphan boys may often have found themselves in the same predicament. Regardless, it was very early in human history that both male and female prostitutes were used in temple worship in order to raise funds for the temple, as well as support themselves.
Homosexuality in Ancient Greece
Greek culture is often promoted as the most accepting of homosexuality. To some extent, this may be true. The Greeks developed a hedonistic attitude toward the human body and sexuality. Although we may think of hedonism as lustful today, Greek philosophers wrote of hedonism in much more glowing terms. They believed that the naked human body, both male and female, was worthy of respect and admiration. They took great pride in the physical form. Public nudity was both tolerated and often encouraged.
The art and statuary of the ancient Greeks reflects this love for the body, particularly the male body. A major negative of this attitude is that those who were handicapped or unattractive children were often left to die, killed, or used in sacrifice to a god. It was not unusual for men to comment on the attractiveness of other men, or for them to express affection for one another. At least part of the reason for this fascination with physical attractiveness and sex is that the Greeks had developed into a culture that had a great deal of leisure time. They were not required to work constantly in order to survive. Blumenfeld and Raymond wrote: “Similarly, the Greek attitude toward sex was, for the most part,... | 721 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In police terminology, a beat is the territory and time that a police officer patrols. Beat policing is based on traditional policing (late 19th century) and utilizes the close relationship with the community members within the assigned beat to strengthen police effectiveness and encourage cooperative efforts to make a safer community. Beat police typically patrol on foot or bicycle which provides more interaction between police and community members.
Before the advent of personal radio communications, beats were organised in towns and cities to cover specific areas, usually shown on a map in the police station and given some sort of name or number. Officers reporting on duty would be allocated a beat by their sergeant and sometimes given a card indicating that the officer should be at a particular point at set times, usually half an hour, or forty-five minutes apart. The points would usually be telephone kiosks, police pillars or boxes, or perhaps public houses where it would be possible to phone the officer should he be needed to respond to an incident. The officer would remain at the point for five minutes and then patrol the area gradually making his way to the next point.
Beats in town centers would be relatively small areas but in the suburbs much larger. A shortfall in manpower would mean that one or more beats would be left un-patrolled at the discretion of the duty sergeant.
Sometime during an officer’s shift, he could expect a supervisory officer to meet him at one of the points. This ensured the beat patrol was being correctly carried out and was an opportunity to discuss problems. The supervisory officer would sign the officer or constable’s pocket book, ensuring that it was up to date.
It was expected that a constable would learn all about each beat he covered, even though they would not necessarily be the same one each shift. A new constable would usually be shown around the beats by an experienced constable who would point out important considerations. These would include vulnerable premises such as banks and post offices, perhaps showing the officer where a peephole would give a view of a safe. A constable was expected to learn where known criminals resided or resorted and which public houses might be the source of problems or keeping late hours.
The same principles extended to beats patrolled on bicycles or in motor vehicles. Even with radio communication, the patrol vehicle would be expected to visit and remain at certain points at particular times, enabling supervisors to meet up with the patrolling officer or to give a visible police presence at times when this was deemed particularly needed.
Missing a point without good reason was regarded very seriously and was often the cause of disciplinary action against an officer. Beat officers were commonly used in the 1800s. | <urn:uuid:dac722ba-8f9a-4003-b463-9fe6c7bdb56b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ramanagaradistrictpolice.in/police-beat-system/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00097.warc.gz | en | 0.981662 | 538 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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-0.06023... | 4 | In police terminology, a beat is the territory and time that a police officer patrols. Beat policing is based on traditional policing (late 19th century) and utilizes the close relationship with the community members within the assigned beat to strengthen police effectiveness and encourage cooperative efforts to make a safer community. Beat police typically patrol on foot or bicycle which provides more interaction between police and community members.
Before the advent of personal radio communications, beats were organised in towns and cities to cover specific areas, usually shown on a map in the police station and given some sort of name or number. Officers reporting on duty would be allocated a beat by their sergeant and sometimes given a card indicating that the officer should be at a particular point at set times, usually half an hour, or forty-five minutes apart. The points would usually be telephone kiosks, police pillars or boxes, or perhaps public houses where it would be possible to phone the officer should he be needed to respond to an incident. The officer would remain at the point for five minutes and then patrol the area gradually making his way to the next point.
Beats in town centers would be relatively small areas but in the suburbs much larger. A shortfall in manpower would mean that one or more beats would be left un-patrolled at the discretion of the duty sergeant.
Sometime during an officer’s shift, he could expect a supervisory officer to meet him at one of the points. This ensured the beat patrol was being correctly carried out and was an opportunity to discuss problems. The supervisory officer would sign the officer or constable’s pocket book, ensuring that it was up to date.
It was expected that a constable would learn all about each beat he covered, even though they would not necessarily be the same one each shift. A new constable would usually be shown around the beats by an experienced constable who would point out important considerations. These would include vulnerable premises such as banks and post offices, perhaps showing the officer where a peephole would give a view of a safe. A constable was expected to learn where known criminals resided or resorted and which public houses might be the source of problems or keeping late hours.
The same principles extended to beats patrolled on bicycles or in motor vehicles. Even with radio communication, the patrol vehicle would be expected to visit and remain at certain points at particular times, enabling supervisors to meet up with the patrolling officer or to give a visible police presence at times when this was deemed particularly needed.
Missing a point without good reason was regarded very seriously and was often the cause of disciplinary action against an officer. Beat officers were commonly used in the 1800s. | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Article abstract: Lewis Carroll wrote stories and poems that fundamentally changed and enlivened children’s literature. He also pioneered children’s photography and published books that advanced the fields of logic and mathematics.
Lewis Carroll was the pen name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, who was born in Daresbury, Cheshire, England, on January 27, 1832. His father, Charles Dodgson, had given up his fellowship and lectureship in mathematics at Christ Church, Oxford University, to marry Frances Jane Lutwidge in 1827. Carroll was the first son of their eleven children. The family lived in Daresbury, where Carroll’s father was parish curate, until 1843. Carroll showed an early talent for mathematics, cultivated by his father, and comic verse. Growing up in a close-knit upper-middle-class family, living in a secluded village, and deeply influenced by a stern but doting father, Carroll found childhood a time of innocent exploration and wonder, a view that colored his later literary works.
In 1844 Carroll attended a grammar school in Yorkshire, and in 1846 he went on to Rugby, one of England’s leading private schools. Instructors at both schools helped him develop his mathematical and literary talents, but he disliked boarding away from his family. At Rugby the often harsh discipline administered by older students especially repelled him. For the rest of his life he disliked boys. At home on vacations, he helped his father teach in the local school, was a leader in games (many of which he invented), and wrote poetry and stories for magazines that he issued to amuse family and friends. These early poems were usually parodies of moralistic verse common in the early nineteenth century, and he explored several themes that appeared in his mature writing: violence, dreams and nightmares, family relationships, and the child’s view of a bewildering adult world.
Carroll was a brilliant student. He won a scholarship to Christ Church, his father’s alma mater. Like his father, he won a first in mathematics, the highest scholastic distinction for an undergraduate, and was awarded a fellowship even before he earned his bachelor of arts degree in 1854. The fellowship provided him a yearly stipend and rooms at Christ Church for life. He was appointed a lecturer in mathematics in 1855 and took vows as an Anglican deacon in 1861, becoming the Reverend C. L. Dodgson. From then on he dressed in black clerical clothes almost exclusively. A stammer made him shy of public speaking, and his clean-shaven boyish features, thick dark hair, and retiring manner made him seem ethereal to some contemporaries.
Using his birth name, Dodgson began to attract attention as a comic poet soon after earning his degree by publishing in newspapers and magazines some of the poems that he later incorporated into his children’s books. In 1856 he published his first work under the name Lewis Carroll, an anagram of the latinized form of his first two names. The same year, he met Alice Pleasance Liddell, the daughter of Christ Church’s dean, and took up photography. These interests—literature, photography, and Alice—blended to produce the most creative period of his life during the next twenty years.
Carroll remained a fellow at Christ Church for the rest of his life. He never married; in fact, the terms of his fellowship forbade it. He devoted himself to tutoring, lecturing, and performing religious and administrative duties at the college, but such work could not use up his creative energy, and he also pursued social and cultural interests outside his academic work.
Carroll was fastidious and almost obsessive with details, and he loved gadgets. Photography was ideally suited to him. At the time he took it up in 1856, it was a cumbersome art with bulky equipment. The photographer had to smear a glass plate with a colloid and dip it into silver nitrate, insert the plate into the camera, expose it...
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Lewis Carroll was the pen name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, who was born in Daresbury, Cheshire, England, on January 27, 1832. His father, Charles Dodgson, had given up his fellowship and lectureship in mathematics at Christ Church, Oxford University, to marry Frances Jane Lutwidge in 1827. Carroll was the first son of their eleven children. The family lived in Daresbury, where Carroll’s father was parish curate, until 1843. Carroll showed an early talent for mathematics, cultivated by his father, and comic verse. Growing up in a close-knit upper-middle-class family, living in a secluded village, and deeply influenced by a stern but doting father, Carroll found childhood a time of innocent exploration and wonder, a view that colored his later literary works.
In 1844 Carroll attended a grammar school in Yorkshire, and in 1846 he went on to Rugby, one of England’s leading private schools. Instructors at both schools helped him develop his mathematical and literary talents, but he disliked boarding away from his family. At Rugby the often harsh discipline administered by older students especially repelled him. For the rest of his life he disliked boys. At home on vacations, he helped his father teach in the local school, was a leader in games (many of which he invented), and wrote poetry and stories for magazines that he issued to amuse family and friends. These early poems were usually parodies of moralistic verse common in the early nineteenth century, and he explored several themes that appeared in his mature writing: violence, dreams and nightmares, family relationships, and the child’s view of a bewildering adult world.
Carroll was a brilliant student. He won a scholarship to Christ Church, his father’s alma mater. Like his father, he won a first in mathematics, the highest scholastic distinction for an undergraduate, and was awarded a fellowship even before he earned his bachelor of arts degree in 1854. The fellowship provided him a yearly stipend and rooms at Christ Church for life. He was appointed a lecturer in mathematics in 1855 and took vows as an Anglican deacon in 1861, becoming the Reverend C. L. Dodgson. From then on he dressed in black clerical clothes almost exclusively. A stammer made him shy of public speaking, and his clean-shaven boyish features, thick dark hair, and retiring manner made him seem ethereal to some contemporaries.
Using his birth name, Dodgson began to attract attention as a comic poet soon after earning his degree by publishing in newspapers and magazines some of the poems that he later incorporated into his children’s books. In 1856 he published his first work under the name Lewis Carroll, an anagram of the latinized form of his first two names. The same year, he met Alice Pleasance Liddell, the daughter of Christ Church’s dean, and took up photography. These interests—literature, photography, and Alice—blended to produce the most creative period of his life during the next twenty years.
Carroll remained a fellow at Christ Church for the rest of his life. He never married; in fact, the terms of his fellowship forbade it. He devoted himself to tutoring, lecturing, and performing religious and administrative duties at the college, but such work could not use up his creative energy, and he also pursued social and cultural interests outside his academic work.
Carroll was fastidious and almost obsessive with details, and he loved gadgets. Photography was ideally suited to him. At the time he took it up in 1856, it was a cumbersome art with bulky equipment. The photographer had to smear a glass plate with a colloid and dip it into silver nitrate, insert the plate into the camera, expose it...
(The entire section is 3,235 words.) | 856 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 06-07-2011)
Gurukul system of education in ancient India was related to the quest of studies. Here the guru or the teacher lived with his family members along with his students and imparts education to them in varied fields. Gurukul was generally established in forests, away from the dean and bustle of normal life. A shishya or a student served his guru for years and gained the faith of the guru with his determination, discipline, sincerity and intelligence before he was provided an opportunity to acquire the knowledge of different subjects. The Gurukul system taught students simple living, loyalty to duty and quest for learning.
History of Gurukul
The Gurukul system of education can be traced back to the Vedic era. Many Gurukuls, including that of Yajnavalkya
, Varuni were mentioned in the Upanishads
. Brigu Valli, the famous discourse on Brahman
, is mentioned to be in Guru Varuni's Gurukul. In ancient India, Jainism
flourished which had a major impact on the educational system.
During the medieval period, universities that provided higher education were Taxila
, Vikramasila and Ujjain
. During the colonial era the Gurukul system was starting to decline The Gurukul was almost extinct except in some of the remote areas during the colonial period. One of them was in Kerala
where the soldier of Nair race had their personal martial gurukuls called Kalaris.
Education system in Gurukul
Life in a Gurukul was tough and the students had to follow strict discipline. They lived in very strict surroundings, practice celibacy and cultivate virtue and discipline under the custody of their guru in order to win his confidence and attention. The students had to sacrifice their worldly comfort by getting education in a Gurukul. The shishyas live together as equals, regardless of their social status, acquire knowledge from the guru. The surroundings were beautiful with plenty of space to move about and there was very little of any big structure. Teachers and students lived together. There were regular physical services that the pupils had to render to the teachers. They got up very early in the morning, said their prayers, and went for a bath in the river, which would be at quite a distance from the ashram of the teacher. They would have to wash their clothes and their teachers' clothes also. They cooked their food, cleaned the ashram, took care of the animals and acquired knowledge of the texts.
Usually up to the seventh year, no particular attempt was made to impart knowledge to the child. The age at which it commenced depended upon the student. In case of the intellectually advanced student it started in the eighth year and in other cases it started at eleven or twelve. The period of studentship lasted anywhere between nine to forty eight years according to the pupils requirements as to whether he wanted to master a part of the scriptures only or acquire all knowledge.
Education was imparted orally and this continued even after scripts were introduced since the priestly class did not want to put their knowledge in written form and make it public. The shishyas had to remember everything that was taught and gain mastery over the subject. In ancient India the Gurukul system of education was imparted free and the student after completing their education has to give his guru the gurudakshina. The gurudakshina is a customary sign of tribute, thanks and respect, which can also be monetary or at times can also be an important work the teacher would like his student to complete.
LaterDevelopments in Gurukul System
A few new Gurukulas have been established recently. Some of them are Ananda Marga Gurukul, Swami Narayan Gurukul and Vivekananda College
. For many years International Society for Krishna Consciousness founded many Gurukuls for children proving academic as well as spiritual instructions. The Bhaktivedanta Gurukul in Vrindavan
provides its students with cultural and Vedic lifestyle along with high school degree from ICSE board. The Iskcon
Gurukul project of Mayapur is rejuvenating the ancient Gurukul system since the 70's.
Though with passing time the concept of ancient Gurukul has been lost but the hostels of modern times, in a way, reflect this age-old notion. As in gurukuls, in hostels, too, the students are bound by discipline and are their all round development is paid heed. The Gurukul system may have become extinct but the teacher-student relationship is still the same in India. | <urn:uuid:4510cf1b-6f22-4a07-aa58-44e3f56779cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/11/gurukul.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.985458 | 962 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.11939865350723267... | 1 | (Last Updated on : 06-07-2011)
Gurukul system of education in ancient India was related to the quest of studies. Here the guru or the teacher lived with his family members along with his students and imparts education to them in varied fields. Gurukul was generally established in forests, away from the dean and bustle of normal life. A shishya or a student served his guru for years and gained the faith of the guru with his determination, discipline, sincerity and intelligence before he was provided an opportunity to acquire the knowledge of different subjects. The Gurukul system taught students simple living, loyalty to duty and quest for learning.
History of Gurukul
The Gurukul system of education can be traced back to the Vedic era. Many Gurukuls, including that of Yajnavalkya
, Varuni were mentioned in the Upanishads
. Brigu Valli, the famous discourse on Brahman
, is mentioned to be in Guru Varuni's Gurukul. In ancient India, Jainism
flourished which had a major impact on the educational system.
During the medieval period, universities that provided higher education were Taxila
, Vikramasila and Ujjain
. During the colonial era the Gurukul system was starting to decline The Gurukul was almost extinct except in some of the remote areas during the colonial period. One of them was in Kerala
where the soldier of Nair race had their personal martial gurukuls called Kalaris.
Education system in Gurukul
Life in a Gurukul was tough and the students had to follow strict discipline. They lived in very strict surroundings, practice celibacy and cultivate virtue and discipline under the custody of their guru in order to win his confidence and attention. The students had to sacrifice their worldly comfort by getting education in a Gurukul. The shishyas live together as equals, regardless of their social status, acquire knowledge from the guru. The surroundings were beautiful with plenty of space to move about and there was very little of any big structure. Teachers and students lived together. There were regular physical services that the pupils had to render to the teachers. They got up very early in the morning, said their prayers, and went for a bath in the river, which would be at quite a distance from the ashram of the teacher. They would have to wash their clothes and their teachers' clothes also. They cooked their food, cleaned the ashram, took care of the animals and acquired knowledge of the texts.
Usually up to the seventh year, no particular attempt was made to impart knowledge to the child. The age at which it commenced depended upon the student. In case of the intellectually advanced student it started in the eighth year and in other cases it started at eleven or twelve. The period of studentship lasted anywhere between nine to forty eight years according to the pupils requirements as to whether he wanted to master a part of the scriptures only or acquire all knowledge.
Education was imparted orally and this continued even after scripts were introduced since the priestly class did not want to put their knowledge in written form and make it public. The shishyas had to remember everything that was taught and gain mastery over the subject. In ancient India the Gurukul system of education was imparted free and the student after completing their education has to give his guru the gurudakshina. The gurudakshina is a customary sign of tribute, thanks and respect, which can also be monetary or at times can also be an important work the teacher would like his student to complete.
LaterDevelopments in Gurukul System
A few new Gurukulas have been established recently. Some of them are Ananda Marga Gurukul, Swami Narayan Gurukul and Vivekananda College
. For many years International Society for Krishna Consciousness founded many Gurukuls for children proving academic as well as spiritual instructions. The Bhaktivedanta Gurukul in Vrindavan
provides its students with cultural and Vedic lifestyle along with high school degree from ICSE board. The Iskcon
Gurukul project of Mayapur is rejuvenating the ancient Gurukul system since the 70's.
Though with passing time the concept of ancient Gurukul has been lost but the hostels of modern times, in a way, reflect this age-old notion. As in gurukuls, in hostels, too, the students are bound by discipline and are their all round development is paid heed. The Gurukul system may have become extinct but the teacher-student relationship is still the same in India. | 959 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Holocaust was a gradual process. The Nazis didn’t start mass extermination when they got into power. But gradually prepared the population by dehumanizing the Jewish people. Segregation, as shown in the photo above, was part of this. The point was not to provide a bench for Jews, it was to segregate the benches so that non-Jewish Germans would not have to sit on a “contaminated” bench. Being treated like below human life for years before hand was terrifying and probably emotionally exhausting.
A boy sits on a bench in a public park. The words painted on the bench say, “For Aryans only.” By law, German and Austrian Jews were prohibited from using many public facilities except those marked “For Jews only.” In some cities, Jews were not allowed in public parks, swimming pools, or movie theaters. Jews were allowed to shop in stores only during designated hours, usually late in the day when stores had run out of fresh foods.
After Adolf Hitler gained power in 1933, the school curriculum changed.Jewish children in German schools suffered terribly from bullying.
Biology, along with political education, became compulsory. Children learnt about “worthy” and “unworthy” races, about breeding and hereditary disease. They measured their heads with tape measures, checked the colour of their eyes and texture of their hair against charts of Aryan or Nordic types, and constructed their own family trees to establish their biological, not historical, ancestry…. They also expanded on the racial inferiority of the Jews.
The Minister of the Interior, Wilhelm Frick, claimed that the idea that teaching history should be objective was a fallacy of liberalism. The purpose of history was to teach people that life was always dominated by struggle, that race and blood were central to everything that happened in the past, present and future, and that leadership determined the fate of peoples. Central themes in the new teaching including courage in battle, sacrifice for a greater cause, boundless admiration for the Leader and hatred of Germany’s enemies, the Jews.
In 1933 all Jewish teachers were dismissed from German schools and universities. At this time 12 per cent of all German professors were Jews. During the same year the proportion of Jewish students at universities was reduced to less than 1 per cent, to correspond to the proportion of Jews in Germany.
Exploiting pre-existing images and stereotypes, Nazi propagandists portrayed Jews as an “alien race” that fed off the host nation, poisoned its culture, seized its economy, and enslaved its workers and farmers.
Propaganda slide depicting Jews as the bastard sons of Asian and negroid racial groups
All school textbooks were withdrawn before new ones were published that reflected the Nazi ideology. Additional teaching materials were issued by Nazi teachers’ organizations in different parts of the country. A directive issued in January 1934 made it compulsory for schools to educate their pupils “in the spirit of National Socialism”
Illustration from a German textbook. The child is saying
“The Jewish nose is bent. It looks like the number six” (1938)
It has been estimated that by 1936 over 32 per cent of teachers were members of the Nazi Party. This was a much higher figure than for other professions. Teachers who were members, wore their uniforms in the classroom. The teacher would enter the classroom and welcome the group with a ‘Hitler salute’, shouting “Heil Hitler!” Students would have to respond in the same manner. It has been claimed that before Adolf Hitler took power a large proportion pf teachers were members of the German Social Democratic Party. One of the jokes that circulated in Germany during this period referred to this fact: “What is the shortest measurable unit of time? The time it takes a grade-school teacher to change his political allegiance.
By 1934, all Jewish shops were marked with the yellow Star of David or had the word “Juden” written on the window.
I am passionate about my site and I know a you all like reading my blogs. I have been doing this at no cost and will continue to do so. All I ask is for a voluntary donation of $2 ,however if you are not in a position to do so I can fully understand, maybe next time then. Thanks To donate click on the credit/debit card icon of the card you will use. If you want to donate more then $2 just add a higher number in the box left from the paypal link. Many thanks | <urn:uuid:292d224d-5c6b-4e1b-ae17-73b36d981b32> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dirkdeklein.net/2017/06/12/the-gradual-dehumanizing-by-the-nazi-regime/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00498.warc.gz | en | 0.983583 | 931 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.27578547596931... | 2 | The Holocaust was a gradual process. The Nazis didn’t start mass extermination when they got into power. But gradually prepared the population by dehumanizing the Jewish people. Segregation, as shown in the photo above, was part of this. The point was not to provide a bench for Jews, it was to segregate the benches so that non-Jewish Germans would not have to sit on a “contaminated” bench. Being treated like below human life for years before hand was terrifying and probably emotionally exhausting.
A boy sits on a bench in a public park. The words painted on the bench say, “For Aryans only.” By law, German and Austrian Jews were prohibited from using many public facilities except those marked “For Jews only.” In some cities, Jews were not allowed in public parks, swimming pools, or movie theaters. Jews were allowed to shop in stores only during designated hours, usually late in the day when stores had run out of fresh foods.
After Adolf Hitler gained power in 1933, the school curriculum changed.Jewish children in German schools suffered terribly from bullying.
Biology, along with political education, became compulsory. Children learnt about “worthy” and “unworthy” races, about breeding and hereditary disease. They measured their heads with tape measures, checked the colour of their eyes and texture of their hair against charts of Aryan or Nordic types, and constructed their own family trees to establish their biological, not historical, ancestry…. They also expanded on the racial inferiority of the Jews.
The Minister of the Interior, Wilhelm Frick, claimed that the idea that teaching history should be objective was a fallacy of liberalism. The purpose of history was to teach people that life was always dominated by struggle, that race and blood were central to everything that happened in the past, present and future, and that leadership determined the fate of peoples. Central themes in the new teaching including courage in battle, sacrifice for a greater cause, boundless admiration for the Leader and hatred of Germany’s enemies, the Jews.
In 1933 all Jewish teachers were dismissed from German schools and universities. At this time 12 per cent of all German professors were Jews. During the same year the proportion of Jewish students at universities was reduced to less than 1 per cent, to correspond to the proportion of Jews in Germany.
Exploiting pre-existing images and stereotypes, Nazi propagandists portrayed Jews as an “alien race” that fed off the host nation, poisoned its culture, seized its economy, and enslaved its workers and farmers.
Propaganda slide depicting Jews as the bastard sons of Asian and negroid racial groups
All school textbooks were withdrawn before new ones were published that reflected the Nazi ideology. Additional teaching materials were issued by Nazi teachers’ organizations in different parts of the country. A directive issued in January 1934 made it compulsory for schools to educate their pupils “in the spirit of National Socialism”
Illustration from a German textbook. The child is saying
“The Jewish nose is bent. It looks like the number six” (1938)
It has been estimated that by 1936 over 32 per cent of teachers were members of the Nazi Party. This was a much higher figure than for other professions. Teachers who were members, wore their uniforms in the classroom. The teacher would enter the classroom and welcome the group with a ‘Hitler salute’, shouting “Heil Hitler!” Students would have to respond in the same manner. It has been claimed that before Adolf Hitler took power a large proportion pf teachers were members of the German Social Democratic Party. One of the jokes that circulated in Germany during this period referred to this fact: “What is the shortest measurable unit of time? The time it takes a grade-school teacher to change his political allegiance.
By 1934, all Jewish shops were marked with the yellow Star of David or had the word “Juden” written on the window.
I am passionate about my site and I know a you all like reading my blogs. I have been doing this at no cost and will continue to do so. All I ask is for a voluntary donation of $2 ,however if you are not in a position to do so I can fully understand, maybe next time then. Thanks To donate click on the credit/debit card icon of the card you will use. If you want to donate more then $2 just add a higher number in the box left from the paypal link. Many thanks | 914 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Magna Carta, also known as the Great Charter, the Magna Carta Libertatum and The Great Charter of the Liberties of England, is a document that was signed by King John in 1215. He signed the document under duress after facing ongoing rebellion from his barons. In signing the Magna Carta King John forever changed the power of the monarchy, the rights of an English citizen and the influence Parliament had on the country.
The Magna Carta, like the Domesday Book, is considered one of the most important documents to have been written during the Middle Ages, and it has since had a great impact on English law and the society. A copy of the Magna Carta can be found and read online today.
What was the Purpose of the Magna Carta?
The content of the Magna Carta was drafted between the Church and the rebelling barons. The majority of the content was written by Archbishop Stephen Langton and English barons. The Magna Carta was written and designed to reduce the powers held by the King and to make him govern the country by old English laws that had prevailed before the invasion of the Normans.
The Magna Carta was a series of written promises between the king and his subjects that as the ruler of the country he would govern England and preside over its people according to the customs set out byfeudal law.
The ‘Articles of the Barons’ (the original version of the Magna Carta) and the Magna Carta was an attempt by the barons to stop a king abusing his power and authority, especially when it caused the citizens of the country unnecessary pain and suffering.
What Events Led to The Creation of the Magna Carta?
It may seem strange that a band of barons were able to wield such power and authority over the king, but ultimately it was the barons that helped the king run both his internal and external affairs.
The barons would provide the king with both money and men to defend French territories that were owned by the English. Traditionally, the king would consult with the barons before raising taxes, as it would be the barons who were expected to collect these additional funds. The king would also consult with barons when requesting more men for military service, as they would be the people responsible for sourcing the new soldiers. These practices were all part of what is known as theFeudal System.
Providing campaigns were successful, this arrangement would be relatively easy for the barons and the citizens to agree to. However, King John was not successful in his military campaigns abroad. His constant losses, demands for extra funds and men angered the barons and the citizens.
By 1204, John had lost the lands owned in northern France, and King John increased the taxes to recoup his losses without first consulting with the barons. This was againstfeudal law and accepted custom and the barons lost their patience.
As well as causing conflicts with the barons, King John had very public disputes with the Roman Catholic Church, which also damaged his credibility and influence on the people.
Timeline of Events
Coronation and Disputes with the Roman Catholic Church
On 27th May 1199 John was crowned King of England following the death of his brother Richard earlier in the year.
In 1205 King John had an argument with the Pope, who was at the time Pope Innocent III. They disputed who should adopt the position of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Pope was keen to see Stephen Langton take the title of Archbishop of Canterbury, but King John was against Stephen entering the country and taking up this position.
In 1209 Pope Innocent III finally became frustrated with the decision taken by King John, and he made the decision to excommunicate King John from the church. Excommunication from the Church meant that John, if he died before the excommunication was withdrawn, would not be able to enter Heaven if he died.
The Pope also took the decision to ban parish churches from performing traditional church services, and this had a dramatic impact on King John’s ability to rule, as his citizens were influenced by the decision and actions taken by the church. The fear of going to Hell was powerful during these times, and the citizens wanted King John to work with the Church rather than against it to avoid going to Hell.
Faced with these two religious problems, King John had to succumb to the religious pressure from both his people and the Pope, and he agreed to allow Stephen Langton to take the position of Archbishop of Canterbury. However, the Pope was not prepared to let King John get off lightly. Pope Innocent III ordered King John to pay him large sums of money.
Payments to the Pope and Taxes on the People
As such, King John decided to levy considerable taxes on to his people to pay the Pope. The taxes were extortionate, and crippled entire communities. Failure to pay led to swift and fierce reprisals, and there was little room for justice or forgiveness.
In 1212 King John imposed a new set of taxes on the Barons. This was to fund a renewed attempt to regain the land he had lost in Aquitaine, Poitou and Anjou. However, the taxes on his barons became a step too far, and his barons began questioning the king’s methods for ruling the country. Questions quickly became quarrels and quarrels led to fierce and bitter disputes between the king and his barons.
The barons, reluctant to lose to the king and be forced into paying the new taxes, decided to join forces with one of king’s adversaries, the aforementioned Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton.
1214 saw yet another disastrous year for King John. Further losses in France caused King John to return home looking for more money in taxes and more troops. This time, however, the barons were not prepared to accommodate the king and his military and financial requirements.
The Creation of the ‘Articles of the Barons’
The group of barons decided that the influence and the power of the King needed to be curbed, and they felt it was right to make him govern by the old English laws that had prevailed before the Normans had invaded and taken the sovereignty away from the Anglo-Saxons.
The Anglo-Saxons had enjoyed considerably more freedoms and liberties than had been granted by William and the Conqueror and the subsequent Norman kings.
The demands of the Barons were fully documented in the 'Articles of the Barons' in January 1215. Once they knew exactly what they wanted to get, they took up arms against their king and began causing problems to get the king’s attention. By May 1215, the barons had successfully captured London, giving them a powerful leverage tool against the king as well as a strong location to operate from.
Cornering the King
In June of 1215 the barons dressed in full armour, cornered King John, catching him by surprise at Windsor. He was forced into agreeing to a meeting at Runnymede.
It was at this meeting in Runnymede that King John was presented with a copy of the ‘Articles of the Barons’ and under duress he signed the document on June 10, 1215. The Magna Carta was then produced using the Royal Seal, and copies of the document were sent to important individuals across the country. Convinced that they had got their point across and had the king on their side, the barons renewed their individual Oaths of Fealty to the King on June 15, 1215.
Deceit, Deception and Rebellion
Despite his co-operation at Runnymede it quickly became clear that King John had no intention of honouring the agreement and abiding by clauses laid out in the Magna Carta.
His deceit and deception greatly angered the barons, and eventually led to the Barons War which ran between 1215 and 1217.
In 1216 Prince Louis took advantage of the civil uprising occurring against King John, and took the decision to invade England. Louis headed straight to London where he received massive amounts of support from the barons that had been let down by King John and his lies. Not only was Prince Louis welcomed, his was proclaimed and accepted as the new King of England, although he was never crowned and King John never gave up the throne to him.
King John died in October, and rather than embracing the Prince that they had only just a few months before supported, the barons turned on the prince, and instead turned their support and allegiance to the nine year old son of King John. The young boy was later crowned and became King Henry III of England.
Why the Magna Carta was Important to the History of England
The Magna Carta is considered to be the foundations of a constitutional government in England. It led to a great change in the perception and the power of the king.
It changed the kind of power a parliament could exert on king and the country, and it also established a basic set of civil rights for citizens residing in England.
The Magna Carta demonstrated that the power of the king could be limited by a document.
The Magna Carta is considered as the document that provided the foundations for English liberties, which were then extended when the English left and travelled to America. These liberties were then adopted by the new arrivals and used as part of their own declaration of civil rights.
The influence of Magna Carta can be seen in some of the most important documents in American history, the United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights.
Article 21 from the Declaration of Rights in the Maryland Constitution of 1776 reads:
"That no freeman ought to be taken, or imprisoned, or disseized of his freehold, liberties, or privileges, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any manner destroyed, or deprived of his life, liberty, or property, but by the judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land."
Summary of the Magna Carta
The Magna Carta was a revolutionary document that helped shape society, human rights, religion and politics, both in England and in America.
The Magna Carta promised a set of laws that were fair on all of the people, and not just the people who had money. This important document stated that everyone should have access to the courts, no matter what the costs and no matter what financial circumstances that person had.
It also states that no free citizen would be imprisoned or punished without first going through a proper legal system. This was a huge leap for civil rights, and it is one of the clauses of the Magna Carta that has helped shape modern law.
The last few sections of the Magna Carta detail how the caluses should be implemented in the law and executed throughout the country. Initially twenty five barons were given the responsibility of making sure that the king adhered to the clauses as described in the Magna Carta, and the same document gives them permission to use force against the king if they felt it was necessary.
King John agreed to the Magna Carta, and even consented to the use of the Royal Seal to give the formal document impact. However, his support was superficial and King John quickly made it obvious that he had no intention of honouring the laws as described in the document. This was King John’s biggest, and final mistake.
The creation of the Magna Carta ensured that:
The Church would be able to operate free from royal interference. This was especially important in the process of electing bishops.
Citizens of England could expect no taxes except for the regular feudal dues that were expected. Additional taxes could only be levied with the consent of the Great Council or Parliament
Citizens of England could expect fairer trials and they were not subject to punishment by the king.
Citizens of England could expect fair weights and measures that would be uniformed throughout the country. | <urn:uuid:d8bb1e43-cf74-425b-a42d-f437f5620240> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thefinertimes.com/Middle-Ages/magna-carta.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.987683 | 2,478 | 4 | 4 | [
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-0.167416781... | 1 | The Magna Carta, also known as the Great Charter, the Magna Carta Libertatum and The Great Charter of the Liberties of England, is a document that was signed by King John in 1215. He signed the document under duress after facing ongoing rebellion from his barons. In signing the Magna Carta King John forever changed the power of the monarchy, the rights of an English citizen and the influence Parliament had on the country.
The Magna Carta, like the Domesday Book, is considered one of the most important documents to have been written during the Middle Ages, and it has since had a great impact on English law and the society. A copy of the Magna Carta can be found and read online today.
What was the Purpose of the Magna Carta?
The content of the Magna Carta was drafted between the Church and the rebelling barons. The majority of the content was written by Archbishop Stephen Langton and English barons. The Magna Carta was written and designed to reduce the powers held by the King and to make him govern the country by old English laws that had prevailed before the invasion of the Normans.
The Magna Carta was a series of written promises between the king and his subjects that as the ruler of the country he would govern England and preside over its people according to the customs set out byfeudal law.
The ‘Articles of the Barons’ (the original version of the Magna Carta) and the Magna Carta was an attempt by the barons to stop a king abusing his power and authority, especially when it caused the citizens of the country unnecessary pain and suffering.
What Events Led to The Creation of the Magna Carta?
It may seem strange that a band of barons were able to wield such power and authority over the king, but ultimately it was the barons that helped the king run both his internal and external affairs.
The barons would provide the king with both money and men to defend French territories that were owned by the English. Traditionally, the king would consult with the barons before raising taxes, as it would be the barons who were expected to collect these additional funds. The king would also consult with barons when requesting more men for military service, as they would be the people responsible for sourcing the new soldiers. These practices were all part of what is known as theFeudal System.
Providing campaigns were successful, this arrangement would be relatively easy for the barons and the citizens to agree to. However, King John was not successful in his military campaigns abroad. His constant losses, demands for extra funds and men angered the barons and the citizens.
By 1204, John had lost the lands owned in northern France, and King John increased the taxes to recoup his losses without first consulting with the barons. This was againstfeudal law and accepted custom and the barons lost their patience.
As well as causing conflicts with the barons, King John had very public disputes with the Roman Catholic Church, which also damaged his credibility and influence on the people.
Timeline of Events
Coronation and Disputes with the Roman Catholic Church
On 27th May 1199 John was crowned King of England following the death of his brother Richard earlier in the year.
In 1205 King John had an argument with the Pope, who was at the time Pope Innocent III. They disputed who should adopt the position of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Pope was keen to see Stephen Langton take the title of Archbishop of Canterbury, but King John was against Stephen entering the country and taking up this position.
In 1209 Pope Innocent III finally became frustrated with the decision taken by King John, and he made the decision to excommunicate King John from the church. Excommunication from the Church meant that John, if he died before the excommunication was withdrawn, would not be able to enter Heaven if he died.
The Pope also took the decision to ban parish churches from performing traditional church services, and this had a dramatic impact on King John’s ability to rule, as his citizens were influenced by the decision and actions taken by the church. The fear of going to Hell was powerful during these times, and the citizens wanted King John to work with the Church rather than against it to avoid going to Hell.
Faced with these two religious problems, King John had to succumb to the religious pressure from both his people and the Pope, and he agreed to allow Stephen Langton to take the position of Archbishop of Canterbury. However, the Pope was not prepared to let King John get off lightly. Pope Innocent III ordered King John to pay him large sums of money.
Payments to the Pope and Taxes on the People
As such, King John decided to levy considerable taxes on to his people to pay the Pope. The taxes were extortionate, and crippled entire communities. Failure to pay led to swift and fierce reprisals, and there was little room for justice or forgiveness.
In 1212 King John imposed a new set of taxes on the Barons. This was to fund a renewed attempt to regain the land he had lost in Aquitaine, Poitou and Anjou. However, the taxes on his barons became a step too far, and his barons began questioning the king’s methods for ruling the country. Questions quickly became quarrels and quarrels led to fierce and bitter disputes between the king and his barons.
The barons, reluctant to lose to the king and be forced into paying the new taxes, decided to join forces with one of king’s adversaries, the aforementioned Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton.
1214 saw yet another disastrous year for King John. Further losses in France caused King John to return home looking for more money in taxes and more troops. This time, however, the barons were not prepared to accommodate the king and his military and financial requirements.
The Creation of the ‘Articles of the Barons’
The group of barons decided that the influence and the power of the King needed to be curbed, and they felt it was right to make him govern by the old English laws that had prevailed before the Normans had invaded and taken the sovereignty away from the Anglo-Saxons.
The Anglo-Saxons had enjoyed considerably more freedoms and liberties than had been granted by William and the Conqueror and the subsequent Norman kings.
The demands of the Barons were fully documented in the 'Articles of the Barons' in January 1215. Once they knew exactly what they wanted to get, they took up arms against their king and began causing problems to get the king’s attention. By May 1215, the barons had successfully captured London, giving them a powerful leverage tool against the king as well as a strong location to operate from.
Cornering the King
In June of 1215 the barons dressed in full armour, cornered King John, catching him by surprise at Windsor. He was forced into agreeing to a meeting at Runnymede.
It was at this meeting in Runnymede that King John was presented with a copy of the ‘Articles of the Barons’ and under duress he signed the document on June 10, 1215. The Magna Carta was then produced using the Royal Seal, and copies of the document were sent to important individuals across the country. Convinced that they had got their point across and had the king on their side, the barons renewed their individual Oaths of Fealty to the King on June 15, 1215.
Deceit, Deception and Rebellion
Despite his co-operation at Runnymede it quickly became clear that King John had no intention of honouring the agreement and abiding by clauses laid out in the Magna Carta.
His deceit and deception greatly angered the barons, and eventually led to the Barons War which ran between 1215 and 1217.
In 1216 Prince Louis took advantage of the civil uprising occurring against King John, and took the decision to invade England. Louis headed straight to London where he received massive amounts of support from the barons that had been let down by King John and his lies. Not only was Prince Louis welcomed, his was proclaimed and accepted as the new King of England, although he was never crowned and King John never gave up the throne to him.
King John died in October, and rather than embracing the Prince that they had only just a few months before supported, the barons turned on the prince, and instead turned their support and allegiance to the nine year old son of King John. The young boy was later crowned and became King Henry III of England.
Why the Magna Carta was Important to the History of England
The Magna Carta is considered to be the foundations of a constitutional government in England. It led to a great change in the perception and the power of the king.
It changed the kind of power a parliament could exert on king and the country, and it also established a basic set of civil rights for citizens residing in England.
The Magna Carta demonstrated that the power of the king could be limited by a document.
The Magna Carta is considered as the document that provided the foundations for English liberties, which were then extended when the English left and travelled to America. These liberties were then adopted by the new arrivals and used as part of their own declaration of civil rights.
The influence of Magna Carta can be seen in some of the most important documents in American history, the United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights.
Article 21 from the Declaration of Rights in the Maryland Constitution of 1776 reads:
"That no freeman ought to be taken, or imprisoned, or disseized of his freehold, liberties, or privileges, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any manner destroyed, or deprived of his life, liberty, or property, but by the judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land."
Summary of the Magna Carta
The Magna Carta was a revolutionary document that helped shape society, human rights, religion and politics, both in England and in America.
The Magna Carta promised a set of laws that were fair on all of the people, and not just the people who had money. This important document stated that everyone should have access to the courts, no matter what the costs and no matter what financial circumstances that person had.
It also states that no free citizen would be imprisoned or punished without first going through a proper legal system. This was a huge leap for civil rights, and it is one of the clauses of the Magna Carta that has helped shape modern law.
The last few sections of the Magna Carta detail how the caluses should be implemented in the law and executed throughout the country. Initially twenty five barons were given the responsibility of making sure that the king adhered to the clauses as described in the Magna Carta, and the same document gives them permission to use force against the king if they felt it was necessary.
King John agreed to the Magna Carta, and even consented to the use of the Royal Seal to give the formal document impact. However, his support was superficial and King John quickly made it obvious that he had no intention of honouring the laws as described in the document. This was King John’s biggest, and final mistake.
The creation of the Magna Carta ensured that:
The Church would be able to operate free from royal interference. This was especially important in the process of electing bishops.
Citizens of England could expect no taxes except for the regular feudal dues that were expected. Additional taxes could only be levied with the consent of the Great Council or Parliament
Citizens of England could expect fairer trials and they were not subject to punishment by the king.
Citizens of England could expect fair weights and measures that would be uniformed throughout the country. | 2,468 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Immigration in the twentieth century was very important because there were some many people coming over from deferent countries. This was defined as the Progressive Era and African American were not the only ones facing discrimination but those coming from other countries. (peg. 189) America was the land was there were promises of better life for everywhere across the globe. Immigrants by the end of century made up more than thirty percent of population in the major states in America at the time. (peg. 190).
The new immigrants of the nineteenth hundreds which was the eastern and southern Europeans. There were the Italians, Greeks, Russian, Polish Jews who came to America for coal mines, steel mills, and labor contracts. One place that immigrants had to come through in order to get into the America was Ellis Island. Immigrants were able to see a view of statue of liberty which was near Manhattan. It Is at the port of New York and more than twenty million people entered during this period of history. There the process that the immigrants had to go through would take anywhere from three to four hours before they were let go.
They would go through a physical examination to check for diseases or disabilities and questioned thoroughly. “Have you money, relatives or a Job in the United States? Are you a polygamist? An anarchist? ” (Demonstrability’s. Com, 2000) Ellis Island was a turning point for many Immigrants who would either pass the Interrogation or be sent back home to their native land. New Immigrants had to deal with prejudice. Many Americans were threatened by these individuals due to the fact that they spoke a different language. Those Europeans brought over a different way of living and culture.
Over time, they began to develop their own religious communities. In return, natives came about trying to end immigration. Soon there would laws that were passed to try to limit the amount of immigrants that are allowed here. Chinese Immigration was already strict since the Chinese Exclusion Act which lasted until 1943. In 1941, the government passed a bill which did not allow more than $350,000 wanted to limit the amount of immigration of aliens. The literacy test was administered to all aliens who were 16 years of age or older to determine if they could read in any language. (History. State. Gob, n. D.
The Congress only wanted to give visas to only two percent of the immigrants who made up the population. Later, this led to the Immigration Act of 1965 and this changed the face of immigration. It was President Lyndon Johnson who made it possible for immigrants to enter the United States. The great thing about this act was that the individuals were not Judge on race but on their skills. (Love-Andrews, 2003). This followed the Civil Rights Movement which expressed the stop of discrimination. It was not in place to get rid of discrimination but it stopped it prevent thousands of immigrants from being turned way.
This Act is so important to history the act in 1924 was trying to prevent immigrants from entering the American and in 1965 is there to promote it. Personally, the debate surrounding undocumented workers and illegal aliens makes up a big percentage of our population. I was reading in Ebony magazine about an illegal immigrant who has been trying to become a citizen for the longest. She had been over here in the country for over twenty years and cannot find a Job. I must agree with when she wants more aliens to stand up and band together.
I don’t have NY immigrants in my family but I feel that it’s not fair when they help make up our economy. They should be able to get citizen and it shouldn’t take too long and be hard. It feels like when are going back in history instead creating a new future. I think that it should be called the “Journey to becoming a American”. That is what it is a journey because it doesn’t feel like a pathway. | <urn:uuid:53295e68-c629-41dd-b095-2c55f43bcc07> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jardinmahoney.com/phase-individual-project/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.98637 | 798 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.11482759... | 1 | Immigration in the twentieth century was very important because there were some many people coming over from deferent countries. This was defined as the Progressive Era and African American were not the only ones facing discrimination but those coming from other countries. (peg. 189) America was the land was there were promises of better life for everywhere across the globe. Immigrants by the end of century made up more than thirty percent of population in the major states in America at the time. (peg. 190).
The new immigrants of the nineteenth hundreds which was the eastern and southern Europeans. There were the Italians, Greeks, Russian, Polish Jews who came to America for coal mines, steel mills, and labor contracts. One place that immigrants had to come through in order to get into the America was Ellis Island. Immigrants were able to see a view of statue of liberty which was near Manhattan. It Is at the port of New York and more than twenty million people entered during this period of history. There the process that the immigrants had to go through would take anywhere from three to four hours before they were let go.
They would go through a physical examination to check for diseases or disabilities and questioned thoroughly. “Have you money, relatives or a Job in the United States? Are you a polygamist? An anarchist? ” (Demonstrability’s. Com, 2000) Ellis Island was a turning point for many Immigrants who would either pass the Interrogation or be sent back home to their native land. New Immigrants had to deal with prejudice. Many Americans were threatened by these individuals due to the fact that they spoke a different language. Those Europeans brought over a different way of living and culture.
Over time, they began to develop their own religious communities. In return, natives came about trying to end immigration. Soon there would laws that were passed to try to limit the amount of immigrants that are allowed here. Chinese Immigration was already strict since the Chinese Exclusion Act which lasted until 1943. In 1941, the government passed a bill which did not allow more than $350,000 wanted to limit the amount of immigration of aliens. The literacy test was administered to all aliens who were 16 years of age or older to determine if they could read in any language. (History. State. Gob, n. D.
The Congress only wanted to give visas to only two percent of the immigrants who made up the population. Later, this led to the Immigration Act of 1965 and this changed the face of immigration. It was President Lyndon Johnson who made it possible for immigrants to enter the United States. The great thing about this act was that the individuals were not Judge on race but on their skills. (Love-Andrews, 2003). This followed the Civil Rights Movement which expressed the stop of discrimination. It was not in place to get rid of discrimination but it stopped it prevent thousands of immigrants from being turned way.
This Act is so important to history the act in 1924 was trying to prevent immigrants from entering the American and in 1965 is there to promote it. Personally, the debate surrounding undocumented workers and illegal aliens makes up a big percentage of our population. I was reading in Ebony magazine about an illegal immigrant who has been trying to become a citizen for the longest. She had been over here in the country for over twenty years and cannot find a Job. I must agree with when she wants more aliens to stand up and band together.
I don’t have NY immigrants in my family but I feel that it’s not fair when they help make up our economy. They should be able to get citizen and it shouldn’t take too long and be hard. It feels like when are going back in history instead creating a new future. I think that it should be called the “Journey to becoming a American”. That is what it is a journey because it doesn’t feel like a pathway. | 818 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Indiana State University staff educated the public on historical importance of Hoosiers in attaining the right to vote.
On Wednesday Jan. 15, Marsha Miller, research and instruction librarian at Indiana State, gave a presentation to cover the 1917 Maston-McKinley Partial Suffrage Act, the Legislative Council of Women, and Governor Goodrich in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the 19th Amendment being passed.
“We are celebrating this week of indiana ratifying the 19th Amendment and the 100th final ratification of the 19th Amendment in August of 1920 when all women got full voting privileges,” said Miller.
The suffrage movement started in Indiana in 1851 and Indiana was the 26th state to ratify the 19th amendment on Jan. 16,1920.
It wasn’t always an easy task, fighting for the right to vote in Indiana, and sometimes the suffragists were given false hope.
“For a short period of time in 1917 it looked like Indiana women were going to vote but then it was taken away from them. That was significant, but they kept at it and were able to start voting until 1920,” said Miller.
Miller’s main goal of presenting this information is to further educate the public about the struggle for women to attain the right to vote and keep them involved in politics.
“One of the things about women's suffrage is that everyone may know a little bit of something, but maybe they only know the names of some of the people, maybe the ones a little more nationally known like Susan B. Anthony,” said Miller.
The fight for the right to vote is something that many were and still are passionate about because it took a toll on people and lives were lost in the process.
“This is a very political issue but it’s at the heart of so many people. They don’t realize what it took, not just for women, but for african Americans to vote. A lot of people died before they were even sure it was going to happen.”
Attendee and fellow member of the League of Women Voters, Patricia Mansard, believes we need to honor those who participated in the fight to be able to vote through staying engaged in the voting process.
“It was such a long hard-fought struggle to get what should have been a very obvious justice accomplished for half of our population to simply have the right to participate in the government,” said Mansard.
“We owe all these people who have worked for so long who have given us this right to vote, to be engaged and realize that our everyday lives are determined by a great degree by who we elect.” | <urn:uuid:7b1a843b-b514-412c-a059-5c74f8281eae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.isustudentmedia.com/indiana_statesman/news/article_c095483e-3804-11ea-bc20-2725b2d6f1e5.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00247.warc.gz | en | 0.984518 | 564 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.308690249919891... | 1 | Indiana State University staff educated the public on historical importance of Hoosiers in attaining the right to vote.
On Wednesday Jan. 15, Marsha Miller, research and instruction librarian at Indiana State, gave a presentation to cover the 1917 Maston-McKinley Partial Suffrage Act, the Legislative Council of Women, and Governor Goodrich in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the 19th Amendment being passed.
“We are celebrating this week of indiana ratifying the 19th Amendment and the 100th final ratification of the 19th Amendment in August of 1920 when all women got full voting privileges,” said Miller.
The suffrage movement started in Indiana in 1851 and Indiana was the 26th state to ratify the 19th amendment on Jan. 16,1920.
It wasn’t always an easy task, fighting for the right to vote in Indiana, and sometimes the suffragists were given false hope.
“For a short period of time in 1917 it looked like Indiana women were going to vote but then it was taken away from them. That was significant, but they kept at it and were able to start voting until 1920,” said Miller.
Miller’s main goal of presenting this information is to further educate the public about the struggle for women to attain the right to vote and keep them involved in politics.
“One of the things about women's suffrage is that everyone may know a little bit of something, but maybe they only know the names of some of the people, maybe the ones a little more nationally known like Susan B. Anthony,” said Miller.
The fight for the right to vote is something that many were and still are passionate about because it took a toll on people and lives were lost in the process.
“This is a very political issue but it’s at the heart of so many people. They don’t realize what it took, not just for women, but for african Americans to vote. A lot of people died before they were even sure it was going to happen.”
Attendee and fellow member of the League of Women Voters, Patricia Mansard, believes we need to honor those who participated in the fight to be able to vote through staying engaged in the voting process.
“It was such a long hard-fought struggle to get what should have been a very obvious justice accomplished for half of our population to simply have the right to participate in the government,” said Mansard.
“We owe all these people who have worked for so long who have given us this right to vote, to be engaged and realize that our everyday lives are determined by a great degree by who we elect.” | 559 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Date(s):||September 2, 1862 to January 1, 1863|
|Location(s):||West Virginia, United States|
|Tag(s):||Medicine, Civil War|
|Course:||“U.S. Civil War and Reconstruction,” Richard Bland College|
|Rating:||5 (1 votes)|
The devastation of infrastructure is an unfortunate sine qua non of war. With this lamentable fact, human casualties are an inevitable aspect of warfare. This universal truth can best be seen during the American Civil War; a domestic conflict that caused immense human suffering. Being documented extensively by both the Union and Confederacy, the physical trauma and living conditions the wounded soldiers faced can be heavily studied. By looking at the practices prior to, during, and after the civil war, considerable advancements in the practice of medicine, germ theory, equipment, and hospitalization systems can be observed as the demand for improvements became particularly severe during this tremulous time period. With this originally unprecedented need of organized hospitalization, the American Civil War helped project the study of medicine, and antiseptic medical practices into the modern age as many discoveries, and advancements were made by prominent figures.
It is tragic in our contemporary society to know that as many of one third of the deaths experienced during the American Civil War could have been prevented had the facilities caring for the wounded been properly prepared to battle infection. With many making military equipment a priority over medical equipment, many hospitals were ill fit to care for the thousands injured. Famed American author Walt Witlman described the gruesome living conditions many soldiers were subjected to as abominable stating that he saw, " heaps of amputated feet, legs, hands" as he spoke of the horrid smell of putrefying flesh. He also noted that many soldiers were shaking as their blankets did not protect them from the cold with many not even able to cover their feet with them. In addition to this unfortunate fact, most surgeons did not have experience treating wounds; for ever solider that died of a gun wound, two died of a disease that resulted from an infection. This gross amount of ignorance created the perfect breeding ground for the spreading of infection as utensils were not disinfected (being shared amongst many individuals) physicians had an immense lack of knowledge on proper physical examinations, and the nurses did not have access to give the soldiers proper clothing and nutrition.
On September 21st a disheartened soldier by the name of Adam wrote to his mother and father about his adversities. Stating that he had “no blanket nor any clothes,” his depiction of life inside military camps is all too similar to those that documented their stay. Speaking of the little medical supplies present, and wounds of those around him, while it appears that he is censoring certain aspects of life for the sake of not worrying his parents, it is still very evident that all is not well within the facilities. Another individual by the name of John Redfield wrote a bit more openly about his difficulties to his family as he described his journey in Harper’s Fery claiming that since his battles his hearing and vision have considerably worsen. Unable to provide him with proper treatment at the hospital camps, for soldier Mr. Redfield, his health unfortunately only deteriorated.
Understanding the need for advancement, it was only after considerable deaths that doctors began to organize themselves and begin to contemplate the dire situation. So with everything about the medical procedures during the warring period being abhorred, the pus stained coats, and bloodied equipment were slowly evaluated as connections started forming. It was at this time that Johnathan Letterman improved the ambulance transportation system, which previously was frustratingly disorganized, causing many to die during their wait. With this improvement came the introduction of anesthesia; allowing more complicated surgeries to be performed on individuals such as amputations. This improvement helped significantly decrease the amount of suffering experienced by those who previously had to maintain consciousness during procedures. All due to the desire to lessen the amount of pain, many humanitarians congregated, and began to conceptualize and innovate. One exceptional individual that wrote the book on hygiene for the army during this time period was William A. Hammod, a general of the Union army. Understanding the connection between illness and cleanliness, General Hammod standardized and organized a system of hospital layouts and inspections. In addition to this humanitarian, and founder of the Red Cross Clara Barton was a well-known leader that advocated for the importance of efficient transportation systems to provide all with medical supplies.
By no means were the medical techniques exhibited throughout the war advanced. Many atrocities occurred that left thousands with curable illnesses dead due to lack of knowledge on antiseptic practices. This resulted in a death toll that is still spoken about in morbid awe today in our contemporary society. Needing to expand, and innovate on the study of medicine, it was undoubtedly due to this tragedy that the pace of progression that occurred happened as quickly as it did. The pertinent need of advancement helped progress the medical practices exhibited in the civil war to what we know observe and benefit from today. | <urn:uuid:077117c7-f03c-416e-ab44-b5ba3adab743> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/6663 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00539.warc.gz | en | 0.984655 | 1,037 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.5103355050086975... | 2 | |Date(s):||September 2, 1862 to January 1, 1863|
|Location(s):||West Virginia, United States|
|Tag(s):||Medicine, Civil War|
|Course:||“U.S. Civil War and Reconstruction,” Richard Bland College|
|Rating:||5 (1 votes)|
The devastation of infrastructure is an unfortunate sine qua non of war. With this lamentable fact, human casualties are an inevitable aspect of warfare. This universal truth can best be seen during the American Civil War; a domestic conflict that caused immense human suffering. Being documented extensively by both the Union and Confederacy, the physical trauma and living conditions the wounded soldiers faced can be heavily studied. By looking at the practices prior to, during, and after the civil war, considerable advancements in the practice of medicine, germ theory, equipment, and hospitalization systems can be observed as the demand for improvements became particularly severe during this tremulous time period. With this originally unprecedented need of organized hospitalization, the American Civil War helped project the study of medicine, and antiseptic medical practices into the modern age as many discoveries, and advancements were made by prominent figures.
It is tragic in our contemporary society to know that as many of one third of the deaths experienced during the American Civil War could have been prevented had the facilities caring for the wounded been properly prepared to battle infection. With many making military equipment a priority over medical equipment, many hospitals were ill fit to care for the thousands injured. Famed American author Walt Witlman described the gruesome living conditions many soldiers were subjected to as abominable stating that he saw, " heaps of amputated feet, legs, hands" as he spoke of the horrid smell of putrefying flesh. He also noted that many soldiers were shaking as their blankets did not protect them from the cold with many not even able to cover their feet with them. In addition to this unfortunate fact, most surgeons did not have experience treating wounds; for ever solider that died of a gun wound, two died of a disease that resulted from an infection. This gross amount of ignorance created the perfect breeding ground for the spreading of infection as utensils were not disinfected (being shared amongst many individuals) physicians had an immense lack of knowledge on proper physical examinations, and the nurses did not have access to give the soldiers proper clothing and nutrition.
On September 21st a disheartened soldier by the name of Adam wrote to his mother and father about his adversities. Stating that he had “no blanket nor any clothes,” his depiction of life inside military camps is all too similar to those that documented their stay. Speaking of the little medical supplies present, and wounds of those around him, while it appears that he is censoring certain aspects of life for the sake of not worrying his parents, it is still very evident that all is not well within the facilities. Another individual by the name of John Redfield wrote a bit more openly about his difficulties to his family as he described his journey in Harper’s Fery claiming that since his battles his hearing and vision have considerably worsen. Unable to provide him with proper treatment at the hospital camps, for soldier Mr. Redfield, his health unfortunately only deteriorated.
Understanding the need for advancement, it was only after considerable deaths that doctors began to organize themselves and begin to contemplate the dire situation. So with everything about the medical procedures during the warring period being abhorred, the pus stained coats, and bloodied equipment were slowly evaluated as connections started forming. It was at this time that Johnathan Letterman improved the ambulance transportation system, which previously was frustratingly disorganized, causing many to die during their wait. With this improvement came the introduction of anesthesia; allowing more complicated surgeries to be performed on individuals such as amputations. This improvement helped significantly decrease the amount of suffering experienced by those who previously had to maintain consciousness during procedures. All due to the desire to lessen the amount of pain, many humanitarians congregated, and began to conceptualize and innovate. One exceptional individual that wrote the book on hygiene for the army during this time period was William A. Hammod, a general of the Union army. Understanding the connection between illness and cleanliness, General Hammod standardized and organized a system of hospital layouts and inspections. In addition to this humanitarian, and founder of the Red Cross Clara Barton was a well-known leader that advocated for the importance of efficient transportation systems to provide all with medical supplies.
By no means were the medical techniques exhibited throughout the war advanced. Many atrocities occurred that left thousands with curable illnesses dead due to lack of knowledge on antiseptic practices. This resulted in a death toll that is still spoken about in morbid awe today in our contemporary society. Needing to expand, and innovate on the study of medicine, it was undoubtedly due to this tragedy that the pace of progression that occurred happened as quickly as it did. The pertinent need of advancement helped progress the medical practices exhibited in the civil war to what we know observe and benefit from today. | 1,032 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Shakespeare turns 456 on 23rd of April 2020. His birthday is celebrated in thousands of places around the world every year. The Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, along with the other major English Shakespeare institutions like the Globe Theatre and the Royal Shakespeare Theatre will, of course, be celebrating Shakespeare’s birthday.
As we look back on the four and a half centuries since Shakespeare was born we cannot but be overwhelmed by the influence he had on the world – in so many ways. Philosophically, poetically, linguistically and even, yes, morally – when you consider the meanings of his stories – he was unparalleled.
But in 1564, the year the baby William was launched into the world, there were other giants already here. Queen Elizabeth 1 was about to mount the throne of England. And on the day Shakespeare was born her great mariner, Francis Drake, 22 years old, was on his first voyage to the Americas, sailing with his cousin, Sir John Hawkins, on one of the fleet of ships owned by the Hawkins family of Plymouth.
Martin Luth died during that year, after transforming the world, and John Calvin died almost exactly a month after Shakespeare was born. But it’s far more pleasant to think about another Englishman, Christopher Marlowe, and the Italian Galileo, both born in the same year as Shakespeare and who had a more positive effect on the world than the two religious reformers. Or the fact that Michelangelo himself overlapped briefly with Shakespeare, dying just a month after Shakespeare was born. (See our post on the famous people who share a birthday with Shakespeare.)
The world was growing fast when Shakespeare and his fellow little giants were being born. The voyages of discovery were pushing the borders of geography and thought and imagination further every day. In 1654 the French Huguenot explorer, Rene Goulaine de Laudonniere sailed from France to establish Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, in America. Meanwhile, voyages around the Cape at the tip of Africa were becoming routine as a means of carrying out the spice trade with India.
And so, Shakespeare, happy birthday. For you’re a jolly good fellow, which nobody can deny.
Strange to think of the big birthday celebrations that we honour Shakespeare with, considering that birthdays weren’t celebrated during his time. In the Elizabethan era many people didn’t even know the date of their birth and, indeed, we don’t actually know Shakespeare’s birth date – only the date he was baptised.
Perhaps the aristocracy marked their birthdays back then, but there is very little of that recorded. I have unearthed one mention of an Elizabethan birthday party, however – that of thirteen-year-old Mall Sidney.
Mall grew up to become the famous writer, Lady Mary Wroth, Countess of Pembroke. She was the daughter of Robert Sidney, the brother of the illustrious poet and soldier, Sir Phillip Sidney. They were a very high ranking family. Lady Mary was the first English woman author to write a sustained work of prose fiction. Like Shakespeare, she also wrote a sonnet cycle. The American biographer, Margaret Hannay, produced a biography of Mall in 2010: Mary Sidney, Lady Wroth. She reports: ‘On 18 October 1600 Whyte came to Penshurst, no doubt along with other guests, to celebrate Mall’s thirteenth birthday.’ (p. 77) Unfortunately, Margaret Hannay doesn’t describe the party so we still don’t know how even those who did mark birthdays celebrated them.
There is no indication that even monarchs celebrated their birthdays. Everyone had a saint associated with their birth dates, though, and sometimes they would pay their respects to their saints on their birthday.
Perhaps the best confirmation of the lack of birthday celebrations is the fact that we don’t find much mention of them in Shakespeare’s works. There are references to a birthday only twice in his plays, although not in any way that indicates the kind of attitude that we have to birthdays today. For example, in Julius Caesar, a few moments before Cassius and Brutus engage in battle with Antony and Octavius Caesar, Cassius, feeling his imminent death upon him, says, ‘this is my birthday; as this very day was Cassius born.’ There is no more about it, just that wistful statement, that comes out of the blue.
In Antony and Cleopatra, though, we see Cleopatra grasping the opportunity for an unexpected celebration on her birthday. Antony has just had Caesar’s messenger whipped. He’s in a foul mood but somehow gets a new wind and calls for the servants to fill the bowls for some late-night drinking. Cleopatra who has been feeling lonely and rejected is delighted with this change in mood. She says: ‘It is my birthday. I had thought to have held it poor,’ meaning that she had not expected anything for her birthday. But now she has something – not her birthday, though – to celebrate: Antony’s change of mood. ‘Since my lord is Antony again,’ she says, I will be Cleopatra.’
It’s doubtful whether Shakespeare gave a second thought to his own birthday, even if he knew what date it was. But we can imagine, on that day, John and Mary Shakespeare gazing down on the new member of their family, eyes tight shut, sleeping peacefully in the cradle at the foot of their bed. How could they know that the tiny creature they had just produced was going to be one of the greatest writers who had ever lived and was not to be outdone for at least four hundred and fifty years? It’s a sublime thought, isn’t it? | <urn:uuid:17d9c103-7e0b-4c92-b46b-88d452ef5df0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/blog/happy-birthday-william-shakespeare/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00371.warc.gz | en | 0.981602 | 1,214 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.336738556623... | 3 | William Shakespeare turns 456 on 23rd of April 2020. His birthday is celebrated in thousands of places around the world every year. The Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, along with the other major English Shakespeare institutions like the Globe Theatre and the Royal Shakespeare Theatre will, of course, be celebrating Shakespeare’s birthday.
As we look back on the four and a half centuries since Shakespeare was born we cannot but be overwhelmed by the influence he had on the world – in so many ways. Philosophically, poetically, linguistically and even, yes, morally – when you consider the meanings of his stories – he was unparalleled.
But in 1564, the year the baby William was launched into the world, there were other giants already here. Queen Elizabeth 1 was about to mount the throne of England. And on the day Shakespeare was born her great mariner, Francis Drake, 22 years old, was on his first voyage to the Americas, sailing with his cousin, Sir John Hawkins, on one of the fleet of ships owned by the Hawkins family of Plymouth.
Martin Luth died during that year, after transforming the world, and John Calvin died almost exactly a month after Shakespeare was born. But it’s far more pleasant to think about another Englishman, Christopher Marlowe, and the Italian Galileo, both born in the same year as Shakespeare and who had a more positive effect on the world than the two religious reformers. Or the fact that Michelangelo himself overlapped briefly with Shakespeare, dying just a month after Shakespeare was born. (See our post on the famous people who share a birthday with Shakespeare.)
The world was growing fast when Shakespeare and his fellow little giants were being born. The voyages of discovery were pushing the borders of geography and thought and imagination further every day. In 1654 the French Huguenot explorer, Rene Goulaine de Laudonniere sailed from France to establish Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, in America. Meanwhile, voyages around the Cape at the tip of Africa were becoming routine as a means of carrying out the spice trade with India.
And so, Shakespeare, happy birthday. For you’re a jolly good fellow, which nobody can deny.
Strange to think of the big birthday celebrations that we honour Shakespeare with, considering that birthdays weren’t celebrated during his time. In the Elizabethan era many people didn’t even know the date of their birth and, indeed, we don’t actually know Shakespeare’s birth date – only the date he was baptised.
Perhaps the aristocracy marked their birthdays back then, but there is very little of that recorded. I have unearthed one mention of an Elizabethan birthday party, however – that of thirteen-year-old Mall Sidney.
Mall grew up to become the famous writer, Lady Mary Wroth, Countess of Pembroke. She was the daughter of Robert Sidney, the brother of the illustrious poet and soldier, Sir Phillip Sidney. They were a very high ranking family. Lady Mary was the first English woman author to write a sustained work of prose fiction. Like Shakespeare, she also wrote a sonnet cycle. The American biographer, Margaret Hannay, produced a biography of Mall in 2010: Mary Sidney, Lady Wroth. She reports: ‘On 18 October 1600 Whyte came to Penshurst, no doubt along with other guests, to celebrate Mall’s thirteenth birthday.’ (p. 77) Unfortunately, Margaret Hannay doesn’t describe the party so we still don’t know how even those who did mark birthdays celebrated them.
There is no indication that even monarchs celebrated their birthdays. Everyone had a saint associated with their birth dates, though, and sometimes they would pay their respects to their saints on their birthday.
Perhaps the best confirmation of the lack of birthday celebrations is the fact that we don’t find much mention of them in Shakespeare’s works. There are references to a birthday only twice in his plays, although not in any way that indicates the kind of attitude that we have to birthdays today. For example, in Julius Caesar, a few moments before Cassius and Brutus engage in battle with Antony and Octavius Caesar, Cassius, feeling his imminent death upon him, says, ‘this is my birthday; as this very day was Cassius born.’ There is no more about it, just that wistful statement, that comes out of the blue.
In Antony and Cleopatra, though, we see Cleopatra grasping the opportunity for an unexpected celebration on her birthday. Antony has just had Caesar’s messenger whipped. He’s in a foul mood but somehow gets a new wind and calls for the servants to fill the bowls for some late-night drinking. Cleopatra who has been feeling lonely and rejected is delighted with this change in mood. She says: ‘It is my birthday. I had thought to have held it poor,’ meaning that she had not expected anything for her birthday. But now she has something – not her birthday, though – to celebrate: Antony’s change of mood. ‘Since my lord is Antony again,’ she says, I will be Cleopatra.’
It’s doubtful whether Shakespeare gave a second thought to his own birthday, even if he knew what date it was. But we can imagine, on that day, John and Mary Shakespeare gazing down on the new member of their family, eyes tight shut, sleeping peacefully in the cradle at the foot of their bed. How could they know that the tiny creature they had just produced was going to be one of the greatest writers who had ever lived and was not to be outdone for at least four hundred and fifty years? It’s a sublime thought, isn’t it? | 1,173 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What would become the bloodiest battle for the US in WW2 would begin on 16 DEC 1944 in a surprise attack by German forces.
- Germany: In total 450,000 troops, along with 1,500 tanks and assault guns took part.
- Losses: Estimated between 63,000 to 98,000 troops wounded, killed or captured.
- Allies: At the peak of the battle 610,000US Soldiers were involved.
- Losses: 89,000 Soliders wounded or killed.
Where: The Ardennes region of Belgium. A combination of being lightly defended by the Allies and poor weather enabled German forces to have complete surprise and air superiority at the start.
What Happened: At the start German forces were widely successful and took a large swath of ground, creating the “bulge” in Allied battle lines the battle is named after. Allied units, primarily American, took a pounding from superior German units. Undermanned, under supplied and limited to defensive positions it was not until the weather cleared that American forces were able to go on the offensive. With reinforcements and the regaining of air superiority, American forces pushed German forces back to their starting positions.
Result: The battle would end on 25 Jan 1945. German losses would decimate their reserves and air force. Their forces were pushed back to the Siegfried line and while delaying the Allied invasion of Germany, they could no longer stop it. Another result of their concentrated assault was forces pulled from the eastern front. With a weaker front the Soviets were encouraged to go on the offensive earlier than planned, enabling a quicker German defeat.
A German goal of their offensive was to create enough Allied losses to allow them to negotiate a peace treaty that was to their advantage. | <urn:uuid:a7bb5f13-fc9a-42f5-a34f-2e120e3a0d5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.venturesurplus.com/the-battle-of-the-bulge/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00367.warc.gz | en | 0.981943 | 355 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.44820418953... | 9 | What would become the bloodiest battle for the US in WW2 would begin on 16 DEC 1944 in a surprise attack by German forces.
- Germany: In total 450,000 troops, along with 1,500 tanks and assault guns took part.
- Losses: Estimated between 63,000 to 98,000 troops wounded, killed or captured.
- Allies: At the peak of the battle 610,000US Soldiers were involved.
- Losses: 89,000 Soliders wounded or killed.
Where: The Ardennes region of Belgium. A combination of being lightly defended by the Allies and poor weather enabled German forces to have complete surprise and air superiority at the start.
What Happened: At the start German forces were widely successful and took a large swath of ground, creating the “bulge” in Allied battle lines the battle is named after. Allied units, primarily American, took a pounding from superior German units. Undermanned, under supplied and limited to defensive positions it was not until the weather cleared that American forces were able to go on the offensive. With reinforcements and the regaining of air superiority, American forces pushed German forces back to their starting positions.
Result: The battle would end on 25 Jan 1945. German losses would decimate their reserves and air force. Their forces were pushed back to the Siegfried line and while delaying the Allied invasion of Germany, they could no longer stop it. Another result of their concentrated assault was forces pulled from the eastern front. With a weaker front the Soviets were encouraged to go on the offensive earlier than planned, enabling a quicker German defeat.
A German goal of their offensive was to create enough Allied losses to allow them to negotiate a peace treaty that was to their advantage. | 383 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why was Britain able to establish an Empire in India?
In 1600, the East India Company was originally chartered to trade basic commodities such as silk, tea, salt opium and spices from India to Europe. Over time the East India company radically transformed itself from a trading company into an entity that controlled a massive empire in India. Britain, through the East India Company, was able to dominate the Indian sub-continent, that includes modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka from the 1750s. The British effectively ruled the sub-continent for almost two centuries, from the 1750s until 1947, with relatively little opposition and unrest.
How was Britain, several thousand miles away and with a much smaller population come to dominate an entire sub-continent? The reason for this was as a direct result of a unique series of circumstances that allowed Britain to establish its authority over hundreds of millions of people. Among these factors were the decline of the Mughal Empire, a lack of unity among the local inhabitants, no real rivals, technological advantages and a clever policy of retaining local elites in power and gaining their cooperation.
Establishment of the East India Company
The British first established trading posts in India, in order to purchase spices that were much in demand in Britain and Europe. They first came to trade and not to conquer. The Anglo-Indian trade was monopolized by the East India Company. This was a company, that was owned by private shareholders, including wealthy merchants and aristocrats. Over time, the company earned spectacular profits from the trade with India and they became increasingly influential in the affairs of Britain. They eventually even established a private army, at first to defend its interests, but later they were used for offensive purposes.
The East Indian Company had an army by the 1750s, that was comprised of British officers and Indian soldiers. The forces of the Company in the 1750s were led by Rober Clive (later Clive of India). In 1757, Clive, who proved to be a brilliant general, defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies at the Battle of Plassey. This victory turned the Company into perhaps the strongest power in India. Soon Clive and other Company commanders defeated Indian, French and other forces that were contesting British influence in India.
How did the British East India Company Dominate most of India?
By 1760, much of the sub-continent was under the direct or indirect influence of the East India Company " The Company was in turn influenced by the British government, who used it to further its interests in India. London effectively let the East Indian Company rule Indian in its name. In the remaining decades of the eighteenth century, the British, through the East India Company expanded their influence. They were resisted by native monarchs such as Tipu Sultan and the powerful Sikh Empire. Arthur Wellesley, later the Duke of Wellington, achieved significant victories against those Indian states that defied British influence
By 1800, the majority of the Indian sub-continent was under the de-facto control of the East India Company, which was supervised by the British government. It must be remembered that the Company did not seek to conquer India, they sought to exploit the subcontinent's wealth and to extend their influence. There was no concentered policy to dominate India and its rulers, rather they came to gradually rule, because of their own strengths and the India's weakness.
Decline of the Mughal Empire
In 1700, the Indian sub-continent was largely unified under the powerful Mughal dynasty. This Muslim dynasty had conquered much of South Asia and brought a degree of peace and prosperity to the land. They were efficient rulers, great patrons of the arts and their huge army overawed any opposition. However, by 1750, the Mughal Empire was in decline. Even at the height of their power, they were unable to directly administer their territories and they often delegated authority to appointees. These local rulers were to supply soldiers and equipment to the Mughal army and pay taxes. Over time, these local leaders became increasingly powerful and became independent of the Mughal Court. This weakened the Mughal Empire. The dynasty had also been undermined by the invasion of the Empire by an Afghan warlord who even sacked Delhi, the capital if the Empire.
The last truly effective emperor was Aurangzeb. He had been Islamic fundamentalist and he had departed from the traditionally tolerant policies of the Mughals and this led to much resentment among the majority Hindus. This was to spark a series of Hindu revolts by groups such as the Marathas and further weakened the dynasty. Furthermore, he had engaged in unceasing war, as he tried to conquer the few remaining areas on the subcontinent that were not directly controlled by the Mughals. The cost of his wars was ruinous and they left the Mughal Empire almost bankrupt. By 1750, much of Indian only paid nominal obedience to the Mughal Empire and the Emperor was only a figurehead in Delhi. In reality, power was now in the hands of a multitude of Muslim and Hindi local rulers, known as Rajahs or Sultans. India was politically fragmented by the time that the British started to expand in India and this greatly facilitated their growing influence in the sub-continent. If Britain had been faced with a strong government, it is highly unlikely that they would have been able to establish their empire in South Asia.
India was not only weak at this time it was also divided among many competing local leaders. The fragmentation of the Mughal Empire meant that there was a great deal if instability over much of Indian. The local rulers fought each other endlessly, Muslim and Hindus fought each other and their co-religionists. Warfare was endemic in much of the sub-continent by the early decades of the eighteenth century. ". Many Indians welcomed the stability that the British brought, especially in the late eighteenth century, although they resented the various taxes that were imposed on them, by the foreigners.
The British adopted a clever strategy in India when it came to administering their new territories. They did not directly administer the majority of their new territories at least at first. They often left the local rulers in place, with all their privileges and wealth. They also did not interfere with the local landowning elites. The British tended to rule through these elites. They used them to collect taxes and enforce law and order, and in return, they were allowed a measure of autonomy in their local areas. These tactics meant that many local Indian elites, both Hindu, and Muslim, accepted British influence. "
Instead of simply annexing many of the states, they made an agreement with the local Rajs, Nawabs, and Sultans. They agreed not to attack local rulers as long as they made the British their heirs. This meant that many small states were bequeathed to the British upon the death for a ruler. The British also entered into treaties with local rulers, which allowed them to peacefully absorb these territories. They would agree to station military forces in a princely state and would not seek taxes but some territory. They also appointed a 'resident' to advise the ruler. Slowly, the local rulers found that they were becoming the mere puppets of the East Indian Company.
Attractions of British Rule
Many Indians proved willing to accept the rule and they did not try to oppose or rebel against the British presence in their lands, for they recognized the benefits of their rule. For decades, war had been endemic on the sub-continent." However, the areas that came under the direct and indirect influence of the British tended to be more stable. They discouraged those local rulers who were under their influence to restrain from attacking their neighbors and as a result, the level of violence in the country began to decline. This persuaded many to accept the British even though they were aware of their exploitation of their lands. With the growing stability trade and economic activity increased over the years of decline and this ensured that many local elites cooperated with the British.
Furthermore, the British tolerated all the various creeds and beliefs in India. They did not seek to impose any religion or ideology on the Indians and in a sense they revived the tolerant policies of many Indian rulers such as Ashoka and Akbar the Great. This reconciled many Indians, especially Hindus to the British Raj. Furthermore, the British adopted a light-touch approach to government and they did not interfere with Indian customs and way of life. In fact, many Indians had no direct contact with the British in the early decades of their rule and this meant that there was relatively little popular opposition to their rule. These all helped to ensure that the British were able to rule vast and diverse territories.
Lack of a National Consciousness
Nationalism is a modern phenomenon. In the eighteenth century, there was no real national identity in India. The many people in the Indian sub-continent did not regard themselves as Indians. It was only in the twentieth century that the people of the sub-continent had a sense of belonging to a nation. The majority of people identified with their tribe, clan ethnic group or religion. This meant that the peoples of the sub-continent were very divided among themselves. This allowed the British to use some of the natives to help them in running and governing the Empire. This is best seen in the British policies on the Indian army.
The British East India Company regularly used native Indian troops in order to defend and expand their territory in the sub-continent. Without these Indian troops, it is highly unlikely that the British would ever have been able to establish their ascendency in the sub-continent. It was also a factor in the conquest of large areas of Asia and Africa by Europeans at this time and later Furthermore, because there was a lack of unity among the Indians, they were more than willing to work with the British and to betray each other. The victory of the British at the Battle of Plassey was due to the treachery of one of the Nawab of Bengal's ally.. At one time or another, the various local rulers were allied with the British as they pursued their own political interests. The lack of national unity meant that the British were able to adopt a classic divide and rule policy. This all greatly facilitated the British piece-meal take-over of the lands of India until they had assumed a pre-eminence in the sub-continent.
Lack of Colonial Rivals
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By the 1740s, the British were not the only Europeans in India. The Danes, Dutch, Portuguese and the French all had a presence in the region. These nations all have trading posts in the region and some such as the Portuguese had possession of some territories. The French had a particularly strong presence in the South of India and had a network of alliances with local rulers. However, none of their rivals was able to seriously challenge the British. The East Indian Company was able to defeat all of its rivals and become the sole and dominant power in India. They were able to do this for several reasons. Firstly, the British were able to draw on some remarkable administrators, such as Warren Hastings and soldiers like Clive of India.
The British were also able to draw on more resources than their competitors in India. They could draw on more ships and sailors and this allowed them to isolate their rivals in India and cut them off from their home countries and without supplies and reinforcements they were easily picked off or defeated by the British, this, in particular, was the main factor in their defeat of the French. The East India Company was also able to draw on the support of the Royal Navy the largest maritime force in the world, in the period. The British also had a lot more financial resources and they could assemble larger armies, often composed of native soldiers and this gave them a decisive military advantage. These factors all meant that by at least the 1760's that the British were not to have any serious European rival for two centuries.
Britain on the face of it- should never have been able to conquer India. It had no direct presence in the country, had a smaller population and it was very far away. Indeed, they left the conquest of India, to a private company, the East Indian Company. However, the British East India Company was able to lay the foundation of an empire in the Indian sub-continent because from a British perspective, a fortuitous series of circumstances. These included the decline of the Mughal Empire, the country was divided red years politically, a lack of European rivals and there was no sense of national unity. The British were also shrewd in the manner of their conquest, they cleverly used the local elites to administer their new domains and adopted a piecemeal approach to extending their authority and rule. It was these factors that helped to establish British rule in India, that lasted almost two hundred years until Indian independence after the Second World War.
- By Francis Hayman - Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=565912
- Bence-Jones, Mark. Clive of India.(London, Constable & Robinson Limited, 1974), p. 89.
- Bence-Jones, p. 45#.
- Harrington, Jack. Sir John Malcolm and the Creation of British India (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), p. 119.
- Faught, C. Brad. Clive: Founder of British India. (Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, Inc. 2013),p. 34.
- Harrington, p. 67.
- Faught, p. 67.
- Spear, Percival, A History of India, Volume 2, New Delhi and London: Penguin Books.1990) p. 298.
- Spear, p. 98 #.
- Spear, p. 98 #.
- Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar. From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India (New Delhi and London: Orient Longmans, 2004), p. 59.
- Spear, p. 98.
- Peers, Douglas M. India under Colonial Rule 1700–1885 (Harlow and London: Pearson Longmans, 2003) p. 163.
- Smith, Simon. British Imperialism 1750–1970 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994), p 145.
- Smith, p 78.
- Smith, p. 134.
- Faught, p. 111.
- Bandyopadhyay, p. 78
- Smith, p. 78
Updated January 28, 2019 | <urn:uuid:44b954c6-bcec-46ab-bb49-89734436130a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dailyhistory.org/Why_was_Britain_able_to_establish_an_Empire_in_India%3F | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.980716 | 3,093 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.0929394960403... | 1 | Why was Britain able to establish an Empire in India?
In 1600, the East India Company was originally chartered to trade basic commodities such as silk, tea, salt opium and spices from India to Europe. Over time the East India company radically transformed itself from a trading company into an entity that controlled a massive empire in India. Britain, through the East India Company, was able to dominate the Indian sub-continent, that includes modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka from the 1750s. The British effectively ruled the sub-continent for almost two centuries, from the 1750s until 1947, with relatively little opposition and unrest.
How was Britain, several thousand miles away and with a much smaller population come to dominate an entire sub-continent? The reason for this was as a direct result of a unique series of circumstances that allowed Britain to establish its authority over hundreds of millions of people. Among these factors were the decline of the Mughal Empire, a lack of unity among the local inhabitants, no real rivals, technological advantages and a clever policy of retaining local elites in power and gaining their cooperation.
Establishment of the East India Company
The British first established trading posts in India, in order to purchase spices that were much in demand in Britain and Europe. They first came to trade and not to conquer. The Anglo-Indian trade was monopolized by the East India Company. This was a company, that was owned by private shareholders, including wealthy merchants and aristocrats. Over time, the company earned spectacular profits from the trade with India and they became increasingly influential in the affairs of Britain. They eventually even established a private army, at first to defend its interests, but later they were used for offensive purposes.
The East Indian Company had an army by the 1750s, that was comprised of British officers and Indian soldiers. The forces of the Company in the 1750s were led by Rober Clive (later Clive of India). In 1757, Clive, who proved to be a brilliant general, defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies at the Battle of Plassey. This victory turned the Company into perhaps the strongest power in India. Soon Clive and other Company commanders defeated Indian, French and other forces that were contesting British influence in India.
How did the British East India Company Dominate most of India?
By 1760, much of the sub-continent was under the direct or indirect influence of the East India Company " The Company was in turn influenced by the British government, who used it to further its interests in India. London effectively let the East Indian Company rule Indian in its name. In the remaining decades of the eighteenth century, the British, through the East India Company expanded their influence. They were resisted by native monarchs such as Tipu Sultan and the powerful Sikh Empire. Arthur Wellesley, later the Duke of Wellington, achieved significant victories against those Indian states that defied British influence
By 1800, the majority of the Indian sub-continent was under the de-facto control of the East India Company, which was supervised by the British government. It must be remembered that the Company did not seek to conquer India, they sought to exploit the subcontinent's wealth and to extend their influence. There was no concentered policy to dominate India and its rulers, rather they came to gradually rule, because of their own strengths and the India's weakness.
Decline of the Mughal Empire
In 1700, the Indian sub-continent was largely unified under the powerful Mughal dynasty. This Muslim dynasty had conquered much of South Asia and brought a degree of peace and prosperity to the land. They were efficient rulers, great patrons of the arts and their huge army overawed any opposition. However, by 1750, the Mughal Empire was in decline. Even at the height of their power, they were unable to directly administer their territories and they often delegated authority to appointees. These local rulers were to supply soldiers and equipment to the Mughal army and pay taxes. Over time, these local leaders became increasingly powerful and became independent of the Mughal Court. This weakened the Mughal Empire. The dynasty had also been undermined by the invasion of the Empire by an Afghan warlord who even sacked Delhi, the capital if the Empire.
The last truly effective emperor was Aurangzeb. He had been Islamic fundamentalist and he had departed from the traditionally tolerant policies of the Mughals and this led to much resentment among the majority Hindus. This was to spark a series of Hindu revolts by groups such as the Marathas and further weakened the dynasty. Furthermore, he had engaged in unceasing war, as he tried to conquer the few remaining areas on the subcontinent that were not directly controlled by the Mughals. The cost of his wars was ruinous and they left the Mughal Empire almost bankrupt. By 1750, much of Indian only paid nominal obedience to the Mughal Empire and the Emperor was only a figurehead in Delhi. In reality, power was now in the hands of a multitude of Muslim and Hindi local rulers, known as Rajahs or Sultans. India was politically fragmented by the time that the British started to expand in India and this greatly facilitated their growing influence in the sub-continent. If Britain had been faced with a strong government, it is highly unlikely that they would have been able to establish their empire in South Asia.
India was not only weak at this time it was also divided among many competing local leaders. The fragmentation of the Mughal Empire meant that there was a great deal if instability over much of Indian. The local rulers fought each other endlessly, Muslim and Hindus fought each other and their co-religionists. Warfare was endemic in much of the sub-continent by the early decades of the eighteenth century. ". Many Indians welcomed the stability that the British brought, especially in the late eighteenth century, although they resented the various taxes that were imposed on them, by the foreigners.
The British adopted a clever strategy in India when it came to administering their new territories. They did not directly administer the majority of their new territories at least at first. They often left the local rulers in place, with all their privileges and wealth. They also did not interfere with the local landowning elites. The British tended to rule through these elites. They used them to collect taxes and enforce law and order, and in return, they were allowed a measure of autonomy in their local areas. These tactics meant that many local Indian elites, both Hindu, and Muslim, accepted British influence. "
Instead of simply annexing many of the states, they made an agreement with the local Rajs, Nawabs, and Sultans. They agreed not to attack local rulers as long as they made the British their heirs. This meant that many small states were bequeathed to the British upon the death for a ruler. The British also entered into treaties with local rulers, which allowed them to peacefully absorb these territories. They would agree to station military forces in a princely state and would not seek taxes but some territory. They also appointed a 'resident' to advise the ruler. Slowly, the local rulers found that they were becoming the mere puppets of the East Indian Company.
Attractions of British Rule
Many Indians proved willing to accept the rule and they did not try to oppose or rebel against the British presence in their lands, for they recognized the benefits of their rule. For decades, war had been endemic on the sub-continent." However, the areas that came under the direct and indirect influence of the British tended to be more stable. They discouraged those local rulers who were under their influence to restrain from attacking their neighbors and as a result, the level of violence in the country began to decline. This persuaded many to accept the British even though they were aware of their exploitation of their lands. With the growing stability trade and economic activity increased over the years of decline and this ensured that many local elites cooperated with the British.
Furthermore, the British tolerated all the various creeds and beliefs in India. They did not seek to impose any religion or ideology on the Indians and in a sense they revived the tolerant policies of many Indian rulers such as Ashoka and Akbar the Great. This reconciled many Indians, especially Hindus to the British Raj. Furthermore, the British adopted a light-touch approach to government and they did not interfere with Indian customs and way of life. In fact, many Indians had no direct contact with the British in the early decades of their rule and this meant that there was relatively little popular opposition to their rule. These all helped to ensure that the British were able to rule vast and diverse territories.
Lack of a National Consciousness
Nationalism is a modern phenomenon. In the eighteenth century, there was no real national identity in India. The many people in the Indian sub-continent did not regard themselves as Indians. It was only in the twentieth century that the people of the sub-continent had a sense of belonging to a nation. The majority of people identified with their tribe, clan ethnic group or religion. This meant that the peoples of the sub-continent were very divided among themselves. This allowed the British to use some of the natives to help them in running and governing the Empire. This is best seen in the British policies on the Indian army.
The British East India Company regularly used native Indian troops in order to defend and expand their territory in the sub-continent. Without these Indian troops, it is highly unlikely that the British would ever have been able to establish their ascendency in the sub-continent. It was also a factor in the conquest of large areas of Asia and Africa by Europeans at this time and later Furthermore, because there was a lack of unity among the Indians, they were more than willing to work with the British and to betray each other. The victory of the British at the Battle of Plassey was due to the treachery of one of the Nawab of Bengal's ally.. At one time or another, the various local rulers were allied with the British as they pursued their own political interests. The lack of national unity meant that the British were able to adopt a classic divide and rule policy. This all greatly facilitated the British piece-meal take-over of the lands of India until they had assumed a pre-eminence in the sub-continent.
Lack of Colonial Rivals
- How Historically Accurate Is Victoria and Abdul?
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- A Study of Subaltern Studies
- What textiles were British women bringing with them to India?
By the 1740s, the British were not the only Europeans in India. The Danes, Dutch, Portuguese and the French all had a presence in the region. These nations all have trading posts in the region and some such as the Portuguese had possession of some territories. The French had a particularly strong presence in the South of India and had a network of alliances with local rulers. However, none of their rivals was able to seriously challenge the British. The East Indian Company was able to defeat all of its rivals and become the sole and dominant power in India. They were able to do this for several reasons. Firstly, the British were able to draw on some remarkable administrators, such as Warren Hastings and soldiers like Clive of India.
The British were also able to draw on more resources than their competitors in India. They could draw on more ships and sailors and this allowed them to isolate their rivals in India and cut them off from their home countries and without supplies and reinforcements they were easily picked off or defeated by the British, this, in particular, was the main factor in their defeat of the French. The East India Company was also able to draw on the support of the Royal Navy the largest maritime force in the world, in the period. The British also had a lot more financial resources and they could assemble larger armies, often composed of native soldiers and this gave them a decisive military advantage. These factors all meant that by at least the 1760's that the British were not to have any serious European rival for two centuries.
Britain on the face of it- should never have been able to conquer India. It had no direct presence in the country, had a smaller population and it was very far away. Indeed, they left the conquest of India, to a private company, the East Indian Company. However, the British East India Company was able to lay the foundation of an empire in the Indian sub-continent because from a British perspective, a fortuitous series of circumstances. These included the decline of the Mughal Empire, the country was divided red years politically, a lack of European rivals and there was no sense of national unity. The British were also shrewd in the manner of their conquest, they cleverly used the local elites to administer their new domains and adopted a piecemeal approach to extending their authority and rule. It was these factors that helped to establish British rule in India, that lasted almost two hundred years until Indian independence after the Second World War.
- By Francis Hayman - Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=565912
- Bence-Jones, Mark. Clive of India.(London, Constable & Robinson Limited, 1974), p. 89.
- Bence-Jones, p. 45#.
- Harrington, Jack. Sir John Malcolm and the Creation of British India (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), p. 119.
- Faught, C. Brad. Clive: Founder of British India. (Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, Inc. 2013),p. 34.
- Harrington, p. 67.
- Faught, p. 67.
- Spear, Percival, A History of India, Volume 2, New Delhi and London: Penguin Books.1990) p. 298.
- Spear, p. 98 #.
- Spear, p. 98 #.
- Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar. From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India (New Delhi and London: Orient Longmans, 2004), p. 59.
- Spear, p. 98.
- Peers, Douglas M. India under Colonial Rule 1700–1885 (Harlow and London: Pearson Longmans, 2003) p. 163.
- Smith, Simon. British Imperialism 1750–1970 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994), p 145.
- Smith, p 78.
- Smith, p. 134.
- Faught, p. 111.
- Bandyopadhyay, p. 78
- Smith, p. 78
Updated January 28, 2019 | 3,188 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Votes for Women
Art and the Suffragettes
Review of the talk by Caroline Shenton
To mark the centenary of women first getting the Right to Vote, Caroline Shenton took us through the history of the suffragettes and their portrayal through art.
How Were They Perceived In Art?
In 1866, Parliament received their first bill containing 1,500 signatures calling for women’s suffrage. Although it was unsuccessful, this was to be the start of the 52-year battle until the Representation of the People Acts was passed in 1918 and a further 10 years until the Equal Franchise Act of 1928.
Millicent Fawcett (1847 – 1929), founded the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) who campaigned through literature and socialising and were recognised by their signature colours of green, white and red.
Emmeline Pankhurst (1858 – 1928) broke from the NUWSS due to their lack of progress and founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU). They adopted the colour scheme of violet, white and green and would be known for much more radical actions such as demonstrations, marches, unruly behaviour and hunger strikes in prison.
Their actions led to cartoon postcards where the women were portrayed as “silly geese” lead by “Miss Hissy” and cats which were used to symbolise women as being ill-suited to political engagement. The “unwomanly woman” was also used to show what women would look like if they abandoned their domestic duties, or even worse, what would happen if men were made to do the chores!!! Suffragettes were often thought of as unmarried women and the anti-suffrage propaganda played on this and portrayed women as buck-toothed and frumpy in appearance.
The Suffragettes Fight Back
The “Unity is strength!” postcard illustration Caroline presented to us shows women from four different backgrounds all holding hands and showing women as a unified force. There was also a definite attempt to normalise women in parliament / politics and what it looks like when women are present in the Houses of Parliament – a normal calm scene in all cases!
Ernestine Mills joined the WSPU in 1907 and became an important artist for the movement. She created the illustration “Somehow the Tide Keeps Rising” in 1910 which showed “The New Mrs Partington” (of the Anti-Suffrage Society) trying to sweep back the advances women were making in the world, i.e. professional women, working women, civil servants etc. This illustration also shows the rising sun which was a reoccurring image throughout suffragette art (see below).
The infamous force feeding began when a member of the WSPU tried to stencil something on the wall in St Stephens Hall in the Houses of Parliament, which was a popular location for many protests to take place. Having been sent to prison and stripped of everything, she decided to go on hunger strike. The government panicked and introduced force feeding which was portrayed to the public as being an amicable affair. In fact, it was torturous and often left the women with long lasting problems.
The “Cat and Mouse Act” was introduced in 1913 which meant that people could not be force fed but instead suffragettes were kept in prison until they were extremely weak and then released to recover. That way, any harm that came to the suffragette could not be blamed on the government.
Suffragettes awarded themselves medals once they had completed a stint in jail.
The Artists' Suffrage League
This League was founded in 1907 by professional women artists and was led by Mary Lowndes who was an important stained glass and poster artist.
Their most famous poster was the “Bugler Girl” by Caroline Watts which has a military look with the rising sun. In 1909 they ran a poster competition which Duncan Grant won with the poster called “Handicapped!”.
Campaigners wanted to see an improvement for working women and their social conditions. Emily Ford depicted this in her 1908 poster titled “Factory Acts” which shows a woman at the factory door looking at a ‘regulations for women’ poster. At the bottom reads “They Have A Cheek I’ve Never Been Asked!”.
The Suffrage Atelier
Founded by Lawrence Housman, Clemence Housman and Alfred Pearse in 1909. Clemence was a woodblock printer and her brother Lawrence a writer. They ran printing workshops and design competitions. Woodblock printing was quick, cheap and easy to learn which made it an ideal form of guerrilla propaganda.
I love the example Caroline showed us which has illustrations of a female mayor, nurse, mother, doctor or teacher and factory hand and the words “What a woman may be and not yet vote” and then illustrations of a male convict, lunatic, proprietor of white slaves, an injured man unfit for service and a drunkard and the words “What a man may be and yet not lose the vote”.
University women were also an important part of the suffragettes. However, shockingly, Cambridge women weren’t allowed to fully graduate until 1948 when around 900 women, including a few in their 90’s, returned to Cambridge for their graduation ceremony.
Attacks on Art
In 1909, Margery Humes chained herself to the statue of Viscount Falkland in St Stephens Hall in the Houses of Parliament. As she was forcefully removed by the police, the spur on the back of the Viscount’s boot broke off. It has never been replaced and has become the unintentional symbol of feminism and the fight for women’s right to vote.
Then in 1914, the famous “Rokeby Venus” was attacked with an axe by Mary Richardson. She was sent to prison for 6 months.
In February 1918, an act was passed which meant that women over 30 and all men over 21 could vote (the age for men was lowered due to the number killed in WW1). Then, 10 years later, the Equal Franchise Act was passed which meant that all women over 21 years old, regardless of property ownership, could vote.
In 2016, Parliament unveiled “New Dawn” by Mary Branson. Located above the entrance to St Stephen’s Hall, a place where many men and women would have walked through in their fight for women’s right to vote, the coloured glass and stylised portcullis with Venus symbols changes colour with the tides.
A fascinating lecture by Caroline on an incredibly important subject, where men and women fought for the privileges that we enjoy today. | <urn:uuid:af5c9b02-f445-45a1-8340-ee21f6a86638> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://theartssocietycranleigh.org/2018-19/rev1811.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00514.warc.gz | en | 0.982288 | 1,408 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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Art and the Suffragettes
Review of the talk by Caroline Shenton
To mark the centenary of women first getting the Right to Vote, Caroline Shenton took us through the history of the suffragettes and their portrayal through art.
How Were They Perceived In Art?
In 1866, Parliament received their first bill containing 1,500 signatures calling for women’s suffrage. Although it was unsuccessful, this was to be the start of the 52-year battle until the Representation of the People Acts was passed in 1918 and a further 10 years until the Equal Franchise Act of 1928.
Millicent Fawcett (1847 – 1929), founded the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) who campaigned through literature and socialising and were recognised by their signature colours of green, white and red.
Emmeline Pankhurst (1858 – 1928) broke from the NUWSS due to their lack of progress and founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU). They adopted the colour scheme of violet, white and green and would be known for much more radical actions such as demonstrations, marches, unruly behaviour and hunger strikes in prison.
Their actions led to cartoon postcards where the women were portrayed as “silly geese” lead by “Miss Hissy” and cats which were used to symbolise women as being ill-suited to political engagement. The “unwomanly woman” was also used to show what women would look like if they abandoned their domestic duties, or even worse, what would happen if men were made to do the chores!!! Suffragettes were often thought of as unmarried women and the anti-suffrage propaganda played on this and portrayed women as buck-toothed and frumpy in appearance.
The Suffragettes Fight Back
The “Unity is strength!” postcard illustration Caroline presented to us shows women from four different backgrounds all holding hands and showing women as a unified force. There was also a definite attempt to normalise women in parliament / politics and what it looks like when women are present in the Houses of Parliament – a normal calm scene in all cases!
Ernestine Mills joined the WSPU in 1907 and became an important artist for the movement. She created the illustration “Somehow the Tide Keeps Rising” in 1910 which showed “The New Mrs Partington” (of the Anti-Suffrage Society) trying to sweep back the advances women were making in the world, i.e. professional women, working women, civil servants etc. This illustration also shows the rising sun which was a reoccurring image throughout suffragette art (see below).
The infamous force feeding began when a member of the WSPU tried to stencil something on the wall in St Stephens Hall in the Houses of Parliament, which was a popular location for many protests to take place. Having been sent to prison and stripped of everything, she decided to go on hunger strike. The government panicked and introduced force feeding which was portrayed to the public as being an amicable affair. In fact, it was torturous and often left the women with long lasting problems.
The “Cat and Mouse Act” was introduced in 1913 which meant that people could not be force fed but instead suffragettes were kept in prison until they were extremely weak and then released to recover. That way, any harm that came to the suffragette could not be blamed on the government.
Suffragettes awarded themselves medals once they had completed a stint in jail.
The Artists' Suffrage League
This League was founded in 1907 by professional women artists and was led by Mary Lowndes who was an important stained glass and poster artist.
Their most famous poster was the “Bugler Girl” by Caroline Watts which has a military look with the rising sun. In 1909 they ran a poster competition which Duncan Grant won with the poster called “Handicapped!”.
Campaigners wanted to see an improvement for working women and their social conditions. Emily Ford depicted this in her 1908 poster titled “Factory Acts” which shows a woman at the factory door looking at a ‘regulations for women’ poster. At the bottom reads “They Have A Cheek I’ve Never Been Asked!”.
The Suffrage Atelier
Founded by Lawrence Housman, Clemence Housman and Alfred Pearse in 1909. Clemence was a woodblock printer and her brother Lawrence a writer. They ran printing workshops and design competitions. Woodblock printing was quick, cheap and easy to learn which made it an ideal form of guerrilla propaganda.
I love the example Caroline showed us which has illustrations of a female mayor, nurse, mother, doctor or teacher and factory hand and the words “What a woman may be and not yet vote” and then illustrations of a male convict, lunatic, proprietor of white slaves, an injured man unfit for service and a drunkard and the words “What a man may be and yet not lose the vote”.
University women were also an important part of the suffragettes. However, shockingly, Cambridge women weren’t allowed to fully graduate until 1948 when around 900 women, including a few in their 90’s, returned to Cambridge for their graduation ceremony.
Attacks on Art
In 1909, Margery Humes chained herself to the statue of Viscount Falkland in St Stephens Hall in the Houses of Parliament. As she was forcefully removed by the police, the spur on the back of the Viscount’s boot broke off. It has never been replaced and has become the unintentional symbol of feminism and the fight for women’s right to vote.
Then in 1914, the famous “Rokeby Venus” was attacked with an axe by Mary Richardson. She was sent to prison for 6 months.
In February 1918, an act was passed which meant that women over 30 and all men over 21 could vote (the age for men was lowered due to the number killed in WW1). Then, 10 years later, the Equal Franchise Act was passed which meant that all women over 21 years old, regardless of property ownership, could vote.
In 2016, Parliament unveiled “New Dawn” by Mary Branson. Located above the entrance to St Stephen’s Hall, a place where many men and women would have walked through in their fight for women’s right to vote, the coloured glass and stylised portcullis with Venus symbols changes colour with the tides.
A fascinating lecture by Caroline on an incredibly important subject, where men and women fought for the privileges that we enjoy today. | 1,414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saint George, sometimes called “the Trophy-bearer,” was born in the province of Cappadocia, Asia Minor (Turkey), in the third century and raised as a Christian. About age 20, he joined the Roman army under the emperor Diocletian, and soon showed himself to be a skilled and talented soldier. He rose in the ranks of the military, and the pagan government became uneasy that a Christian held such a position of power.
In the year 303, the Emperor Diocletian commanded that all soldiers offer sacrifices to the Roman gods. George publicly refused, declaring he was a Christian and would worship Jesus Christ alone. George's father was a high-ranking officer, and Diocletian privately tried to persuade George to change his mind. When he refused, the emperor handed him over to unimaginable tortures, and George held fast until the end. His body was returned to his home town, and the Christians there immediately began to venerate him as a martyr.
Still counted among the greatest martyrs, Saint George is venerated by nearly the entire Christian world. His feast is celebrated on April 23.
This icon is painted in the Russian "Academic" style, which was popular in the 17th to the early 20th centuries.
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0.23155365884304047... | 1 | Saint George, sometimes called “the Trophy-bearer,” was born in the province of Cappadocia, Asia Minor (Turkey), in the third century and raised as a Christian. About age 20, he joined the Roman army under the emperor Diocletian, and soon showed himself to be a skilled and talented soldier. He rose in the ranks of the military, and the pagan government became uneasy that a Christian held such a position of power.
In the year 303, the Emperor Diocletian commanded that all soldiers offer sacrifices to the Roman gods. George publicly refused, declaring he was a Christian and would worship Jesus Christ alone. George's father was a high-ranking officer, and Diocletian privately tried to persuade George to change his mind. When he refused, the emperor handed him over to unimaginable tortures, and George held fast until the end. His body was returned to his home town, and the Christians there immediately began to venerate him as a martyr.
Still counted among the greatest martyrs, Saint George is venerated by nearly the entire Christian world. His feast is celebrated on April 23.
This icon is painted in the Russian "Academic" style, which was popular in the 17th to the early 20th centuries.
Reproduced by permission. | 272 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Arts and Crafts movement inspired the Craftsman style house, which includes the bungalow, the American Foursquare, Prairie and Mission in its lexicon.
The Arts and Crafts movement, begun in England in the last third of the 19th century under the influence of William Morris, touched all the decorative arts and styles in its day. It was dedicated to a return to the pre-industrial age of handcrafted objects, simpler forms, and natural materials. Objects were characterized by plain and substantial surfaces, warm, muted colors, handcrafted elements such as leaded glass, hand forged hinges and handles and use of decorative patterns drawn from nature. It was a reaction against industrialized mass production and repetitive patterns which were replaced by custom made details. Historical design elements were not used.
In American domestic architecture, the new style came to be known as Craftsman, or Arts and Crafts, and the most popular interpretation was the Bungalow. These were small, usually one and a half stories under a broad sweeping roof resting on squat porch posts. The roof overhung on all sides and the eaves were often supported by undecorated brackets or showed exposed rafter ends. The roof was usually fronted with a large gable or shed dormer. The emphasis was on the horizontal; the porch was placed under the roof, wall surfaces were plain – shingles or stucco was preferred – with large windows, and chimneys were kept short.
Floor plans were open, focused on a large family room with a fireplace sometimes enclosed by a cozy inglenook. Because houses were small, built-in sideboards and cabinets conserved space, surrounded by dark wood paneling. Lighting was subdued – this was the age of Tiffany lamps. First floor sleeping porches were often included.
Craftsman influences were seen in other styles of the time that were not bungalows. Often, homes that were distinctly Tudor on the exterior were given a Craftsman interior treatment. Or a bungalow may be seen with Tudor half-timbering on the exterior. But it was the American Foursquare that deserves special notice because of its great popularity in this period.
The Foursquare was a two story house with a hip roof and dormers, wide eaves without brackets, and an attached front porch, the whole resting on a foundation of stone or early rough-faced concrete block. Craftsman influences were seen in the absence of historical detailing, plain walls, wide windows, and an open interior finished with plain, unpainted wood trim. The plain and geometric shape of the Foursquare with its wide roof can be traced to the early work of Frank Lloyd Wright. Because the Colonial Revival was also popular in this time, some Foursquares can be seen finished with classically derived trim and window treatments.
Other interpretations of Craftsman can be found everywhere across America. While the bungalow, Foursquare, and Tudor are most frequently seen in New England, other styles predominate in other regions of the country. The mission style, very compatible with Craftsman design, is favored in the west along with prairie-style variations in the Midwest. Resorts and seasonal housing of this time were sometimes constructed on log cabin motifs or even as Swiss chalets, but the Craftsman themes are always recognizable.
From Our Trusted Partners | <urn:uuid:f850808a-6b61-46be-81e6-f6ed73d75330> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.antiquehomesmagazine.com/historic-style-guide/craftsman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.980224 | 701 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.095697104930... | 5 | The Arts and Crafts movement inspired the Craftsman style house, which includes the bungalow, the American Foursquare, Prairie and Mission in its lexicon.
The Arts and Crafts movement, begun in England in the last third of the 19th century under the influence of William Morris, touched all the decorative arts and styles in its day. It was dedicated to a return to the pre-industrial age of handcrafted objects, simpler forms, and natural materials. Objects were characterized by plain and substantial surfaces, warm, muted colors, handcrafted elements such as leaded glass, hand forged hinges and handles and use of decorative patterns drawn from nature. It was a reaction against industrialized mass production and repetitive patterns which were replaced by custom made details. Historical design elements were not used.
In American domestic architecture, the new style came to be known as Craftsman, or Arts and Crafts, and the most popular interpretation was the Bungalow. These were small, usually one and a half stories under a broad sweeping roof resting on squat porch posts. The roof overhung on all sides and the eaves were often supported by undecorated brackets or showed exposed rafter ends. The roof was usually fronted with a large gable or shed dormer. The emphasis was on the horizontal; the porch was placed under the roof, wall surfaces were plain – shingles or stucco was preferred – with large windows, and chimneys were kept short.
Floor plans were open, focused on a large family room with a fireplace sometimes enclosed by a cozy inglenook. Because houses were small, built-in sideboards and cabinets conserved space, surrounded by dark wood paneling. Lighting was subdued – this was the age of Tiffany lamps. First floor sleeping porches were often included.
Craftsman influences were seen in other styles of the time that were not bungalows. Often, homes that were distinctly Tudor on the exterior were given a Craftsman interior treatment. Or a bungalow may be seen with Tudor half-timbering on the exterior. But it was the American Foursquare that deserves special notice because of its great popularity in this period.
The Foursquare was a two story house with a hip roof and dormers, wide eaves without brackets, and an attached front porch, the whole resting on a foundation of stone or early rough-faced concrete block. Craftsman influences were seen in the absence of historical detailing, plain walls, wide windows, and an open interior finished with plain, unpainted wood trim. The plain and geometric shape of the Foursquare with its wide roof can be traced to the early work of Frank Lloyd Wright. Because the Colonial Revival was also popular in this time, some Foursquares can be seen finished with classically derived trim and window treatments.
Other interpretations of Craftsman can be found everywhere across America. While the bungalow, Foursquare, and Tudor are most frequently seen in New England, other styles predominate in other regions of the country. The mission style, very compatible with Craftsman design, is favored in the west along with prairie-style variations in the Midwest. Resorts and seasonal housing of this time were sometimes constructed on log cabin motifs or even as Swiss chalets, but the Craftsman themes are always recognizable.
From Our Trusted Partners | 671 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Arthur died a few months after he had married Catherine of Aragon in 1502. Henry was ten years old at the time. As Henry VII was interested in Catherine of Aragon's dowry, some arrangements were made for Henry to marry her.
Henry is said to have had a great influence over the British Court and to have contributed to the English Renaissance. But Henry was particularly famous for the schism from the Church of Rome and his six wives.
Henry asked that his marriage should be annulled. Cardinal Wolsey – the Lord Chancellor and Archbishop of York – started negotiations with the Pope Clement VII, unsuccessfully. Wolsey died little after his failure.
Wolsey's secretary, Thomas Cromwell suggested that Henry should do without the Pope's consent and should break from the Church of Rome. Though Henry strongly believed in the Roman Catholic principles, he agreed and divorced his wife in 1533.
He became the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Henry's break with Rome was the prelude to the Reformation.
The dissolution of the monasteries was organised by Cromwell not particularly to reform the Church but to enrich the Crown: heretics were burnt, Catholics were stolen their lands and riches.
On January 28, 1547, Henry died leaving the throne to his 10 year-old-son Edward.
His second wife was Ann Boleyn: he espoused her in 1533. She gave him a daughter, the future Queen Elizabeth I. Ann Boleyn was executed – more precisely beheaded – for infidelity three years after the marriage in 1536.
Then he led Jane Seymour to the altar in May 1536. She died little later while giving birth to the future King's heir: Edward VI.
In 1540, he wedded Anne Of Clèves, but the marriage was never consummated and soon annulled.
Des profs en ligne
Des profs en ligne
Des ressources riches
Des outils ludiques
Des tableaux de bord | <urn:uuid:aedb88e8-5b93-442b-8a67-a206adaa288b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.maxicours.com/se/cours/henry-viii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.98553 | 417 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.026720296591520... | 5 | Arthur died a few months after he had married Catherine of Aragon in 1502. Henry was ten years old at the time. As Henry VII was interested in Catherine of Aragon's dowry, some arrangements were made for Henry to marry her.
Henry is said to have had a great influence over the British Court and to have contributed to the English Renaissance. But Henry was particularly famous for the schism from the Church of Rome and his six wives.
Henry asked that his marriage should be annulled. Cardinal Wolsey – the Lord Chancellor and Archbishop of York – started negotiations with the Pope Clement VII, unsuccessfully. Wolsey died little after his failure.
Wolsey's secretary, Thomas Cromwell suggested that Henry should do without the Pope's consent and should break from the Church of Rome. Though Henry strongly believed in the Roman Catholic principles, he agreed and divorced his wife in 1533.
He became the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Henry's break with Rome was the prelude to the Reformation.
The dissolution of the monasteries was organised by Cromwell not particularly to reform the Church but to enrich the Crown: heretics were burnt, Catholics were stolen their lands and riches.
On January 28, 1547, Henry died leaving the throne to his 10 year-old-son Edward.
His second wife was Ann Boleyn: he espoused her in 1533. She gave him a daughter, the future Queen Elizabeth I. Ann Boleyn was executed – more precisely beheaded – for infidelity three years after the marriage in 1536.
Then he led Jane Seymour to the altar in May 1536. She died little later while giving birth to the future King's heir: Edward VI.
In 1540, he wedded Anne Of Clèves, but the marriage was never consummated and soon annulled.
Des profs en ligne
Des profs en ligne
Des ressources riches
Des outils ludiques
Des tableaux de bord | 424 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In this article, Appy and Bloom present a discussion with regard to the Vietnam War. In this discussion, there are arguments alluding to the fact that there were several myths presented by policy makers regarding the Vietnam War. There is convincing evidence that is presented to support the fact the information presented by the policy makers was mythological rather than factual. This evidence is revealed through concrete historical realities that have been used by Appy and Bloom to counter these misleading facts dubbed myths.
The first myth is that the intervention of the US in the Vietnam War was devoid of any political interests and colonial based ambition contrary to that of the French. This is a myth because the conquest of Vietnam by France was supported by America. The US had also refused to recognize Vietnamese independence.
The second claim is that regarding South Vietnamese nationhood. The US leadership maintained that Vietnam had been partitioned into two different nations by the Geneva accords and that the US was protecting South Vietnamese from being attacked by the North. Appy and Bloom refute this claim by asserting that Vietnam was not divided by the Geneva accord but rather by Viet Minh (communist-led). Also, the US opposed the ability of the two parts to be reunited.
The third claim that the two authors refute as a myth is that by American officials that they were guarding South Vietnam’s democracy and freedom. On the contrary, all South Vietnamese regimes supported by America exercised oppression, gross corruption and dictatorship.
Fourth, there’s the myth that portrayed South Vietnam to Americans as independent. Appy and Bloom argue that this cannot be true since the US supported South Vietnam in the military sense and in other aspects without which South Vietnam could have failed.
The fifth fact presented by Appy and Bloom as a myth is the one portraying the US military support to South Vietnam as mere assistance when the truth is that the American soldiers fought most of the battle and where the South Vietnam troops were used, they were fully funded and equipped by the US. Therefore, to say that the US was merely ‘assisting’ in the combat would be a lie since they were actively involved.
Sixth, Appy and Bloom also provide strong evidence to oppose the myth that there was economic modernization during the Vietnam War. Although South Vietnam was full of American aid, the truth is that it did not promote economic stability but rather led to inequalities and encouraged economic dependence. The creation of refugees and devastation of farmland encouraged rural – urban migration which resulted to prostitution, drug use and the black market (p. 57-58).
On the other hand, some aspects of the evidence presented by Appy and Bloom is not fully convincing. For example, in the myth of progress, there are two points that are not convincing enough. First, the authors are opposed to the myth that there was progress in the war and as such, the evidence given to oppose this myth should indicate points of defeat for the American troops in the war.
However, explanations such as US troops killed more people and that the blocking of the troops’ movement from the north towards the south was not effective are self defeating. This is because if the American troops succeeded in killing numerous bodies, that is a mark of progress.
Also, if they blocked troops from moving from north to south, it was an indicator of progress, only that it was not effective. Moreover, Appy and Bloom assert that some of the myths summarized above were outright lies. That means that not all the myths were lies, meaning that some were truthful and were therefore not myths.
Generally, most of the arguments presented by the authors are convincing, making a greater part of the work to hold water. | <urn:uuid:8a7f515b-6c84-4950-9e61-65251d0498ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alpinrunning.org/appy-c-and-bloom-a-vietnam-war-mythology-and-the-rise-of-public-cynicism-49-73/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.984657 | 742 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.3840158581... | 4 | In this article, Appy and Bloom present a discussion with regard to the Vietnam War. In this discussion, there are arguments alluding to the fact that there were several myths presented by policy makers regarding the Vietnam War. There is convincing evidence that is presented to support the fact the information presented by the policy makers was mythological rather than factual. This evidence is revealed through concrete historical realities that have been used by Appy and Bloom to counter these misleading facts dubbed myths.
The first myth is that the intervention of the US in the Vietnam War was devoid of any political interests and colonial based ambition contrary to that of the French. This is a myth because the conquest of Vietnam by France was supported by America. The US had also refused to recognize Vietnamese independence.
The second claim is that regarding South Vietnamese nationhood. The US leadership maintained that Vietnam had been partitioned into two different nations by the Geneva accords and that the US was protecting South Vietnamese from being attacked by the North. Appy and Bloom refute this claim by asserting that Vietnam was not divided by the Geneva accord but rather by Viet Minh (communist-led). Also, the US opposed the ability of the two parts to be reunited.
The third claim that the two authors refute as a myth is that by American officials that they were guarding South Vietnam’s democracy and freedom. On the contrary, all South Vietnamese regimes supported by America exercised oppression, gross corruption and dictatorship.
Fourth, there’s the myth that portrayed South Vietnam to Americans as independent. Appy and Bloom argue that this cannot be true since the US supported South Vietnam in the military sense and in other aspects without which South Vietnam could have failed.
The fifth fact presented by Appy and Bloom as a myth is the one portraying the US military support to South Vietnam as mere assistance when the truth is that the American soldiers fought most of the battle and where the South Vietnam troops were used, they were fully funded and equipped by the US. Therefore, to say that the US was merely ‘assisting’ in the combat would be a lie since they were actively involved.
Sixth, Appy and Bloom also provide strong evidence to oppose the myth that there was economic modernization during the Vietnam War. Although South Vietnam was full of American aid, the truth is that it did not promote economic stability but rather led to inequalities and encouraged economic dependence. The creation of refugees and devastation of farmland encouraged rural – urban migration which resulted to prostitution, drug use and the black market (p. 57-58).
On the other hand, some aspects of the evidence presented by Appy and Bloom is not fully convincing. For example, in the myth of progress, there are two points that are not convincing enough. First, the authors are opposed to the myth that there was progress in the war and as such, the evidence given to oppose this myth should indicate points of defeat for the American troops in the war.
However, explanations such as US troops killed more people and that the blocking of the troops’ movement from the north towards the south was not effective are self defeating. This is because if the American troops succeeded in killing numerous bodies, that is a mark of progress.
Also, if they blocked troops from moving from north to south, it was an indicator of progress, only that it was not effective. Moreover, Appy and Bloom assert that some of the myths summarized above were outright lies. That means that not all the myths were lies, meaning that some were truthful and were therefore not myths.
Generally, most of the arguments presented by the authors are convincing, making a greater part of the work to hold water. | 728 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the outset of World War II, Denmark declared itself neutral. For most of the war, the country was a protectorate, then an occupied territory of Germany. The decision to occupy Denmark was taken in Berlin on 17 December 1939. On 9 April 1940, Germany occupied Denmark in Operation Weserübung and the king and government functioned as normal in a de facto protectorate over the country until 29 August 1943, when Germany placed Denmark under direct military occupation, which lasted until the Allied victory on 5 May 1945. Contrary to the situation in other countries under German occupation, most Danish institutions continued to function relatively normally until 1945. Both the Danish government and king remained in the country in an uneasy relationship between a democratic and a totalitarian system until the Danish government stepped down in a protest against the German demands to institute the death penalty for sabotage.
Just over 3,000 Danes died as a direct result of the occupation. (A further 2,000 volunteers of Free Corps Denmark and Waffen SS, of which most originated from the German minority of southern Denmark, died fighting on the German side on the Eastern Front while 1,072 merchant sailors died in Allied service.) Overall this represents a very low mortality rate when compared to other occupied countries and most belligerent countries. (See: World War II casualties.)
The occupation of Denmark was initially not an important objective for the German government. The decision to occupy its small northern neighbour was taken to facilitate a planned invasion of the strategically more important Norway, and as a precaution against the expected British response. German military planners believed that a base in the northern part of Jutland, specifically the airfield of Aalborg, would be essential to operations in Norway, and they began planning the occupation of parts of Denmark. However, as late as February 1940 no firm decision to occupy Denmark had been made. The issue was finally settled when Adolf Hitler personally crossed out the words die Nordspitze Jütlands ("the Northern tip of Jutland") and replaced them with Dä, a German abbreviation for Denmark.
Although the Danish territory of South Jutland was home to a significant German minority, and the province had been regained from Germany as a result of a plebiscite resulting from the Versailles Treaty, Germany was in no apparent hurry to reclaim it. In a much more vague and longer-term way, some Nazis hoped to incorporate Denmark into a greater "Nordic Union" at some stage, but these plans never materialized. Officially Germany claimed to be protecting Denmark from a British invasion.
At 4:15 on the morning of 9 April 1940, German forces crossed the border into neutral Denmark. In a coordinated operation, German ships began disembarking troops at the docks in Copenhagen. Although outnumbered and poorly equipped, soldiers in several parts of the country offered resistance; most notably the Royal Guard in Copenhagen and units in South Jutland. At the same time as the border crossing, German planes dropped the notorious OPROP! leaflets over Copenhagen calling for Danes to accept the German occupation peacefully, and claiming that Germany had occupied Denmark in order to protect it against Great Britain and France. Colonel Lunding from the Danish army's intelligence office later confirmed that Danish intelligence knew the attack would be coming on either 8 or 9 April and had warned the government accordingly. The Danish ambassador to Germany, Herluf Zahle, issued a similar warning which was also ignored.
As a result of the rapid turn of events, the Danish government did not have enough time to officially declare war on Germany. Denmark was in an untenable position in any event, however. Its territory and population were too small to hold out against Germany for any sustained period. Its flat land would have resulted in it being easily overrun by German panzers; Jutland, for instance, was immediately adjacent to Schleswig-Holstein to the south and was thus wide open to a panzer attack from there. Unlike Norway, Denmark had no mountain ranges from which a drawn-out resistance could be mounted.
Sixteen Danish soldiers died in the invasion, but after two hours the Danish government surrendered, believing that resistance was useless and hoping to work out an advantageous agreement with Germany. The flat territory of Jutland was a perfect area for the German army to operate in, and the surprise attack on Copenhagen had made any attempt to defend Zealand impossible. The Germans had also been quick to establish control over the bridge across the Little Belt, thus gaining access to the island of Funen. Believing that further resistance would only result in the futile loss of still more Danish lives, the Danish cabinet ultimately decided to bow to the German pressure "under protest". The German forces were technologically sophisticated and numerous; the Danish forces comparatively tiny and used obsolete equipment; partially a result of a pre-war policy of trying to avoid antagonizing Germany by supplying the army with modern equipment. Even stiff resistance from the Danes would not have lasted long. Questions have been raised around the apparent fact that the German forces did not seem to expect any resistance, invading with unarmored ships and vehicles.
After the occupation of Denmark, British forces from 12 April 1940 made a pre-emptive bloodless invasion of the Faroe Islands to prevent their occupation by German troops. Britain took over the areas where Denmark previously had given support, and the islands now became dependent on the United Kingdom, which began to participate in fishing production and supplied the islands with important goods.
The British fortified positions in strategically important places. Sunde and fjords were mined, and at the island of Vágar, British engineers built a military aviation base. Up to 8,000 British soldiers were stationed in the Faroe Islands, which at that time had 30,000 inhabitants.
The Faroe Islands were repeatedly attacked by German aircraft, but with minimal damage. However, 25 Faroese ships were lost and 132 sailors died, corresponding to approx. 0.4% of the then Faroese population.
From 1918 until 1944 Iceland was self-governing, but the Danish king (King Christian X) was Head of State of both Denmark and Iceland. The United Kingdom occupied Iceland (to pre-empt a German occupation) on 10 May 1940, turning it over to the then neutral United States in July 1941, before that country entered the war in December 1941. Officially remaining neutral throughout World War II, Iceland became a fully independent republic on 17 June 1944.
On 9 April 1941, the Danish envoy to the United States, Henrik Kauffmann, signed a treaty with the U.S., authorizing it to defend Greenland and construct military stations there. Kauffmann was supported in this decision by the Danish diplomats in the United States and the local authorities in Greenland. Signing this treaty "in the name of the King" was a clear violation of his diplomatic powers, but Kauffmann argued that he would not receive orders from an occupied Copenhagen.
Historically, Denmark had a large amount of interaction with Germany. In 1920 the country had regained possession of the northern part of Schleswig after losing the provinces during the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The Danish people were divided about what the best policy toward Germany might be. Few were ardent Nazis; some explored the economic possibilities of providing the German occupiers with supplies and goods; others eventually formed resistance groups towards the latter part of the war. The majority of Danes, however, were unwillingly compliant towards the Germans. Due to the relative ease of the occupation and copious amount of dairy products, Denmark earned the nickname the Cream Front (German: Sahnefront).
As a result of the cooperative attitude of the Danish authorities, German officials claimed that they would "respect Danish sovereignty and territorial integrity, as well as neutrality." The German authorities were inclined towards lenient terms with Denmark for several reasons: their only strong interest in Denmark, that of surplus agricultural products, would be supplied by price policy on food rather than by control and restriction (some German records indicate that the German administration had not fully realized this potential before the occupation took place, which can be doubted); there was serious concern that the Danish economy was so dependent upon trade with Britain that the occupation would create an economic collapse, and Danish officials capitalized on that fear to get early concessions for a reasonable form of cooperation; they also hoped to score propaganda points by making Denmark, in Hitler's words, "a model protectorate"; on top of these more practical goals, Nazi race ideology held that Danes were "fellow Nordic Aryans," and could therefore to some extent be trusted to handle their domestic affairs.
These factors combined to allow Denmark a very favourable relationship with Nazi Germany. The government remained somewhat intact, and the parliament continued to function more or less as it had before. They were able to maintain much of their former control over domestic policy. The police and judicial system remained in Danish hands, and unlike most occupied countries, King Christian X remained in the country as Danish head of state. The German Reich was formally represented by a Reichsbevollmächtigter ('Reich Plenipotentiary'), i.e. a diplomat accredited to the Sovereign, a post awarded to Cecil von Renthe-Fink, the German ambassador, and then in November 1942 to the lawyer and SS general Werner Best.
Danish public opinion generally backed the new government, particularly after the fall of France in June 1940. There was a general feeling that the unpleasant reality of German occupation must be confronted in the most realistic way possible, given the international situation. Politicians realized that they would have to try hard to maintain Denmark's privileged position by presenting a united front to the German authorities, so all of the mainstream democratic parties formed a new government together. Parliament and the government agreed to work closely together. Though the effect of this was close to the creation of a one-party state, it remained a representative government.
The Danish government was dominated by Social Democrats, including the pre-war prime minister Thorvald Stauning, who had been strongly opposed to the Nazi party. Stauning himself was deeply depressed by the prospects for Europe under Nazism. Nonetheless, his party pursued a strategy of cooperation, hoping to maintain democracy and Danish control in Denmark for as long as possible. There were many issues that they had to work out with Germany in the months after the occupation. In an effort to keep the Germans satisfied, they compromised Danish democracy and society in several fundamental ways:
In return for these concessions, the Danish cabinet rejected German demands for legislation discriminating against Denmark's Jewish minority. Demands to introduce the death penalty were likewise rebuffed, and so were German demands to allow German military courts jurisdiction over Danish citizens. Denmark also rejected demands for the transfer of Danish army units to German military use.
Stauning remained prime minister until his death in 1942, as head of a coalition cabinet encompassing all major political parties (the exceptions being the tiny Nazi party, and the Communist Party, which was outlawed in 1941 as discussed). Vilhelm Buhl replaced him briefly, only to be replaced by foreign minister Erik Scavenius, who had been the main link to the Nazi authorities throughout the war. Scavenius was a diplomat, not an elected politician, and had an elitist approach to government. He was afraid that emotional public opinion would destabilize his attempts to build a compromise between Danish sovereignty and the realities of German occupation. Scavenius felt strongly that he was Denmark's most ardent defender. After the war there was much recrimination over his stance, particularly from members of the active resistance, who felt that he had hindered the cause of resistance and threatened Denmark's national honour. He felt that these people were vain, seeking to build their own reputations or political careers through emotionalism.
The Danish authorities were able to use their more cooperative stance to win important concessions for the country. They continually refused to enter a customs and currency union with Germany. Danes were concerned both about the negative economic effects of the German proposals, as well as the political ones. German officials did not want to risk their special relationship with Denmark by forcing an agreement on them, as they had done in other countries. The Danish government was also able to stall negotiations over the return of South Jutland to Germany, ban "closed-rank uniformed marches" that would have made nationalist German or Danish Nazi agitation more possible, keep National Socialists out of the government, and hold a relatively free election, with decidedly anti-Nazi results, in the middle of the war. Danish military officials also had access to sensitive German information, which they delivered to the Allies under government cover. The economic consequences of the occupation were also mitigated by German-Danish cooperation. Inflation rose sharply in the first year of the war, as the German Army spent a large amount of German military currency in Denmark, most importantly on military installations and troop deployments. Due to the Occupation, the National Bank of Denmark was compelled to exchange German currency for Danish notes, effectively granting the Germans a gigantic unsecured loan with only vague promises that the money would eventually be paid, something which never happened. The Danish government was later able to renegotiate the Germans' arbitrary exchange rate between the German military currency and the Danish krone to reduce this problem.
The success most often alluded to in regard to the Danish policy toward Germany is the protection of the Jewish minority in Denmark. Throughout the years of its hold on power, the government consistently refused to accept German demands regarding the Jews. The authorities would not enact special laws concerning Jews, and their civil rights remained equal with those of the rest of the population. German authorities became increasingly exasperated with this position but concluded that any attempt to remove or mistreat Jews would be "politically unacceptable." Even the Gestapo officer Dr. Werner Best, plenipotentiary in Denmark from November 1942, believed that any attempt to remove the Jews would be enormously disruptive to the relationship between the two governments and recommended against any action concerning the Jews of Denmark.
King Christian X remained in Denmark throughout the war, a symbol of courage much appreciated by his subjects.
On 29 June 1941, days after the invasion of the USSR, Free Corps Denmark (Danish: Frikorps Danmark) was founded as a corps of Danish volunteers to fight against the Soviet Union. Free Corps Denmark was set up at the initiative of the SS and DNSAP who approached Lieutenant-Colonel C.P. Kryssing of the Danish army shortly after the invasion of the USSR had begun. The Nazi paper Fædrelandet proclaimed the creation of the corps on 29 June 1941.
According to Danish law, it was not illegal to join a foreign army, but active recruiting on Danish soil was illegal. The SS disregarded this law and began recruiting efforts - predominantly recruiting Danish Nazis and members of the German-speaking minority. The Danish government discovered this and decided to concentrate on persuading the Germans not to recruit underage boys. General Prior wanted to sack Kryssing and his designated second-in-command but decided to consult the cabinet. It agreed that Kryssing should be sacked in its meeting on 2 July 1941, but this decision was later withdrawn when Erik Scavenius--who had not attended the original meeting--returned from negotiations and announced that he had reached an agreement with Renthe-Fink that soldiers wishing to join this corps could be given leave until further notice. The government issued an announcement stating that "Lieut. Colonel C.P. Kryssing, Chief of the 5th Artillery reg., Holbæk, has with the consent of the Royal Danish Government assumed command over 'Free Corps Denmark'". The Danish text only explicitly said that the government recognized that Kryssing had been given a new command; it did not sanction the creation of the corps, which had already happened without its creators asking the government's consent. In July 1941 Heinrich Himmler complained that Denmark was unofficially trying to stop recruitment, since the word ran in the army that anyone joining would be committing treason. The government later instructed the army and navy not to obstruct applications from soldiers wishing to leave active duty and join the corps.
A 1998 study showed that the average recruit to Free Corps Denmark was a Nazi, a member of the German minority in Denmark, or both, and that recruitment was very broad socially. Historian Bo Lidegaard notes: "The relationship between the population and the corps was freezing cold, and legionnaires on leave time and again came into fights, with civilians meeting the corps' volunteers with massive contempt." Lidegaard gives the following figures for 1941: 6,000 Danish citizens had signed up to German army duty; 1,500 of these belonged to the German minority in Denmark.
On 20 November 1941, 5 months after the invasion of the USSR, the Danish government received a German "invitation" to join the Anti-Comintern pact. Finland accepted reluctantly on 25 November and stated that it presumed that Denmark would also attend the ceremony (effectively conditioning its own attendance). Erik Scavenius argued that Denmark should sign the pact but the Cabinet ministers refused, stating that this would violate the policy of neutrality. Scavenius reported this decision to Renthe-Fink. Fink replied on 21 November that "Germany would be unable to comprehend" a Danish rejection and demanded this decision be reversed before the end of the day. He assured Scavenius that the pact contained neither "political or other obligations" (i.e., going to war with the USSR). At a cabinet meeting the same day, it was suggested to seek a written confirmation of this promise in an addendum to the protocol. Stauning agreed on these terms, since it would effectively make the signing meaningless. The Danish foreign office drew up a list of four terms that stated that Denmark only committed itself to "police action" in Denmark and that the nation remained neutral. The German foreign ministry agreed to the terms, provided that the protocol was not made public, which was the intent of the Danish foreign ministry.
As Berlin grew tired of waiting, Joachim von Ribbentrop called Copenhagen on 23 November threatening to "cancel the peaceful occupation" unless Denmark complied. On 23 November, the Wehrmacht in Denmark was put on alert and Renthe-Fink met Stauning and Foreign Minister Munch at 10 AM stating that there would be no room for "parliamentary excuses". If the German demands were not met Germany "would no longer be committed by the promises given on 9 April 1940" (the threat of a state of war, a Nazi government, and territorial dismemberment). In a Cabinet meeting at 2 PM that day, Stauning, Scavenius, Munch and two additional ministers advocated accession; seven ministers opposed. In a meeting the same day in the Nine Man committee, three more ministers caved in, most notably Vilhelm Buhl, stating "Cooperation is the last shred of our defence". Prime Minister Stauning's notes from the day stated: The objective is a political positioning. But this was established by the occupation. The danger of saying no--I would not like to see a Terboven here. Sign with addendum--that modifies the pact.
Scavenius boarded a train and headed for Berlin, where he arrived on Monday 24 November. The next crisis came when he was met by Renthe-Fink, who informed him that Ribbentrop had informed Fink that there had been a "misunderstanding" regarding the four clauses and that clause 2 would be deleted. This had specified that Denmark only had police-like obligations. Scavenius had a strict mandate not to change a sentence and stated that he would be unable to return to Copenhagen with a different content from the one agreed upon, but that he was willing to reopen negotiations to clarify the matter further. This reply enraged Ribbentrop (and rumours claim that he was considering ordering the SS to arrest Scavenius). The task fell to German diplomat Ernst von Weizsäcker to patch up a compromise. He watered down the wording but left the content pretty intact. Nonetheless, for Scavenius it was a strong setback that the four clauses would now only get the status of a unilateral Danish declaration (Aktennotitz) with a comment on it by Fink that its content "no doubt" was in compliance with the pact. Furthermore, he was instructed to give a public speech while abstaining from mentioning the four clauses but only making general statements about Denmark's status as a neutral nation. Scavenius signed the pact. At the following reception, the Italian ambassador described Scavenius as "a fish dragged on land ... a small old gentleman in a suit asking himself how on earth he got to this place". Lidegaard comments that the old man remained defiant: during a conversation with Ribbentrop in which the latter complained about the "barbarous cannibalism" of Russian POWs, Scavenius rhetorically asked if that statement meant that Germany didn't feed her prisoners.
When news of the signing reached Denmark, it left the population outraged, and rumours immediately spread about what Denmark had now committed itself to. The cabinet sent a car to pick up Scavenius at the ferry, to avoid his riding the train alone to Copenhagen. At the same time a large demonstration gathered outside of Parliament, which led the Minister of Justice, Eigil Thune Jacobsen, to remark that he didn't like to see Danish police beating up students singing patriotic songs. When Scavenius had returned to Copenhagen, he asked the cabinet to debate once and for all where the red lines existed in Danish relations with Germany. This debate concluded that three red lines existed:
To the surprise of many, Scavenius accepted these instructions without hesitation.
In October 1942, Adolf Hitler transmitted a long, flattering birthday telegram to King Christian. The King replied with a simple "Spreche Meinen besten Dank aus. Chr. Rex" ("Giving my best thanks. King Christian") sending the Führer into a state of rage at this deliberate slight, and seriously damaging Danish relations with Germany. Hitler immediately recalled his ambassador and expelled the Danish ambassador from Germany. The plenipotentiary, Renthe-Fink was replaced by Werner Best and orders to crack down in Denmark were issued. Hitler also demanded that Erik Scavenius become prime minister, and all remaining Danish troops were ordered out of Jutland.
As the war dragged on, the Danish population became increasingly hostile to the Germans. Soldiers stationed in Denmark had found most of the population cold and distant from the beginning of the occupation, but their willingness to cooperate had made the relationship workable. The government had attempted to discourage sabotage and violent resistance to the occupation, but by the autumn of 1942 the numbers of violent acts of resistance were increasing steadily to the point that Germany declared Denmark "enemy territory" for the first time. After the battles of Stalingrad and El-Alamein the incidents of resistance, violent and symbolic, increased rapidly.
In March 1943 the Germans allowed a general election to be held. The voter turnout was 89.5%, the highest in any Danish parliamentary election, and 94% cast their ballots for one of the democratic parties behind the cooperation policy while 2.2% voted for the anti-cooperation Dansk Samling. 2.1% voted for the National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark, almost corresponding to the 1.8% the party had received in the 1939 elections. The election, discontent, and a growing feeling of optimism that Germany would be defeated led to widespread strikes and civil disturbances in the summer of 1943. The Danish government refused to deal with the situation in a way that would satisfy the Germans, who presented an ultimatum to the government, including the following demands, on 28 August 1943: A ban on people assembling in public, outlawing strikes, the introduction of a curfew, censorship should be conducted with German assistance, special (German military) courts should be introduced, and the death penalty should be introduced in cases of sabotage. In addition, the city of Odense was ordered to pay a fine of 1 million kroner for the death of a German soldier killed in that city and hostages were to be held as security.
The Danish government refused, so on 29 August 1943 the Germans officially dissolved the Danish government and instituted martial law. The Danish cabinet handed in its resignation, although since King Christian never officially accepted it, the government remained functioning de jure until the end of the war. In reality--largely due to the initiative of the permanent secretary of the ministry of foreign affairs Nils Svenningsen--all day-to-day business had been handed over to the Permanent Secretaries, each effectively running his own ministry. The Germans administered the rest of the country, and the Danish Parliament did not convene for the remainder of the occupation. As the ministry of foreign affairs was responsible for all negotiations with the Germans, Nils Svenningsen had a leading position in the government.
In anticipation of Operation Safari, the Danish Navy had instructed its captains to resist any German attempts to assume control over their vessels. The navy managed to scuttle 32 of its larger ships, while Germany succeeded in seizing 14 of the larger and 50 of the smaller vessels (patruljekuttere or "patrol cutters"). The Germans later succeeded in raising and refitting 15 of the sunken ships. During the scuttling of the Danish fleet, a number of vessels were ordered to attempt an escape to Swedish waters, and 13 vessels succeeded in this attempt, four of which were the larger ships; two of the larger vessels had remained at safe harbour in Greenland. The coastal defence ship HDMS Niels Juel attempted to break out of the Isefjord, but was attacked by Stukas and forced to run aground. By the autumn of 1944, the ships in Sweden officially formed a Danish naval flotilla in exile. In 1943, Swedish authorities allowed 500 Danish soldiers in Sweden to train themselves as "police troops". By the autumn of 1944, Sweden raised this number to 4,800 and recognized the entire unit as a Danish brigade in exile. Danish collaboration continued on an administrative level, with the Danish bureaucracy functioning under German command.
In September 1943, a variety of resistance groups grouped together in the Danish Freedom Council, which coordinated resistance activities. A high-profile resister was former government minister John Christmas Møller, who had fled to England in 1942 and became a widely popular commentator because of his broadcasts to the nation over the BBC.
After the fall of the government, Denmark was exposed to the full extent of occupational rule. In October the Germans decided to remove all Jews from Denmark, but thanks to an information leak from German diplomat Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz and swift action by Danish civilians, the vast majority of the Danish Jews were transported to safety in neutral Sweden by means of fishing boats and motorboats. The entire evacuation lasted two months and one man helped ferry more than 1,400 Jews to safety. Unencumbered by government opposition, sabotage increased greatly in frequency and severity, though it was rarely of very serious concern to the Germans. Nonetheless, the Danish resistance movement had some successes, such as on D-Day when the train network in Denmark was disrupted for days, delaying the arrival of German reinforcements in Normandy. An underground government was established, and the illegal press flourished. Allied governments, which had been sceptical about the country's commitment to fight Germany, began recognizing Denmark as a full ally.
The permanent secretary of the ministry of foreign affairs, Nils Svenningsen, in January 1944 suggested establishment of a Danish camp, in order to avoid deportations to Germany. Werner Best accepted this suggestion, but on condition that this camp was built close to the German border. Frøslev Prison Camp was set up in August 1944. The building of the camp was for the sole purpose of keeping Danish Jews and other prisoners within Denmark's borders.
Denmark faced some serious economic problems during the war. The Danish economy was fundamentally hurt by the rising cost of raw material imports such as coal and oil. Furthermore, Denmark lost its main trading partner at that point, the UK. During years of occupation the Danish economy was more and more aligned on meeting German demands, which mainly meant agrarian products. The Danish authorities took an active part in the development and even initiated negotiations on a customs union. Those negotiations failed on the question whether the Danish krone should be abolished.
The blockade against Germany affected Denmark too with unfortunate results. Since the country has virtually no natural resources of its own it was very vulnerable to these price shocks and shortages. The government had foreseen the possibility of coal and oil shortages and had stockpiled some before the war, which, combined with rationing, prevented some of the worst potential problems from coming to the country. The disruptions to the European trading network were also damaging to the economy, but all things considered, Denmark did quite well compared to other countries during the war.
The country, at least certain sections of it, did so well that it has been open to the accusation of profiteering from the war. After the war there was some effort to find and punish profiteers, but the consequences and scope of these trials were far less severe than in many other countries, largely a reflection of the general acceptance of the realistic need for cooperation with Germany. On the whole, though the country fared relatively well, this is only a relative measure. Phil Giltner has worked out that Germany had a "debt" of roughly 6.9 billion kroner to Denmark as a whole. This means that they had taken far more out of the Danish economy than they had put in, aside from the negative side effects of the war on trade.
The Danish National Bank estimates that the occupation had resulted in the printing press increasing the currency supply from the pre-war figure of 400 million kroner to 1,600 million, much of which ended up in the hands of war profiteers. In July 1945, two months after the liberation of Denmark, the Danish Parliament passed an emergency law initiating a currency reform, making all old banknotes void. A small number of employees at the National Bank had clandestinely begun the production of new banknotes in late 1943. The production of new notes happened without the knowledge of the German forces located at the bank, and by the spring of 1945 the bank's stock of notes was sufficient to initiate the exchange. The law required was passed hastily on Friday 20 July and published the same day; it also closed all shops for the weekend. By Monday 23 July, all old notes were officially outlawed as legal tender and any note not declared in a bank by 30 July would lose its value. This law allowed any Dane to exchange a total of 100 kroner to new notes, no questions asked. An amount up to 500 kroner would be exchanged, provided the owner signed a written statement explaining its origins. Any amount above this level would be deposited in an escrow account and only released or exchanged following scrutiny by tax officials examining the validity of the person's statement about the origins of this wealth. All existing bank accounts were also scrutinized. Multiple exchanges of cash by the same person were avoided by the requirement that currency would only be exchanged to anybody also handing in a specified ration stamp, previously issued in a different context, which had not yet been authorized for use. The exchange resulted in a significant drop in the currency supply, and around 20% of the 3,000 million kroner property declared had not previously been registered by the tax authorities. Estimates vary for the amounts of currency simply destroyed by its owners. All banknotes issued since the changeover date remain valid indefinitely; earlier ones are not valid.
Most of Denmark was liberated from German rule in May 1945 by British forces commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery; the easternmost island of Bornholm was liberated by Soviet forces, who remained there for almost a year.
Although Denmark was spared many of the difficulties other areas of Europe suffered, its population still experienced hardships, particularly after the Germans took charge in 1943. Yet on the whole, Denmark can be said to have suffered the least of all the European combatants from the war. Many were killed and imprisoned because of their work resisting the German authorities. There were small bombing raids on select targets in the country, but nothing comparable to that suffered by, for instance, neighbouring Norway or the Netherlands. One area that was badly damaged was the island of Bornholm, largely due to Soviet bombardment of the German garrison there in the very last days of the war.
About 380 members of the resistance were killed during the war, they are commemorated in Ryvangen Memorial Park. Roughly 900 Danish civilians were killed in a variety of ways: either by being caught in air raids, killed during civil disturbances, or in reprisal killings, the so-called "clearing"-murders. 39 Danish soldiers were killed or injured during the invasion, and four were killed on 29 August 1943 when the Germans dissolved the Danish government. Some sources estimate that about 360 Danes died in concentration camps. The largest groups of fatalities were amongst Danish merchant sailors, who continued to operate throughout the war, most falling victim to submarines. 1,850 sailors died. Just over 100 soldiers died as part of Allied forces.
Approximately 6,000 Danes were sent to concentration camps during World War II, of whom about 600 (10%) died. In comparison with other countries this is a relatively low mortality rate in the concentration camps.
After the war, 40,000 people were arrested on suspicion of collaboration. Of these, 13,500 were punished in some way. 78 received death sentences, of which 46 were carried out. Most received prison sentences of under four years. Many people criticized the process for victimizing "small" people disproportionately, while many politicians and businesses were left untouched. One difficult issue was deciding what to do with collaborators who were essentially "following orders" that their own government had given them, such as business executives who had been encouraged to work with the Germans.
Although some members of the resistance tried to organize new political parties after the war to reshape the political order in Denmark, they were unable to do so. The only party that appeared to receive a significant boost from resistance was the Communist Party. The Communists received about one-eighth of the popular vote in the October 1945 elections.
On 5 May 1945, Denmark was officially free of German control. Citizens all over the country took black shades used to cover their windows during bombing raids, and burned them in the streets. Allied troops (mostly Soviet soldiers) were released from prisons all over the country and paraded down streets in Copenhagen, Aarhus, and other cities. In Aarhus, young girls known to have had relationships with German soldiers were dragged into streets by citizens in front of crowds of people, and had most of the hair on their heads cut off. They would then be forced to march down streets to be humiliated.
In the final weeks of the war, between 9 February and 9 May, several hundred thousand German refugees fled across the Baltic Sea, fleeing the advancing Soviet Army. For the most part, the refugees were from East Prussia and Pomerania. Many of the refugees were women, children, or elderly. Many were malnourished, exhausted or seriously ill. A third of the refugees were younger than 15 years old.
The German authorities had given the refugees a privileged status, seizing Danish schools, assembly houses, hotels, factories and sports facilities for refugee housing. At the same time, thousands of Danes were deported to German prisons and concentration camps. German terror against Danish resistance fighters and civilians increased in these final months. The general sentiment among Danes saw the arrival of refugees as a new, violent German occupation.
At the time of the German capitulation there were about 250,000 German refugees in Denmark. Already at the end of April, the German military authorities seemed to have lost control of the situation; many refugees had no food, the sick were not treated, mortality was high, and unburied dead bodies were stored in warehouses and cellars - although this was the result of different priorities in negotiations on aid between German and Danish authorities. The Danish negotiators, led by secretary of state Nils Svenningsen, would only agree provided that approximately 4,000 Danish citizens, mainly policemen, who were being detained in German concentration camps, were liberated. German authorities, on the other hand, would only agree if those policemen would take an active part in defeating the Danish resistance.
At the capitulation, the refugee administration was handed over to Danish authorities. Refugees were gradually moved from over 1,000 smaller locations to new-built camps or previous German military barracks, some of which held over 20,000 refugees. The largest of the camps, Oksbøl Refugee Camp, in Oksbøl on the west coast of Jutland, held 37,000 refugees. Camps were placed behind barbed wire and guarded by military personnel, as to avoid contact with the Danish population.
In some of the camps, food rations were scarce and medical care was inadequate. In 1945 alone, more than 13,000 people died, among them some 7,000 children under the age of five. The situation was worst in the months right before and after the capitulation, when Danish hospitals and doctors were reluctant to treat German refugees. The reason for this was not only anti-German resentment, but also lack of resources, the time needed to rebuild administrative structures, and the fear of epidemic diseases which were highly prevalent among the refugees. Instead, Danish authorities established a camp-internal medical system with German medical personnel, which took some time to work adequately. In the camps, there was school education for children up to the upper secondary level, work duty for adults, study circles, theatre, music and self-issued German newspapers. After initial inadequacy, food rations became more sufficient.
On 24 July 1945, the British occupation force, contrary to Danish expectations, decided that the refugees must stay in Denmark until the situation in Germany had stabilized. The first refugees were returned to Germany in November 1946 and the last ones in February 1949. Very few stayed in Denmark for good.
The policy of the government, called samarbejdspolitikken (cooperation policy) is one of the most controversial issues in Danish history. Some historians argue that the relatively accommodating policy which did not actively resist the occupation was the only realistic way of safeguarding Danish democracy and people. However, others argue that accommodation was taken too far, was uniquely compliant when compared to other democratic governments in Europe, and can not be seen as part of a coherent long-term strategy to protect democracy in Denmark or Europe. In 2003 Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen characterized the cooperation as "morally unjustifiable," the only time a Danish leader had condemned the war-era leadership, even though Anders Fogh Rasmussen's opponents construed it as a justification for his own ambitions, in connection with the invasion of Iraq in 2003. | <urn:uuid:c641aa16-e6ea-4320-90bb-bd0a59ed19e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=German_occupation_of_Denmark | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00134.warc.gz | en | 0.980369 | 7,988 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.6236895322799683,... | 1 | At the outset of World War II, Denmark declared itself neutral. For most of the war, the country was a protectorate, then an occupied territory of Germany. The decision to occupy Denmark was taken in Berlin on 17 December 1939. On 9 April 1940, Germany occupied Denmark in Operation Weserübung and the king and government functioned as normal in a de facto protectorate over the country until 29 August 1943, when Germany placed Denmark under direct military occupation, which lasted until the Allied victory on 5 May 1945. Contrary to the situation in other countries under German occupation, most Danish institutions continued to function relatively normally until 1945. Both the Danish government and king remained in the country in an uneasy relationship between a democratic and a totalitarian system until the Danish government stepped down in a protest against the German demands to institute the death penalty for sabotage.
Just over 3,000 Danes died as a direct result of the occupation. (A further 2,000 volunteers of Free Corps Denmark and Waffen SS, of which most originated from the German minority of southern Denmark, died fighting on the German side on the Eastern Front while 1,072 merchant sailors died in Allied service.) Overall this represents a very low mortality rate when compared to other occupied countries and most belligerent countries. (See: World War II casualties.)
The occupation of Denmark was initially not an important objective for the German government. The decision to occupy its small northern neighbour was taken to facilitate a planned invasion of the strategically more important Norway, and as a precaution against the expected British response. German military planners believed that a base in the northern part of Jutland, specifically the airfield of Aalborg, would be essential to operations in Norway, and they began planning the occupation of parts of Denmark. However, as late as February 1940 no firm decision to occupy Denmark had been made. The issue was finally settled when Adolf Hitler personally crossed out the words die Nordspitze Jütlands ("the Northern tip of Jutland") and replaced them with Dä, a German abbreviation for Denmark.
Although the Danish territory of South Jutland was home to a significant German minority, and the province had been regained from Germany as a result of a plebiscite resulting from the Versailles Treaty, Germany was in no apparent hurry to reclaim it. In a much more vague and longer-term way, some Nazis hoped to incorporate Denmark into a greater "Nordic Union" at some stage, but these plans never materialized. Officially Germany claimed to be protecting Denmark from a British invasion.
At 4:15 on the morning of 9 April 1940, German forces crossed the border into neutral Denmark. In a coordinated operation, German ships began disembarking troops at the docks in Copenhagen. Although outnumbered and poorly equipped, soldiers in several parts of the country offered resistance; most notably the Royal Guard in Copenhagen and units in South Jutland. At the same time as the border crossing, German planes dropped the notorious OPROP! leaflets over Copenhagen calling for Danes to accept the German occupation peacefully, and claiming that Germany had occupied Denmark in order to protect it against Great Britain and France. Colonel Lunding from the Danish army's intelligence office later confirmed that Danish intelligence knew the attack would be coming on either 8 or 9 April and had warned the government accordingly. The Danish ambassador to Germany, Herluf Zahle, issued a similar warning which was also ignored.
As a result of the rapid turn of events, the Danish government did not have enough time to officially declare war on Germany. Denmark was in an untenable position in any event, however. Its territory and population were too small to hold out against Germany for any sustained period. Its flat land would have resulted in it being easily overrun by German panzers; Jutland, for instance, was immediately adjacent to Schleswig-Holstein to the south and was thus wide open to a panzer attack from there. Unlike Norway, Denmark had no mountain ranges from which a drawn-out resistance could be mounted.
Sixteen Danish soldiers died in the invasion, but after two hours the Danish government surrendered, believing that resistance was useless and hoping to work out an advantageous agreement with Germany. The flat territory of Jutland was a perfect area for the German army to operate in, and the surprise attack on Copenhagen had made any attempt to defend Zealand impossible. The Germans had also been quick to establish control over the bridge across the Little Belt, thus gaining access to the island of Funen. Believing that further resistance would only result in the futile loss of still more Danish lives, the Danish cabinet ultimately decided to bow to the German pressure "under protest". The German forces were technologically sophisticated and numerous; the Danish forces comparatively tiny and used obsolete equipment; partially a result of a pre-war policy of trying to avoid antagonizing Germany by supplying the army with modern equipment. Even stiff resistance from the Danes would not have lasted long. Questions have been raised around the apparent fact that the German forces did not seem to expect any resistance, invading with unarmored ships and vehicles.
After the occupation of Denmark, British forces from 12 April 1940 made a pre-emptive bloodless invasion of the Faroe Islands to prevent their occupation by German troops. Britain took over the areas where Denmark previously had given support, and the islands now became dependent on the United Kingdom, which began to participate in fishing production and supplied the islands with important goods.
The British fortified positions in strategically important places. Sunde and fjords were mined, and at the island of Vágar, British engineers built a military aviation base. Up to 8,000 British soldiers were stationed in the Faroe Islands, which at that time had 30,000 inhabitants.
The Faroe Islands were repeatedly attacked by German aircraft, but with minimal damage. However, 25 Faroese ships were lost and 132 sailors died, corresponding to approx. 0.4% of the then Faroese population.
From 1918 until 1944 Iceland was self-governing, but the Danish king (King Christian X) was Head of State of both Denmark and Iceland. The United Kingdom occupied Iceland (to pre-empt a German occupation) on 10 May 1940, turning it over to the then neutral United States in July 1941, before that country entered the war in December 1941. Officially remaining neutral throughout World War II, Iceland became a fully independent republic on 17 June 1944.
On 9 April 1941, the Danish envoy to the United States, Henrik Kauffmann, signed a treaty with the U.S., authorizing it to defend Greenland and construct military stations there. Kauffmann was supported in this decision by the Danish diplomats in the United States and the local authorities in Greenland. Signing this treaty "in the name of the King" was a clear violation of his diplomatic powers, but Kauffmann argued that he would not receive orders from an occupied Copenhagen.
Historically, Denmark had a large amount of interaction with Germany. In 1920 the country had regained possession of the northern part of Schleswig after losing the provinces during the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The Danish people were divided about what the best policy toward Germany might be. Few were ardent Nazis; some explored the economic possibilities of providing the German occupiers with supplies and goods; others eventually formed resistance groups towards the latter part of the war. The majority of Danes, however, were unwillingly compliant towards the Germans. Due to the relative ease of the occupation and copious amount of dairy products, Denmark earned the nickname the Cream Front (German: Sahnefront).
As a result of the cooperative attitude of the Danish authorities, German officials claimed that they would "respect Danish sovereignty and territorial integrity, as well as neutrality." The German authorities were inclined towards lenient terms with Denmark for several reasons: their only strong interest in Denmark, that of surplus agricultural products, would be supplied by price policy on food rather than by control and restriction (some German records indicate that the German administration had not fully realized this potential before the occupation took place, which can be doubted); there was serious concern that the Danish economy was so dependent upon trade with Britain that the occupation would create an economic collapse, and Danish officials capitalized on that fear to get early concessions for a reasonable form of cooperation; they also hoped to score propaganda points by making Denmark, in Hitler's words, "a model protectorate"; on top of these more practical goals, Nazi race ideology held that Danes were "fellow Nordic Aryans," and could therefore to some extent be trusted to handle their domestic affairs.
These factors combined to allow Denmark a very favourable relationship with Nazi Germany. The government remained somewhat intact, and the parliament continued to function more or less as it had before. They were able to maintain much of their former control over domestic policy. The police and judicial system remained in Danish hands, and unlike most occupied countries, King Christian X remained in the country as Danish head of state. The German Reich was formally represented by a Reichsbevollmächtigter ('Reich Plenipotentiary'), i.e. a diplomat accredited to the Sovereign, a post awarded to Cecil von Renthe-Fink, the German ambassador, and then in November 1942 to the lawyer and SS general Werner Best.
Danish public opinion generally backed the new government, particularly after the fall of France in June 1940. There was a general feeling that the unpleasant reality of German occupation must be confronted in the most realistic way possible, given the international situation. Politicians realized that they would have to try hard to maintain Denmark's privileged position by presenting a united front to the German authorities, so all of the mainstream democratic parties formed a new government together. Parliament and the government agreed to work closely together. Though the effect of this was close to the creation of a one-party state, it remained a representative government.
The Danish government was dominated by Social Democrats, including the pre-war prime minister Thorvald Stauning, who had been strongly opposed to the Nazi party. Stauning himself was deeply depressed by the prospects for Europe under Nazism. Nonetheless, his party pursued a strategy of cooperation, hoping to maintain democracy and Danish control in Denmark for as long as possible. There were many issues that they had to work out with Germany in the months after the occupation. In an effort to keep the Germans satisfied, they compromised Danish democracy and society in several fundamental ways:
In return for these concessions, the Danish cabinet rejected German demands for legislation discriminating against Denmark's Jewish minority. Demands to introduce the death penalty were likewise rebuffed, and so were German demands to allow German military courts jurisdiction over Danish citizens. Denmark also rejected demands for the transfer of Danish army units to German military use.
Stauning remained prime minister until his death in 1942, as head of a coalition cabinet encompassing all major political parties (the exceptions being the tiny Nazi party, and the Communist Party, which was outlawed in 1941 as discussed). Vilhelm Buhl replaced him briefly, only to be replaced by foreign minister Erik Scavenius, who had been the main link to the Nazi authorities throughout the war. Scavenius was a diplomat, not an elected politician, and had an elitist approach to government. He was afraid that emotional public opinion would destabilize his attempts to build a compromise between Danish sovereignty and the realities of German occupation. Scavenius felt strongly that he was Denmark's most ardent defender. After the war there was much recrimination over his stance, particularly from members of the active resistance, who felt that he had hindered the cause of resistance and threatened Denmark's national honour. He felt that these people were vain, seeking to build their own reputations or political careers through emotionalism.
The Danish authorities were able to use their more cooperative stance to win important concessions for the country. They continually refused to enter a customs and currency union with Germany. Danes were concerned both about the negative economic effects of the German proposals, as well as the political ones. German officials did not want to risk their special relationship with Denmark by forcing an agreement on them, as they had done in other countries. The Danish government was also able to stall negotiations over the return of South Jutland to Germany, ban "closed-rank uniformed marches" that would have made nationalist German or Danish Nazi agitation more possible, keep National Socialists out of the government, and hold a relatively free election, with decidedly anti-Nazi results, in the middle of the war. Danish military officials also had access to sensitive German information, which they delivered to the Allies under government cover. The economic consequences of the occupation were also mitigated by German-Danish cooperation. Inflation rose sharply in the first year of the war, as the German Army spent a large amount of German military currency in Denmark, most importantly on military installations and troop deployments. Due to the Occupation, the National Bank of Denmark was compelled to exchange German currency for Danish notes, effectively granting the Germans a gigantic unsecured loan with only vague promises that the money would eventually be paid, something which never happened. The Danish government was later able to renegotiate the Germans' arbitrary exchange rate between the German military currency and the Danish krone to reduce this problem.
The success most often alluded to in regard to the Danish policy toward Germany is the protection of the Jewish minority in Denmark. Throughout the years of its hold on power, the government consistently refused to accept German demands regarding the Jews. The authorities would not enact special laws concerning Jews, and their civil rights remained equal with those of the rest of the population. German authorities became increasingly exasperated with this position but concluded that any attempt to remove or mistreat Jews would be "politically unacceptable." Even the Gestapo officer Dr. Werner Best, plenipotentiary in Denmark from November 1942, believed that any attempt to remove the Jews would be enormously disruptive to the relationship between the two governments and recommended against any action concerning the Jews of Denmark.
King Christian X remained in Denmark throughout the war, a symbol of courage much appreciated by his subjects.
On 29 June 1941, days after the invasion of the USSR, Free Corps Denmark (Danish: Frikorps Danmark) was founded as a corps of Danish volunteers to fight against the Soviet Union. Free Corps Denmark was set up at the initiative of the SS and DNSAP who approached Lieutenant-Colonel C.P. Kryssing of the Danish army shortly after the invasion of the USSR had begun. The Nazi paper Fædrelandet proclaimed the creation of the corps on 29 June 1941.
According to Danish law, it was not illegal to join a foreign army, but active recruiting on Danish soil was illegal. The SS disregarded this law and began recruiting efforts - predominantly recruiting Danish Nazis and members of the German-speaking minority. The Danish government discovered this and decided to concentrate on persuading the Germans not to recruit underage boys. General Prior wanted to sack Kryssing and his designated second-in-command but decided to consult the cabinet. It agreed that Kryssing should be sacked in its meeting on 2 July 1941, but this decision was later withdrawn when Erik Scavenius--who had not attended the original meeting--returned from negotiations and announced that he had reached an agreement with Renthe-Fink that soldiers wishing to join this corps could be given leave until further notice. The government issued an announcement stating that "Lieut. Colonel C.P. Kryssing, Chief of the 5th Artillery reg., Holbæk, has with the consent of the Royal Danish Government assumed command over 'Free Corps Denmark'". The Danish text only explicitly said that the government recognized that Kryssing had been given a new command; it did not sanction the creation of the corps, which had already happened without its creators asking the government's consent. In July 1941 Heinrich Himmler complained that Denmark was unofficially trying to stop recruitment, since the word ran in the army that anyone joining would be committing treason. The government later instructed the army and navy not to obstruct applications from soldiers wishing to leave active duty and join the corps.
A 1998 study showed that the average recruit to Free Corps Denmark was a Nazi, a member of the German minority in Denmark, or both, and that recruitment was very broad socially. Historian Bo Lidegaard notes: "The relationship between the population and the corps was freezing cold, and legionnaires on leave time and again came into fights, with civilians meeting the corps' volunteers with massive contempt." Lidegaard gives the following figures for 1941: 6,000 Danish citizens had signed up to German army duty; 1,500 of these belonged to the German minority in Denmark.
On 20 November 1941, 5 months after the invasion of the USSR, the Danish government received a German "invitation" to join the Anti-Comintern pact. Finland accepted reluctantly on 25 November and stated that it presumed that Denmark would also attend the ceremony (effectively conditioning its own attendance). Erik Scavenius argued that Denmark should sign the pact but the Cabinet ministers refused, stating that this would violate the policy of neutrality. Scavenius reported this decision to Renthe-Fink. Fink replied on 21 November that "Germany would be unable to comprehend" a Danish rejection and demanded this decision be reversed before the end of the day. He assured Scavenius that the pact contained neither "political or other obligations" (i.e., going to war with the USSR). At a cabinet meeting the same day, it was suggested to seek a written confirmation of this promise in an addendum to the protocol. Stauning agreed on these terms, since it would effectively make the signing meaningless. The Danish foreign office drew up a list of four terms that stated that Denmark only committed itself to "police action" in Denmark and that the nation remained neutral. The German foreign ministry agreed to the terms, provided that the protocol was not made public, which was the intent of the Danish foreign ministry.
As Berlin grew tired of waiting, Joachim von Ribbentrop called Copenhagen on 23 November threatening to "cancel the peaceful occupation" unless Denmark complied. On 23 November, the Wehrmacht in Denmark was put on alert and Renthe-Fink met Stauning and Foreign Minister Munch at 10 AM stating that there would be no room for "parliamentary excuses". If the German demands were not met Germany "would no longer be committed by the promises given on 9 April 1940" (the threat of a state of war, a Nazi government, and territorial dismemberment). In a Cabinet meeting at 2 PM that day, Stauning, Scavenius, Munch and two additional ministers advocated accession; seven ministers opposed. In a meeting the same day in the Nine Man committee, three more ministers caved in, most notably Vilhelm Buhl, stating "Cooperation is the last shred of our defence". Prime Minister Stauning's notes from the day stated: The objective is a political positioning. But this was established by the occupation. The danger of saying no--I would not like to see a Terboven here. Sign with addendum--that modifies the pact.
Scavenius boarded a train and headed for Berlin, where he arrived on Monday 24 November. The next crisis came when he was met by Renthe-Fink, who informed him that Ribbentrop had informed Fink that there had been a "misunderstanding" regarding the four clauses and that clause 2 would be deleted. This had specified that Denmark only had police-like obligations. Scavenius had a strict mandate not to change a sentence and stated that he would be unable to return to Copenhagen with a different content from the one agreed upon, but that he was willing to reopen negotiations to clarify the matter further. This reply enraged Ribbentrop (and rumours claim that he was considering ordering the SS to arrest Scavenius). The task fell to German diplomat Ernst von Weizsäcker to patch up a compromise. He watered down the wording but left the content pretty intact. Nonetheless, for Scavenius it was a strong setback that the four clauses would now only get the status of a unilateral Danish declaration (Aktennotitz) with a comment on it by Fink that its content "no doubt" was in compliance with the pact. Furthermore, he was instructed to give a public speech while abstaining from mentioning the four clauses but only making general statements about Denmark's status as a neutral nation. Scavenius signed the pact. At the following reception, the Italian ambassador described Scavenius as "a fish dragged on land ... a small old gentleman in a suit asking himself how on earth he got to this place". Lidegaard comments that the old man remained defiant: during a conversation with Ribbentrop in which the latter complained about the "barbarous cannibalism" of Russian POWs, Scavenius rhetorically asked if that statement meant that Germany didn't feed her prisoners.
When news of the signing reached Denmark, it left the population outraged, and rumours immediately spread about what Denmark had now committed itself to. The cabinet sent a car to pick up Scavenius at the ferry, to avoid his riding the train alone to Copenhagen. At the same time a large demonstration gathered outside of Parliament, which led the Minister of Justice, Eigil Thune Jacobsen, to remark that he didn't like to see Danish police beating up students singing patriotic songs. When Scavenius had returned to Copenhagen, he asked the cabinet to debate once and for all where the red lines existed in Danish relations with Germany. This debate concluded that three red lines existed:
To the surprise of many, Scavenius accepted these instructions without hesitation.
In October 1942, Adolf Hitler transmitted a long, flattering birthday telegram to King Christian. The King replied with a simple "Spreche Meinen besten Dank aus. Chr. Rex" ("Giving my best thanks. King Christian") sending the Führer into a state of rage at this deliberate slight, and seriously damaging Danish relations with Germany. Hitler immediately recalled his ambassador and expelled the Danish ambassador from Germany. The plenipotentiary, Renthe-Fink was replaced by Werner Best and orders to crack down in Denmark were issued. Hitler also demanded that Erik Scavenius become prime minister, and all remaining Danish troops were ordered out of Jutland.
As the war dragged on, the Danish population became increasingly hostile to the Germans. Soldiers stationed in Denmark had found most of the population cold and distant from the beginning of the occupation, but their willingness to cooperate had made the relationship workable. The government had attempted to discourage sabotage and violent resistance to the occupation, but by the autumn of 1942 the numbers of violent acts of resistance were increasing steadily to the point that Germany declared Denmark "enemy territory" for the first time. After the battles of Stalingrad and El-Alamein the incidents of resistance, violent and symbolic, increased rapidly.
In March 1943 the Germans allowed a general election to be held. The voter turnout was 89.5%, the highest in any Danish parliamentary election, and 94% cast their ballots for one of the democratic parties behind the cooperation policy while 2.2% voted for the anti-cooperation Dansk Samling. 2.1% voted for the National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark, almost corresponding to the 1.8% the party had received in the 1939 elections. The election, discontent, and a growing feeling of optimism that Germany would be defeated led to widespread strikes and civil disturbances in the summer of 1943. The Danish government refused to deal with the situation in a way that would satisfy the Germans, who presented an ultimatum to the government, including the following demands, on 28 August 1943: A ban on people assembling in public, outlawing strikes, the introduction of a curfew, censorship should be conducted with German assistance, special (German military) courts should be introduced, and the death penalty should be introduced in cases of sabotage. In addition, the city of Odense was ordered to pay a fine of 1 million kroner for the death of a German soldier killed in that city and hostages were to be held as security.
The Danish government refused, so on 29 August 1943 the Germans officially dissolved the Danish government and instituted martial law. The Danish cabinet handed in its resignation, although since King Christian never officially accepted it, the government remained functioning de jure until the end of the war. In reality--largely due to the initiative of the permanent secretary of the ministry of foreign affairs Nils Svenningsen--all day-to-day business had been handed over to the Permanent Secretaries, each effectively running his own ministry. The Germans administered the rest of the country, and the Danish Parliament did not convene for the remainder of the occupation. As the ministry of foreign affairs was responsible for all negotiations with the Germans, Nils Svenningsen had a leading position in the government.
In anticipation of Operation Safari, the Danish Navy had instructed its captains to resist any German attempts to assume control over their vessels. The navy managed to scuttle 32 of its larger ships, while Germany succeeded in seizing 14 of the larger and 50 of the smaller vessels (patruljekuttere or "patrol cutters"). The Germans later succeeded in raising and refitting 15 of the sunken ships. During the scuttling of the Danish fleet, a number of vessels were ordered to attempt an escape to Swedish waters, and 13 vessels succeeded in this attempt, four of which were the larger ships; two of the larger vessels had remained at safe harbour in Greenland. The coastal defence ship HDMS Niels Juel attempted to break out of the Isefjord, but was attacked by Stukas and forced to run aground. By the autumn of 1944, the ships in Sweden officially formed a Danish naval flotilla in exile. In 1943, Swedish authorities allowed 500 Danish soldiers in Sweden to train themselves as "police troops". By the autumn of 1944, Sweden raised this number to 4,800 and recognized the entire unit as a Danish brigade in exile. Danish collaboration continued on an administrative level, with the Danish bureaucracy functioning under German command.
In September 1943, a variety of resistance groups grouped together in the Danish Freedom Council, which coordinated resistance activities. A high-profile resister was former government minister John Christmas Møller, who had fled to England in 1942 and became a widely popular commentator because of his broadcasts to the nation over the BBC.
After the fall of the government, Denmark was exposed to the full extent of occupational rule. In October the Germans decided to remove all Jews from Denmark, but thanks to an information leak from German diplomat Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz and swift action by Danish civilians, the vast majority of the Danish Jews were transported to safety in neutral Sweden by means of fishing boats and motorboats. The entire evacuation lasted two months and one man helped ferry more than 1,400 Jews to safety. Unencumbered by government opposition, sabotage increased greatly in frequency and severity, though it was rarely of very serious concern to the Germans. Nonetheless, the Danish resistance movement had some successes, such as on D-Day when the train network in Denmark was disrupted for days, delaying the arrival of German reinforcements in Normandy. An underground government was established, and the illegal press flourished. Allied governments, which had been sceptical about the country's commitment to fight Germany, began recognizing Denmark as a full ally.
The permanent secretary of the ministry of foreign affairs, Nils Svenningsen, in January 1944 suggested establishment of a Danish camp, in order to avoid deportations to Germany. Werner Best accepted this suggestion, but on condition that this camp was built close to the German border. Frøslev Prison Camp was set up in August 1944. The building of the camp was for the sole purpose of keeping Danish Jews and other prisoners within Denmark's borders.
Denmark faced some serious economic problems during the war. The Danish economy was fundamentally hurt by the rising cost of raw material imports such as coal and oil. Furthermore, Denmark lost its main trading partner at that point, the UK. During years of occupation the Danish economy was more and more aligned on meeting German demands, which mainly meant agrarian products. The Danish authorities took an active part in the development and even initiated negotiations on a customs union. Those negotiations failed on the question whether the Danish krone should be abolished.
The blockade against Germany affected Denmark too with unfortunate results. Since the country has virtually no natural resources of its own it was very vulnerable to these price shocks and shortages. The government had foreseen the possibility of coal and oil shortages and had stockpiled some before the war, which, combined with rationing, prevented some of the worst potential problems from coming to the country. The disruptions to the European trading network were also damaging to the economy, but all things considered, Denmark did quite well compared to other countries during the war.
The country, at least certain sections of it, did so well that it has been open to the accusation of profiteering from the war. After the war there was some effort to find and punish profiteers, but the consequences and scope of these trials were far less severe than in many other countries, largely a reflection of the general acceptance of the realistic need for cooperation with Germany. On the whole, though the country fared relatively well, this is only a relative measure. Phil Giltner has worked out that Germany had a "debt" of roughly 6.9 billion kroner to Denmark as a whole. This means that they had taken far more out of the Danish economy than they had put in, aside from the negative side effects of the war on trade.
The Danish National Bank estimates that the occupation had resulted in the printing press increasing the currency supply from the pre-war figure of 400 million kroner to 1,600 million, much of which ended up in the hands of war profiteers. In July 1945, two months after the liberation of Denmark, the Danish Parliament passed an emergency law initiating a currency reform, making all old banknotes void. A small number of employees at the National Bank had clandestinely begun the production of new banknotes in late 1943. The production of new notes happened without the knowledge of the German forces located at the bank, and by the spring of 1945 the bank's stock of notes was sufficient to initiate the exchange. The law required was passed hastily on Friday 20 July and published the same day; it also closed all shops for the weekend. By Monday 23 July, all old notes were officially outlawed as legal tender and any note not declared in a bank by 30 July would lose its value. This law allowed any Dane to exchange a total of 100 kroner to new notes, no questions asked. An amount up to 500 kroner would be exchanged, provided the owner signed a written statement explaining its origins. Any amount above this level would be deposited in an escrow account and only released or exchanged following scrutiny by tax officials examining the validity of the person's statement about the origins of this wealth. All existing bank accounts were also scrutinized. Multiple exchanges of cash by the same person were avoided by the requirement that currency would only be exchanged to anybody also handing in a specified ration stamp, previously issued in a different context, which had not yet been authorized for use. The exchange resulted in a significant drop in the currency supply, and around 20% of the 3,000 million kroner property declared had not previously been registered by the tax authorities. Estimates vary for the amounts of currency simply destroyed by its owners. All banknotes issued since the changeover date remain valid indefinitely; earlier ones are not valid.
Most of Denmark was liberated from German rule in May 1945 by British forces commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery; the easternmost island of Bornholm was liberated by Soviet forces, who remained there for almost a year.
Although Denmark was spared many of the difficulties other areas of Europe suffered, its population still experienced hardships, particularly after the Germans took charge in 1943. Yet on the whole, Denmark can be said to have suffered the least of all the European combatants from the war. Many were killed and imprisoned because of their work resisting the German authorities. There were small bombing raids on select targets in the country, but nothing comparable to that suffered by, for instance, neighbouring Norway or the Netherlands. One area that was badly damaged was the island of Bornholm, largely due to Soviet bombardment of the German garrison there in the very last days of the war.
About 380 members of the resistance were killed during the war, they are commemorated in Ryvangen Memorial Park. Roughly 900 Danish civilians were killed in a variety of ways: either by being caught in air raids, killed during civil disturbances, or in reprisal killings, the so-called "clearing"-murders. 39 Danish soldiers were killed or injured during the invasion, and four were killed on 29 August 1943 when the Germans dissolved the Danish government. Some sources estimate that about 360 Danes died in concentration camps. The largest groups of fatalities were amongst Danish merchant sailors, who continued to operate throughout the war, most falling victim to submarines. 1,850 sailors died. Just over 100 soldiers died as part of Allied forces.
Approximately 6,000 Danes were sent to concentration camps during World War II, of whom about 600 (10%) died. In comparison with other countries this is a relatively low mortality rate in the concentration camps.
After the war, 40,000 people were arrested on suspicion of collaboration. Of these, 13,500 were punished in some way. 78 received death sentences, of which 46 were carried out. Most received prison sentences of under four years. Many people criticized the process for victimizing "small" people disproportionately, while many politicians and businesses were left untouched. One difficult issue was deciding what to do with collaborators who were essentially "following orders" that their own government had given them, such as business executives who had been encouraged to work with the Germans.
Although some members of the resistance tried to organize new political parties after the war to reshape the political order in Denmark, they were unable to do so. The only party that appeared to receive a significant boost from resistance was the Communist Party. The Communists received about one-eighth of the popular vote in the October 1945 elections.
On 5 May 1945, Denmark was officially free of German control. Citizens all over the country took black shades used to cover their windows during bombing raids, and burned them in the streets. Allied troops (mostly Soviet soldiers) were released from prisons all over the country and paraded down streets in Copenhagen, Aarhus, and other cities. In Aarhus, young girls known to have had relationships with German soldiers were dragged into streets by citizens in front of crowds of people, and had most of the hair on their heads cut off. They would then be forced to march down streets to be humiliated.
In the final weeks of the war, between 9 February and 9 May, several hundred thousand German refugees fled across the Baltic Sea, fleeing the advancing Soviet Army. For the most part, the refugees were from East Prussia and Pomerania. Many of the refugees were women, children, or elderly. Many were malnourished, exhausted or seriously ill. A third of the refugees were younger than 15 years old.
The German authorities had given the refugees a privileged status, seizing Danish schools, assembly houses, hotels, factories and sports facilities for refugee housing. At the same time, thousands of Danes were deported to German prisons and concentration camps. German terror against Danish resistance fighters and civilians increased in these final months. The general sentiment among Danes saw the arrival of refugees as a new, violent German occupation.
At the time of the German capitulation there were about 250,000 German refugees in Denmark. Already at the end of April, the German military authorities seemed to have lost control of the situation; many refugees had no food, the sick were not treated, mortality was high, and unburied dead bodies were stored in warehouses and cellars - although this was the result of different priorities in negotiations on aid between German and Danish authorities. The Danish negotiators, led by secretary of state Nils Svenningsen, would only agree provided that approximately 4,000 Danish citizens, mainly policemen, who were being detained in German concentration camps, were liberated. German authorities, on the other hand, would only agree if those policemen would take an active part in defeating the Danish resistance.
At the capitulation, the refugee administration was handed over to Danish authorities. Refugees were gradually moved from over 1,000 smaller locations to new-built camps or previous German military barracks, some of which held over 20,000 refugees. The largest of the camps, Oksbøl Refugee Camp, in Oksbøl on the west coast of Jutland, held 37,000 refugees. Camps were placed behind barbed wire and guarded by military personnel, as to avoid contact with the Danish population.
In some of the camps, food rations were scarce and medical care was inadequate. In 1945 alone, more than 13,000 people died, among them some 7,000 children under the age of five. The situation was worst in the months right before and after the capitulation, when Danish hospitals and doctors were reluctant to treat German refugees. The reason for this was not only anti-German resentment, but also lack of resources, the time needed to rebuild administrative structures, and the fear of epidemic diseases which were highly prevalent among the refugees. Instead, Danish authorities established a camp-internal medical system with German medical personnel, which took some time to work adequately. In the camps, there was school education for children up to the upper secondary level, work duty for adults, study circles, theatre, music and self-issued German newspapers. After initial inadequacy, food rations became more sufficient.
On 24 July 1945, the British occupation force, contrary to Danish expectations, decided that the refugees must stay in Denmark until the situation in Germany had stabilized. The first refugees were returned to Germany in November 1946 and the last ones in February 1949. Very few stayed in Denmark for good.
The policy of the government, called samarbejdspolitikken (cooperation policy) is one of the most controversial issues in Danish history. Some historians argue that the relatively accommodating policy which did not actively resist the occupation was the only realistic way of safeguarding Danish democracy and people. However, others argue that accommodation was taken too far, was uniquely compliant when compared to other democratic governments in Europe, and can not be seen as part of a coherent long-term strategy to protect democracy in Denmark or Europe. In 2003 Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen characterized the cooperation as "morally unjustifiable," the only time a Danish leader had condemned the war-era leadership, even though Anders Fogh Rasmussen's opponents construed it as a justification for his own ambitions, in connection with the invasion of Iraq in 2003. | 8,333 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Among them was , a , who on 30 January 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest. No exception can possibly be taken to the natural desire of the Jews to find a home in Palestine. This decision shocked many Congress people but Gandhi remained adamant and started a five-day fast as penance. He argued that no man can degrade or brutalise the other without degrading and brutalising himself and that sustainable economic growth comes from service, not from exploitation. Instead they were given the Rowlatt Act. His prominent exploits were his confrontations with , who later rebelled against the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. Eg :The nation seethed with suppressed revolutionary activity seething movement.
The legislation against Indians was repealed and all Indian political prisoners were released by General. This was evident in his involvement in the Khilafat Movement. The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and national politics. In Champaran he took up the cause of peasants against landlords, in Kheda he worked for the farmers against revenue officials and in Ahmedabad fought for mill workers against mill owners. Once again, the processes were non-violent. Over 90,000 Satyagrahis, including Gandhiji and other congress leaders were imprisoned and Congress declared illegal. He would never bow down before evil whatever the consequences.
After Gandhi's arrest, the women marched and picketed shops on their own, accepting violence and verbal abuse from British authorities for the cause in a manner Gandhi inspired. Linked to this was his advocacy that homespun cloth be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in forging the , a temporary alliance with the Muslim League over the issues of devolution of political power and the future of Islam in the region. He left no stone unturned in the fight for India's freedom. Lakhs of Indians offered Satyagraha.
Funeral and memorials Gandhi was cremated in accordance with Hindu tradition. This Hindu scripture discusses , and along with virtues such as non-violence, patience, integrity, lack of hypocrisy, self restraint and abstinence. During the war period, the government suppressed anarchism by the Defence of India Act and other harsh laws. He firmly believed that the British rulers could not stay in India even for a day without the Indians cooperating with them. His countrymen retaliated the arrests by damaging or burning down hundreds of government owned railway stations, police stations, and cutting down telegraph wires.
In the 1940s, Gandhi pooled ideas with some Muslim leaders who sought religious harmony like him, and opposed the proposed partition of British India into India and Pakistan. Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. His emphasis was always on action, reminding one of the Karma Yoga in the Gita which has been the most pi scripture of the Hindus since the sixth century A. Farmers in Awadh did not pay taxes. When they got close the British army would beat them until they were down.
He just wanted to free India from the British. After the passing of the 1882 Madras Forest Act, its restrictions on the free movement of tribal peoples in the forest prevented them from engaging in their traditional agricultural system, which involved. Confronted with diverse political ideologies like hard line extremism, the moderate approach and the newly emerging communist forces the confused Indians found solace in the simple philosophies of Gandhi. There he nurtured his policy of peaceful resistance. The Viceroy promised the Muslim League that the British government would never agree to a constitution or government in India which did not enjoy their support.
He was caught by the British and his fort was razed to the ground. The Congress was wholly disappointed with the August Offer. Non-cooperation Movement Gandhi had realised that the British had been able to be in India only because of the co-operation they received from the Indians. Deadly religious riots re-appeared in numerous cities, with 91 in alone. She served Gandhi with devotion till last and suffered hardship with him. Those who went public said they felt as though they were sleeping with their ageing mother. In defiance of : In spite of; contrary to: went on strike in defiance of union policy.
First, it was this event thatfirst brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention. Four ordinances were promulgated by the government to deal with the situation. By 1929, however, in the midst of rising political discontent and increasingly violent regional movements, the call for complete sovereignty and end of British rule began to find increasing grounds within the Public. They were mostly members of the upwardly mobile and successful western-educated provincial elites, engaged in professions such as law, and journalism. Although he was simple in and saintly in thinking, he permitted himself to be involved neck-deep in the struggle of the country. The Congress was declared illegal and severe restrictions were imposed on the nationalist press. The British responded with much force, yet it took more than a year to suppress the rebellion.
Gandhi's brother Laxmidas, who was already a lawyer, cheered Gandhi's London studies plan and offered to support him. Gandhi took on oath on the feet of his mother to remain pure in that impure land and not to touch wine or meat. Godse was a Hindu nationalist with links to the extremist. A young left wing British Quaker by the name of Reg Reynolds delivered the letter. Some positive sides of the British rule, however, included the improvement of infrastructural facilities in India.
It entailed denial, renunciation, and self-discipline. Here, Gandhi started a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of taxes. The country was also rich in natural resources with fertile lands, abundant water resources, and diverse wildlife. Gandhi declared that Sitaramayya's defeat was his defeat. Captured along with many of his co-conspirators and collaborators, Godse and his co-conspirator were tried, convicted and executed while many of their other accomplices were given prison sentences. Millions of men ceased their work, shops were closed, offices and educational institutions became desert. | <urn:uuid:d336d4fd-77f1-40d8-973c-9dfda7f51165> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://inzak.com/gandhi-indian-national-movement.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00087.warc.gz | en | 0.983534 | 1,247 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.4455201923... | 1 | Among them was , a , who on 30 January 1948 by firing three bullets into his chest. No exception can possibly be taken to the natural desire of the Jews to find a home in Palestine. This decision shocked many Congress people but Gandhi remained adamant and started a five-day fast as penance. He argued that no man can degrade or brutalise the other without degrading and brutalising himself and that sustainable economic growth comes from service, not from exploitation. Instead they were given the Rowlatt Act. His prominent exploits were his confrontations with , who later rebelled against the British in the late 1750s and early 1760s. Eg :The nation seethed with suppressed revolutionary activity seething movement.
The legislation against Indians was repealed and all Indian political prisoners were released by General. This was evident in his involvement in the Khilafat Movement. The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and national politics. In Champaran he took up the cause of peasants against landlords, in Kheda he worked for the farmers against revenue officials and in Ahmedabad fought for mill workers against mill owners. Once again, the processes were non-violent. Over 90,000 Satyagrahis, including Gandhiji and other congress leaders were imprisoned and Congress declared illegal. He would never bow down before evil whatever the consequences.
After Gandhi's arrest, the women marched and picketed shops on their own, accepting violence and verbal abuse from British authorities for the cause in a manner Gandhi inspired. Linked to this was his advocacy that homespun cloth be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in forging the , a temporary alliance with the Muslim League over the issues of devolution of political power and the future of Islam in the region. He left no stone unturned in the fight for India's freedom. Lakhs of Indians offered Satyagraha.
Funeral and memorials Gandhi was cremated in accordance with Hindu tradition. This Hindu scripture discusses , and along with virtues such as non-violence, patience, integrity, lack of hypocrisy, self restraint and abstinence. During the war period, the government suppressed anarchism by the Defence of India Act and other harsh laws. He firmly believed that the British rulers could not stay in India even for a day without the Indians cooperating with them. His countrymen retaliated the arrests by damaging or burning down hundreds of government owned railway stations, police stations, and cutting down telegraph wires.
In the 1940s, Gandhi pooled ideas with some Muslim leaders who sought religious harmony like him, and opposed the proposed partition of British India into India and Pakistan. Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. His emphasis was always on action, reminding one of the Karma Yoga in the Gita which has been the most pi scripture of the Hindus since the sixth century A. Farmers in Awadh did not pay taxes. When they got close the British army would beat them until they were down.
He just wanted to free India from the British. After the passing of the 1882 Madras Forest Act, its restrictions on the free movement of tribal peoples in the forest prevented them from engaging in their traditional agricultural system, which involved. Confronted with diverse political ideologies like hard line extremism, the moderate approach and the newly emerging communist forces the confused Indians found solace in the simple philosophies of Gandhi. There he nurtured his policy of peaceful resistance. The Viceroy promised the Muslim League that the British government would never agree to a constitution or government in India which did not enjoy their support.
He was caught by the British and his fort was razed to the ground. The Congress was wholly disappointed with the August Offer. Non-cooperation Movement Gandhi had realised that the British had been able to be in India only because of the co-operation they received from the Indians. Deadly religious riots re-appeared in numerous cities, with 91 in alone. She served Gandhi with devotion till last and suffered hardship with him. Those who went public said they felt as though they were sleeping with their ageing mother. In defiance of : In spite of; contrary to: went on strike in defiance of union policy.
First, it was this event thatfirst brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention. Four ordinances were promulgated by the government to deal with the situation. By 1929, however, in the midst of rising political discontent and increasingly violent regional movements, the call for complete sovereignty and end of British rule began to find increasing grounds within the Public. They were mostly members of the upwardly mobile and successful western-educated provincial elites, engaged in professions such as law, and journalism. Although he was simple in and saintly in thinking, he permitted himself to be involved neck-deep in the struggle of the country. The Congress was declared illegal and severe restrictions were imposed on the nationalist press. The British responded with much force, yet it took more than a year to suppress the rebellion.
Gandhi's brother Laxmidas, who was already a lawyer, cheered Gandhi's London studies plan and offered to support him. Gandhi took on oath on the feet of his mother to remain pure in that impure land and not to touch wine or meat. Godse was a Hindu nationalist with links to the extremist. A young left wing British Quaker by the name of Reg Reynolds delivered the letter. Some positive sides of the British rule, however, included the improvement of infrastructural facilities in India.
It entailed denial, renunciation, and self-discipline. Here, Gandhi started a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of taxes. The country was also rich in natural resources with fertile lands, abundant water resources, and diverse wildlife. Gandhi declared that Sitaramayya's defeat was his defeat. Captured along with many of his co-conspirators and collaborators, Godse and his co-conspirator were tried, convicted and executed while many of their other accomplices were given prison sentences. Millions of men ceased their work, shops were closed, offices and educational institutions became desert. | 1,257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bohemia lost its position of an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire as well as its own political representation in the Imperial Diet. Czech patriotic authors tend to call the following period, from to until the late 18th century, the "Dark Age". More than one quarter of Prague was destroyed and St. When elections were held in , Communists became the dominant political party and gained control of the Czechoslovakian government in Much of Prague Castle and the cathedral of Saint Vitus in Gothic style were completed during his reign.
He built a great empire stretching from the Danube river to the Baltic Sea. The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in was followed by a wave of emigration, unseen before and stopped shortly after in estimate: 70, immediately, , in total , typically of highly qualified people. The Revolution of in Prague, striving for liberal reforms and autonomy of the Bohemian Crown within the Austrian Empire, was suppressed. It is characterized by devastation by foreign troops; Germanization ; and economic and political decline. Emasculated , Czechoslovakia succumbed to direct German invasion six months later. | <urn:uuid:ae7e0e81-84f6-416d-972b-3622cf044612> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://southernbikenight.com/czech/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.982303 | 222 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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He built a great empire stretching from the Danube river to the Baltic Sea. The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in was followed by a wave of emigration, unseen before and stopped shortly after in estimate: 70, immediately, , in total , typically of highly qualified people. The Revolution of in Prague, striving for liberal reforms and autonomy of the Bohemian Crown within the Austrian Empire, was suppressed. It is characterized by devastation by foreign troops; Germanization ; and economic and political decline. Emasculated , Czechoslovakia succumbed to direct German invasion six months later. | 230 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although discrimination happens for various reasons all around the world, sexism seems to be the most well known barrier between men and women. In “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell and “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gillman, we gain an insight on sexism and women’s perspectives towards the world and relationships. In both short stories, we see many overlapping similarities in the way woman were treated back then and even still treated now. Both Gilmann and Glaspell’s stories demonstrate women who were obviously trapped and confined by their marriages.
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“A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell is a short story that focuses on sexism but more so the gendered assumptions that men have for women. In the story, two female characters are able to solve a mystery that the male characters cannot based off their own knowledge of women’s psychology. Currently, women in society today have made huge strides and are working extremely hard for their equal rights. During the time period that “A Jury of Her Peers” was written in, women were to stay at home, take care of the housework, cook, clean, and raise children while husbands would come home from work and have the house be neat and clean for them. A lot has changed for women in society today and thankfully, sexism is not as prominent. However, sexism is not eliminated completely and can still be found all around.
In “A Jury of Her Peers” is that the women are forced to follow the men and are limited to what they can say or do, just like in the short story “The Yellow Wallpaper.” A constant theme we also notice is that the men view the women as unintelligent beings and do not believe they are capable of anything. Examples of the men in the story doubting the women show when they state, “women are used to worrying over trifles,” (p.248) and “would the women know a clue if they did come upon it.” (p.249) The whole story ends up being ironic because the women actually discover the most important clue that explains the mystery around the murder. So despite the fact that the men doubted the women, they ended up being even more intelligent than the men and end up discovering the motive for the murder. I like how in the end, the women stick together and keep their knowledge hidden from the men to protect the culprit and make her seem not guilty.
I really enjoyed this short story because we got to see two different points of view between the men and women. The men kept saying how they were viewing the situation rationally and how the women were insignificant and would be no help at all. Meanwhile, the women viewed themselves with compassion and understanding and seemed to share a bonding relationship when they were empathizing over Minnie’s horrible married life with her husband. Overall, we see how sexism demeans women of their value and lessens their view on what they are capable of.
Referring back to modern day sexism, many men still to this day think that they are far superior and smarter than women. There are still many social limitations placed on women but I think we have come a long way from the past because many women are being used as detectives and judges now. This short story proves that women are equally just as strong, rational, and determined as men are, if not more.
“The Yellow Wallpaper” is also a brilliant short story that everyone should read if they want to further understand what sexism was like back in the day. Immediately we see symbols and themes all over the place shown by Gillman. From a feminists perspective we experience the woman’s lack of freedom as she talks about going crazy and her husband’s power against her own will. We really empathize with the main character throughout the story with her little comments being made about her marriage, for example: “I am glad my case is not serious! But these nervous troubles are dreadfully depressing. John does not know how much I really suffer. He knows there is no reason to suffer, and that satisfies him.” (p.228)
The main character goes through a serious mental breakdown and is repressed of all her creativity and freedom of speech when her husband, John, forces her to give up her writing. The woman’s imagination is a part of her and she mentions, “But I must say what I feel and think in some way—it is such a relief!” (p.231) Unfortunately, she begins to feel that she cannot write as openly and must follow along with her John’s instructions. In the story, if the narrator was not allowed to write in her journal nor read, she would begin to “read” the yellow wallpaper until she found what she was looking for: an escape from her depressing life. Referring back to sexism in society today, many women still feel as though they shouldn’t share their voices or opinions. It’s devastating how many times men have stolen ideas from women and lead them to believe that they are insignificant while getting credit for themselves.
Due to sexism and a man’s feeling of superiority, many women are unsure of their own sanity and feelings building up. For example, in “The Yellow Wallpaper,” the main protagonist isn’t sure whether to be scared of her husband or appreciative of what he appears to be doing for her. I think nowadays many men take women for granted and push that they know what is best for them. John constantly told her what to do and pushed her around because not only did he think he was doing the right thing, but because he could. Just like John in the story, in order to have control over women men dominated their wives during that time period in the 1800’s.
Basically, in “The Yellow Wallpaper,” we saw a glimpse into the life of many women in the late 19th century and got to see the point of view of a woman going through depression and slowly turning more and more insane as her husband stays by her side. I think that a lot of women in married relationships during that period of time seemed to share a father and daughter relationship rather than an equal husband and wife one. There was nothing women could do about their sense of powerlessness and their lives in general.
The narrator used the wallpaper to represent the male dominated society she lives in. Not only does the wallpaper affect the narrator, but also it has an effect on everyone that comes in contact with it. The way the wallpaper is described in this short story shows how the narrator is using the wallpaper to represent her society. Towards the end of “The Yellow Wallpaper,” I believe we see a “revival” as the main character finally gets freedom from her husband and realizes that she will not be suppressed any longer.
Back then, this story, along with “A Jury of Her Peers” and many others was necessary and helpful to women who really needed to feel a sense of companionship and love. Their husbands were controlling and even though many did love them, they didn’t show it and certainly didn’t make women feel as comfortable as they should. Unfortunately, this is still an issue for some in today’s society but women are now realizing their rights and are getting out of unhappy marriages rather than having to deal with unfair treatment. Many women felt isolated, because they lived in a patriarch society during the 19th century. Women were treated cruelly because men looked down at them. It was helpful that Glaspell spoke up about how women were feeling and being treated. This story really helps people look back and realize just how prominent sexism was and how unjust the treatment was towards women.
Reading about and analyzing “The Yellow Wallpaper” and “A Jury of Her Peers” Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Susan Glaspell really led me to understand the patriarchal society and oppression that was happening during that time. Sexism is still happening but is not as prominent as it once was. There were many hardships of women in a male-controlled society. Differences back then between men and women got in the way of solving problems together and happy marriages. Women and men were different in appearances, in rationality, in emotions, and in the way they thought in general. Throughout the story, women and men portrayed different concerns, priorities and interests. I think before the differences between men and women really got in the way of things, where as now, we are more and more alike and equal in our society together.
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Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now | <urn:uuid:2c5cef3c-d441-478b-a45b-e8d0fa46b726> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eduzaurus.com/free-essay-samples/womens-roles-susan-glaspells-a-jury-of-her-peers-vs-charlotte-perkins-gilmans-the-yellow-wallpaper/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.9854 | 1,896 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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-0.09662795066... | 2 | Although discrimination happens for various reasons all around the world, sexism seems to be the most well known barrier between men and women. In “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell and “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gillman, we gain an insight on sexism and women’s perspectives towards the world and relationships. In both short stories, we see many overlapping similarities in the way woman were treated back then and even still treated now. Both Gilmann and Glaspell’s stories demonstrate women who were obviously trapped and confined by their marriages.
Essay due? We'll write it for you!
“A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell is a short story that focuses on sexism but more so the gendered assumptions that men have for women. In the story, two female characters are able to solve a mystery that the male characters cannot based off their own knowledge of women’s psychology. Currently, women in society today have made huge strides and are working extremely hard for their equal rights. During the time period that “A Jury of Her Peers” was written in, women were to stay at home, take care of the housework, cook, clean, and raise children while husbands would come home from work and have the house be neat and clean for them. A lot has changed for women in society today and thankfully, sexism is not as prominent. However, sexism is not eliminated completely and can still be found all around.
In “A Jury of Her Peers” is that the women are forced to follow the men and are limited to what they can say or do, just like in the short story “The Yellow Wallpaper.” A constant theme we also notice is that the men view the women as unintelligent beings and do not believe they are capable of anything. Examples of the men in the story doubting the women show when they state, “women are used to worrying over trifles,” (p.248) and “would the women know a clue if they did come upon it.” (p.249) The whole story ends up being ironic because the women actually discover the most important clue that explains the mystery around the murder. So despite the fact that the men doubted the women, they ended up being even more intelligent than the men and end up discovering the motive for the murder. I like how in the end, the women stick together and keep their knowledge hidden from the men to protect the culprit and make her seem not guilty.
I really enjoyed this short story because we got to see two different points of view between the men and women. The men kept saying how they were viewing the situation rationally and how the women were insignificant and would be no help at all. Meanwhile, the women viewed themselves with compassion and understanding and seemed to share a bonding relationship when they were empathizing over Minnie’s horrible married life with her husband. Overall, we see how sexism demeans women of their value and lessens their view on what they are capable of.
Referring back to modern day sexism, many men still to this day think that they are far superior and smarter than women. There are still many social limitations placed on women but I think we have come a long way from the past because many women are being used as detectives and judges now. This short story proves that women are equally just as strong, rational, and determined as men are, if not more.
“The Yellow Wallpaper” is also a brilliant short story that everyone should read if they want to further understand what sexism was like back in the day. Immediately we see symbols and themes all over the place shown by Gillman. From a feminists perspective we experience the woman’s lack of freedom as she talks about going crazy and her husband’s power against her own will. We really empathize with the main character throughout the story with her little comments being made about her marriage, for example: “I am glad my case is not serious! But these nervous troubles are dreadfully depressing. John does not know how much I really suffer. He knows there is no reason to suffer, and that satisfies him.” (p.228)
The main character goes through a serious mental breakdown and is repressed of all her creativity and freedom of speech when her husband, John, forces her to give up her writing. The woman’s imagination is a part of her and she mentions, “But I must say what I feel and think in some way—it is such a relief!” (p.231) Unfortunately, she begins to feel that she cannot write as openly and must follow along with her John’s instructions. In the story, if the narrator was not allowed to write in her journal nor read, she would begin to “read” the yellow wallpaper until she found what she was looking for: an escape from her depressing life. Referring back to sexism in society today, many women still feel as though they shouldn’t share their voices or opinions. It’s devastating how many times men have stolen ideas from women and lead them to believe that they are insignificant while getting credit for themselves.
Due to sexism and a man’s feeling of superiority, many women are unsure of their own sanity and feelings building up. For example, in “The Yellow Wallpaper,” the main protagonist isn’t sure whether to be scared of her husband or appreciative of what he appears to be doing for her. I think nowadays many men take women for granted and push that they know what is best for them. John constantly told her what to do and pushed her around because not only did he think he was doing the right thing, but because he could. Just like John in the story, in order to have control over women men dominated their wives during that time period in the 1800’s.
Basically, in “The Yellow Wallpaper,” we saw a glimpse into the life of many women in the late 19th century and got to see the point of view of a woman going through depression and slowly turning more and more insane as her husband stays by her side. I think that a lot of women in married relationships during that period of time seemed to share a father and daughter relationship rather than an equal husband and wife one. There was nothing women could do about their sense of powerlessness and their lives in general.
The narrator used the wallpaper to represent the male dominated society she lives in. Not only does the wallpaper affect the narrator, but also it has an effect on everyone that comes in contact with it. The way the wallpaper is described in this short story shows how the narrator is using the wallpaper to represent her society. Towards the end of “The Yellow Wallpaper,” I believe we see a “revival” as the main character finally gets freedom from her husband and realizes that she will not be suppressed any longer.
Back then, this story, along with “A Jury of Her Peers” and many others was necessary and helpful to women who really needed to feel a sense of companionship and love. Their husbands were controlling and even though many did love them, they didn’t show it and certainly didn’t make women feel as comfortable as they should. Unfortunately, this is still an issue for some in today’s society but women are now realizing their rights and are getting out of unhappy marriages rather than having to deal with unfair treatment. Many women felt isolated, because they lived in a patriarch society during the 19th century. Women were treated cruelly because men looked down at them. It was helpful that Glaspell spoke up about how women were feeling and being treated. This story really helps people look back and realize just how prominent sexism was and how unjust the treatment was towards women.
Reading about and analyzing “The Yellow Wallpaper” and “A Jury of Her Peers” Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Susan Glaspell really led me to understand the patriarchal society and oppression that was happening during that time. Sexism is still happening but is not as prominent as it once was. There were many hardships of women in a male-controlled society. Differences back then between men and women got in the way of solving problems together and happy marriages. Women and men were different in appearances, in rationality, in emotions, and in the way they thought in general. Throughout the story, women and men portrayed different concerns, priorities and interests. I think before the differences between men and women really got in the way of things, where as now, we are more and more alike and equal in our society together.
Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here.
Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you.
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Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now | 1,810 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The great famine in Ireland
In 1541, Henry VIII, the king of England, directly claimed the throne of Ireland. From then on, the land of Ireland was gradually taken over by English and Scottish settlers who obeyed the orders of the English kings.The Irish peasants often tried to rebel against their English landowners but they couldn't shake the yoke of their invaders.
English domination was completed in 1800 when the
English Parliament voted the Union Act which made
Ireland part of the United Kingdom. Political
unrest then began in Ireland.
The situation was made worse by the fact that the Irish were mostly Catholics, whereas the English were Protestants.
The landlords were English, or Scottish, and they didn't live on their Irish estates. They became known as "the absentee landlords": they lived far away and had very little contact with their tenants in Ireland.
In 1846, however, the potato crop failed, and the seeds went
rotten. The potato blight went on for four
years. There was very little food in Ireland, and the
British government of Lord Russell, under Queen
Victoria, didn't do anything to help relieve the famine.
Between 1846 and 1850, one and a half million Irish people died of starvation.
Another one and a half million left Ireland forever. They emigrated mostly to the United States of America.
The population of Ireland fell from about 8 million people in 1845 to under 5 million by 1850. It still hasn't returned to its 1845 level today.
Irish Catholics began to organize for rebellion. Irish people who had emigrated to the USA never forgot their origins and why they had to leave their homeland.
In 1858, O'Mahoney founded the Fenian Brotherhood in the USA. They began to organize support for rebellion, mostly in terms of money and arms supply.
It marked the beginning of terrorist actions for the independence of Ireland.
Des profs en ligne
Des profs en ligne
Des ressources riches
Des outils ludiques
Des tableaux de bord | <urn:uuid:99c0c5cf-e34e-462c-9812-367fd1f62573> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.maxicours.com/se/cours/the-great-famine-in-ireland/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.98119 | 424 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.2580485045... | 6 | The great famine in Ireland
In 1541, Henry VIII, the king of England, directly claimed the throne of Ireland. From then on, the land of Ireland was gradually taken over by English and Scottish settlers who obeyed the orders of the English kings.The Irish peasants often tried to rebel against their English landowners but they couldn't shake the yoke of their invaders.
English domination was completed in 1800 when the
English Parliament voted the Union Act which made
Ireland part of the United Kingdom. Political
unrest then began in Ireland.
The situation was made worse by the fact that the Irish were mostly Catholics, whereas the English were Protestants.
The landlords were English, or Scottish, and they didn't live on their Irish estates. They became known as "the absentee landlords": they lived far away and had very little contact with their tenants in Ireland.
In 1846, however, the potato crop failed, and the seeds went
rotten. The potato blight went on for four
years. There was very little food in Ireland, and the
British government of Lord Russell, under Queen
Victoria, didn't do anything to help relieve the famine.
Between 1846 and 1850, one and a half million Irish people died of starvation.
Another one and a half million left Ireland forever. They emigrated mostly to the United States of America.
The population of Ireland fell from about 8 million people in 1845 to under 5 million by 1850. It still hasn't returned to its 1845 level today.
Irish Catholics began to organize for rebellion. Irish people who had emigrated to the USA never forgot their origins and why they had to leave their homeland.
In 1858, O'Mahoney founded the Fenian Brotherhood in the USA. They began to organize support for rebellion, mostly in terms of money and arms supply.
It marked the beginning of terrorist actions for the independence of Ireland.
Des profs en ligne
Des profs en ligne
Des ressources riches
Des outils ludiques
Des tableaux de bord | 444 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henrik Horn was born at Stade in the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen, today in Lower Saxony, Germany, into a Swedish noble family of medieval origin. He was the son of Henrik Horn (1578-1618) and was born two months after the father's death. During his youth, the city of Stade came under the rule of Sweden possession in 1628. Stade was held by the Danish from 1636 until reverting to Swedish control in 1643. Horn received a military education and pursued a military career in the service of the Royal Swedish Army. At the age of 25, he was appointed Colonel. Horn became Major General in 1654, General Lieutenant and Chief of the Finnish Army in 1657 and Field Marshal in 1665. He distinguished himself in the Polish campaign and in 1666 was appointed Governor-General of Bremen-Verden which was under a Personal union with Sweden from -1712.
As Governor-General he commanded Swedish forces in 1675/76 against the allied German armies during the Bremen-Verden Campaign, but eventually had to surrender. He was given the command of the Royal Swedish Navy in 1677 and was made a member of the Privy Council of Sweden (Reichsrat). That same year, he was defeated by Denmark in the Battle of Køge Bay during the Scanian War. He was appointed to the head of the College of Amiralities in 1677. In 1678, he was appointed as the Commander-in-Chief of Livonia which was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from 1629 until 1721. In 1680, Horn left Livonia and returned to help rebuild Stade which had been besieged in 1676 during the Swedish-Brandenburg War.
Horn married in 1674 with Beata Magdalena Wittenberg.
He died during 1693 in Stade. | <urn:uuid:b2376fd8-92f9-43f3-98c0-58e89b1a2710> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Henrik_Horn | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.991686 | 391 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.060450758785009... | 1 | Henrik Horn was born at Stade in the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen, today in Lower Saxony, Germany, into a Swedish noble family of medieval origin. He was the son of Henrik Horn (1578-1618) and was born two months after the father's death. During his youth, the city of Stade came under the rule of Sweden possession in 1628. Stade was held by the Danish from 1636 until reverting to Swedish control in 1643. Horn received a military education and pursued a military career in the service of the Royal Swedish Army. At the age of 25, he was appointed Colonel. Horn became Major General in 1654, General Lieutenant and Chief of the Finnish Army in 1657 and Field Marshal in 1665. He distinguished himself in the Polish campaign and in 1666 was appointed Governor-General of Bremen-Verden which was under a Personal union with Sweden from -1712.
As Governor-General he commanded Swedish forces in 1675/76 against the allied German armies during the Bremen-Verden Campaign, but eventually had to surrender. He was given the command of the Royal Swedish Navy in 1677 and was made a member of the Privy Council of Sweden (Reichsrat). That same year, he was defeated by Denmark in the Battle of Køge Bay during the Scanian War. He was appointed to the head of the College of Amiralities in 1677. In 1678, he was appointed as the Commander-in-Chief of Livonia which was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from 1629 until 1721. In 1680, Horn left Livonia and returned to help rebuild Stade which had been besieged in 1676 during the Swedish-Brandenburg War.
Horn married in 1674 with Beata Magdalena Wittenberg.
He died during 1693 in Stade. | 443 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We tend to think that birds have the upper hand when it comes to preying on insects, but there are some cases where the tables are turned and the results are fairly terrifying. Praying mantises are known to occasionally snack on a fair few vertebrates, from lizards to salamanders, but a new study has found that their taste for birds is surprisingly widespread.
Published in The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, researchers have documented over 140 different incidences of praying mantises feasting on birds. In the process, they found that the behavior is far more prevalent than previously thought. It turns out that rather than being limited to a few species in a couple of locations, all around the world the insects are plucking birds from the air and devouring their flesh.
It has been long been known that the predatory insects sometime, rather horrifyingly, take a fancy to eating creatures with a backbone. There have been reports of praying mantises predating on a wide range of animals, such as frogs, newts, mice, snakes, soft-shelled turtles, and even bats. But the researchers wanted to focus on how frequently the insects preyed on birds. To do this, they scanned a variety of sources for references and reports detailing the event.
From scientific literature, books, social media posts, and newspapers, they found that 12 different species of the insects in 13 different countries – on all continents except Antarctica – had been eating birds. “The fact that eating of birds is so widespread in praying mantises, both taxonomically as well as geographically speaking, is a spectacular discovery,” says the University of Basel’s Martin Nyffeler, who led the study, in a statement.
While 24 different species of birds were found to be eaten, most of the birds that fell to the mantises were species of hummingbirds, with the ruby-throated hummingbird being the most unfortunate. This is probably due to their size, with the females of some large species of mantis easily weighing more than that of the hummingbirds. In fact, the researchers found that the artificial feeders people put out to help the tiny birds, as well as the flowers they naturally feed upon, were particularly favored by the feisty insects, which would simply sit and wait for the birds to come land on it.
They also found that certain larger species of mantises that had been released into the wild as pest control could be of particular concern if they are large enough to catch birds. They found that these insects can and do pose a threat to some bird populations and that caution should therefore be taken. | <urn:uuid:8456a8b2-220f-400f-963f-46f735e697fd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/praying-mantises-feast-on-birds-all-around-the-planet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.980858 | 535 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.09306763112545013... | 3 | We tend to think that birds have the upper hand when it comes to preying on insects, but there are some cases where the tables are turned and the results are fairly terrifying. Praying mantises are known to occasionally snack on a fair few vertebrates, from lizards to salamanders, but a new study has found that their taste for birds is surprisingly widespread.
Published in The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, researchers have documented over 140 different incidences of praying mantises feasting on birds. In the process, they found that the behavior is far more prevalent than previously thought. It turns out that rather than being limited to a few species in a couple of locations, all around the world the insects are plucking birds from the air and devouring their flesh.
It has been long been known that the predatory insects sometime, rather horrifyingly, take a fancy to eating creatures with a backbone. There have been reports of praying mantises predating on a wide range of animals, such as frogs, newts, mice, snakes, soft-shelled turtles, and even bats. But the researchers wanted to focus on how frequently the insects preyed on birds. To do this, they scanned a variety of sources for references and reports detailing the event.
From scientific literature, books, social media posts, and newspapers, they found that 12 different species of the insects in 13 different countries – on all continents except Antarctica – had been eating birds. “The fact that eating of birds is so widespread in praying mantises, both taxonomically as well as geographically speaking, is a spectacular discovery,” says the University of Basel’s Martin Nyffeler, who led the study, in a statement.
While 24 different species of birds were found to be eaten, most of the birds that fell to the mantises were species of hummingbirds, with the ruby-throated hummingbird being the most unfortunate. This is probably due to their size, with the females of some large species of mantis easily weighing more than that of the hummingbirds. In fact, the researchers found that the artificial feeders people put out to help the tiny birds, as well as the flowers they naturally feed upon, were particularly favored by the feisty insects, which would simply sit and wait for the birds to come land on it.
They also found that certain larger species of mantises that had been released into the wild as pest control could be of particular concern if they are large enough to catch birds. They found that these insects can and do pose a threat to some bird populations and that caution should therefore be taken. | 531 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Explain the main differences and similarities of the three spirits in A Christmas Carol.
You have asked quite a big question here, and the best way to answer it is to compare and contrast the way that the text introduces and describes the three ghosts. You are right in being aware of the general symbolism of each ghost and the time that they represent, but it is important to realize how each ghost operates to taunt Scrooge with the kind of man that he is now and with regret and remorse over his past, present and future actions.
The Ghost of Christmas Past is described as being:
...like a child: yet not so like a child as like an old man, viewed through some supernatural medium, which gave him the appearance of having receded from the view, and being diminished to a child's proportions.
It is perhaps fitting then that the ghost that examines the past and the actions and choices that have led Scrooge to become the man that he is today appears in such a way that its very appearance depicts looking back on our past lives and decisions.
The Ghost of Christmas Present is described in such a fashion as to emphasize the season of plenty and the festival that he represents:
...there sat a jolly Giant, glorious to see; who bore a glowing torch, in shape not unlike Plenty's horn, and held it up, high up, to shed its light on Scrooge, as he came peeping round the door.
Perhaps this description is fitting for the Ghost that shows so many people enjoying the season and all of the luxuries and warmth and festivities that come along with it.
Lastly, the Ghost of Christmas Yet To Come is described in such a way as to emphasize its darkness and associations with death:
It was shrouded in a deep black garment, which concealed its head, its face, its form, and left nothing of it visible save one outstretched hand. But for this it would have been difficult to detach its figure from the night, and separate it from the darkness by which it was surrounded.
Again, the point of this Ghost is to show how Scrooge is remembered after his death, and to shock him with how little respect and regard he had even from those he considered his "friends" and "business associates." Thus the darkness and the "solemn dread" that this Ghost inspires in Scrooge is perhaps fitting.
Key to understanding these Ghosts is considering the way they are described and the scenes that they show Scrooge. I hope I have given brief indications of how each of the Ghosts operate. Good luck!
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:1f844ba9-b439-48ae-9acd-7995ee98a74d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/compare-contrast-main-differences-similarities-226075?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00041.warc.gz | en | 0.982502 | 533 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.0126684084... | 2 | Explain the main differences and similarities of the three spirits in A Christmas Carol.
You have asked quite a big question here, and the best way to answer it is to compare and contrast the way that the text introduces and describes the three ghosts. You are right in being aware of the general symbolism of each ghost and the time that they represent, but it is important to realize how each ghost operates to taunt Scrooge with the kind of man that he is now and with regret and remorse over his past, present and future actions.
The Ghost of Christmas Past is described as being:
...like a child: yet not so like a child as like an old man, viewed through some supernatural medium, which gave him the appearance of having receded from the view, and being diminished to a child's proportions.
It is perhaps fitting then that the ghost that examines the past and the actions and choices that have led Scrooge to become the man that he is today appears in such a way that its very appearance depicts looking back on our past lives and decisions.
The Ghost of Christmas Present is described in such a fashion as to emphasize the season of plenty and the festival that he represents:
...there sat a jolly Giant, glorious to see; who bore a glowing torch, in shape not unlike Plenty's horn, and held it up, high up, to shed its light on Scrooge, as he came peeping round the door.
Perhaps this description is fitting for the Ghost that shows so many people enjoying the season and all of the luxuries and warmth and festivities that come along with it.
Lastly, the Ghost of Christmas Yet To Come is described in such a way as to emphasize its darkness and associations with death:
It was shrouded in a deep black garment, which concealed its head, its face, its form, and left nothing of it visible save one outstretched hand. But for this it would have been difficult to detach its figure from the night, and separate it from the darkness by which it was surrounded.
Again, the point of this Ghost is to show how Scrooge is remembered after his death, and to shock him with how little respect and regard he had even from those he considered his "friends" and "business associates." Thus the darkness and the "solemn dread" that this Ghost inspires in Scrooge is perhaps fitting.
Key to understanding these Ghosts is considering the way they are described and the scenes that they show Scrooge. I hope I have given brief indications of how each of the Ghosts operate. Good luck!
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 526 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paradise Lost – Pride
‘Pride goeth before the fall’ Proverbs 16:18 In Milton’s “Paradise Lost”, Adam and Eve might be considered tragic “heroes” in the sense that they knowingly doom themselves to be removed from Paradise, and are thus subjected to the harsh, new world, and yet persevere with the hope for a better future. What makes their act of sin almost tragic in a way as compared to Satan, is that Satan’s act was meant out of spite and hate for the God.
He seeks to destroy in one day that which took six days to create. Neither Adam nor Eve intended on for anything such as this to occur, but instead hoped to achieve a greater state of understanding and being. Satan realized that he would not be able to catch both of them, so he tempted Eve when she was alone. When Eve was asked by the serpent, she replies that the one restriction placed upon her and Adam was that “the fruit of this fair tree? e shall not eat thereof, nor shall ye touch it lest ye die”. When he explains to her that she would not actually ‘die’, but instead become such as God, it appealed to her desire to be equal to or more powerful than Adam, and so she fell. Although she, like Satan, fell because of her prideful aspirations and was condemned to be placed under her husband, she confesses her sin, and so she is able to, unlike Satan, move past her pride by admit her fault.
Adam also ate of the forbidden fruit, knowing full well that was against the will of God, chose to do so anyhow due to his love for Eve thus causing him to fall as well. What makes Adam & Eve “heroic”, from Milton’s perspective, is their ability to admit their sin against God as being wrong, and their willingness to take responsibility for their actions. They do not walk away from God; they instead look to persevere with the hope for a better future, “Thus they in mutual accusation spent/… but neither self-condemning;/And of their vain contest appeared no end”(1187-89). | <urn:uuid:0deb710d-41e0-473a-9ea7-8d85a2b2385c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/paradise-lost-pride-71541 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00261.warc.gz | en | 0.985747 | 464 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.066601216793060... | 2 | Paradise Lost – Pride
‘Pride goeth before the fall’ Proverbs 16:18 In Milton’s “Paradise Lost”, Adam and Eve might be considered tragic “heroes” in the sense that they knowingly doom themselves to be removed from Paradise, and are thus subjected to the harsh, new world, and yet persevere with the hope for a better future. What makes their act of sin almost tragic in a way as compared to Satan, is that Satan’s act was meant out of spite and hate for the God.
He seeks to destroy in one day that which took six days to create. Neither Adam nor Eve intended on for anything such as this to occur, but instead hoped to achieve a greater state of understanding and being. Satan realized that he would not be able to catch both of them, so he tempted Eve when she was alone. When Eve was asked by the serpent, she replies that the one restriction placed upon her and Adam was that “the fruit of this fair tree? e shall not eat thereof, nor shall ye touch it lest ye die”. When he explains to her that she would not actually ‘die’, but instead become such as God, it appealed to her desire to be equal to or more powerful than Adam, and so she fell. Although she, like Satan, fell because of her prideful aspirations and was condemned to be placed under her husband, she confesses her sin, and so she is able to, unlike Satan, move past her pride by admit her fault.
Adam also ate of the forbidden fruit, knowing full well that was against the will of God, chose to do so anyhow due to his love for Eve thus causing him to fall as well. What makes Adam & Eve “heroic”, from Milton’s perspective, is their ability to admit their sin against God as being wrong, and their willingness to take responsibility for their actions. They do not walk away from God; they instead look to persevere with the hope for a better future, “Thus they in mutual accusation spent/… but neither self-condemning;/And of their vain contest appeared no end”(1187-89). | 440 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The term "Cathars" derives from the Greek word Katheroi and means "Pure Ones". The Cathars professed a theological dualism in which two coequal divine principles, one good and one evil, struggled against each other from eternity. They believed all matter to be evil because it was created by Satan, the principle of evil. The soul, which has its origins in the realm of the good God, is trapped within the material body.
In order to liberate the soul, and thereby to achieve salvation, it was necessary to undergo a ceremony known as the consolamentum. After a probationary year of fasting and instruction the believer would be baptised by those who had already received the consolamentum. S/he would then make a vow to be celibate, not to own property, not to go to war and not to eat any food that that resulted from coition. Having received baptism the believer would acquire the title of "Perfect" and be allowed to recite the Lord's Prayer. Those who died without receiving the consolamentum would be reincarnated, only attaining salvation when their soul was purified of all material elements.
Such doctrines necessitated the reinterpretation of the Bible. Much of the Old Testament was viewed with suspicion or even discarded. The doctrine of the incarnation was rejected. Instead Jesus was regarded as an angel whose sufferings and death were only apparent.
The origins of the Cathar movement lie in the missionary work of the Bogomils, a dualistic sect that emerged in south eastern Europe in the 11th century. During the 12th century the doctrines of the Bogomils were brought to western Europe by missionaries and soldiers returning from the second crusade (1147-49). In about 1150 the first Cathar bishopric was established in France. A few years later two more bishoprics were set up in the regions of Albi and Lombardy. By the end of the 12th century the Cathars had eleven bishoprics - five in France and six in Italy.
Such was the perceived threat posed by Cathar doctrine to the mainstream church that in 1209 Pope Innocent III proclaimed a crusade against the Cathars. There followed twenty years of ruinous warfare, during which cities and provinces throughout the south of France were devastated. In one of the worst episodes of the war almost the entire population of Toulouse, both Cathar and Catholic, were massacred. Resistance continued until 1243 when the Cathar fortress of Montsegur in the Pyrenees was captured and destroyed. Those who refused to renounce their beliefs were often tortured or put to death by fire. In spite of continued persecution the Cathar movement continued through the 14th century, only disappearing in the 15th century.
The belief that all matter was evil discouraged the Cathars from using symbols, including the sacramental bread and wine and baptism by water. However, certain ritualistic actions could be interpreted as of symbolic significance. During the consolamentum the candidates were baptised by the laying on of hands, signifying the presence of the Holy Spirit. The Perfect were distinguished from other Cathars by the black clothes they wore.
SI Moderator - Greg Gordon | <urn:uuid:3fe9d5df-4cb4-4cf7-ba44-2a642fba191c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.sermonindex.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=378&forum=40 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.982893 | 651 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2943958044052... | 2 | The term "Cathars" derives from the Greek word Katheroi and means "Pure Ones". The Cathars professed a theological dualism in which two coequal divine principles, one good and one evil, struggled against each other from eternity. They believed all matter to be evil because it was created by Satan, the principle of evil. The soul, which has its origins in the realm of the good God, is trapped within the material body.
In order to liberate the soul, and thereby to achieve salvation, it was necessary to undergo a ceremony known as the consolamentum. After a probationary year of fasting and instruction the believer would be baptised by those who had already received the consolamentum. S/he would then make a vow to be celibate, not to own property, not to go to war and not to eat any food that that resulted from coition. Having received baptism the believer would acquire the title of "Perfect" and be allowed to recite the Lord's Prayer. Those who died without receiving the consolamentum would be reincarnated, only attaining salvation when their soul was purified of all material elements.
Such doctrines necessitated the reinterpretation of the Bible. Much of the Old Testament was viewed with suspicion or even discarded. The doctrine of the incarnation was rejected. Instead Jesus was regarded as an angel whose sufferings and death were only apparent.
The origins of the Cathar movement lie in the missionary work of the Bogomils, a dualistic sect that emerged in south eastern Europe in the 11th century. During the 12th century the doctrines of the Bogomils were brought to western Europe by missionaries and soldiers returning from the second crusade (1147-49). In about 1150 the first Cathar bishopric was established in France. A few years later two more bishoprics were set up in the regions of Albi and Lombardy. By the end of the 12th century the Cathars had eleven bishoprics - five in France and six in Italy.
Such was the perceived threat posed by Cathar doctrine to the mainstream church that in 1209 Pope Innocent III proclaimed a crusade against the Cathars. There followed twenty years of ruinous warfare, during which cities and provinces throughout the south of France were devastated. In one of the worst episodes of the war almost the entire population of Toulouse, both Cathar and Catholic, were massacred. Resistance continued until 1243 when the Cathar fortress of Montsegur in the Pyrenees was captured and destroyed. Those who refused to renounce their beliefs were often tortured or put to death by fire. In spite of continued persecution the Cathar movement continued through the 14th century, only disappearing in the 15th century.
The belief that all matter was evil discouraged the Cathars from using symbols, including the sacramental bread and wine and baptism by water. However, certain ritualistic actions could be interpreted as of symbolic significance. During the consolamentum the candidates were baptised by the laying on of hands, signifying the presence of the Holy Spirit. The Perfect were distinguished from other Cathars by the black clothes they wore.
SI Moderator - Greg Gordon | 668 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This term, one of the topics the children are learning about is ‘Transport’. We started our term off by going on a trip to Africa with our class bear. First the children worked together to pack teddy’s suitcase. They made sure he was well equipped for the warm weather. They then travelled on the ship to get to the airport and then went on the aeroplane to get to Africa. They had lot’s of fun playing in Africa until it was time to come home again!
Questions to ask you children to support their learning:
Can your children name any forms of transport they see when walking to school?
Is it in the air or on the road?
What types of transport is used in the sea?
How does your child travel to school?
What types of transport has your child used? What would they like to use? | <urn:uuid:46c9da0a-aa49-4954-9b0a-f4b468435666> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.monteagle.bardaglea.org.uk/news/a-trip-to-africa/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00124.warc.gz | en | 0.984595 | 182 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.3580989837646... | 5 | This term, one of the topics the children are learning about is ‘Transport’. We started our term off by going on a trip to Africa with our class bear. First the children worked together to pack teddy’s suitcase. They made sure he was well equipped for the warm weather. They then travelled on the ship to get to the airport and then went on the aeroplane to get to Africa. They had lot’s of fun playing in Africa until it was time to come home again!
Questions to ask you children to support their learning:
Can your children name any forms of transport they see when walking to school?
Is it in the air or on the road?
What types of transport is used in the sea?
How does your child travel to school?
What types of transport has your child used? What would they like to use? | 168 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This mainly depends upon the emotions attached to the memory. The researchers did this study with the help of golden hamsters. They allowed these hamsters to have social encounters and examined the animals' brains for evidence of those encounters.
They identified which areas of the brain play a major role in recognition. The results were published in the Journal of Neuroscience. This study is of great importance in finding a better treatment options for the diseases such as autism, Asperger syndrome, psychopathy and social anxiety disorders.
Johnston said that the ability to recognize remember and store huge amounts of information about individuals is wholly that of humans. The sole purpose of using hamsters in the study is that their brains are similar to that of the humans.
In one experiment a male hamster encountered two individuals that he knew equally well but had different interactions with the previous day, a male that defeated him in a fight and a male that he had never fought.
The hamster fled from the winning male but was attracted to the neutral male. This suggested and proved to us their ability to recognize. Immunohistochemistry is a technique to study which part of the brain is actively functioning during a process. It is also used to diagnose cancerous cells in humans.
It enables one to see each individual cell in the brain that was activated due to the event. The researchers found activity in the hamster's brain that the anterior dorsal hippocampus and amygdala were activated.
When this part was numbed with lidocaine, a local anesthetic it was found that the animal did not avoid the individual who had defeated him. Hence he said that the hippocampus is needed for recognition memory in humans. | <urn:uuid:9a1281e5-b736-4aa3-8ef7-e0daa277afdc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medindia.net/news/view_news_main.asp?x=8385 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00275.warc.gz | en | 0.981443 | 336 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.3981751501560211... | 1 | This mainly depends upon the emotions attached to the memory. The researchers did this study with the help of golden hamsters. They allowed these hamsters to have social encounters and examined the animals' brains for evidence of those encounters.
They identified which areas of the brain play a major role in recognition. The results were published in the Journal of Neuroscience. This study is of great importance in finding a better treatment options for the diseases such as autism, Asperger syndrome, psychopathy and social anxiety disorders.
Johnston said that the ability to recognize remember and store huge amounts of information about individuals is wholly that of humans. The sole purpose of using hamsters in the study is that their brains are similar to that of the humans.
In one experiment a male hamster encountered two individuals that he knew equally well but had different interactions with the previous day, a male that defeated him in a fight and a male that he had never fought.
The hamster fled from the winning male but was attracted to the neutral male. This suggested and proved to us their ability to recognize. Immunohistochemistry is a technique to study which part of the brain is actively functioning during a process. It is also used to diagnose cancerous cells in humans.
It enables one to see each individual cell in the brain that was activated due to the event. The researchers found activity in the hamster's brain that the anterior dorsal hippocampus and amygdala were activated.
When this part was numbed with lidocaine, a local anesthetic it was found that the animal did not avoid the individual who had defeated him. Hence he said that the hippocampus is needed for recognition memory in humans. | 334 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Chanakya (IAST: Cāṇakya, pronunciation ) was an ancient Indian teacher, philosopher, economist, jurist and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya or Vishnugupta, who authored the ancient Indian political treatise, the Arthashastra, a text dated to roughly between the 2nd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. As such, he is considered the pioneer of the field of political science and economics in India, and his work is thought of as an important precursor to classical economics. His works were lost near the end of the Gupta Empire and not rediscovered until the early twentieth century.Chanakya assisted the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta in his rise to power. He is widely credited for having played an important role in the establishment of the Maurya Empire. Chanakya served as the chief advisor to both emperors Chandragupta and his son Bindusara. | <urn:uuid:7ca55f1c-eaeb-48fc-ac48-bfb126f3128f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/chanakya/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00551.warc.gz | en | 0.980058 | 199 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.3880501687... | 2 | Chanakya (IAST: Cāṇakya, pronunciation ) was an ancient Indian teacher, philosopher, economist, jurist and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya or Vishnugupta, who authored the ancient Indian political treatise, the Arthashastra, a text dated to roughly between the 2nd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. As such, he is considered the pioneer of the field of political science and economics in India, and his work is thought of as an important precursor to classical economics. His works were lost near the end of the Gupta Empire and not rediscovered until the early twentieth century.Chanakya assisted the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta in his rise to power. He is widely credited for having played an important role in the establishment of the Maurya Empire. Chanakya served as the chief advisor to both emperors Chandragupta and his son Bindusara. | 201 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Distant Early Warning Line: An Environmental Legacy Project
Video / November 28, 2013
The Distant Early Warning Line, or DEW Line, was a series of radar stations across the arctic, from Alaska through Canada over Greenland to Iceland. The Americans conceived that the DEW line could detect enemy bombers coming over the North Pole that could threaten North American cities.
Back in the early 1950s, the U.S. government determined that they needed a series of radar stations across the Arctic that could detect enemy bombers coming over the Pole. The U.S. needed Canadian territory to detect the enemy bombers far enough away so they asked the Canadian government to partner with them. However, the Canadian government had just finished building two lines and didn’t have the resources really to do another line. So they agreed with the Americans, yes, we need this line, and as long as you pay for it and construct it, we will allow you access to Canadian territory.
The DEW Line clean-up project was the largest engineering project at the time in the world. It involved over 30 000 tons of supply, that’s like 10 000 railcars full of supplies that were shipped up here by ship and by aircraft. And the whole thing was done in less than three years.
The DEW Line was shut down in the late 1980s. The reason was the technology had changed so much that Canada and the U.S. realized they needed a new series of radar stations to replace the DEW Line, and that was the birth of the North Warning System. We became aware of environmental problems at the former DEW Lines sites in 1989 when both Canada and the United States commissioned environmental studies to see what was the effect of the DEW Line.
The DEW Line Clean-up Protocol was established with other government departments and the people of the north, to determine the risk proposed by the DEW Line sites. The risk of the DEW Line sites was mainly a local risk about 10 kilometers around the sites and it was caused by contaminated soil and the contents of landfills left on the sites. There was really only a long-term environmental risk to these sites - the contamination of the sites is not severe. However, it would have a long-term effect on the ecosystem and on human health.
The DEW Line clean-up project was established in the early 1990s. It was a National Defence project to clean up the former radar sites, to stop the environmental contamination that’s on the sites getting into the environment.
DYE-Main was the largest of the 21 sites. It’s located on the eastern end of Baffin Island, and it was a communications hub and a sector hub. So it was the largest site. I’ve been told its had as many as 200 people living on the site at one time.
The clean-up involved demolishing old buildings, removing hazardous materials from the buildings. We had to construct landfills, we had to re-grade and improve existing landfills on site, pick up scattered debris. And then generally leave the area so that we wouldn’t hurt the permafrost or cause any additional erosion.
The cost of the DEW Line clean-up was $575 million dollars. And that’s for what was the largest environmental project by the Canadian government at the time.
There were many partners during the DEW Line clean-up. The various government departments such as Health Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs, and Environment Canada, were involved with this. But the key partners were the Inuit and Inuvialuit. And they worked with us in a true partnership to develop what was required on these sites and to make sure they were cleaned up properly.
Now that all the sites have been cleaned up, we’ve instituted a monitoring program to look at each of the sites, for the first five years. Each year, take soil and water samples, to make sure they’ve been cleaned up properly. Stayed cleaned up, and then after five years in different intervals, we’ll be coming back to make sure we leave no hazard to the environment.
The many workers on the DEW Line clean-up sites are very proud of the work they’ve done. I think as Canadians we should be proud that we’ve seen a problem, and we’ve properly cleaned it up and now there’s no further problem for the environment.
Report a problem or mistake on this page
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Video / November 28, 2013
The Distant Early Warning Line, or DEW Line, was a series of radar stations across the arctic, from Alaska through Canada over Greenland to Iceland. The Americans conceived that the DEW line could detect enemy bombers coming over the North Pole that could threaten North American cities.
Back in the early 1950s, the U.S. government determined that they needed a series of radar stations across the Arctic that could detect enemy bombers coming over the Pole. The U.S. needed Canadian territory to detect the enemy bombers far enough away so they asked the Canadian government to partner with them. However, the Canadian government had just finished building two lines and didn’t have the resources really to do another line. So they agreed with the Americans, yes, we need this line, and as long as you pay for it and construct it, we will allow you access to Canadian territory.
The DEW Line clean-up project was the largest engineering project at the time in the world. It involved over 30 000 tons of supply, that’s like 10 000 railcars full of supplies that were shipped up here by ship and by aircraft. And the whole thing was done in less than three years.
The DEW Line was shut down in the late 1980s. The reason was the technology had changed so much that Canada and the U.S. realized they needed a new series of radar stations to replace the DEW Line, and that was the birth of the North Warning System. We became aware of environmental problems at the former DEW Lines sites in 1989 when both Canada and the United States commissioned environmental studies to see what was the effect of the DEW Line.
The DEW Line Clean-up Protocol was established with other government departments and the people of the north, to determine the risk proposed by the DEW Line sites. The risk of the DEW Line sites was mainly a local risk about 10 kilometers around the sites and it was caused by contaminated soil and the contents of landfills left on the sites. There was really only a long-term environmental risk to these sites - the contamination of the sites is not severe. However, it would have a long-term effect on the ecosystem and on human health.
The DEW Line clean-up project was established in the early 1990s. It was a National Defence project to clean up the former radar sites, to stop the environmental contamination that’s on the sites getting into the environment.
DYE-Main was the largest of the 21 sites. It’s located on the eastern end of Baffin Island, and it was a communications hub and a sector hub. So it was the largest site. I’ve been told its had as many as 200 people living on the site at one time.
The clean-up involved demolishing old buildings, removing hazardous materials from the buildings. We had to construct landfills, we had to re-grade and improve existing landfills on site, pick up scattered debris. And then generally leave the area so that we wouldn’t hurt the permafrost or cause any additional erosion.
The cost of the DEW Line clean-up was $575 million dollars. And that’s for what was the largest environmental project by the Canadian government at the time.
There were many partners during the DEW Line clean-up. The various government departments such as Health Canada, Indian and Northern Affairs, and Environment Canada, were involved with this. But the key partners were the Inuit and Inuvialuit. And they worked with us in a true partnership to develop what was required on these sites and to make sure they were cleaned up properly.
Now that all the sites have been cleaned up, we’ve instituted a monitoring program to look at each of the sites, for the first five years. Each year, take soil and water samples, to make sure they’ve been cleaned up properly. Stayed cleaned up, and then after five years in different intervals, we’ll be coming back to make sure we leave no hazard to the environment.
The many workers on the DEW Line clean-up sites are very proud of the work they’ve done. I think as Canadians we should be proud that we’ve seen a problem, and we’ve properly cleaned it up and now there’s no further problem for the environment.
Report a problem or mistake on this page
- Date modified: | 920 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This heavily cast bronze vessel is a form that derived from Indian ritual water-pouring vessels known as ‘kundika’. The ‘kendi’ as it is known in Southeast Asia, was reproduced in metal and ceramics in many parts of the region. Its S-shaped spout with everted mouth is thought to be inspired by an elephant’s trunk, perhaps in association with the worship of Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu. Champa was one of the earliest regions in Southeast Asia to adapt Indian cultural influences. Hindu temples were built as early as the late 4th century. Brick temples dedicated to royal ancestors, stone sculptures and precious metal images and jewellery, are amongst the important material legacy of Champa. Stylistic similarities with Indian, Chinese and regional traditions are often seen, reflecting the important role that Champa played in trade and other exchanges that took place with these cultures. | <urn:uuid:ce1ea0a7-d1b0-4923-9dbd-162bad2a0e5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.roots.sg/learn/collections/listing/1157079 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.984679 | 189 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3208409845829... | 2 | This heavily cast bronze vessel is a form that derived from Indian ritual water-pouring vessels known as ‘kundika’. The ‘kendi’ as it is known in Southeast Asia, was reproduced in metal and ceramics in many parts of the region. Its S-shaped spout with everted mouth is thought to be inspired by an elephant’s trunk, perhaps in association with the worship of Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu. Champa was one of the earliest regions in Southeast Asia to adapt Indian cultural influences. Hindu temples were built as early as the late 4th century. Brick temples dedicated to royal ancestors, stone sculptures and precious metal images and jewellery, are amongst the important material legacy of Champa. Stylistic similarities with Indian, Chinese and regional traditions are often seen, reflecting the important role that Champa played in trade and other exchanges that took place with these cultures. | 180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Social Security at its Beginning
Let’s go back in time to a 10-year period in our country most of us heard of but we don’t know much about. During this time, the impact on our families was tremendous.
The Great Depression.
The Great Depression lasted for 10 years from 1929 to 1939 and caused a tremendous upheaval in the lives of most Americans.
- 25% of adults were unemployed.
- Those who were lucky enough to work had their hours reduced and their pay cut.
- Women started to enter the workforce to help their families get by.
- Children quit school and went to work to help their families survive.
- In urban areas, people started growing small gardens to provide vegetables and food for their families.
- Many marriages were strained because of financial crises.
- The suicide rate among men climbed dramatically.
In 1935 the annual median income in the United States was $1,368. Just think about that. It’s. . .
. . . A Whopping $26.31 a Week and $0.66 an Hour.
How long could you survive on $26.31 today? The sad part is $1,368 was the annual median income. Many people earned less than that.
One group severely affected by the Great Depression were older citizens – those who no longer were able to work. Most had no pensions. Social Security did not exist. Their savings suddenly disappeared and they had no way to provide for themselves and their spouses.
In most times, children jump in and help their older parents out. That wasn’t the case back then. Adult children were struggling to provide for their own families and had no way to help mom and dad out.
These Older People Could Not Go Back to Work
Who would hire an older person when there were so many younger people to choose from? If they did get a job, they would be depriving younger men of money they needed for their families.
The poverty rate among older people quickly soared to 50%. They definitely needed help.
Local organizations tried to help out. However, very few were able to support them and the help they could give was limited. Local and state governments could not help because they had limited funds.
Something had to be done and no one else was able to do it.
The Federal Government Had to Step In
In 1935, congress passed the Social Security Act. This Act provided for the payment of old age benefits to older people. It has continued until today.
During their working years, each person was required to pay money into Social Security. The amount they paid was matched by their employers. If they were self- employed, the amount they paid was higher because there were no employer contributions.
To qualify for Social Security benefits, each person had to work a certain specified period of time.
In 1935, people could not receive Social Security benefits until they were 65 years old. Benefits were paid to each person until they died.
From the start of the program in the 1930’s until 1940, Social Security Benefits were paid in a lump sum once a year. In 1940, that changed. Social Security started to pay benefits monthly. The first check was sent in January of 1940. That was for $22.54 and was paid to a woman living in Vermont.
Interesting Things You Need to Know
Here are some interesting things you need to be aware of.
First, life expectancy was not as long in 1935. A white male could expect to live 61 years. A white woman could expect to live to 65. African Americans had shorter lives. For an African American male, the average life expectancy was 51.1 years and for an African American woman it was 55.5.
Let’s compare that to life expectancy today. The last year there are statistics on this is 2010. In 2010, the average life expectancy for a white male was 76.5 years. For a white woman, it was 81.3. For an African American male, the average life expectancy dropped to 71.8 years. It was 78.0 for an African American woman.
Why Was Life Expectancy So Important Back in 1935?
The minimum age a person had to be to start to receive Social Security benefits was 65. The only large number of people expected to reach that age back then were white women. Very few others were ever going to reach it and receive benefits.
Another interesting thing is only about 50% of people reaching 65 back then were entitled to receive benefits. Those who were not covered were:
- Agricultural and domestic service workers
- Teachers, librarians and people working for state and local governments
- People working for non-profit organizations
- People working for the Federal Government, and
- Those who didn’t work full time or only worked sporadically.
The reason those working on farms or in domestic services were not covered was simply that the people who wrote the law felt it would be too difficult for the Social Security Administration to track how much money these people made.
Although it is not documented, another reason agricultural workers may have been excluded initially is that in the 1930’s, over 40% of Americans still lived on farms. The people drafting the law may have felt those over 65 may have been able to support themselves with what they raised on the farms.
If you go back and research the start of Social Security, you will find articles that say the reason agricultural and domestic workers were excluded initially was that in the South, most of these workers were African Americans.
To get them to vote for the Social Security Act, those who wrote the law had to make these concessions to congressmen and senators from the Southern states.
One concession was to bar African Americans living in the South from receiving Social Security benefits. Since most worked on farms, farm workers were excluded.
This was not correct. If you look more closely into this, you will find that many of the congressmen and senators from Southern States in the 1930’s were more liberal than those from other areas of the country. The real reason agricultural and domestic workers were excluded was because some people felt that it would have been very difficult to determine how much Social Security tax was due from each worker and collect it from them and their employers.
Teachers, librarians and people working for state and local governments were excluded because it could not be determined if the federal government had the power to tax state and local governments.
People working for Non-Profit organizations were excluded because it was felt it would be difficult to determine the amount of tax due and to actually collect it.
People working for the Federal Government had their own pension plan, the Civil Service Retirement system, which was created in 1920.
Changes to the Social Security Law in the 1950s
Many changes were made to the Social Security Law in the 1950’s. Social Security coverage was extended to agricultural and domestic workers, teachers, librarians, people working for state governments and people working for non-profit organizations.
Many People in the 1930’s Didn’t Like Social Security
When the law went into effect, the federal government started to collect the tax immediately. That was only 1% of the person’s wages. It was some time before the first benefits were paid.
Remember – this was in the midst of the depression. Money was tight. Most families were struggling to survive. Even though a worker only had to pay 1%, that was money being taken away from them – money which they could use for food.
Many resented this, especially since they had no guarantee the Federal Government would follow through and pay them the money they said they would when they turned 65.
Since 1935, various revisions have been made to the Social Security law – most for the better. We frequently hear threats that Social Security benefits may be reduced. We also hear that our children or grandchildren may never have the opportunity to collect a dime in Social Security benefits.
Hopefully that will never happen.
If you have any comments on what you have read in this post, please email them to me. Also – if you have any ideas about subjects you would like to see discussed in future posts, please send me an email and let me know. My email address is email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:98253287-1fa2-48a8-8c07-1472fbaa48d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.knoxseniors.org/social-security-at-its-beginning/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00106.warc.gz | en | 0.98985 | 1,709 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.08026467263698... | 8 | Social Security at its Beginning
Let’s go back in time to a 10-year period in our country most of us heard of but we don’t know much about. During this time, the impact on our families was tremendous.
The Great Depression.
The Great Depression lasted for 10 years from 1929 to 1939 and caused a tremendous upheaval in the lives of most Americans.
- 25% of adults were unemployed.
- Those who were lucky enough to work had their hours reduced and their pay cut.
- Women started to enter the workforce to help their families get by.
- Children quit school and went to work to help their families survive.
- In urban areas, people started growing small gardens to provide vegetables and food for their families.
- Many marriages were strained because of financial crises.
- The suicide rate among men climbed dramatically.
In 1935 the annual median income in the United States was $1,368. Just think about that. It’s. . .
. . . A Whopping $26.31 a Week and $0.66 an Hour.
How long could you survive on $26.31 today? The sad part is $1,368 was the annual median income. Many people earned less than that.
One group severely affected by the Great Depression were older citizens – those who no longer were able to work. Most had no pensions. Social Security did not exist. Their savings suddenly disappeared and they had no way to provide for themselves and their spouses.
In most times, children jump in and help their older parents out. That wasn’t the case back then. Adult children were struggling to provide for their own families and had no way to help mom and dad out.
These Older People Could Not Go Back to Work
Who would hire an older person when there were so many younger people to choose from? If they did get a job, they would be depriving younger men of money they needed for their families.
The poverty rate among older people quickly soared to 50%. They definitely needed help.
Local organizations tried to help out. However, very few were able to support them and the help they could give was limited. Local and state governments could not help because they had limited funds.
Something had to be done and no one else was able to do it.
The Federal Government Had to Step In
In 1935, congress passed the Social Security Act. This Act provided for the payment of old age benefits to older people. It has continued until today.
During their working years, each person was required to pay money into Social Security. The amount they paid was matched by their employers. If they were self- employed, the amount they paid was higher because there were no employer contributions.
To qualify for Social Security benefits, each person had to work a certain specified period of time.
In 1935, people could not receive Social Security benefits until they were 65 years old. Benefits were paid to each person until they died.
From the start of the program in the 1930’s until 1940, Social Security Benefits were paid in a lump sum once a year. In 1940, that changed. Social Security started to pay benefits monthly. The first check was sent in January of 1940. That was for $22.54 and was paid to a woman living in Vermont.
Interesting Things You Need to Know
Here are some interesting things you need to be aware of.
First, life expectancy was not as long in 1935. A white male could expect to live 61 years. A white woman could expect to live to 65. African Americans had shorter lives. For an African American male, the average life expectancy was 51.1 years and for an African American woman it was 55.5.
Let’s compare that to life expectancy today. The last year there are statistics on this is 2010. In 2010, the average life expectancy for a white male was 76.5 years. For a white woman, it was 81.3. For an African American male, the average life expectancy dropped to 71.8 years. It was 78.0 for an African American woman.
Why Was Life Expectancy So Important Back in 1935?
The minimum age a person had to be to start to receive Social Security benefits was 65. The only large number of people expected to reach that age back then were white women. Very few others were ever going to reach it and receive benefits.
Another interesting thing is only about 50% of people reaching 65 back then were entitled to receive benefits. Those who were not covered were:
- Agricultural and domestic service workers
- Teachers, librarians and people working for state and local governments
- People working for non-profit organizations
- People working for the Federal Government, and
- Those who didn’t work full time or only worked sporadically.
The reason those working on farms or in domestic services were not covered was simply that the people who wrote the law felt it would be too difficult for the Social Security Administration to track how much money these people made.
Although it is not documented, another reason agricultural workers may have been excluded initially is that in the 1930’s, over 40% of Americans still lived on farms. The people drafting the law may have felt those over 65 may have been able to support themselves with what they raised on the farms.
If you go back and research the start of Social Security, you will find articles that say the reason agricultural and domestic workers were excluded initially was that in the South, most of these workers were African Americans.
To get them to vote for the Social Security Act, those who wrote the law had to make these concessions to congressmen and senators from the Southern states.
One concession was to bar African Americans living in the South from receiving Social Security benefits. Since most worked on farms, farm workers were excluded.
This was not correct. If you look more closely into this, you will find that many of the congressmen and senators from Southern States in the 1930’s were more liberal than those from other areas of the country. The real reason agricultural and domestic workers were excluded was because some people felt that it would have been very difficult to determine how much Social Security tax was due from each worker and collect it from them and their employers.
Teachers, librarians and people working for state and local governments were excluded because it could not be determined if the federal government had the power to tax state and local governments.
People working for Non-Profit organizations were excluded because it was felt it would be difficult to determine the amount of tax due and to actually collect it.
People working for the Federal Government had their own pension plan, the Civil Service Retirement system, which was created in 1920.
Changes to the Social Security Law in the 1950s
Many changes were made to the Social Security Law in the 1950’s. Social Security coverage was extended to agricultural and domestic workers, teachers, librarians, people working for state governments and people working for non-profit organizations.
Many People in the 1930’s Didn’t Like Social Security
When the law went into effect, the federal government started to collect the tax immediately. That was only 1% of the person’s wages. It was some time before the first benefits were paid.
Remember – this was in the midst of the depression. Money was tight. Most families were struggling to survive. Even though a worker only had to pay 1%, that was money being taken away from them – money which they could use for food.
Many resented this, especially since they had no guarantee the Federal Government would follow through and pay them the money they said they would when they turned 65.
Since 1935, various revisions have been made to the Social Security law – most for the better. We frequently hear threats that Social Security benefits may be reduced. We also hear that our children or grandchildren may never have the opportunity to collect a dime in Social Security benefits.
Hopefully that will never happen.
If you have any comments on what you have read in this post, please email them to me. Also – if you have any ideas about subjects you would like to see discussed in future posts, please send me an email and let me know. My email address is email@example.com. | 1,754 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wilbur Wright Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Birth Place :
Wilbur Wright was known as an inventor and aviator who collaborated with his young brother Orville Wright to develop the first plane. They were the leading roles when it came to innovating power-driven gadgets. It was by then an unpredictable and undefined achievement that mesmerized the locals. Wilbur’s inventiveness came into place when his dearest father gave him a helicopter designed toy. It was an Alphonse Penaud design that came from a French frontier.
Orville and Wilbur deepened their knowledge and worked together on their first experiment. Their dazzling theories made them challenge one another’s intelligence.
Childhood & Early Life
On April 16, 1867, Wilbur Wright was born in Indiana, Near Millville, United States. His father Milton Wright was a bishop while his mother Susan Catherine was a housekeeper. Milton and Susan were blessed with seven children including Wilbur. Milton bought a bamboo and paper and made a helicopter for Wilbur and Orville. They enjoyed the personified flight to the last. To his father’s surprise, the two brothers teamed up and built a new helicopter. That is where their invention came into place.
Throughout his teenage life, Wilbur Wright excelled with high ranks in school. He also loved sports, especially football. He envied to join Yale University and graduate as a teacher. He loved to read and write. Unfortunately, Wilbur’s ambitions were cut short after he was injured while playing ice hockey. His lost his dreams of going to school and opted to stay at home and care for his sick mother.
In 1889 Orville and Wilbur commenced their career with a printing business. Wilbur worked as an editor while Orville as a publisher. Afterward, they introduced a weekly newspaper titled ‘West Side News.' Without external help, the brothers managed to design and print the paper. They later went back to their routine work as the newspaper business didn’t bear any fruitful results. In 1892 Wright brothers opened a sales shop and a cycle repair.
Wilbur Wright and his brother envied to know the field of aeronautics. They began to study different mechanical theories as they embarked on other legends' works such as Leonardo da Vinci and Sir George Cayley. From 1900 to 1902 they tried to design three gliders. Wright made the first plane that was used to carry a loaded person. The third plane had an installed rudder that sustained an ample balance to the user. In 1903 they invented their first powered aircraft.
An extraordinary scene happened when Wright flew his very first plane for 59 seconds and 852 feet distance. Unknowingly the Wright brother’s effort bore fruit. It became hard for the fellow flight experts and press to believe their claims. Therefore, Wilbur opted to go to Europe in 1908 where he dreamt that he would come to market his idea and sell airplanes. The tricky part came when it became difficult to convince others that he invented his plane.
Wilbur Wright's brother and sister joined him in Europe when Wright opted to volunteer his place by giving free flights. In a short time, The Wrights reached their market target and managed to host some states and Royals. They began to sell their planes across Europe. They turned out to be the wealthiest businessmen of the 20th century. Until today they are considered as the ‘main fathers of modern aviation.' Wilbur took the president's title in his own company while other executives worked under his instructions.
Unfortunately, Wilbur Wright fell sick while on a trip to Boston in 1912. He was later diagnosed with typhoid fever and then died on May 30, 1012, in Dayton, Ohio. Milton remembered his son as an enthusiastic and strong-willed person. It’s unfortunate that there is no visible work on him to relate his historic invention.
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-... | 1 | Wilbur Wright Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Birth Place :
Wilbur Wright was known as an inventor and aviator who collaborated with his young brother Orville Wright to develop the first plane. They were the leading roles when it came to innovating power-driven gadgets. It was by then an unpredictable and undefined achievement that mesmerized the locals. Wilbur’s inventiveness came into place when his dearest father gave him a helicopter designed toy. It was an Alphonse Penaud design that came from a French frontier.
Orville and Wilbur deepened their knowledge and worked together on their first experiment. Their dazzling theories made them challenge one another’s intelligence.
Childhood & Early Life
On April 16, 1867, Wilbur Wright was born in Indiana, Near Millville, United States. His father Milton Wright was a bishop while his mother Susan Catherine was a housekeeper. Milton and Susan were blessed with seven children including Wilbur. Milton bought a bamboo and paper and made a helicopter for Wilbur and Orville. They enjoyed the personified flight to the last. To his father’s surprise, the two brothers teamed up and built a new helicopter. That is where their invention came into place.
Throughout his teenage life, Wilbur Wright excelled with high ranks in school. He also loved sports, especially football. He envied to join Yale University and graduate as a teacher. He loved to read and write. Unfortunately, Wilbur’s ambitions were cut short after he was injured while playing ice hockey. His lost his dreams of going to school and opted to stay at home and care for his sick mother.
In 1889 Orville and Wilbur commenced their career with a printing business. Wilbur worked as an editor while Orville as a publisher. Afterward, they introduced a weekly newspaper titled ‘West Side News.' Without external help, the brothers managed to design and print the paper. They later went back to their routine work as the newspaper business didn’t bear any fruitful results. In 1892 Wright brothers opened a sales shop and a cycle repair.
Wilbur Wright and his brother envied to know the field of aeronautics. They began to study different mechanical theories as they embarked on other legends' works such as Leonardo da Vinci and Sir George Cayley. From 1900 to 1902 they tried to design three gliders. Wright made the first plane that was used to carry a loaded person. The third plane had an installed rudder that sustained an ample balance to the user. In 1903 they invented their first powered aircraft.
An extraordinary scene happened when Wright flew his very first plane for 59 seconds and 852 feet distance. Unknowingly the Wright brother’s effort bore fruit. It became hard for the fellow flight experts and press to believe their claims. Therefore, Wilbur opted to go to Europe in 1908 where he dreamt that he would come to market his idea and sell airplanes. The tricky part came when it became difficult to convince others that he invented his plane.
Wilbur Wright's brother and sister joined him in Europe when Wright opted to volunteer his place by giving free flights. In a short time, The Wrights reached their market target and managed to host some states and Royals. They began to sell their planes across Europe. They turned out to be the wealthiest businessmen of the 20th century. Until today they are considered as the ‘main fathers of modern aviation.' Wilbur took the president's title in his own company while other executives worked under his instructions.
Unfortunately, Wilbur Wright fell sick while on a trip to Boston in 1912. He was later diagnosed with typhoid fever and then died on May 30, 1012, in Dayton, Ohio. Milton remembered his son as an enthusiastic and strong-willed person. It’s unfortunate that there is no visible work on him to relate his historic invention.
Christopher Latham Sholes | 824 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Empire of Harsha was an ancient Indian empire founded and ruled by Emperor Harsha from the capital Kannauj. It existed from 606 to 647 and at its height covered all of the North India. Although the empire was short-lived, the peace and prosperity that prevailed made the court of Harsha a center of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide, such as the Chinese traveler Xuanzang.
Prabhakarvardhana, the ruler of Thanesar, who belonged to the Pushyabhuti family, extended his control over neighbouring states.
Rajyashri, the sister of Rajyavardhana and Harsha, had married the Maukhari king, Grahavarman, whose capital was at Kannauj. Some time later, Grahavarman was killed by the ruler of the Malava kingdom, who also kidnapped Rajyashri. Rajyavardhana, who had succeeded his father as king at Thanesar, marched against the Malava king and defeated him. Around 606 CE, Rajyavardhana died, perhaps murdered at a meeting by Shashanka, ruler of the Gauda kingdom. It was after the death of Rajyavardhana that Harsha succeeded to the throne.
The Empire of Harsha revived the past glory of the Gupta Empire in northern India. The economy of northern India prospered and his capital at Kanauj became a great centre of trade. During his early career he possessed a force of 5,000 elephants, 20,000 cavalry and 50,000 infantry and with this he overran northern India. After the conquest of almost the entire of northern India, his military resources were so increased that he could field an army with 100,000 cavalry and 60,000 elephants. His long run of victories was only broken when he was defeated by the south Indian Emperor Pulakesi II of the Chalukya dynasty.
According to Dr. Shreenand L. Bapat, Registrar, Bhandarkar Oriental Research institute, Pune, Pulakeshin II defeated Harsha on the banks of Narmada in the winter of 618-619. His information is based on a copperplate inscription of Pulakeshin II discovered recently.
The administration of Harsha was similar to the Gupta Empire. He was just in his administration and punctilious in exercising his responsibilities. There was no forced labour and everyone was free to busy himself with his own affairs. Harsha built for the benefit of the poor throughout his Empire in both the towns and rural parts Rest-Houses which provided food, drink and medicine. Harsha was continually travelling up and down his wide dominions to see with his own eyes how the people were ruled in his Empire. The merchants travelled freely in his Empire and officials were paid regularly. The taxes were light and one-sixth of the land produce was charged as land revenue.
Today a mound 1 km long and 750 m wide known as "Harsh ka Tila" in Thanesar has ruins of structures built during the reign of Harsha. Amongst the archaeological finds from the mound include 'Painted Grey Ware' shreds in the pre-Kushana levels and 'Red Polished Ware' from post Gupta period.
Economy under the Empire of Harsha became increasingly more locally self-sufficient and feudal in nature as trade and commerce receded. This is reflected in the decline of trade centres, paucity of coins and near complete disappearance of trader and merchant guilds. Diminishing trade and commerce affected handicraft and other industries through want of demand; and affected agriculture although not directly. As a result of the lack of trade, the need to produce agricultural goods for sale externally vanished and people began producing amounts adequate enough to meet their own local needs. This marked the rise of self-sufficiency in the village economy and the growing dependence on agriculture.
When scholars mention Indian feudalism, the Empire of Harsha is usually taken as a typical state. Insight into Harsha's Empire is given by the discovery of a set of plates of copper, dating back to 632 CE, recording the gift of land by a military officer under Harsha's service to two Brahmins. Donations before Harsha's reign had come from either a royal prince or one of the provincial governors. In the copper plates, the first dignitary mentioned was a Mahasamanta, who ruled a territory adjoining Kanauj. But, the donor of the land was a military servant of Kanauj, and the execution of the grant came under Harsha's accounts. This leads to the conclusion that the Mahasamantas were in fact independent rulers with kingdoms near the core area of an overlord - here, King Harsha - and they paid tribute and provided military assistance to him. Though they may have obtained their territories through inheritance or conquest, there were some who served kings and got grants in the form of land to support their official duties; a process similar to distribution of feudal grants in Europe.
Harsha maintained friendly diplomatic relations with China, which was under the rule of Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty. Envoys from each country visited the other, most notably the Chinese monk Xuanzang who spent eight years in the Empire of Harsha.
Harsha's father, Prabhakarvardhana, was from Thanesar, his brother followed Hinayana Buddhism while, according to Bana, Harsha himself was a Mahayana Buddhist. Harsha was a tolerant ruler and supported all Indic faiths – Buddhism, Vedism and Jainism. Early in his life, he seems to have been a follower of Sun Worship, becoming a patron of Shaivism and Buddhism later on.
His sister Rajyashri's conversion to Buddhism presumably had a positive effect on his support to the religion. His approach to religion is evident in his celebrated play Nagananda. The play's theme is based on the Jataka tale of the Bodhisattva Jimutavahana, but Harsha introduces the Goddess Gauri, Shiva's consort, as the saviour of Jimutavahana, a feature not found in the Jataka.
According to the Chinese Pilgrim Xuanzang, who visited his kingdom in 636, Harsha built numerous stupas in the name of Buddha. Xuanzang entered a grand competition organised by Harsha and won the theological debate. Harsha also became a patron of art and literature. He made numerous endowments to the University at Nalanda. Two seals of Harsha have been found in Nalanda in the course of the excavations. All these favours and donations of the great emperor were crowned by the construction of a lofty wall enclosing all the buildings of the university to defend the institution from any other possible attack. In 643 he held a Buddhist convocation at Kannauj which was reputedly attended by 20 kings and thousands of pilgrims.
In 641, following Xuanzang's visit, Harsha sent a mission to China which established the first diplomatic relations between China and India. The Chinese responded by sending an embassy consisting of Li Yibiao and Wang Xuance, who probably travelled through Tibet and whose journey is commemorated in inscriptions at Rajagriha – modern Rajgir, and Bodhgaya.
Harsha was a noted author on his own merit. He wrote three Sanskrit plays – Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. His reign is comparatively well documented, thanks to his court poet Bana in Harschacharita and by Xuanzang in Si-Yu-Ki. Bana composed an account of Harsha's rise to power in Harsha Charitha, the first historical poetic work in Sanskrit language. Xuanzang wrote a full description of his travels in India.
Harsha died in 647, having ruled for 41 years. His empire died with him, disintegrating rapidly into small states. The succeeding period is very obscure and badly documented, but it marks the culmination of a process that had begun with the invasion of the Huns in the last years of the Gupta Empire.
In 648, Tang Taizong sent Wang Xuance to India in response to Harsha sending an ambassador to China. However once in India he discovered Harsha had died and the new king attacked Wang and his 30 mounted subordinates. This led to Wang Xuance escaping to Tibet and then mounting a joint of over 7,000 Nepalese mounted infantry and 1,200 Tibetan infantry and attack on the Indian state on June 16. The success of this attack Wang Xuance the prestigious title of the "Grand Master for the Closing Court." He also secured a reported Buddhist relic for China. | <urn:uuid:dad743c6-830a-4906-8262-e0574e325ae6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Empire-of-Harsha | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.980731 | 1,853 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.369159698486... | 1 | The Empire of Harsha was an ancient Indian empire founded and ruled by Emperor Harsha from the capital Kannauj. It existed from 606 to 647 and at its height covered all of the North India. Although the empire was short-lived, the peace and prosperity that prevailed made the court of Harsha a center of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide, such as the Chinese traveler Xuanzang.
Prabhakarvardhana, the ruler of Thanesar, who belonged to the Pushyabhuti family, extended his control over neighbouring states.
Rajyashri, the sister of Rajyavardhana and Harsha, had married the Maukhari king, Grahavarman, whose capital was at Kannauj. Some time later, Grahavarman was killed by the ruler of the Malava kingdom, who also kidnapped Rajyashri. Rajyavardhana, who had succeeded his father as king at Thanesar, marched against the Malava king and defeated him. Around 606 CE, Rajyavardhana died, perhaps murdered at a meeting by Shashanka, ruler of the Gauda kingdom. It was after the death of Rajyavardhana that Harsha succeeded to the throne.
The Empire of Harsha revived the past glory of the Gupta Empire in northern India. The economy of northern India prospered and his capital at Kanauj became a great centre of trade. During his early career he possessed a force of 5,000 elephants, 20,000 cavalry and 50,000 infantry and with this he overran northern India. After the conquest of almost the entire of northern India, his military resources were so increased that he could field an army with 100,000 cavalry and 60,000 elephants. His long run of victories was only broken when he was defeated by the south Indian Emperor Pulakesi II of the Chalukya dynasty.
According to Dr. Shreenand L. Bapat, Registrar, Bhandarkar Oriental Research institute, Pune, Pulakeshin II defeated Harsha on the banks of Narmada in the winter of 618-619. His information is based on a copperplate inscription of Pulakeshin II discovered recently.
The administration of Harsha was similar to the Gupta Empire. He was just in his administration and punctilious in exercising his responsibilities. There was no forced labour and everyone was free to busy himself with his own affairs. Harsha built for the benefit of the poor throughout his Empire in both the towns and rural parts Rest-Houses which provided food, drink and medicine. Harsha was continually travelling up and down his wide dominions to see with his own eyes how the people were ruled in his Empire. The merchants travelled freely in his Empire and officials were paid regularly. The taxes were light and one-sixth of the land produce was charged as land revenue.
Today a mound 1 km long and 750 m wide known as "Harsh ka Tila" in Thanesar has ruins of structures built during the reign of Harsha. Amongst the archaeological finds from the mound include 'Painted Grey Ware' shreds in the pre-Kushana levels and 'Red Polished Ware' from post Gupta period.
Economy under the Empire of Harsha became increasingly more locally self-sufficient and feudal in nature as trade and commerce receded. This is reflected in the decline of trade centres, paucity of coins and near complete disappearance of trader and merchant guilds. Diminishing trade and commerce affected handicraft and other industries through want of demand; and affected agriculture although not directly. As a result of the lack of trade, the need to produce agricultural goods for sale externally vanished and people began producing amounts adequate enough to meet their own local needs. This marked the rise of self-sufficiency in the village economy and the growing dependence on agriculture.
When scholars mention Indian feudalism, the Empire of Harsha is usually taken as a typical state. Insight into Harsha's Empire is given by the discovery of a set of plates of copper, dating back to 632 CE, recording the gift of land by a military officer under Harsha's service to two Brahmins. Donations before Harsha's reign had come from either a royal prince or one of the provincial governors. In the copper plates, the first dignitary mentioned was a Mahasamanta, who ruled a territory adjoining Kanauj. But, the donor of the land was a military servant of Kanauj, and the execution of the grant came under Harsha's accounts. This leads to the conclusion that the Mahasamantas were in fact independent rulers with kingdoms near the core area of an overlord - here, King Harsha - and they paid tribute and provided military assistance to him. Though they may have obtained their territories through inheritance or conquest, there were some who served kings and got grants in the form of land to support their official duties; a process similar to distribution of feudal grants in Europe.
Harsha maintained friendly diplomatic relations with China, which was under the rule of Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty. Envoys from each country visited the other, most notably the Chinese monk Xuanzang who spent eight years in the Empire of Harsha.
Harsha's father, Prabhakarvardhana, was from Thanesar, his brother followed Hinayana Buddhism while, according to Bana, Harsha himself was a Mahayana Buddhist. Harsha was a tolerant ruler and supported all Indic faiths – Buddhism, Vedism and Jainism. Early in his life, he seems to have been a follower of Sun Worship, becoming a patron of Shaivism and Buddhism later on.
His sister Rajyashri's conversion to Buddhism presumably had a positive effect on his support to the religion. His approach to religion is evident in his celebrated play Nagananda. The play's theme is based on the Jataka tale of the Bodhisattva Jimutavahana, but Harsha introduces the Goddess Gauri, Shiva's consort, as the saviour of Jimutavahana, a feature not found in the Jataka.
According to the Chinese Pilgrim Xuanzang, who visited his kingdom in 636, Harsha built numerous stupas in the name of Buddha. Xuanzang entered a grand competition organised by Harsha and won the theological debate. Harsha also became a patron of art and literature. He made numerous endowments to the University at Nalanda. Two seals of Harsha have been found in Nalanda in the course of the excavations. All these favours and donations of the great emperor were crowned by the construction of a lofty wall enclosing all the buildings of the university to defend the institution from any other possible attack. In 643 he held a Buddhist convocation at Kannauj which was reputedly attended by 20 kings and thousands of pilgrims.
In 641, following Xuanzang's visit, Harsha sent a mission to China which established the first diplomatic relations between China and India. The Chinese responded by sending an embassy consisting of Li Yibiao and Wang Xuance, who probably travelled through Tibet and whose journey is commemorated in inscriptions at Rajagriha – modern Rajgir, and Bodhgaya.
Harsha was a noted author on his own merit. He wrote three Sanskrit plays – Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. His reign is comparatively well documented, thanks to his court poet Bana in Harschacharita and by Xuanzang in Si-Yu-Ki. Bana composed an account of Harsha's rise to power in Harsha Charitha, the first historical poetic work in Sanskrit language. Xuanzang wrote a full description of his travels in India.
Harsha died in 647, having ruled for 41 years. His empire died with him, disintegrating rapidly into small states. The succeeding period is very obscure and badly documented, but it marks the culmination of a process that had begun with the invasion of the Huns in the last years of the Gupta Empire.
In 648, Tang Taizong sent Wang Xuance to India in response to Harsha sending an ambassador to China. However once in India he discovered Harsha had died and the new king attacked Wang and his 30 mounted subordinates. This led to Wang Xuance escaping to Tibet and then mounting a joint of over 7,000 Nepalese mounted infantry and 1,200 Tibetan infantry and attack on the Indian state on June 16. The success of this attack Wang Xuance the prestigious title of the "Grand Master for the Closing Court." He also secured a reported Buddhist relic for China. | 1,849 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Emmeline Pankhurst (born Emiline Goulden; 15 July 1858 – 14 June 1928) was a British political activist and organizer of the British suffragette movement who helped women win the right to vote. In 1999 Time named Pankhurst as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century, stating “she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back”. She was widely criticised for her militant tactics, and historians disagree about their effectiveness, but her work is recognised as a crucial element in achieving women’s suffrage in the United Kingdom.Born in Sloan Street Moss Side, Manchester in 1858, to politically active parents, Pankhurst was introduced at the age of 14 to the women’s suffrage movement. She founded and became involved with the Women’s Franchise League, which advocated suffrage for both married and unmarried women. When that organisation broke apart, she tried to join the left-leaning Independent Labour Party through her friendship with socialist Keir Hardie but was initially refused membership by the local branch on account of her sex. While working as a Poor Law Guardian, she was shocked at the harsh conditions she encountered in Manchester’s workhouses.
In 1903, Pankhurst founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), an all-women suffrage advocacy organisation dedicated to “deeds, not words”. The group identified as independent from – and often in opposition to – political parties. It became known for physical confrontations: its members smashed windows and assaulted police officers. Pankhurst, her daughters, and other WSPU activists received repeated prison sentences, where they staged hunger strikes to secure better conditions, and were often force-fed. As Pankhurst’s eldest daughter Christabel took leadership of the WSPU, antagonism between the group and the government grew. Eventually the group adopted arson as a tactic, and more moderate organisations spoke out against the Pankhurst family. In 1913 several prominent individuals left the WSPU, among them Pankhurst’s younger daughters, Adela and Sylvia. Emmeline was so furious that she “gave [Adela] a ticket, £20, and a letter of introduction to a suffragette in Australia, and firmly insisted that she emigrate”. Adela complied and the family rift was never healed. Sylvia became a socialist.
With the event of the First World War, Emmeline and Christabel called an immediate halt to militant suffrage terrorism in support of the British government’s stand against the “German Peril”. They urged women to aid industrial production and encouraged young men to fight, becoming prominent figures in the white feather movement. In 1918, the Representation of the People Act granted votes to all men over the age of 21 and women over the age of 30. This discrepancy was intended to ensure that men did not become minority voters as a consequence of the huge number of deaths suffered during the First World War.She transformed the WSPU machinery into the Women’s Party, which was dedicated to promoting women’s equality in public life. In her later years, she became concerned with what she perceived as the menace posed by Bolshevism and joined the Conservative Party. She was selected as the Conservative candidate for Whitechapel and St Georges in 1927. She died on 14 June 1928, only weeks before the Conservative government’s Representation of the People Act (1928) extended the vote to all women over 21 years of age on 2 July 1928. She was commemorated two years later with a statue in Victoria Tower Gardens, next to the Houses of Parliament. | <urn:uuid:33525b49-d54c-457a-8c46-1dac72e347b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/emmeline-pankhurst/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.982164 | 775 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.105100028216... | 2 | Emmeline Pankhurst (born Emiline Goulden; 15 July 1858 – 14 June 1928) was a British political activist and organizer of the British suffragette movement who helped women win the right to vote. In 1999 Time named Pankhurst as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century, stating “she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back”. She was widely criticised for her militant tactics, and historians disagree about their effectiveness, but her work is recognised as a crucial element in achieving women’s suffrage in the United Kingdom.Born in Sloan Street Moss Side, Manchester in 1858, to politically active parents, Pankhurst was introduced at the age of 14 to the women’s suffrage movement. She founded and became involved with the Women’s Franchise League, which advocated suffrage for both married and unmarried women. When that organisation broke apart, she tried to join the left-leaning Independent Labour Party through her friendship with socialist Keir Hardie but was initially refused membership by the local branch on account of her sex. While working as a Poor Law Guardian, she was shocked at the harsh conditions she encountered in Manchester’s workhouses.
In 1903, Pankhurst founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), an all-women suffrage advocacy organisation dedicated to “deeds, not words”. The group identified as independent from – and often in opposition to – political parties. It became known for physical confrontations: its members smashed windows and assaulted police officers. Pankhurst, her daughters, and other WSPU activists received repeated prison sentences, where they staged hunger strikes to secure better conditions, and were often force-fed. As Pankhurst’s eldest daughter Christabel took leadership of the WSPU, antagonism between the group and the government grew. Eventually the group adopted arson as a tactic, and more moderate organisations spoke out against the Pankhurst family. In 1913 several prominent individuals left the WSPU, among them Pankhurst’s younger daughters, Adela and Sylvia. Emmeline was so furious that she “gave [Adela] a ticket, £20, and a letter of introduction to a suffragette in Australia, and firmly insisted that she emigrate”. Adela complied and the family rift was never healed. Sylvia became a socialist.
With the event of the First World War, Emmeline and Christabel called an immediate halt to militant suffrage terrorism in support of the British government’s stand against the “German Peril”. They urged women to aid industrial production and encouraged young men to fight, becoming prominent figures in the white feather movement. In 1918, the Representation of the People Act granted votes to all men over the age of 21 and women over the age of 30. This discrepancy was intended to ensure that men did not become minority voters as a consequence of the huge number of deaths suffered during the First World War.She transformed the WSPU machinery into the Women’s Party, which was dedicated to promoting women’s equality in public life. In her later years, she became concerned with what she perceived as the menace posed by Bolshevism and joined the Conservative Party. She was selected as the Conservative candidate for Whitechapel and St Georges in 1927. She died on 14 June 1928, only weeks before the Conservative government’s Representation of the People Act (1928) extended the vote to all women over 21 years of age on 2 July 1928. She was commemorated two years later with a statue in Victoria Tower Gardens, next to the Houses of Parliament. | 792 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frederick III was the longest-reigning emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, ruling for 53 years. He is also famous for his device composed of the letter sequence ‘AEIOU’, although it has never been conclusively decoded.
Frederick was born in 1415 to Ernest ‘the Iron’ and Cymburgis of Masovia. His father died when Frederick was only nine years old, and his uncle Duke Frederick IV was appointed his guardian. In 1435, when he had attained his majority, Frederick became regent of the duchies of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola. Even then, the young duke was developing ambitious plans for the ‘House of Austria’: Frederick’s sense of mission is expressed in the device consisting of the letters ‘AEIOU’ that he put on buildings, objects, monuments, coins and documents as a sign of his possession. One interpretation of this device is ‘Austriae est imperare orbi universo’ – ‘It is Austria’s destiny to rule the whole world’. However, this and the many other interpretations of the device originated in later ages.
After his uncle’s death, Frederick took his place as head of the family. As such he also assumed the guardianship over his cousin Sigismund, who had inherited Tyrol, and one year later that of his nephew Ladislaus, heir to the duchies on the Danube. As ruler of Austria, Frederick now found himself in constant conflict with the local nobility who opposed his role as guardian: in 1441 the unpopular ‘Styrian’ Frederick was insulted by an aristocrat as the ‘King of the Jews’ in the Augustinerkirche in Vienna; twenty years previously, King Albrecht II had done his best to annihilate the Jewish community in Vienna. Under mounting pressure, Frederick was forced to flee the city.
Despite his weakness as a ruler, Frederick was elected Roman-German king in 1440. One of his allies was Pope Nicholas V; in 1448 pontiff and king concluded the Vienna Concordat, which remained in force until the end of the Holy Roman Empire. This paved the way for the establishing of Vienna as a bishopric and diocese in its own right – and also for the coronation of Frederick as emperor in Rome, the only instance of a Habsburg achieving this ultimate accolade.
On the way to his coronation, Frederick was presented with his bride, the fifteen-year-old Eleonora of Portugal, before the gates of Siena. On 9 March 1452 the royal train with around 5,000 horsemen made its ceremonial entry into Rome. The coronation ceremony and mass followed on 19 March at St Peter’s. An idea of the huge expense entailed by the event is given by the cost of Frederick’s coronation mantle, said to have been 200,000 gulden. After the coronation the emperor processed through the Italian cities, accepting homage. | <urn:uuid:38895318-86ba-4822-b8bf-520914197662> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.habsburger.net/de/node/9627 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.986303 | 634 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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-0.14344450... | 2 | Frederick III was the longest-reigning emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, ruling for 53 years. He is also famous for his device composed of the letter sequence ‘AEIOU’, although it has never been conclusively decoded.
Frederick was born in 1415 to Ernest ‘the Iron’ and Cymburgis of Masovia. His father died when Frederick was only nine years old, and his uncle Duke Frederick IV was appointed his guardian. In 1435, when he had attained his majority, Frederick became regent of the duchies of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola. Even then, the young duke was developing ambitious plans for the ‘House of Austria’: Frederick’s sense of mission is expressed in the device consisting of the letters ‘AEIOU’ that he put on buildings, objects, monuments, coins and documents as a sign of his possession. One interpretation of this device is ‘Austriae est imperare orbi universo’ – ‘It is Austria’s destiny to rule the whole world’. However, this and the many other interpretations of the device originated in later ages.
After his uncle’s death, Frederick took his place as head of the family. As such he also assumed the guardianship over his cousin Sigismund, who had inherited Tyrol, and one year later that of his nephew Ladislaus, heir to the duchies on the Danube. As ruler of Austria, Frederick now found himself in constant conflict with the local nobility who opposed his role as guardian: in 1441 the unpopular ‘Styrian’ Frederick was insulted by an aristocrat as the ‘King of the Jews’ in the Augustinerkirche in Vienna; twenty years previously, King Albrecht II had done his best to annihilate the Jewish community in Vienna. Under mounting pressure, Frederick was forced to flee the city.
Despite his weakness as a ruler, Frederick was elected Roman-German king in 1440. One of his allies was Pope Nicholas V; in 1448 pontiff and king concluded the Vienna Concordat, which remained in force until the end of the Holy Roman Empire. This paved the way for the establishing of Vienna as a bishopric and diocese in its own right – and also for the coronation of Frederick as emperor in Rome, the only instance of a Habsburg achieving this ultimate accolade.
On the way to his coronation, Frederick was presented with his bride, the fifteen-year-old Eleonora of Portugal, before the gates of Siena. On 9 March 1452 the royal train with around 5,000 horsemen made its ceremonial entry into Rome. The coronation ceremony and mass followed on 19 March at St Peter’s. An idea of the huge expense entailed by the event is given by the cost of Frederick’s coronation mantle, said to have been 200,000 gulden. After the coronation the emperor processed through the Italian cities, accepting homage. | 630 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This Day In Literary History
On January 17th, 1904, The Cherry Orchard, the classic play by the legendary Russian playwright Anton Chekhov, premiered at the Moscow Art Theatre. It would be the playwright's most challenging work - that is, challenging for the directors who stage it.
The Cherry Orchard was a product of its time in Russian history - the years after serfdom was abolished and before the Bolshevik revolution. It was a time when the aristocracy was losing power and the bourgeoisie was gaining it, and struggling to find meaning in its new status.
In the play, Madame Lyubov Andreievna Ranevsky, a middle aged aristocrat, and her family return to their country estate, which is scheduled to go on the auction block, as the family can't afford to pay the delinquent taxes on it. They can't even afford the upkeep of the estate, which is crumbling.
Madame Ranevsky's clan is not the only aristocratic family to fall on hard times, (the abolition of serfdom deprived the aristocracy of its slave labor supply) but she cannot come to terms with her financial predicament.
Her aristocratic pride makes her spend money she doesn't have to maintain the lavish lifestyle to which people of her class are accustomed. She still grieves for her husband and one of her sons, who drowned a month after his father died.
Family friend Yermolay Lopakhin, a wealthy merchant, suggests that to make the money she needs to pay off her taxes, Madame Ranevsky should parcel out the vast lands of her estate, build a cottage on each parcel, and lease them all for summer rental.
She rejects the idea because it would mean cutting down her beloved (and huge) cherry orchard; Before he leaves, Lopahkin offers to lend Madame Ranevsky fifty thousand rubles to buy her estate back at the auction if she changes her mind and agrees to his plan for parceling out her land.
Her feeble brother Leonid Gayev suggests some alternative solutions, such as a financing scheme involving some banker friends and hitting up a wealthy aunt for the money.
In the end, the stubborn, foolish Madame Ranevsky's plans to save her estate and her beloved cherry orchard fall through and Lopakhin buys the estate at the auction.
He tells Madame Ranevsky that he plans to go ahead with the destruction of the cherry orchard and parcel out the land. Before the curtain falls, as Madame Renevsky and her family weep, the sound of the cherry trees being chopped is heard.
The characters in The Cherry Orchard are walking, talking metaphors. Madame Ranevsky represents the stubborn pride of the waning Russian aristocracy, while her brother Gayev, with his addiction to billiards, symbolizes the aristocracy's addiction to decadent pleasures - another weakness.
Lopakhin represents the bourgeoisie, the middle class who profited most from the weakening of the aristocracy in the years before the Bolshevik revolution. He's a self-made man who rose from working class roots to become a wealthy merchant. He wears a fine, expensive white suit and gaudy yellow shoes.
Lopakhin has a kind of love-hate relationship with Madame Ranevsky. He's grateful for the kindness she's shown him over the years, but he also resents her condescending attitude.
Although he's wealthy - wealthier, in fact, than she is now - Madame Ranevsky still sees Lopakhin as the lower class, because of his peasant roots. This is one of the reasons why she rejected his plan to save her estate.
Anton Chekhov was less than thrilled with the premiere of The Cherry Orchard at the Moscow Art Theatre in 1904. During rehearsals, the director of the production, Constantin Stanislavski, completely rewrote the second act, turning Chekov's comedy into a tragedy. The playwright was furious.
"In the second act there are tears in their eyes, but the tone is happy, lively. Why did you put so many tears in my play? Where are they?" Chekhov wrote to complain. He later went to the theater in person to supervise the production and work out a compromise with the director.
Although a comedy at heart, The Cherry Orchard delicately balances farce with elements of tragedy. Stanislavski insisted on doing the play strictly as a tragedy.
To this day, some directors still struggle to interpret the complex play. Audiences at the Moscow Art Theatre gave the premiere a rousing applause, but the critics' reviews were mixed.
When the play debuted in St. Petersburg at Panin's People's House theater, the audience of pre-revolutionary working class Russians, who understood Chekhov's scathing satire, cheered at the end, when the aristocrats wept over the demise of their cherry orchard, which was felled onstage.
The Cherry Orchard would be Anton Chekhov's last play. It was inspired by incidents in his own life, including the demise of a cherry orchard he'd planted on his own country estate.
The play was written over a period of several years, as the playwright began to lose his battle with tuberculosis. He died six months after its Moscow premiere, at the age of 44.
Quote Of The Day
"The role of the artist is to ask questions, not answer them." - Anton Chekhov
Today's video features a 1981 British production of The Cherry Orchard, starring Dame Judi Dench. Enjoy!
Friday, January 17, 2020
Thursday, January 16, 2020
This Day In Literary History
On January 16th, 1933, the famous American writer, filmmaker, and activist Susan Sontag was born. She was born Susan Rosenblatt in New York City. Her childhood was unhappy; her father, a wealthy fur trader, died of tuberculosis when she was five. Her mother, cold and distant, was "always away."
When Susan was twelve, her mother married an Army captain, Nathan Sontag. Susan and her sister were given his surname, though he never officially adopted them. He moved the family around the country, finally settling in Los Angeles.
After graduating Hollywood High School at the age of 15, the intellectually gifted Susan Sontag enrolled at Berkeley University. She later transferred to the University of Chicago. There, after engaging in a brief but passionate courtship, she got married at seventeen.
Her new husband, Philip Rieff, was a writer and sociology professor at the university. They would remain together for eight years and have one child, a son named David. Susan continued her education and earned a Master's degree in philosophy.
In 1957, she was awarded a fellowship at St. Anne's College, Oxford, and traveled to England alone to take classes. She didn't care for Oxford and transferred to the University of Paris.
She considered her time in Paris the most important time in her life, both intellectually and artistically, as she struck up friendships with expatriate academics and artists, one of which, Cuban-American avant garde playwright María Irene Fornés, became her lover.
Susan and María moved to New York City and lived together for seven years. During that time, Susan had regained custody of her son and begun working on her first novel, The Benefactor (1963).
It was a novel in the form of a memoir. The protagonist, a Candide-esque bohemian named Hippolyte, takes the reader along for the ride as his dream world gradually becomes indistinguishable from reality.
Susan's second novel, Death Kit (1967), is a dark Kafka like tale that takes place on a train. One of the passengers, a thirtysomething year old businessman with the ironic nickname Diddy, (It sounds like "Did he?") becomes convinced that he might be a murderer.
Diddy, who recently attempted suicide, fears that he may have beaten a railroad worker to death while the train was stopped in a dark tunnel. Hester, the lovely yet apathetic blind girl sitting next to him, tells him that he never left his seat. Diddy examines his memories and dreams, trying to answer the question: did he do it?
Susan Sontag would publish two more novels, a short story collection, and nonfiction books. She was also known as an essayist and published six essay collections. Her second and most famous collection, Styles of Radical Will (1969), contained her most controversial essay.
Trip to Hanoi was the culmination of Susan's activism against the Vietnam War. She had first signed the Writers and Editors War Tax pledge, refusing to pay taxes to support the war. Like actress Jane Fonda, she went to Hanoi to tell the North Vietnamese side of the story.
Susan sympathized with the North Vietnamese, writing in her essay that the Vietcong could not be compared to the Soviets or the Maoist Chinese, whose communism she would later describe as "fascism with a human face." The Vietcong were fighting for their independence.
No stranger to controversy, Susan had previously published an essay in the Partisan Review where she said:
Mozart, Pascal, Boolean algebra, Shakespeare, parliamentary government, baroque churches, Newton, the emancipation of women, Kant, Balanchine ballets, et al. don't redeem what this particular civilization has wrought upon the world. The white race is the cancer of human history.
Susan would later retract that statement, but only because she believed that it was insulting to cancer patients.
She continued her activist work; in 1986, she vigorously defended the legendary Indian writer Salman Rushdie when his classic novel The Satanic Verses resulted in the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini issuing a fatwa calling for his death.
A few years later, during the Bosnian War, Susan declared that the Serbian Orthodox Christian forces were the real war criminals in that conflict, not the Bosnian / Albanian Muslim resistance. She went to Sarajevo and directed a production of Samuel Beckett's classic play, Waiting For Godot.
When the AIDS epidemic began to spread in the 1980s, Susan brought it to attention with her play The Way We Live Now and her nonfiction book, AIDS and Its Metaphors, where she harshly criticized the idea that AIDS was a "gay disease" and a divine judgement against homosexuals.
Susan was also a filmmaker. Between 1969 and 1983, she wrote and directed four feature films. Three were produced in Sweden, one in Italy. Her first film, Duet for Cannibals (1969), was a Swedish production.
It told the story of a professor who hires a young man to organize his papers for publication. The young man discovers that the professor's wife, tired of being abused and degraded by him, is planning to murder him. The wife and the young man become lovers. Meanwhile, the professor pursues the young man's girlfriend.
Susan followed Duet for Cannibals with Brother Carl (1971), Promised Lands (1974), and Unguided Tour (1983). Unfortunately, all of her movies are hard to find.
Never afraid to voice her often controversial opinions, on September 24th, 2001 - thirteen days after the 9/11 terrorist attacks - in the New Yorker magazine, Susan asked:
Where is the acknowledgment that this was... an attack on the world's self-proclaimed superpower, undertaken as a consequence of specific American alliances and actions?
That year, she won the Jerusalem Prize, which is awarded biannually at the Jerusalem International Book Fair to writers whose works have dealt with the subject of human freedom in society.
Susan Sontag died of leukemia in 2004 at the age of 71.
Quote Of The Day
"The writer is either a practicing recluse or a delinquent, guilt-ridden one - or both. Usually both." - Susan Sontag
Today's video features Susan Sontag speaking at the San Francisco Public Library in 2001. Enjoy!
Wednesday, January 15, 2020
This Day In Literary History
On January 15th, 1891, the famous Russian poet Osip Mandelstam was born in Warsaw, Poland. He came from a wealthy Jewish family; his father was a leather merchant.
Because of his wealth and position, Osip's father was able to get a special dispensation exempting the family from having to relocate with other Jews to the "pale of settlement" region of Russia. So, not long after Osip was born, the Mandelstams moved to Saint Petersburg.
In 1908, at the age of seventeen, Osip Mandelstam entered the Sorbonne (the University of Paris) to study literature and philosophy, but left the following year and went to the University of Heidelberg in Germany.
In 1911, Mandelstam decided to finish his education at the University of Saint Petersburg. In order to enroll at the Methodist university, he converted to Methodism, but never practiced the religion.
That same year, Mandelstam and several other young poets formed the Poets' Guild. The group, led by Nikolai Gumilyov and Sergei Gorodetsky, would later be known as the Acmeists. Mandelstam wrote their manifesto, The Morning Of Acmeism, in 1913.
Acmeism was a Russian poetic movement that served as a counter to the works of Russian symbolist poets of the late 19th and early 20th centuries such as Andrei Bely and Vyacheslav Ivanov. Acmeism stressed compactness of form and clarity of expression.
Osip Mandelstam's Acmeist manifesto wouldn't be published until 1919. However, his first poetry collection, The Stone, would be published in 1913, and re-released in an expanded edition in 1916.
By 1922, he had married his girlfriend Nadezhda Yakovlevna and moved to Moscow. At that time, his second poetry collection, Tristia, was published. For the next several years, Mandelstam nearly abandoned poetry, as he mostly wrote essays, literary criticism, short prose, and memoirs.
He took a job as a translator and translated 19 books in a period of six months. His marriage began to sour and he had affairs, but he and his wife reconciled. Mandelstam started writing poetry again. In November of 1933, he wrote his most famous poem, Stalin Epigram.
The poem was a harsh criticism of Soviet dictator Josef Stalin, whom he referred to as the "Kremlin highlander." The poem was likely inspired by the effects of the Holodomor (the Great Famine) which Mandelstam had witnessed while vacationing in Crimea.
The Holodomor was caused by Stalin's drive to exterminate the kulaks - the affluent peasant farmers - and collectivize all of Russia's farms. Six months after Stalin Epigram appeared in print, Osip Mandelstam was arrested.
Amazingly, he was neither condemned to death nor sent to the Gulag. Instead, he was exiled, along with his wife, to Cherdyn in Northern Ural. After a suicide attempt, his sentence was softened; he was banned from the big cities, but allowed to choose another place of residence. He and his wife chose to move to Voronezh.
Unfortunately, this proved to be a temporary reprieve. Although Mandelstam wrote poems glorifying Stalin in 1937, (as was required of him and all Soviet poets) the Great Purge was beginning.
The pro-Soviet literary establishment assailed him in print, accusing him of harboring anti-Soviet sentiments. A year later, he and his wife received a government voucher for a vacation not far from Moscow.
When they arrived, Mandelstam was arrested again and charged with counter-revolutionary activities. In August of 1938, Osip Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in the Gulag and taken to a transit camp in Vladivostok at the Second River.
He died several months later, on December 27th, 1938. The official cause of death was an unspecified illness. In 1956, during the Khrushchev thaw, Mandelstam was officially "rehabilitated" - cleared of the charges brought against him during his 1938 arrest.
Thirty years later, he would be cleared of the charges stemming from his first arrest in 1934.
Quote Of The Day
"Only in Russia is poetry respected - it gets people killed. Is there anywhere else where poetry is so common a motive for murder?" - Osip Mandelstam
Today's video features a reading of five of Osip Mandelstam's poems. Enjoy!
Tuesday, January 14, 2020
This Day In Literary History
On January 14th, 1886, the famous Anglo-Irish writer Hugh Lofting was born in Maidenhead, Berkshire, England. As a boy, he developed a love of animals and kept "a combination zoo and natural history museum" in his mother's linen closet.
He received his education in Jesuit-run private schools. He later went to the United States, where he studied civil engineering at MIT - the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
After graduating from MIT, Lofting returned to England and became a civil engineer, traveling throughout the British Empire as his job required him to do. When World War I broke out, he enlisted in the Irish Guards, a Foot Guards regiment in the British Army.
In his service as a soldier, he became horrified by not only the human carnage he witnessed, but also by the sufferings of horses and other animals used at the front. During the war, Lofting wrote letters to his children frequently.
Wishing to spare them the horrors of war, (and to escape from them himself) he would tell his children stories about John Dolittle, a country doctor who learned how to talk to animals. Lofting illustrated the stories in his letters.
When he returned home from the war, Lofting reworked his stories into a book he illustrated himself, the first in a hugely popular series that made him world famous. The Story of Doctor Dolittle was published in 1920.
In it, we meet Dr. John Dolittle, a young country doctor who lives with his sister in the small English village of Puddleby-on-the-Marsh. Over the years, his love of animals grows; he acquires a menagerie of exotic pets. Unfortunately, his animals scare off his human patients.
After he learns how to speak to animals from his parrot Polynesia, Dolittle gives up his human medical practice and becomes a veterinarian, only to see his new practice start failing after he adopts a crocodile.
In the animal kingdom, he becomes world famous. Just as he's about to go bankrupt, the British government conscripts Doctor Dolittle and orders him to go to Africa and contain an epidemic that's ravaging the monkey population.
So, Dolittle borrows a ship and supplies and sets sail for Africa with a crew of his animal friends. The group is shipwrecked upon their arrival. As they journey toward the monkey kingdom, they're arrested by the king of Jolligingki.
The king, after being victimized and exploited by Europeans, wants no white men in his country. Dolittle and the animals escape through a ruse and reach the monkey kingdom, which is in dire straits due to the raging epidemic.
Dolittle vaccinates the well monkeys and nurses the sick ones back to health, containing the disease. In appreciation, the monkeys give him a pushmi-pullyu - a rare and valuable two-headed animal that's a cross between a gazelle and a unicorn.
Unfortunately, Dolittle and his friends are arrested again in Jolligingki upon their return. This time, they escape with the help of the king's son, Prince Bumpo, after Dolittle bleaches Bumpo's face white so he can be like the European fairy tale princes and hopefully marry his white Sleeping Beauty.
Bumpo gives Dolittle and his animal crew a new ship. After having a couple run-ins with pirates, Dolittle wins a pirate ship filled with treasures. When he finally returns home to England, he exhibits the pushmi-pullyu in a traveling circus and makes enough money to retire.
Hugh Lofting would write a total of twelve Doctor Dolittle books, the last three of which would be published posthumously. They would be adapted numerous times for the radio, screen, and television.
Many years after their first publication, the Doctor Dolittle books would court controversy due to certain language, scenes, and illustrations now considered racially offensive and politically incorrect.
Beginning in the 1960s, certain words and scenes would be changed or removed in some reprint editions of the books in both the UK and the U.S. By 1981, the original, unexpurgated versions would go out of print in both countries.
In 1986, to mark the 100th anniversary of Lofting's birth, the Doctor Dolittle books were republished in a special edition - a severely bowdlerized version with passages of text rewritten or removed and some illustrations altered or replaced.
Ironically, Lofting himself was no racist; black African characters were portrayed sympathetically. In the first Doctor Dolittle book, the king of Jolligingki bemoans his country's exploitation by the white man:
Many years ago a white man came to these shores; and I was very kind to him. But after he had dug holes in the ground to get the gold, and killed all the elephants to get their ivory tusks, he went away secretly in his ship - without so much as saying `Thank you.'
In addition to his Doctor Dolittle books, Hugh Lofting wrote other children's books, including a book of children's poems called Porridge Poetry (1924). His only book geared toward adult readers was Victory For the Slain (1942), an antiwar epic poem. He died in 1947 at the age of 61.
Quote Of The Day
"For years it was a constant source of shock to me to find my writings amongst 'Juveniles.' It does not bother me any more now, but I still feel there should be a category of 'Seniles' to offset the epithet." - Hugh Lofting
Today's video features a complete reading of Hugh Lofting's first book, The Story of Doctor Dolittle - the original version, now in the public domain. Enjoy!
Monday, January 13, 2020
1. I got my first acceptance for 2020 from Carmina Magazine. They published two of my haiku in their September issue (their inaugural issue) and now they've accepted one of my haibun, On Seas and Mirrors, for their March issue.
It feels good to get my first acceptance of the new year. At the end of last year I pushed myself to send a few extra things out and this acceptance is the result of that push. (Still waiting to hear about the other.)
Nice to see work in Carmina Magazine from Joanna West and Cezarija Abartis too.
2. I just discovered that MacQueen's Quinterly, a new publication that's sister publication to KYSO: Flash Fiction, lists my ekphrastic piece, A Crucible of Sighs, as one of the editor's favorite 100 pieces (out of the over 1300 published at KYSO). That was a nice surprise to find that information at the new publication's site.
See the editor's favorite 100 list at MacQueen's Quinterly and see my ekphrastic piece at KYSO Flash. I was looking around at the new publication after the editor contacted me to be sure she had my correct home address so she could mail me my free anthology that will contain my ekphrastic prose poem. Seeing my work listed as a favorite at the new publication is a nice surprise.
Two short stories of mine, "Taking Care of Business," and "Stepping Out," have been accepted by The Literary Hatchet. Here are their Submission details.
Just so you know, most of the stories of mine they have accepted are not horror or mystery.
Friday, January 10, 2020
This Day In Literary History
On January 10th, 1845, the famous English poet and playwright Robert Browning wrote his first letter to Elizabeth Barrett, a fellow poet who would become his soul mate. Ironically, at the time they first began corresponding, it was unlikely that Elizabeth would become anybody's anything.
As a young girl, Elizabeth Barrett was both intellectually gifted and physically weak. By the age of six, she was reading novels and writing poetry. At fifteen, she was struck with an illness that doctors were unable to diagnose.
Some have speculated that it was a debilitating heart condition that causes pain and weakness, such as angina. All three of her sisters contracted the illness as well, but for them, it didn't last long. They recovered quickly, but Elizabeth did not. She had a severe case.
Whatever the illness was, it and the opiates she took to relieve the pain made Elizabeth pretty much an invalid. She spent most of her time in her room, either in bed or writing at her desk. She earned a modest income writing poetry, essays, and literary criticism.
She saw few people except for her family, but she had a lot of family to keep her company - three sisters and seven brothers. Despite her illness, Elizabeth Barrett became one of the greatest poets of her generation.
When her classic poetry collection Poems was published in 1844, she became one of the most famous poets in England. Although she saw few visitors, she kept up a huge amount of correspondence.
One of Elizabeth Barrett's greatest admirers was the poet Robert Browning. Not only did he love her poetry, but she was one of the very few literary critics who had given his first poetry collection, Dramatic Lyrics (1842), a good review. A glowing review, in fact.
So, Robert wrote to thank her - and to proclaim his great admiration of her poetry. "The fresh strange music, the affluent language, the exquisite pathos and true new brave thought" is how he described her talent. Then he proclaimed his love for her:
I do, as I say, love these books with all my heart... and I love you too. Do you know I was once not very far from seeing - really seeing you? Mr. Kenyon said to me one morning "Would you like to see Miss Barrett?" then he went to announce me... then he returned... you were too unwell, and now it is years ago, and I feel as at some untoward passage in my travels, as if I had been close, so close, to some world's-wonder in chapel or crypt, only a screen to push and I might have entered, but there was some slight, so it now seems, slight and just sufficient bar to admission, and the half-opened door shut, and I went home my thousands of miles, and the sight was never to be?
Thus, Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett began a correspondence that would result in nearly six hundred letters exchanged between them. It would also result in a courtship, and a miraculous improvement in Elizabeth's health.
Though she would not recover completely from her illness, she would regain her strength, leave her invalid's bed, marry, have a child, and live to the age of 55 - far longer than was expected for someone with her condition.
Elizabeth's courtship with Robert Browning had to be carried out in secret, as her father, a domineering tyrant, had forbidden all his eleven children from ever marrying under penalty of disinheritance. Why? The answer lies in the family history.
The wealthy, aristocratic Barrett family came from a long line of plantation owners. Elizabeth Barrett's grandfather, who owned sugar plantations and other businesses in the West Indies, was known for his humane treatment of his slaves.
He was also known to take slave women as his mistresses. Elizabeth's father, Edward Barrett, believed that his father may have adopted the light skinned babies of his slave mistresses, and that he may have been one of them.
Politically conservative and a virulent racist, Edward Barrett was greatly shamed by the thought that Negro blood may be running through his and his children's veins. His children were white, but he feared that they might one day produce dark skinned offspring. So he forbade them all from marrying.
Elizabeth Barrett was the polar opposite of her father. A liberal intellectual, she despised slavery, wrote abolitionist poetry, and rejoiced when England outlawed slavery completely in 1833. This resulted in a huge rift between father and daughter.
Elizabeth never gave much thought to her father's decree forbidding marriage because she figured that her illness rendered her too sick too marry. She didn't plan on falling in love with Robert Browning. When they eloped, her father disinherited her and never spoke to her again. Her brothers didn't speak to her for years.
The happy couple settled in Italy, where Elizabeth regained her strength and after several miscarriages, bore their only child, a boy named Robert Wiedemann Barrett Browning, but known by his nickname, Pen.
Many years later, the Brownings' son published all but one of their letters to each other. The one missing letter was believed to have been burned by Robert Browning at Elizabeth Barrett's insistence because it was so passionate that she feared he might be arrested for sending it through the mail.
Quote Of The Day
"Love is the energy of life." - Robert Browning
Today's video features a reading from the first letter of Robert Browning to Elizabeth Barrett. Enjoy!
Thursday, January 9, 2020
This Day In Literary History
On January 9th, 1908, the legendary French writer and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir was born in Paris, France. Her father was a legal secretary and aspiring actor. Her mother, the daughter of a wealthy banker, raised her children to be devout Catholics like herself.
Simone was devoutly religious as a child, but at the age of fourteen, she lost her faith and would remain an atheist for the rest of her life. An intellectually gifted child, she passed advanced exams in mathematics and philosophy at the age of seventeen.
After studying philosophy at the Sorbonne, she studied for her teacher's exams at the Institut Catholique and Institut Sainte-Marie. She also sat in on courses at the École Normale Supérieure, though she wasn't enrolled there.
At the École Normale Supérieure, Simone struck up friendships with fellow students Paul Nizan and René Maheu, who would become noted writers and philosophers. Another student she met would become her lifelong lover. His name was Jean-Paul Sartre.
Although Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre became lifelong lovers and soul mates who influenced each other as writers and existentialist philosophers, they never married nor lived together as a couple.
Theirs was a very complex relationship. They both had separate lovers. Simone was openly bisexual and often shared her female lovers with Sartre. Her first novel, She Came to Stay (1943), was a fictionalized chronicle of her and Sartre's romantic entanglements with two sisters, one of whom was her student.
Simone's second novel, The Blood of Others (1945) was an existentialist classic set in Nazi-occupied France. As his lover Hélène lies dying, the protagonist Jean Blomart looks back on his own life. Guilty over his comfortable upper middle class upbringing, Blomart breaks ties with his family.
He joins the Communist Party, then leaves it when his friend is killed in a political protest. While he devotes himself to trade union activities, he meets Hélène, but initially rejects her advances.
After she has a reckless affair with another man, gets pregnant, and has an abortion, Blomart tells her that he loves her and proposes marriage, though deep inside, he doubts that he really loves her. But he wants her to be happy.
When France enters World War II, Blomart enlists and becomes a soldier. Against his will, Hélène arranges for him to be posted away from the combat zone. Furious, he breaks up with her. After the defeat of France, the couple is reunited when Hélène seeks to join the French Resistance.
Blomart has become the leader of a Resistance group. Hélène joins the group and is shot during a mission. As he maintains a deathbed vigil, Blomart must come to terms with his guilt, the consequences of his actions, and his feelings for Hélène. He decides to continue with his Resistance work.
In 1944, Simone published her first philosophical essay, Pyrrhus et Cinéas, a discussion of existentialist ethics, concepts she would expand on in her second essay, The Ethics of Ambiguity (1947).
The Ethics of Ambiguity was perhaps the most accessible writing on existentialism during that time, far more accessible than Jean-Paul Sartre's brooding, abstruse classic, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (1943).
In 1949, Simone de Beauvoir published The Second Sex, her classic 800-page epic work of feminist philosophy. After debunking the theories of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, she looks at the misogynistic philosophies of St. Paul, St. Ambrose, and John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople.
The misogyny that forms the foundation of Christianity is in direct contrast to the goddess worship that preceded it. The subordination of women in the name of God is nothing more than a way to maintain patriarchal power for Pope and common man alike.
This need to control women's sexuality to maintain the patriarchy reflects the deep seated fear of the power of a woman's body - her ability to create life within her, her ability to receive sexual pleasure without having intercourse with a man, etc.
After centuries of male domination, Woman still yearns for her freedom from reproductive slavery. Abortion, Simone argues, is one means of achieving that freedom. It is not an issue of morality, and making it illegal is an act of "masculine sadism" against women.
The Second Sex became a hugely influential work of feminist philosophy that laid the groundwork for the 1970s women's liberation movement. Simone would join France's women's liberation movement.
In 1971, she signed the Manifest of the 343, a list of famous women who had abortions even though it was illegal in France at the time. Other signers included actress Catherine Deneuve and actress-director Delphine Seyrig. Three years later, abortion was legalized in France.
After Jean-Paul Sartre died in 1980, Simone wrote A Farewell to Sartre (1981), an account of his final years. It was the only major published work of hers that he didn't read prior to publication. She also published a collection of his letters to her.
Simone de Beauvoir died in 1986 at the age of 78.
Quote Of The Day
"The writer of originality, unless dead, is always shocking, scandalous; novelty disturbs and repels." - Simone de Beauvoir
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0.37116152048110... | 1 | This Day In Literary History
On January 17th, 1904, The Cherry Orchard, the classic play by the legendary Russian playwright Anton Chekhov, premiered at the Moscow Art Theatre. It would be the playwright's most challenging work - that is, challenging for the directors who stage it.
The Cherry Orchard was a product of its time in Russian history - the years after serfdom was abolished and before the Bolshevik revolution. It was a time when the aristocracy was losing power and the bourgeoisie was gaining it, and struggling to find meaning in its new status.
In the play, Madame Lyubov Andreievna Ranevsky, a middle aged aristocrat, and her family return to their country estate, which is scheduled to go on the auction block, as the family can't afford to pay the delinquent taxes on it. They can't even afford the upkeep of the estate, which is crumbling.
Madame Ranevsky's clan is not the only aristocratic family to fall on hard times, (the abolition of serfdom deprived the aristocracy of its slave labor supply) but she cannot come to terms with her financial predicament.
Her aristocratic pride makes her spend money she doesn't have to maintain the lavish lifestyle to which people of her class are accustomed. She still grieves for her husband and one of her sons, who drowned a month after his father died.
Family friend Yermolay Lopakhin, a wealthy merchant, suggests that to make the money she needs to pay off her taxes, Madame Ranevsky should parcel out the vast lands of her estate, build a cottage on each parcel, and lease them all for summer rental.
She rejects the idea because it would mean cutting down her beloved (and huge) cherry orchard; Before he leaves, Lopahkin offers to lend Madame Ranevsky fifty thousand rubles to buy her estate back at the auction if she changes her mind and agrees to his plan for parceling out her land.
Her feeble brother Leonid Gayev suggests some alternative solutions, such as a financing scheme involving some banker friends and hitting up a wealthy aunt for the money.
In the end, the stubborn, foolish Madame Ranevsky's plans to save her estate and her beloved cherry orchard fall through and Lopakhin buys the estate at the auction.
He tells Madame Ranevsky that he plans to go ahead with the destruction of the cherry orchard and parcel out the land. Before the curtain falls, as Madame Renevsky and her family weep, the sound of the cherry trees being chopped is heard.
The characters in The Cherry Orchard are walking, talking metaphors. Madame Ranevsky represents the stubborn pride of the waning Russian aristocracy, while her brother Gayev, with his addiction to billiards, symbolizes the aristocracy's addiction to decadent pleasures - another weakness.
Lopakhin represents the bourgeoisie, the middle class who profited most from the weakening of the aristocracy in the years before the Bolshevik revolution. He's a self-made man who rose from working class roots to become a wealthy merchant. He wears a fine, expensive white suit and gaudy yellow shoes.
Lopakhin has a kind of love-hate relationship with Madame Ranevsky. He's grateful for the kindness she's shown him over the years, but he also resents her condescending attitude.
Although he's wealthy - wealthier, in fact, than she is now - Madame Ranevsky still sees Lopakhin as the lower class, because of his peasant roots. This is one of the reasons why she rejected his plan to save her estate.
Anton Chekhov was less than thrilled with the premiere of The Cherry Orchard at the Moscow Art Theatre in 1904. During rehearsals, the director of the production, Constantin Stanislavski, completely rewrote the second act, turning Chekov's comedy into a tragedy. The playwright was furious.
"In the second act there are tears in their eyes, but the tone is happy, lively. Why did you put so many tears in my play? Where are they?" Chekhov wrote to complain. He later went to the theater in person to supervise the production and work out a compromise with the director.
Although a comedy at heart, The Cherry Orchard delicately balances farce with elements of tragedy. Stanislavski insisted on doing the play strictly as a tragedy.
To this day, some directors still struggle to interpret the complex play. Audiences at the Moscow Art Theatre gave the premiere a rousing applause, but the critics' reviews were mixed.
When the play debuted in St. Petersburg at Panin's People's House theater, the audience of pre-revolutionary working class Russians, who understood Chekhov's scathing satire, cheered at the end, when the aristocrats wept over the demise of their cherry orchard, which was felled onstage.
The Cherry Orchard would be Anton Chekhov's last play. It was inspired by incidents in his own life, including the demise of a cherry orchard he'd planted on his own country estate.
The play was written over a period of several years, as the playwright began to lose his battle with tuberculosis. He died six months after its Moscow premiere, at the age of 44.
Quote Of The Day
"The role of the artist is to ask questions, not answer them." - Anton Chekhov
Today's video features a 1981 British production of The Cherry Orchard, starring Dame Judi Dench. Enjoy!
Friday, January 17, 2020
Thursday, January 16, 2020
This Day In Literary History
On January 16th, 1933, the famous American writer, filmmaker, and activist Susan Sontag was born. She was born Susan Rosenblatt in New York City. Her childhood was unhappy; her father, a wealthy fur trader, died of tuberculosis when she was five. Her mother, cold and distant, was "always away."
When Susan was twelve, her mother married an Army captain, Nathan Sontag. Susan and her sister were given his surname, though he never officially adopted them. He moved the family around the country, finally settling in Los Angeles.
After graduating Hollywood High School at the age of 15, the intellectually gifted Susan Sontag enrolled at Berkeley University. She later transferred to the University of Chicago. There, after engaging in a brief but passionate courtship, she got married at seventeen.
Her new husband, Philip Rieff, was a writer and sociology professor at the university. They would remain together for eight years and have one child, a son named David. Susan continued her education and earned a Master's degree in philosophy.
In 1957, she was awarded a fellowship at St. Anne's College, Oxford, and traveled to England alone to take classes. She didn't care for Oxford and transferred to the University of Paris.
She considered her time in Paris the most important time in her life, both intellectually and artistically, as she struck up friendships with expatriate academics and artists, one of which, Cuban-American avant garde playwright María Irene Fornés, became her lover.
Susan and María moved to New York City and lived together for seven years. During that time, Susan had regained custody of her son and begun working on her first novel, The Benefactor (1963).
It was a novel in the form of a memoir. The protagonist, a Candide-esque bohemian named Hippolyte, takes the reader along for the ride as his dream world gradually becomes indistinguishable from reality.
Susan's second novel, Death Kit (1967), is a dark Kafka like tale that takes place on a train. One of the passengers, a thirtysomething year old businessman with the ironic nickname Diddy, (It sounds like "Did he?") becomes convinced that he might be a murderer.
Diddy, who recently attempted suicide, fears that he may have beaten a railroad worker to death while the train was stopped in a dark tunnel. Hester, the lovely yet apathetic blind girl sitting next to him, tells him that he never left his seat. Diddy examines his memories and dreams, trying to answer the question: did he do it?
Susan Sontag would publish two more novels, a short story collection, and nonfiction books. She was also known as an essayist and published six essay collections. Her second and most famous collection, Styles of Radical Will (1969), contained her most controversial essay.
Trip to Hanoi was the culmination of Susan's activism against the Vietnam War. She had first signed the Writers and Editors War Tax pledge, refusing to pay taxes to support the war. Like actress Jane Fonda, she went to Hanoi to tell the North Vietnamese side of the story.
Susan sympathized with the North Vietnamese, writing in her essay that the Vietcong could not be compared to the Soviets or the Maoist Chinese, whose communism she would later describe as "fascism with a human face." The Vietcong were fighting for their independence.
No stranger to controversy, Susan had previously published an essay in the Partisan Review where she said:
Mozart, Pascal, Boolean algebra, Shakespeare, parliamentary government, baroque churches, Newton, the emancipation of women, Kant, Balanchine ballets, et al. don't redeem what this particular civilization has wrought upon the world. The white race is the cancer of human history.
Susan would later retract that statement, but only because she believed that it was insulting to cancer patients.
She continued her activist work; in 1986, she vigorously defended the legendary Indian writer Salman Rushdie when his classic novel The Satanic Verses resulted in the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini issuing a fatwa calling for his death.
A few years later, during the Bosnian War, Susan declared that the Serbian Orthodox Christian forces were the real war criminals in that conflict, not the Bosnian / Albanian Muslim resistance. She went to Sarajevo and directed a production of Samuel Beckett's classic play, Waiting For Godot.
When the AIDS epidemic began to spread in the 1980s, Susan brought it to attention with her play The Way We Live Now and her nonfiction book, AIDS and Its Metaphors, where she harshly criticized the idea that AIDS was a "gay disease" and a divine judgement against homosexuals.
Susan was also a filmmaker. Between 1969 and 1983, she wrote and directed four feature films. Three were produced in Sweden, one in Italy. Her first film, Duet for Cannibals (1969), was a Swedish production.
It told the story of a professor who hires a young man to organize his papers for publication. The young man discovers that the professor's wife, tired of being abused and degraded by him, is planning to murder him. The wife and the young man become lovers. Meanwhile, the professor pursues the young man's girlfriend.
Susan followed Duet for Cannibals with Brother Carl (1971), Promised Lands (1974), and Unguided Tour (1983). Unfortunately, all of her movies are hard to find.
Never afraid to voice her often controversial opinions, on September 24th, 2001 - thirteen days after the 9/11 terrorist attacks - in the New Yorker magazine, Susan asked:
Where is the acknowledgment that this was... an attack on the world's self-proclaimed superpower, undertaken as a consequence of specific American alliances and actions?
That year, she won the Jerusalem Prize, which is awarded biannually at the Jerusalem International Book Fair to writers whose works have dealt with the subject of human freedom in society.
Susan Sontag died of leukemia in 2004 at the age of 71.
Quote Of The Day
"The writer is either a practicing recluse or a delinquent, guilt-ridden one - or both. Usually both." - Susan Sontag
Today's video features Susan Sontag speaking at the San Francisco Public Library in 2001. Enjoy!
Wednesday, January 15, 2020
This Day In Literary History
On January 15th, 1891, the famous Russian poet Osip Mandelstam was born in Warsaw, Poland. He came from a wealthy Jewish family; his father was a leather merchant.
Because of his wealth and position, Osip's father was able to get a special dispensation exempting the family from having to relocate with other Jews to the "pale of settlement" region of Russia. So, not long after Osip was born, the Mandelstams moved to Saint Petersburg.
In 1908, at the age of seventeen, Osip Mandelstam entered the Sorbonne (the University of Paris) to study literature and philosophy, but left the following year and went to the University of Heidelberg in Germany.
In 1911, Mandelstam decided to finish his education at the University of Saint Petersburg. In order to enroll at the Methodist university, he converted to Methodism, but never practiced the religion.
That same year, Mandelstam and several other young poets formed the Poets' Guild. The group, led by Nikolai Gumilyov and Sergei Gorodetsky, would later be known as the Acmeists. Mandelstam wrote their manifesto, The Morning Of Acmeism, in 1913.
Acmeism was a Russian poetic movement that served as a counter to the works of Russian symbolist poets of the late 19th and early 20th centuries such as Andrei Bely and Vyacheslav Ivanov. Acmeism stressed compactness of form and clarity of expression.
Osip Mandelstam's Acmeist manifesto wouldn't be published until 1919. However, his first poetry collection, The Stone, would be published in 1913, and re-released in an expanded edition in 1916.
By 1922, he had married his girlfriend Nadezhda Yakovlevna and moved to Moscow. At that time, his second poetry collection, Tristia, was published. For the next several years, Mandelstam nearly abandoned poetry, as he mostly wrote essays, literary criticism, short prose, and memoirs.
He took a job as a translator and translated 19 books in a period of six months. His marriage began to sour and he had affairs, but he and his wife reconciled. Mandelstam started writing poetry again. In November of 1933, he wrote his most famous poem, Stalin Epigram.
The poem was a harsh criticism of Soviet dictator Josef Stalin, whom he referred to as the "Kremlin highlander." The poem was likely inspired by the effects of the Holodomor (the Great Famine) which Mandelstam had witnessed while vacationing in Crimea.
The Holodomor was caused by Stalin's drive to exterminate the kulaks - the affluent peasant farmers - and collectivize all of Russia's farms. Six months after Stalin Epigram appeared in print, Osip Mandelstam was arrested.
Amazingly, he was neither condemned to death nor sent to the Gulag. Instead, he was exiled, along with his wife, to Cherdyn in Northern Ural. After a suicide attempt, his sentence was softened; he was banned from the big cities, but allowed to choose another place of residence. He and his wife chose to move to Voronezh.
Unfortunately, this proved to be a temporary reprieve. Although Mandelstam wrote poems glorifying Stalin in 1937, (as was required of him and all Soviet poets) the Great Purge was beginning.
The pro-Soviet literary establishment assailed him in print, accusing him of harboring anti-Soviet sentiments. A year later, he and his wife received a government voucher for a vacation not far from Moscow.
When they arrived, Mandelstam was arrested again and charged with counter-revolutionary activities. In August of 1938, Osip Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in the Gulag and taken to a transit camp in Vladivostok at the Second River.
He died several months later, on December 27th, 1938. The official cause of death was an unspecified illness. In 1956, during the Khrushchev thaw, Mandelstam was officially "rehabilitated" - cleared of the charges brought against him during his 1938 arrest.
Thirty years later, he would be cleared of the charges stemming from his first arrest in 1934.
Quote Of The Day
"Only in Russia is poetry respected - it gets people killed. Is there anywhere else where poetry is so common a motive for murder?" - Osip Mandelstam
Today's video features a reading of five of Osip Mandelstam's poems. Enjoy!
Tuesday, January 14, 2020
This Day In Literary History
On January 14th, 1886, the famous Anglo-Irish writer Hugh Lofting was born in Maidenhead, Berkshire, England. As a boy, he developed a love of animals and kept "a combination zoo and natural history museum" in his mother's linen closet.
He received his education in Jesuit-run private schools. He later went to the United States, where he studied civil engineering at MIT - the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
After graduating from MIT, Lofting returned to England and became a civil engineer, traveling throughout the British Empire as his job required him to do. When World War I broke out, he enlisted in the Irish Guards, a Foot Guards regiment in the British Army.
In his service as a soldier, he became horrified by not only the human carnage he witnessed, but also by the sufferings of horses and other animals used at the front. During the war, Lofting wrote letters to his children frequently.
Wishing to spare them the horrors of war, (and to escape from them himself) he would tell his children stories about John Dolittle, a country doctor who learned how to talk to animals. Lofting illustrated the stories in his letters.
When he returned home from the war, Lofting reworked his stories into a book he illustrated himself, the first in a hugely popular series that made him world famous. The Story of Doctor Dolittle was published in 1920.
In it, we meet Dr. John Dolittle, a young country doctor who lives with his sister in the small English village of Puddleby-on-the-Marsh. Over the years, his love of animals grows; he acquires a menagerie of exotic pets. Unfortunately, his animals scare off his human patients.
After he learns how to speak to animals from his parrot Polynesia, Dolittle gives up his human medical practice and becomes a veterinarian, only to see his new practice start failing after he adopts a crocodile.
In the animal kingdom, he becomes world famous. Just as he's about to go bankrupt, the British government conscripts Doctor Dolittle and orders him to go to Africa and contain an epidemic that's ravaging the monkey population.
So, Dolittle borrows a ship and supplies and sets sail for Africa with a crew of his animal friends. The group is shipwrecked upon their arrival. As they journey toward the monkey kingdom, they're arrested by the king of Jolligingki.
The king, after being victimized and exploited by Europeans, wants no white men in his country. Dolittle and the animals escape through a ruse and reach the monkey kingdom, which is in dire straits due to the raging epidemic.
Dolittle vaccinates the well monkeys and nurses the sick ones back to health, containing the disease. In appreciation, the monkeys give him a pushmi-pullyu - a rare and valuable two-headed animal that's a cross between a gazelle and a unicorn.
Unfortunately, Dolittle and his friends are arrested again in Jolligingki upon their return. This time, they escape with the help of the king's son, Prince Bumpo, after Dolittle bleaches Bumpo's face white so he can be like the European fairy tale princes and hopefully marry his white Sleeping Beauty.
Bumpo gives Dolittle and his animal crew a new ship. After having a couple run-ins with pirates, Dolittle wins a pirate ship filled with treasures. When he finally returns home to England, he exhibits the pushmi-pullyu in a traveling circus and makes enough money to retire.
Hugh Lofting would write a total of twelve Doctor Dolittle books, the last three of which would be published posthumously. They would be adapted numerous times for the radio, screen, and television.
Many years after their first publication, the Doctor Dolittle books would court controversy due to certain language, scenes, and illustrations now considered racially offensive and politically incorrect.
Beginning in the 1960s, certain words and scenes would be changed or removed in some reprint editions of the books in both the UK and the U.S. By 1981, the original, unexpurgated versions would go out of print in both countries.
In 1986, to mark the 100th anniversary of Lofting's birth, the Doctor Dolittle books were republished in a special edition - a severely bowdlerized version with passages of text rewritten or removed and some illustrations altered or replaced.
Ironically, Lofting himself was no racist; black African characters were portrayed sympathetically. In the first Doctor Dolittle book, the king of Jolligingki bemoans his country's exploitation by the white man:
Many years ago a white man came to these shores; and I was very kind to him. But after he had dug holes in the ground to get the gold, and killed all the elephants to get their ivory tusks, he went away secretly in his ship - without so much as saying `Thank you.'
In addition to his Doctor Dolittle books, Hugh Lofting wrote other children's books, including a book of children's poems called Porridge Poetry (1924). His only book geared toward adult readers was Victory For the Slain (1942), an antiwar epic poem. He died in 1947 at the age of 61.
Quote Of The Day
"For years it was a constant source of shock to me to find my writings amongst 'Juveniles.' It does not bother me any more now, but I still feel there should be a category of 'Seniles' to offset the epithet." - Hugh Lofting
Today's video features a complete reading of Hugh Lofting's first book, The Story of Doctor Dolittle - the original version, now in the public domain. Enjoy!
Monday, January 13, 2020
1. I got my first acceptance for 2020 from Carmina Magazine. They published two of my haiku in their September issue (their inaugural issue) and now they've accepted one of my haibun, On Seas and Mirrors, for their March issue.
It feels good to get my first acceptance of the new year. At the end of last year I pushed myself to send a few extra things out and this acceptance is the result of that push. (Still waiting to hear about the other.)
Nice to see work in Carmina Magazine from Joanna West and Cezarija Abartis too.
2. I just discovered that MacQueen's Quinterly, a new publication that's sister publication to KYSO: Flash Fiction, lists my ekphrastic piece, A Crucible of Sighs, as one of the editor's favorite 100 pieces (out of the over 1300 published at KYSO). That was a nice surprise to find that information at the new publication's site.
See the editor's favorite 100 list at MacQueen's Quinterly and see my ekphrastic piece at KYSO Flash. I was looking around at the new publication after the editor contacted me to be sure she had my correct home address so she could mail me my free anthology that will contain my ekphrastic prose poem. Seeing my work listed as a favorite at the new publication is a nice surprise.
Two short stories of mine, "Taking Care of Business," and "Stepping Out," have been accepted by The Literary Hatchet. Here are their Submission details.
Just so you know, most of the stories of mine they have accepted are not horror or mystery.
Friday, January 10, 2020
This Day In Literary History
On January 10th, 1845, the famous English poet and playwright Robert Browning wrote his first letter to Elizabeth Barrett, a fellow poet who would become his soul mate. Ironically, at the time they first began corresponding, it was unlikely that Elizabeth would become anybody's anything.
As a young girl, Elizabeth Barrett was both intellectually gifted and physically weak. By the age of six, she was reading novels and writing poetry. At fifteen, she was struck with an illness that doctors were unable to diagnose.
Some have speculated that it was a debilitating heart condition that causes pain and weakness, such as angina. All three of her sisters contracted the illness as well, but for them, it didn't last long. They recovered quickly, but Elizabeth did not. She had a severe case.
Whatever the illness was, it and the opiates she took to relieve the pain made Elizabeth pretty much an invalid. She spent most of her time in her room, either in bed or writing at her desk. She earned a modest income writing poetry, essays, and literary criticism.
She saw few people except for her family, but she had a lot of family to keep her company - three sisters and seven brothers. Despite her illness, Elizabeth Barrett became one of the greatest poets of her generation.
When her classic poetry collection Poems was published in 1844, she became one of the most famous poets in England. Although she saw few visitors, she kept up a huge amount of correspondence.
One of Elizabeth Barrett's greatest admirers was the poet Robert Browning. Not only did he love her poetry, but she was one of the very few literary critics who had given his first poetry collection, Dramatic Lyrics (1842), a good review. A glowing review, in fact.
So, Robert wrote to thank her - and to proclaim his great admiration of her poetry. "The fresh strange music, the affluent language, the exquisite pathos and true new brave thought" is how he described her talent. Then he proclaimed his love for her:
I do, as I say, love these books with all my heart... and I love you too. Do you know I was once not very far from seeing - really seeing you? Mr. Kenyon said to me one morning "Would you like to see Miss Barrett?" then he went to announce me... then he returned... you were too unwell, and now it is years ago, and I feel as at some untoward passage in my travels, as if I had been close, so close, to some world's-wonder in chapel or crypt, only a screen to push and I might have entered, but there was some slight, so it now seems, slight and just sufficient bar to admission, and the half-opened door shut, and I went home my thousands of miles, and the sight was never to be?
Thus, Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett began a correspondence that would result in nearly six hundred letters exchanged between them. It would also result in a courtship, and a miraculous improvement in Elizabeth's health.
Though she would not recover completely from her illness, she would regain her strength, leave her invalid's bed, marry, have a child, and live to the age of 55 - far longer than was expected for someone with her condition.
Elizabeth's courtship with Robert Browning had to be carried out in secret, as her father, a domineering tyrant, had forbidden all his eleven children from ever marrying under penalty of disinheritance. Why? The answer lies in the family history.
The wealthy, aristocratic Barrett family came from a long line of plantation owners. Elizabeth Barrett's grandfather, who owned sugar plantations and other businesses in the West Indies, was known for his humane treatment of his slaves.
He was also known to take slave women as his mistresses. Elizabeth's father, Edward Barrett, believed that his father may have adopted the light skinned babies of his slave mistresses, and that he may have been one of them.
Politically conservative and a virulent racist, Edward Barrett was greatly shamed by the thought that Negro blood may be running through his and his children's veins. His children were white, but he feared that they might one day produce dark skinned offspring. So he forbade them all from marrying.
Elizabeth Barrett was the polar opposite of her father. A liberal intellectual, she despised slavery, wrote abolitionist poetry, and rejoiced when England outlawed slavery completely in 1833. This resulted in a huge rift between father and daughter.
Elizabeth never gave much thought to her father's decree forbidding marriage because she figured that her illness rendered her too sick too marry. She didn't plan on falling in love with Robert Browning. When they eloped, her father disinherited her and never spoke to her again. Her brothers didn't speak to her for years.
The happy couple settled in Italy, where Elizabeth regained her strength and after several miscarriages, bore their only child, a boy named Robert Wiedemann Barrett Browning, but known by his nickname, Pen.
Many years later, the Brownings' son published all but one of their letters to each other. The one missing letter was believed to have been burned by Robert Browning at Elizabeth Barrett's insistence because it was so passionate that she feared he might be arrested for sending it through the mail.
Quote Of The Day
"Love is the energy of life." - Robert Browning
Today's video features a reading from the first letter of Robert Browning to Elizabeth Barrett. Enjoy!
Thursday, January 9, 2020
This Day In Literary History
On January 9th, 1908, the legendary French writer and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir was born in Paris, France. Her father was a legal secretary and aspiring actor. Her mother, the daughter of a wealthy banker, raised her children to be devout Catholics like herself.
Simone was devoutly religious as a child, but at the age of fourteen, she lost her faith and would remain an atheist for the rest of her life. An intellectually gifted child, she passed advanced exams in mathematics and philosophy at the age of seventeen.
After studying philosophy at the Sorbonne, she studied for her teacher's exams at the Institut Catholique and Institut Sainte-Marie. She also sat in on courses at the École Normale Supérieure, though she wasn't enrolled there.
At the École Normale Supérieure, Simone struck up friendships with fellow students Paul Nizan and René Maheu, who would become noted writers and philosophers. Another student she met would become her lifelong lover. His name was Jean-Paul Sartre.
Although Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre became lifelong lovers and soul mates who influenced each other as writers and existentialist philosophers, they never married nor lived together as a couple.
Theirs was a very complex relationship. They both had separate lovers. Simone was openly bisexual and often shared her female lovers with Sartre. Her first novel, She Came to Stay (1943), was a fictionalized chronicle of her and Sartre's romantic entanglements with two sisters, one of whom was her student.
Simone's second novel, The Blood of Others (1945) was an existentialist classic set in Nazi-occupied France. As his lover Hélène lies dying, the protagonist Jean Blomart looks back on his own life. Guilty over his comfortable upper middle class upbringing, Blomart breaks ties with his family.
He joins the Communist Party, then leaves it when his friend is killed in a political protest. While he devotes himself to trade union activities, he meets Hélène, but initially rejects her advances.
After she has a reckless affair with another man, gets pregnant, and has an abortion, Blomart tells her that he loves her and proposes marriage, though deep inside, he doubts that he really loves her. But he wants her to be happy.
When France enters World War II, Blomart enlists and becomes a soldier. Against his will, Hélène arranges for him to be posted away from the combat zone. Furious, he breaks up with her. After the defeat of France, the couple is reunited when Hélène seeks to join the French Resistance.
Blomart has become the leader of a Resistance group. Hélène joins the group and is shot during a mission. As he maintains a deathbed vigil, Blomart must come to terms with his guilt, the consequences of his actions, and his feelings for Hélène. He decides to continue with his Resistance work.
In 1944, Simone published her first philosophical essay, Pyrrhus et Cinéas, a discussion of existentialist ethics, concepts she would expand on in her second essay, The Ethics of Ambiguity (1947).
The Ethics of Ambiguity was perhaps the most accessible writing on existentialism during that time, far more accessible than Jean-Paul Sartre's brooding, abstruse classic, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (1943).
In 1949, Simone de Beauvoir published The Second Sex, her classic 800-page epic work of feminist philosophy. After debunking the theories of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, she looks at the misogynistic philosophies of St. Paul, St. Ambrose, and John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople.
The misogyny that forms the foundation of Christianity is in direct contrast to the goddess worship that preceded it. The subordination of women in the name of God is nothing more than a way to maintain patriarchal power for Pope and common man alike.
This need to control women's sexuality to maintain the patriarchy reflects the deep seated fear of the power of a woman's body - her ability to create life within her, her ability to receive sexual pleasure without having intercourse with a man, etc.
After centuries of male domination, Woman still yearns for her freedom from reproductive slavery. Abortion, Simone argues, is one means of achieving that freedom. It is not an issue of morality, and making it illegal is an act of "masculine sadism" against women.
The Second Sex became a hugely influential work of feminist philosophy that laid the groundwork for the 1970s women's liberation movement. Simone would join France's women's liberation movement.
In 1971, she signed the Manifest of the 343, a list of famous women who had abortions even though it was illegal in France at the time. Other signers included actress Catherine Deneuve and actress-director Delphine Seyrig. Three years later, abortion was legalized in France.
After Jean-Paul Sartre died in 1980, Simone wrote A Farewell to Sartre (1981), an account of his final years. It was the only major published work of hers that he didn't read prior to publication. She also published a collection of his letters to her.
Simone de Beauvoir died in 1986 at the age of 78.
Quote Of The Day
"The writer of originality, unless dead, is always shocking, scandalous; novelty disturbs and repels." - Simone de Beauvoir
Today's video features a 1959 interview with Simone de Beauvoir, in French with English subtitles. Enjoy! | 7,542 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Joshua Leo and Ruby Jones tell the story of a young woman from North Africa. Her name was Perpetua. She lived almost 2,000 years ago. But people still talk about her life today.
Hello, I’m Joshua Leo.
And I’m Ruby Jones. Welcome to Spotlight. This programme uses a special English method of broadcasting. It is easier for people to understand, no matter where in the world they live.
Today’s Spotlight programme tells the story of a young woman from North Africa. Her name was Perpetua. She lived almost 2,000 years ago. But people still talk about her life today. In Perpetua’s time, part of North Africa belonged to the Roman Empire. Local people had to obey Roman laws and follow Roman ways of behaviour. This was true in every area of life - including religion.
At that time, the Roman empire’s leader, the emperor, was Septimius Severus. Severus was also from North Africa. In fact, he was the only African emperor in Rome’s history! He fought many other candidates to become emperor. He was a strong, fierce ruler.
All citizens had to worship the emperor. This showed that they were loyal to the empire. The empire spread over many different countries. The people of these places already had their own religious traditions. But usually they were willing to worship the emperor as well. The emperor considered this to be a powerful way to keep the empire united.
Septimius Severus knew the importance of a peaceful empire. And he was concerned that different religions could divide the empire. So in the year 202, he created a new religious rule. This law banned people from following the Jewish or the Christian religion. At that time, the growth of the Christian religion was new. And its beliefs were influencing many people in Roman society. Christians believe that there is only one true God. They believe that they should not worship any other being. And they believe that they will be with God in heaven after death. So the Christians in the Roman empire refused to perform any acts of worship for the emperor. The emperor believed that they threatened his power - that he had to destroy them.
Perpetua was a Christian. She and some of her friends refused to take part in ceremonies of emperor worship. So, the Roman authorities threw them into prison. But Perpetua’s family were not Christians. And they could not understand her behaviour - especially as she had a young baby to care for. While she was in prison, Perpetua wrote a diary - a record of what happened to her. This is part of the diary that Perpetua wrote:
“My friends and I were still under arrest. My father came to see me. I know he loves me. And he was trying to persuade me to change my mind. ‘Father,’ I said, ‘do you see this water container here?’
‘Yes, I do’, he said.
‘Could it be called by any other name than what it is?’
‘No,’ he said.
‘Well, so too I cannot be called anything other than what I am, a Christian.’
The word ‘Christian’ made my father very angry. He moved towards me as if he would tear my eyes out. But he said no more to me. Then, he left.”
“A few days later we heard some news. We were going to appear before the Roman governor. My father also arrived from the city, full of worry. He came again to see me. He had the same idea of persuading me to change my mind.
‘Daughter,’ he said, ‘Have mercy on me... Think of your brothers, think of your mother... think of your child. He will not be able to live once you are gone. Do not be so proud! You will destroy all of us!’
I felt sad for my father. I tried to make him feel better, saying: ‘It will all happen as God wants. You may be sure that we are not on our own. But we are all in his power.’
My father then left me - great sadness filled his heart.”
Perpetua and her friends then had to appear before the local authorities to be judged. She wrote:
“Hilarianus the governor said to me: ‘Have mercy on your father; have mercy on your baby son. Offer the sacrifice to the emperor.’
‘I will not’, I answered.
‘Are you a Christian?’ said Hilarianus.
‘Yes, I am.’ I answered.
Then Hilarianus declared sentence on all of us. He condemned us to death. We would have to face wild animals in the public theatre. We returned to prison. We were honoured to suffer for our faith.”
In the days that followed, Perpetua and her friends prepared for death. They did not fear losing their lives. Instead, they welcomed the chance to be with their beloved God. Perpetua had some dreams while she was in prison. In them, God showed her that she and her friends would suffer. But they would die bravely. And they would encourage many Christians with their acts of faith. Perpetua did not write in her diary on the day of her death. But someone else wrote about what happened. This witness described how the friends dealt with their final day on earth with great courage:
“The day of their victory came. They marched with joy from the prison to the public theatre - as if they were going to heaven. Soldiers brought them into the central area of the theatre.”
There, the two women and four men faced different wild animals. The crowd cheered loudly as the animals attacked. But Perpetua and her friends were filled with God’s strength. They were injured. But they all survived the attacks. In the end, the governor ordered the soldiers to kill the young people with a sword - right in front of the crowds. The witness wrote:
“And so the friends got up and went to where the soldiers were. They gave each other a kiss of peace. Perpetua’s friends received the sword blow in silence. Perpetua, however, experienced more pain. The soldier’s sword hit her on the bone. And she shouted out. Then she took the shaking hand of the young soldier and guided his sword to her neck.”
And so on the seventh of March 203, the young friends went to their deaths, but they knew that they would meet their God in heaven. Today, there is still a memorial at the public theatre where they died. It speaks of the sacrifice of Perpetua, Felicitas, Revocatus, Saturninus, Secundulus, Saturus and Rusticus. The story of their faith and courage lives on.
The writer and producer of today’s programme was Ruby Jones. All quotations were adapted for this programme. You can hear more Spotlight programmes on our website at www.radioenglish.net. Today’s programme is called, “Perpetua: A Woman of Faith.”
If you have comments or questions about our Spotlight programmes you can reach us by e-mail. Our address is email@example.com. Thank you for joining us today, goodbye. | <urn:uuid:32e8a338-9835-4635-ad25-23726346e1fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.spotlightenglish.com/listen/perpetua-a-woman-of-faith | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00483.warc.gz | en | 0.980949 | 1,560 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.0547... | 2 | Joshua Leo and Ruby Jones tell the story of a young woman from North Africa. Her name was Perpetua. She lived almost 2,000 years ago. But people still talk about her life today.
Hello, I’m Joshua Leo.
And I’m Ruby Jones. Welcome to Spotlight. This programme uses a special English method of broadcasting. It is easier for people to understand, no matter where in the world they live.
Today’s Spotlight programme tells the story of a young woman from North Africa. Her name was Perpetua. She lived almost 2,000 years ago. But people still talk about her life today. In Perpetua’s time, part of North Africa belonged to the Roman Empire. Local people had to obey Roman laws and follow Roman ways of behaviour. This was true in every area of life - including religion.
At that time, the Roman empire’s leader, the emperor, was Septimius Severus. Severus was also from North Africa. In fact, he was the only African emperor in Rome’s history! He fought many other candidates to become emperor. He was a strong, fierce ruler.
All citizens had to worship the emperor. This showed that they were loyal to the empire. The empire spread over many different countries. The people of these places already had their own religious traditions. But usually they were willing to worship the emperor as well. The emperor considered this to be a powerful way to keep the empire united.
Septimius Severus knew the importance of a peaceful empire. And he was concerned that different religions could divide the empire. So in the year 202, he created a new religious rule. This law banned people from following the Jewish or the Christian religion. At that time, the growth of the Christian religion was new. And its beliefs were influencing many people in Roman society. Christians believe that there is only one true God. They believe that they should not worship any other being. And they believe that they will be with God in heaven after death. So the Christians in the Roman empire refused to perform any acts of worship for the emperor. The emperor believed that they threatened his power - that he had to destroy them.
Perpetua was a Christian. She and some of her friends refused to take part in ceremonies of emperor worship. So, the Roman authorities threw them into prison. But Perpetua’s family were not Christians. And they could not understand her behaviour - especially as she had a young baby to care for. While she was in prison, Perpetua wrote a diary - a record of what happened to her. This is part of the diary that Perpetua wrote:
“My friends and I were still under arrest. My father came to see me. I know he loves me. And he was trying to persuade me to change my mind. ‘Father,’ I said, ‘do you see this water container here?’
‘Yes, I do’, he said.
‘Could it be called by any other name than what it is?’
‘No,’ he said.
‘Well, so too I cannot be called anything other than what I am, a Christian.’
The word ‘Christian’ made my father very angry. He moved towards me as if he would tear my eyes out. But he said no more to me. Then, he left.”
“A few days later we heard some news. We were going to appear before the Roman governor. My father also arrived from the city, full of worry. He came again to see me. He had the same idea of persuading me to change my mind.
‘Daughter,’ he said, ‘Have mercy on me... Think of your brothers, think of your mother... think of your child. He will not be able to live once you are gone. Do not be so proud! You will destroy all of us!’
I felt sad for my father. I tried to make him feel better, saying: ‘It will all happen as God wants. You may be sure that we are not on our own. But we are all in his power.’
My father then left me - great sadness filled his heart.”
Perpetua and her friends then had to appear before the local authorities to be judged. She wrote:
“Hilarianus the governor said to me: ‘Have mercy on your father; have mercy on your baby son. Offer the sacrifice to the emperor.’
‘I will not’, I answered.
‘Are you a Christian?’ said Hilarianus.
‘Yes, I am.’ I answered.
Then Hilarianus declared sentence on all of us. He condemned us to death. We would have to face wild animals in the public theatre. We returned to prison. We were honoured to suffer for our faith.”
In the days that followed, Perpetua and her friends prepared for death. They did not fear losing their lives. Instead, they welcomed the chance to be with their beloved God. Perpetua had some dreams while she was in prison. In them, God showed her that she and her friends would suffer. But they would die bravely. And they would encourage many Christians with their acts of faith. Perpetua did not write in her diary on the day of her death. But someone else wrote about what happened. This witness described how the friends dealt with their final day on earth with great courage:
“The day of their victory came. They marched with joy from the prison to the public theatre - as if they were going to heaven. Soldiers brought them into the central area of the theatre.”
There, the two women and four men faced different wild animals. The crowd cheered loudly as the animals attacked. But Perpetua and her friends were filled with God’s strength. They were injured. But they all survived the attacks. In the end, the governor ordered the soldiers to kill the young people with a sword - right in front of the crowds. The witness wrote:
“And so the friends got up and went to where the soldiers were. They gave each other a kiss of peace. Perpetua’s friends received the sword blow in silence. Perpetua, however, experienced more pain. The soldier’s sword hit her on the bone. And she shouted out. Then she took the shaking hand of the young soldier and guided his sword to her neck.”
And so on the seventh of March 203, the young friends went to their deaths, but they knew that they would meet their God in heaven. Today, there is still a memorial at the public theatre where they died. It speaks of the sacrifice of Perpetua, Felicitas, Revocatus, Saturninus, Secundulus, Saturus and Rusticus. The story of their faith and courage lives on.
The writer and producer of today’s programme was Ruby Jones. All quotations were adapted for this programme. You can hear more Spotlight programmes on our website at www.radioenglish.net. Today’s programme is called, “Perpetua: A Woman of Faith.”
If you have comments or questions about our Spotlight programmes you can reach us by e-mail. Our address is email@example.com. Thank you for joining us today, goodbye. | 1,459 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Harry Rowe | Staff Writer
Eva Hruska, a professor who teaches Russian at Baylor discussed her Slovakian heritage as well as the often overlooked relationship between the Czechs and Slovakians during their fight for independence. The event was one of multiple events held by Baylor in honor of Czech independence, including hosting the Czech ambassador to speak.
Hruska, who wanted to make sure she didn’t come off as a “token disgruntled Slovak,” does think that it’s important to realize the relationship the two have had throughout history. She expressed her concern that there was no mention of Slovaks in any of the promotional pamphlets and posters, even if it was done so unintentionally.
“The Slovaks didn’t want to be subjugated to yet another empire as they were for 1,000 years under the Hungarian empire, but they wanted to be sovereign on their own,” Hruska said. “They did eventually come to an agreement of Czechoslovakia, agreeing to them being an independent nation as well.”
Hruska talked about how Czechoslovakia gained its independence, and how a select group of people played a very large role in breaking them from centuries of oppression and rule. One of those figures was the first president of Czechoslovakia, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. Masaryk was a professor at Charles University in Prague and also frequently visited the United States, where he would talk and build relationships.
He was stationed on many fronts during World War I, according to Hruska. Another major component to Czech and Slovak freedom were people who identified as Czech or Slovak but did not live in the land anymore returned to fight for the cause. Hruska said the Austrian-Hungarian empire was also quickly losing members to the other side.
“What helped this massive desertion is that there was a large propaganda in France, in Italy, in the United States and within the Czech and Slovak lands, calling upon the brothers — the Slav brothers — to come and fight for the oppressed nation.” Hruska said.
Hruska said one of the most interesting things she discovered during her research is that the Slavic and Czech citizens already identified as Czechoslovakian before the formation of the country. She showed several propaganda posters proving this brotherly sort of camaraderie. The posters read “Brother Stand by Brother.” One propaganda poster encouraged those who “feel Czechoslovak” to come fight for the cause and stand by them.
“It doesn’t matter if you’re Czech or Slovak or if you feel patriotism towards one another because they’re also calling people who come from different oppressed Slavic nations,” Hruska said.
The event honoring Czech independence was created by the Keston Center for Religion, Politics, and Society in coordination with the modern languages and cultures department. At the end of the talk, Michael Long, a professor of Russian at Baylor and member of the Keston advisory board apologized for the mistake in not including Slovak independence in the pamphlets and posters leading up to the event. He told the room that he had mentioned both the Slovak and Czech part of the historical event.
“Information came back again that [said] ‘Well, how can we change this on the poster when we’ve invited the Czech ambassador?’ My response was that the Czech ambassador is an educated man, and he very well knows that Czech independence is tied with Slovak independence,” Long said. “They did not occur separately.”
Long did mention that even though it was not in the posters or promotions, the relationship between the two was talked about many times throughout the multiple events celebrating Czech and Slovak independence. | <urn:uuid:3c415459-24bc-4b00-9e26-65b5ce3c52fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://baylorlariat.com/2018/10/20/russian-professor-reminds-of-the-slovak-side-to-czech-independence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00226.warc.gz | en | 0.984451 | 789 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.285748392343... | 6 | By Harry Rowe | Staff Writer
Eva Hruska, a professor who teaches Russian at Baylor discussed her Slovakian heritage as well as the often overlooked relationship between the Czechs and Slovakians during their fight for independence. The event was one of multiple events held by Baylor in honor of Czech independence, including hosting the Czech ambassador to speak.
Hruska, who wanted to make sure she didn’t come off as a “token disgruntled Slovak,” does think that it’s important to realize the relationship the two have had throughout history. She expressed her concern that there was no mention of Slovaks in any of the promotional pamphlets and posters, even if it was done so unintentionally.
“The Slovaks didn’t want to be subjugated to yet another empire as they were for 1,000 years under the Hungarian empire, but they wanted to be sovereign on their own,” Hruska said. “They did eventually come to an agreement of Czechoslovakia, agreeing to them being an independent nation as well.”
Hruska talked about how Czechoslovakia gained its independence, and how a select group of people played a very large role in breaking them from centuries of oppression and rule. One of those figures was the first president of Czechoslovakia, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. Masaryk was a professor at Charles University in Prague and also frequently visited the United States, where he would talk and build relationships.
He was stationed on many fronts during World War I, according to Hruska. Another major component to Czech and Slovak freedom were people who identified as Czech or Slovak but did not live in the land anymore returned to fight for the cause. Hruska said the Austrian-Hungarian empire was also quickly losing members to the other side.
“What helped this massive desertion is that there was a large propaganda in France, in Italy, in the United States and within the Czech and Slovak lands, calling upon the brothers — the Slav brothers — to come and fight for the oppressed nation.” Hruska said.
Hruska said one of the most interesting things she discovered during her research is that the Slavic and Czech citizens already identified as Czechoslovakian before the formation of the country. She showed several propaganda posters proving this brotherly sort of camaraderie. The posters read “Brother Stand by Brother.” One propaganda poster encouraged those who “feel Czechoslovak” to come fight for the cause and stand by them.
“It doesn’t matter if you’re Czech or Slovak or if you feel patriotism towards one another because they’re also calling people who come from different oppressed Slavic nations,” Hruska said.
The event honoring Czech independence was created by the Keston Center for Religion, Politics, and Society in coordination with the modern languages and cultures department. At the end of the talk, Michael Long, a professor of Russian at Baylor and member of the Keston advisory board apologized for the mistake in not including Slovak independence in the pamphlets and posters leading up to the event. He told the room that he had mentioned both the Slovak and Czech part of the historical event.
“Information came back again that [said] ‘Well, how can we change this on the poster when we’ve invited the Czech ambassador?’ My response was that the Czech ambassador is an educated man, and he very well knows that Czech independence is tied with Slovak independence,” Long said. “They did not occur separately.”
Long did mention that even though it was not in the posters or promotions, the relationship between the two was talked about many times throughout the multiple events celebrating Czech and Slovak independence. | 738 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On the 2nd of April 1801, Nelson fought the second of his major fleet actions against the Danish fleet in the shallow waters of The Sound off Copenhagen. It was one of his hardest battles, and saw him come close to defeat.
Tensions had been building with the Baltic powers over the British policy of intercepting and inspecting neutral shipping, to ensure that it was not bound for France or Spain. Trade with the Baltic was particularly important because many materials essential for ship building came from there, including tar, canvas for sails, and hemp for rope production. In 1800 France began a diplomatic offensive to encourage Russia, Sweden, Prussia and Denmark to form a League of Armed Neutrality to enforce free trade with France. Tsar Paul of Russia was their main ally, and he succeeded in persuading the other countries to join in. In response, Britain sent a large fleet into the Baltic under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, with Lord Nelson as his deputy. It arrived in the Baltic in spring 1801, with orders to break up the League, by force, if necessary. Their first opponent was to be the Danes.
Denmark at the start of the 19th century was a substantial power, ruling over Iceland and Norway, as well as a homeland that extended further south than today to include a small part of northern Germany. They were aware of the British fleet gathering on the far side of the North Sea, and had prepared for its arrival. A moored line of twenty warships, backed by batteries and fortifications on the coast, had been established as a sort of floating wall, protecting Copenhagen from attack from the sea. The ships had been placed with care, anchored on the very edge of shallow water, so that the British could not double up on them, as they had done to the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile a few years earlier. Just opposite the Danish position was a huge, treacherous mud bank called the Middle Ground. It was several square miles in size, and the British would have to sail around it to attack up a narrow deepwater channel. As part of their preparations, the Danes had removed all the navigational marker buoys.
Nelson succeeded in persuading the much more cautious Parker that the Danish fleet should be attacked, and that he was the man to do it. He was allocated a force of a dozen of the fleet’s smaller ships of the line, together with various minor vessels, because the water around the Danish position was too shallow for anything larger. On the morning of the 2nd of April 1801 the wind was favourable, and Nelson ordered his ships into action.
Almost straightaway, things went wrong. The Agamemnon (64), which was leading the line, was stranded on the Middle Ground and played no further part in the battle. The remaining ships pressed on with their attack, but the Danish shallows were to claim two more victims. The Edgar (74) had anchored opposite the fifth ship in the Danish line, as ordered, but when the next two ships in the fleet tried to sail around her, they too ran aground.
With no room to manoeuvre in the narrow channel between the Danish fleet and the Middle Ground, the battle descended into a slogging match of naval gunnery. The British had the advantage of better trained gun crews, and ships that were generally larger than their opponents. On the other side, the Danes had a greater number of vessels and could reinforce them with fresh men brought from the shore in boats. For many hours the two sides furiously battered each other, while the battle hung in the balance.
One person who was sure which way the fighting was going was Admiral Parker. Despite being too far away to judge the situation, he decided that defeat was inevitable, and signalled to Nelson to discontinue the action. Nelson was furious at this interference and famously placed his telescope to his blind eye, telling Captain Folley of the Elephant (74) that “I really do not see the signal.” Parker later claimed that his order was only meant to give Nelson the option to withdraw, if he needed it. This is an explanation that sounds as unconvincing today as it did at the time.
By 2.00pm the British were at last gaining the upper hand, with many of the Danish ships having surrendered or fallen silent. This permitted Nelson’s fleet to concentrate their fire on a dwindling number of remaining enemies. Once victory seemed certain, Nelson sent a boat proposing a truce to the shore, and this was accepted by the Danes. A few days later peace was signed, helped by the news that Tsar Paul had been murdered, and that his successor on the throne, Tsar Alexander, would be removing Russia from the League of Armed Neutrality.
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0.018385745584964... | 3 | On the 2nd of April 1801, Nelson fought the second of his major fleet actions against the Danish fleet in the shallow waters of The Sound off Copenhagen. It was one of his hardest battles, and saw him come close to defeat.
Tensions had been building with the Baltic powers over the British policy of intercepting and inspecting neutral shipping, to ensure that it was not bound for France or Spain. Trade with the Baltic was particularly important because many materials essential for ship building came from there, including tar, canvas for sails, and hemp for rope production. In 1800 France began a diplomatic offensive to encourage Russia, Sweden, Prussia and Denmark to form a League of Armed Neutrality to enforce free trade with France. Tsar Paul of Russia was their main ally, and he succeeded in persuading the other countries to join in. In response, Britain sent a large fleet into the Baltic under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, with Lord Nelson as his deputy. It arrived in the Baltic in spring 1801, with orders to break up the League, by force, if necessary. Their first opponent was to be the Danes.
Denmark at the start of the 19th century was a substantial power, ruling over Iceland and Norway, as well as a homeland that extended further south than today to include a small part of northern Germany. They were aware of the British fleet gathering on the far side of the North Sea, and had prepared for its arrival. A moored line of twenty warships, backed by batteries and fortifications on the coast, had been established as a sort of floating wall, protecting Copenhagen from attack from the sea. The ships had been placed with care, anchored on the very edge of shallow water, so that the British could not double up on them, as they had done to the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile a few years earlier. Just opposite the Danish position was a huge, treacherous mud bank called the Middle Ground. It was several square miles in size, and the British would have to sail around it to attack up a narrow deepwater channel. As part of their preparations, the Danes had removed all the navigational marker buoys.
Nelson succeeded in persuading the much more cautious Parker that the Danish fleet should be attacked, and that he was the man to do it. He was allocated a force of a dozen of the fleet’s smaller ships of the line, together with various minor vessels, because the water around the Danish position was too shallow for anything larger. On the morning of the 2nd of April 1801 the wind was favourable, and Nelson ordered his ships into action.
Almost straightaway, things went wrong. The Agamemnon (64), which was leading the line, was stranded on the Middle Ground and played no further part in the battle. The remaining ships pressed on with their attack, but the Danish shallows were to claim two more victims. The Edgar (74) had anchored opposite the fifth ship in the Danish line, as ordered, but when the next two ships in the fleet tried to sail around her, they too ran aground.
With no room to manoeuvre in the narrow channel between the Danish fleet and the Middle Ground, the battle descended into a slogging match of naval gunnery. The British had the advantage of better trained gun crews, and ships that were generally larger than their opponents. On the other side, the Danes had a greater number of vessels and could reinforce them with fresh men brought from the shore in boats. For many hours the two sides furiously battered each other, while the battle hung in the balance.
One person who was sure which way the fighting was going was Admiral Parker. Despite being too far away to judge the situation, he decided that defeat was inevitable, and signalled to Nelson to discontinue the action. Nelson was furious at this interference and famously placed his telescope to his blind eye, telling Captain Folley of the Elephant (74) that “I really do not see the signal.” Parker later claimed that his order was only meant to give Nelson the option to withdraw, if he needed it. This is an explanation that sounds as unconvincing today as it did at the time.
By 2.00pm the British were at last gaining the upper hand, with many of the Danish ships having surrendered or fallen silent. This permitted Nelson’s fleet to concentrate their fire on a dwindling number of remaining enemies. Once victory seemed certain, Nelson sent a boat proposing a truce to the shore, and this was accepted by the Danes. A few days later peace was signed, helped by the news that Tsar Paul had been murdered, and that his successor on the throne, Tsar Alexander, would be removing Russia from the League of Armed Neutrality.
Copenhagen was a brutal, unsubtle battle, with heavy loss of life on both sides. The collapse of the League of Armed Neutrality was important in keeping the Royal Navy dominant at sea over their French and Spanish opponents. This ultimately guaranteed that however successful Napoleon was on land, he would never be able to defeat Britain. It also added to the growing reputation of Nelson as a fighting admiral and effectively ended the career of Admiral Parker. He was recalled to London shortly afterwards, and never commanded a fleet again. | 1,097 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The correct answer to this question is C, Assam. The revolt of Songram Sangma was one of the major revolts against the British. The other major revolt was the forest Satyagraha in the Central Provinces, which occured in 1930. These revolts occured because of the exploration of British, which deprived the tribes of their forest rights, which they were used to.
The revolts greatly affected the tribes because they were exploited by the traders and the lenders of money that invaded their land. Assam, where the revolt occured, is a state in India. It has many things it is known for, including its wildlife and tea.
C is the correct answer. The revolt of Songram Sangma in Assam was the result of the invasion of the British to the tribal people of India. The tribal people, of course, were scattered in the deep forests and the British forced them all to live in a small land to control them better. The tribal was not also allowed to cultivate and hunt in the forests and like anyone who has stolen their homes and livelihoods from them did not like it.
They revolted in 1906 as a protest in these British laws. These laws greatly affected the lives of the tribal that they needed to pay tribute to the officers in an exchange of cheap labor. The tribals were forced to leave their land and work in mines and plantations instead of living peacefully in the forest. | <urn:uuid:10034033-73b3-4cd4-bd68-06c35358d521> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/1335316/where-did-the-revolt-of-songram-sangma-in-1906-take-place-2p?utm_source=quiz_topic_page&utm_medium=discuss_button_click&utm_campaign=quiz_topic_page_discuss_button_click | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00198.warc.gz | en | 0.989577 | 292 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.27746105194... | 3 | The correct answer to this question is C, Assam. The revolt of Songram Sangma was one of the major revolts against the British. The other major revolt was the forest Satyagraha in the Central Provinces, which occured in 1930. These revolts occured because of the exploration of British, which deprived the tribes of their forest rights, which they were used to.
The revolts greatly affected the tribes because they were exploited by the traders and the lenders of money that invaded their land. Assam, where the revolt occured, is a state in India. It has many things it is known for, including its wildlife and tea.
C is the correct answer. The revolt of Songram Sangma in Assam was the result of the invasion of the British to the tribal people of India. The tribal people, of course, were scattered in the deep forests and the British forced them all to live in a small land to control them better. The tribal was not also allowed to cultivate and hunt in the forests and like anyone who has stolen their homes and livelihoods from them did not like it.
They revolted in 1906 as a protest in these British laws. These laws greatly affected the lives of the tribal that they needed to pay tribute to the officers in an exchange of cheap labor. The tribals were forced to leave their land and work in mines and plantations instead of living peacefully in the forest. | 297 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A disaster is an event or an occurrence that seriously distorts normal functioning of a society to an extent that the society cannot cope with it using the available resources. This means that whenever an event happens in a vulnerable society, which exceeds society’s capacity to cope with consequences of the event, it becomes a disaster. An event can be a disaster for one society and not for the other. This depends on the influence of the event and the resilience of the society concerned (Carter, 2010). Natural hazards cause natural disasters if the society involved is vulnerable. Natural hazards such as earthquakes are part of God’s creative work. For example, earthquakes are natural events that form the landscape. They only become potential hazards when they threaten people or property (CDRC, 2012). Haiti earthquake caused serious disruption of normal functioning of the society. The population was unable to cope with this event, the impact of which is felt up to date.
Objectives of the study
To describe Haiti Earthquake disaster in the following phases:
- Disaster phase;
- Response phase;
- Recovery/rehabilitation phase;
- Risk reduction/mitigation phase;
- Preparedness phase.
An earthquake is also referred to as tremor, quake, or temblor. Haiti is a small island in the Caribbean, East of Cuba and South East of the USA. Port-au Prince is the capital city of Haiti. Haiti earthquake was the most severe earthquake in the past 200 years or more in the area. The earthquake occurred on Tuesday 12th January 2010 at 16.53 local time, or 4.53pm (21.53 GMT). The earthquake occurred 72.533°W, 18.457°N. The focus of the earthquake was 8.1 miles (13km) below the surface of the earth.
Haiti is located on the slip plate, boundary to the North American Plate and north of the Caribbean Plate. Both the Caribbean Plate and North American Plate move towards the west, but the North American Plate moves faster than the Caribbean Plate. There is friction between two plates since the movement is not smooth. The North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate move 20mm (0.8 inches) a year. The pressure built up between the two plates increased within a certain time flame and was released as an earthquake (Davis & Wall, 2010). It was a 7.0 magnitude earthquake on the Richter scale with an epicenter 16 miles west of Port-au-Prince.
Experts knew that Haiti was seismic. However, they were unable to predict when the hazardous event would occur. The speed of onset of this earthquake was few seconds. Therefore, people could hardly do anything to prevent it from becoming a disaster. The earthquake lasted for about 30 to 40 seconds. The consequences of Haiti earth quake were too severe. Over 316,000 deaths were recorded, buildings were damaged, and infrastructure was destroyed. Major damage occurred in Port-au-Prince and Jacmel towns after 52 shocks which lasted for less than one minute. The epicenter of Haiti earthquake was 16km south west of Port-Au-Prince. This earthquake was caused by a slip along Enriquillo-Plaintain Garden fault, which is an existing fault in this area.
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Everyone in Haiti was vulnerable prior to the disaster. The society was not resilient enough to cope with the effects of an earthquake. Disaster managers and scientists knew that Haiti was a seismic area, but were unable to predict when the event would occur. This was due to lack of resources to forecast hazardous events. Everyone was vulnerable. However, women, children, and the elderly were more vulnerable as they could not react faster like men and the youth. Haiti lacked early warning system. Extensive deforestation contributed to negative effects as there were no trees and roots to control the waves (Maskery, 2012). The earthquake occurred very fast and there were no early warning systems to alert the society before the event occurred. Additionally, there was inadequate infrastructure for people to use during evacuation. There was only one air port, which was faulty. This is why many peopl were affected as they tried to run by foot. Lack of communication was another problem. People were not alerted as there was network problem in the area. Haiti is a poor region. In fact, the poorest people in south-east of America have more resources than majority of people in Haiti. The Haiti society is also vulnerable to strong winds. The earthquake was too huge for them to resist using available resources (Carter, 2010).
The Disaster Phase
This is the phase when the event occurs and becomes impossible for the society to handle due to insufficient existing resources. There is a profound destruction of the society. This disaster causes death, injuries, property destruction, environmental destruction, and other damages. The population at risk is taken by overwhelming shock.
Over 3 million human beings were victims of the earthquake. Government of Haiti reported that more than 230,000 people died, 300,000 were injured, and more than 1,000,000 were left homeless. 250,000 residential houses and 30,000 commercial buildings collapsed and others were severely damaged (Anderson, 2012).
The reasons why so many people lost their lives are listed below:
- Haiti earthquake occurred at shallow depth. Seismic waves had to travel a short distance to reach the surface. Therefore, the waves maintained most of their energy. This caused enormous destruction;
- The area struck by the earthquake was the most densely populated;
- Haiti is economically the poorest nation in the western hemisphere. It was unfortunate since there were no resources to react immediately;
- Most buildings in Haiti were poorly constructed so that they could not resist strong winds, leave alone such strong earthquake;
- Haiti is densely populated with over 3 million people living in slums as a result of rapid urbanization in the country;
- Haiti has only one airport, which has a single runway. Therefore, it was dangerous to evacuate people using this runway since it was badly destroyed by the earthquake;
- It was hard to deliver aid to people since the port was totally damaged. Food and water took days to reach people. Roads were destroyed and trucks could not pass. Volunteers were few as people feared another disaster;
- It took two days for international rescue teams to reach the affected area due to problems at the airport. Volunteers were using their bare hands to save lives;
- Insufficient number of doctors in the area caused more harm as victims were dying of injuries.
Post Disaster Phase
Primary impact of the earthquake.
- 316,000 people died and more than one million were left homeless. The earthquake directly affected 3 million people;
- 250,000 residential homes and 30,000 commercial buildings were destroyed. The President’s Palace and several government buildings were damaged;
- Transport and communication lines were also damaged by the earthquake;
- Transport, communication, and sewage links were badly damaged;
- Over 50 hospitals, more than 1000 schools were badly damaged;
- The airport control tower was destroyed;
- The main prison was damaged and four thousand inmates escaped.
Secondary effects of the earthquake.
- 20 percent of the population lost their jobs because many buildings were destroyed. The clothing industry, which was the largest in Haiti, was destroyed as well. This left hundreds of people jobless.
- Many deaths caused a situation where bodies were piled on the streets since hospitals and mortuaries were full. This increased trauma and caused more deaths;
- Piled bodies in the streets caused diseases such as cholera, which caused more deaths;
- It was difficult to deliver aid to the area as a result of airport and infrastructure destruction and poor management of operations;
- People were squeezed into shanty areas or the streets since their homes were destroyed. This lead to poor sanitation, which resulted in poor health and diseases. People started to engage in crime as this was the only way to make a living.
The aim of emergency response is to provide immediate assistance to save lives, improve health, and support the morale of the affected population. The focus in this phase is to save life and, where possible, property. This involves satisfying basic needs of people until more permanent and sustainable solutions can be found. Humanitarian organizations are actively involved in this phase of disaster management cycle (Blaikie et al, 2011). The aid for Haiti included:
- America donated $100 million, while European Union donated $330 million;
- 810,000 people who lost their homes were placed in aid camps;
- Over 1,000,000 tarpaulin shelters and 115,000 tents were provided in the aid camps;
- Healthcare services were provided to reduce disease spread and cater for the injured;
- There was inadequate aid as a result of poor planning and poor infrastructure. This forced local people try and help each other out of the disaster;
- Food and water was supplied to over 4.3 million people for several weeks after the earthquake.
In this phase, victims are able to join humanitarian organizations to restore their lives back to normal. This phase includes several activities to restore the society to the condition it was in prior to the disaster. This is the phase where people try to prevent future hazardous events from becoming disastrous. They increase preparedness and reduce vulnerability (ADCP, 2011).
- 98 percent of ruins on the roads have not been cleared. This restricted aid access;
- One million people live in aid camps since they have not been relocated;
- 70 percent of the affected population is still jobless. There is continuous support in a form of food and cash for victims as they do not have other survival means;
- Temporary schools have been constructed and new teachers were trained to support education system;
- Water and sanitation is still supplied for more than1.7 million people.
Following are the recommendations that could be considered in the situation of Haiti:
- Strengthen buildings, tighten roofs, walls, and foundations together with metal or timber bars;
- Build strong religious institutions in Haiti, since people often gather in churches for protection;
- Improve vulnerable buildings technologically;
- Enforce and establish building standards and norms;
- Building community capacity and resilience;
- Implement disaster management procedures and plans;
- Design practices to evaluate and assess disaster plans;
- Ensure resource and logistics planning;
- Ensure communications and network planning;
- Ensure seismic retrofitting to enhance earthquake resistance;
- Introduce earthquake insurance so that people could be compensated and restore their financial status to the one prior to the disaster;
- Install early warning systems.
The society should be educated on the risks that their area is subjected to as well as about the steps to take whenever a disaster strikes. A disaster causes death, injury, and destruction of infrastructure. This damage has to be repaired so that the affected community can continue with life peacefully. It takes a lot of time and capital to repair an area struck by a disaster to its normal functioning. This requires money, international cooperation, and assistance. Food, water, clothing, and other essential materials are needed to help survivors after a disaster. It is important to rebuild the society and ensure that future occurrences will not become disasters. The Haiti earthquake devastated Haiti population. The effects of this earthquake were worsened by widespread poverty and underdeveloped infrastructure. Earthquakes are natural disasters, which cannot be avoided. However, with a resilient society, early warning systems, and disaster managements programs it is possible for Haiti people and other vulnerable societies to survive the effects of a hazard and move on with their lives comfortably after the event.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:5a5b9796-108c-40de-a0af-610bd3a06151> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essays-experts.com/essays/case-studies/case-study-of-haiti-earthquake.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00041.warc.gz | en | 0.9812 | 2,419 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.06955846399... | 1 | A disaster is an event or an occurrence that seriously distorts normal functioning of a society to an extent that the society cannot cope with it using the available resources. This means that whenever an event happens in a vulnerable society, which exceeds society’s capacity to cope with consequences of the event, it becomes a disaster. An event can be a disaster for one society and not for the other. This depends on the influence of the event and the resilience of the society concerned (Carter, 2010). Natural hazards cause natural disasters if the society involved is vulnerable. Natural hazards such as earthquakes are part of God’s creative work. For example, earthquakes are natural events that form the landscape. They only become potential hazards when they threaten people or property (CDRC, 2012). Haiti earthquake caused serious disruption of normal functioning of the society. The population was unable to cope with this event, the impact of which is felt up to date.
Objectives of the study
To describe Haiti Earthquake disaster in the following phases:
- Disaster phase;
- Response phase;
- Recovery/rehabilitation phase;
- Risk reduction/mitigation phase;
- Preparedness phase.
An earthquake is also referred to as tremor, quake, or temblor. Haiti is a small island in the Caribbean, East of Cuba and South East of the USA. Port-au Prince is the capital city of Haiti. Haiti earthquake was the most severe earthquake in the past 200 years or more in the area. The earthquake occurred on Tuesday 12th January 2010 at 16.53 local time, or 4.53pm (21.53 GMT). The earthquake occurred 72.533°W, 18.457°N. The focus of the earthquake was 8.1 miles (13km) below the surface of the earth.
Haiti is located on the slip plate, boundary to the North American Plate and north of the Caribbean Plate. Both the Caribbean Plate and North American Plate move towards the west, but the North American Plate moves faster than the Caribbean Plate. There is friction between two plates since the movement is not smooth. The North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate move 20mm (0.8 inches) a year. The pressure built up between the two plates increased within a certain time flame and was released as an earthquake (Davis & Wall, 2010). It was a 7.0 magnitude earthquake on the Richter scale with an epicenter 16 miles west of Port-au-Prince.
Experts knew that Haiti was seismic. However, they were unable to predict when the hazardous event would occur. The speed of onset of this earthquake was few seconds. Therefore, people could hardly do anything to prevent it from becoming a disaster. The earthquake lasted for about 30 to 40 seconds. The consequences of Haiti earth quake were too severe. Over 316,000 deaths were recorded, buildings were damaged, and infrastructure was destroyed. Major damage occurred in Port-au-Prince and Jacmel towns after 52 shocks which lasted for less than one minute. The epicenter of Haiti earthquake was 16km south west of Port-Au-Prince. This earthquake was caused by a slip along Enriquillo-Plaintain Garden fault, which is an existing fault in this area.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Everyone in Haiti was vulnerable prior to the disaster. The society was not resilient enough to cope with the effects of an earthquake. Disaster managers and scientists knew that Haiti was a seismic area, but were unable to predict when the event would occur. This was due to lack of resources to forecast hazardous events. Everyone was vulnerable. However, women, children, and the elderly were more vulnerable as they could not react faster like men and the youth. Haiti lacked early warning system. Extensive deforestation contributed to negative effects as there were no trees and roots to control the waves (Maskery, 2012). The earthquake occurred very fast and there were no early warning systems to alert the society before the event occurred. Additionally, there was inadequate infrastructure for people to use during evacuation. There was only one air port, which was faulty. This is why many peopl were affected as they tried to run by foot. Lack of communication was another problem. People were not alerted as there was network problem in the area. Haiti is a poor region. In fact, the poorest people in south-east of America have more resources than majority of people in Haiti. The Haiti society is also vulnerable to strong winds. The earthquake was too huge for them to resist using available resources (Carter, 2010).
The Disaster Phase
This is the phase when the event occurs and becomes impossible for the society to handle due to insufficient existing resources. There is a profound destruction of the society. This disaster causes death, injuries, property destruction, environmental destruction, and other damages. The population at risk is taken by overwhelming shock.
Over 3 million human beings were victims of the earthquake. Government of Haiti reported that more than 230,000 people died, 300,000 were injured, and more than 1,000,000 were left homeless. 250,000 residential houses and 30,000 commercial buildings collapsed and others were severely damaged (Anderson, 2012).
The reasons why so many people lost their lives are listed below:
- Haiti earthquake occurred at shallow depth. Seismic waves had to travel a short distance to reach the surface. Therefore, the waves maintained most of their energy. This caused enormous destruction;
- The area struck by the earthquake was the most densely populated;
- Haiti is economically the poorest nation in the western hemisphere. It was unfortunate since there were no resources to react immediately;
- Most buildings in Haiti were poorly constructed so that they could not resist strong winds, leave alone such strong earthquake;
- Haiti is densely populated with over 3 million people living in slums as a result of rapid urbanization in the country;
- Haiti has only one airport, which has a single runway. Therefore, it was dangerous to evacuate people using this runway since it was badly destroyed by the earthquake;
- It was hard to deliver aid to people since the port was totally damaged. Food and water took days to reach people. Roads were destroyed and trucks could not pass. Volunteers were few as people feared another disaster;
- It took two days for international rescue teams to reach the affected area due to problems at the airport. Volunteers were using their bare hands to save lives;
- Insufficient number of doctors in the area caused more harm as victims were dying of injuries.
Post Disaster Phase
Primary impact of the earthquake.
- 316,000 people died and more than one million were left homeless. The earthquake directly affected 3 million people;
- 250,000 residential homes and 30,000 commercial buildings were destroyed. The President’s Palace and several government buildings were damaged;
- Transport and communication lines were also damaged by the earthquake;
- Transport, communication, and sewage links were badly damaged;
- Over 50 hospitals, more than 1000 schools were badly damaged;
- The airport control tower was destroyed;
- The main prison was damaged and four thousand inmates escaped.
Secondary effects of the earthquake.
- 20 percent of the population lost their jobs because many buildings were destroyed. The clothing industry, which was the largest in Haiti, was destroyed as well. This left hundreds of people jobless.
- Many deaths caused a situation where bodies were piled on the streets since hospitals and mortuaries were full. This increased trauma and caused more deaths;
- Piled bodies in the streets caused diseases such as cholera, which caused more deaths;
- It was difficult to deliver aid to the area as a result of airport and infrastructure destruction and poor management of operations;
- People were squeezed into shanty areas or the streets since their homes were destroyed. This lead to poor sanitation, which resulted in poor health and diseases. People started to engage in crime as this was the only way to make a living.
The aim of emergency response is to provide immediate assistance to save lives, improve health, and support the morale of the affected population. The focus in this phase is to save life and, where possible, property. This involves satisfying basic needs of people until more permanent and sustainable solutions can be found. Humanitarian organizations are actively involved in this phase of disaster management cycle (Blaikie et al, 2011). The aid for Haiti included:
- America donated $100 million, while European Union donated $330 million;
- 810,000 people who lost their homes were placed in aid camps;
- Over 1,000,000 tarpaulin shelters and 115,000 tents were provided in the aid camps;
- Healthcare services were provided to reduce disease spread and cater for the injured;
- There was inadequate aid as a result of poor planning and poor infrastructure. This forced local people try and help each other out of the disaster;
- Food and water was supplied to over 4.3 million people for several weeks after the earthquake.
In this phase, victims are able to join humanitarian organizations to restore their lives back to normal. This phase includes several activities to restore the society to the condition it was in prior to the disaster. This is the phase where people try to prevent future hazardous events from becoming disastrous. They increase preparedness and reduce vulnerability (ADCP, 2011).
- 98 percent of ruins on the roads have not been cleared. This restricted aid access;
- One million people live in aid camps since they have not been relocated;
- 70 percent of the affected population is still jobless. There is continuous support in a form of food and cash for victims as they do not have other survival means;
- Temporary schools have been constructed and new teachers were trained to support education system;
- Water and sanitation is still supplied for more than1.7 million people.
Following are the recommendations that could be considered in the situation of Haiti:
- Strengthen buildings, tighten roofs, walls, and foundations together with metal or timber bars;
- Build strong religious institutions in Haiti, since people often gather in churches for protection;
- Improve vulnerable buildings technologically;
- Enforce and establish building standards and norms;
- Building community capacity and resilience;
- Implement disaster management procedures and plans;
- Design practices to evaluate and assess disaster plans;
- Ensure resource and logistics planning;
- Ensure communications and network planning;
- Ensure seismic retrofitting to enhance earthquake resistance;
- Introduce earthquake insurance so that people could be compensated and restore their financial status to the one prior to the disaster;
- Install early warning systems.
The society should be educated on the risks that their area is subjected to as well as about the steps to take whenever a disaster strikes. A disaster causes death, injury, and destruction of infrastructure. This damage has to be repaired so that the affected community can continue with life peacefully. It takes a lot of time and capital to repair an area struck by a disaster to its normal functioning. This requires money, international cooperation, and assistance. Food, water, clothing, and other essential materials are needed to help survivors after a disaster. It is important to rebuild the society and ensure that future occurrences will not become disasters. The Haiti earthquake devastated Haiti population. The effects of this earthquake were worsened by widespread poverty and underdeveloped infrastructure. Earthquakes are natural disasters, which cannot be avoided. However, with a resilient society, early warning systems, and disaster managements programs it is possible for Haiti people and other vulnerable societies to survive the effects of a hazard and move on with their lives comfortably after the event.
Most popular orders | 2,493 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Siege of Thebes was a battle that occured between the Army of Anubis and the Sumerian armies of Thebes.
The Scorpion King Invades the first time
In the year 3067 B.C, Mathayus had reached Thebes with his men and had intended to fell the city in the 3067 B.C, conquering it as part of his empire; leading his men to attack Thebes, Mathayus fought with his troops against a number of soldiers of Thebes for seven years before he and his warriors were finally compelled to admit defeat and wander off into the desert of Ahm Shere. Mathayus accepted his defeat quietly, with a sour, displeased look about him as he and his troops wandered on.
The Scorpion King Invades a second time
The Scorpion King was given command of Anubis's army in exchange for his soul, which he used to invade Thebes, and burn it to the ground. Seven years before, the Scorpion King had been defeated, along with his armies, and expelled out into the deserts of Ahm Shere, but the Scorpion King had managed to strike a bargain with the god of mummification, Anubis, promising his soul and a golden pyramid in exchange for the sparing of his life. The jackal god allowed the Scorpion King to live and gave him the chance to conquer once more, giving him his Army to command it in his conquests. After many campaigns throughout the lands, the Scorpion King returned to Thebes to defeat its forces, taking the people of Thebes by surprise.
Once he had completed his quest, Anubis took the Scorpion King's soul and returned his Army back to the sands from which they came, where they lay silently until they would be called to battle again. | <urn:uuid:8123bf5a-ed87-4fa4-be49-b3235b1cc1ce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mummy.fandom.com/wiki/Siege_of_Thebes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00182.warc.gz | en | 0.992914 | 362 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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-0.072996348... | 3 | The Siege of Thebes was a battle that occured between the Army of Anubis and the Sumerian armies of Thebes.
The Scorpion King Invades the first time
In the year 3067 B.C, Mathayus had reached Thebes with his men and had intended to fell the city in the 3067 B.C, conquering it as part of his empire; leading his men to attack Thebes, Mathayus fought with his troops against a number of soldiers of Thebes for seven years before he and his warriors were finally compelled to admit defeat and wander off into the desert of Ahm Shere. Mathayus accepted his defeat quietly, with a sour, displeased look about him as he and his troops wandered on.
The Scorpion King Invades a second time
The Scorpion King was given command of Anubis's army in exchange for his soul, which he used to invade Thebes, and burn it to the ground. Seven years before, the Scorpion King had been defeated, along with his armies, and expelled out into the deserts of Ahm Shere, but the Scorpion King had managed to strike a bargain with the god of mummification, Anubis, promising his soul and a golden pyramid in exchange for the sparing of his life. The jackal god allowed the Scorpion King to live and gave him the chance to conquer once more, giving him his Army to command it in his conquests. After many campaigns throughout the lands, the Scorpion King returned to Thebes to defeat its forces, taking the people of Thebes by surprise.
Once he had completed his quest, Anubis took the Scorpion King's soul and returned his Army back to the sands from which they came, where they lay silently until they would be called to battle again. | 376 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disability (LD) are two of the most prevalent disorders occurring in children aged 6 to 17 years. In 2006, the National Centers for Health Statistics (NCHS) estimated that 4.5 million and 4.6 million children, respectively, have been diagnosed with ADHD or LD. Prescriptions for ADHD medications have increased dramatically in the past decade, with utilization in many states more than quadrupling, but the reason for the increase is not clear. The reason for the recent decline in the use of drugs that contain methylphenidate also is not known. The annual societal cost of illness for ADHD has been estimated to be between $36 and $52 billion (in 2005 dollars). Studies have demonstrated increases in substance abuse, risk-taking, and criminal behaviors among adolescents who have ADHD and other related disorders.
According to the NCHS, nearly 5% of children had ADHD without LD, 5% of children had LD without ADHD, and 4% of children had both disorders. The percentage of children aged 6 to 17 years who had ADHD increased at an annual rate of 3% from 1997 through 2006, but the percentage of children with LD did not change significantly. No significant change was found in the percentage of children aged 6 to 11 years who had ADHD; however, an annual increase of 4% occurred among those aged 12 to 17 years.
An increase in the percentage of children with ADHD occurred among both boys (2%) and girls (4%). The causes and risk factors contributing to ADHD are unknown, although the disorder appears to be more prevalent among boys.
Children whose birthweight was low (14.1%) were more likely than children who did not have a low birthweight (8.1%) to have LD. Among low-birthweight children, 7.5% and 7.9% of boys were more likely to have ADHD and LD, respectively, in comparison with girls (3% and 7.4%, respectively).
Hispanic children (5.3%) were less likely than non-Hispanic black children (8.6%) and non-Hispanic white children (9.8%) to have ADHD. No significant racial or ethnic differences were found in the percentage of children having LD without ADHD.
Children with ADHD (46.2%) were more likely than children without ADHD (4%) to have contact with a mental-health professional, utilize more prescription medications (62.7% vs. 10.6%), and make frequent health care visits (56.7% vs. 21.7%). Children with LD were more likely (59.3%) than children without this disorder (2.4%) to utilize special-education services.
The prevalence of mental retardation (6.5%), hearing or vision problems (4.5%), and allergies (36.8%) was lowest among children who had ADHD without LD; children who had LD without ADHD had the highest prevalence of mental retardation (36.6%). Children who had both ADHD and LD had the highest prevalence of hearing or vision problems (9.6%) and allergies (42.8%). The prevalence of asthma was lowest (20.8%) among children having LD without ADHD, and it was highest (22.2%) among children who had both.
Children with Medicaid coverage (5.9%) were more likely than uninsured (2.6%) and privately insured children (3.1%) to have ADHD, LD, or both disorders. These children also were more likely to utilize health care and special-education services.
To comment on this article, contact email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:5ff03f2a-3735-40b4-a0b0-b82fe1ea3c3c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/patterns-of-diagnosed-adhd-and-ld-19972006 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00170.warc.gz | en | 0.982365 | 741 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.421828120946884... | 3 | Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disability (LD) are two of the most prevalent disorders occurring in children aged 6 to 17 years. In 2006, the National Centers for Health Statistics (NCHS) estimated that 4.5 million and 4.6 million children, respectively, have been diagnosed with ADHD or LD. Prescriptions for ADHD medications have increased dramatically in the past decade, with utilization in many states more than quadrupling, but the reason for the increase is not clear. The reason for the recent decline in the use of drugs that contain methylphenidate also is not known. The annual societal cost of illness for ADHD has been estimated to be between $36 and $52 billion (in 2005 dollars). Studies have demonstrated increases in substance abuse, risk-taking, and criminal behaviors among adolescents who have ADHD and other related disorders.
According to the NCHS, nearly 5% of children had ADHD without LD, 5% of children had LD without ADHD, and 4% of children had both disorders. The percentage of children aged 6 to 17 years who had ADHD increased at an annual rate of 3% from 1997 through 2006, but the percentage of children with LD did not change significantly. No significant change was found in the percentage of children aged 6 to 11 years who had ADHD; however, an annual increase of 4% occurred among those aged 12 to 17 years.
An increase in the percentage of children with ADHD occurred among both boys (2%) and girls (4%). The causes and risk factors contributing to ADHD are unknown, although the disorder appears to be more prevalent among boys.
Children whose birthweight was low (14.1%) were more likely than children who did not have a low birthweight (8.1%) to have LD. Among low-birthweight children, 7.5% and 7.9% of boys were more likely to have ADHD and LD, respectively, in comparison with girls (3% and 7.4%, respectively).
Hispanic children (5.3%) were less likely than non-Hispanic black children (8.6%) and non-Hispanic white children (9.8%) to have ADHD. No significant racial or ethnic differences were found in the percentage of children having LD without ADHD.
Children with ADHD (46.2%) were more likely than children without ADHD (4%) to have contact with a mental-health professional, utilize more prescription medications (62.7% vs. 10.6%), and make frequent health care visits (56.7% vs. 21.7%). Children with LD were more likely (59.3%) than children without this disorder (2.4%) to utilize special-education services.
The prevalence of mental retardation (6.5%), hearing or vision problems (4.5%), and allergies (36.8%) was lowest among children who had ADHD without LD; children who had LD without ADHD had the highest prevalence of mental retardation (36.6%). Children who had both ADHD and LD had the highest prevalence of hearing or vision problems (9.6%) and allergies (42.8%). The prevalence of asthma was lowest (20.8%) among children having LD without ADHD, and it was highest (22.2%) among children who had both.
Children with Medicaid coverage (5.9%) were more likely than uninsured (2.6%) and privately insured children (3.1%) to have ADHD, LD, or both disorders. These children also were more likely to utilize health care and special-education services.
To comment on this article, contact email@example.com. | 783 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The play, Hamlet, is written by the famous play-writer William Shakespeare, who lived from 1564 to 1616. Hamlet is written between 1599 and 1601, and its sub-genre is tragedy.
The play is about a prince called Hamlet. He is told by his father's ghost that his father was killed by his uncle Claudius. Hamlet then wants Claudius dead, and is eager to get revenge against him. He decides that he needs some proof about what the ghost had said, before doing anything. He pretends then to be crazy,
and he gets a few actors to play the scene of his father's death, to see how Claudius would react. When he finds out that Claudius get shocked by the play, he knows that he did it.
Hamlet is in love with Ophelia, and doesn't… | <urn:uuid:c598b243-faa0-4994-a325-d74684572f4a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://liceunet.ro/hamlet/presentation-of-the-play | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00208.warc.gz | en | 0.995667 | 178 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.246001303195953... | 3 | The play, Hamlet, is written by the famous play-writer William Shakespeare, who lived from 1564 to 1616. Hamlet is written between 1599 and 1601, and its sub-genre is tragedy.
The play is about a prince called Hamlet. He is told by his father's ghost that his father was killed by his uncle Claudius. Hamlet then wants Claudius dead, and is eager to get revenge against him. He decides that he needs some proof about what the ghost had said, before doing anything. He pretends then to be crazy,
and he gets a few actors to play the scene of his father's death, to see how Claudius would react. When he finds out that Claudius get shocked by the play, he knows that he did it.
Hamlet is in love with Ophelia, and doesn't… | 187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day in history : 15th January 1867 – Ice covering the boating lake at Regent’s Park gives way…. Hundreds of skaters are plunged into the icy water – 40 people lose their lives….
Ice skating was an extremely popular leisure activity during Victorian times – frozen ponds and lakes were often advertised in newspapers…. Up to 300 people were enjoying themselves on the ice in Regent’s Park this particular afternoon – skating, sliding, playing games of ice-hockey….
At around 4.15 the ice suddenly gave way with no warning – breaking into thousands of pieces…. Between 100-200 people were plunged into 12 foot of icy water – the weight of their heavy Victorian clothing dragging them down…. Boats were hurriedly launched to try and rescue those floundering in the water….passers-by reached out with branches broken from trees….
Those who lost their lives came from all walks of life, from gentry to the very poor…. Most were young men but there were also women and children among them…. 29-year-old James Griffin was on the ice selling oranges to the skaters – and another, John Bryon, was selling hot roasted chestnuts…. It took over a week to recover all of the bodies, fishermen from Kew were used to drag their nets along the bottom of the lake….
There was much debate at the later inquest, as to the cause of the accident…. Some blamed Skating Club members acting as stewards (known as ‘Icemen’) for breaking the ice around the edges to prevent access to the island…. They in turn blamed the ice-hockey players, people who had been jumping on the ice and even the sun for melting it…. Park keepers also came under scrutiny – as it was thought they may have broken the ice out of concern for the large collection of exotic water fowl housed on the lake…. But in truth the skaters themselves were chiefly to blame for their own misfortune….
The previous day 21 people had fallen through the ice – thankfully all had been rescued…. An overnight dusting of snow had covered the cracks so they were not visible…. Despite prominent signs being displayed, warning of the danger of thin ice, such was the enthusiasm to have fun that the signs were ignored….
As a precaution to prevent such a tragedy from happening again the lake was drained and the depth reduced to 4 or 5 foot with soil and concrete…. However, the public were slow to learn – years later a similar incident was to happen….only this time because of the depth none of the 100 or so who fell in received anything more than a very cold bath…. | <urn:uuid:0547ce3d-47aa-4857-89d1-828ec61fcb84> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://cottagecapers.com/tag/victorians/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00017.warc.gz | en | 0.989919 | 536 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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... | 12 | On this day in history : 15th January 1867 – Ice covering the boating lake at Regent’s Park gives way…. Hundreds of skaters are plunged into the icy water – 40 people lose their lives….
Ice skating was an extremely popular leisure activity during Victorian times – frozen ponds and lakes were often advertised in newspapers…. Up to 300 people were enjoying themselves on the ice in Regent’s Park this particular afternoon – skating, sliding, playing games of ice-hockey….
At around 4.15 the ice suddenly gave way with no warning – breaking into thousands of pieces…. Between 100-200 people were plunged into 12 foot of icy water – the weight of their heavy Victorian clothing dragging them down…. Boats were hurriedly launched to try and rescue those floundering in the water….passers-by reached out with branches broken from trees….
Those who lost their lives came from all walks of life, from gentry to the very poor…. Most were young men but there were also women and children among them…. 29-year-old James Griffin was on the ice selling oranges to the skaters – and another, John Bryon, was selling hot roasted chestnuts…. It took over a week to recover all of the bodies, fishermen from Kew were used to drag their nets along the bottom of the lake….
There was much debate at the later inquest, as to the cause of the accident…. Some blamed Skating Club members acting as stewards (known as ‘Icemen’) for breaking the ice around the edges to prevent access to the island…. They in turn blamed the ice-hockey players, people who had been jumping on the ice and even the sun for melting it…. Park keepers also came under scrutiny – as it was thought they may have broken the ice out of concern for the large collection of exotic water fowl housed on the lake…. But in truth the skaters themselves were chiefly to blame for their own misfortune….
The previous day 21 people had fallen through the ice – thankfully all had been rescued…. An overnight dusting of snow had covered the cracks so they were not visible…. Despite prominent signs being displayed, warning of the danger of thin ice, such was the enthusiasm to have fun that the signs were ignored….
As a precaution to prevent such a tragedy from happening again the lake was drained and the depth reduced to 4 or 5 foot with soil and concrete…. However, the public were slow to learn – years later a similar incident was to happen….only this time because of the depth none of the 100 or so who fell in received anything more than a very cold bath…. | 556 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Blockhouse is a small fort in the northern part of Central Park, in New York City, New York, and is the oldest structure standing in the park. It is located on an overlook of Manhattan schist, with a clear view of the flat surrounding areas north of Central Park. Finished in 1814, the fort was part of a series of fortifications in northern Manhattan, which originally also included three fortifications in Harlem Heights (now known as Morningside Heights). Officially known as Blockhouse #1, the fort is the last remaining fortification from these defenses. Olmsted and Vaux treated Blockhouse No. 1 as a picturesque ruin, romantically overrun with vines and Alpine shrubbery.
This structure was likely built on a foundation of a structure dating back to a much earlier date. In 1776 during the Revolutionary War, British and Hessian troops sealed off lower Manhattan from colonial armies by controlling the pass and defending it through a series of fortifications. From trial excavations performed in 1995, it has been determined that the foundations of Blockhouse #1 date back to this time of British occupation of Manhattan.
The current fort was constructed in three phases:
In the first phase, Under the direction of General Joseph Gardner Swift, the fort was hastily constructed by New Yorkers during the War of 1812 in anticipation of a British invasion. The building was assembled by volunteers who brought the building materials with them, hence the red sandstone blocks included with the Manhattan schist.The fort consists of a two-story bunker surrounding a small area, inside which a wooden platform would originally have stood. The wooded platform was sunken with a revolving turret for a cannon. The sides hold small gunports. This structure was likely connected to the ground by a small staircase. Construction on the tower was completed in 1814, two days before the Treaty of Ghent was signed to end the war.
The second phase was during its use as an ammunition and storage building. During this time the top two feet of stone work was added. They are noticeably different in color, composition and stonework.
Later at the turn of the 20th century, the current entrance and staircase were added, as was the tall flagpole in the center of the fort.
Blockhouse #1 stands in the northwest corner of Central Park, in a wooded area that is still rugged, high, and hard to reach. It is located south Of North Dr and north of Huddlestone Br—interior Of Drives in the flagship Park Zone. The building overlooks Harlem Meer and the Loula D. Lasker Pool-Rink.
This structure was initially built as a defensive fort for New York City and soldiers were stationed at the Blockhouse. At its height, nearly 2000 New York state militiamen garrisoned the fortifications. However, the British did not attack New York City, and as such the Blockhouse never saw combat. The Treaty of Ghent was signed on Christmas Eve 1814, and the fort was abandoned almost overnight. It was subsequently used for ammunition storage. In the early 1900s it was used as a place to celebrate patriotic holidays.
BUY IT ON Shop HW
The structure is currently unoccupied and unused. A large metal gate covers the door and securely closed access to this location. Occasional tours are provided by the Urban Park Rangers, but independent exploration of the internal fort is not allowed.
The Blockhouse had a bronze tablet commemorating its history placed above the door June 10, 1905. The ceremony was performed by Miss Mary Van Buren Vanderpoel, then president of the Women’s Auxiliary. Receiving the plaque was scheduled to be Park Commissioner Pallas but due to his unexplained absence, it was accepted by General Frederick D. Grant. However the plaque was stolen from this location many years ago and was noticed to be gone on March 28, 1913 at 3 pm. The plaque was documented in a copyrighted picture and was located above the door. The plaque read “This blockhouse was part of a line of fortifications extending from the Hudson to the Harlem River built for the defense of New York by it’s patriotic citizens during the war of 1812-1815. This tablet is erected by the Woman’s Auxiliary to the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society A.D. 1905”. In 1999, the Blockhouse had a new sign erected at its location describing its history. However, as of 2003, this plaque is also missing.
The Blockhouse is located in a secluded part of the park. It is best to travel there with a group and never alone.
Photo credit: 1) Blockhouse No. 1 in 1905. | <urn:uuid:9a5ab541-b2b8-47f5-81a2-a68b095b00d7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.harlemworldmagazine.com/the-blockhouse-in-harlem-1812/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00103.warc.gz | en | 0.9841 | 968 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.6727476716041... | 1 | The Blockhouse is a small fort in the northern part of Central Park, in New York City, New York, and is the oldest structure standing in the park. It is located on an overlook of Manhattan schist, with a clear view of the flat surrounding areas north of Central Park. Finished in 1814, the fort was part of a series of fortifications in northern Manhattan, which originally also included three fortifications in Harlem Heights (now known as Morningside Heights). Officially known as Blockhouse #1, the fort is the last remaining fortification from these defenses. Olmsted and Vaux treated Blockhouse No. 1 as a picturesque ruin, romantically overrun with vines and Alpine shrubbery.
This structure was likely built on a foundation of a structure dating back to a much earlier date. In 1776 during the Revolutionary War, British and Hessian troops sealed off lower Manhattan from colonial armies by controlling the pass and defending it through a series of fortifications. From trial excavations performed in 1995, it has been determined that the foundations of Blockhouse #1 date back to this time of British occupation of Manhattan.
The current fort was constructed in three phases:
In the first phase, Under the direction of General Joseph Gardner Swift, the fort was hastily constructed by New Yorkers during the War of 1812 in anticipation of a British invasion. The building was assembled by volunteers who brought the building materials with them, hence the red sandstone blocks included with the Manhattan schist.The fort consists of a two-story bunker surrounding a small area, inside which a wooden platform would originally have stood. The wooded platform was sunken with a revolving turret for a cannon. The sides hold small gunports. This structure was likely connected to the ground by a small staircase. Construction on the tower was completed in 1814, two days before the Treaty of Ghent was signed to end the war.
The second phase was during its use as an ammunition and storage building. During this time the top two feet of stone work was added. They are noticeably different in color, composition and stonework.
Later at the turn of the 20th century, the current entrance and staircase were added, as was the tall flagpole in the center of the fort.
Blockhouse #1 stands in the northwest corner of Central Park, in a wooded area that is still rugged, high, and hard to reach. It is located south Of North Dr and north of Huddlestone Br—interior Of Drives in the flagship Park Zone. The building overlooks Harlem Meer and the Loula D. Lasker Pool-Rink.
This structure was initially built as a defensive fort for New York City and soldiers were stationed at the Blockhouse. At its height, nearly 2000 New York state militiamen garrisoned the fortifications. However, the British did not attack New York City, and as such the Blockhouse never saw combat. The Treaty of Ghent was signed on Christmas Eve 1814, and the fort was abandoned almost overnight. It was subsequently used for ammunition storage. In the early 1900s it was used as a place to celebrate patriotic holidays.
BUY IT ON Shop HW
The structure is currently unoccupied and unused. A large metal gate covers the door and securely closed access to this location. Occasional tours are provided by the Urban Park Rangers, but independent exploration of the internal fort is not allowed.
The Blockhouse had a bronze tablet commemorating its history placed above the door June 10, 1905. The ceremony was performed by Miss Mary Van Buren Vanderpoel, then president of the Women’s Auxiliary. Receiving the plaque was scheduled to be Park Commissioner Pallas but due to his unexplained absence, it was accepted by General Frederick D. Grant. However the plaque was stolen from this location many years ago and was noticed to be gone on March 28, 1913 at 3 pm. The plaque was documented in a copyrighted picture and was located above the door. The plaque read “This blockhouse was part of a line of fortifications extending from the Hudson to the Harlem River built for the defense of New York by it’s patriotic citizens during the war of 1812-1815. This tablet is erected by the Woman’s Auxiliary to the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society A.D. 1905”. In 1999, the Blockhouse had a new sign erected at its location describing its history. However, as of 2003, this plaque is also missing.
The Blockhouse is located in a secluded part of the park. It is best to travel there with a group and never alone.
Photo credit: 1) Blockhouse No. 1 in 1905. | 1,002 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Through the Tunnel
The Quest to Conquer The main character, Jerry, in Dorris Lessing’s short story “Through the Tunnel” is an adolescent boy. The story illustrates Jerry’s struggles with fear, independence, maturity, and self-confidence. Jerry’s main conflict is his internal war between determination and fear. To win this battle raging on the inside, Jerry first has to overcome the obstacles he faces on the outside. Crushing the external hindrances he faces will determine whether or not Jerry is able to conquer the conflicts inside. Jerry and his mother entirely depend upon each other, as Jerry’s father is recently deceased.
Due to their need for each other, they both struggle with the balance of separation. Jerry deals with many external conflicts throughout the story, but one in particular is his battle with independence. “‘Are you tired of the usual beach, Jerry? Would you like to go somewhere else? ’ ‘Oh no! ’ he said quickly… Yet walking down the path, he blurted out, ‘I’d like to go and have a look down there’” (76). Jerry wants to go explore, but in fear of leaving his mother alone, is hesitant. At dinner one night, Jerry tells his mother, “Mummy, I can hold my breath underwater for two minutes-three at least” (85).
Jerry is only telling half the story. To the reader, this comes off as part of Jerry’s independence. Jerry is beginning to take part in events that could change, or even end his life. He does not feel obligated to express the situation to his mother. Jerry is simply becoming less dependent. Young boys are just that, they are young. Jerry is eleven years old. He wants to prove himself. To Jerry, swimming through the tunnel is the most important task at the moment. Another example of an external conflict is Jerry’s training program. After almost every attempt at the tunnel, or simply holding his breath, Jerry suffers. He lay face down, gasping. He could see nothing but a red-veined, clotted dark. His eyes must have burst, he thought; they were full of blood. He tore off his goggles and a gout of blood went into the sea” (85). The training program Jerry is putting himself through is brutal. His nose bleeds and bleeds. His head pounds after every try. All this hurt is leading back to his main internal conflict. Jerry is definitely determined. He is determined to do whatever it takes to make it through. Jerry is doing this all for himself. The tunnel itself is a huge obstacle.
It is dark and Jerry is not able to see anything. On his first attempt, Jerry’s fear is preventing him from moving forward. “… Panic filled him. He thought of octopuses, of clinging weed. He pushed himself backward and caught a glimpse…” (82). Jerry’s imagination is his worst enemy. His fear of the unknown opposes his determination to complete the journey through the tunnel. Jerry’s external conflicts: the tunnel, the training, his mother; all are contributing to his main internal conflict. Down he went, until he touched the wall of rock again.
But the salt was so painful in his eyes he could not see” (81). Jerry’s pain is only pushing him further. This young boy’s unwillingness to give in may be what is causing him pain, but Jerry knows this is only helping him and that he must continue. As he forces himself through the tunnel, Jerry is afraid. He is not afraid of the tunnel itself, but he is afraid of not possessing the courage to swim through it. If he comes back next year having not completed it the first time, he fears he will not be able to go trough with the endeavor. Finding the courage to complete the task at hand is tough for Jerry. If he does there, he would lie until one day-perhaps not before next year-those big boys would swim into it and find it blocked” (83-84). Jerry understands what he has to do. He keeps going, finishing something that at times, he thinks may be impossible. The external struggles Jerry faces throughout the story parallel his primary internal conflict. He is torn between his innate drive for independence and his overwhelming feelings of fear. It is through exploration and adventure that children learn to push their fears aside and are able to obtain a sense of independence. | <urn:uuid:c67909a3-1a65-4e7c-afb5-c50b6fad51d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/through-the-tunnel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00455.warc.gz | en | 0.980913 | 934 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.36858516931533... | 2 | Through the Tunnel
The Quest to Conquer The main character, Jerry, in Dorris Lessing’s short story “Through the Tunnel” is an adolescent boy. The story illustrates Jerry’s struggles with fear, independence, maturity, and self-confidence. Jerry’s main conflict is his internal war between determination and fear. To win this battle raging on the inside, Jerry first has to overcome the obstacles he faces on the outside. Crushing the external hindrances he faces will determine whether or not Jerry is able to conquer the conflicts inside. Jerry and his mother entirely depend upon each other, as Jerry’s father is recently deceased.
Due to their need for each other, they both struggle with the balance of separation. Jerry deals with many external conflicts throughout the story, but one in particular is his battle with independence. “‘Are you tired of the usual beach, Jerry? Would you like to go somewhere else? ’ ‘Oh no! ’ he said quickly… Yet walking down the path, he blurted out, ‘I’d like to go and have a look down there’” (76). Jerry wants to go explore, but in fear of leaving his mother alone, is hesitant. At dinner one night, Jerry tells his mother, “Mummy, I can hold my breath underwater for two minutes-three at least” (85).
Jerry is only telling half the story. To the reader, this comes off as part of Jerry’s independence. Jerry is beginning to take part in events that could change, or even end his life. He does not feel obligated to express the situation to his mother. Jerry is simply becoming less dependent. Young boys are just that, they are young. Jerry is eleven years old. He wants to prove himself. To Jerry, swimming through the tunnel is the most important task at the moment. Another example of an external conflict is Jerry’s training program. After almost every attempt at the tunnel, or simply holding his breath, Jerry suffers. He lay face down, gasping. He could see nothing but a red-veined, clotted dark. His eyes must have burst, he thought; they were full of blood. He tore off his goggles and a gout of blood went into the sea” (85). The training program Jerry is putting himself through is brutal. His nose bleeds and bleeds. His head pounds after every try. All this hurt is leading back to his main internal conflict. Jerry is definitely determined. He is determined to do whatever it takes to make it through. Jerry is doing this all for himself. The tunnel itself is a huge obstacle.
It is dark and Jerry is not able to see anything. On his first attempt, Jerry’s fear is preventing him from moving forward. “… Panic filled him. He thought of octopuses, of clinging weed. He pushed himself backward and caught a glimpse…” (82). Jerry’s imagination is his worst enemy. His fear of the unknown opposes his determination to complete the journey through the tunnel. Jerry’s external conflicts: the tunnel, the training, his mother; all are contributing to his main internal conflict. Down he went, until he touched the wall of rock again.
But the salt was so painful in his eyes he could not see” (81). Jerry’s pain is only pushing him further. This young boy’s unwillingness to give in may be what is causing him pain, but Jerry knows this is only helping him and that he must continue. As he forces himself through the tunnel, Jerry is afraid. He is not afraid of the tunnel itself, but he is afraid of not possessing the courage to swim through it. If he comes back next year having not completed it the first time, he fears he will not be able to go trough with the endeavor. Finding the courage to complete the task at hand is tough for Jerry. If he does there, he would lie until one day-perhaps not before next year-those big boys would swim into it and find it blocked” (83-84). Jerry understands what he has to do. He keeps going, finishing something that at times, he thinks may be impossible. The external struggles Jerry faces throughout the story parallel his primary internal conflict. He is torn between his innate drive for independence and his overwhelming feelings of fear. It is through exploration and adventure that children learn to push their fears aside and are able to obtain a sense of independence. | 893 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Europe and Africa have been linked together in evaluating the state formation process. Both regions have similarities, strengths, weaknesses, and room for improvement. To this day both regions are far from perfect. Some light can be shed on this subject, by evaluating Europe and Africa’s state formation process, evaluating what party benefits, and briefly explaining two economic consequences of European colonialism in Africa.
Problems began for Africa when there was the “scramble for Africa. Africa was extremely divided throughout the continent. There was no nation intact. Even though they were divided into colonies, they still had no sovereignty. Since they had no form of nationalism it made it impossible to succeed as a nation. This really hurt Africa economically. If they would have been able to come together as a nation they could have pulled all of their assets together and exploit them in order to make money. By not doing this it allowed the government to exploit the people. This is why there are starving people in Africa on television. The states of Africa were created in order to make money by exporting all the various resources, whether it was slaves, minerals, or agriculture. There was much to gain by owning a chunk of land in Africa. This reason being because Africa is so rich in their resources for trade. After the race was over it left Africa severely divided.
Africa was divided into a series of seven colonial empires. France and Britain had the biggest part of Africa, divided into four major administrative regions. The French owned most of the Northwest region, whereas the British Empire “was constructed along a north-south axis”(Schraeder 96). Belgium and Portugal “led the second-tier empires” (Schraeder 97) and they were much smaller than Britain and France. Italy held possession of Liberia and Eritrea. Spain had the smallest of the empires, including Ceuta and Melilla. Europe was different to Africa in their state formation process. State formation started as a result of European kings claiming greater powers and tightening their control over large territories. In the early period people were indifferent about the state to which they belonged. In Northern Europe the state was very spread out. This was due to the fact that some regions were acquired for the crown by royal marriages, and others by settlements of war or debt. (Shively 24-25)
It was not until the early nineteenth century that the state was bound by a rather large territory with stable boundaries. The invention of the modern state is given credit to Napolean. This came about by... | <urn:uuid:76f169e9-716a-406f-b05b-117fb1fc5963> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/assess-europe-and-africa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00383.warc.gz | en | 0.986555 | 512 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.4031778573989... | 1 | Europe and Africa have been linked together in evaluating the state formation process. Both regions have similarities, strengths, weaknesses, and room for improvement. To this day both regions are far from perfect. Some light can be shed on this subject, by evaluating Europe and Africa’s state formation process, evaluating what party benefits, and briefly explaining two economic consequences of European colonialism in Africa.
Problems began for Africa when there was the “scramble for Africa. Africa was extremely divided throughout the continent. There was no nation intact. Even though they were divided into colonies, they still had no sovereignty. Since they had no form of nationalism it made it impossible to succeed as a nation. This really hurt Africa economically. If they would have been able to come together as a nation they could have pulled all of their assets together and exploit them in order to make money. By not doing this it allowed the government to exploit the people. This is why there are starving people in Africa on television. The states of Africa were created in order to make money by exporting all the various resources, whether it was slaves, minerals, or agriculture. There was much to gain by owning a chunk of land in Africa. This reason being because Africa is so rich in their resources for trade. After the race was over it left Africa severely divided.
Africa was divided into a series of seven colonial empires. France and Britain had the biggest part of Africa, divided into four major administrative regions. The French owned most of the Northwest region, whereas the British Empire “was constructed along a north-south axis”(Schraeder 96). Belgium and Portugal “led the second-tier empires” (Schraeder 97) and they were much smaller than Britain and France. Italy held possession of Liberia and Eritrea. Spain had the smallest of the empires, including Ceuta and Melilla. Europe was different to Africa in their state formation process. State formation started as a result of European kings claiming greater powers and tightening their control over large territories. In the early period people were indifferent about the state to which they belonged. In Northern Europe the state was very spread out. This was due to the fact that some regions were acquired for the crown by royal marriages, and others by settlements of war or debt. (Shively 24-25)
It was not until the early nineteenth century that the state was bound by a rather large territory with stable boundaries. The invention of the modern state is given credit to Napolean. This came about by... | 512 | ENGLISH | 1 |
which president inauguration is believed to have been the first one photographed
It was taken in 1857, when the Capitol was still under construction
The 1850s were a significant period of growth in the history of photography. The wet collodion process, which was invented in 1851, gave photographers the ability to make direct contact prints from a glass negative. This process did have its difficulties — a portable darkroom was needed to accompany the photographer and long exposures were still often necessary. But the new process was enough of an improvement that it allowed photographers to document many landmark events for the first time, and the period saw photographic milestones ranging from the first war photography to groundbreaking nature photography.
And, in 1857, the first known photograph of a Presidential Inauguration was captured.
This image, seen above, was taken by John Wood, who worked for the Architect of the Capitol under Montgomery C. Meigs. According to a presentation given by Wayne Firth (retired Senior photographer at the Architect of the Capitol) in 1996 at the National Building Museum at the U.S. Capitol, Meigs, who was in charge of the construction of the Capitol at the time, hired Wood as a “photographic draftsman” for the building of the Capitol. His job was to photograph the drawings of the construction so they could be easily duplicated.
Get your history fix in one place: sign up for the weekly TIME History newsletter
During Wood’s tenure at the Capitol, his job grew. And, when Meigs was put in charge of constructing a platform for the Inauguration ceremony, he also constructed a platform for Wood to set up his camera
and photograph the inauguration of James Buchanan on March 4, 1857.
Photographer Wood would eventually leave his post at the Architect of the Capitol and go on to photograph in the Civil War. According to the Library of Congress, Wood worked for the Architect of the Capitol from 1856 to 1861 and then moved onto photographing maps in the war for Gen. George McClellan.
Little is known of his later life and works, but his legacy will live on forever with this photo. | <urn:uuid:5b72edb7-e273-4852-9ee1-b6046729cb15> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://what.youwacom.ma/2017/02/21/which-president-inauguration-is-believed-to-have-been-the-first-one-photographed-2017/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00358.warc.gz | en | 0.980788 | 438 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.67857974767... | 5 | which president inauguration is believed to have been the first one photographed
It was taken in 1857, when the Capitol was still under construction
The 1850s were a significant period of growth in the history of photography. The wet collodion process, which was invented in 1851, gave photographers the ability to make direct contact prints from a glass negative. This process did have its difficulties — a portable darkroom was needed to accompany the photographer and long exposures were still often necessary. But the new process was enough of an improvement that it allowed photographers to document many landmark events for the first time, and the period saw photographic milestones ranging from the first war photography to groundbreaking nature photography.
And, in 1857, the first known photograph of a Presidential Inauguration was captured.
This image, seen above, was taken by John Wood, who worked for the Architect of the Capitol under Montgomery C. Meigs. According to a presentation given by Wayne Firth (retired Senior photographer at the Architect of the Capitol) in 1996 at the National Building Museum at the U.S. Capitol, Meigs, who was in charge of the construction of the Capitol at the time, hired Wood as a “photographic draftsman” for the building of the Capitol. His job was to photograph the drawings of the construction so they could be easily duplicated.
Get your history fix in one place: sign up for the weekly TIME History newsletter
During Wood’s tenure at the Capitol, his job grew. And, when Meigs was put in charge of constructing a platform for the Inauguration ceremony, he also constructed a platform for Wood to set up his camera
and photograph the inauguration of James Buchanan on March 4, 1857.
Photographer Wood would eventually leave his post at the Architect of the Capitol and go on to photograph in the Civil War. According to the Library of Congress, Wood worked for the Architect of the Capitol from 1856 to 1861 and then moved onto photographing maps in the war for Gen. George McClellan.
Little is known of his later life and works, but his legacy will live on forever with this photo. | 456 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Redmond had agreed to suspend the introduction of Home Rule to Ireland until World War One had ended. This approach had been accepted by many in Ireland and tens of thousands had joined the British Army and fought in Europe. Some refused to accept it and fought the British in the Easter Rising of 1916. Few people were willing to support the rebels in Dublin and when they were arrested and paraded through the streets of Dublin prior to being sent to prison, they were jeered at by many Dubliners who had seen part of their city destroyed by the fighting that took place. However the execution of fifteen of the leaders, including Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, shocked many in Ireland – especially as they did not receive a formal and public trial and their executions were announced after they had been carried out. From the ‘villains’ of the piece, the rebel leaders suddenly became heroes to the Irish cause. After war ended in November 1918, the Irish question was to rear its head again.
In the 1918 ‘Coupon’ Election, Sinn Fein had done well in the south. Sinn Fein was considered to be an extreme nationalist party – much more so than the Irish Nationalist Party led by John Redmond. In this election, the Irish Nationalists won only 6 seats while Sinn Fein won 73. Whereas John Redmond had been willing to work with the British government, Sinn Fein wanted an Ireland out of the British Empire – independent and self-governing. Its speedy rise to prominence is an indication of the anger that the British created with the execution of the rebel leaders – especially when the details leaked out of Connolly’s execution. In 1914, Sinn Fein was a minor political force in Ireland; by the end of 1918, it was the leading nationalist force. For Sinn Fein, the whole issue of Home Rule was a non-starter. The rise of Sinn Fein also polarised the relationship between the north and with the south. By 1919, Ulster simply did not listen to Dublin.
The government responded to this by admitting that the 1912 bill was out-of-date and devised a new Home Rule bill for 1919. This stated that Ireland would govern itself within the Empire but in two separate parts – the south, and the six counties of the north (which was most, though not all, of the old province of Ulster). Each of the two parts would have a parliament in Dublin and Belfast and Ireland as a whole would still have MP’s representing them in Westminster. The bill also proposed a Council of Ireland which would have representatives in it from both parliaments in Belfast and Dublin. The bill became an act in 1920. The north accepted the act and in 1921, the king opened the parliament of the six counties at Stormont.
However, the south did not accept one part of the act. Those members of Sinn Fein who had been elected MP’s in the ‘Coupon’ Election in 1918, had refused to take up their seats at Westminster. Instead, in 1919, they established their own parliament (the Dail) in Dublin. They also declared an independent Ireland. It was around this time that the Irish Republican Army (founded from what had been the Irish Volunteers) started their campaign against any form of the British government in Ireland – be it in the south or north. This campaign was led by Michael Collins, who had fought in the Easter Rising. The IRA targeted anyone who was seen to be a symbol of British power in Ireland.
The government in London, responded by declaring both the Dail and Sinn Fein illegal. They also tolerated ‘reinforcements’ going to Ireland to assist the Royal Irish Constabulary. These ‘reinforcements’ were the Auxiliary Division (the ‘Auxis’) and the ‘Black and Tans’. The ‘Black and Tans’ was made up of former soldiers, many of whom had experienced fighting in World War One. The ‘Auxis’ was exclusively made up of ex-army officers. Both units were involved in acts of extreme brutality against civilians which only served to make those who wanted independence even more keen on it. Violence led to more violence and it was clear that a political solution was needed if the escalating violence was to end. This came with the so-called ‘Treaty with Sinn Fein’ of 1921. | <urn:uuid:9ae794b4-749d-4b35-a16d-95fae79576fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ireland-1845-to-1922/ireland-1919-to-1922/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00075.warc.gz | en | 0.990894 | 896 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.210264623... | 10 | John Redmond had agreed to suspend the introduction of Home Rule to Ireland until World War One had ended. This approach had been accepted by many in Ireland and tens of thousands had joined the British Army and fought in Europe. Some refused to accept it and fought the British in the Easter Rising of 1916. Few people were willing to support the rebels in Dublin and when they were arrested and paraded through the streets of Dublin prior to being sent to prison, they were jeered at by many Dubliners who had seen part of their city destroyed by the fighting that took place. However the execution of fifteen of the leaders, including Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, shocked many in Ireland – especially as they did not receive a formal and public trial and their executions were announced after they had been carried out. From the ‘villains’ of the piece, the rebel leaders suddenly became heroes to the Irish cause. After war ended in November 1918, the Irish question was to rear its head again.
In the 1918 ‘Coupon’ Election, Sinn Fein had done well in the south. Sinn Fein was considered to be an extreme nationalist party – much more so than the Irish Nationalist Party led by John Redmond. In this election, the Irish Nationalists won only 6 seats while Sinn Fein won 73. Whereas John Redmond had been willing to work with the British government, Sinn Fein wanted an Ireland out of the British Empire – independent and self-governing. Its speedy rise to prominence is an indication of the anger that the British created with the execution of the rebel leaders – especially when the details leaked out of Connolly’s execution. In 1914, Sinn Fein was a minor political force in Ireland; by the end of 1918, it was the leading nationalist force. For Sinn Fein, the whole issue of Home Rule was a non-starter. The rise of Sinn Fein also polarised the relationship between the north and with the south. By 1919, Ulster simply did not listen to Dublin.
The government responded to this by admitting that the 1912 bill was out-of-date and devised a new Home Rule bill for 1919. This stated that Ireland would govern itself within the Empire but in two separate parts – the south, and the six counties of the north (which was most, though not all, of the old province of Ulster). Each of the two parts would have a parliament in Dublin and Belfast and Ireland as a whole would still have MP’s representing them in Westminster. The bill also proposed a Council of Ireland which would have representatives in it from both parliaments in Belfast and Dublin. The bill became an act in 1920. The north accepted the act and in 1921, the king opened the parliament of the six counties at Stormont.
However, the south did not accept one part of the act. Those members of Sinn Fein who had been elected MP’s in the ‘Coupon’ Election in 1918, had refused to take up their seats at Westminster. Instead, in 1919, they established their own parliament (the Dail) in Dublin. They also declared an independent Ireland. It was around this time that the Irish Republican Army (founded from what had been the Irish Volunteers) started their campaign against any form of the British government in Ireland – be it in the south or north. This campaign was led by Michael Collins, who had fought in the Easter Rising. The IRA targeted anyone who was seen to be a symbol of British power in Ireland.
The government in London, responded by declaring both the Dail and Sinn Fein illegal. They also tolerated ‘reinforcements’ going to Ireland to assist the Royal Irish Constabulary. These ‘reinforcements’ were the Auxiliary Division (the ‘Auxis’) and the ‘Black and Tans’. The ‘Black and Tans’ was made up of former soldiers, many of whom had experienced fighting in World War One. The ‘Auxis’ was exclusively made up of ex-army officers. Both units were involved in acts of extreme brutality against civilians which only served to make those who wanted independence even more keen on it. Violence led to more violence and it was clear that a political solution was needed if the escalating violence was to end. This came with the so-called ‘Treaty with Sinn Fein’ of 1921. | 924 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the most prominent cities in renaissance Italy was Florence. It was the center and starting point of renaissance. To the history of capitalism, money and economy was the main thing even in its society and culture. Florence dominated international finance in all the major banks in Europe. The famous House of Medici was the most powerful and influential family in Florence and it controlled banking services there. The House of Medici was the center of banking not only in Italy but also in the Western world. Two queens of France together with four popes came from this family. The family also fostered economic patronage to many renaissance artists and they collected pieces of arts with which they used to decorate the city of Florence.
Another most influential institution in Florence was the guilds. It controlled art and trade and protected its members from competition inside and outside the city. The Merchants of Florence contributed in building enormous gilded mansions and villas together with grand cathedrals. A partnership business system was established in Florence and it allowed for the owners of the individual corporations to function as a network of owners over various companies. They controlled a large part of the market and the economy.
The Columbian exchange
The term Columbian exchange was a time where the New and the Old worlds experienced biological and cultural exchanges. The things involved in the exchanges were animals and plants, diseases, and also technology and this led to a tremendous change in both the lives of the Native Americans and the Europeans. This happened following the voyage of Christopher Columbus to the Americas in 1492. The Columbian Exchange had a lot of effects on the social and cultural lives of the Native Americans and Europeans. There were advancements in the production of agricultural products, war machinery, and many people died too. During this period of exchange education was also introduced to many people.
The introduction of new diseases led to devastating results including increased mortality. There was the introduction of new types of weeds, livestock, pests and pets. Introduction of new foods led to the Improvement in the diet of the people. Furthermore, that exchange led to the production of some drugs, and the use of some pleasures like coffee, sugar, and tobacco to many people. The Native Americans were dispossessed of their native land and the Africans were taken as slaves. The world history was completely altered through this exchange after the introduction of new things. | <urn:uuid:aafc21cf-ffdc-4bb2-a396-535a4b121558> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/renaissance-in-florence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00007.warc.gz | en | 0.981869 | 472 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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-0.04699037224054... | 1 | One of the most prominent cities in renaissance Italy was Florence. It was the center and starting point of renaissance. To the history of capitalism, money and economy was the main thing even in its society and culture. Florence dominated international finance in all the major banks in Europe. The famous House of Medici was the most powerful and influential family in Florence and it controlled banking services there. The House of Medici was the center of banking not only in Italy but also in the Western world. Two queens of France together with four popes came from this family. The family also fostered economic patronage to many renaissance artists and they collected pieces of arts with which they used to decorate the city of Florence.
Another most influential institution in Florence was the guilds. It controlled art and trade and protected its members from competition inside and outside the city. The Merchants of Florence contributed in building enormous gilded mansions and villas together with grand cathedrals. A partnership business system was established in Florence and it allowed for the owners of the individual corporations to function as a network of owners over various companies. They controlled a large part of the market and the economy.
The Columbian exchange
The term Columbian exchange was a time where the New and the Old worlds experienced biological and cultural exchanges. The things involved in the exchanges were animals and plants, diseases, and also technology and this led to a tremendous change in both the lives of the Native Americans and the Europeans. This happened following the voyage of Christopher Columbus to the Americas in 1492. The Columbian Exchange had a lot of effects on the social and cultural lives of the Native Americans and Europeans. There were advancements in the production of agricultural products, war machinery, and many people died too. During this period of exchange education was also introduced to many people.
The introduction of new diseases led to devastating results including increased mortality. There was the introduction of new types of weeds, livestock, pests and pets. Introduction of new foods led to the Improvement in the diet of the people. Furthermore, that exchange led to the production of some drugs, and the use of some pleasures like coffee, sugar, and tobacco to many people. The Native Americans were dispossessed of their native land and the Africans were taken as slaves. The world history was completely altered through this exchange after the introduction of new things. | 477 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Life on a sailing vessel was generally miserable. Sailors were forced to endure the terror of constant sea storms, malnutrition, lack of privacy, and fetid living quarters. The food supply was one of the biggest problems faced by sailing vessels. Hardtack, a kind of unappetizing bread was a stable, along with salted pork or beef. It was nearly impossible to keep the food from spoiling during long journeys, and sailors were forced to consume food crawling with worms, maggots, bugs, and rodent droppings. When the food supply was totally consumed, sailors resorted to eating leather and sawdust. Based on these unhealthy diets, it is no surprise that some sailors were stricken with Scurvy, a condition brought on by a lack of Vitamin-C. Sailors stricken with Scurvy would suffer a horrifying demise as their gums and tongue became black and swollen, and their bodies covered with sores.
Sailors lucky enough to maintain their health lived in cramped, disgusting living quarters with no access to clean sheets, clothes, or water for that matter. Many suffered from severe insomnia. Sailors had no privacy and risked their lives every time they had to go to the bathroom, as "bathroom equipment" failure resulted in a sailor plunging into the sea. | <urn:uuid:8369be63-a56b-472a-a8dc-726d3f457987> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/uploads/activities/legends/lifeonship.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00559.warc.gz | en | 0.985593 | 263 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2441448122262... | 2 | Life on a sailing vessel was generally miserable. Sailors were forced to endure the terror of constant sea storms, malnutrition, lack of privacy, and fetid living quarters. The food supply was one of the biggest problems faced by sailing vessels. Hardtack, a kind of unappetizing bread was a stable, along with salted pork or beef. It was nearly impossible to keep the food from spoiling during long journeys, and sailors were forced to consume food crawling with worms, maggots, bugs, and rodent droppings. When the food supply was totally consumed, sailors resorted to eating leather and sawdust. Based on these unhealthy diets, it is no surprise that some sailors were stricken with Scurvy, a condition brought on by a lack of Vitamin-C. Sailors stricken with Scurvy would suffer a horrifying demise as their gums and tongue became black and swollen, and their bodies covered with sores.
Sailors lucky enough to maintain their health lived in cramped, disgusting living quarters with no access to clean sheets, clothes, or water for that matter. Many suffered from severe insomnia. Sailors had no privacy and risked their lives every time they had to go to the bathroom, as "bathroom equipment" failure resulted in a sailor plunging into the sea. | 267 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A student who is continually academically challenged is a student who will continuously learn. Good teachers are able to challenge their students just enough so that the students can further expand their knowledge and broaden their education.
It seems that one of the problems of America’s education system is that sometimes, teachers aren’t challenging their students enough. One example is English homework that requires students to fill in missing vocabulary words in prefabricated sentences. Supposedly, the main purpose of the exercise is to teach children about using context clues. But in reality, do most children learn new words by using context clues? Not really. They learn new words by constant repetition and by actively using it. So, a better exercise would have been to make the students write sentences on their own using those vocabulary words.
Teachers who give that type of homework, in which it seems like a no-brainer to complete, are not challenging their students enough. While it seems that a theory such as encouraging the use of context clues seems fine as a theory, it does not work in real life, and shows so in students’ grades and the quality of their work.
Challenging students does not necessarily mean that the students should be taken too much beyond their appropriate level of learning. For example, you may not want to teach a four-year-old how to do calculus. The purpose of challenging a student is to either encourage that student’s learning ability or to expand the knowledge that that student already has. As you can see, the challenge sometimes is in trying to make that learning experience as enjoyable, while a bit more difficult, as possible.
Some teachers may find it within their comfort level to stay within the boundaries that they have set up for their lessons. For example, a basic algebra teacher may not want to go beyond multiplying fractions. However, who does that decision benefit more the teacher or his/her students? A good teacher will do anything to try to further his or her students’ academic experience. The teaching experience should not be about the teacher at all; if the experience is going to be positive, it should be done for the right reasons.
The truth is that continually challenging students will help them develop and broaden their knowledge as much as possible. Without this aspect in education, students are at a disadvantage and will possibly learn less. | <urn:uuid:0354133c-7377-43e5-94eb-ed1899f2e5ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://wh-magazine.com/educational-philosophy/good-teachers-know-how-to-challenge-students | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00536.warc.gz | en | 0.981521 | 477 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.305193871... | 2 | A student who is continually academically challenged is a student who will continuously learn. Good teachers are able to challenge their students just enough so that the students can further expand their knowledge and broaden their education.
It seems that one of the problems of America’s education system is that sometimes, teachers aren’t challenging their students enough. One example is English homework that requires students to fill in missing vocabulary words in prefabricated sentences. Supposedly, the main purpose of the exercise is to teach children about using context clues. But in reality, do most children learn new words by using context clues? Not really. They learn new words by constant repetition and by actively using it. So, a better exercise would have been to make the students write sentences on their own using those vocabulary words.
Teachers who give that type of homework, in which it seems like a no-brainer to complete, are not challenging their students enough. While it seems that a theory such as encouraging the use of context clues seems fine as a theory, it does not work in real life, and shows so in students’ grades and the quality of their work.
Challenging students does not necessarily mean that the students should be taken too much beyond their appropriate level of learning. For example, you may not want to teach a four-year-old how to do calculus. The purpose of challenging a student is to either encourage that student’s learning ability or to expand the knowledge that that student already has. As you can see, the challenge sometimes is in trying to make that learning experience as enjoyable, while a bit more difficult, as possible.
Some teachers may find it within their comfort level to stay within the boundaries that they have set up for their lessons. For example, a basic algebra teacher may not want to go beyond multiplying fractions. However, who does that decision benefit more the teacher or his/her students? A good teacher will do anything to try to further his or her students’ academic experience. The teaching experience should not be about the teacher at all; if the experience is going to be positive, it should be done for the right reasons.
The truth is that continually challenging students will help them develop and broaden their knowledge as much as possible. Without this aspect in education, students are at a disadvantage and will possibly learn less. | 460 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Adenauer was Germany’s first chancellor after the second world war who was in office from 1949 to 1963. Although he was the oldest statesman elected into office, his zeal for his duty in office led him to establish Germany as a democracy and one of the world’s economic giants. His popularity among Germans saw him re-elected three times, resigning later following the Spiegel Scandal.
5. Early Life
Konrad Adenauer was born on January 5, 1876, in Cologne, Germany to Johann and Helene Konrad as the third of five children - August, Johannes, Lilli, and Elisabeth. Adenauer was a devout Roman Catholic since childhood. Konrad studied law and politics at the universities of Freiburg, Munich, and Bonn. Respiratory problems disqualified him from joining the German army in 1896. After his graduation in 1920, he worked at the court in Cologne as a lawyer. Adenauer was a naturalist who supported growing plants without adding chemicals. He had extensive knowledge of medicinal plants which he attributed his good health.
Konrad was elected as the first chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany after his release from a concentration camp. In his 14 years of leadership, he worked towards re-establishing the dignity of Germany as an economically prosperous and politically stable country after years of ruin during the Nazi regime and the WWII. His focus on foreign policy managed to forge close relationships with countries like the UK, US, and France and contributed to the productivity and prosperity of post-world war Germany into a democratic nation. Germany rose to become the third largest economy in the world in his leadership.
3. Rise to Power
Adenauer joined the Centre Party in 1906 and became a member of the Cologne city council. He was elected as the vice-mayor for Cologne in 1909 and later served as mayor from 1917-1933. Throughout his political career, Principles of Christian morals, decency, diligence and order were the guiding light for Konrad. During WWI, he worked with the Army providing them with supplies and transportation for the western front. That way, the residents of Cologne escaped the severe food shortages affecting the cities of Germany towards the end of WWI. His good working relationships with the Social Democrats were instrumental in maintaining control and relative stability in Cologne amidst threats of a revolution. He was elected to office in 1949 and later re-elected three times. He retired in 1963.
During his career, Konrad faced some difficulties including dismissal from office during the Nazi era after the dissolution of his city council and the Prussia parliament. His bank accounts were also frozen. Bankrupt and jobless, Konrad ensured the safety of his family and lived with several of his friends, changing residences every so often to escape arrest. The Nazi regime presented a difficult time for him as his political views got him arrested several times.
1. Death and Legacy
Konrad is remembered as a shrewd and visionary leader dedicated to public service and development. His leadership in the Christian Democratic Union is widely recognized as he drove the party towards national influence and recognition. After his death in 1967 at 91 years, Germans acknowledged him for returning the last prisoners of war from the USSR and accorded him a state burial. In 2003, he was named the greatest German man of all time. Several establishments have been founded in his respect such as The Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung scholarship program, the Konrad Adenauer Foundation, and European unification commemorative coin.
Who Was Konrad Adenauer?
Konrad Adenauer was a German statesman who served as the first post-war Chancellor of Germany (West Germany) from 1949 to 1963.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
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-0.002993636298... | 2 | Adenauer was Germany’s first chancellor after the second world war who was in office from 1949 to 1963. Although he was the oldest statesman elected into office, his zeal for his duty in office led him to establish Germany as a democracy and one of the world’s economic giants. His popularity among Germans saw him re-elected three times, resigning later following the Spiegel Scandal.
5. Early Life
Konrad Adenauer was born on January 5, 1876, in Cologne, Germany to Johann and Helene Konrad as the third of five children - August, Johannes, Lilli, and Elisabeth. Adenauer was a devout Roman Catholic since childhood. Konrad studied law and politics at the universities of Freiburg, Munich, and Bonn. Respiratory problems disqualified him from joining the German army in 1896. After his graduation in 1920, he worked at the court in Cologne as a lawyer. Adenauer was a naturalist who supported growing plants without adding chemicals. He had extensive knowledge of medicinal plants which he attributed his good health.
Konrad was elected as the first chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany after his release from a concentration camp. In his 14 years of leadership, he worked towards re-establishing the dignity of Germany as an economically prosperous and politically stable country after years of ruin during the Nazi regime and the WWII. His focus on foreign policy managed to forge close relationships with countries like the UK, US, and France and contributed to the productivity and prosperity of post-world war Germany into a democratic nation. Germany rose to become the third largest economy in the world in his leadership.
3. Rise to Power
Adenauer joined the Centre Party in 1906 and became a member of the Cologne city council. He was elected as the vice-mayor for Cologne in 1909 and later served as mayor from 1917-1933. Throughout his political career, Principles of Christian morals, decency, diligence and order were the guiding light for Konrad. During WWI, he worked with the Army providing them with supplies and transportation for the western front. That way, the residents of Cologne escaped the severe food shortages affecting the cities of Germany towards the end of WWI. His good working relationships with the Social Democrats were instrumental in maintaining control and relative stability in Cologne amidst threats of a revolution. He was elected to office in 1949 and later re-elected three times. He retired in 1963.
During his career, Konrad faced some difficulties including dismissal from office during the Nazi era after the dissolution of his city council and the Prussia parliament. His bank accounts were also frozen. Bankrupt and jobless, Konrad ensured the safety of his family and lived with several of his friends, changing residences every so often to escape arrest. The Nazi regime presented a difficult time for him as his political views got him arrested several times.
1. Death and Legacy
Konrad is remembered as a shrewd and visionary leader dedicated to public service and development. His leadership in the Christian Democratic Union is widely recognized as he drove the party towards national influence and recognition. After his death in 1967 at 91 years, Germans acknowledged him for returning the last prisoners of war from the USSR and accorded him a state burial. In 2003, he was named the greatest German man of all time. Several establishments have been founded in his respect such as The Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung scholarship program, the Konrad Adenauer Foundation, and European unification commemorative coin.
Who Was Konrad Adenauer?
Konrad Adenauer was a German statesman who served as the first post-war Chancellor of Germany (West Germany) from 1949 to 1963.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 865 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Story of the Three Hundred Spartans
by A. R.
Introductory Note: Considering the value Victorian culture gave to classical knowledge, it is fitting that this children’s story recounts a famous battle in ancient Greek history. In 480 BC, Xerxes, the king of Persia, attempted to invade Greece with an army that vastly outnumbered the Greek forces. To allow the rest of the Greek forces to retreat safely after several days of fierce battle, 300 Spartan soldiers followed their leader, Leonidas, in a desperate fight to the death. “The Story of the Three Hundred Spartans” is intended to captivate young readers, as well as teach the important lessons of valor and courage when times are hard.
Xerxes, the king of Persia, resolved to conquer Greece, and he collected a great army from every part of his dominions. There were to be seen gathered together men of all nations: Medes and Persians, woolly-haired negroes and swarthy Indians, all armed with their various weapons—nearly two million of fighting men.1For “million” the original reads “millions.” For the Persian empire was the largest in the world; and the king thought in his pride that he could easily overcome such a little country as Greece, that could only muster a few thousand warriors. But then these were all free men, fighting for liberty and their families, whilst the Persian army was chiefly composed of men forced to leave their homes to fight for an Eastern tyrant. The king had spent four years in making preparations for the war, and he had a fleet of ships that he might attack Greece by sea as well as by land. He caused a bridge of boats to be made over the Hellespont, the narrow strait that separates Asia from Europe, but the waves dashed it in pieces; so he made a stronger one of ships, and then his army began their march. So great were their numbers, that it was seven days and nights before they had all crossed over the bridge into Europe.
Now there was only one way of entering Greece from the north-east coast, and that was by a narrow pass through the mountains. This pass was called Thermopylae, from the hot springs there; it was about five miles long, but very narrow at each end. A little within the pass there was a wall that had been built at some former period, and here the Greeks, no way affrighted at the multitude of their enemies, resolved to make a stand, and bar the way of their invaders. So they sent a force of about four thousand men, under the command of Leonidas, to take up their position in the pass. Leonidas was the king of Sparta, and he had with him three hundred chosen warriors, all of them men ready to die in defence of their country. Two of the Spartans, however, Eurytus and Aristodemus, were attacked by a disease in their eyes that nearly deprived them of sight, and they were compelled to leave their posts and retire to Alpenus, a town at the southern end of the pass. The rest of the small army was composed of troops from the different states of Greece.
When Xerxes arrived at Thermopylae with his vast host, he thought that the Greeks would fly in terror at the mere sight of him. He sent forward a horseman to examine their position. Now the Spartans wore long hair, which they were very particular to keep smooth and carefully parted; and the horseman saw them behind the wall within the pass, some of them sitting quietly combing their hair, whilst others were exercising themselves in feats of strength. There was with Xerxes one Demaratus, a deposed Spartan king, who had taken refuge at his court; and when the horseman returned and told the Persian monarch what he had seen, Xerxes, in astonishment, asked Demaratus if it were possible that this handful of men would dare to oppose him. ‘They certainly mean to fight,’ replied the Spartan; ‘for it is the custom of my countrymen to arrange their hair before going into battle.’ But the king would not believe him, and waited four days in the expectation that the Spartans would come out of the pass and submit to him.
At length he sent a body of troops to capture them, and bring them in chains to his feet. But the Spartans, firmly standing at the narrow entrance of the pass, drove them back with their long spears with dreadful slaughter. Xerxes was seated on a lofty throne, whence he could see the battle; and he now ordered his own body-guard to advance to the attack. They were called the Immortals, were ten thousand in number, were supposed to be invincible, and felt sure of victory. But they also had to give way before the steady valour of the Spartans, and the king rose from his throne in fear and rage when he saw the destruction of his finest troops! The battle had lasted the whole day.
Now there was an intricate path over the mountains, known to but a few of the Greeks themselves; and when Leonidas heard of it he posted some troops on the hills to guard it. A treacherous Greek, named Ephialtes, betrayed the secret to Xerxes, who immediately sent Hydarnes, the commander of the Immortals, to follow the guidance of the traitor, and enter the pass at the southern end, so that the Greeks would be hemmed in. The Persians set out at nightfall, marching as silently as they could; but the night was very still, and the sound of their feet crunching over the dead leaves that strewed the path alarmed the Greeks posted there, who started to their arms. Hydarnes paused; for he feared that they might be Spartans; but when Ephialtes assured him they were not, he forced his way through them, and pursued his way down to the southern side of the mountain.
At daybreak the sentinels on the heights brought news to Leonidas that the secret path was discovered by the enemy. There was still time for him to retreat, but no true Spartan would think of that, and both he and his three hundred companions determined to do their duty, and remain at their posts to resist the invaders of their country. So he sent home all the other Greeks except the Thebans, whom he suspected of favouring the enemy, and the Thespians, who wished to stay and share his fate and his glory.
Ephialtes had calculated the time it would take him to traverse the mountain, and had arranged with Xerxes to attack the Spartans in front at the same time that the Immortals fell upon their rear; and so in the morning he once more ordered his troops to advance. But Leonidas, now knowing his death was certain, rushed on his foes at the head of his little band, overthrowing them on all sides. The Persians, crowded together, were trampled under foot; yet still more were driven up to the combat by the lash of their officers over the bodies of their comrades. The brave Leonidas was killed, and a desperate fight took place over his body, and there were but few of the three hundred left alive. Their spears were broken, and their swords blunted. Suddenly the Greeks heard that Hydarnes and his Immortals were entering the pass behind them. The Thebans threw down their arms, and begged their lives, which were granted them; but the Spartans, retiring within the pass behind the wall, drew up on a little hillock, where they were soon surrounded by their enemies, and overwhelmed with showers of javelins, arrows, and stones, till the last of them lay dead.
Meantime, Eurytus and Aristodemus, lying ill at Alpenus, had heard that the Persians were about to enter the pass, and that Leonidas and his devoted band would be surrounded by their foes. Calling for his arms, and grasping his spear and shield, though he could scarce see, Eurytus told his servant to lead him into the battle. The helot obeyed, and guiding his master into the fatal pass, there left him, and the half-blind hero, rushing on the Persians, fell beneath their javelins.
Astrodemus, probably thinking it useless to go into the pass where he was sure to be killed, returned to Sparta with tidings of the battle. But his countrymen said that he had forsaken his duty, and deserted his general. No one would speak to him, and he dragged on a miserable existence till the following year, when there was another battle with the Persians at Plataea. The unhappy man, thinking he could now retrieve his honour, ventured his life in the most reckless manner, and was killed after performing prodigies of valour. After the battle, he was adjudged to have far exceeded his companions in bravery; but the Spartans, believing that his wonderful deeds proceeded from desperation, rather than from true courage, would not award him the palm, though they no longer called him ‘The coward.’ And so poor Aristodemus was deprived of honour even in death.
After the battle of Thermopylae, Xerxes began to think the conquest of Greece not so easy as he had imagined it would be, and asked Demaratus if he should meet with many more such obstacles in his way. Demaratus told him that there were at least eight thousand of his countrymen all ready to act as Leonidas had done. And shortly afterwards, the Persian fleet having been overcome and nearly destroyed at Salamis, Xerxes fled back to his own dominions, leaving his general, Mardonius, to carry on the war. But Mardonius was killed, and his army routed at Plataea, and the Persians were finally driven from Greece.
The memory of Leonidas and his three hundred companions was held in the greatest veneration by the Spartans. Festivals were established in their honour, and hymns sung in their praise, and a splendid monument was erected over their grave in the pass. The battle of Thermopylae was fought four hundred and eighty years before the Christian era. A few remains of their monument may still be seen, but the fame of the brave men who died for their country will live for ever.
Download PDF of original Text (validated PDF/A conformant)
How To Cite (MLA Format)
. "The Story of the Three Hundred Spartans." The Chatterbox, vol. 18, no. 2, 1883, pp. 12-5. Edited by Sara Herald. Victorian Short Fiction Project, 26 January 2020, http://vsfp.byu.edu/index.php/title/the-story-of-the-three-hundred-spartans/.
29 September 2018
26 January 2020
Notes [ + ]
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0.0809071... | 1 | The Story of the Three Hundred Spartans
by A. R.
Introductory Note: Considering the value Victorian culture gave to classical knowledge, it is fitting that this children’s story recounts a famous battle in ancient Greek history. In 480 BC, Xerxes, the king of Persia, attempted to invade Greece with an army that vastly outnumbered the Greek forces. To allow the rest of the Greek forces to retreat safely after several days of fierce battle, 300 Spartan soldiers followed their leader, Leonidas, in a desperate fight to the death. “The Story of the Three Hundred Spartans” is intended to captivate young readers, as well as teach the important lessons of valor and courage when times are hard.
Xerxes, the king of Persia, resolved to conquer Greece, and he collected a great army from every part of his dominions. There were to be seen gathered together men of all nations: Medes and Persians, woolly-haired negroes and swarthy Indians, all armed with their various weapons—nearly two million of fighting men.1For “million” the original reads “millions.” For the Persian empire was the largest in the world; and the king thought in his pride that he could easily overcome such a little country as Greece, that could only muster a few thousand warriors. But then these were all free men, fighting for liberty and their families, whilst the Persian army was chiefly composed of men forced to leave their homes to fight for an Eastern tyrant. The king had spent four years in making preparations for the war, and he had a fleet of ships that he might attack Greece by sea as well as by land. He caused a bridge of boats to be made over the Hellespont, the narrow strait that separates Asia from Europe, but the waves dashed it in pieces; so he made a stronger one of ships, and then his army began their march. So great were their numbers, that it was seven days and nights before they had all crossed over the bridge into Europe.
Now there was only one way of entering Greece from the north-east coast, and that was by a narrow pass through the mountains. This pass was called Thermopylae, from the hot springs there; it was about five miles long, but very narrow at each end. A little within the pass there was a wall that had been built at some former period, and here the Greeks, no way affrighted at the multitude of their enemies, resolved to make a stand, and bar the way of their invaders. So they sent a force of about four thousand men, under the command of Leonidas, to take up their position in the pass. Leonidas was the king of Sparta, and he had with him three hundred chosen warriors, all of them men ready to die in defence of their country. Two of the Spartans, however, Eurytus and Aristodemus, were attacked by a disease in their eyes that nearly deprived them of sight, and they were compelled to leave their posts and retire to Alpenus, a town at the southern end of the pass. The rest of the small army was composed of troops from the different states of Greece.
When Xerxes arrived at Thermopylae with his vast host, he thought that the Greeks would fly in terror at the mere sight of him. He sent forward a horseman to examine their position. Now the Spartans wore long hair, which they were very particular to keep smooth and carefully parted; and the horseman saw them behind the wall within the pass, some of them sitting quietly combing their hair, whilst others were exercising themselves in feats of strength. There was with Xerxes one Demaratus, a deposed Spartan king, who had taken refuge at his court; and when the horseman returned and told the Persian monarch what he had seen, Xerxes, in astonishment, asked Demaratus if it were possible that this handful of men would dare to oppose him. ‘They certainly mean to fight,’ replied the Spartan; ‘for it is the custom of my countrymen to arrange their hair before going into battle.’ But the king would not believe him, and waited four days in the expectation that the Spartans would come out of the pass and submit to him.
At length he sent a body of troops to capture them, and bring them in chains to his feet. But the Spartans, firmly standing at the narrow entrance of the pass, drove them back with their long spears with dreadful slaughter. Xerxes was seated on a lofty throne, whence he could see the battle; and he now ordered his own body-guard to advance to the attack. They were called the Immortals, were ten thousand in number, were supposed to be invincible, and felt sure of victory. But they also had to give way before the steady valour of the Spartans, and the king rose from his throne in fear and rage when he saw the destruction of his finest troops! The battle had lasted the whole day.
Now there was an intricate path over the mountains, known to but a few of the Greeks themselves; and when Leonidas heard of it he posted some troops on the hills to guard it. A treacherous Greek, named Ephialtes, betrayed the secret to Xerxes, who immediately sent Hydarnes, the commander of the Immortals, to follow the guidance of the traitor, and enter the pass at the southern end, so that the Greeks would be hemmed in. The Persians set out at nightfall, marching as silently as they could; but the night was very still, and the sound of their feet crunching over the dead leaves that strewed the path alarmed the Greeks posted there, who started to their arms. Hydarnes paused; for he feared that they might be Spartans; but when Ephialtes assured him they were not, he forced his way through them, and pursued his way down to the southern side of the mountain.
At daybreak the sentinels on the heights brought news to Leonidas that the secret path was discovered by the enemy. There was still time for him to retreat, but no true Spartan would think of that, and both he and his three hundred companions determined to do their duty, and remain at their posts to resist the invaders of their country. So he sent home all the other Greeks except the Thebans, whom he suspected of favouring the enemy, and the Thespians, who wished to stay and share his fate and his glory.
Ephialtes had calculated the time it would take him to traverse the mountain, and had arranged with Xerxes to attack the Spartans in front at the same time that the Immortals fell upon their rear; and so in the morning he once more ordered his troops to advance. But Leonidas, now knowing his death was certain, rushed on his foes at the head of his little band, overthrowing them on all sides. The Persians, crowded together, were trampled under foot; yet still more were driven up to the combat by the lash of their officers over the bodies of their comrades. The brave Leonidas was killed, and a desperate fight took place over his body, and there were but few of the three hundred left alive. Their spears were broken, and their swords blunted. Suddenly the Greeks heard that Hydarnes and his Immortals were entering the pass behind them. The Thebans threw down their arms, and begged their lives, which were granted them; but the Spartans, retiring within the pass behind the wall, drew up on a little hillock, where they were soon surrounded by their enemies, and overwhelmed with showers of javelins, arrows, and stones, till the last of them lay dead.
Meantime, Eurytus and Aristodemus, lying ill at Alpenus, had heard that the Persians were about to enter the pass, and that Leonidas and his devoted band would be surrounded by their foes. Calling for his arms, and grasping his spear and shield, though he could scarce see, Eurytus told his servant to lead him into the battle. The helot obeyed, and guiding his master into the fatal pass, there left him, and the half-blind hero, rushing on the Persians, fell beneath their javelins.
Astrodemus, probably thinking it useless to go into the pass where he was sure to be killed, returned to Sparta with tidings of the battle. But his countrymen said that he had forsaken his duty, and deserted his general. No one would speak to him, and he dragged on a miserable existence till the following year, when there was another battle with the Persians at Plataea. The unhappy man, thinking he could now retrieve his honour, ventured his life in the most reckless manner, and was killed after performing prodigies of valour. After the battle, he was adjudged to have far exceeded his companions in bravery; but the Spartans, believing that his wonderful deeds proceeded from desperation, rather than from true courage, would not award him the palm, though they no longer called him ‘The coward.’ And so poor Aristodemus was deprived of honour even in death.
After the battle of Thermopylae, Xerxes began to think the conquest of Greece not so easy as he had imagined it would be, and asked Demaratus if he should meet with many more such obstacles in his way. Demaratus told him that there were at least eight thousand of his countrymen all ready to act as Leonidas had done. And shortly afterwards, the Persian fleet having been overcome and nearly destroyed at Salamis, Xerxes fled back to his own dominions, leaving his general, Mardonius, to carry on the war. But Mardonius was killed, and his army routed at Plataea, and the Persians were finally driven from Greece.
The memory of Leonidas and his three hundred companions was held in the greatest veneration by the Spartans. Festivals were established in their honour, and hymns sung in their praise, and a splendid monument was erected over their grave in the pass. The battle of Thermopylae was fought four hundred and eighty years before the Christian era. A few remains of their monument may still be seen, but the fame of the brave men who died for their country will live for ever.
Download PDF of original Text (validated PDF/A conformant)
How To Cite (MLA Format)
. "The Story of the Three Hundred Spartans." The Chatterbox, vol. 18, no. 2, 1883, pp. 12-5. Edited by Sara Herald. Victorian Short Fiction Project, 26 January 2020, http://vsfp.byu.edu/index.php/title/the-story-of-the-three-hundred-spartans/.
29 September 2018
26 January 2020
Notes [ + ]
|1.||↑||For “million” the original reads “millions.”| | 2,289 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Stevens Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
John Stevens was born on June 24, 1749, in New York City, Province of New York, British America. He was an American Inventor, engineer, and lawyer best known for his first invention of the steam locomotive in the United States. He also constructed the first steam-powered ferry and was a significant figure in the creation of the United States patent laws. He died on March 6, 1838, in Hoboken, New Jersey at the age of eighty eight.
John Stevens was born on June 24, 1749, as the one and only child of politician John Stevens Jr. and Elizabeth Alexander. He grew up in a very wealthy family and studied at King’s College in New York City graduating in 1768. He studied law and practiced as a barrister in New York. In 1776 he was enlisted in the Washington army and served as a captain in the Revolutionary War. He was promoted to the rank of colonel later while still in service.
He also served as treasurer in the state office at New Jersey in collecting taxes. In 1784, after the war, he used his earnings to purchase a piece of land known as William Bayard’s farm at Hoebuck which later was named Hoboken located in New Jersey.
In the 1780s, John Stevens became fascinated with steam navigations and aspired to invent machinery which could be used in locomotion. He took up the initial designs of earlier inventors James Ramsey and John Fitch which he began working on. He came up with his designs of boilers and engines which he felt required legal protection. This fear led him to urge the United States government to come up with patent laws which were later established in 1790.
He worked alongside his brother-in-law who was also interested in constructing a steamboat mode of transport. He furthered his work to complete his ship known as the Phoenix which culminated in 1808. In 1809, the Phoenix made its first historical journeys to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It first began the journey by sea and later made its voyage on the oceanic waters being the first successful steamboat in a large water body. He licensed his steamer for commercial purposes which became a major ferry service then providing transportation between Hoboken and New York City.
He was also convinced that a locomotive rail service would be of the essence when he saw that the steamboat services were a success. In 1815, he was granted the first license for railroad services by the New Jersey authorities. After ten years of work and toil, his first steam locomotive made a successful ran on a circular rail track he had built in his estate at Hoboken. His inventions ware among the first to be witnessed in the United States.
John Stevens married Rachel Cox on October 17, 1782, and together had thirteen children out of whom seven were sons and six daughters. He was stricken by age. However, he saw his dreams of emerging railway and ferry services come true. His legacy remains known as the father of steamboats, railroads and the patent system in the United States. He died on March 6, 1838, at the age of eighty-eight in Hoboken, New Jersey, United States. | <urn:uuid:17f77310-ae87-4278-85a4-fa8ba6b712c0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/john-stevens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00119.warc.gz | en | 0.993964 | 677 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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... | 7 | John Stevens Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
John Stevens was born on June 24, 1749, in New York City, Province of New York, British America. He was an American Inventor, engineer, and lawyer best known for his first invention of the steam locomotive in the United States. He also constructed the first steam-powered ferry and was a significant figure in the creation of the United States patent laws. He died on March 6, 1838, in Hoboken, New Jersey at the age of eighty eight.
John Stevens was born on June 24, 1749, as the one and only child of politician John Stevens Jr. and Elizabeth Alexander. He grew up in a very wealthy family and studied at King’s College in New York City graduating in 1768. He studied law and practiced as a barrister in New York. In 1776 he was enlisted in the Washington army and served as a captain in the Revolutionary War. He was promoted to the rank of colonel later while still in service.
He also served as treasurer in the state office at New Jersey in collecting taxes. In 1784, after the war, he used his earnings to purchase a piece of land known as William Bayard’s farm at Hoebuck which later was named Hoboken located in New Jersey.
In the 1780s, John Stevens became fascinated with steam navigations and aspired to invent machinery which could be used in locomotion. He took up the initial designs of earlier inventors James Ramsey and John Fitch which he began working on. He came up with his designs of boilers and engines which he felt required legal protection. This fear led him to urge the United States government to come up with patent laws which were later established in 1790.
He worked alongside his brother-in-law who was also interested in constructing a steamboat mode of transport. He furthered his work to complete his ship known as the Phoenix which culminated in 1808. In 1809, the Phoenix made its first historical journeys to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It first began the journey by sea and later made its voyage on the oceanic waters being the first successful steamboat in a large water body. He licensed his steamer for commercial purposes which became a major ferry service then providing transportation between Hoboken and New York City.
He was also convinced that a locomotive rail service would be of the essence when he saw that the steamboat services were a success. In 1815, he was granted the first license for railroad services by the New Jersey authorities. After ten years of work and toil, his first steam locomotive made a successful ran on a circular rail track he had built in his estate at Hoboken. His inventions ware among the first to be witnessed in the United States.
John Stevens married Rachel Cox on October 17, 1782, and together had thirteen children out of whom seven were sons and six daughters. He was stricken by age. However, he saw his dreams of emerging railway and ferry services come true. His legacy remains known as the father of steamboats, railroads and the patent system in the United States. He died on March 6, 1838, at the age of eighty-eight in Hoboken, New Jersey, United States. | 707 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The French Revolution of 1789 is perhaps one of the most famous events of French history.
Many of the outcomes and consequences of the revolution have led to several key characteristics that define the political running of modern-day France as well as the values held by the French people.
The Revolution marked a key point in French and European history as France transformed from a kingdom to a republic ruled by its people.
But what are the circumstances which led to the beginning of the revolution? And what were the results of it?
Superprof is here to explain all you need to know about the French revolution and how it laid the foundations for modern-day France!
French Revolution Timeline
The French Revolution of 1789 occurred for a variety of reasons, one of the main ones being the fact that the majority of the French population was unhappy with the way the country was being run in terms of economics and politics.
Let’s take a look at a rough timeline of events which took placed before, during and after the French Revolution.
· A Difficult Financial Climate
A larger population and an economic boom meant that the 18th century was, for the most part, a period in which the French people enjoyed a higher standard of life than previously.
Unfortunately, this period of prosperity didn’t last long, and the end of the 1700’s saw a sharp downturn in the country’s economic stability as France’s leaders were faced with the debts accumulated whilst embroiled in various wars against the British in the American Revolution.
The reigning monarch at the time was King Louis XVI, who was to become the last monarch of France.
In an attempt to solve his nation’s financial issues, the King turned to his financial advisors, whose opinion he could not have disagreed with more: that the French taxation system should be reformed.
Louis was sure that there must have been another way for him to save his country from bankruptcy, so he sacked his advisors and turned to Charles de Calonne, his controller general, instead.
Calonne advised King Louis that in order to raise funds to pay off the national debt, the French nobility and clergy – two groups of people who were previously exempt from tax – should now be liable to pay it.
Once again, this advice was badly received by King Louis, but Calonne went ahead and tried to impose this new tax. As predicted, this did not go down well, and the aristocracy rejected Calonne’s demands.
As King Louis XVI and Calonne scratched their heads, the country was driven further into economic crisis. In addition to the financial hardship, there was a feeling of frustration present within every sector of society.
· The Questioning of the Ancien Régime
While the aristocracy took offence at Calonne’s attempt to use their money to pay off the national debt, the rest of the population had already had enough of the way the country was being run.
Years of poor crops made food expensive and drove France’s peasantry (known as the Third Estate), which made up the vast majority of the population, further into poverty under the feudal system while wealthy landowners contributed little to the state.
In their confusion, King Louis XVI and Calonne arranged to meet with the Estates-General in 1789, a body representing the three sectors of French society, to discuss a solution: the clergy (First Estate), nobility (Second Estate) and the peasants (Third Estate).
During the time before the meeting, each estate put together lists of their issues which were to be raised with the King. For the Third Estate, one of these issues was representation in the assembly. Although they accounted for ninety-eight percent of the population, the vote of the Third Estate could still be overruled by that of the First or Second.
The importance of social status drove the call of political reform and set the scene for revolution, and the meeting did not go as the King has envisaged. Following the rejection of the Third Estate’s call for equal voting rights, they left the Estates-General and formed the National Assembly, which, given its popular advantage, was able to declare itself sovereign ruler of France.
· The National Assembly
The formation of the National Assembly was the first major step towards revolution, and once its members had taken the Tennis Court Oath, revolution was on the cards.
By taking the Tennis Court Oath, the National Assembly vowed to not disband until France had a new constitution. The Oath is so called because it took place on a tennis court near the palace of Versailles as the Assembly had been locked out of their usual meeting room there by King Louis XVI.
The National Assembly continued to meet at Versailles while it was drafting a new constitution, but while there was a feeling of hope among French citizens, the population was also fearful that the King would attempt to regain control by mobilising his troops.
This fear was addressed by acts of violence against symbols of the monarchy and power in the capital. The most notable attack, and the one which is believed to have signalled the beginning of the French Revolution was the storming of the Bastille.
· The Storming of the Bastille
The Bastille was a fortress which had been built to protect Paris during the Hundred Years War which was being used as a prison. It was seen as a symbol of the abuse of power of the French royal family and aristocrats, and, knowing that it housed arms, the disgruntled Parisians attacked it, taking cannons and gunpowder as well as setting the prisoners free.
The rebellious atmosphere also took hold of those outside of the city, and as the storming of the Bastille signalled the end of feudalism, rural peasants left their restrictive contracts and vandalised their landlords’ property.
France’s debt problem was eventually solved by nationalising the land owned by the Church.
Not only did this save France’s economy, but it also gave the lower-classes the chance to own property of their own.
The anti-feudalist fever which had swept the nation was put in writing with the Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen. This Declaration was a document which inspired much of France’s post-revolution constitution.
The document stated that all French citizens would have equal rights regardless of social class as well as free speech. One of the most important parts of the Declaration was the article on the end of feudalism and tax immunity.
Several aspects of the Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen can be seen in the French constitution of today.
However, although it seemed that the National Assembly was successfully implementing their ideas, new problems had come to light within the Assembly itself, when it came to addressing the controversial topic of the monarchy which left the National Assembly divided.
· Controversy Around the Role of the Monarchy
The groups of each side of the argument, the Girondins (who were in favour of giving the monarchy some constitutional power) and the Jacobins (who wanted to abolish the monarchy altogether and form a republic) were at loggerheads.
The first constitution reflected both sides of the argument, and the King was given the power to veto decisions made by the government.
A Legislative Assembly was elected to run the country, and war was soon declared on Prussia and Austria as the Assembly feared a counter-revolution by the noble Frenchmen who had fled there. While they were dealing with this potential threat, the Jacobins started a campaign of violence against the King.
This ended in the replacement of the Assembly by the newly-named National Convention. This was the government which abolished the French monarchy and ordered the execution of King Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette, his wife in 1793.
The monarchy has been abolished and the Jacobins had reached their goal, but the threat of a counter-revolution was too much for the Jacobin leader, Maximilien Robespierre, who condemned 15,000 people to death in what was known as the Reign of Terror.
Robespierre’s life was also brought to an end when the court ruled that his killing spree was no longer helping to secure the safety of France.
My Superprof tutor was really great about touching on French history during our French classes London!
How the Revolution Changed Modern-Day France
The French Revolution completely reshaped the country’s political and social landscape.
Signs of the Revolution of 1789 are everywhere in French life. For instance, the 14th July is a national holiday in France, known as Bastille Day, as it marks the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. French citizens celebrate the event which signalled the beginning of the French Revolution which made for a fairer society in which all men are born equal.
The French motto, too, has its origins in the French Revolution. The phrase ‘liberté, égalité, fraternité’ (liberty, equality, fraternity) was first used in a public context by Maximilien Robespierre in 1790 and has become a prominent feature of French life in all aspects.
If you enjoyed this article, why not check out our blog on French military history? | <urn:uuid:381ef98e-1d8d-45dc-8f9a-c940fc854f16> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.superprof.com.au/blog/french-revolution-summary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00474.warc.gz | en | 0.981716 | 1,891 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.4391273558139... | 5 | The French Revolution of 1789 is perhaps one of the most famous events of French history.
Many of the outcomes and consequences of the revolution have led to several key characteristics that define the political running of modern-day France as well as the values held by the French people.
The Revolution marked a key point in French and European history as France transformed from a kingdom to a republic ruled by its people.
But what are the circumstances which led to the beginning of the revolution? And what were the results of it?
Superprof is here to explain all you need to know about the French revolution and how it laid the foundations for modern-day France!
French Revolution Timeline
The French Revolution of 1789 occurred for a variety of reasons, one of the main ones being the fact that the majority of the French population was unhappy with the way the country was being run in terms of economics and politics.
Let’s take a look at a rough timeline of events which took placed before, during and after the French Revolution.
· A Difficult Financial Climate
A larger population and an economic boom meant that the 18th century was, for the most part, a period in which the French people enjoyed a higher standard of life than previously.
Unfortunately, this period of prosperity didn’t last long, and the end of the 1700’s saw a sharp downturn in the country’s economic stability as France’s leaders were faced with the debts accumulated whilst embroiled in various wars against the British in the American Revolution.
The reigning monarch at the time was King Louis XVI, who was to become the last monarch of France.
In an attempt to solve his nation’s financial issues, the King turned to his financial advisors, whose opinion he could not have disagreed with more: that the French taxation system should be reformed.
Louis was sure that there must have been another way for him to save his country from bankruptcy, so he sacked his advisors and turned to Charles de Calonne, his controller general, instead.
Calonne advised King Louis that in order to raise funds to pay off the national debt, the French nobility and clergy – two groups of people who were previously exempt from tax – should now be liable to pay it.
Once again, this advice was badly received by King Louis, but Calonne went ahead and tried to impose this new tax. As predicted, this did not go down well, and the aristocracy rejected Calonne’s demands.
As King Louis XVI and Calonne scratched their heads, the country was driven further into economic crisis. In addition to the financial hardship, there was a feeling of frustration present within every sector of society.
· The Questioning of the Ancien Régime
While the aristocracy took offence at Calonne’s attempt to use their money to pay off the national debt, the rest of the population had already had enough of the way the country was being run.
Years of poor crops made food expensive and drove France’s peasantry (known as the Third Estate), which made up the vast majority of the population, further into poverty under the feudal system while wealthy landowners contributed little to the state.
In their confusion, King Louis XVI and Calonne arranged to meet with the Estates-General in 1789, a body representing the three sectors of French society, to discuss a solution: the clergy (First Estate), nobility (Second Estate) and the peasants (Third Estate).
During the time before the meeting, each estate put together lists of their issues which were to be raised with the King. For the Third Estate, one of these issues was representation in the assembly. Although they accounted for ninety-eight percent of the population, the vote of the Third Estate could still be overruled by that of the First or Second.
The importance of social status drove the call of political reform and set the scene for revolution, and the meeting did not go as the King has envisaged. Following the rejection of the Third Estate’s call for equal voting rights, they left the Estates-General and formed the National Assembly, which, given its popular advantage, was able to declare itself sovereign ruler of France.
· The National Assembly
The formation of the National Assembly was the first major step towards revolution, and once its members had taken the Tennis Court Oath, revolution was on the cards.
By taking the Tennis Court Oath, the National Assembly vowed to not disband until France had a new constitution. The Oath is so called because it took place on a tennis court near the palace of Versailles as the Assembly had been locked out of their usual meeting room there by King Louis XVI.
The National Assembly continued to meet at Versailles while it was drafting a new constitution, but while there was a feeling of hope among French citizens, the population was also fearful that the King would attempt to regain control by mobilising his troops.
This fear was addressed by acts of violence against symbols of the monarchy and power in the capital. The most notable attack, and the one which is believed to have signalled the beginning of the French Revolution was the storming of the Bastille.
· The Storming of the Bastille
The Bastille was a fortress which had been built to protect Paris during the Hundred Years War which was being used as a prison. It was seen as a symbol of the abuse of power of the French royal family and aristocrats, and, knowing that it housed arms, the disgruntled Parisians attacked it, taking cannons and gunpowder as well as setting the prisoners free.
The rebellious atmosphere also took hold of those outside of the city, and as the storming of the Bastille signalled the end of feudalism, rural peasants left their restrictive contracts and vandalised their landlords’ property.
France’s debt problem was eventually solved by nationalising the land owned by the Church.
Not only did this save France’s economy, but it also gave the lower-classes the chance to own property of their own.
The anti-feudalist fever which had swept the nation was put in writing with the Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen. This Declaration was a document which inspired much of France’s post-revolution constitution.
The document stated that all French citizens would have equal rights regardless of social class as well as free speech. One of the most important parts of the Declaration was the article on the end of feudalism and tax immunity.
Several aspects of the Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen can be seen in the French constitution of today.
However, although it seemed that the National Assembly was successfully implementing their ideas, new problems had come to light within the Assembly itself, when it came to addressing the controversial topic of the monarchy which left the National Assembly divided.
· Controversy Around the Role of the Monarchy
The groups of each side of the argument, the Girondins (who were in favour of giving the monarchy some constitutional power) and the Jacobins (who wanted to abolish the monarchy altogether and form a republic) were at loggerheads.
The first constitution reflected both sides of the argument, and the King was given the power to veto decisions made by the government.
A Legislative Assembly was elected to run the country, and war was soon declared on Prussia and Austria as the Assembly feared a counter-revolution by the noble Frenchmen who had fled there. While they were dealing with this potential threat, the Jacobins started a campaign of violence against the King.
This ended in the replacement of the Assembly by the newly-named National Convention. This was the government which abolished the French monarchy and ordered the execution of King Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette, his wife in 1793.
The monarchy has been abolished and the Jacobins had reached their goal, but the threat of a counter-revolution was too much for the Jacobin leader, Maximilien Robespierre, who condemned 15,000 people to death in what was known as the Reign of Terror.
Robespierre’s life was also brought to an end when the court ruled that his killing spree was no longer helping to secure the safety of France.
My Superprof tutor was really great about touching on French history during our French classes London!
How the Revolution Changed Modern-Day France
The French Revolution completely reshaped the country’s political and social landscape.
Signs of the Revolution of 1789 are everywhere in French life. For instance, the 14th July is a national holiday in France, known as Bastille Day, as it marks the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. French citizens celebrate the event which signalled the beginning of the French Revolution which made for a fairer society in which all men are born equal.
The French motto, too, has its origins in the French Revolution. The phrase ‘liberté, égalité, fraternité’ (liberty, equality, fraternity) was first used in a public context by Maximilien Robespierre in 1790 and has become a prominent feature of French life in all aspects.
If you enjoyed this article, why not check out our blog on French military history? | 1,851 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Modern Fathers Day is uniquely American in its history. Together with Mothers Day, it is both a public and personal expression of the gratitude that is due to all caring parents.
Why, then, has Mothers Day been a national holiday for almost a century, while Fathers Day received that recognition only decades ago?
The proposals for a Fathers Day and Mothers Dayfor time set aside for children to honor their parentswas introduced to American culture at about the same time. (Mothers Day was originally suggested in 1872 by Julia Ward Howe, author of The Battle Hymn of the Republic, but she envisioned it as a day for women to protest against war.) The first celebration of Fathers Day occurred in Spokane, Wash., on June 19, 1910. This was two years after the schoolteacher Anna M. Jarvis began campaigning from Philadelphia to establish a nationwide Mothers Day.
Sonora Louise Smart Dodd conceived the idea for Fathers Day in 1909 while listening to a sermon endorsing the concept of a Mothers Day. Dodds father, William Jackson Smart, had raised six children by himself after his wife died in childbirth. So strong was her desire to honor his strength of character and devotion that Fathers Day was intended to fall on his birthday, June 5, but it had to be postponed. A following Sunday was chosen because Dodds vision of Fathers Day included a religious service dedicated to fathers during which they would receive small gifts from their children.
Roses were chosen as the official flower of the first Fathers Day, with white flowers to remember fathers who had died and red ones to honor the living. (That tradition persists.) Both the mayor of Spokane and the governor of Washington quickly endorsed Fathers Day. In that same year, 1910, West Virginia became the first state to proclaim a Mothers Day. By 1911, however, almost every state embraced that celebration. In 1913, in the wake of a unanimous resolution from the House of Representatives that requested government officials wear white carnations on Mothers Day, President Woodrow Wilson declared, the second Sunday in May as a public expression of our love and reverence for the mothers of our country.
Mothers Day was a national holiday, but despite support from newspapers and from prominent political figures, Fathers Day did not gain similar momentum. A number of independent reinventions of the idea attested to its popular appeal, however. For example, Harry C. Meek, a president of Chicagos Lions Club, is sometimes called the Originator of Fathers Day because of his vigorous support for the idea that dated from the 1920s.
In an amazing co-incidence, Meek chose June 20 as Fathers Day, probably because that date was his birthday.
If it was popular, why were lobbying attempts to formalize Fathers Day unsuccessful? The inertia was not due to lack of sympathy. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson observed a private Fathers Day with his family. In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge signed a Fathers Day resolution to establish more intimate relations between fathers and their children and to impress upon fathers the full measure of their obligations.
Coolidge recommended the widespread observance of Fathers Day but he did not declare it a national holiday, as Wilson had done with Mothers Day. That recognition would take almost five decades. Meanwhile, Fathers Day continued to be widely celebrated without being formalized.
A plausible theory of why the two observances were treated differently is that members of the House of Representatives thought that granting recognition to mothers was gallant but giving the same nod to their own sex looked self-serving. A more disturbing theory is that, even then, the role of fatherhood was undervalued. Indeed, it may have been seen as a slight to mothers and, so, politically unwise to treat the two parents as equivalently important.
Whatever the reason, the path to establishing Fathers Day as a permanent national holiday was arduous. In 1926, a National Fathers Day Committee was formed in New York City, but it was not until 1956 that the next significant step forward occurred: Fathers Day was recognized by a joint resolution of Congress.
The next year, Sen. Margaret Chase Smith made an impassioned appeal for Congress to take the next step and formalize Fathers Day. Smith wrote: The Congress has been guilty now for forty years of the worst possible oversight ... against the gallant fathers ... of our land.... Either we honor both our parents, mother and father, or let us desist from honoring either one ... But to single out just one of our two parents and omit the other is the most grievous insult imaginable.
The grievous insult continued until 1966 when President Lyndon Johnson signed a presidential proclamation declaring that the third Sunday of June 1966 would be recognized as Fathers Day. It would take six more years before President Richard Nixon established Fathers Day as a permanent national holiday to be observed on the third Sunday of June every year.
America should be richly applauded for pioneering a day on which families recognize fathers. And, if Fathers Day took longer to receive the public acknowledgement it deserved, perhaps this can be a reminder of how easy it is, even for those with good intentions, to overlook the importance of fatherhood. | <urn:uuid:9f4bd2e8-39df-4826-a75e-fcff8078920a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.independent.org/news/article.asp?id=1985 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00424.warc.gz | en | 0.980646 | 1,037 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.323605209... | 6 | Modern Fathers Day is uniquely American in its history. Together with Mothers Day, it is both a public and personal expression of the gratitude that is due to all caring parents.
Why, then, has Mothers Day been a national holiday for almost a century, while Fathers Day received that recognition only decades ago?
The proposals for a Fathers Day and Mothers Dayfor time set aside for children to honor their parentswas introduced to American culture at about the same time. (Mothers Day was originally suggested in 1872 by Julia Ward Howe, author of The Battle Hymn of the Republic, but she envisioned it as a day for women to protest against war.) The first celebration of Fathers Day occurred in Spokane, Wash., on June 19, 1910. This was two years after the schoolteacher Anna M. Jarvis began campaigning from Philadelphia to establish a nationwide Mothers Day.
Sonora Louise Smart Dodd conceived the idea for Fathers Day in 1909 while listening to a sermon endorsing the concept of a Mothers Day. Dodds father, William Jackson Smart, had raised six children by himself after his wife died in childbirth. So strong was her desire to honor his strength of character and devotion that Fathers Day was intended to fall on his birthday, June 5, but it had to be postponed. A following Sunday was chosen because Dodds vision of Fathers Day included a religious service dedicated to fathers during which they would receive small gifts from their children.
Roses were chosen as the official flower of the first Fathers Day, with white flowers to remember fathers who had died and red ones to honor the living. (That tradition persists.) Both the mayor of Spokane and the governor of Washington quickly endorsed Fathers Day. In that same year, 1910, West Virginia became the first state to proclaim a Mothers Day. By 1911, however, almost every state embraced that celebration. In 1913, in the wake of a unanimous resolution from the House of Representatives that requested government officials wear white carnations on Mothers Day, President Woodrow Wilson declared, the second Sunday in May as a public expression of our love and reverence for the mothers of our country.
Mothers Day was a national holiday, but despite support from newspapers and from prominent political figures, Fathers Day did not gain similar momentum. A number of independent reinventions of the idea attested to its popular appeal, however. For example, Harry C. Meek, a president of Chicagos Lions Club, is sometimes called the Originator of Fathers Day because of his vigorous support for the idea that dated from the 1920s.
In an amazing co-incidence, Meek chose June 20 as Fathers Day, probably because that date was his birthday.
If it was popular, why were lobbying attempts to formalize Fathers Day unsuccessful? The inertia was not due to lack of sympathy. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson observed a private Fathers Day with his family. In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge signed a Fathers Day resolution to establish more intimate relations between fathers and their children and to impress upon fathers the full measure of their obligations.
Coolidge recommended the widespread observance of Fathers Day but he did not declare it a national holiday, as Wilson had done with Mothers Day. That recognition would take almost five decades. Meanwhile, Fathers Day continued to be widely celebrated without being formalized.
A plausible theory of why the two observances were treated differently is that members of the House of Representatives thought that granting recognition to mothers was gallant but giving the same nod to their own sex looked self-serving. A more disturbing theory is that, even then, the role of fatherhood was undervalued. Indeed, it may have been seen as a slight to mothers and, so, politically unwise to treat the two parents as equivalently important.
Whatever the reason, the path to establishing Fathers Day as a permanent national holiday was arduous. In 1926, a National Fathers Day Committee was formed in New York City, but it was not until 1956 that the next significant step forward occurred: Fathers Day was recognized by a joint resolution of Congress.
The next year, Sen. Margaret Chase Smith made an impassioned appeal for Congress to take the next step and formalize Fathers Day. Smith wrote: The Congress has been guilty now for forty years of the worst possible oversight ... against the gallant fathers ... of our land.... Either we honor both our parents, mother and father, or let us desist from honoring either one ... But to single out just one of our two parents and omit the other is the most grievous insult imaginable.
The grievous insult continued until 1966 when President Lyndon Johnson signed a presidential proclamation declaring that the third Sunday of June 1966 would be recognized as Fathers Day. It would take six more years before President Richard Nixon established Fathers Day as a permanent national holiday to be observed on the third Sunday of June every year.
America should be richly applauded for pioneering a day on which families recognize fathers. And, if Fathers Day took longer to receive the public acknowledgement it deserved, perhaps this can be a reminder of how easy it is, even for those with good intentions, to overlook the importance of fatherhood. | 1,079 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Coal Commission was a United Kingdom government agency, created to own and manage coal reserves. It was set up in 1938 and ceased to operate on 1 January 1947.
The Commission was constituted under the Coal Act 1938. The Act provided for the vesting in the Commission, from 1 July 1942, of the ownership of all coal (and certain, i.e. some, associated minerals and rights). Subject to the provisions of the Act, the Commissioners were charged to exercise their functions as owners "in such manner as they may think best for promoting the interests, efficiency and better organisation of the coal-mining industry."
The aggregate amount of compensation to be payable by the Commission for coal and coal-rights was fixed by the Act at £66,450,000, with additional sums for other associated property and rights. Valuation of separate coal holdings (as registered under the Coal (Registration of Ownership) Act 1937) was carried out by Valuation Boards appointed by the Board of Trade. | <urn:uuid:1dfcf6ef-5e38-4731-9504-9e37994da7bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wn.com/Coal_Commission | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.983909 | 200 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.41183471679687... | 1 | The Coal Commission was a United Kingdom government agency, created to own and manage coal reserves. It was set up in 1938 and ceased to operate on 1 January 1947.
The Commission was constituted under the Coal Act 1938. The Act provided for the vesting in the Commission, from 1 July 1942, of the ownership of all coal (and certain, i.e. some, associated minerals and rights). Subject to the provisions of the Act, the Commissioners were charged to exercise their functions as owners "in such manner as they may think best for promoting the interests, efficiency and better organisation of the coal-mining industry."
The aggregate amount of compensation to be payable by the Commission for coal and coal-rights was fixed by the Act at £66,450,000, with additional sums for other associated property and rights. Valuation of separate coal holdings (as registered under the Coal (Registration of Ownership) Act 1937) was carried out by Valuation Boards appointed by the Board of Trade. | 222 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Daniel Webster is considered one of the greatest orators in the history of the American senate. In fact, his speech “Reply to Hayne” is considered to be the most eloquent speech ever delivered in Congress. Daniel was a senator for Massachusetts and a prominent figure among Northerners. Through his life he was a part of three different parties: Adams, anti-Jacksonian, and Whig. This speech was widely considered to be contrary to the ideals of the Whig party and after giving it Daniel Webster was never fully trusted again by his party(24 Annuls).
The speech "A Plea for Harmony and Peace" was delivered in 1850. It's content touches on problems that would eventually cause The Civil War. One of the main issues mentioned is what should be done with runaway slaves. The country was divided into three groups on this point. The North wanted to stop all expansion of slavery, the South wanted to, at least, retain it’s slavery and, at most, expand slavery into new states and territories. Finally, a third group urged that there should be compromise between the states. Daniel argues that fugitive slaves should be returned in accordance to the Supreme Court's orders. Another topic mentioned in his speech is the possibility of secession. The fact that it mentions secession tells us that this idea was in some people's minds at least as early as 1850. However, compromise, namely, The Compromise of 1850 was also on people’s minds and this very speech was in support of it.
This speech was delivered to the Senate on the seventh of March, three days after Senator John C. Calhoun gave his speech, “The Clay Compromise Measures.” In Calhoun’s speech, he urges that the cause of dissent between the North and the South is that the North has accumulated more power than the South. Calhoun then suggests that the North consider what measures it can take. This speech was undoubtedly still fresh in Daniel Webster’s mind, if not in all of the senate’s mind, when he delivered his own speech. At this time, the senate was completely composed of white males, and therefore, so was his audience. Senate was at this time composed of two main parties: the Jacksonian Democrats and the Whigs party. Besides this main division, lines were also draw between those who supported the North and those whose support fell with the South. Supporters of the South were particularly receptive to Webster’s message, while their Northern counterparts were not. The consequences of this speech on Webster’s career will be touched upon later.
In Mr. Webster’s speech, “A Plea for Harmony and Peace,” Daniel Webster attempts to convince his fellow congressmen that a peaceable secession is impossible and attempts at compromise between the North and the South must be made. He states this purpose in the first paragraph of his oration when he says, “I speak today for the preservation of the Union.” At many points through his speech he states how he... | <urn:uuid:c6cf7b08-0bf1-45e5-ad41-4c533aedd016> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/a-plea-for-harmony-and-peace | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.985208 | 625 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.2653190493583... | 1 | Daniel Webster is considered one of the greatest orators in the history of the American senate. In fact, his speech “Reply to Hayne” is considered to be the most eloquent speech ever delivered in Congress. Daniel was a senator for Massachusetts and a prominent figure among Northerners. Through his life he was a part of three different parties: Adams, anti-Jacksonian, and Whig. This speech was widely considered to be contrary to the ideals of the Whig party and after giving it Daniel Webster was never fully trusted again by his party(24 Annuls).
The speech "A Plea for Harmony and Peace" was delivered in 1850. It's content touches on problems that would eventually cause The Civil War. One of the main issues mentioned is what should be done with runaway slaves. The country was divided into three groups on this point. The North wanted to stop all expansion of slavery, the South wanted to, at least, retain it’s slavery and, at most, expand slavery into new states and territories. Finally, a third group urged that there should be compromise between the states. Daniel argues that fugitive slaves should be returned in accordance to the Supreme Court's orders. Another topic mentioned in his speech is the possibility of secession. The fact that it mentions secession tells us that this idea was in some people's minds at least as early as 1850. However, compromise, namely, The Compromise of 1850 was also on people’s minds and this very speech was in support of it.
This speech was delivered to the Senate on the seventh of March, three days after Senator John C. Calhoun gave his speech, “The Clay Compromise Measures.” In Calhoun’s speech, he urges that the cause of dissent between the North and the South is that the North has accumulated more power than the South. Calhoun then suggests that the North consider what measures it can take. This speech was undoubtedly still fresh in Daniel Webster’s mind, if not in all of the senate’s mind, when he delivered his own speech. At this time, the senate was completely composed of white males, and therefore, so was his audience. Senate was at this time composed of two main parties: the Jacksonian Democrats and the Whigs party. Besides this main division, lines were also draw between those who supported the North and those whose support fell with the South. Supporters of the South were particularly receptive to Webster’s message, while their Northern counterparts were not. The consequences of this speech on Webster’s career will be touched upon later.
In Mr. Webster’s speech, “A Plea for Harmony and Peace,” Daniel Webster attempts to convince his fellow congressmen that a peaceable secession is impossible and attempts at compromise between the North and the South must be made. He states this purpose in the first paragraph of his oration when he says, “I speak today for the preservation of the Union.” At many points through his speech he states how he... | 613 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Had King Charles I of England not been beheaded on January 30, 1649, our history would certainly have turned out differently.
Carolina and Charles Town owe their names to the reign of Charles I of England and his son, Charles II.
Charles, who was born in 1600 and took the English throne in 1625, was a firm believer in the divine right of kings. During his reign, he quarreled often and bitterly with Parliament, whose members ultimately rose against him.
A bloody civil war resulted, and Charles was captured and charged with treason. His execution on that January day ushered in the end of the Monarchy and the beginning of the British Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. After Cromwell died, another unsettled time ensued until Charles’s son ascended to the throne in 1660. The new king, Charles II, soon rewarded eight men who had been loyal to his father or who had used their influence to help him gain the crown.
In 1663, he granted Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper and seven other distinguished gentlemen vast powers over that part of the New World between Virginia, a British colony, and Spanish Florida. Styled as the Lords Proprietors, these noblemen laid out all the ground rules for Carolina, which had been named for Charles I (Carolus being Latin for “Charles”). And the Proprietors honored Charles II by naming the capital of the colony Charles Town. | <urn:uuid:b4e2db64-e3bd-488b-afa2-d35602773cd8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://charlestonmag.com/features/where_charles_town_got_its_name | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.982898 | 293 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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-0.068977646529... | 18 | Had King Charles I of England not been beheaded on January 30, 1649, our history would certainly have turned out differently.
Carolina and Charles Town owe their names to the reign of Charles I of England and his son, Charles II.
Charles, who was born in 1600 and took the English throne in 1625, was a firm believer in the divine right of kings. During his reign, he quarreled often and bitterly with Parliament, whose members ultimately rose against him.
A bloody civil war resulted, and Charles was captured and charged with treason. His execution on that January day ushered in the end of the Monarchy and the beginning of the British Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. After Cromwell died, another unsettled time ensued until Charles’s son ascended to the throne in 1660. The new king, Charles II, soon rewarded eight men who had been loyal to his father or who had used their influence to help him gain the crown.
In 1663, he granted Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper and seven other distinguished gentlemen vast powers over that part of the New World between Virginia, a British colony, and Spanish Florida. Styled as the Lords Proprietors, these noblemen laid out all the ground rules for Carolina, which had been named for Charles I (Carolus being Latin for “Charles”). And the Proprietors honored Charles II by naming the capital of the colony Charles Town. | 300 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From Missouri to Montauban
The odyssey of six Osage in France
July 1827 - November 1829
In 1534, under the reign of François 1st, Jacques Cartier took possession of Canada
With Samuel Champlain, in 1608 during the reign of Henri IV, the territory became a French colony known as New France. Immediately, a lucrative fur trade began. Indeed, beaver fur and other wild animals were used to make felt which were made for caps that everyone wore in Europe at that time. The natives were hospitable people with the newcomers; they helped them to settle and share with them their knowledge of their country. Thus, the French learned from the Indians the techniques of hunting, trapping and survival in the immense American forests. The first French trappers, who were once called woodland runners or travelers dispersed in the Great Lakes area and came into contact with new tribes.
The fur traders in their turn incited the Indians to trap more animals in order to satisfy an increasing demand. This trade was practiced in the form of bartering. The French introduced instruments and tools made out of metal such as knives, hatchets, needles, various containers, but also glass beads, fabrics and ribbons. Therefore, the French were now in competition with the English who had also settled in this part of the world. There was a need to find newmarkets such as China. The idea came to mind to cross the American continent from east to west in order to reach the Pacific Ocean. Only by waterway was it possible to cross the complex lush forest at that time in America.
Joliet and Marquette Expedition
Thus, in 1673, an exploration mission was launched led by a Jesuit, Father Jacques Marquette and another Frenchmen from Canada, Louis Joliet. The expedition was made up of a group of two canoes leaving from Lake Superior. They descended the Wisconsin River to the Mississippi and followed the large river which they hoped would lead them west into the Pacific. During their voyage they took risks by collecting plant samples and especially coming into contact with the new tribes. The descent of the Mississippi continued without any major difficulty but it was a disappointing voyage. The Mississippi River runs hopelessly towards the south! When they arrived at the confluence of the Arkansas River Marquette and Joliet, learned from the Illinois Indians that the Mississippi continues towards southwest.
The Illinois named the southern region and the western basin of the Mississippi as the country of Wha-Sha-She, a name that Marquette transcribed as Osage. Fearing, that he would enter into Spanish territory and to see his expedition ruined, Marquette decided to return to New France.
Nine years later, in 1682, another Frenchmen, Robert Cavelier de la Salle, completed the Marquette expedition while descending the Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico. He really appreciated the discovery of this territory, and dedicated it to the crown of France and gave it the name Louisiana in honor of the Sun King. The Wha-Sha-She (Osage) became, like so many other Indians, subjects to his Majesty Louis XIV, King of France and to the fleet without even knowing it.
The Louisiana territory stretched from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and, from east to west of the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, therefore making it an immense colony. It was not easy to control with only a handful of soldiers who were woodland runners, who were more attracted by the charm of the Indians, the wilderness, total freedom and the taste of adventure rather than to serve the king.
The Osage are of the Sioux family from the south. They are a part of the Deghiha group which is made up of five tribes: Ponca, Omaha, Osage, Kaw (or Kansas), Quapaw (Arkansas). These tribes belong to the same language family. They have the same traditions and were always allies to each other.
During the period of the Louisiana, their hunting territory compared to that of the size of France covering today's existing states; Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma and Arkansas. They controlled the waterways of the Missouri and Mississippi for trading.
Physically, the Osage warriors were impressive people, with the average height of two meters (6 feet) or more. They were muscular and well built, their chests were traditionally covered with tattoos, wearing collar necklaces made of bone and bear claws, bracelets made of metal around the arm and wrists, rings and various other objects in the ear lobes. They styled their hair by shaving each side of the head and by leaving one strip of hair in the middle, which descended down the neck. For ceremonies or feastdays, they would accentuate their hair style by wearing a roach made of porcupine needles and tinting it with sharp colors, an eagle feather woven at the top and two other feathers which fell along either side of the face.
All body hair was carefully plucked out, including facial hairs and eyebrows. Women were also very beautiful, dressed in buckskin dresses dyed with deep colors, set-off by jewelry made of bone or shells.
The Osage had a diverse economy. The women and children were in charge of agriculture and fruit gathering while hunting was left to the men. Agriculture imposed a sedentary way of life while hunting, especially for buffalo, required a nomadic way of life.
The Osage were thus, semi nomad people, sharing their time between village life in huts at the edge of running waters, and the two annual hunting seasons, in spring and in autumn. The remainder of their time the hunters continued trapping. Fur trade thus, formed a part of their economy and the tribe ambitiously took care of it by maintaining its monopoly in its influential zone. This explains why there were often wars, fights, punitive raids and other types of acts for the goal to steal horses, or capture women for slaves.
The Osage were frightening warriors who knew how to earn respect. The French quickly understood that they could not do without their alliance in this strategically region. They quickly entered their good graces by gift giving and paying respect which would be the only means of maintaining their alleged domination. The trappers flattered the people enormously, especially towards the women, which later many became their wives and they lived in the villages, adopting Osage clothing, habits and customs, integrating themselves into the tribe. They had many children whose descendants still carry today such names as De Noya, Revard, Chouteau, Labadie, Clavier, Robedeaux, Larose, Boulanger.
The Occitans people left many marks of their passage in America: the town of St Louis, founded by Bearnais Baron de Laclede; the town of Detroit, founded by a Tarn-and-Garonnais (an Occitan region) a certain Lamothe-Cadillac (the Cadillac trademark), the Gasconnade river and still more...
Bonaparte and Jefferson
In 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte was just a First French Consul but already considered himself as the head of France. He promised himself an incredible destiny, which would need a great deal of money. What to do with this remote colony of the Americas, so difficult to control and so demanding on the soldiers? Talleyrand advised him, to call upon the President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. He was formally the ambassador in Paris during the Revolution and who could hardly believe the unexpected proposal made to him. The Louisiana territory was offered to him on a silver platter for the moderate sum of 15 million dollars! He bought it and thus, double the surface of his country with one strike. The Federate Republic of the founded thirteen American colonies now stretched to the Rocky Mountains. The Plains Indians became American without even knowing it. However, their descendants would have to wait until 1929 to obtain citizenship!
The French were no longer masters of this part of the world. The Osage were apart of those who would regret it. As surprising as it may have seemed, a group was formed by the chief: Ki-He-Kah-Shinkah (Little Chief) with a project «to pay a visit to the French within their tribe». This was the beginning of an epic journey!
It was now 1827. From that moment on during four years in the village of Kansas at the edge of the Osage River, an affluent of the Missouri River, the Osage stored beaver, fox and bear skins. It was the only currency, which they had to pay for the organized voyage across the "Great Water". The group included a dozen volunteers of men and women determined to do the adventure. They built rafts and loaded them with skins, weapons and luggage and which carried them until the Missouri River. From there, they descended the confluence from the Mississippi until New Orleans and crossed the "Great Stinky Water" to the country of the French. The first part of the voyage went well. Alas, on the lower confluence of the Missouri, just before reaching the Mississippi confluence and the town of Saint Louis, the rafts capsized in the rapids and all the skins were lost.
Discouraged and worried by this ill omen the majority of the Osage decided to return to the village. Six of them decided to continue.
The group was now reduced to but four warriors and two women. Chief Ki-He-Kah-Shinkah(Little Chief) and his wife Gthe-Do'n-Wi'n (Hawk Woman); the warrior Washinka-Sabe(Black Spirit) and his wife Semi-Ho'n-Mi-Ho'n-Ga (Sacred Sun) 19 years old and a relation of Hawk Woman; A-ki-Da-Tonkah (Great-Protector-of-the-Earth) was the spokesman of the village and was called Great-Soldier and finally, the sixth member of the group namedMinckchata-hooh (Young Soldier).
Now here they were in St Louis, which was then just a large village with the two most important confluences in North America. They met a Frenchmen, David Delaunay, wearing a beautiful colonel uniform of the United States army. He already had a hunch that he could make an exhibition of these "savages" in France. It was during the romantisme period: the French author Chateaubriant had just published «Voyage in America» and, in the preceding year, the "Adventures of the Last of Abencerages".
Delaunay proposed to finance their voyage. The Osage accepted. The group descended the Mississippi River by steamboat and arrived at New Orleans where they embark on a sailing ship: The New England en route for Le Havre. It was at the end of June 1827.
The country of the Frenchmen
On July 27, 1827 at midday, under a radiant sun, the New England ship entered Le Havre harbor. The whole city of forty thousand people was already informed of the imminent arrival of the Indians just the day before. The entire population of Le Havre swarmed to the harbor. There were already people standing on their balconies, on rooftops of houses and even right up to the boats where one could see clusters of people clinging onto the ships. A welcoming triumph!
On the New England deck, stood the four half-naked warriors of golden smooth brown skin. Their shaved skull mounted with pricked peak of eagle feathers. Their faces were painted in red and with green stripes; on their arms, they wore silver bracelets and beaded necklaces. They stood stoic and well poised underneath the piercing sun holding a spear in one hand, and some of them even had a club in the other, all of them carried bows and arrows. The women were also dressed traditionally: a blouse with sharp colors; a red rap-over skirt with ribbons applied to it, leggings and moccasins. Their long hair, combed carefully, and worn freely down their back. They had a colored down-hairpiece hanging down the side of their faces.
The extremely cramped crowd, escorted them off the sailing ship and led them into a horse carriage, which brought them to Holland Hotel. Their first visit was with the city mayor who greeted them according to French custom, that anyone who gives an official speech was offered a glass of champagne. Muscat of Rivesaltes were shot that day showing the splendors at «Big Soldier » they probably had a little too much to drink.
The following days there after were a swirl of entertainment: a ride in a carriage, parade of troops to the citadel, riding the Ferris wheel, sparing, physical sports, banquets, invitations, etc. Women had the pleasure of offering the young Indian ladies costume jewelry and toiletry requisites, which were accepted with joy. But the Indians couldn't stay there forever. Paris was waiting for them!
In the morning of August 7, strangely dressed in blue frock coats, the Indians embarked on a steamboat the «Duchess of Angouleme» which went up the Seine River. The first stop-over was in Rouen where, once again, forty thousand gawking people were gathered for hours. The August 12th issue of the «Monitor» Journal began to spread the news: «Six Indians create a fury in Rouen.» The crowd besieged the town hall. On August 8th they went to the theater in an open carriage and by custom, sat in the Governor's booth... After the first act the prince rose and spoke in his language a lot of extremely pleasant things undoubtedly the Indians could not understand... The crowd was so curious that during the intermission, they raised the curtain so that the public could have a better look at the Indians. Rouen enjoyed only five days of their presence. On August 13, the Osage went up in the «Vélocifère» a stagecoach heading for Paris.
Their first outing was their visit with the Baron de Damas, the Foreign Minister, who had invited them for a meal among 40 guests. Two days later, on August 21, they went to the Saint-Cloud Royal Court where they were introduced to Charles X and to the Princes. These official duties were fulfilled. The Indians were the prey of the Parisian public eye... and of the crafty Delaunay. (The ladder had put an ad in the newspapers to finance each outing in order to come and see the Indians. Moreover, the theater directors argued over who would have the privilege of hosting the Osage whose presence, had already been announced beforehand, and that the theater would be completely full whatever the show. Thus they were dragged to the Opera houses of Gaite, Nouveautes, Varietes, l'Odeon, etc. The newspaper "Le Figaro" maliciously printed «the theater directors has just made a debut of six savages for the prosperity of their administration »... )
In Tivoli, the Osage were the stars of "extraordinary festivals". Their presence were known at the water show at Bercy; the wax museum where they could see their doubles; on a steam boat from Paris to Saint-Cloud; with the military march at Vincennes; and at the King's Garden zoo where they were baffled by the incredible giraffe. A slight madness settled among the Parisians. In cafes, they were serving the "Osage punch", the fashion industry launched "the Osage design" or "the Missourian wool". Fashion was Osage... At the end of October the press stopped writing about the Osage. Shortly there after, Delaunay, who was recognized as a swindler by one of his former victims put him in prison. The Osage who were brought over by Delaunay did not know how they would return to their country. They set off on the roads of France.
In spring of 1828, they were in Belgium. In Liege, the young Sacred Sun had twins which one of them was adopted by a Liegeois. In January 1, 1829, they were found abandoned and dying of hunger at Friboug-in-Brisgau; they wandered through Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and down to Italy. Finally they separated into two groups, no doubt because of a disagreement on how they would return to their country. One group wanted to find help from Lafayette so they returned to Paris. While the other group counted on Mgr. Louis-Guillaume Dubourg, a former bishop of Louisiana, stationed in St. Louis where he sent the evangelical missionaries to the Plains Indians. The Osage knew him well and many were baptized by him in their tribe. They learned that Mgr. Dubourg had been ordained to the seat at the diocese of Montauban, in southwest of France.
Little Chief, Hawk Woman and Big Soldier traveled to south of France. They stopped in Avignon where the Deputy Mayor, Hector de Laurens, made a vote to subsidies their trip and come to their assistance. Winter was early that year. It was in November 1829: the small famished and exhausted group crossed the Old Bridge (Pont Vieux) of Montauban. The Tarn River had been frozen for several days. At the end of the bridge, they turned right and went up Bath Street. Still a few meters to go and they found themselves in front of the gates of Aliès Hall, the Bishop's residence (today known as the Town Hall of Montauban). Louis-Guillaume Dubourg accommodated them in his residence and comforted them. The following day he organized a collection in the diocese, among the nobles and the bourgeois, and the Mayor of Toulouse who was also asked for support. The Montalbanais were generous people: in a few days they reached the sum to finance their voyage back home and would be the end of a nightmare. The Osage embarked on a boat, which descended the Tarn River then, the Garonne River until Bordeaux. Finally "Bayard" brought them back to their country.
And the Other Three?
They had a failed attempt in Paris of September 1829 when the Consul General of the United States, Mr. Barnet, helped by Lafayette lodged them and fed them until they were strong enough to take them to Le Havre Harbor. Just at the moment of their departure all their finances for their trip were seized by the creditors by the debt of their dishonest personal manager Delaunay. The two men caught chicken pocks during their trip back and Sacred Sun returned home alone to her native land with her baby. Upon their return to their
village the Osage told their adventures of mishaps. Their two and half years stay had left a deep mark in their spirit, as their story did not die. In fact, the story lives thanks to them and to the oral tradition, which was passed on from generation to generation with such great loyalty. In fact, the story had been written for the first time in the 1929 issue of the Missouri Historical Journal. It was later translated and printed in the French magazine the «Historama» (issue number 40 of June 1987) in an article entitled «Red Skins in Paris» written by Guillaume de Berthier de Sauvigny to which a great part of these accounts were taken.
But the Story Doesn't End Here!
The Indians were a bother to the expansion projects to the west by the Whites. The Osage were moved to a reservation with another tribe of Missouri to Kansas and then finally to Oklahoma. A reservation was allotted to them in north of what was then called "Indian Territory" which is today known as Oklahoma. The territory is the size of the surface of two French departments, but insufficient enough for hunting. Besides the buffalo would soon disappear and... their heart was no longer there. The tribe withered away, and went dormant. Until oil would awake them.
The black gold soaked the basin of the reservation like a sponge. They already knew the existence of oil but before the beginning of the 20th century, who would have thought at that time that this black and nauseous oil would make an engine run?
The Automobile boom would change everything. The states of Oklahoma, Texas, and part of Kansas were covered with derricks. On the Osage, reservation, oil wells were among the richest. The Osage lived the greatest economic miracle in their history. Oil companies came to exploit the layer and pay large royalties to the tribe. Officially the tribal count which was given by the Bureau of Indian Affairs was 2229 Osage in 1909. They were allotted shares, each Osage living at that time of distribution; adult or child, including a new born were accredited with shares. It was a time of wealth. Careless tribal members launched into a sumptuous life style, building mansions, buying the most luxurious cars, dressing their wives with fine jewelry. The American newspapers constantly raved about their lavious life style. This caught the attention of adventurers, con artists and swindlers who exploited the Osage's unusual naivete on handling the dollar. The most sinister of these gangsters would go as far as violence such as murders, criminal explosions, voluntary fires which would discourage the victims and to leave the territory where the majority moved towards southern California where they would remain bonded within themselves and to their families back in Oklahoma.
Other Osage families were more careful and sent their children to the best schools. They would return with a higher education and fill high positions within American companies.
The Osage tribe still exists and there are about sixteen thousands of members of which half approximately still live on the reservation, known today as the Osage County. Its Tribal Council meets regularly in Pawhuska, capital and also headquarters of the Osage county. The Osage people hold various occupations or are unemployed and, whatever their social condition today, are living according to American standards.
But they all come together during their, modern or traditional ceremonies, to maintain their traditions, their identity and their culture. The present day Osage are now cultural warriors.
In June 1987, Jean-Claude Drouilhet founded the association after having read an article in «Historama» journal. It was there were he discovered with great surprise the story relating to the three Osages who were in the town of Montauban 1829. He launched a project to invite the Osage to Montauban. He wrote to the tribe. The Principal Chief, George Tallchief, and Mrs. Angela Robinson (an Osage Lady) accepted the project and the cultural exchanges.
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0.245936051011085... | 1 | From Missouri to Montauban
The odyssey of six Osage in France
July 1827 - November 1829
In 1534, under the reign of François 1st, Jacques Cartier took possession of Canada
With Samuel Champlain, in 1608 during the reign of Henri IV, the territory became a French colony known as New France. Immediately, a lucrative fur trade began. Indeed, beaver fur and other wild animals were used to make felt which were made for caps that everyone wore in Europe at that time. The natives were hospitable people with the newcomers; they helped them to settle and share with them their knowledge of their country. Thus, the French learned from the Indians the techniques of hunting, trapping and survival in the immense American forests. The first French trappers, who were once called woodland runners or travelers dispersed in the Great Lakes area and came into contact with new tribes.
The fur traders in their turn incited the Indians to trap more animals in order to satisfy an increasing demand. This trade was practiced in the form of bartering. The French introduced instruments and tools made out of metal such as knives, hatchets, needles, various containers, but also glass beads, fabrics and ribbons. Therefore, the French were now in competition with the English who had also settled in this part of the world. There was a need to find newmarkets such as China. The idea came to mind to cross the American continent from east to west in order to reach the Pacific Ocean. Only by waterway was it possible to cross the complex lush forest at that time in America.
Joliet and Marquette Expedition
Thus, in 1673, an exploration mission was launched led by a Jesuit, Father Jacques Marquette and another Frenchmen from Canada, Louis Joliet. The expedition was made up of a group of two canoes leaving from Lake Superior. They descended the Wisconsin River to the Mississippi and followed the large river which they hoped would lead them west into the Pacific. During their voyage they took risks by collecting plant samples and especially coming into contact with the new tribes. The descent of the Mississippi continued without any major difficulty but it was a disappointing voyage. The Mississippi River runs hopelessly towards the south! When they arrived at the confluence of the Arkansas River Marquette and Joliet, learned from the Illinois Indians that the Mississippi continues towards southwest.
The Illinois named the southern region and the western basin of the Mississippi as the country of Wha-Sha-She, a name that Marquette transcribed as Osage. Fearing, that he would enter into Spanish territory and to see his expedition ruined, Marquette decided to return to New France.
Nine years later, in 1682, another Frenchmen, Robert Cavelier de la Salle, completed the Marquette expedition while descending the Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico. He really appreciated the discovery of this territory, and dedicated it to the crown of France and gave it the name Louisiana in honor of the Sun King. The Wha-Sha-She (Osage) became, like so many other Indians, subjects to his Majesty Louis XIV, King of France and to the fleet without even knowing it.
The Louisiana territory stretched from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and, from east to west of the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, therefore making it an immense colony. It was not easy to control with only a handful of soldiers who were woodland runners, who were more attracted by the charm of the Indians, the wilderness, total freedom and the taste of adventure rather than to serve the king.
The Osage are of the Sioux family from the south. They are a part of the Deghiha group which is made up of five tribes: Ponca, Omaha, Osage, Kaw (or Kansas), Quapaw (Arkansas). These tribes belong to the same language family. They have the same traditions and were always allies to each other.
During the period of the Louisiana, their hunting territory compared to that of the size of France covering today's existing states; Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma and Arkansas. They controlled the waterways of the Missouri and Mississippi for trading.
Physically, the Osage warriors were impressive people, with the average height of two meters (6 feet) or more. They were muscular and well built, their chests were traditionally covered with tattoos, wearing collar necklaces made of bone and bear claws, bracelets made of metal around the arm and wrists, rings and various other objects in the ear lobes. They styled their hair by shaving each side of the head and by leaving one strip of hair in the middle, which descended down the neck. For ceremonies or feastdays, they would accentuate their hair style by wearing a roach made of porcupine needles and tinting it with sharp colors, an eagle feather woven at the top and two other feathers which fell along either side of the face.
All body hair was carefully plucked out, including facial hairs and eyebrows. Women were also very beautiful, dressed in buckskin dresses dyed with deep colors, set-off by jewelry made of bone or shells.
The Osage had a diverse economy. The women and children were in charge of agriculture and fruit gathering while hunting was left to the men. Agriculture imposed a sedentary way of life while hunting, especially for buffalo, required a nomadic way of life.
The Osage were thus, semi nomad people, sharing their time between village life in huts at the edge of running waters, and the two annual hunting seasons, in spring and in autumn. The remainder of their time the hunters continued trapping. Fur trade thus, formed a part of their economy and the tribe ambitiously took care of it by maintaining its monopoly in its influential zone. This explains why there were often wars, fights, punitive raids and other types of acts for the goal to steal horses, or capture women for slaves.
The Osage were frightening warriors who knew how to earn respect. The French quickly understood that they could not do without their alliance in this strategically region. They quickly entered their good graces by gift giving and paying respect which would be the only means of maintaining their alleged domination. The trappers flattered the people enormously, especially towards the women, which later many became their wives and they lived in the villages, adopting Osage clothing, habits and customs, integrating themselves into the tribe. They had many children whose descendants still carry today such names as De Noya, Revard, Chouteau, Labadie, Clavier, Robedeaux, Larose, Boulanger.
The Occitans people left many marks of their passage in America: the town of St Louis, founded by Bearnais Baron de Laclede; the town of Detroit, founded by a Tarn-and-Garonnais (an Occitan region) a certain Lamothe-Cadillac (the Cadillac trademark), the Gasconnade river and still more...
Bonaparte and Jefferson
In 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte was just a First French Consul but already considered himself as the head of France. He promised himself an incredible destiny, which would need a great deal of money. What to do with this remote colony of the Americas, so difficult to control and so demanding on the soldiers? Talleyrand advised him, to call upon the President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. He was formally the ambassador in Paris during the Revolution and who could hardly believe the unexpected proposal made to him. The Louisiana territory was offered to him on a silver platter for the moderate sum of 15 million dollars! He bought it and thus, double the surface of his country with one strike. The Federate Republic of the founded thirteen American colonies now stretched to the Rocky Mountains. The Plains Indians became American without even knowing it. However, their descendants would have to wait until 1929 to obtain citizenship!
The French were no longer masters of this part of the world. The Osage were apart of those who would regret it. As surprising as it may have seemed, a group was formed by the chief: Ki-He-Kah-Shinkah (Little Chief) with a project «to pay a visit to the French within their tribe». This was the beginning of an epic journey!
It was now 1827. From that moment on during four years in the village of Kansas at the edge of the Osage River, an affluent of the Missouri River, the Osage stored beaver, fox and bear skins. It was the only currency, which they had to pay for the organized voyage across the "Great Water". The group included a dozen volunteers of men and women determined to do the adventure. They built rafts and loaded them with skins, weapons and luggage and which carried them until the Missouri River. From there, they descended the confluence from the Mississippi until New Orleans and crossed the "Great Stinky Water" to the country of the French. The first part of the voyage went well. Alas, on the lower confluence of the Missouri, just before reaching the Mississippi confluence and the town of Saint Louis, the rafts capsized in the rapids and all the skins were lost.
Discouraged and worried by this ill omen the majority of the Osage decided to return to the village. Six of them decided to continue.
The group was now reduced to but four warriors and two women. Chief Ki-He-Kah-Shinkah(Little Chief) and his wife Gthe-Do'n-Wi'n (Hawk Woman); the warrior Washinka-Sabe(Black Spirit) and his wife Semi-Ho'n-Mi-Ho'n-Ga (Sacred Sun) 19 years old and a relation of Hawk Woman; A-ki-Da-Tonkah (Great-Protector-of-the-Earth) was the spokesman of the village and was called Great-Soldier and finally, the sixth member of the group namedMinckchata-hooh (Young Soldier).
Now here they were in St Louis, which was then just a large village with the two most important confluences in North America. They met a Frenchmen, David Delaunay, wearing a beautiful colonel uniform of the United States army. He already had a hunch that he could make an exhibition of these "savages" in France. It was during the romantisme period: the French author Chateaubriant had just published «Voyage in America» and, in the preceding year, the "Adventures of the Last of Abencerages".
Delaunay proposed to finance their voyage. The Osage accepted. The group descended the Mississippi River by steamboat and arrived at New Orleans where they embark on a sailing ship: The New England en route for Le Havre. It was at the end of June 1827.
The country of the Frenchmen
On July 27, 1827 at midday, under a radiant sun, the New England ship entered Le Havre harbor. The whole city of forty thousand people was already informed of the imminent arrival of the Indians just the day before. The entire population of Le Havre swarmed to the harbor. There were already people standing on their balconies, on rooftops of houses and even right up to the boats where one could see clusters of people clinging onto the ships. A welcoming triumph!
On the New England deck, stood the four half-naked warriors of golden smooth brown skin. Their shaved skull mounted with pricked peak of eagle feathers. Their faces were painted in red and with green stripes; on their arms, they wore silver bracelets and beaded necklaces. They stood stoic and well poised underneath the piercing sun holding a spear in one hand, and some of them even had a club in the other, all of them carried bows and arrows. The women were also dressed traditionally: a blouse with sharp colors; a red rap-over skirt with ribbons applied to it, leggings and moccasins. Their long hair, combed carefully, and worn freely down their back. They had a colored down-hairpiece hanging down the side of their faces.
The extremely cramped crowd, escorted them off the sailing ship and led them into a horse carriage, which brought them to Holland Hotel. Their first visit was with the city mayor who greeted them according to French custom, that anyone who gives an official speech was offered a glass of champagne. Muscat of Rivesaltes were shot that day showing the splendors at «Big Soldier » they probably had a little too much to drink.
The following days there after were a swirl of entertainment: a ride in a carriage, parade of troops to the citadel, riding the Ferris wheel, sparing, physical sports, banquets, invitations, etc. Women had the pleasure of offering the young Indian ladies costume jewelry and toiletry requisites, which were accepted with joy. But the Indians couldn't stay there forever. Paris was waiting for them!
In the morning of August 7, strangely dressed in blue frock coats, the Indians embarked on a steamboat the «Duchess of Angouleme» which went up the Seine River. The first stop-over was in Rouen where, once again, forty thousand gawking people were gathered for hours. The August 12th issue of the «Monitor» Journal began to spread the news: «Six Indians create a fury in Rouen.» The crowd besieged the town hall. On August 8th they went to the theater in an open carriage and by custom, sat in the Governor's booth... After the first act the prince rose and spoke in his language a lot of extremely pleasant things undoubtedly the Indians could not understand... The crowd was so curious that during the intermission, they raised the curtain so that the public could have a better look at the Indians. Rouen enjoyed only five days of their presence. On August 13, the Osage went up in the «Vélocifère» a stagecoach heading for Paris.
Their first outing was their visit with the Baron de Damas, the Foreign Minister, who had invited them for a meal among 40 guests. Two days later, on August 21, they went to the Saint-Cloud Royal Court where they were introduced to Charles X and to the Princes. These official duties were fulfilled. The Indians were the prey of the Parisian public eye... and of the crafty Delaunay. (The ladder had put an ad in the newspapers to finance each outing in order to come and see the Indians. Moreover, the theater directors argued over who would have the privilege of hosting the Osage whose presence, had already been announced beforehand, and that the theater would be completely full whatever the show. Thus they were dragged to the Opera houses of Gaite, Nouveautes, Varietes, l'Odeon, etc. The newspaper "Le Figaro" maliciously printed «the theater directors has just made a debut of six savages for the prosperity of their administration »... )
In Tivoli, the Osage were the stars of "extraordinary festivals". Their presence were known at the water show at Bercy; the wax museum where they could see their doubles; on a steam boat from Paris to Saint-Cloud; with the military march at Vincennes; and at the King's Garden zoo where they were baffled by the incredible giraffe. A slight madness settled among the Parisians. In cafes, they were serving the "Osage punch", the fashion industry launched "the Osage design" or "the Missourian wool". Fashion was Osage... At the end of October the press stopped writing about the Osage. Shortly there after, Delaunay, who was recognized as a swindler by one of his former victims put him in prison. The Osage who were brought over by Delaunay did not know how they would return to their country. They set off on the roads of France.
In spring of 1828, they were in Belgium. In Liege, the young Sacred Sun had twins which one of them was adopted by a Liegeois. In January 1, 1829, they were found abandoned and dying of hunger at Friboug-in-Brisgau; they wandered through Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and down to Italy. Finally they separated into two groups, no doubt because of a disagreement on how they would return to their country. One group wanted to find help from Lafayette so they returned to Paris. While the other group counted on Mgr. Louis-Guillaume Dubourg, a former bishop of Louisiana, stationed in St. Louis where he sent the evangelical missionaries to the Plains Indians. The Osage knew him well and many were baptized by him in their tribe. They learned that Mgr. Dubourg had been ordained to the seat at the diocese of Montauban, in southwest of France.
Little Chief, Hawk Woman and Big Soldier traveled to south of France. They stopped in Avignon where the Deputy Mayor, Hector de Laurens, made a vote to subsidies their trip and come to their assistance. Winter was early that year. It was in November 1829: the small famished and exhausted group crossed the Old Bridge (Pont Vieux) of Montauban. The Tarn River had been frozen for several days. At the end of the bridge, they turned right and went up Bath Street. Still a few meters to go and they found themselves in front of the gates of Aliès Hall, the Bishop's residence (today known as the Town Hall of Montauban). Louis-Guillaume Dubourg accommodated them in his residence and comforted them. The following day he organized a collection in the diocese, among the nobles and the bourgeois, and the Mayor of Toulouse who was also asked for support. The Montalbanais were generous people: in a few days they reached the sum to finance their voyage back home and would be the end of a nightmare. The Osage embarked on a boat, which descended the Tarn River then, the Garonne River until Bordeaux. Finally "Bayard" brought them back to their country.
And the Other Three?
They had a failed attempt in Paris of September 1829 when the Consul General of the United States, Mr. Barnet, helped by Lafayette lodged them and fed them until they were strong enough to take them to Le Havre Harbor. Just at the moment of their departure all their finances for their trip were seized by the creditors by the debt of their dishonest personal manager Delaunay. The two men caught chicken pocks during their trip back and Sacred Sun returned home alone to her native land with her baby. Upon their return to their
village the Osage told their adventures of mishaps. Their two and half years stay had left a deep mark in their spirit, as their story did not die. In fact, the story lives thanks to them and to the oral tradition, which was passed on from generation to generation with such great loyalty. In fact, the story had been written for the first time in the 1929 issue of the Missouri Historical Journal. It was later translated and printed in the French magazine the «Historama» (issue number 40 of June 1987) in an article entitled «Red Skins in Paris» written by Guillaume de Berthier de Sauvigny to which a great part of these accounts were taken.
But the Story Doesn't End Here!
The Indians were a bother to the expansion projects to the west by the Whites. The Osage were moved to a reservation with another tribe of Missouri to Kansas and then finally to Oklahoma. A reservation was allotted to them in north of what was then called "Indian Territory" which is today known as Oklahoma. The territory is the size of the surface of two French departments, but insufficient enough for hunting. Besides the buffalo would soon disappear and... their heart was no longer there. The tribe withered away, and went dormant. Until oil would awake them.
The black gold soaked the basin of the reservation like a sponge. They already knew the existence of oil but before the beginning of the 20th century, who would have thought at that time that this black and nauseous oil would make an engine run?
The Automobile boom would change everything. The states of Oklahoma, Texas, and part of Kansas were covered with derricks. On the Osage, reservation, oil wells were among the richest. The Osage lived the greatest economic miracle in their history. Oil companies came to exploit the layer and pay large royalties to the tribe. Officially the tribal count which was given by the Bureau of Indian Affairs was 2229 Osage in 1909. They were allotted shares, each Osage living at that time of distribution; adult or child, including a new born were accredited with shares. It was a time of wealth. Careless tribal members launched into a sumptuous life style, building mansions, buying the most luxurious cars, dressing their wives with fine jewelry. The American newspapers constantly raved about their lavious life style. This caught the attention of adventurers, con artists and swindlers who exploited the Osage's unusual naivete on handling the dollar. The most sinister of these gangsters would go as far as violence such as murders, criminal explosions, voluntary fires which would discourage the victims and to leave the territory where the majority moved towards southern California where they would remain bonded within themselves and to their families back in Oklahoma.
Other Osage families were more careful and sent their children to the best schools. They would return with a higher education and fill high positions within American companies.
The Osage tribe still exists and there are about sixteen thousands of members of which half approximately still live on the reservation, known today as the Osage County. Its Tribal Council meets regularly in Pawhuska, capital and also headquarters of the Osage county. The Osage people hold various occupations or are unemployed and, whatever their social condition today, are living according to American standards.
But they all come together during their, modern or traditional ceremonies, to maintain their traditions, their identity and their culture. The present day Osage are now cultural warriors.
In June 1987, Jean-Claude Drouilhet founded the association after having read an article in «Historama» journal. It was there were he discovered with great surprise the story relating to the three Osages who were in the town of Montauban 1829. He launched a project to invite the Osage to Montauban. He wrote to the tribe. The Principal Chief, George Tallchief, and Mrs. Angela Robinson (an Osage Lady) accepted the project and the cultural exchanges.
This was just the beginning of a new adventure! | 4,707 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Female Computers, Unsung Heroes of World War II
In a top-secret program, talented, young female mathematicians calculated the artillery and bomb trajectories that American GIs and airmen used to win World War II.
The air at 20,000 feet above Schweinfurt, Germany, was icy cold, but the bombardier crouching in the nose of the B-17 hardly noticed. Sweat poured down his forehead as flak rocked the aircraft, periodically spattering his compartment's Plexiglas bubble with fragments. He focused intently on preparing for the final bombing run. He bent over the Norden bombsight, making adjustments with one gloved hand, his other hand grasping a dog-eared booklet filled with numbers — the precise settings he needed to punch into the bombsight to ensure that the B-17's load released at the exact moment necessary to hit its target.
Like the legendary Rosie the Riveters, who toiled in factories and war plants, they were also vital to the war effort, but these computing Rosies worked in secrecy and anonymity, their contributions still largely unknown and unrecognized today.
Ten thousand miles away, a Marine sergeant stood next to a 75-millimeter M1A1 pack howitzer on the beachhead of a tiny Pacific Island, surveying a battalion of American soldiers preparing to charge a Japanese hillside position. But before the Marines could advance, the heavily dug-in enemy artillery atop the hill had to be silenced. Ignoring the bullets peppering the sand around him, the sergeant read out a series of numbers from a small chart he held, sending his gun crew scrambling to zero in on the Japanese positions.
Both the bombardier and the artillery sergeant depended on the accuracy of the figures they fed into their weapon systems. If the sergeants had known where those numbers had originated, they probably would have been astonished. The data were the work of a group of remarkable women with a flair for mathematics who were employed by the Army: the Philadelphia Computing Section (PCS) at the University of Pennsylvania. Known as "computers" in an age when that term referred not to machines but to human beings, some of the women went on to help create the first electronic computer, ENIAC. Like the legendary Rosie the Riveters, who toiled in factories and war plants, they were also vital to the war effort, but these computing Rosies worked in secrecy and anonymity, their contributions still largely unknown and unrecognized today.
Math helped propel the military's technological gains of the 20th century. In previous centuries, warfare was literally a hit-or-miss affair. Especially at distances beyond a few feet, weapons were mostly inaccurate, clumsy, and inefficient. Whether aiming a musket across a battlefield or a cannon across the water, a soldier or sailor essentially pointed in the general direction of the enemy, fired, and hoped for a hit.
War was also up close and personal: soldiers fired only at what they could see directly. Technological warfare opened the possibility of striking at what one couldn't see — landing an artillery shell on a hidden target over distant hills or dropping a bomb from a high-flying aircraft required firing tables with the correct trajectories, drop points, elevation angles, and muzzle velocities. These calculations also needed to take into account the constantly changing variables of temperature, air density, wind drift, and target position.
Even before World War II, the Army was busily perfecting an arsenal of new artillery and infantry weapons at its Ballistic Research Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland. To develop the crucial data to operate those weapons, engineers crunched numbers with a Bush differential analyzer, a 30-foot-long mechanical calculating machine developed by MIT's Vannevar Bush in the early 1930s. A cadre of human computers also worked at calculating figures and compiling tables, using pencil, paper, and adding machines. But when America joined the conflict in 1941, the demands of total war forced the Army to enlist more help, and the lab commandeered the resources (and the additional differential analyzer) of the University of Pennsylvania's Moore Engineering School. That meant that a new corps of "computers" had to be assembled quickly to help process the data. With most able-bodied young men already serving in uniform, the Army sought out the most immediately available mathematical talent: young women with a gift for numbers.
Principals from many high schools received an SOS from the military, remembered Doris Blumberg, who, along with her twin sister, Shirley, was about to graduate from the Philadelphia High School for Girls in May 1942. "The principal called us in and said that they were recruiting women to do mathematical work at the University of Pennsylvania for the war effort, and that we were qualified." Both girls believed it was their duty to do their part.
For young women in the 1940s with a love of math and science, the PCS work represented an unparalleled opportunity. "If we went out and tried to get some other job between high school and college, it would be a dull kind of a thing, so we may as well go into something that is interesting," Doris said.
With most able-bodied young men already serving in uniform, the Army sought out the most immediately available mathematical talent: young women with a gift for numbers.
Under the direction of Capt. Herman Goldstine, the research lab mathematician in charge of the PCS, the Army brought scores of young women to the university, mostly from the Philadelphia and Baltimore area at first but later from New York, New England, and the Midwest. The recruits dove right in, learning the specialized mathematical differentiation and integration techniques involved in ballistics calculations.
"It's advanced mathematics," Shirley Blumberg explained. "Equations were solved in order to figure out the trajectory of a bullet or a bomb; just exactly where it started; what the muzzle velocity was of whatever was shooting this bullet; and where it was going. We knew the distance, and we had to figure out how it was going to get there, exactly where it had to land. The differential equations were part of the solution of the trajectory... We knew that's what we were hired to do, to create this book that was going to be distributed to the guys who were shooting the guns. They were going to use these tables to figure out how to hit a particular target." Goldstine's wife, Adele, also a gifted mathematician, was among the instructors, as was Mary Mauchly, married to Moore School professor John Mauchly — who would soon help initiate another secret war project.
Working out of a former factory and neighboring fraternity house, the women would be given different assignments to create the table for a particular weapon," explained LeAnn Erickson, a filmmaker who details the story in a documentary. They were well paid, particularly given the era and their gender. The long hours (they sometimes worked two eight-hour shifts) and the sense of shared purpose helped the women bond. During their off hours, they picnicked and went to dances and movies; some dated whatever men were left behind by the war.
Wartime secrecy regulations required that their superiors tell the Rosies little beyond the minimum necessary to do their jobs. "We did not know where these tables were going to be used," Shirley said. "We knew that they were going to be used in Europe, but we had no idea exactly where. We found out later, when we read the newspapers, where the big battle was. And we realized that some of the information — maybe all of the information they had on the tables — we developed in our office." They understood, of course, that their calculations would be used ultimately to kill other human beings, but most didn't dwell on any moral qualms until much later. Occasionally, though, they could- n't help but consider the realities of their work. One such occasion occurred in spring 1944 after the bloody landings at Anzio, Italy, during which the Allies attempted to capture Rome by outflanking German forces with an amphibious attack.
"We had some big shots in Washington come up in military uniforms to give us an award," Shirley recalled. "They came in and stopped our working and said there was a presentation to be made. And this general got up there and told us how valuable our work is, and we were doing such a great job for the war effort... and that the landing on the beach at Anzio was a great success. And therefore, we're getting this big award for doing that wonderful work that made it such a success." For Shirley and most of her co-workers, it was merely a distraction: "We were in the middle of working. Let us finish what we're doing." Later, however, she had second thoughts. "When I read about the bloodbath on the Anzio beaches in the newspapers, I got physically ill."
Doris had a similar experience when the Rosies were asked to create data for the invasion of Guam, where Japanese troops "were in trenches all around the island." She recalled discussions with their supervisors about different formulas to be used for computing shell trajectories depending on whether a Japanese soldier was standing or was lying flat in a trench or on the ground. "That kind of got to me... because it made it more personal. I thought, 'My god, what are we doing here?'"
The work continued, even after V-E Day saw the Rosies dancing in celebration in the gardens on the Penn campus. John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert were already secretly setting the stage for the first great leap beyond human computers and mechanical differential analyzers to the first electronic computer: the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, or ENIAC.
The women heard rumors about an interesting project at the Moore School, but they didn't know any details. "We knew that these two guys were in this room right off the differential analyzer room, and that they were inventing something," Shirley recalled. "But we had no idea what they were inventing until much later. They invited a couple of us in there and said, 'Do you wanna see something?' They had this great big machine up against a wall and lots of lights and wires coming to it. And they took us in, and we said, 'What's that?' And they said, 'That's going to be the first electronic computer. That's going to do the work that you're doing in seconds.' We said, 'Yeah, go dream on, you crazy guys.'"
They studied the intricate circuitry, wiring, logic, and operation of ENIAC, a 27-ton behemoth with almost 18,000 vacuum tubes, thousands of other parts, and miles of wiring.
By June 1945, Mauchly and Eckert were ready to get ENIAC up and running, and they turned to the computing Rosies to help operate or, as it would soon be known, "program" the machine. Betty Jean Jennings, a math major from rural Missouri who had joined the PCS that spring, attended a meeting for potential programmers. "They didn't know what to ask us, basically," she said. "I remember Herman [Goldstine] asking me what I knew about electricity. I said I had had a course in physics and knew E = I/R. He replied what he really wanted to know was, 'Are you afraid of it?' I replied that I wasn't." Six women — Jennings, Kathleen (Kay) McNulty, Frances Bilas, Elizabeth (Betty) Snyder, Ruth Lichterman, and Marlyn Wescoff — from the PCS were selected to join the ENIAC project and went to Aberdeen for several weeks of training.
Although they had already been doing secret work with the PCS, they weren't even permitted to see the finished machine until the government had approved higher security clearances for them. Frantic preparations were under way for the computer's public unveiling, but in the meantime it remained top secret. Kay McNulty remembered, "Somebody gave us a whole stack of blueprints, and these were the wiring diagrams for all the panels, and they said, 'Here, figure out how the machine works and then figure out how to program it.' This was a little bit hard to do." They studied the intricate circuitry, wiring, logic, and operation of ENIAC, a 27-ton behemoth with almost 18,000 vacuum tubes, thousands of other parts, and miles of wiring.
After finally meeting Mauchly, they fired questions at him as they worked to develop the computer's programming. "Occasionally, the six of us programmers all got together to discuss how we thought the machine worked," Jennings recalled. "The biggest advantage of learning the ENIAC from the diagrams was that we began to understand what it could and could not do. As a result we could diagnose troubles almost down to the individual vacuum tube. Since we knew both the application and the machine, we learned to diagnose troubles as well as, if not better than, the engineer.
By the fall they were preparing a demonstration program on how to compute a shell trajectory. Before that happened, however, two scientists arrived from Los Alamos to give ENIAC its first real-world problem to solve. Theoretical work on the hydrogen bomb had been under way at the lab for some time and continued after Japan's surrender. In October 1945 Stanley Frankel and Nicholas Metropolis decided to use ENIAC to explore how an atomic bomb could trigger a thermonuclear reaction.
It was all top secret, of course, and Frankel and Metropolis brought their own program with them to Philadelphia on a million IBM punch cards. But the women were essential to running the program and operating the machine. "The day we were going to put it on the machine is the first time we saw the ENIAC," Jennings recalled. "Herman Goldstine acted like the conductor of an orchestra and stood in the middle and said, 'Accumulator 1, Switch 1, set to Alpha Input,' you know, 'blah, blah,' and he was reading from their description. That was our first hands-on experience with the machine."
ENIAC was set to be revealed to the public in February 1946. "About two weeks before the public announcement of ENIAC," remembered Jennings, "Herman and Adele Goldstine asked us if our trajectory program was ready to go. We said it was. They asked if we could have it up and running for the demonstration at the announcement. We said it could." The program, however, hadn't actually been tested, and although Jennings and her partner, Betty Snyder, were fully confident, no one could be sure until ENIAC had been taken through its paces.
The women worked days, nights, and weekends to get ready. John Mauchly shared a bottle of apricot liqueur with the programmers to wish them luck. Then, the night before the public demonstration, they hit a snag. "The trajectory program was running perfectly, except it didn't stop computing when [the shell] was calculated to hit the ground," Jennings said. "It kept going. Betty and I checked and rechecked everything until about 2 a.m. We couldn't figure out what on earth was going on."
She credited Snyder with finding the answer. "I've always said that Betty uses more logic in her sleep than most people do awake. We used to have a problem and she'd come in the next morning and say, 'I was thinking, you know, maybe this,' and usually she was right. Well, that night she had her nighttime logic working. She came in the next morning and flipped one switch on the master programmer and the problem was solved." ENIAC's coming-out party before scientists and the press proved a huge success.
The women, however, soon found themselves shunted aside from sharing in that success. "You can see them being dismissed almost immediately," noted historian Nathan Ensmenger of the University of Pennsylvania. "They have a dinner in which they ask all the university bigwigs and military people and all of the men, and none of the women are invited." Historian Jennifer Light of Northwestern University concurred: "Newspaper accounts characterize ENIAC's ability to perform tasks as 'intelligent,' but the women doing the same computing tasks did not receive similar acclaim." A New York Times account of the demonstration marveled at how ENIAC solved a difficult problem in 15 seconds, she pointed out, while ignoring the many hours that the women spent setting up the problem on the machine.
Nowhere is this discounting of the women's contributions more evident than in the photographs that were used to publicize ENIAC. The first public photo appearing in the New York Times was a wide shot, showing both men and women working on the machine at various panels throughout the enormous computing room. Yet when the photograph was reprinted elsewhere, the women were usually cropped out. This was most obvious in an Army recruiting ad that appeared in various magazines later in 1946. Calling for "men with aptitude for scientific work" and extolling ENIAC as a prime example of "many amazing Army devices," the ad featured a heavily cropped version of the original Times photo, with only a single man shown working at a control panel. The message was clear: women need not apply; computers are for men.
Ensmenger and other historians cite "old-school sexism" for this prejudice. The disregard for women also signaled the beginning of the evolution of computer programming from a relatively unskilled clerical, "feminized" activity to a more technically skilled, supposedly more "masculine" pursuit. "Early computer programmers were women and were imagined to be fairly low skilled," Ensmenger observed. "But today, if you were to think about a computer programmer, at least that kind of stereotype would be almost exclusively male, a male of a very particular type" — the classic nerd with pocket protector and thick glasses. That stereotype developed slowly over the 1950s and 1960s. "I do think that, although people like Eckert and Mauchly probably recognized the women to a certain degree, at this point they still saw what they did as primarily clerical."
To those with this perception, inviting the women to a celebratory dinner or anniversary celebration for ENIAC would be "like inviting the janitorial staff." And even the nature of early computing technology itself helped to perpetuate such a stereotype in that it was programmed like a switchboard," Ensmenger continued. "It looked like a switchboard. [The programmers] looked like telephone operators, which by that period is completely feminized. So in a funny way, if it had looked different, it might have been thought of differently."
Because their story has lurked in the shadows until now, historians and others are still debating the ultimate influence of the Rosies on younger generations. But their contributions in World War II and to postwar computer science are clear. "I think they certainly showed that women were capable of doing science and making contributions to technology, which was, in terms of the 20th century, a real question for women," said historian Kathy Peiss of the University of Pennsylvania.
The Rosie the Riveters in the factories and war plants may have built the planes, tanks, and guns, but it was the math-savvy, top-secret, white-collar Rosies of the PCS who helped make it possible for those weapons to win the war. | <urn:uuid:1d5c94c8-dc97-402f-9c64-e77bdde589b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inventionandtech.com/content/female-computers-unsung-heroes-world-war-ii | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00406.warc.gz | en | 0.980871 | 4,031 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.174980878829956... | 10 | Female Computers, Unsung Heroes of World War II
In a top-secret program, talented, young female mathematicians calculated the artillery and bomb trajectories that American GIs and airmen used to win World War II.
The air at 20,000 feet above Schweinfurt, Germany, was icy cold, but the bombardier crouching in the nose of the B-17 hardly noticed. Sweat poured down his forehead as flak rocked the aircraft, periodically spattering his compartment's Plexiglas bubble with fragments. He focused intently on preparing for the final bombing run. He bent over the Norden bombsight, making adjustments with one gloved hand, his other hand grasping a dog-eared booklet filled with numbers — the precise settings he needed to punch into the bombsight to ensure that the B-17's load released at the exact moment necessary to hit its target.
Like the legendary Rosie the Riveters, who toiled in factories and war plants, they were also vital to the war effort, but these computing Rosies worked in secrecy and anonymity, their contributions still largely unknown and unrecognized today.
Ten thousand miles away, a Marine sergeant stood next to a 75-millimeter M1A1 pack howitzer on the beachhead of a tiny Pacific Island, surveying a battalion of American soldiers preparing to charge a Japanese hillside position. But before the Marines could advance, the heavily dug-in enemy artillery atop the hill had to be silenced. Ignoring the bullets peppering the sand around him, the sergeant read out a series of numbers from a small chart he held, sending his gun crew scrambling to zero in on the Japanese positions.
Both the bombardier and the artillery sergeant depended on the accuracy of the figures they fed into their weapon systems. If the sergeants had known where those numbers had originated, they probably would have been astonished. The data were the work of a group of remarkable women with a flair for mathematics who were employed by the Army: the Philadelphia Computing Section (PCS) at the University of Pennsylvania. Known as "computers" in an age when that term referred not to machines but to human beings, some of the women went on to help create the first electronic computer, ENIAC. Like the legendary Rosie the Riveters, who toiled in factories and war plants, they were also vital to the war effort, but these computing Rosies worked in secrecy and anonymity, their contributions still largely unknown and unrecognized today.
Math helped propel the military's technological gains of the 20th century. In previous centuries, warfare was literally a hit-or-miss affair. Especially at distances beyond a few feet, weapons were mostly inaccurate, clumsy, and inefficient. Whether aiming a musket across a battlefield or a cannon across the water, a soldier or sailor essentially pointed in the general direction of the enemy, fired, and hoped for a hit.
War was also up close and personal: soldiers fired only at what they could see directly. Technological warfare opened the possibility of striking at what one couldn't see — landing an artillery shell on a hidden target over distant hills or dropping a bomb from a high-flying aircraft required firing tables with the correct trajectories, drop points, elevation angles, and muzzle velocities. These calculations also needed to take into account the constantly changing variables of temperature, air density, wind drift, and target position.
Even before World War II, the Army was busily perfecting an arsenal of new artillery and infantry weapons at its Ballistic Research Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland. To develop the crucial data to operate those weapons, engineers crunched numbers with a Bush differential analyzer, a 30-foot-long mechanical calculating machine developed by MIT's Vannevar Bush in the early 1930s. A cadre of human computers also worked at calculating figures and compiling tables, using pencil, paper, and adding machines. But when America joined the conflict in 1941, the demands of total war forced the Army to enlist more help, and the lab commandeered the resources (and the additional differential analyzer) of the University of Pennsylvania's Moore Engineering School. That meant that a new corps of "computers" had to be assembled quickly to help process the data. With most able-bodied young men already serving in uniform, the Army sought out the most immediately available mathematical talent: young women with a gift for numbers.
Principals from many high schools received an SOS from the military, remembered Doris Blumberg, who, along with her twin sister, Shirley, was about to graduate from the Philadelphia High School for Girls in May 1942. "The principal called us in and said that they were recruiting women to do mathematical work at the University of Pennsylvania for the war effort, and that we were qualified." Both girls believed it was their duty to do their part.
For young women in the 1940s with a love of math and science, the PCS work represented an unparalleled opportunity. "If we went out and tried to get some other job between high school and college, it would be a dull kind of a thing, so we may as well go into something that is interesting," Doris said.
With most able-bodied young men already serving in uniform, the Army sought out the most immediately available mathematical talent: young women with a gift for numbers.
Under the direction of Capt. Herman Goldstine, the research lab mathematician in charge of the PCS, the Army brought scores of young women to the university, mostly from the Philadelphia and Baltimore area at first but later from New York, New England, and the Midwest. The recruits dove right in, learning the specialized mathematical differentiation and integration techniques involved in ballistics calculations.
"It's advanced mathematics," Shirley Blumberg explained. "Equations were solved in order to figure out the trajectory of a bullet or a bomb; just exactly where it started; what the muzzle velocity was of whatever was shooting this bullet; and where it was going. We knew the distance, and we had to figure out how it was going to get there, exactly where it had to land. The differential equations were part of the solution of the trajectory... We knew that's what we were hired to do, to create this book that was going to be distributed to the guys who were shooting the guns. They were going to use these tables to figure out how to hit a particular target." Goldstine's wife, Adele, also a gifted mathematician, was among the instructors, as was Mary Mauchly, married to Moore School professor John Mauchly — who would soon help initiate another secret war project.
Working out of a former factory and neighboring fraternity house, the women would be given different assignments to create the table for a particular weapon," explained LeAnn Erickson, a filmmaker who details the story in a documentary. They were well paid, particularly given the era and their gender. The long hours (they sometimes worked two eight-hour shifts) and the sense of shared purpose helped the women bond. During their off hours, they picnicked and went to dances and movies; some dated whatever men were left behind by the war.
Wartime secrecy regulations required that their superiors tell the Rosies little beyond the minimum necessary to do their jobs. "We did not know where these tables were going to be used," Shirley said. "We knew that they were going to be used in Europe, but we had no idea exactly where. We found out later, when we read the newspapers, where the big battle was. And we realized that some of the information — maybe all of the information they had on the tables — we developed in our office." They understood, of course, that their calculations would be used ultimately to kill other human beings, but most didn't dwell on any moral qualms until much later. Occasionally, though, they could- n't help but consider the realities of their work. One such occasion occurred in spring 1944 after the bloody landings at Anzio, Italy, during which the Allies attempted to capture Rome by outflanking German forces with an amphibious attack.
"We had some big shots in Washington come up in military uniforms to give us an award," Shirley recalled. "They came in and stopped our working and said there was a presentation to be made. And this general got up there and told us how valuable our work is, and we were doing such a great job for the war effort... and that the landing on the beach at Anzio was a great success. And therefore, we're getting this big award for doing that wonderful work that made it such a success." For Shirley and most of her co-workers, it was merely a distraction: "We were in the middle of working. Let us finish what we're doing." Later, however, she had second thoughts. "When I read about the bloodbath on the Anzio beaches in the newspapers, I got physically ill."
Doris had a similar experience when the Rosies were asked to create data for the invasion of Guam, where Japanese troops "were in trenches all around the island." She recalled discussions with their supervisors about different formulas to be used for computing shell trajectories depending on whether a Japanese soldier was standing or was lying flat in a trench or on the ground. "That kind of got to me... because it made it more personal. I thought, 'My god, what are we doing here?'"
The work continued, even after V-E Day saw the Rosies dancing in celebration in the gardens on the Penn campus. John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert were already secretly setting the stage for the first great leap beyond human computers and mechanical differential analyzers to the first electronic computer: the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, or ENIAC.
The women heard rumors about an interesting project at the Moore School, but they didn't know any details. "We knew that these two guys were in this room right off the differential analyzer room, and that they were inventing something," Shirley recalled. "But we had no idea what they were inventing until much later. They invited a couple of us in there and said, 'Do you wanna see something?' They had this great big machine up against a wall and lots of lights and wires coming to it. And they took us in, and we said, 'What's that?' And they said, 'That's going to be the first electronic computer. That's going to do the work that you're doing in seconds.' We said, 'Yeah, go dream on, you crazy guys.'"
They studied the intricate circuitry, wiring, logic, and operation of ENIAC, a 27-ton behemoth with almost 18,000 vacuum tubes, thousands of other parts, and miles of wiring.
By June 1945, Mauchly and Eckert were ready to get ENIAC up and running, and they turned to the computing Rosies to help operate or, as it would soon be known, "program" the machine. Betty Jean Jennings, a math major from rural Missouri who had joined the PCS that spring, attended a meeting for potential programmers. "They didn't know what to ask us, basically," she said. "I remember Herman [Goldstine] asking me what I knew about electricity. I said I had had a course in physics and knew E = I/R. He replied what he really wanted to know was, 'Are you afraid of it?' I replied that I wasn't." Six women — Jennings, Kathleen (Kay) McNulty, Frances Bilas, Elizabeth (Betty) Snyder, Ruth Lichterman, and Marlyn Wescoff — from the PCS were selected to join the ENIAC project and went to Aberdeen for several weeks of training.
Although they had already been doing secret work with the PCS, they weren't even permitted to see the finished machine until the government had approved higher security clearances for them. Frantic preparations were under way for the computer's public unveiling, but in the meantime it remained top secret. Kay McNulty remembered, "Somebody gave us a whole stack of blueprints, and these were the wiring diagrams for all the panels, and they said, 'Here, figure out how the machine works and then figure out how to program it.' This was a little bit hard to do." They studied the intricate circuitry, wiring, logic, and operation of ENIAC, a 27-ton behemoth with almost 18,000 vacuum tubes, thousands of other parts, and miles of wiring.
After finally meeting Mauchly, they fired questions at him as they worked to develop the computer's programming. "Occasionally, the six of us programmers all got together to discuss how we thought the machine worked," Jennings recalled. "The biggest advantage of learning the ENIAC from the diagrams was that we began to understand what it could and could not do. As a result we could diagnose troubles almost down to the individual vacuum tube. Since we knew both the application and the machine, we learned to diagnose troubles as well as, if not better than, the engineer.
By the fall they were preparing a demonstration program on how to compute a shell trajectory. Before that happened, however, two scientists arrived from Los Alamos to give ENIAC its first real-world problem to solve. Theoretical work on the hydrogen bomb had been under way at the lab for some time and continued after Japan's surrender. In October 1945 Stanley Frankel and Nicholas Metropolis decided to use ENIAC to explore how an atomic bomb could trigger a thermonuclear reaction.
It was all top secret, of course, and Frankel and Metropolis brought their own program with them to Philadelphia on a million IBM punch cards. But the women were essential to running the program and operating the machine. "The day we were going to put it on the machine is the first time we saw the ENIAC," Jennings recalled. "Herman Goldstine acted like the conductor of an orchestra and stood in the middle and said, 'Accumulator 1, Switch 1, set to Alpha Input,' you know, 'blah, blah,' and he was reading from their description. That was our first hands-on experience with the machine."
ENIAC was set to be revealed to the public in February 1946. "About two weeks before the public announcement of ENIAC," remembered Jennings, "Herman and Adele Goldstine asked us if our trajectory program was ready to go. We said it was. They asked if we could have it up and running for the demonstration at the announcement. We said it could." The program, however, hadn't actually been tested, and although Jennings and her partner, Betty Snyder, were fully confident, no one could be sure until ENIAC had been taken through its paces.
The women worked days, nights, and weekends to get ready. John Mauchly shared a bottle of apricot liqueur with the programmers to wish them luck. Then, the night before the public demonstration, they hit a snag. "The trajectory program was running perfectly, except it didn't stop computing when [the shell] was calculated to hit the ground," Jennings said. "It kept going. Betty and I checked and rechecked everything until about 2 a.m. We couldn't figure out what on earth was going on."
She credited Snyder with finding the answer. "I've always said that Betty uses more logic in her sleep than most people do awake. We used to have a problem and she'd come in the next morning and say, 'I was thinking, you know, maybe this,' and usually she was right. Well, that night she had her nighttime logic working. She came in the next morning and flipped one switch on the master programmer and the problem was solved." ENIAC's coming-out party before scientists and the press proved a huge success.
The women, however, soon found themselves shunted aside from sharing in that success. "You can see them being dismissed almost immediately," noted historian Nathan Ensmenger of the University of Pennsylvania. "They have a dinner in which they ask all the university bigwigs and military people and all of the men, and none of the women are invited." Historian Jennifer Light of Northwestern University concurred: "Newspaper accounts characterize ENIAC's ability to perform tasks as 'intelligent,' but the women doing the same computing tasks did not receive similar acclaim." A New York Times account of the demonstration marveled at how ENIAC solved a difficult problem in 15 seconds, she pointed out, while ignoring the many hours that the women spent setting up the problem on the machine.
Nowhere is this discounting of the women's contributions more evident than in the photographs that were used to publicize ENIAC. The first public photo appearing in the New York Times was a wide shot, showing both men and women working on the machine at various panels throughout the enormous computing room. Yet when the photograph was reprinted elsewhere, the women were usually cropped out. This was most obvious in an Army recruiting ad that appeared in various magazines later in 1946. Calling for "men with aptitude for scientific work" and extolling ENIAC as a prime example of "many amazing Army devices," the ad featured a heavily cropped version of the original Times photo, with only a single man shown working at a control panel. The message was clear: women need not apply; computers are for men.
Ensmenger and other historians cite "old-school sexism" for this prejudice. The disregard for women also signaled the beginning of the evolution of computer programming from a relatively unskilled clerical, "feminized" activity to a more technically skilled, supposedly more "masculine" pursuit. "Early computer programmers were women and were imagined to be fairly low skilled," Ensmenger observed. "But today, if you were to think about a computer programmer, at least that kind of stereotype would be almost exclusively male, a male of a very particular type" — the classic nerd with pocket protector and thick glasses. That stereotype developed slowly over the 1950s and 1960s. "I do think that, although people like Eckert and Mauchly probably recognized the women to a certain degree, at this point they still saw what they did as primarily clerical."
To those with this perception, inviting the women to a celebratory dinner or anniversary celebration for ENIAC would be "like inviting the janitorial staff." And even the nature of early computing technology itself helped to perpetuate such a stereotype in that it was programmed like a switchboard," Ensmenger continued. "It looked like a switchboard. [The programmers] looked like telephone operators, which by that period is completely feminized. So in a funny way, if it had looked different, it might have been thought of differently."
Because their story has lurked in the shadows until now, historians and others are still debating the ultimate influence of the Rosies on younger generations. But their contributions in World War II and to postwar computer science are clear. "I think they certainly showed that women were capable of doing science and making contributions to technology, which was, in terms of the 20th century, a real question for women," said historian Kathy Peiss of the University of Pennsylvania.
The Rosie the Riveters in the factories and war plants may have built the planes, tanks, and guns, but it was the math-savvy, top-secret, white-collar Rosies of the PCS who helped make it possible for those weapons to win the war. | 4,030 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Philip of Macedonia is Macedonian king who reigned in 369-336 BC. Under him, Macedonia became a centralized state. He introduced the army, called the “Macedonian phalanx” and paved the way for their the navy. He is also the father of Alexander the Great of Macedonia.
Philip of Macedonia was assassinated in 336 BC. by plotting courtiers. Hi tomb- Museum is located in Vergina, 75 km. away from Thessaloniki.
Interest in this area was already shown in 1850, when archaeologists have suggested that there are tombs there. In 1977, an archaeologist of Greek origin, called Manolis Andronikos started excavation activities on the hill called the Great Tumulus. There they found a total of seven rooms and two of them are supposed to belong to Philip II of Macedonia and his grandson Alexander IV of Macedonian - the son of Alexander.
The tomb of Philip is of a large size. It is built of limestone and fine white plaster. It consists of two rooms. In the main room is the sarcophagus of marble and an urn made from 24 carat gold. Inside the box were found the remains of the king and a golden crown with 313 oak leaves and 68 acorns.
In the room were also found armor made of gold and ivory and a richly decorated funeral bed, on which the king was placed and burned. There are also silver dishes full of burial gifts.
Anthropological study of the skull of Philip shows fatal injury in the right eye and that confirmed its identification. The tomb dates from the 4th century BC.
On the facade of the porch is depiction of a hunting scene. There is another open coffin, again with a golden urn, but smaller in size. In the urn were found the bones of a woman wrapped in golden-purple canvas and a golden wreath of flowers. It is assumed that this is one of the wives of the king. Next to it, there is another burial bed, which was affected by the fire. They also found a golden crown there.
The tomb of Philip's grandson, Alexander IV of Macedonia is smaller in size and just as the king’s it is not spoiled. Unfortunately, the two other tombs were plundered and ruined.See more | <urn:uuid:04978c00-4e79-4509-a706-321d9a712122> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysteries24.com/n3-28718-The_tomb_of_Philip_of_Macedonia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00275.warc.gz | en | 0.983751 | 475 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.1419353485107422,... | 2 | Philip of Macedonia is Macedonian king who reigned in 369-336 BC. Under him, Macedonia became a centralized state. He introduced the army, called the “Macedonian phalanx” and paved the way for their the navy. He is also the father of Alexander the Great of Macedonia.
Philip of Macedonia was assassinated in 336 BC. by plotting courtiers. Hi tomb- Museum is located in Vergina, 75 km. away from Thessaloniki.
Interest in this area was already shown in 1850, when archaeologists have suggested that there are tombs there. In 1977, an archaeologist of Greek origin, called Manolis Andronikos started excavation activities on the hill called the Great Tumulus. There they found a total of seven rooms and two of them are supposed to belong to Philip II of Macedonia and his grandson Alexander IV of Macedonian - the son of Alexander.
The tomb of Philip is of a large size. It is built of limestone and fine white plaster. It consists of two rooms. In the main room is the sarcophagus of marble and an urn made from 24 carat gold. Inside the box were found the remains of the king and a golden crown with 313 oak leaves and 68 acorns.
In the room were also found armor made of gold and ivory and a richly decorated funeral bed, on which the king was placed and burned. There are also silver dishes full of burial gifts.
Anthropological study of the skull of Philip shows fatal injury in the right eye and that confirmed its identification. The tomb dates from the 4th century BC.
On the facade of the porch is depiction of a hunting scene. There is another open coffin, again with a golden urn, but smaller in size. In the urn were found the bones of a woman wrapped in golden-purple canvas and a golden wreath of flowers. It is assumed that this is one of the wives of the king. Next to it, there is another burial bed, which was affected by the fire. They also found a golden crown there.
The tomb of Philip's grandson, Alexander IV of Macedonia is smaller in size and just as the king’s it is not spoiled. Unfortunately, the two other tombs were plundered and ruined.See more | 483 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In some accounts I've read, the Greeks thought Apollo drove the chariot of the sun across the sky, in others it was Helios. Obviously they didn't see two suns rise and fall back then; How did these conflicting versions come about? Did one god originally get the credit and if so, when did lore of the other start to be told?
Apollo is initially the god of song, music and poetry, but considered as a solar-god too. Since it is one of the 12 leading god, he took the place of Helios many times.
This confusion comes from a nickname, Phoebus, which means "the shiny". The 2 gods had this nickname.
But the one who was driving the chariot of the sun, pulled by 4 horses (Pyroïs, Eoos Aethon and Phlégon), was Helios, which was going from the island of Aea to the land of the Hesperides. | <urn:uuid:cc15ab38-6152-41c7-bcef-6beac6725655> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mythology.stackexchange.com/questions/1756/was-it-apollo-or-helios | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.980906 | 197 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.273848861... | 12 | In some accounts I've read, the Greeks thought Apollo drove the chariot of the sun across the sky, in others it was Helios. Obviously they didn't see two suns rise and fall back then; How did these conflicting versions come about? Did one god originally get the credit and if so, when did lore of the other start to be told?
Apollo is initially the god of song, music and poetry, but considered as a solar-god too. Since it is one of the 12 leading god, he took the place of Helios many times.
This confusion comes from a nickname, Phoebus, which means "the shiny". The 2 gods had this nickname.
But the one who was driving the chariot of the sun, pulled by 4 horses (Pyroïs, Eoos Aethon and Phlégon), was Helios, which was going from the island of Aea to the land of the Hesperides. | 199 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In May Whitney entered Yale Collegewhere he learned many of the new concepts and experiments in science and the applied arts, as technology was then called.
He was a pioneer in the development of the American system of manufactures. Eli Whitney was born in Westboro, Mass.
He took an early interest in mechanical work. He taught school to earn money to continue his education and graduated from Yale College in In Georgia he attracted a great deal of attention by inventing a number of domestic contrivances for his hostess.
He was informed of the need for a machine to clean green-seed cotton. Cotton gins of various designs were then in use in different parts of the world, and models had been imported and tried in Louisiana as early as None had ever worked well, however, and when Whitney arrived in Georgia, cleaning was still a hand job.
It took a slave a full day to clean one pound of cotton. Whitney set his hand to the problem and within ten days had produced a design for a gin.
By April he had made one which cleaned 50 pounds a day. Whitney went into partnership in May with Phineas Miller and returned to New England to build his gins. He received a patent for his machine in Marchby which time word of his design had spread and imitations were already on the market.
It was the initial hope of Whitney and Miller to operate the gins themselves, thus cornering the cotton market, but a lack of capital and the large number of pirated machines made this impossible.
Whitney took infringers to court, but he lost his first case, inand it was to be ten years before he won decisively and was able to establish his right to the machine. During this decade of frustration and financial uncertainty, Whitney turned to the manufacture of small arms as a way of repairing his fortune and saving his reputation.
He signed his first contract with the Federal government on June 14,and promised to deliver 4, arms by the end of September and another 6, a year later.
Whitney had no factory and no workmen, knew nothing about making guns, and had thus far been unable even to manufacture in quantity the relatively simple cotton gins. Judged by the terms of the contract, however, Whitney was a failure.
He had no idea of how to go about fulfilling his obligation, and indeed he delivered his first guns inthree years late. The last guns were not delivered to the government until Januaryalmost nine years late.
He died in New Haven, Conn.Eli Whitney >The American inventor and manufacturer Eli Whitney () perfected the >cotton gin .
He was a pioneer in the development of the American system >of manufactures. Eli Whitney was born in Westboro, Mass., on Dec. 8, He took an early interest in mechanical work.
Eli Whitney’s invention of the cotton gin in made cotton cheap enough to use as a staple for textile production. As a result, slavery and the plantation system became fixtures in the American South. A biography of Eli Whitney, the inventor of the cotton gin, whose application of standardized parts to the production of weapons and other machines was a major influence in the development of industry.5/5(1).
Kids learn about the biography and life of Eli Whitney including his early career, invention of the cotton gin, in Westborough, Massachusetts to Eli and Elizabeth Whitney. Growing up on the farm with his two brothers and one sister, Eli enjoyed working in his dad's workshop.
American Revolution Industrial Revolution American Civil. Watch video · Eli Whitney Biography Inventor (–) Eli Whitney was an American inventor who created the cotton gin and pushed the “interchangeable parts” mode of production.
Eli Whitney is best remembered as the inventor of the first commercially viable cotton gin. Perhaps more importantly, his new method of making muskets, using an assembly line and interchangeable parts, initiated the American mass-production system. | <urn:uuid:835b1f74-530a-4655-87ef-f66fa89cb37e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://horelejugy.leslutinsduphoenix.com/a-biography-of-eli-whitney-an-american-inventor-44258py.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00409.warc.gz | en | 0.987458 | 807 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.20300593972... | 1 | In May Whitney entered Yale Collegewhere he learned many of the new concepts and experiments in science and the applied arts, as technology was then called.
He was a pioneer in the development of the American system of manufactures. Eli Whitney was born in Westboro, Mass.
He took an early interest in mechanical work. He taught school to earn money to continue his education and graduated from Yale College in In Georgia he attracted a great deal of attention by inventing a number of domestic contrivances for his hostess.
He was informed of the need for a machine to clean green-seed cotton. Cotton gins of various designs were then in use in different parts of the world, and models had been imported and tried in Louisiana as early as None had ever worked well, however, and when Whitney arrived in Georgia, cleaning was still a hand job.
It took a slave a full day to clean one pound of cotton. Whitney set his hand to the problem and within ten days had produced a design for a gin.
By April he had made one which cleaned 50 pounds a day. Whitney went into partnership in May with Phineas Miller and returned to New England to build his gins. He received a patent for his machine in Marchby which time word of his design had spread and imitations were already on the market.
It was the initial hope of Whitney and Miller to operate the gins themselves, thus cornering the cotton market, but a lack of capital and the large number of pirated machines made this impossible.
Whitney took infringers to court, but he lost his first case, inand it was to be ten years before he won decisively and was able to establish his right to the machine. During this decade of frustration and financial uncertainty, Whitney turned to the manufacture of small arms as a way of repairing his fortune and saving his reputation.
He signed his first contract with the Federal government on June 14,and promised to deliver 4, arms by the end of September and another 6, a year later.
Whitney had no factory and no workmen, knew nothing about making guns, and had thus far been unable even to manufacture in quantity the relatively simple cotton gins. Judged by the terms of the contract, however, Whitney was a failure.
He had no idea of how to go about fulfilling his obligation, and indeed he delivered his first guns inthree years late. The last guns were not delivered to the government until Januaryalmost nine years late.
He died in New Haven, Conn.Eli Whitney >The American inventor and manufacturer Eli Whitney () perfected the >cotton gin .
He was a pioneer in the development of the American system >of manufactures. Eli Whitney was born in Westboro, Mass., on Dec. 8, He took an early interest in mechanical work.
Eli Whitney’s invention of the cotton gin in made cotton cheap enough to use as a staple for textile production. As a result, slavery and the plantation system became fixtures in the American South. A biography of Eli Whitney, the inventor of the cotton gin, whose application of standardized parts to the production of weapons and other machines was a major influence in the development of industry.5/5(1).
Kids learn about the biography and life of Eli Whitney including his early career, invention of the cotton gin, in Westborough, Massachusetts to Eli and Elizabeth Whitney. Growing up on the farm with his two brothers and one sister, Eli enjoyed working in his dad's workshop.
American Revolution Industrial Revolution American Civil. Watch video · Eli Whitney Biography Inventor (–) Eli Whitney was an American inventor who created the cotton gin and pushed the “interchangeable parts” mode of production.
Eli Whitney is best remembered as the inventor of the first commercially viable cotton gin. Perhaps more importantly, his new method of making muskets, using an assembly line and interchangeable parts, initiated the American mass-production system. | 791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Short Biographical Paragraph on Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi, or Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, was born at Porbandar in Gujarat, on October 2, 1869. His father was the Dewan of the Porbandar State.
Early Life and Career: He married Kasturba when he was only thirteen. He was very truthful from his boyhood days. He went to England to be a barrister. He did not do well as a lawyer.
In South Africa he began a movement against the British rulers. In India too he led the freedom movement and at last won independence in 1947.
Also read: Mahatma Gandhi: Life of Mahatma Gandhi
Non-violence and Gandhism: Gandhiji believed in non-violence and love. He was against untouchability and all sorts of injustice in society. He lived a saintly life and suffered a lot to see truth triumph. His heart bled for the poor and the oppressed. He said that all men were equal. He wanted them all to live in peace. He dreamed of a Ram Rajya where everybody would live in peace. He was against the modern civilization. Instead, he wanted his countrymen to live in the villages. His philosophy and deed are so great that he is regarded as “Mahatma” meaning “Great Soul”.
Also read: Gandhian Philosophy on Truth and Non-violence (Ahimsa)
Freedom Struggle in India: After spending 21 years in South Africa, Gandhiji returned to India in 1915. With the help of his mentor, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, he secured his place as the president of Indian National Congress. While fighting against the British rule in India, he always maintained his principles of truthfulness, peace and non-violence. In 1942, he launched the ‘Quit India Movement‘ to drive the British out of the country and gave the famous slogan of ‘do or die’ to his countrymen. Though, the movement didn’t prove to be an immediate success, the British had to grant independence to our country in 1947.
Death and Memory: This great son of India was shot dead on January 30, 1948. But he will live forever in our heart for what he has done for India.
Also read: Mahatma Gandhi in Wikipedia | <urn:uuid:e565d3bc-79a7-43e9-b6a6-667c676947ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://themlive.com/short-biographical-paragraph-mahatma-gandhi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00192.warc.gz | en | 0.980812 | 489 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.331381708383... | 2 | Short Biographical Paragraph on Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi, or Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, was born at Porbandar in Gujarat, on October 2, 1869. His father was the Dewan of the Porbandar State.
Early Life and Career: He married Kasturba when he was only thirteen. He was very truthful from his boyhood days. He went to England to be a barrister. He did not do well as a lawyer.
In South Africa he began a movement against the British rulers. In India too he led the freedom movement and at last won independence in 1947.
Also read: Mahatma Gandhi: Life of Mahatma Gandhi
Non-violence and Gandhism: Gandhiji believed in non-violence and love. He was against untouchability and all sorts of injustice in society. He lived a saintly life and suffered a lot to see truth triumph. His heart bled for the poor and the oppressed. He said that all men were equal. He wanted them all to live in peace. He dreamed of a Ram Rajya where everybody would live in peace. He was against the modern civilization. Instead, he wanted his countrymen to live in the villages. His philosophy and deed are so great that he is regarded as “Mahatma” meaning “Great Soul”.
Also read: Gandhian Philosophy on Truth and Non-violence (Ahimsa)
Freedom Struggle in India: After spending 21 years in South Africa, Gandhiji returned to India in 1915. With the help of his mentor, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, he secured his place as the president of Indian National Congress. While fighting against the British rule in India, he always maintained his principles of truthfulness, peace and non-violence. In 1942, he launched the ‘Quit India Movement‘ to drive the British out of the country and gave the famous slogan of ‘do or die’ to his countrymen. Though, the movement didn’t prove to be an immediate success, the British had to grant independence to our country in 1947.
Death and Memory: This great son of India was shot dead on January 30, 1948. But he will live forever in our heart for what he has done for India.
Also read: Mahatma Gandhi in Wikipedia | 498 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thomas Tallis facts for kids
We know very little about Tallis’s youth. He may have started his career as organist at Dover and then Waltham Abbey. After the Dissolution of the monasteries he had a job at Canterbury Cathedral for a short time. He was soon made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He had a job in the royal household until his death. He worked for four monarchs: Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I.
Tallis was an organist and composer. He had to write music for the royal chapels. He was given the lease of a big house in Kent and a salary of £91 12s a year (12s is 60p in modern money). That was a very good salary in those days. In 1575, Queen Elizabeth I gave Tallis and William Byrd a licence which meant they were the only people allowed to print and publish music in England (music printing was a very new invention at the time). Tallis owned a house in Greenwich where he died in 1585.
In the early 16th century church music was often very polyphonic. Voices imitated one another and sang different things at the same time. Tallis wrote church music which was much simpler. In a lot of his music the choir sing homophonic music instead of using the older polyphony. For a short time, during the reign of the Catholic Mary Tudor, polyphonic music was in fashion again. This was the time when Tallis wrote an antiphon “Gaude gloriosa Dei mater” and a mass musical setting|mass “Puer natus est nobis”. These two works are once more very complicated polyphonic works. After that his works become simpler once more, but he was always keen to try out new ideas from the continent of Europe. He wrote some very fine anthems. Many of his works are settings of Latin words, but he also made settings of English texts.
One of his works is called Spem in Alium. The choir divide into forty parts i.e. the choir need at least 40 people to sing it, and each person sings a different line. It is possible that he wrote it for Queen Elizabeth I’s 40th birthday in 1573, but we cannot be sure.
Images for kids
Thomas Tallis Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:84d0cb13-aae0-4db6-a245-3fb02967b302> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Thomas_Tallis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00421.warc.gz | en | 0.988187 | 499 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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We know very little about Tallis’s youth. He may have started his career as organist at Dover and then Waltham Abbey. After the Dissolution of the monasteries he had a job at Canterbury Cathedral for a short time. He was soon made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He had a job in the royal household until his death. He worked for four monarchs: Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I.
Tallis was an organist and composer. He had to write music for the royal chapels. He was given the lease of a big house in Kent and a salary of £91 12s a year (12s is 60p in modern money). That was a very good salary in those days. In 1575, Queen Elizabeth I gave Tallis and William Byrd a licence which meant they were the only people allowed to print and publish music in England (music printing was a very new invention at the time). Tallis owned a house in Greenwich where he died in 1585.
In the early 16th century church music was often very polyphonic. Voices imitated one another and sang different things at the same time. Tallis wrote church music which was much simpler. In a lot of his music the choir sing homophonic music instead of using the older polyphony. For a short time, during the reign of the Catholic Mary Tudor, polyphonic music was in fashion again. This was the time when Tallis wrote an antiphon “Gaude gloriosa Dei mater” and a mass musical setting|mass “Puer natus est nobis”. These two works are once more very complicated polyphonic works. After that his works become simpler once more, but he was always keen to try out new ideas from the continent of Europe. He wrote some very fine anthems. Many of his works are settings of Latin words, but he also made settings of English texts.
One of his works is called Spem in Alium. The choir divide into forty parts i.e. the choir need at least 40 people to sing it, and each person sings a different line. It is possible that he wrote it for Queen Elizabeth I’s 40th birthday in 1573, but we cannot be sure.
Images for kids
Thomas Tallis Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 505 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As part of our unit on immigration, we sought to help simulate what the immigrant experience was like for our students. After setting the tone with an immigration timeline the day before, we wanted to start off our class with an engaging activity to help our students see what it was like for many immigrants coming to America. To do this, we created the following questionnaire as an entrance ticket, and simulated being immigration officers as the students walked into class. We informed the students that if they missed one question, they would not pass the activity, just as the immigrants at Angel Island would be deported if they missed on of the prompts. Some of the questions that we used were straight from the primary source of an Angel Island interrogation, while others were our own, but equally unfair and absurd. After the students had completed the questionnaire, we cross checked the answers and simulated the difficult and intense process that the immigrants would go through. Although most of our students saw through our simulating harsh tones, many of them were nervous about the questionnaire and then immediately relieved when we returned to our easygoing demeanors and informed them that it was a simulation. This activity was an engaging way to connect the students, many of whom were recent immigrants themselves, with the Angel Island immigrants before them.
Some of the questions include:
7. Who lives in the third house in the second row of houses in your town?
8. What is the name and address of the hospital you were born at?
9. What town is Ms. Patton from?
10. What is Principal Yoon’s favorite color?
11. What is your plumber’s first name?
12. What is the address of your school?
To view the entire question base, please select the following link: AngelIslandInterrogation.docx | <urn:uuid:951160e5-32cc-4152-8452-dc6376855fc6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brown.digication.com/sally_patton/Artifact_Angel_Island_Interrogation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00008.warc.gz | en | 0.983006 | 369 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.00365051208... | 2 | As part of our unit on immigration, we sought to help simulate what the immigrant experience was like for our students. After setting the tone with an immigration timeline the day before, we wanted to start off our class with an engaging activity to help our students see what it was like for many immigrants coming to America. To do this, we created the following questionnaire as an entrance ticket, and simulated being immigration officers as the students walked into class. We informed the students that if they missed one question, they would not pass the activity, just as the immigrants at Angel Island would be deported if they missed on of the prompts. Some of the questions that we used were straight from the primary source of an Angel Island interrogation, while others were our own, but equally unfair and absurd. After the students had completed the questionnaire, we cross checked the answers and simulated the difficult and intense process that the immigrants would go through. Although most of our students saw through our simulating harsh tones, many of them were nervous about the questionnaire and then immediately relieved when we returned to our easygoing demeanors and informed them that it was a simulation. This activity was an engaging way to connect the students, many of whom were recent immigrants themselves, with the Angel Island immigrants before them.
Some of the questions include:
7. Who lives in the third house in the second row of houses in your town?
8. What is the name and address of the hospital you were born at?
9. What town is Ms. Patton from?
10. What is Principal Yoon’s favorite color?
11. What is your plumber’s first name?
12. What is the address of your school?
To view the entire question base, please select the following link: AngelIslandInterrogation.docx | 357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World War I was a cataclysmic event that devastated many countries but it can be argued that no nation was hit harder than France. Although it can be stated that France was a European superpower now and then, it can be said for certain that it sustained significant damage during and after World War I. The Great War introduced many problems like economic distress, military losses and social unrest. France’s steps taken towards recovering from its losses are controversial and will be explored further in this essay.
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However, one must first understand how France got involved in World War I originally before addressing its issues and reviewing its recovery process. The catalyst for World War I was Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s assassination conducted by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. The Serbian people in Sarajevo had a grudge against their rulers, The Habsburg Monarchy. They despised this royal family as they felt that they were being treated unfairly. Several Serbian nationalists then formed The Black Hand Secret Society, a rebellious organization with radical ideologies. The assassination soon started a ripple effect that resulted in Austrian leaders stocking up arms before declaring war against Serbians, ultimately causing World War I. France got involved because there was an alliance system, meaning allied countries were bound by a code that made assisting one another, especially during war, compulsory. As Russia had a pact with Sarajevo for protection, France was bound by this alliance system, eventually being dragged into this gruesome confrontation as well. One notable conflict that took place was when Germany and France declared war against one another on August 3 1914. This battle had a disastrous effect on France.
World War I proved fatal for France, especially regarding its social welfare. France suffered many civilian and military casualties and sustained significant structural damage. Source A shows that France’s total casualties was really high at 6,160,800, nearly twice as much as Britain. Many young soldiers either returned home traumatized or maimed and that was if they were not killed in action. Mortar and artillery bombings also destroyed many homes, displacing many civilians and leaving them without shelter. Soldiers also staged mutinies and went into battles drunk after losing a battle known as The Nivelle Offensive. To make matters worse, agricultural areas were badly damaged and crops were destroyed, causing nationwide starvation and sickness. The social problems France sustained from World War I were severe and they caused a ripple effect, bringing up even more problems revolving around France’s political and economic situation.
Another aspect that took a heavy blow was France’s economy and industrial production. France’s economy was in ruins during and after World War I. With agricultural areas destroyed, farmers lost their income sources. Furthermore, with buildings like industrial factories damaged as well, many workers could not continue their occupations. Poverty became an immediate problem that needed fixing. Source B shows how steeply France’s GDP dropped during and after World War I, an extremely large decrease that was bigger than any other country on that graph. The French government also channeled most monetary funds into medical care for wounded individuals, basically leaving itself penniless and incapable in fixing its economic problems.
One final aspect that sustained a negative impact was France’s political situation with its leaders under pressure from their people as they struggled in fixing France’s many problems. The social and economic issues faced by France’s citizens left them in anger and distress as they felt that their leaders, especially Georges Clemenceau, were not capable in leading France’s recovery from World War I. Georges Clemenceau himself was under pressure. As France’s Prime Minister, he tried solving their issues but he could not do so without help from other nations. Source C shows how many people hoped that Georges Clemenceau could restore France’s former glory, evident in how he is seen disinfecting a German officer, representing how he should be solving France’s issues. The political issues France faced culminated from all its previous problems as people started losing their trust in their leaders.
With so many problems at hand, France took many steps in recovering from its predicament. Some steps were questionable and controversial like how it tried recovering from some issues through executions and unfair terms imposed via treaties.
In hopes of solving France’s political issues, Georges Clemenceau worked together with British Prime Minister David Lloyd George and US President Woodrow Wilson, forming The Big Three that was responsible for producing The Treaty of Versailles with intent on keeping Europe safe by weakening Germany significantly. As Georges Clemenceau represented his people, he was extremely aggressive when imposing demands on Germany because he too was furious at Germany’s overboard hostility towards France. As such, he imposed harsh terms like restricting Germany’s military by keeping its army at 100,000 men who could only patrol and maintain internal order, acquiring colonies from Germany like Alsace-Lorraine, Germany taking blame for World War I and demilitarizing The Rhineland for 15 years. This pleased French people greatly as many held a grudge towards Germany, hoping that they would suffer for their brutal actions. Georges Clemenceau ultimately won back trust, support and admiration from his people but he was viewed as cruel for many other people, as seen in source D where The Big Three are criticized for their demanding terms imposed on Germany. However, no matter how immoral it was considered, it had a positive impact on France’s recovery, not just in political terms but in its social and economic aspects as well. France used its new land obtained from Germany for agricultural, industrial and commercial purposes, slowly building back up its economy. The 6 million pounds fee that Germany progressively paid were channeled into fixing France’s other issues like health, shelter and food.
However, more social issues were present that The Treaty of Versailles could not solve alone, other methods were used with varying results. The rebellious soldiers who staged mutinies was still a challenge France faced. The French government grew impatient with their soldiers and threatened that they would be executed. Soon, soldiers were trialed, lined up and executed in mass executions. This recovery method was not only immoral but it was ineffective as well. The French government was too impatient and thought killing their own soldiers would have results but it only reduced their already dwindling numbers.
There were also economic issues present that could not be fixed through The Treaty of Versailles and other solutions were proposed. One method was mobilizing women for work and its immediate effects. As most men were in battle and away from their homes, many jobs were vacant and industries slowly started dying out. As such, women were mobilized for factory work and manual labour. Many female movements were then found, one was known as Women’s Charitable Fervour where around 120,000 women served as nurses, salaried workers and labourers. This was looked at differently by many people. Many people, especially men, felt that there was an upheaval in traditional gender roles – men worked while women supposedly stayed at home doing chores. French women who were hoping for legal recognition along with a cultural transformation in society did not procure their wishes and they were used more as pity subjects. As seen in Source E, French women doing manual labour were not really appreciated for their hard work but rather used as images that preached how people should save food so that women would not suffer. However, even if women were more appreciated as propaganda in saving food and reducing costs, food and production industries were maintained well because they helped. Another method resulted in a conflict or rather a crisis in The Ruhr from 1923 – 1925. Germany could not pay its agreed reparation fees on time even though it was reduced and so French troops took their resources without their permission. German workers who were upset from this conflict went on strike but were slaughtered by these French soldiers. Although this brutal treatment was horrid and unfair, France still got their resources and payment.
It is no surprise that France could eventually recover from World War I. Its stunning landscapes, gorgeous landmarks and beautiful cities today resulted from good recovery decisions and excellent stewardship under Georges Clemenceau. However, it is worth noting that some decisions were poorly made, like how France killed its own soldiers for no good reason. Even though other decisions were immoral like The Ruhr crisis and harsh terms imposed from The Treaty of Versailles, one cannot argue with France’s results. France’s main goal was becoming a superpower once more and it ultimately did. Georges Clemenceau made a good choice in placing his people’s welfare first, even going against his own ethics just so that he can solve France’s issues. To conclude, recovery for France was only possible under a leader who can make tough decisions that fix his country and Georges Clemenceau was such a leader.
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Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now | <urn:uuid:bd30c931-19b3-4c7d-ac27-69caccd2cfc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eduzaurus.com/free-essay-samples/the-beggining-of-world-war-i/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00090.warc.gz | en | 0.988152 | 1,933 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.6758506298065186,... | 2 | World War I was a cataclysmic event that devastated many countries but it can be argued that no nation was hit harder than France. Although it can be stated that France was a European superpower now and then, it can be said for certain that it sustained significant damage during and after World War I. The Great War introduced many problems like economic distress, military losses and social unrest. France’s steps taken towards recovering from its losses are controversial and will be explored further in this essay.
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However, one must first understand how France got involved in World War I originally before addressing its issues and reviewing its recovery process. The catalyst for World War I was Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s assassination conducted by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. The Serbian people in Sarajevo had a grudge against their rulers, The Habsburg Monarchy. They despised this royal family as they felt that they were being treated unfairly. Several Serbian nationalists then formed The Black Hand Secret Society, a rebellious organization with radical ideologies. The assassination soon started a ripple effect that resulted in Austrian leaders stocking up arms before declaring war against Serbians, ultimately causing World War I. France got involved because there was an alliance system, meaning allied countries were bound by a code that made assisting one another, especially during war, compulsory. As Russia had a pact with Sarajevo for protection, France was bound by this alliance system, eventually being dragged into this gruesome confrontation as well. One notable conflict that took place was when Germany and France declared war against one another on August 3 1914. This battle had a disastrous effect on France.
World War I proved fatal for France, especially regarding its social welfare. France suffered many civilian and military casualties and sustained significant structural damage. Source A shows that France’s total casualties was really high at 6,160,800, nearly twice as much as Britain. Many young soldiers either returned home traumatized or maimed and that was if they were not killed in action. Mortar and artillery bombings also destroyed many homes, displacing many civilians and leaving them without shelter. Soldiers also staged mutinies and went into battles drunk after losing a battle known as The Nivelle Offensive. To make matters worse, agricultural areas were badly damaged and crops were destroyed, causing nationwide starvation and sickness. The social problems France sustained from World War I were severe and they caused a ripple effect, bringing up even more problems revolving around France’s political and economic situation.
Another aspect that took a heavy blow was France’s economy and industrial production. France’s economy was in ruins during and after World War I. With agricultural areas destroyed, farmers lost their income sources. Furthermore, with buildings like industrial factories damaged as well, many workers could not continue their occupations. Poverty became an immediate problem that needed fixing. Source B shows how steeply France’s GDP dropped during and after World War I, an extremely large decrease that was bigger than any other country on that graph. The French government also channeled most monetary funds into medical care for wounded individuals, basically leaving itself penniless and incapable in fixing its economic problems.
One final aspect that sustained a negative impact was France’s political situation with its leaders under pressure from their people as they struggled in fixing France’s many problems. The social and economic issues faced by France’s citizens left them in anger and distress as they felt that their leaders, especially Georges Clemenceau, were not capable in leading France’s recovery from World War I. Georges Clemenceau himself was under pressure. As France’s Prime Minister, he tried solving their issues but he could not do so without help from other nations. Source C shows how many people hoped that Georges Clemenceau could restore France’s former glory, evident in how he is seen disinfecting a German officer, representing how he should be solving France’s issues. The political issues France faced culminated from all its previous problems as people started losing their trust in their leaders.
With so many problems at hand, France took many steps in recovering from its predicament. Some steps were questionable and controversial like how it tried recovering from some issues through executions and unfair terms imposed via treaties.
In hopes of solving France’s political issues, Georges Clemenceau worked together with British Prime Minister David Lloyd George and US President Woodrow Wilson, forming The Big Three that was responsible for producing The Treaty of Versailles with intent on keeping Europe safe by weakening Germany significantly. As Georges Clemenceau represented his people, he was extremely aggressive when imposing demands on Germany because he too was furious at Germany’s overboard hostility towards France. As such, he imposed harsh terms like restricting Germany’s military by keeping its army at 100,000 men who could only patrol and maintain internal order, acquiring colonies from Germany like Alsace-Lorraine, Germany taking blame for World War I and demilitarizing The Rhineland for 15 years. This pleased French people greatly as many held a grudge towards Germany, hoping that they would suffer for their brutal actions. Georges Clemenceau ultimately won back trust, support and admiration from his people but he was viewed as cruel for many other people, as seen in source D where The Big Three are criticized for their demanding terms imposed on Germany. However, no matter how immoral it was considered, it had a positive impact on France’s recovery, not just in political terms but in its social and economic aspects as well. France used its new land obtained from Germany for agricultural, industrial and commercial purposes, slowly building back up its economy. The 6 million pounds fee that Germany progressively paid were channeled into fixing France’s other issues like health, shelter and food.
However, more social issues were present that The Treaty of Versailles could not solve alone, other methods were used with varying results. The rebellious soldiers who staged mutinies was still a challenge France faced. The French government grew impatient with their soldiers and threatened that they would be executed. Soon, soldiers were trialed, lined up and executed in mass executions. This recovery method was not only immoral but it was ineffective as well. The French government was too impatient and thought killing their own soldiers would have results but it only reduced their already dwindling numbers.
There were also economic issues present that could not be fixed through The Treaty of Versailles and other solutions were proposed. One method was mobilizing women for work and its immediate effects. As most men were in battle and away from their homes, many jobs were vacant and industries slowly started dying out. As such, women were mobilized for factory work and manual labour. Many female movements were then found, one was known as Women’s Charitable Fervour where around 120,000 women served as nurses, salaried workers and labourers. This was looked at differently by many people. Many people, especially men, felt that there was an upheaval in traditional gender roles – men worked while women supposedly stayed at home doing chores. French women who were hoping for legal recognition along with a cultural transformation in society did not procure their wishes and they were used more as pity subjects. As seen in Source E, French women doing manual labour were not really appreciated for their hard work but rather used as images that preached how people should save food so that women would not suffer. However, even if women were more appreciated as propaganda in saving food and reducing costs, food and production industries were maintained well because they helped. Another method resulted in a conflict or rather a crisis in The Ruhr from 1923 – 1925. Germany could not pay its agreed reparation fees on time even though it was reduced and so French troops took their resources without their permission. German workers who were upset from this conflict went on strike but were slaughtered by these French soldiers. Although this brutal treatment was horrid and unfair, France still got their resources and payment.
It is no surprise that France could eventually recover from World War I. Its stunning landscapes, gorgeous landmarks and beautiful cities today resulted from good recovery decisions and excellent stewardship under Georges Clemenceau. However, it is worth noting that some decisions were poorly made, like how France killed its own soldiers for no good reason. Even though other decisions were immoral like The Ruhr crisis and harsh terms imposed from The Treaty of Versailles, one cannot argue with France’s results. France’s main goal was becoming a superpower once more and it ultimately did. Georges Clemenceau made a good choice in placing his people’s welfare first, even going against his own ethics just so that he can solve France’s issues. To conclude, recovery for France was only possible under a leader who can make tough decisions that fix his country and Georges Clemenceau was such a leader.
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Sexual Health (young people)
Sexually transmitted infections can be broken down into three main types: bacterial, parasitic and viral. All three types of infections occur in heterosexual (opposite gender) or homosexual (same gender) sexual relationships. It is important to remember that condoms protect against most sexually transmitted infection.
Bacterial and parasitic infections can be cured. STIs that are caused by bacteria include chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Trichomonas vaginalis is a form of parasitic infection.
Viral infections can only be treated but not completely cured. Viral sexually transmitted infections include herpes, hepatitis B, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and human papillomaviruses (HPVs). HPV is a very common virus with over 100 different strains.
There are two types of HPV vaccine both of which provide protection against two high risk types of HPV (types 16 and 18) that cause 70% of all cervical cancers. Women need to be vaccinated before they come into contact with the virus. The virus is transmitted by skin-to-skin contact, usually by sexual activity.
"Studies have already shown that the vaccine protects against HPV infection for around 10 years, although experts expect protection to be for much longer" - NHS Choices September 2014.
In September 2012 the NHS switched to Gardasil vaccine which also protects against the types of HPV that cause 90% of genital warts.
Find out more about young women's experiences of the HPV vaccine.
Below is an account of the STIs infections and treatment experiences of the young people we talked to.
Chlamydia is a bacterial infection passed on through unprotected sex, and most common among women in their teens and men in their twenties. It is often symptomless, and therefore often not possible to know who infected whom.
For example a woman could have had chlamydia without knowing it for a long time and only realise that she is infected after her present boyfriend develops symptoms, goes for treatment and names her as a contact. One woman was diagnosed when she went to the GUM to be treated for genital warts.
Explains that she discovered she had Chlamydia only because she went for a check up for something...
I had Chlamydia which I didn't know about and I had warts and that's the reason I went in. I caught genital warts from somebody.
How old were you?
I was seventeen and I went in and they did a full screen and I had Chlamydia as well, it must have been from the same guy so I was very peeved to say the least.
You went because you discovered you had warts, so there was something there?
They were itching so I thought oh okay, and I didn't really want to go to my GP because that was somebody that I knew too well I think, so I found out that there was a place in the next town that I could go and I did it myself, I hopped on a bus and went.
I had to take some time off school so... there was one friend that I told and she had a car and she sometimes dropped me off because I had to go back a couple of times.
And did you have anything at all that could have been associated with Chlamydia?
So was it the genital warts that'?
That was the reason I went in.
But you have just had Chlamydia?
They did the full screening and they said 'oh something else has come up now' and I didn't even know about it, I'd never even heard of chlamydia and they gave me a leaflet and everything and I thought well it's a good thing I did have something with symptoms.
So in a way you were lucky?
Yeah, I do count myself as lucky because it was something mild and it's something you know, that doesn't affect me now, but it could have been.
But they sorted out Chlamydia?
Yeah, they did a full screening.
Okay and they gave you the antibiotics?
Yeah, and that cleared it up straight away. I felt like I'd been an idiot and it was just stupid of me for being lax you know, and since I've made sure that you know, there's absolutely no contact before the condom went on you know because you think well, the most important thing is to make sure that he doesn't ejaculate you know what I mean, and you can have as much contact then, and that's something I think that I wasn't really aware of as much, I was more concerned about not getting pregnant, you know at that stage, and then after that things changed.
The common treatment for chlamydia is a course of antibiotics. The two most commonly prescribed treatments are: Azithromycin (single dose) and Doxycycline (longer course). Besides treatment, health professionals will also explain not to have any sex (oral, vaginal, anal or use sex toys) until seven days after completing treatment. If left untreated it could develop into pelvic inflammatory disease.
Explains what happened next after her Chlamydia test came back positive.
Explains the medication she was told to take and the instructions she received from doctors.
I can't remember what the tablets were called but they gave me two forms of tablets. The first time they gave me normal tablets there was ones that I had to take for two weeks and then ones I had to take for a week to clean up the infection. I weren't allowed to have any intercourse at all in that time and then the second set that I received when I was pregnant was special pregnancy ones to stop the baby, cause if you have a STD when you are pregnant it could make you miscarry and give you stillbirth and problems during your pregnancy and things like that, and you are given special tablets and that to take.
For how long did you have to take those?
Did you have any ill effect?
No, you just weren't allowed to drink alcohol or be in direct sunlight or anything like that.
And how many months pregnant were you?
Six weeks, I was six weeks when I found out, when I found out the second time, when I got Chlamydia that I was pregnant, and then I had to go to the clinic to make sure I hadn't caught anything again and I did.
Genital warts are a particular type of HPV infection that can affect men and women, gay and straight. The types of HPV that can cause genital warts (virus types 6 and 11) are not the same as the types that can cause cancers. The virus lives in the skin and is usually passed on by skin contact. The virus can also be passed on when no warts are on the skin. Weeks or months after infection small growths appear on their own or in groups. Treatment is usually with a cream applied twice a day. It can take a long time to make them go away. If the cream is not effective they can be removed by freezing or scraping. One woman said that she had several treatments, but the warts kept reappearing. She was initially treated in a rural hospital in another country before attending a GUM clinic in the UK.
Genital herpes is one of the most common STIs with more than 20,000 cases diagnosed in the UK every year. Genital herpes is caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). Type 2 or HSV-2 causes genital herpes. The infectious stage of the illness is when painful sores or blisters appear in the genital areas or in the buttocks, and the blisters burst, releasing fluids. At this stage, genital herpes is easily transmitted to another person during sexual intercourse. During this active infection phase, the person usually feels feverish, unwell and exhausted. Treatment consists of antiviral drugs, taken as tablets that will reduce the severity of an attack. There is not yet a cure. After the initial attack has passed people may go months before a further outbreak. Some people who suffer from frequent attacks take low dose antiviral medication to prevent them. One young woman who contracted genital herpes at the age of sixteen describes her treatment. The same woman explains that she now takes vitamin supplements which she believes help to prevent outbreaks.
Talks about her clinic treatment for genital herpes. Played by an actor.
They gave me a numbing gel, and things like' I remember the nurse said it would be your best friend for the next five days. I was thinking I needed it a whole two weeks ago. The pain went - it you know didn't bother me any more and they just gave me the numbing gel and Zovirax to take, and that was it. Like thank you very much, and that was it.
Was the Zovirax by mouth?
Yes, yes. I can't remember how many times I took it a day, but I didn't do the treatment for too long because it was in the last stages of the blister clearing up so, it wasn't - it wasn't that bad. God I hope I don't make it sound really scary, this thing, because it's not. The first outbreak's always the worst. It's always the most rememberable one.
Says she prefers to take vitamin supplements for prevention rather than use conventional...
Where I work I work in the actual bookshop, and it's all on health, so I read. Vitamin C, zinc and Lysine they've shown to be the best stuff to prevent it, and when it does come, to help shorten the outbreak. And I used to have my outbreak maybe for about a week and a half, but now when I take it, sometimes if I thought, "Oh God it's coming on", then I can stop it by taking about 3000mg of Lysine. And my outbreaks now, when they do come, are a lot shorter. Sometimes about four or five days, so '
What was the drug you said the clinic gave you in the first place?
That was a drug to take by mouth?
Yes. And I think that's the one you can take every single day to suppress it, but I don't believe in suppressing it. I believe in preventing it and trying to - it's like you prevent it, and then if you, if you in your mind you're completely at ease with it, I think that it won't come and bother you. I'm a very firm believer that with me, food don't trigger it, it's stress.
Last reviewed January 2016.
Last updated January 2016. | <urn:uuid:6c1cbebe-692c-4a5c-8e7b-4d4edee5b6f0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://healthtalk.org/sexual-health/stis-treatments | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00140.warc.gz | en | 0.986809 | 2,186 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.031048398464918... | 2 | Sexual Health (young people)
Sexually transmitted infections can be broken down into three main types: bacterial, parasitic and viral. All three types of infections occur in heterosexual (opposite gender) or homosexual (same gender) sexual relationships. It is important to remember that condoms protect against most sexually transmitted infection.
Bacterial and parasitic infections can be cured. STIs that are caused by bacteria include chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Trichomonas vaginalis is a form of parasitic infection.
Viral infections can only be treated but not completely cured. Viral sexually transmitted infections include herpes, hepatitis B, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and human papillomaviruses (HPVs). HPV is a very common virus with over 100 different strains.
There are two types of HPV vaccine both of which provide protection against two high risk types of HPV (types 16 and 18) that cause 70% of all cervical cancers. Women need to be vaccinated before they come into contact with the virus. The virus is transmitted by skin-to-skin contact, usually by sexual activity.
"Studies have already shown that the vaccine protects against HPV infection for around 10 years, although experts expect protection to be for much longer" - NHS Choices September 2014.
In September 2012 the NHS switched to Gardasil vaccine which also protects against the types of HPV that cause 90% of genital warts.
Find out more about young women's experiences of the HPV vaccine.
Below is an account of the STIs infections and treatment experiences of the young people we talked to.
Chlamydia is a bacterial infection passed on through unprotected sex, and most common among women in their teens and men in their twenties. It is often symptomless, and therefore often not possible to know who infected whom.
For example a woman could have had chlamydia without knowing it for a long time and only realise that she is infected after her present boyfriend develops symptoms, goes for treatment and names her as a contact. One woman was diagnosed when she went to the GUM to be treated for genital warts.
Explains that she discovered she had Chlamydia only because she went for a check up for something...
I had Chlamydia which I didn't know about and I had warts and that's the reason I went in. I caught genital warts from somebody.
How old were you?
I was seventeen and I went in and they did a full screen and I had Chlamydia as well, it must have been from the same guy so I was very peeved to say the least.
You went because you discovered you had warts, so there was something there?
They were itching so I thought oh okay, and I didn't really want to go to my GP because that was somebody that I knew too well I think, so I found out that there was a place in the next town that I could go and I did it myself, I hopped on a bus and went.
I had to take some time off school so... there was one friend that I told and she had a car and she sometimes dropped me off because I had to go back a couple of times.
And did you have anything at all that could have been associated with Chlamydia?
So was it the genital warts that'?
That was the reason I went in.
But you have just had Chlamydia?
They did the full screening and they said 'oh something else has come up now' and I didn't even know about it, I'd never even heard of chlamydia and they gave me a leaflet and everything and I thought well it's a good thing I did have something with symptoms.
So in a way you were lucky?
Yeah, I do count myself as lucky because it was something mild and it's something you know, that doesn't affect me now, but it could have been.
But they sorted out Chlamydia?
Yeah, they did a full screening.
Okay and they gave you the antibiotics?
Yeah, and that cleared it up straight away. I felt like I'd been an idiot and it was just stupid of me for being lax you know, and since I've made sure that you know, there's absolutely no contact before the condom went on you know because you think well, the most important thing is to make sure that he doesn't ejaculate you know what I mean, and you can have as much contact then, and that's something I think that I wasn't really aware of as much, I was more concerned about not getting pregnant, you know at that stage, and then after that things changed.
The common treatment for chlamydia is a course of antibiotics. The two most commonly prescribed treatments are: Azithromycin (single dose) and Doxycycline (longer course). Besides treatment, health professionals will also explain not to have any sex (oral, vaginal, anal or use sex toys) until seven days after completing treatment. If left untreated it could develop into pelvic inflammatory disease.
Explains what happened next after her Chlamydia test came back positive.
Explains the medication she was told to take and the instructions she received from doctors.
I can't remember what the tablets were called but they gave me two forms of tablets. The first time they gave me normal tablets there was ones that I had to take for two weeks and then ones I had to take for a week to clean up the infection. I weren't allowed to have any intercourse at all in that time and then the second set that I received when I was pregnant was special pregnancy ones to stop the baby, cause if you have a STD when you are pregnant it could make you miscarry and give you stillbirth and problems during your pregnancy and things like that, and you are given special tablets and that to take.
For how long did you have to take those?
Did you have any ill effect?
No, you just weren't allowed to drink alcohol or be in direct sunlight or anything like that.
And how many months pregnant were you?
Six weeks, I was six weeks when I found out, when I found out the second time, when I got Chlamydia that I was pregnant, and then I had to go to the clinic to make sure I hadn't caught anything again and I did.
Genital warts are a particular type of HPV infection that can affect men and women, gay and straight. The types of HPV that can cause genital warts (virus types 6 and 11) are not the same as the types that can cause cancers. The virus lives in the skin and is usually passed on by skin contact. The virus can also be passed on when no warts are on the skin. Weeks or months after infection small growths appear on their own or in groups. Treatment is usually with a cream applied twice a day. It can take a long time to make them go away. If the cream is not effective they can be removed by freezing or scraping. One woman said that she had several treatments, but the warts kept reappearing. She was initially treated in a rural hospital in another country before attending a GUM clinic in the UK.
Genital herpes is one of the most common STIs with more than 20,000 cases diagnosed in the UK every year. Genital herpes is caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). Type 2 or HSV-2 causes genital herpes. The infectious stage of the illness is when painful sores or blisters appear in the genital areas or in the buttocks, and the blisters burst, releasing fluids. At this stage, genital herpes is easily transmitted to another person during sexual intercourse. During this active infection phase, the person usually feels feverish, unwell and exhausted. Treatment consists of antiviral drugs, taken as tablets that will reduce the severity of an attack. There is not yet a cure. After the initial attack has passed people may go months before a further outbreak. Some people who suffer from frequent attacks take low dose antiviral medication to prevent them. One young woman who contracted genital herpes at the age of sixteen describes her treatment. The same woman explains that she now takes vitamin supplements which she believes help to prevent outbreaks.
Talks about her clinic treatment for genital herpes. Played by an actor.
They gave me a numbing gel, and things like' I remember the nurse said it would be your best friend for the next five days. I was thinking I needed it a whole two weeks ago. The pain went - it you know didn't bother me any more and they just gave me the numbing gel and Zovirax to take, and that was it. Like thank you very much, and that was it.
Was the Zovirax by mouth?
Yes, yes. I can't remember how many times I took it a day, but I didn't do the treatment for too long because it was in the last stages of the blister clearing up so, it wasn't - it wasn't that bad. God I hope I don't make it sound really scary, this thing, because it's not. The first outbreak's always the worst. It's always the most rememberable one.
Says she prefers to take vitamin supplements for prevention rather than use conventional...
Where I work I work in the actual bookshop, and it's all on health, so I read. Vitamin C, zinc and Lysine they've shown to be the best stuff to prevent it, and when it does come, to help shorten the outbreak. And I used to have my outbreak maybe for about a week and a half, but now when I take it, sometimes if I thought, "Oh God it's coming on", then I can stop it by taking about 3000mg of Lysine. And my outbreaks now, when they do come, are a lot shorter. Sometimes about four or five days, so '
What was the drug you said the clinic gave you in the first place?
That was a drug to take by mouth?
Yes. And I think that's the one you can take every single day to suppress it, but I don't believe in suppressing it. I believe in preventing it and trying to - it's like you prevent it, and then if you, if you in your mind you're completely at ease with it, I think that it won't come and bother you. I'm a very firm believer that with me, food don't trigger it, it's stress.
Last reviewed January 2016.
Last updated January 2016. | 2,195 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Visitors to the Summer Olympic Games in Beijing will be in a city that fewer than twenty years ago was the site of a massacre of innocent civilians by their government. As you enjoy the athletic events and the sights of the city, you may find yourself at street corners, subway stops, in parks or near hospitals where ordinary Chinese men and women were murdered.
On the night of June 3-4, 1989, troops of China’s People’s Liberation Army moved into Beijing to crush the pro-democracy demonstrations that began in April of that year. The number killed remains unknown although estimates range from several hundred to several thousand. The government of the People’s Republic of China insists that the demonstrators were counter-revolutionary criminals. Tens of thousands were imprisoned in the political crackdown that followed.
A few years afterward, Ding Zilin, the mother of a murdered student, began to investigate the massacre. Eventually, she and other victims’ relatives formed the Tiananmen Mothers. They have gathered information about 188 victims of China’s Communist regime. This map, which is based on their work, shows the places where 176 victims were killed or the hospitals to which their bodies were taken. Thirteen known victims remain unaccounted for. | <urn:uuid:06e0a415-76f6-4ca0-b443-5d5645fe1ac8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chinadigitaltimes.net/2008/07/beijing-street-locations-hospitals-where-some-victims-of-the-tiananmen-massacre-died-on-june-4-1989/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00180.warc.gz | en | 0.982134 | 254 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3442623317241668... | 1 | Visitors to the Summer Olympic Games in Beijing will be in a city that fewer than twenty years ago was the site of a massacre of innocent civilians by their government. As you enjoy the athletic events and the sights of the city, you may find yourself at street corners, subway stops, in parks or near hospitals where ordinary Chinese men and women were murdered.
On the night of June 3-4, 1989, troops of China’s People’s Liberation Army moved into Beijing to crush the pro-democracy demonstrations that began in April of that year. The number killed remains unknown although estimates range from several hundred to several thousand. The government of the People’s Republic of China insists that the demonstrators were counter-revolutionary criminals. Tens of thousands were imprisoned in the political crackdown that followed.
A few years afterward, Ding Zilin, the mother of a murdered student, began to investigate the massacre. Eventually, she and other victims’ relatives formed the Tiananmen Mothers. They have gathered information about 188 victims of China’s Communist regime. This map, which is based on their work, shows the places where 176 victims were killed or the hospitals to which their bodies were taken. Thirteen known victims remain unaccounted for. | 256 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Memory of our firefighters who gave the ultimate sacrifice.
The earliest form that firefighting took, was the Bucket Brigade, which was formed by two lines of citizens, between the source of water and the fire, one passing the empty buckets back to the source of water in a continuous chain until the fire was out and the danger over.
In the early days of Fredericton or St Anne’s Point, the Military played a very large part in the protection of the citizens and were the first to form what is now known as a Salvage Co. They had the duty of salvaging the contents of the buildings and of preventing looting in the area.
The first real organization of fire protection took place during the year 1816 when a series of fires forced the governing bodies to do something about having a group of men organized to act in the event of fire and to have some sort of concrete form.
March 22, 1817 is the birthday of the Fredericton Fire Department, for on that date the Provincial Government passed an Act providing for the appointment of Fire Wards in the capital city. The then Governor in Council decreed that eight responsible men, from both the Gentry and the Common people be elected as Fire Wards. These men were selected and sworn into office and given certificates of their positions. In order that these Wards be distinguished from their members of the brigade, they were given and carried as their insignia of office, a staff of seven feet, painted red and a speaking trumpet painted white with the name Fredericton painted on it. This staff and trumpet were to assist the Wards in communicating and directing the men while engaged in fighting fires. In those days the Gentry wore high silk hats and wore white wigs. The appointment if these Wards was the first start of what is now a common practice, that of building inspection, as part of their duties to inspect the buildings in their respective Wards.
It was not until September 3, 1839 that the City Fire Wards drafted a code of regulations setting forth the duties of bucket brigades, ladder companies and axe men while in attendance at fires.
The Great Fire of 1850 – 2000 people left homeless, over 300 buildings burned, including 156 homes, 18 acres and four city blocks were destroyed. The total loss from this fire was estimated at a staggering 100,000 pounds.
In the early 1850′s, the five Wards of the city were equipped with hand pumps, which allowed the first mechanical propulsion of water at fires. The first hand pump was owned by the city was made by a Mr Taylor who lived and worked at the Taylor house on Westmorland Street between George and Charlotte Streets.
The first four wheeled hose cart owned in the city was built by Mr John Malony in 1852 and was attached to Ward #1.
The hand pumps or engines as they were termed, propelled water from cisterns that were located at various corners throughout the city and were of sufficient depth to allow the river water to enter through layers of sand at their bottoms. The tanks were covered in winter to keep them from freezing.
The hose used with these pumps was made of the very finest leather and riveted together in some thirty and forty foot lengths and had iron rings attached at intervals for the easy carrying of same. With the coming of the steam fire engines, this type of hose became dangerous to both firefighters and citizens, due to flying rivets caused by the heavy pressure of the steam pumps, and had to be replaced by rubber hose in the year 1876.
No. 1 Engine was housed in the west end of the city at the corner of Queen and Northumberland Streets. In later years, this building was moved out to Smythe Street between Argyle and Victoria Streets, rebuilt by the Lofstrom family. It is still standing.
No. 2 & 3 Engines were housed in a wooden building at 441 King Street, later replaced in 1914 by a brink structure, used as the Central Fire Station until 1971. It is now occupied by Bell Boy Cleaners, a dry cleaning company.
No. 4 Engine was also on King Street at just below the old Queen Hotel Alley, now called Camperdown Lane. This pump was the pride of the fleet. It was built by Fireman Henry Biggs, a member of a well known Fredericton family also prominent in musical circles.
No. 5 Engine was in the east end of University Avenue, then called Sunbury Street, this structure was also converted into a home and is standing near the corner of Shore Street and University Avenue.
The next great mechanical stride the department took was the purchase of a steam engine. The first steam Fire Engine was invented in England in 1828 but was not really accepted in North America until some time later. So it was in 1867 that the city of Fredericton bought it’s first steamer, and Amoskeag engine and it was called the “Alexandra”. It came to No. 2 Company to have the honour of being the first Steamer Company in the city.
Seven years later in 1874, No. 3 company was presented with a steamer made by the Silsby Company and it was christened the “City of Fredericton”. This company was affectionately called the “Irish Brigade”. Many stories have been told of the rivalry between these two fine groups, who have the honour of getting first water on a fire.
The completing of the pumping station in 1883 sounded the knell of the steamers, for in that year, a fire was successfully combated with water from the new hydrants, however, the steamers were not discarded immediately.
Alexandra (the Amoskeag) rendered service at St. Mary’s and Gibson fires in the 1890′s and her last call at the burning of Fraser’s Aberdeen Mill in the west end of the city in 1905. The mill was located on the Woodstock Road near the present Delta Hotel.
Following that, she was loaned to the Morrisons for the protection of their lumber milling property at the eastern end of the city. For a number of years, she stood on the bank of the river poorly housed and during that time, deteriorated greatly from the action of the weather. She was later stored in the basement of City Hall, and eventually taken out and scrapped.
The Silsby enjoyed a somewhat happier fate. Early in the 1900′s, she was sold to the firm of Cickie & McGrath Ltd, who were at that time, millionaire lumber operators with a headquarters in Tusket, Nova Scotia and for some years after the company went out of business was used by the town’s fire department.
While many cities used two and three horse hitches to pull their steamers, it was not until 1902 that the city of Fredericton purchased the first horses to replace the manpower in pulling the fire equipment. The first horse was put into service on a hose cart, followed by one for a ladder wagon. These were rather small light wagons, with the first drivers being Bill Wilson and Steve Doucette.
In 1916, a large ladder wagon was purchased from Swamscott, Mass, and was in service until the fall of 1937. A regulation hose cart was also added to the Department and was in service until 1929. After that, it was kept in reserve for parades and any emergency. The first motor truck, a La France hose and chemical truck was put into service in the same year (1916), and retired in 1946.
1927 was a dark year for the department as George Clynic became the first firefighter killed in the line of duty. His name is on the Firefighter’s memorial down by the south bank of the Saint John River.
1929, saw two disastrous fires in that year. One was in the 400 block of Queen Street, the area now occupied by the old Zellers building. The other was in the Provincial Normal School across the street. After this, the city invested in a new 1000GPM La France Pumper and after being in two accidents and being repaired by the Bickle Fire Engine Co, it was retired in the late 1950′s.
A new steel-framed ladder sled was built by Horsnell Iron Works of Fredericton to replace the old wooden framed one in the early 30′s. Horses continued in use of the ladder wagon and sled until February 1938 when they were driven for the last time to Box 6 at the corner of Argyle and York Streets, by Hugh O’Neill who had been handling the team of Bill and Doll since September, 1929.
Some of the other men who handled the reins of the “Fire Horses” over the years were; Melvin Bearisto, Pete Finnegan, Leo Ward, Lloyd Shaw, Fred Desaulnier and Harry McNeill, in addition to holiday supply drivers Sanford Smith, John Roberts and Edward King.
During the 1920′s and 1930′s, the Fire Department staff consisted of only three full time drivers who would answer all the chimney and minor fire calls. There was also a force of on-call firemen, approximately 35 who would respond on general alarms.
The permanent staff was not increased until May 1942 when two additional drivers were appointed; Sanford Smith, son of former Fire Chief Roy Smith, and Harold Doherty. Doherty left the following September to serve in the Canadian Firefighters Corps in England, and Smith left the department the following year to take up duties in an air raid precaution division of the government.
May 1942 also saw the position for Fire Chief changed from part time to full time, with Karl A. Walker leading the Department through the war years.
The next increase in manpower came at the end of the War in 1945; Harold Doherty started his long tenure as fire chief in August of that year. Also, extra men were added to the force. The town of Devon became part of Fredericton and a platoon system was introduced in the department for the first time. The amalgamation greatly increased the force of call firefighters which rose to number 60 men.
With the coming of the 1950′s, there was a continuous growth in the permanent staff and a decline of manpower in the call department. In spring of 1950, the permanent staff became members of the International Association of Firefighters and received a charter as Local 1053.
In early 1954, a new modern fire station was opened on MacLaren Avenue to replace the old wooden building that had been in use from 1945. This structure was on Union Street just above Gibson.
The mechanized fleet of pumpers and tankers kept up with the demand of the times but it was not until 1960 that Fredericton received the first unit of aerial equipment. A 65ft aerial platform or Snorkel as the trade name became, was put in service in the fall of 1960. It was the first of it’s kind to be used by a Fire Department in Canada. They had been in use in the United States, principally in the city of Chicago.
With the city growing steadily and the runs from King Street Station becoming longer, it became necessary to locate a sub station on College Hill to service the areas on the hill and the newly developing housing in the southeast. This station was opened in 1965, and housed a new 840GPM King Seagrave pumper and twelve additional men taken on strength served this area well for the next 15 years.
By 1970 the King Street Fire Station was becoming obsolete, the famous old air horn that used to shatter the stillness of the city had “blatted” itself out. A new fire station was built at the corner of York and Dundonald Streets in conjunction with a police station. A new alarm system was installed by NB Telephone Company. The station was officially opened in May 1971.
1971 also saw the Fredericton Call Firefighters disbanded after serving the city faithfully for so many years. In 1973, with the amalgamation of the surrounding districts, the call men of these areas were used for a brief time, however this force was eventually retired in favour of a complete permanent force. The integration of all the fire departments came into effect very smoothly.
The 70′s were a busy time for the firefighters of the capital city, seeing more new vehicles come into service and many large fires. Three more firefighters were killed in the line of duty in this decade – Vince Porter in 1974, Gerald Trecartin in 1975 and Benny Kerton in 1976.
The 1980′s and 1990′s saw the introduction of modern firefighting techniques such as Positive Pressure Ventilation and Foam handlines. New trucks with built-in foam tanks gradually replaced the older apparatus. The formation of a Hazardous Materials team in 1994 and the addition of water and ice rescue capabilties added to the abilities of the force.
In 1999, Fredericton hired its first female firefighter when Shelley Ryan joined the force in April and in 2000, the department aquired it’s first ‘quint’, an aerial/pumper combination truck.
As the equipment in the fire service has changed over the years, so has firefighting operations, but that is another story in itself. The Age of Science is complicated and so are the engines that must deal with its fires, and fire equipment has kept pace with the inventions and techniques of our age.
The Fredericton Fire Department is right up there with the best of them.
The Fredericton Fallen Firefighters Memorial can be found on the south bank of the Saint John River beside the Small Craft Aquatic Center.
Click here to visit the Fredericton Firefighters Museum for history and photos.
This post has already been read 1258 times!Follow Us on Social Media | <urn:uuid:65353b34-3561-4ff1-aa71-bc50ed3ad3ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mynewbrunswick.ca/fredericton-firefighter-memorial/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00238.warc.gz | en | 0.984402 | 2,844 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.209268376231... | 1 | In Memory of our firefighters who gave the ultimate sacrifice.
The earliest form that firefighting took, was the Bucket Brigade, which was formed by two lines of citizens, between the source of water and the fire, one passing the empty buckets back to the source of water in a continuous chain until the fire was out and the danger over.
In the early days of Fredericton or St Anne’s Point, the Military played a very large part in the protection of the citizens and were the first to form what is now known as a Salvage Co. They had the duty of salvaging the contents of the buildings and of preventing looting in the area.
The first real organization of fire protection took place during the year 1816 when a series of fires forced the governing bodies to do something about having a group of men organized to act in the event of fire and to have some sort of concrete form.
March 22, 1817 is the birthday of the Fredericton Fire Department, for on that date the Provincial Government passed an Act providing for the appointment of Fire Wards in the capital city. The then Governor in Council decreed that eight responsible men, from both the Gentry and the Common people be elected as Fire Wards. These men were selected and sworn into office and given certificates of their positions. In order that these Wards be distinguished from their members of the brigade, they were given and carried as their insignia of office, a staff of seven feet, painted red and a speaking trumpet painted white with the name Fredericton painted on it. This staff and trumpet were to assist the Wards in communicating and directing the men while engaged in fighting fires. In those days the Gentry wore high silk hats and wore white wigs. The appointment if these Wards was the first start of what is now a common practice, that of building inspection, as part of their duties to inspect the buildings in their respective Wards.
It was not until September 3, 1839 that the City Fire Wards drafted a code of regulations setting forth the duties of bucket brigades, ladder companies and axe men while in attendance at fires.
The Great Fire of 1850 – 2000 people left homeless, over 300 buildings burned, including 156 homes, 18 acres and four city blocks were destroyed. The total loss from this fire was estimated at a staggering 100,000 pounds.
In the early 1850′s, the five Wards of the city were equipped with hand pumps, which allowed the first mechanical propulsion of water at fires. The first hand pump was owned by the city was made by a Mr Taylor who lived and worked at the Taylor house on Westmorland Street between George and Charlotte Streets.
The first four wheeled hose cart owned in the city was built by Mr John Malony in 1852 and was attached to Ward #1.
The hand pumps or engines as they were termed, propelled water from cisterns that were located at various corners throughout the city and were of sufficient depth to allow the river water to enter through layers of sand at their bottoms. The tanks were covered in winter to keep them from freezing.
The hose used with these pumps was made of the very finest leather and riveted together in some thirty and forty foot lengths and had iron rings attached at intervals for the easy carrying of same. With the coming of the steam fire engines, this type of hose became dangerous to both firefighters and citizens, due to flying rivets caused by the heavy pressure of the steam pumps, and had to be replaced by rubber hose in the year 1876.
No. 1 Engine was housed in the west end of the city at the corner of Queen and Northumberland Streets. In later years, this building was moved out to Smythe Street between Argyle and Victoria Streets, rebuilt by the Lofstrom family. It is still standing.
No. 2 & 3 Engines were housed in a wooden building at 441 King Street, later replaced in 1914 by a brink structure, used as the Central Fire Station until 1971. It is now occupied by Bell Boy Cleaners, a dry cleaning company.
No. 4 Engine was also on King Street at just below the old Queen Hotel Alley, now called Camperdown Lane. This pump was the pride of the fleet. It was built by Fireman Henry Biggs, a member of a well known Fredericton family also prominent in musical circles.
No. 5 Engine was in the east end of University Avenue, then called Sunbury Street, this structure was also converted into a home and is standing near the corner of Shore Street and University Avenue.
The next great mechanical stride the department took was the purchase of a steam engine. The first steam Fire Engine was invented in England in 1828 but was not really accepted in North America until some time later. So it was in 1867 that the city of Fredericton bought it’s first steamer, and Amoskeag engine and it was called the “Alexandra”. It came to No. 2 Company to have the honour of being the first Steamer Company in the city.
Seven years later in 1874, No. 3 company was presented with a steamer made by the Silsby Company and it was christened the “City of Fredericton”. This company was affectionately called the “Irish Brigade”. Many stories have been told of the rivalry between these two fine groups, who have the honour of getting first water on a fire.
The completing of the pumping station in 1883 sounded the knell of the steamers, for in that year, a fire was successfully combated with water from the new hydrants, however, the steamers were not discarded immediately.
Alexandra (the Amoskeag) rendered service at St. Mary’s and Gibson fires in the 1890′s and her last call at the burning of Fraser’s Aberdeen Mill in the west end of the city in 1905. The mill was located on the Woodstock Road near the present Delta Hotel.
Following that, she was loaned to the Morrisons for the protection of their lumber milling property at the eastern end of the city. For a number of years, she stood on the bank of the river poorly housed and during that time, deteriorated greatly from the action of the weather. She was later stored in the basement of City Hall, and eventually taken out and scrapped.
The Silsby enjoyed a somewhat happier fate. Early in the 1900′s, she was sold to the firm of Cickie & McGrath Ltd, who were at that time, millionaire lumber operators with a headquarters in Tusket, Nova Scotia and for some years after the company went out of business was used by the town’s fire department.
While many cities used two and three horse hitches to pull their steamers, it was not until 1902 that the city of Fredericton purchased the first horses to replace the manpower in pulling the fire equipment. The first horse was put into service on a hose cart, followed by one for a ladder wagon. These were rather small light wagons, with the first drivers being Bill Wilson and Steve Doucette.
In 1916, a large ladder wagon was purchased from Swamscott, Mass, and was in service until the fall of 1937. A regulation hose cart was also added to the Department and was in service until 1929. After that, it was kept in reserve for parades and any emergency. The first motor truck, a La France hose and chemical truck was put into service in the same year (1916), and retired in 1946.
1927 was a dark year for the department as George Clynic became the first firefighter killed in the line of duty. His name is on the Firefighter’s memorial down by the south bank of the Saint John River.
1929, saw two disastrous fires in that year. One was in the 400 block of Queen Street, the area now occupied by the old Zellers building. The other was in the Provincial Normal School across the street. After this, the city invested in a new 1000GPM La France Pumper and after being in two accidents and being repaired by the Bickle Fire Engine Co, it was retired in the late 1950′s.
A new steel-framed ladder sled was built by Horsnell Iron Works of Fredericton to replace the old wooden framed one in the early 30′s. Horses continued in use of the ladder wagon and sled until February 1938 when they were driven for the last time to Box 6 at the corner of Argyle and York Streets, by Hugh O’Neill who had been handling the team of Bill and Doll since September, 1929.
Some of the other men who handled the reins of the “Fire Horses” over the years were; Melvin Bearisto, Pete Finnegan, Leo Ward, Lloyd Shaw, Fred Desaulnier and Harry McNeill, in addition to holiday supply drivers Sanford Smith, John Roberts and Edward King.
During the 1920′s and 1930′s, the Fire Department staff consisted of only three full time drivers who would answer all the chimney and minor fire calls. There was also a force of on-call firemen, approximately 35 who would respond on general alarms.
The permanent staff was not increased until May 1942 when two additional drivers were appointed; Sanford Smith, son of former Fire Chief Roy Smith, and Harold Doherty. Doherty left the following September to serve in the Canadian Firefighters Corps in England, and Smith left the department the following year to take up duties in an air raid precaution division of the government.
May 1942 also saw the position for Fire Chief changed from part time to full time, with Karl A. Walker leading the Department through the war years.
The next increase in manpower came at the end of the War in 1945; Harold Doherty started his long tenure as fire chief in August of that year. Also, extra men were added to the force. The town of Devon became part of Fredericton and a platoon system was introduced in the department for the first time. The amalgamation greatly increased the force of call firefighters which rose to number 60 men.
With the coming of the 1950′s, there was a continuous growth in the permanent staff and a decline of manpower in the call department. In spring of 1950, the permanent staff became members of the International Association of Firefighters and received a charter as Local 1053.
In early 1954, a new modern fire station was opened on MacLaren Avenue to replace the old wooden building that had been in use from 1945. This structure was on Union Street just above Gibson.
The mechanized fleet of pumpers and tankers kept up with the demand of the times but it was not until 1960 that Fredericton received the first unit of aerial equipment. A 65ft aerial platform or Snorkel as the trade name became, was put in service in the fall of 1960. It was the first of it’s kind to be used by a Fire Department in Canada. They had been in use in the United States, principally in the city of Chicago.
With the city growing steadily and the runs from King Street Station becoming longer, it became necessary to locate a sub station on College Hill to service the areas on the hill and the newly developing housing in the southeast. This station was opened in 1965, and housed a new 840GPM King Seagrave pumper and twelve additional men taken on strength served this area well for the next 15 years.
By 1970 the King Street Fire Station was becoming obsolete, the famous old air horn that used to shatter the stillness of the city had “blatted” itself out. A new fire station was built at the corner of York and Dundonald Streets in conjunction with a police station. A new alarm system was installed by NB Telephone Company. The station was officially opened in May 1971.
1971 also saw the Fredericton Call Firefighters disbanded after serving the city faithfully for so many years. In 1973, with the amalgamation of the surrounding districts, the call men of these areas were used for a brief time, however this force was eventually retired in favour of a complete permanent force. The integration of all the fire departments came into effect very smoothly.
The 70′s were a busy time for the firefighters of the capital city, seeing more new vehicles come into service and many large fires. Three more firefighters were killed in the line of duty in this decade – Vince Porter in 1974, Gerald Trecartin in 1975 and Benny Kerton in 1976.
The 1980′s and 1990′s saw the introduction of modern firefighting techniques such as Positive Pressure Ventilation and Foam handlines. New trucks with built-in foam tanks gradually replaced the older apparatus. The formation of a Hazardous Materials team in 1994 and the addition of water and ice rescue capabilties added to the abilities of the force.
In 1999, Fredericton hired its first female firefighter when Shelley Ryan joined the force in April and in 2000, the department aquired it’s first ‘quint’, an aerial/pumper combination truck.
As the equipment in the fire service has changed over the years, so has firefighting operations, but that is another story in itself. The Age of Science is complicated and so are the engines that must deal with its fires, and fire equipment has kept pace with the inventions and techniques of our age.
The Fredericton Fire Department is right up there with the best of them.
The Fredericton Fallen Firefighters Memorial can be found on the south bank of the Saint John River beside the Small Craft Aquatic Center.
Click here to visit the Fredericton Firefighters Museum for history and photos.
This post has already been read 1258 times!Follow Us on Social Media | 3,009 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Middle British Colonies 1771
This map depicts the middle British colonies surrounding parts of the US and Canada, as they stood in 1771. It is very detailed, colorful, and contains a lot of written information. It should be noted that the legend does not correspond to the coloring found on the map in all instances. This was probably a mistake that was missed during the time of production.
However, the real intriguing part of this map is the treaty reached between the British and the Indian Nations of Seneca, Cayuga, and Onondaga. The embellished badge in the upper left corner gives a summary of what occurred. Essentially, it explains that the Indian Nations surrendered their beaver hunting country to the British as far as the boundary of New York. At first glance, it appears that this is typical historical rhetoric involving stories of conquest and surrender. However, there is a completely different viewpoint from the Indians.
To understand this, you have to backtrack a bit from the 1726 date of the treaty. In fact, you have to go back about 100 years. It seems that the beginning of the 1700s was the end of a 92 year long war between the Native Americans and the French. The French ultimately lost. At the conclusion of the war, a peace treaty was signed with the French in 1701, along with their remaining allies. That very year, the Indians agreed to divide the land they had conquered with the British. The chiefs of the various tribes were invited to come to London as a guest of the queen. They were given the title, "The Romans of the New World" and promoted among all of the courts in Europe. They were revered.
In fact, the Indians still have the silver given to them by Queen Anne to this very day. All of that to say, the British did not arrive in Canada until after the Native Americans had cleared the way. So from their perspective, rather than surrendering land to the British, they gifted land to the British, as part of the treaty established post war. It's amazing how maps can offer interesting historical tidbits if you do a bit of digging.
All sizes are approximate.
We Also Recommend | <urn:uuid:ba24fe47-e7f5-4b93-8783-58f8ba361958> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://great-river-arts.myshopify.com/collections/giclees/products/new-england | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.983295 | 442 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
-0.1596713811159134,
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0.7663156986236572,
-0.2096988409757614,
-0.12596002221107483,
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0.17191588878631592,
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0.37921148... | 3 | Middle British Colonies 1771
This map depicts the middle British colonies surrounding parts of the US and Canada, as they stood in 1771. It is very detailed, colorful, and contains a lot of written information. It should be noted that the legend does not correspond to the coloring found on the map in all instances. This was probably a mistake that was missed during the time of production.
However, the real intriguing part of this map is the treaty reached between the British and the Indian Nations of Seneca, Cayuga, and Onondaga. The embellished badge in the upper left corner gives a summary of what occurred. Essentially, it explains that the Indian Nations surrendered their beaver hunting country to the British as far as the boundary of New York. At first glance, it appears that this is typical historical rhetoric involving stories of conquest and surrender. However, there is a completely different viewpoint from the Indians.
To understand this, you have to backtrack a bit from the 1726 date of the treaty. In fact, you have to go back about 100 years. It seems that the beginning of the 1700s was the end of a 92 year long war between the Native Americans and the French. The French ultimately lost. At the conclusion of the war, a peace treaty was signed with the French in 1701, along with their remaining allies. That very year, the Indians agreed to divide the land they had conquered with the British. The chiefs of the various tribes were invited to come to London as a guest of the queen. They were given the title, "The Romans of the New World" and promoted among all of the courts in Europe. They were revered.
In fact, the Indians still have the silver given to them by Queen Anne to this very day. All of that to say, the British did not arrive in Canada until after the Native Americans had cleared the way. So from their perspective, rather than surrendering land to the British, they gifted land to the British, as part of the treaty established post war. It's amazing how maps can offer interesting historical tidbits if you do a bit of digging.
All sizes are approximate.
We Also Recommend | 457 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Calpurnia was something else again. She was all angles and bones; she was nearsighted; she squinted; her hand was wide as a bed slat and twice as hard.” (Pg 6) This is how Jean Louise “Scout” Finch describes Calpurnia, a black woman who serves as the Finch family cook and maid in Harper Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird.” Although Calpurnia is employed by a high social class family she is still considered to be at the bottom of that social hierarchy because of her African-American descent. The Finches believe Calpurnia to be a valuable part of their family because she is a very hard working individual, she’s very motherly to the Finch children and she is an educated and intellectual black woman.
Firstly, Calpurnia is a hard worker, as she aids the Finches with their daily needs and requirements, like cooking and cleaning. She is their maid and chef, also. When Scout becomes angry with Calpurnia, her father, Atticus says to her, “We couldn’t operate a single day without Cal.” (Pg 25) This proves that Calpurnia works hard for these people and they need her. Calpurnia has also decided to find work with the Finches instead of living like other coloured people do. In a way, she is lucky to be working with Mr. Atticus Finch and his family who are very respectful towards black people. There are other coloured people in Maycomb County who slave away for white people, such as Tom Robinson. There is a considerable difference between Tom and Calpurnia. She has never been accused of doing something wrong, and some neighbours have branded Tom as a rapist. At one time, Aunt Alexandra comes to live with Atticus and his children. When she threatens to remove Calpurnia from the household, Atticus replies, “Alexandra, Calpurnia’s not leaving this house until she wants to. You may think otherwise, but I couldn’t have got along without her all these years.” (Pg 137) This shows that Calpurnia is a respected part of the family, and as so, Atticus makes the point that...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:5857acde-9bfb-4fc3-b4c5-2223448eaef0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/To-Kill-a-Mockingbird-Calpurnia-63604051.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.980359 | 490 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.11136910319328308,... | 1 | “Calpurnia was something else again. She was all angles and bones; she was nearsighted; she squinted; her hand was wide as a bed slat and twice as hard.” (Pg 6) This is how Jean Louise “Scout” Finch describes Calpurnia, a black woman who serves as the Finch family cook and maid in Harper Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird.” Although Calpurnia is employed by a high social class family she is still considered to be at the bottom of that social hierarchy because of her African-American descent. The Finches believe Calpurnia to be a valuable part of their family because she is a very hard working individual, she’s very motherly to the Finch children and she is an educated and intellectual black woman.
Firstly, Calpurnia is a hard worker, as she aids the Finches with their daily needs and requirements, like cooking and cleaning. She is their maid and chef, also. When Scout becomes angry with Calpurnia, her father, Atticus says to her, “We couldn’t operate a single day without Cal.” (Pg 25) This proves that Calpurnia works hard for these people and they need her. Calpurnia has also decided to find work with the Finches instead of living like other coloured people do. In a way, she is lucky to be working with Mr. Atticus Finch and his family who are very respectful towards black people. There are other coloured people in Maycomb County who slave away for white people, such as Tom Robinson. There is a considerable difference between Tom and Calpurnia. She has never been accused of doing something wrong, and some neighbours have branded Tom as a rapist. At one time, Aunt Alexandra comes to live with Atticus and his children. When she threatens to remove Calpurnia from the household, Atticus replies, “Alexandra, Calpurnia’s not leaving this house until she wants to. You may think otherwise, but I couldn’t have got along without her all these years.” (Pg 137) This shows that Calpurnia is a respected part of the family, and as so, Atticus makes the point that...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 472 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Banking has been around in one form or another throughout recorded history, as issuers of currency and as stores of wealth. Even before currency emerged, starting with the first minted coins, and then adding what were known as banknotes, paper currency, banks still were around to manage the accumulation of assets.
In order to manage an empire for instance, even the earliest ones, some form of banking was required to manage trade and keep the flow of goods and services moving both within the empire and to other empires.
Once currency emerged, this made this exchange of value much easier and efficient, and now one could simply trade things like coins or gold for other goods. You can’t have any form of currency without banking to manage it, and even the mere issuing of it requires management by banks of some sort.
So the earliest incarnations of banks were central banks, operated by governments, to help manage their economies, although when most people think of banks they usually think retail banks, the places where they deposit their money and borrow money from. Central banks though are at the top of the banking hierarchy in an economy and provide management and oversight of the entire economy, so that individual banks can operate efficiently and prosper.
As banking evolved, the need arose for the populace to be served by banks at the retail level. As people accumulated wealth, in the form of currency, this money had to be stored somewhere, and one’s home wasn’t really the ideal place to do this at, especially if one had accumulated a significant amount.
In ancient times, temples typically performed this function, and in addition to storing money for others, and providing security to depositors, there is evidence to suggest that these temples also lent out money, although their function was primarily to store assets. We now had the makings of the first retail banking system, from which banks as we know today evolved from.
Most of the money lending during these times was performed by individuals, known as money lenders, which would be similar to what we could call loan sharking today, although this was typically the only commercial lending available.
Banks Become Institutionalized Under the Roman Empire
The Romans were the first culture to institutionalize banking, taking it from the temples to formal banks, backed by the full power of the law. The law was certainly on the side of the bankers in the early days, with non payment of debts a crime, as well as debts being passed along to one’s descendants, sometimes for several generations.
The money lenders still did a good business back then, but the retail banking of the Romans did provide some serious competition to them, although these banks tended to cater to commercial interests and others of more significant means, leaving the money lenders to deal with the common folk more.
This is a segmentation that we still see even today, with those of higher income and higher reputation having access to superior banking services, while those of lesser means and reputation being relegated to dealing with financial institutions with less friendly terms and a greater risk tolerance to match.
Money lending terms have always been all about risk, and the more risk that is involved or is perceived, the less favorable the terms, including higher interest rates to compensate for higher default rates.
While the organized banking developed by the Romans did fall along with their empire, the idea did persist though, especially the one where the power of law was used liberally to protect banking institutions. Banks could seize land upon non payment of debts, and while this isn’t always seen as a good thing by creditors, this and other powers were fundamental to allowing banks as institutions to become both secure and profitable, two necessary conditions for an effective banking system.
There is no other business that even comes close to being as much of a concern as potential bank failure, and even today people worry about that, in our very highly regulated banking environment. The regulations do help, but what’s even more important is a bank’s ability to preserve its assets in a reasonable manner, where potential losses are kept to an acceptable level, allowing the bank to at the very least remain solvent.
Few care about a bank’s liabilities, but the bank’s assets are their liabilities, and in essence when we have assets held on deposit at a bank, we are lending them money, and want to collect on this debt just like the bank wants to collect on their debts to others. So in protecting a bank’s ability to collect on their debts, we are protected in collecting their debts to us, and this is why affording legal power to banks is so necessary.
Banks Become Formidable Institutions
Over time, as banking really matured, and in particular became more efficient in managing both their assets and their risks, the rather harsh conditions of days of yore become lessened, and one no longer is subject to criminal prosecution for non payment of debts, nor are they passed on to one’s children, and one now has the ability to declare bankruptcy and invoke the protection of the law on their side.
The creditor debtor relationship of the Romans did serve the banking industry well though for many centuries. In subsequent times, institutional money lending was taken up by the Catholic Church, as we moved from the Roman Empire to the Holy Roman Empire. Money lenders still flourished, but were cast into disrepute by the Church for charging excessive interest rates, the sin of usury, rates which were generally much higher than the Catholic Church charged.
Banks as institutions grew in power and scope over the years, to the point where they grew to be large enough to lend money to entire kingdoms. Many of these kingdoms borrowed very heavily, even to the point of bankruptcy, as was the case with Spain in the 16th Century. Sometimes a bank would lend to both sides in a war, for example with the Rothschilds during the Napoleonic War between France and England.
Needless to say though, when countries such as this are indebted to you, and very heavily at that, this does convey quite a bit of power to the banks, although this can often be overstated, and even lead to conspiracy theories where the bankers are calling all the shots. This may have been the case at one time, but public debt no longer is held in the hands of a few anymore, being instead held by the public for the most part.
The Free Market and Modern Banking
Modern banking as we know it today had its roots in the laissez-faire philosophy of British economist Adam Smith, who advocated for a much more free market approach to banking, being ruled more by the “invisible hand” of market forces.
This was around the time of the American Revolution, and the young country was eager to adopt this more market centric approach to banking, in spite of it leading to an alarming number of bank failures in the early years.
The American government came to the rescue, as it was clear that banks did need a helping hand at times to be able to meet business demands. At the time, the banks themselves issued all of the currency, and one simply lost all their money if the bank they had money at went under, not only their deposits but their currency as well.
The national bank permitted people to exchange their banknotes from member banks though, and this provided a lot of extra security and confidence, and back then this was the biggest issue, because a run on a bank when depositors get alarmed could itself spell the death of a bank.
Eventually, bank issued banknotes were replaced by the national currency entirely, which is the case today, where the American Dollar is the only legal currency in the country, as well as the most predominant currency in the world.
Banking lacked proper regulation though in those days, and the successful banks that grew very large would often become heavily involved in other industries, such as J.P Morgan’s involvement in several very large businesses. This led to anti-trust law being created to protect against the restraint of trade that often emerges with these relationships, where markets become restricted and normal market forces are not permitted to flourish.
In 1907, a financial crisis was averted by the actions of Morgan, who wielded such enormous power that he was able to successfully do so single handedly. This disturbed some people, which led to the creation of the Federal Reserve in 1913 as an overseer of banks as well as the economy.
Contrary to popular belief, the Federal Reserve is not purely a government institution, it is a more like an association of bankers, operating under the power granted to them by Congress, and it is subject to their oversight at least somewhat. Member banks own the Federal Reserve though, not the government, and even collect dividends from their shares in it.
The main Federal Reserve and its 12 regional Federal Reserve banks do serve to provide a lot more stability to the economy and the banking system that would be otherwise possible if this were just left up to the market. A major goal of economic management is to blunt normal business cycles, and in particular, to ease downward forces, and the Fed does do a pretty good job of this, although cycles do happen in the economy of course.
Other countries have central banks as well, and while the market does operate at least somewhat efficiently, it is often necessary to actively manage the economy and the money supply, to keep both the banks and the people happy.
Banking has come a long way from the days of agricultural goods as deposits in ancient times, and is now very tightly regulated and organized, inspiring a lot of confidence, something that is absolutely necessary where banks are concerned. | <urn:uuid:4d495e7a-d222-4e07-a870-76bbdc9ef4e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.marketreview.com/banking/history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.98406 | 1,965 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.22932621836662... | 14 | Banking has been around in one form or another throughout recorded history, as issuers of currency and as stores of wealth. Even before currency emerged, starting with the first minted coins, and then adding what were known as banknotes, paper currency, banks still were around to manage the accumulation of assets.
In order to manage an empire for instance, even the earliest ones, some form of banking was required to manage trade and keep the flow of goods and services moving both within the empire and to other empires.
Once currency emerged, this made this exchange of value much easier and efficient, and now one could simply trade things like coins or gold for other goods. You can’t have any form of currency without banking to manage it, and even the mere issuing of it requires management by banks of some sort.
So the earliest incarnations of banks were central banks, operated by governments, to help manage their economies, although when most people think of banks they usually think retail banks, the places where they deposit their money and borrow money from. Central banks though are at the top of the banking hierarchy in an economy and provide management and oversight of the entire economy, so that individual banks can operate efficiently and prosper.
As banking evolved, the need arose for the populace to be served by banks at the retail level. As people accumulated wealth, in the form of currency, this money had to be stored somewhere, and one’s home wasn’t really the ideal place to do this at, especially if one had accumulated a significant amount.
In ancient times, temples typically performed this function, and in addition to storing money for others, and providing security to depositors, there is evidence to suggest that these temples also lent out money, although their function was primarily to store assets. We now had the makings of the first retail banking system, from which banks as we know today evolved from.
Most of the money lending during these times was performed by individuals, known as money lenders, which would be similar to what we could call loan sharking today, although this was typically the only commercial lending available.
Banks Become Institutionalized Under the Roman Empire
The Romans were the first culture to institutionalize banking, taking it from the temples to formal banks, backed by the full power of the law. The law was certainly on the side of the bankers in the early days, with non payment of debts a crime, as well as debts being passed along to one’s descendants, sometimes for several generations.
The money lenders still did a good business back then, but the retail banking of the Romans did provide some serious competition to them, although these banks tended to cater to commercial interests and others of more significant means, leaving the money lenders to deal with the common folk more.
This is a segmentation that we still see even today, with those of higher income and higher reputation having access to superior banking services, while those of lesser means and reputation being relegated to dealing with financial institutions with less friendly terms and a greater risk tolerance to match.
Money lending terms have always been all about risk, and the more risk that is involved or is perceived, the less favorable the terms, including higher interest rates to compensate for higher default rates.
While the organized banking developed by the Romans did fall along with their empire, the idea did persist though, especially the one where the power of law was used liberally to protect banking institutions. Banks could seize land upon non payment of debts, and while this isn’t always seen as a good thing by creditors, this and other powers were fundamental to allowing banks as institutions to become both secure and profitable, two necessary conditions for an effective banking system.
There is no other business that even comes close to being as much of a concern as potential bank failure, and even today people worry about that, in our very highly regulated banking environment. The regulations do help, but what’s even more important is a bank’s ability to preserve its assets in a reasonable manner, where potential losses are kept to an acceptable level, allowing the bank to at the very least remain solvent.
Few care about a bank’s liabilities, but the bank’s assets are their liabilities, and in essence when we have assets held on deposit at a bank, we are lending them money, and want to collect on this debt just like the bank wants to collect on their debts to others. So in protecting a bank’s ability to collect on their debts, we are protected in collecting their debts to us, and this is why affording legal power to banks is so necessary.
Banks Become Formidable Institutions
Over time, as banking really matured, and in particular became more efficient in managing both their assets and their risks, the rather harsh conditions of days of yore become lessened, and one no longer is subject to criminal prosecution for non payment of debts, nor are they passed on to one’s children, and one now has the ability to declare bankruptcy and invoke the protection of the law on their side.
The creditor debtor relationship of the Romans did serve the banking industry well though for many centuries. In subsequent times, institutional money lending was taken up by the Catholic Church, as we moved from the Roman Empire to the Holy Roman Empire. Money lenders still flourished, but were cast into disrepute by the Church for charging excessive interest rates, the sin of usury, rates which were generally much higher than the Catholic Church charged.
Banks as institutions grew in power and scope over the years, to the point where they grew to be large enough to lend money to entire kingdoms. Many of these kingdoms borrowed very heavily, even to the point of bankruptcy, as was the case with Spain in the 16th Century. Sometimes a bank would lend to both sides in a war, for example with the Rothschilds during the Napoleonic War between France and England.
Needless to say though, when countries such as this are indebted to you, and very heavily at that, this does convey quite a bit of power to the banks, although this can often be overstated, and even lead to conspiracy theories where the bankers are calling all the shots. This may have been the case at one time, but public debt no longer is held in the hands of a few anymore, being instead held by the public for the most part.
The Free Market and Modern Banking
Modern banking as we know it today had its roots in the laissez-faire philosophy of British economist Adam Smith, who advocated for a much more free market approach to banking, being ruled more by the “invisible hand” of market forces.
This was around the time of the American Revolution, and the young country was eager to adopt this more market centric approach to banking, in spite of it leading to an alarming number of bank failures in the early years.
The American government came to the rescue, as it was clear that banks did need a helping hand at times to be able to meet business demands. At the time, the banks themselves issued all of the currency, and one simply lost all their money if the bank they had money at went under, not only their deposits but their currency as well.
The national bank permitted people to exchange their banknotes from member banks though, and this provided a lot of extra security and confidence, and back then this was the biggest issue, because a run on a bank when depositors get alarmed could itself spell the death of a bank.
Eventually, bank issued banknotes were replaced by the national currency entirely, which is the case today, where the American Dollar is the only legal currency in the country, as well as the most predominant currency in the world.
Banking lacked proper regulation though in those days, and the successful banks that grew very large would often become heavily involved in other industries, such as J.P Morgan’s involvement in several very large businesses. This led to anti-trust law being created to protect against the restraint of trade that often emerges with these relationships, where markets become restricted and normal market forces are not permitted to flourish.
In 1907, a financial crisis was averted by the actions of Morgan, who wielded such enormous power that he was able to successfully do so single handedly. This disturbed some people, which led to the creation of the Federal Reserve in 1913 as an overseer of banks as well as the economy.
Contrary to popular belief, the Federal Reserve is not purely a government institution, it is a more like an association of bankers, operating under the power granted to them by Congress, and it is subject to their oversight at least somewhat. Member banks own the Federal Reserve though, not the government, and even collect dividends from their shares in it.
The main Federal Reserve and its 12 regional Federal Reserve banks do serve to provide a lot more stability to the economy and the banking system that would be otherwise possible if this were just left up to the market. A major goal of economic management is to blunt normal business cycles, and in particular, to ease downward forces, and the Fed does do a pretty good job of this, although cycles do happen in the economy of course.
Other countries have central banks as well, and while the market does operate at least somewhat efficiently, it is often necessary to actively manage the economy and the money supply, to keep both the banks and the people happy.
Banking has come a long way from the days of agricultural goods as deposits in ancient times, and is now very tightly regulated and organized, inspiring a lot of confidence, something that is absolutely necessary where banks are concerned. | 1,920 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Some were successful after many failed attempts at escaping (Rodriguez 34). Most slaves escaped to the border states neighboring Free states where they moved to the North where there were freedoms for their lives. Young men found it easier to escape as they were most likely to be sold and were hired out to serve as errand men in other plantations. There were sympathizers who helped slaves escape to the North especially in the 19th century. Most slaves escaped by foot and threw stones to dogs that chased after them, while others stole horses from their masters or hid in ships.
In the 19th century, a huge number of slaves escaped to gain freedom (Elkins 35). Slaves also used day-to-day resistance as a form of resistance like sabotage of breaking farming tools setting fire to buildings and striking down slaves that were considered as owner’s property. Some slaves faked sickness and played dumb and this slowed down work at the plantations. Women were able to feign illness to escape working conditions that were harsh and unbearable (Reese 211). They also pretended not to understand instructions from their masters and their master’s wives.
Slaves resisted at every chance they got, they also formed a distinct culture through religious beliefs that gave them hope in such severe conditions especially when they were being punished. Economics of Slavery During the American Revolution, it was considered as a national institution because the number of slaves was considerably small. The slaves lived and worked in every colony that were established in American states. Before the Constitution was ratified, some states in the Northern were abolishing slavery (Du Bois 59).
The Northwest Ordinance 1787 made slavery illegal in the North and this meant that slavery existed in the South. Between the period of 1790 and the period of Civil War, slaves in America increased and buying of such slaves was common. Around 1820 slavery was mostly in tobacco especially in Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky. The spread of cotton slavery reached Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana (Elkins 55). The Slave trade had its benefits to the Europeans as they controlled labor of millions of people, which is connected to the growth of industrialization in Europe, capitalization, population growth and scientific evolution.
It is also connected to change in social role in families and migration. This benefit came from selling slaves from African Kingdoms whereby most slaves were from the Caribbean and Brazil.
Please type your essay title, choose your document type, enter your email and we send you essay samples | <urn:uuid:55084b6f-203e-4287-a4c1-98fb1855eb33> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freeessayhelp.com/essay-life-under-slavery-in-the-united-states-1322109 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00446.warc.gz | en | 0.985794 | 501 | 4 | 4 | [
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In the 19th century, a huge number of slaves escaped to gain freedom (Elkins 35). Slaves also used day-to-day resistance as a form of resistance like sabotage of breaking farming tools setting fire to buildings and striking down slaves that were considered as owner’s property. Some slaves faked sickness and played dumb and this slowed down work at the plantations. Women were able to feign illness to escape working conditions that were harsh and unbearable (Reese 211). They also pretended not to understand instructions from their masters and their master’s wives.
Slaves resisted at every chance they got, they also formed a distinct culture through religious beliefs that gave them hope in such severe conditions especially when they were being punished. Economics of Slavery During the American Revolution, it was considered as a national institution because the number of slaves was considerably small. The slaves lived and worked in every colony that were established in American states. Before the Constitution was ratified, some states in the Northern were abolishing slavery (Du Bois 59).
The Northwest Ordinance 1787 made slavery illegal in the North and this meant that slavery existed in the South. Between the period of 1790 and the period of Civil War, slaves in America increased and buying of such slaves was common. Around 1820 slavery was mostly in tobacco especially in Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky. The spread of cotton slavery reached Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana (Elkins 55). The Slave trade had its benefits to the Europeans as they controlled labor of millions of people, which is connected to the growth of industrialization in Europe, capitalization, population growth and scientific evolution.
It is also connected to change in social role in families and migration. This benefit came from selling slaves from African Kingdoms whereby most slaves were from the Caribbean and Brazil.
Please type your essay title, choose your document type, enter your email and we send you essay samples | 518 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Marriage. Catawba marriage rules in aboriginal and early-contact times probably forbade first-cousin marriages. Polygamy was neither unknown nor condemned, but most Marriages were monogamous. In courtship, a man or his relations approached the woman's parents to ask permission, though the woman's consent was also required. Marriages were Matrilocal, and divorce was easily effected by either party.
Domestic Unit. Extended families have been and continue to be the norm.
Inheritance. Matrilineal inheritance was the rule in earlier times; bilateral inheritance obtains today.
Socialization. Catawba child-rearing practices were permissive, with ostracism, ridicule, and example the rule. Folktales were (and to some degree still are) an important educational tool, setting out proper modes of behavior and warning of punishment by native enemies or supernatural beings for those who disobey. Today, formal education is highly valued: there was a primary school on the reservation from 1898 to 1966, and beginning in the 1930s Catawba were attending the local high school. Today many go on to college. | <urn:uuid:bed647d2-f672-47fb-9533-737c6b9b585c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Catawba-Marriage-and-Family.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.981565 | 235 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.30760169029235... | 3 | Marriage. Catawba marriage rules in aboriginal and early-contact times probably forbade first-cousin marriages. Polygamy was neither unknown nor condemned, but most Marriages were monogamous. In courtship, a man or his relations approached the woman's parents to ask permission, though the woman's consent was also required. Marriages were Matrilocal, and divorce was easily effected by either party.
Domestic Unit. Extended families have been and continue to be the norm.
Inheritance. Matrilineal inheritance was the rule in earlier times; bilateral inheritance obtains today.
Socialization. Catawba child-rearing practices were permissive, with ostracism, ridicule, and example the rule. Folktales were (and to some degree still are) an important educational tool, setting out proper modes of behavior and warning of punishment by native enemies or supernatural beings for those who disobey. Today, formal education is highly valued: there was a primary school on the reservation from 1898 to 1966, and beginning in the 1930s Catawba were attending the local high school. Today many go on to college. | 241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This former slave became the first African-American West Point grad
When Henry Flipper arrived at West Point, there were already three other black cadets attending the famed Military Academy. When it came time for Flipper to graduate, those three would be long gone, rejected by their classmates. An engineer, he reduced the effects of Malaria on the U.S. Army by creating a special drainage system that removed standing water from camps. Flipper's life would take him from being born into slavery to becoming the first black commander of the Buffalo Soldiers.
Henry Flipper was born a slave in Georgia in 1856. After he was liberated in the Civil War, he remained in Georgia, attending missionary schools to get a primary education. He requested and received an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1873 through Congressman Thomas Freeman. When he arrived, he found he was not the only black student there, but the constant harassment and insults forced the other cadets to drop out. Flipper persevered and graduated in 1877. He was the first African-American West Point grad and the first African-American commissioned officer in the U.S. Army.
Though his specialty was engineering, Flipper was a more than capable officer. He was sent to bases in Texas and the Oklahoma Territory, where he served as quartermaster and signals officer. As an engineer, he was second to none, laying telegraph lines and building roads, and constructing a drainage system known today as "Flipper's Ditch," which removed standing water to prevent the proliferation of malaria-carrying mosquitoes. He would fight Apaches alongside his fellow soldiers, as brave in combat as he was competent in peacetime.
But just like the way he was ostracized by his classmates as a cadet at the Military Academy, he would soon find resistance to his service as a Second Lieutenant in the regular Army. In 1881, his commanding officer at Fort Davis would accuse him of stealing $3,791.77 from the installation's commissary fund. In his subsequent court-martial, he was found not guilty of stealing the money, but he was found guilty of conduct unbecoming an officer. He was then kicked out of the Army after some four years of service.
He would spend the rest of his life trying to restore his name.
The closest he came was when a bill was introduced by Congress to reinstate him into the Army in 1898. He had the full support of some Congressmen, including the Chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs, but it was tabled. As was every subsequent attempt to exonerate himself. He died in 1940, but eventually, step by step, his reputation was restored after his death. In 1976, he was given an honorable discharge by the Army, and in 1999, he was pardoned by the then-Commander-in-Chief, President Bill Clinton.
- Meet the first black woman to lead West Point cadets - We Are The ... ›
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- West Point football games recruiting Soldiers for prior-service program › | <urn:uuid:32605bcc-b4ee-4aee-a728-849730922c90> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wearethemighty.com/history/first-black-cadet-west-point | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.992166 | 649 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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When Henry Flipper arrived at West Point, there were already three other black cadets attending the famed Military Academy. When it came time for Flipper to graduate, those three would be long gone, rejected by their classmates. An engineer, he reduced the effects of Malaria on the U.S. Army by creating a special drainage system that removed standing water from camps. Flipper's life would take him from being born into slavery to becoming the first black commander of the Buffalo Soldiers.
Henry Flipper was born a slave in Georgia in 1856. After he was liberated in the Civil War, he remained in Georgia, attending missionary schools to get a primary education. He requested and received an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1873 through Congressman Thomas Freeman. When he arrived, he found he was not the only black student there, but the constant harassment and insults forced the other cadets to drop out. Flipper persevered and graduated in 1877. He was the first African-American West Point grad and the first African-American commissioned officer in the U.S. Army.
Though his specialty was engineering, Flipper was a more than capable officer. He was sent to bases in Texas and the Oklahoma Territory, where he served as quartermaster and signals officer. As an engineer, he was second to none, laying telegraph lines and building roads, and constructing a drainage system known today as "Flipper's Ditch," which removed standing water to prevent the proliferation of malaria-carrying mosquitoes. He would fight Apaches alongside his fellow soldiers, as brave in combat as he was competent in peacetime.
But just like the way he was ostracized by his classmates as a cadet at the Military Academy, he would soon find resistance to his service as a Second Lieutenant in the regular Army. In 1881, his commanding officer at Fort Davis would accuse him of stealing $3,791.77 from the installation's commissary fund. In his subsequent court-martial, he was found not guilty of stealing the money, but he was found guilty of conduct unbecoming an officer. He was then kicked out of the Army after some four years of service.
He would spend the rest of his life trying to restore his name.
The closest he came was when a bill was introduced by Congress to reinstate him into the Army in 1898. He had the full support of some Congressmen, including the Chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs, but it was tabled. As was every subsequent attempt to exonerate himself. He died in 1940, but eventually, step by step, his reputation was restored after his death. In 1976, he was given an honorable discharge by the Army, and in 1999, he was pardoned by the then-Commander-in-Chief, President Bill Clinton.
- Meet the first black woman to lead West Point cadets - We Are The ... ›
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- West Point football games recruiting Soldiers for prior-service program › | 665 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were about 4 million slaves in the United States at the time of John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia in 1859. Slavery in the South rested on complex and often convoluted political, social, and economic systems, enforced by violence. Perhaps because forcing people to work for you for free was so dependent on violence, the south was continuously racked with fear – fear that one’s slaves (or someone else’s) would rise up against them.
To assuage these fears each state passed laws, known to us as the Slave Codes, that regulated the relationship of slaves and the free world. The Virginia Slave Code of 1705 was a model on which other laws throughout the South were built. Here is some of the text – note that those who were previously indentured servants, so long as they are not Christian, were also hereafter slaves:
“All servants imported and brought into the Country…who were not Christians in their native Country…shall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion…shall be held to be real estate. If any slave resist his master…correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction…the master shall be free of all punishment…as if such accident never happened.”
In part because slavery was so important to the economic well being of those in charge in the South, and in part because of growing abolitionist attacks on the slave system, but mostly because of the threat of slave revolts such as Nat Turner’s in 1831, in the years leading up to the Civil War the slave codes become more oppressive.
States in the north had provided for the abolition of slavery in a series of laws passed up to 1804 (although there were still “legal” slaves into the 1860s in New Jersey). Congress banned the importation of slaves in 1808, and the South became increasingly pro-slavery, until the Civil War forced them to accept abolition.
So it was that slavers feared their slaves, and northerners, would sooner or later rise up against them. When that seemed to have happened at Harpers Ferry the south militarized.
In Harpers Ferry, and presumably in other communities nearby, armed men patrolled the streets at night arresting anyone they did not know and who did not seem to them to have a legitimate purpose for being out at night. Cadets of the Virginia Military Institute were armed and marched to Harpers Ferry.
Virginia Governor Henry A. Wise ordered Brown’s Sharps rifles distributed to locals. He commissioned militia companies to patrol Charles Town and Harpers Ferry, and announced that all Virginians should be ready for military action. “I shall implore the people to organize and take arms in their hands and to practice the use of arms,” he directed, “and I will cause depots to be established for fixed ammunition along our borders and at every assailable point.”
Throughout the South volunteer militias were formed and established militias increased their readiness. It’s safe to presume that it was a time for organized terror against African Americans throughout the south.
Rumors spread – of 500 men on their way from Kansas, 1,000 from Cleveland, Ohio, 2,500 from New York, 7,000 from Chicago, nearly ten thousand men were said to be marching from the state of Ohio.
The rumors of an all-out attack on the slavers were right – in a sense. Just 18 months later the Civil War began.
On November 15, 1859, during the Leonids Meteor Shower, a particularly large meteor exploded with such force that it was seen and heard from Albany to Virginia. It was, one journalist reported, “a series of terrific explosions, which were compared to the discharge of a thousand cannon.”
Soon Virginians would know the sound of thousand cannon – first hand.
Photo: Woodcut made following Nat Turner’s revolt in Virginia in 1831. | <urn:uuid:b1de0a3f-cd77-4078-ae95-3673b3804fe4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.adirondackalmanack.com/2009/11/the-last-days-of-john-brown-southern-fears.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.981278 | 826 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.1994737386... | 4 | There were about 4 million slaves in the United States at the time of John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia in 1859. Slavery in the South rested on complex and often convoluted political, social, and economic systems, enforced by violence. Perhaps because forcing people to work for you for free was so dependent on violence, the south was continuously racked with fear – fear that one’s slaves (or someone else’s) would rise up against them.
To assuage these fears each state passed laws, known to us as the Slave Codes, that regulated the relationship of slaves and the free world. The Virginia Slave Code of 1705 was a model on which other laws throughout the South were built. Here is some of the text – note that those who were previously indentured servants, so long as they are not Christian, were also hereafter slaves:
“All servants imported and brought into the Country…who were not Christians in their native Country…shall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion…shall be held to be real estate. If any slave resist his master…correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction…the master shall be free of all punishment…as if such accident never happened.”
In part because slavery was so important to the economic well being of those in charge in the South, and in part because of growing abolitionist attacks on the slave system, but mostly because of the threat of slave revolts such as Nat Turner’s in 1831, in the years leading up to the Civil War the slave codes become more oppressive.
States in the north had provided for the abolition of slavery in a series of laws passed up to 1804 (although there were still “legal” slaves into the 1860s in New Jersey). Congress banned the importation of slaves in 1808, and the South became increasingly pro-slavery, until the Civil War forced them to accept abolition.
So it was that slavers feared their slaves, and northerners, would sooner or later rise up against them. When that seemed to have happened at Harpers Ferry the south militarized.
In Harpers Ferry, and presumably in other communities nearby, armed men patrolled the streets at night arresting anyone they did not know and who did not seem to them to have a legitimate purpose for being out at night. Cadets of the Virginia Military Institute were armed and marched to Harpers Ferry.
Virginia Governor Henry A. Wise ordered Brown’s Sharps rifles distributed to locals. He commissioned militia companies to patrol Charles Town and Harpers Ferry, and announced that all Virginians should be ready for military action. “I shall implore the people to organize and take arms in their hands and to practice the use of arms,” he directed, “and I will cause depots to be established for fixed ammunition along our borders and at every assailable point.”
Throughout the South volunteer militias were formed and established militias increased their readiness. It’s safe to presume that it was a time for organized terror against African Americans throughout the south.
Rumors spread – of 500 men on their way from Kansas, 1,000 from Cleveland, Ohio, 2,500 from New York, 7,000 from Chicago, nearly ten thousand men were said to be marching from the state of Ohio.
The rumors of an all-out attack on the slavers were right – in a sense. Just 18 months later the Civil War began.
On November 15, 1859, during the Leonids Meteor Shower, a particularly large meteor exploded with such force that it was seen and heard from Albany to Virginia. It was, one journalist reported, “a series of terrific explosions, which were compared to the discharge of a thousand cannon.”
Soon Virginians would know the sound of thousand cannon – first hand.
Photo: Woodcut made following Nat Turner’s revolt in Virginia in 1831. | 827 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Irish War of Independence
The Irish War of Independence was fought by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) against the British soldiers (known as the Black and Tans because of the colour of their uniform) who were trying to keep Ireland under British control.
82 IRA members were killed including 16 who were executed. These executions angered the Irish people and caused many people to become Republicans. Republicans lived mostly in the south of Ireland. Ulster was considered to be the most unionist part of Ireland (many people claim this has to do with the Ulster Plantations). The Unionists wanted to stay under control of the British Government.
In 1919, the fighting started. By 1921, the IRA had beaten the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) and Ireland had no police forces. In London, the British government began to debate about Ireland's rule. The war went on until 1922 when Irish Sinn Féin leaders and British MPs made a peace treaty (called the Anglo-Irish Treaty). This treaty created the Irish Free State this meant that Ireland was made its own independent country. The treaty gave all the same rights to the Irish government as that of the Canadian government
It handed power of 26 of the 32 counties to the Irish Government. The 6 counties that were kept by the British Government were all in Ulster (mostly Unionist) and now form Northern Ireland. | <urn:uuid:ac21166c-0b9e-412c-b32b-6ad01a749f26> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00226.warc.gz | en | 0.989987 | 272 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.4401830... | 2 | Irish War of Independence
The Irish War of Independence was fought by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) against the British soldiers (known as the Black and Tans because of the colour of their uniform) who were trying to keep Ireland under British control.
82 IRA members were killed including 16 who were executed. These executions angered the Irish people and caused many people to become Republicans. Republicans lived mostly in the south of Ireland. Ulster was considered to be the most unionist part of Ireland (many people claim this has to do with the Ulster Plantations). The Unionists wanted to stay under control of the British Government.
In 1919, the fighting started. By 1921, the IRA had beaten the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) and Ireland had no police forces. In London, the British government began to debate about Ireland's rule. The war went on until 1922 when Irish Sinn Féin leaders and British MPs made a peace treaty (called the Anglo-Irish Treaty). This treaty created the Irish Free State this meant that Ireland was made its own independent country. The treaty gave all the same rights to the Irish government as that of the Canadian government
It handed power of 26 of the 32 counties to the Irish Government. The 6 counties that were kept by the British Government were all in Ulster (mostly Unionist) and now form Northern Ireland. | 293 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saint Anselm (1033-1109)
for April 21
Even though Saint Anselm brushed religion aside as a young man, he embraced it in his later years. He became one of the Church's most important theologians and leaders. He was named "Father of Scholasticism" for trying to examine and illuminate truths of the Christian faith utilizing reason. He was appointed the archbishop of Canterbury and was named a Doctor of the Church. One of his greatest accomplishments was persuading the national council at Westminster to forbid the sale of human beings. Anselm was highly admired for his patience, kindness, and teaching ability. He published many theological works, including "Why God Became Man."
Image via Wikipedia
Saint Anselm played a vital role in helping to stop slavery. Even though, during his lifetime, there were few advocates for the abolition of slavery, Saint Anselm stood up for the enslaved and did what he could to improve their plight. His position was likely unpopular, but this did not stop him from arguing on behalf of slaves. What issues in your community need to be addressed but are often ignored?
Dear Jesus, please help me to live with the righteousness of Saint Anselm. | <urn:uuid:3d7cafa5-24ae-45d3-8649-04a74166fc9e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.smp.org/resourcecenter/resource/7551/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00134.warc.gz | en | 0.990278 | 250 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.202218577265... | 1 | Saint Anselm (1033-1109)
for April 21
Even though Saint Anselm brushed religion aside as a young man, he embraced it in his later years. He became one of the Church's most important theologians and leaders. He was named "Father of Scholasticism" for trying to examine and illuminate truths of the Christian faith utilizing reason. He was appointed the archbishop of Canterbury and was named a Doctor of the Church. One of his greatest accomplishments was persuading the national council at Westminster to forbid the sale of human beings. Anselm was highly admired for his patience, kindness, and teaching ability. He published many theological works, including "Why God Became Man."
Image via Wikipedia
Saint Anselm played a vital role in helping to stop slavery. Even though, during his lifetime, there were few advocates for the abolition of slavery, Saint Anselm stood up for the enslaved and did what he could to improve their plight. His position was likely unpopular, but this did not stop him from arguing on behalf of slaves. What issues in your community need to be addressed but are often ignored?
Dear Jesus, please help me to live with the righteousness of Saint Anselm. | 253 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Powhatan Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
The traditional paramount ruled over 30 tribes in Jamestown in 1607. Before clashing with the colonist, he traded with them. He was the elder brother of Opchanacanough, the man responsible for major attacks on the English between 1922 and 1644.
Powhatan was born between 1540 and 1550 in Wahunsenacawh. Even though there is scarce information about his early life, he grew up in a matrilineal society. He inherited his rights of becoming chief, from his mother who is believed to be from the royal family.
Rise To Power
Powhatan combined diplomacy and force to rise into power. He inherited a total of six tribes before assembling 30 more tribes to form the Powhatan Confederacy. His empire consisted of more than 15,000 people. Each tribe had a paramount chief who reported to Powhatan.
Having more than 30 tribes under him helped expand his territories. All these tribes pledged their loyalty to Powhatan hence fighting by his side. Throughout his leadership, none of the tribe showed rebelled against him, on the contrary, they all paid tribute to him.
Powhatan controlled an area of about six thousand square miles, an area called Tenakomakah or Tsenacommacah. This area is currently southern Maryland, Tidewater Virginia, and Chesapeake Bay's eastern shore. Through his position as a chief, he assembled vast wealth. His wealth and power enabled him marry many/
It is not clear the exact date Powhatan took over power. Various historians, however, indicate that he started his rule around 1540. During the formation of Jamestown settlement in 1607, he was in control. One of his noble act was sending an ambassador to try and negotiate a peace deal with the ambassador.
In addition to forging for peace with the colonist, he supplied food and water to them. Despite providing them with food and water, the colonist continued to encroach into Powhatan's land. They wanted to make Powhatan a subject of English.
Due to the determination by the English to make him their subject, he moved to Orapax, a new capital. It indicated his unwillingness to become the subject of the English colony. Also marked the beginning of a new era for Powhatan.
As the English increased their influence in Powhatan's territory, tension continued to grow. In one instance, the chief invited the colonies to Orapax, his new settlement in what many believed was a trading deal.
During the meeting, he took the English by surprise and attacked them, killing most of them. He later ordered that colonist living in Jamestown be stricken. Trade between the English colonist and Powhatan came to an end.
Until the arrival of new leadership in 1610, the colonist had a difficult time living among the Powhatan tribes. A new administration weakened the tribes, and the colonist began enforcing a more is a powerful tactic against them.
A long search saw Powhatan's daughter captured by the colonist in 1613. To secure her release, Powhatan returned some of the English possession including captives. The goodies were not however enough to secure her release.
Pocahontas later drew the attention of John Rolfe after changing her religion to Christianity. The marriage of the two brought calm between the settlers and the native tribes. The peace persisted for a while even after the chief's death.
Powhatan remained married to John Rolfe until the chief's death. He died on April 1617, during one her trips to England with her husband. Her father later died on April 1618. | <urn:uuid:f0fb8382-c22d-47fe-baeb-79e04f95242c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/powhatan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.981532 | 787 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.254225969314575... | 8 | Powhatan Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
The traditional paramount ruled over 30 tribes in Jamestown in 1607. Before clashing with the colonist, he traded with them. He was the elder brother of Opchanacanough, the man responsible for major attacks on the English between 1922 and 1644.
Powhatan was born between 1540 and 1550 in Wahunsenacawh. Even though there is scarce information about his early life, he grew up in a matrilineal society. He inherited his rights of becoming chief, from his mother who is believed to be from the royal family.
Rise To Power
Powhatan combined diplomacy and force to rise into power. He inherited a total of six tribes before assembling 30 more tribes to form the Powhatan Confederacy. His empire consisted of more than 15,000 people. Each tribe had a paramount chief who reported to Powhatan.
Having more than 30 tribes under him helped expand his territories. All these tribes pledged their loyalty to Powhatan hence fighting by his side. Throughout his leadership, none of the tribe showed rebelled against him, on the contrary, they all paid tribute to him.
Powhatan controlled an area of about six thousand square miles, an area called Tenakomakah or Tsenacommacah. This area is currently southern Maryland, Tidewater Virginia, and Chesapeake Bay's eastern shore. Through his position as a chief, he assembled vast wealth. His wealth and power enabled him marry many/
It is not clear the exact date Powhatan took over power. Various historians, however, indicate that he started his rule around 1540. During the formation of Jamestown settlement in 1607, he was in control. One of his noble act was sending an ambassador to try and negotiate a peace deal with the ambassador.
In addition to forging for peace with the colonist, he supplied food and water to them. Despite providing them with food and water, the colonist continued to encroach into Powhatan's land. They wanted to make Powhatan a subject of English.
Due to the determination by the English to make him their subject, he moved to Orapax, a new capital. It indicated his unwillingness to become the subject of the English colony. Also marked the beginning of a new era for Powhatan.
As the English increased their influence in Powhatan's territory, tension continued to grow. In one instance, the chief invited the colonies to Orapax, his new settlement in what many believed was a trading deal.
During the meeting, he took the English by surprise and attacked them, killing most of them. He later ordered that colonist living in Jamestown be stricken. Trade between the English colonist and Powhatan came to an end.
Until the arrival of new leadership in 1610, the colonist had a difficult time living among the Powhatan tribes. A new administration weakened the tribes, and the colonist began enforcing a more is a powerful tactic against them.
A long search saw Powhatan's daughter captured by the colonist in 1613. To secure her release, Powhatan returned some of the English possession including captives. The goodies were not however enough to secure her release.
Pocahontas later drew the attention of John Rolfe after changing her religion to Christianity. The marriage of the two brought calm between the settlers and the native tribes. The peace persisted for a while even after the chief's death.
Powhatan remained married to John Rolfe until the chief's death. He died on April 1617, during one her trips to England with her husband. Her father later died on April 1618. | 808 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Find out what our customers have to say about our service.Read more
The Domestication of Our Favourite Household Pets
Tuesday October 27th 2015
The pets we keep today tend to be social and friendly creatures, which fit almost seamlessly into our lives, but this was not always the case. We have travelled back in time to explore some of the theories behind the domestication of our favourite household pets.
How and when exactly dogs became domesticated is a source of much heated debate in the scientific community, for which many theories exist.
It has been suggested that the modern dog evolved from a European wolf that followed human groups and fed on their leftovers. From this stage there are two theories of domestications – self domestication and human domestication.
In this theory, wolves that were less aggressive towards humans were more likely to reproduce and produce offspring that were more likely to share these traits. These traits are favourable to humans, who would therefore not feel threatened by the wolves. It has also been suggested that wolves that were more social and less afraid of humans could feed closer to humans – this is favourable and allowed social wolves to reproduce, perhaps also helping to enable domestication.
In this theory, humans actively selected wolf pups to use in society. The least aggressive and most social animals would then have been allowed to reproduce, thereby passing on these traits to offspring. After several generations of this, the first “domesticated” dogs emerged.
It has been suggested that the domestication of pets began around 12,000 years ago when the first agricultural societies began to form in the Middle East. With a surplus of crops from agriculture, rodents were rife in stockpiles and thus wild cats began to enter societies with ample food supply. It is believed that a sort of self-domestication took place as a result of this. Humans preferred the friendlier felines and thus these cats were more tolerated and likely to reproduce. Over-time cats with these traits became more common and this is believed to be the beginning of the lineage of the modern house cat.
However, the relationship between human and feline has not always run smooth. During the Middle Ages cats were associated with the Devil and witchcraft and thus were often culled. Some have suggested that the effects of the plague were multiplied due to increasing numbers of rodents as a result of cats being killed.
It is believed that monks in Southern France kept wild rabbits as a means of easily eating their meat as early as the 5th century. The use of rabbits for meat and fur continued, and rabbits were bred for particular fur colours and patterns.
It was during the Victorian era in the 19th century that the domestic use of rabbit as pets became more widespread. Breeds of rabbit were kept for show, rather than simply meat and fur – this evolved into rabbits being kept as pets.
The domestication of rabbits is particularly interesting due to the stark contrast in behaviour between domesticated and wild rabbits, the latter of which show an almost un-matched fear response in the animal kingdom. The availability of both wild and domesticated rabbits in modern times has led to much scientific experimentation on the differences between the two.
This article was written on behalf of helpucover. helpucover is a trading style of Pinnacle Insurance plc, an insurance company who offers pet insurance. | <urn:uuid:0d2a493a-4500-4e9e-8088-3d2ef1abe4b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.helpucover.co.uk/news/HUCPR--477.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00396.warc.gz | en | 0.983408 | 679 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.12940049... | 2 | Find out what our customers have to say about our service.Read more
The Domestication of Our Favourite Household Pets
Tuesday October 27th 2015
The pets we keep today tend to be social and friendly creatures, which fit almost seamlessly into our lives, but this was not always the case. We have travelled back in time to explore some of the theories behind the domestication of our favourite household pets.
How and when exactly dogs became domesticated is a source of much heated debate in the scientific community, for which many theories exist.
It has been suggested that the modern dog evolved from a European wolf that followed human groups and fed on their leftovers. From this stage there are two theories of domestications – self domestication and human domestication.
In this theory, wolves that were less aggressive towards humans were more likely to reproduce and produce offspring that were more likely to share these traits. These traits are favourable to humans, who would therefore not feel threatened by the wolves. It has also been suggested that wolves that were more social and less afraid of humans could feed closer to humans – this is favourable and allowed social wolves to reproduce, perhaps also helping to enable domestication.
In this theory, humans actively selected wolf pups to use in society. The least aggressive and most social animals would then have been allowed to reproduce, thereby passing on these traits to offspring. After several generations of this, the first “domesticated” dogs emerged.
It has been suggested that the domestication of pets began around 12,000 years ago when the first agricultural societies began to form in the Middle East. With a surplus of crops from agriculture, rodents were rife in stockpiles and thus wild cats began to enter societies with ample food supply. It is believed that a sort of self-domestication took place as a result of this. Humans preferred the friendlier felines and thus these cats were more tolerated and likely to reproduce. Over-time cats with these traits became more common and this is believed to be the beginning of the lineage of the modern house cat.
However, the relationship between human and feline has not always run smooth. During the Middle Ages cats were associated with the Devil and witchcraft and thus were often culled. Some have suggested that the effects of the plague were multiplied due to increasing numbers of rodents as a result of cats being killed.
It is believed that monks in Southern France kept wild rabbits as a means of easily eating their meat as early as the 5th century. The use of rabbits for meat and fur continued, and rabbits were bred for particular fur colours and patterns.
It was during the Victorian era in the 19th century that the domestic use of rabbit as pets became more widespread. Breeds of rabbit were kept for show, rather than simply meat and fur – this evolved into rabbits being kept as pets.
The domestication of rabbits is particularly interesting due to the stark contrast in behaviour between domesticated and wild rabbits, the latter of which show an almost un-matched fear response in the animal kingdom. The availability of both wild and domesticated rabbits in modern times has led to much scientific experimentation on the differences between the two.
This article was written on behalf of helpucover. helpucover is a trading style of Pinnacle Insurance plc, an insurance company who offers pet insurance. | 675 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Documentary | 55' | 2015 | color | 16/9 | DCP
Original version: EN DE FR
Subtitles: EN DE FR
In 2014, the Pentagon awarded P.O.W. medals to 143 WWII veterans, who were held in the infamous Wauwilermoos punishment camp in Switzerland. The story of these airmen and their prison unveils one of the darkest and less known facts of Switzerland’s behavior during World War II.
During the Second World War, more than 100’000 foreign soldiers were interned in Switzerland. French, Polish, English, Russian, Italian, Germans who fled combat found a save haven in neutral Switzerland. According to the international conventions signed before the war, the Swiss government had to accept these soldiers (unlike civilians, for instance the Jews, which could be sent back to occupied territories) and keep them interned until the end of the hostilities. These soldiers were held in barracks and used as helping hands for agriculture and industries. Officers were not compelled to forced labour and stayed in unoccupied mountain hotels. These rather mild detention conditions could become nightmarish for those who tried to escape. The escapees were sent to the camp of Wauwilermoos near Lucerne. This military prison was under the command of André Béguin, a known crook and member of a right wing movement. He imposed extremely harsh detention conditions. In April 2014, eight survivors of this camp received the Prisoner of War Medal, thus being recognized for the suffering they endured during their imprisonment. This will be the first time that this medal is granted to soldiers that were held prisoners in a friendly country. This is the story – part of our history – which this film tells. | <urn:uuid:28b37ea6-6e08-4442-a081-a7f6220257d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://climage.ch/en/movies/forced-landing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00184.warc.gz | en | 0.982066 | 357 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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Original version: EN DE FR
Subtitles: EN DE FR
In 2014, the Pentagon awarded P.O.W. medals to 143 WWII veterans, who were held in the infamous Wauwilermoos punishment camp in Switzerland. The story of these airmen and their prison unveils one of the darkest and less known facts of Switzerland’s behavior during World War II.
During the Second World War, more than 100’000 foreign soldiers were interned in Switzerland. French, Polish, English, Russian, Italian, Germans who fled combat found a save haven in neutral Switzerland. According to the international conventions signed before the war, the Swiss government had to accept these soldiers (unlike civilians, for instance the Jews, which could be sent back to occupied territories) and keep them interned until the end of the hostilities. These soldiers were held in barracks and used as helping hands for agriculture and industries. Officers were not compelled to forced labour and stayed in unoccupied mountain hotels. These rather mild detention conditions could become nightmarish for those who tried to escape. The escapees were sent to the camp of Wauwilermoos near Lucerne. This military prison was under the command of André Béguin, a known crook and member of a right wing movement. He imposed extremely harsh detention conditions. In April 2014, eight survivors of this camp received the Prisoner of War Medal, thus being recognized for the suffering they endured during their imprisonment. This will be the first time that this medal is granted to soldiers that were held prisoners in a friendly country. This is the story – part of our history – which this film tells. | 372 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Commonwealth—The Adventures of a Prince
K ING CHARLES was beheaded on 30th January 1649 A.D., and Parliament immediately proclaimed that kings were bad and useless, so England would have no more. The Government would be a commonwealth. Common here means "belonging to all," and wealth, although we now use it to mean money, at one time meant well-being or happiness. Commonwealth really means the well-being or happiness of all. No one was to be greater than another; all were to be equal. The House of Lords was therefore, they said, useless and dangerous, and they did away with it. They also made it a crime for any one to call Prince Charles king, although he was the eldest son of Charles I.
The people of Scotland and Ireland, however, were very angry when they heard what had happened. The Scots had never wished the King to be killed; they had hoped to force him to rule better. Now that he was dead they proclaimed his son Charles king. At the same time the Irish rebelled, and Cromwell and his Ironsides went to subdue them. Very many of the Irish were Roman Catholics, and some years before they had risen and cruelly murdered the Irish Protestants. Cromwell hated the Roman Catholics, and he intended now to punish them for their cruelty to the Protestants, as well as for rebelling against the Commonwealth, as the Government of Britain was now called.
Cromwell remained nine months in Ireland, and so cruel and pitiless was he, that for many years no Irishman could hear his name without a shudder and a curse. The country was utterly subdued. Many of the people were killed, others were sent as slaves to the West Indies, and all who could fled to far countries to escape the fury of Cromwell.
When he had finished this dreadful work, Cromwell returned to England, and then marched into Scotland. The Ironsides had never been defeated, and now they won battle after battle, and at last Charles decided to march into England and fight for his crown there.
Cromwell was very much astonished when he heard what Charles was doing, and he hurried after him as fast as he could. The English did not flock to join Charles as he had expected, and when the two armies met at Worcester, Cromwell's army was nearly twice as large as that of the Prince. A dreadful battle followed. The Scots fought gallantly for their Prince, but they were utterly defeated. Hardly any escaped, and those who were not killed were sold as slaves.
Cromwell called this battle his "crowning mercy," for with it Charles lost all hope of regaining his kingdom. It was fought on what Cromwell used to think was his "lucky day," the third of September.
Charles fled from Worcester, and had many adventures before he reached safety. Great rewards were offered to any one who would tell where he was hiding, punishment and death threatened those who helped him. Yet so many were faithful to him that he escaped.
He cut off his beautiful hair, stained his face and his white hands brown, and instead of silk and satin, he put on coarse clothes which were much patched and darned, so that he looked like a labouring man. Then with an axe over his shoulder, he went into the woods with four brothers, who really were working men, and pretended to cut wood.
All day long they stayed in the wood, and at night the four brothers guided the Prince to another place. There they found so many of Cromwell's men that it was not safe for Charles to stay in a house. That night he slept in a hay-loft. Next day, finding that even there he was not safe, he climbed into an oak-tree, and lay among the branches. As it was September, the leaves were very thick and hid him well.
Charles lay very still and quiet. His heart thumped against his ribs, and he held his breath when some of Cromwell's soldiers rode under the tree. They were so close that he could hear them talk.
"The Lord hath given the ungodly one into our hands," said one.
"Yea, he cannot be afar off."
"We will use well our eyes. Perchance the Lord may deliver the malignant even unto us."
But the kind green leaves kept close, and little did the Roundheads think that the very man for whom they were looking was close above their heads and could hear every word they said.
For a whole long day Charles lay in the oak, and at last Cromwell's men, having searched and searched in vain for him, went away. Then Charles climbed down from the tree and walked many weary miles till his feet were blistered and sore, and his bones ached.
At length he reached the house of a Royalist lady and gentleman, who were kind to him.
The lady pretended that she had to go on a journey to visit a sick friend. Charles was dressed as her servant and mounted upon a horse, and the lady got up behind him. In those days, before there were trains or even coaches, ladies very often travelled like this. They did not ride upon a horse by themselves, but mounted behind a servant or a friend.
For many miles Charles travelled as this lady's servant, having many adventures and escapes by the way. As Charles was supposed to be the servant, he had, of course, to look after the horse. One evening, as he went into the stable-yard of the inn in which they were to spend the night, he found it full of Cromwell's men. One of them looked hard at the Prince.
"My friend," he said, "I seem to know your face."
"Like enough," replied Charles, "I have travelled a good deal with my masters."
"Surely," said the man, "you were with Mr. Baxter?"
"Yes," replied the Prince calmly, "I was with him. But now make way, my man, till I see after my beast. I will talk to you later."
So Charles busied himself with his horse, and escaped from the man who took him to be a fellow-servant.
After many dangers, often being recognised in spite of his disguises, the Prince arrived at Lyme Regis, and there a little boat was found to take him over to France. But when the captain's wife heard who was going to sail in her husband's boat, she was afraid. She was afraid that Cromwell might hear of it, and perhaps kill her husband. So she told him he must not go.
"I must go," said the captain, "I have promised."
"You shall not go," said his wife, and, seeing that talking did no good, she locked him into a room and took the key away.
Charles and his friends waited in vain for the captain, and at last they left Lyme Regis in despair. After more adventures they reached Brighton, and there they really did find a boat and a captain willing to take them over to France.
The evening before starting, Charles was having supper at a little inn in Brighton, when the landlord came behind him and kissed his hand. Again he had been recognised. But the landlord was faithful, and would not betray him.
"God bless your Majesty," he said, "perhaps I may live to be a lord, and my good wife a lady." He thought that if Charles ever came back to the throne he would not forget those who had helped and served him when he was poor and in trouble.
For more than six weeks Charles had travelled in fear and danger among his bitter enemies. In spite of his disguises, many people had recognised him. Yet not one had betrayed him. Instead, they had taken a great deal of trouble and run many risks to help and save him, and now his difficulties and dangers were over.
Very early next morning, while it was still almost dark, the little party crept down to the shore. In the grey dawn Charles stepped on board the boat, the sails were set, and slowly he was carried away from his kingdom which he was not to see again for many long days. | <urn:uuid:801c8055-bc29-43e2-92e0-f518377648f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=commonwealth | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00522.warc.gz | en | 0.996456 | 1,701 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.0661466494202613... | 1 | The Commonwealth—The Adventures of a Prince
K ING CHARLES was beheaded on 30th January 1649 A.D., and Parliament immediately proclaimed that kings were bad and useless, so England would have no more. The Government would be a commonwealth. Common here means "belonging to all," and wealth, although we now use it to mean money, at one time meant well-being or happiness. Commonwealth really means the well-being or happiness of all. No one was to be greater than another; all were to be equal. The House of Lords was therefore, they said, useless and dangerous, and they did away with it. They also made it a crime for any one to call Prince Charles king, although he was the eldest son of Charles I.
The people of Scotland and Ireland, however, were very angry when they heard what had happened. The Scots had never wished the King to be killed; they had hoped to force him to rule better. Now that he was dead they proclaimed his son Charles king. At the same time the Irish rebelled, and Cromwell and his Ironsides went to subdue them. Very many of the Irish were Roman Catholics, and some years before they had risen and cruelly murdered the Irish Protestants. Cromwell hated the Roman Catholics, and he intended now to punish them for their cruelty to the Protestants, as well as for rebelling against the Commonwealth, as the Government of Britain was now called.
Cromwell remained nine months in Ireland, and so cruel and pitiless was he, that for many years no Irishman could hear his name without a shudder and a curse. The country was utterly subdued. Many of the people were killed, others were sent as slaves to the West Indies, and all who could fled to far countries to escape the fury of Cromwell.
When he had finished this dreadful work, Cromwell returned to England, and then marched into Scotland. The Ironsides had never been defeated, and now they won battle after battle, and at last Charles decided to march into England and fight for his crown there.
Cromwell was very much astonished when he heard what Charles was doing, and he hurried after him as fast as he could. The English did not flock to join Charles as he had expected, and when the two armies met at Worcester, Cromwell's army was nearly twice as large as that of the Prince. A dreadful battle followed. The Scots fought gallantly for their Prince, but they were utterly defeated. Hardly any escaped, and those who were not killed were sold as slaves.
Cromwell called this battle his "crowning mercy," for with it Charles lost all hope of regaining his kingdom. It was fought on what Cromwell used to think was his "lucky day," the third of September.
Charles fled from Worcester, and had many adventures before he reached safety. Great rewards were offered to any one who would tell where he was hiding, punishment and death threatened those who helped him. Yet so many were faithful to him that he escaped.
He cut off his beautiful hair, stained his face and his white hands brown, and instead of silk and satin, he put on coarse clothes which were much patched and darned, so that he looked like a labouring man. Then with an axe over his shoulder, he went into the woods with four brothers, who really were working men, and pretended to cut wood.
All day long they stayed in the wood, and at night the four brothers guided the Prince to another place. There they found so many of Cromwell's men that it was not safe for Charles to stay in a house. That night he slept in a hay-loft. Next day, finding that even there he was not safe, he climbed into an oak-tree, and lay among the branches. As it was September, the leaves were very thick and hid him well.
Charles lay very still and quiet. His heart thumped against his ribs, and he held his breath when some of Cromwell's soldiers rode under the tree. They were so close that he could hear them talk.
"The Lord hath given the ungodly one into our hands," said one.
"Yea, he cannot be afar off."
"We will use well our eyes. Perchance the Lord may deliver the malignant even unto us."
But the kind green leaves kept close, and little did the Roundheads think that the very man for whom they were looking was close above their heads and could hear every word they said.
For a whole long day Charles lay in the oak, and at last Cromwell's men, having searched and searched in vain for him, went away. Then Charles climbed down from the tree and walked many weary miles till his feet were blistered and sore, and his bones ached.
At length he reached the house of a Royalist lady and gentleman, who were kind to him.
The lady pretended that she had to go on a journey to visit a sick friend. Charles was dressed as her servant and mounted upon a horse, and the lady got up behind him. In those days, before there were trains or even coaches, ladies very often travelled like this. They did not ride upon a horse by themselves, but mounted behind a servant or a friend.
For many miles Charles travelled as this lady's servant, having many adventures and escapes by the way. As Charles was supposed to be the servant, he had, of course, to look after the horse. One evening, as he went into the stable-yard of the inn in which they were to spend the night, he found it full of Cromwell's men. One of them looked hard at the Prince.
"My friend," he said, "I seem to know your face."
"Like enough," replied Charles, "I have travelled a good deal with my masters."
"Surely," said the man, "you were with Mr. Baxter?"
"Yes," replied the Prince calmly, "I was with him. But now make way, my man, till I see after my beast. I will talk to you later."
So Charles busied himself with his horse, and escaped from the man who took him to be a fellow-servant.
After many dangers, often being recognised in spite of his disguises, the Prince arrived at Lyme Regis, and there a little boat was found to take him over to France. But when the captain's wife heard who was going to sail in her husband's boat, she was afraid. She was afraid that Cromwell might hear of it, and perhaps kill her husband. So she told him he must not go.
"I must go," said the captain, "I have promised."
"You shall not go," said his wife, and, seeing that talking did no good, she locked him into a room and took the key away.
Charles and his friends waited in vain for the captain, and at last they left Lyme Regis in despair. After more adventures they reached Brighton, and there they really did find a boat and a captain willing to take them over to France.
The evening before starting, Charles was having supper at a little inn in Brighton, when the landlord came behind him and kissed his hand. Again he had been recognised. But the landlord was faithful, and would not betray him.
"God bless your Majesty," he said, "perhaps I may live to be a lord, and my good wife a lady." He thought that if Charles ever came back to the throne he would not forget those who had helped and served him when he was poor and in trouble.
For more than six weeks Charles had travelled in fear and danger among his bitter enemies. In spite of his disguises, many people had recognised him. Yet not one had betrayed him. Instead, they had taken a great deal of trouble and run many risks to help and save him, and now his difficulties and dangers were over.
Very early next morning, while it was still almost dark, the little party crept down to the shore. In the grey dawn Charles stepped on board the boat, the sails were set, and slowly he was carried away from his kingdom which he was not to see again for many long days. | 1,665 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1789, France was faced by financial difficulties, which included taxation. Despite these difficulties, France remained the richest country in Europe, and its citizens enjoyed freedom as far as politics were concern. In addition, they also enjoyed the lower level of casual discipline as compared to the other Europeans. Although France citizens had all this freedom, there was some degree of rigidity that led to France taking the blame for the slow revolution. As the revolution was on, power was devolved to a stage of having legislative powers. These then led to a wide loss of blood and discord through conflict of interest that resulted (Coffin and Lerner, 2002). Materialism was the key cause of fallout of French leaders for a long time, which lead to The French Revolution.
In the summary of the introduction, there were a number of factors, which led to the France revolution. It was their materialism philosophies which led to toppling of many leaders. Materialism became their statement of belief of the Great French Revolution. the revolutionary theorist recognized no external authority. Everything they dealt with from religion to natural science, from community to political setups, were a subject of scrutiny to the most probing criticism. Some of the causes were structural as they were combined with those, which were critical and dominant at that time. As it can be said, revolution did not came up just because of one cause, but because of a number of events that occurred as a series and in turn lead to restructuring of political powers, society, and reduction of freedom of an individual.
Causes of revolution in France in 1789
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France revolution of 1789 had a number of causes, which were stimulated, by the political, social, and economic state of France at that time. These three factors, the citizens felt that they were not contented and thus needed some revolution. In addition to these factors the American Revolution had an influence on the France revolution to some extent (Coffin and Lerner, 2002).
Political discontentment as a cause of France revolution
During the 17th and the 18th century, absolute government took the ruling in France as they had a king who had all the powers (Coffin and Lerner 2002). During this regime, no one was suppose to criticize the government as he or she could be imprisoned even without hearing charges for such action. During voting before the revolution, the then king had emphasized on block voting rather than head count. Because of these, people of the third estate complained about it as they felt that they were being betrayed.
The discontentment by this people led to the people of two estates coming together so as to overpower those from the third estate and thus prevent them from being in power. During that time, when the two states managed to overpower through votes those from the third estate, the president stated that that did not mark the France revolution. At that time, corruption, inefficiencies, and injustices were dominant in France.
There were different laws in different parts of the country to show the level of disunity that then called for revolution. All the weaknesses that were dominant in the France political system it gave its citizens to advocate for revolution. At that time, the citizens had no power without the consent of the then king.
The France kings contributed heavily to this discontentment because, in the 18th century, the government spent a lot of money than it received through taxes. Earlier before the 18th century in1777, it was declared that the republic was bankrupt (Coffin and Lerner, 2002). Taxes were collected unfairly as the common people paid more than those in power did such that they could even hardly afford bread.
It is true to say that the tax system was also unfairr and unjust. Most of the people could not afford to pay taxes and went without paying. The churches covered most of the parts in France, but despite these, they did not pay any tax.
During the 18th century, people in France where divided according to their social classes. These classes were referred to as estates. The clergy lived in the first estate as the noble men lived in the second estate. The third was made up of those who worked in the city. Due to these, the city you belonged to determined ones powers and rights.
In the first estate, the number of people was approximately 1% and owned about 10% of the entire land in France. The second class was about 2% and owned 35% as the third class was about 97% and owed 55% (Coffin and Lerner, 2002). Comparing the number of people at the third class with the size of land they owed, it can easily be said that they were overcrowded and thus were discontented. Due to these classifications, most of the classes had their own reasons to give for stating that they were discontented. For instance, the city workers said that they were being under paid as the first-class people on the other side said that they never paid any tax. This strategy also can be said that it was unjust, unfair, and full of corruption.
In my option, I can say that, revolution in France was stimulated by the political, social, and the economic problems. In most cases, people were not satisfied with the king’s way of action, as, it was biased, corrupt, and unjust. For instance, the first two estate people enjoyed many privileges as those in the third estate did not since they had to pay many taxes and could hardly afford a living. Due to this constraint, the third-class people could not get along with the first two classes. In addition, the king spent a lot of money than they could rise through taxes and as a result, was high time for France to change through revolution.
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0.4115672409534... | 1 | In 1789, France was faced by financial difficulties, which included taxation. Despite these difficulties, France remained the richest country in Europe, and its citizens enjoyed freedom as far as politics were concern. In addition, they also enjoyed the lower level of casual discipline as compared to the other Europeans. Although France citizens had all this freedom, there was some degree of rigidity that led to France taking the blame for the slow revolution. As the revolution was on, power was devolved to a stage of having legislative powers. These then led to a wide loss of blood and discord through conflict of interest that resulted (Coffin and Lerner, 2002). Materialism was the key cause of fallout of French leaders for a long time, which lead to The French Revolution.
In the summary of the introduction, there were a number of factors, which led to the France revolution. It was their materialism philosophies which led to toppling of many leaders. Materialism became their statement of belief of the Great French Revolution. the revolutionary theorist recognized no external authority. Everything they dealt with from religion to natural science, from community to political setups, were a subject of scrutiny to the most probing criticism. Some of the causes were structural as they were combined with those, which were critical and dominant at that time. As it can be said, revolution did not came up just because of one cause, but because of a number of events that occurred as a series and in turn lead to restructuring of political powers, society, and reduction of freedom of an individual.
Causes of revolution in France in 1789
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
France revolution of 1789 had a number of causes, which were stimulated, by the political, social, and economic state of France at that time. These three factors, the citizens felt that they were not contented and thus needed some revolution. In addition to these factors the American Revolution had an influence on the France revolution to some extent (Coffin and Lerner, 2002).
Political discontentment as a cause of France revolution
During the 17th and the 18th century, absolute government took the ruling in France as they had a king who had all the powers (Coffin and Lerner 2002). During this regime, no one was suppose to criticize the government as he or she could be imprisoned even without hearing charges for such action. During voting before the revolution, the then king had emphasized on block voting rather than head count. Because of these, people of the third estate complained about it as they felt that they were being betrayed.
The discontentment by this people led to the people of two estates coming together so as to overpower those from the third estate and thus prevent them from being in power. During that time, when the two states managed to overpower through votes those from the third estate, the president stated that that did not mark the France revolution. At that time, corruption, inefficiencies, and injustices were dominant in France.
There were different laws in different parts of the country to show the level of disunity that then called for revolution. All the weaknesses that were dominant in the France political system it gave its citizens to advocate for revolution. At that time, the citizens had no power without the consent of the then king.
The France kings contributed heavily to this discontentment because, in the 18th century, the government spent a lot of money than it received through taxes. Earlier before the 18th century in1777, it was declared that the republic was bankrupt (Coffin and Lerner, 2002). Taxes were collected unfairly as the common people paid more than those in power did such that they could even hardly afford bread.
It is true to say that the tax system was also unfairr and unjust. Most of the people could not afford to pay taxes and went without paying. The churches covered most of the parts in France, but despite these, they did not pay any tax.
During the 18th century, people in France where divided according to their social classes. These classes were referred to as estates. The clergy lived in the first estate as the noble men lived in the second estate. The third was made up of those who worked in the city. Due to these, the city you belonged to determined ones powers and rights.
In the first estate, the number of people was approximately 1% and owned about 10% of the entire land in France. The second class was about 2% and owned 35% as the third class was about 97% and owed 55% (Coffin and Lerner, 2002). Comparing the number of people at the third class with the size of land they owed, it can easily be said that they were overcrowded and thus were discontented. Due to these classifications, most of the classes had their own reasons to give for stating that they were discontented. For instance, the city workers said that they were being under paid as the first-class people on the other side said that they never paid any tax. This strategy also can be said that it was unjust, unfair, and full of corruption.
In my option, I can say that, revolution in France was stimulated by the political, social, and the economic problems. In most cases, people were not satisfied with the king’s way of action, as, it was biased, corrupt, and unjust. For instance, the first two estate people enjoyed many privileges as those in the third estate did not since they had to pay many taxes and could hardly afford a living. Due to this constraint, the third-class people could not get along with the first two classes. In addition, the king spent a lot of money than they could rise through taxes and as a result, was high time for France to change through revolution.
Most popular orders | 1,259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sweden in World War II - across borders
After World War I Sweden had cut down on the size of the military. When signals in the 1930s indicated that another large war could take place in Europe, the need for military equipment was large. To handle this, there were among others various contacts and business with other countries. There were also some contacts where Sweden was the provider.
On this page you will foremost find fragments about what crossed Sweden's borders.
In general, Sweden had plenty of suitable production facilities to produce armaments. For example rifles, guns, ammunition, helmets, ball bearings, engines, vehicles and ships. Much of the needed raw material was found in Sweden.
In the 1930s Sweden was one of the leading producers of ships. When the threat of a new large war in Europe grew, the warship production incresed. Among others destroyers were produced. [s26]
During 1933 Sweden invited tenders for delivery of bomb planes. It was recommended to purchase three Junkers K 85, built by the Swedish company AB Flygindustri. The government decided to purchase two planes, but changed the decision within short. Instead they decided to let a British company give an offer. In March 1934 the new recommendation also suggested the Swedish-built Junkers. Then the government wanted to widen the group of potential deliverers. In mid May the new recommendation was given - the same Junkers plane was seen as the best solution for the needs of the air force. In late June the government decided that the British plane should be ordered. [s75]
Eventually two planes were ordered. The first was fetched in Britain in September 1938, the second was delivered from Handley Page to the British Air Ministry - instead of to Sweden. [s75]
Meanwhile, the Swedish air force had ordered 40 Junkers Ju 86K from Germany. The plan was that another 40 planes should be built on licence at the new Swedish company SAAB. [s75]
One reason for the acting of the Swedish government could be that they felt reluctant to order bomb planes from a Swedish company that was a front for a German company. Earlier Sweden also had bought various planes from the Swedish company Svenska Aero, who was a kind of a front for the German company Heinkel. [s75]
In 1938-1939 around 40 U.S. aviation engineers were in Sweden, to help the Swedish company ASJA with the license production of the Northrop 8A-1, in the Swedish airforce called B 5. [s75]
In December 1939 a group of Swedes went to Italy, in order to buy military material. The result was among others 4 destroyers (2 of them called torpedo boats in Italy), 4 motor torpedo boats and torpedoes. [s70]
Sweden also bought engines, mines, a quantity of planes, and some material for the army from Italy. [s72]
The motor torpedo boats arrived to Gothenburg on a Swedish cargo ship around late March 1940, while the destroyers had a more eventful journey to Sweden. [s71]. More about that on the page "Military conflicts, incidents...".
Italian engines for motor torpedo boats were purchased and manufactured under licence during the war. Italian company Baglietto also constructed a new longer motor torpedo boat in 1941, and 11 boats were built in Sweden on licence. [s70]
Sweden also bought 4 motor torpedo boats from Britain - two arrived on a cargo ship in 1940, but the other two were confiscated by the British at the outbreak of the war [s70]. One of them (T4) got a suitable royal commander - Prince Bertil (nicknamed 'the motor Prince' for his interest in motor racing) [s71].
On 30 September 1939 the Swedish government decided to allow negotiations for purchase of reconnaissance seaplanes. The result was to, besides already ordered Seversky 2 P-A bombers, also order seaplane versions. Uncertain about the willingness for the U.S.A. to sell war material to neutral countries, also 27 planes were ordered from Germany - Heinkel He 114. [s75]
No seaplanes were delivered from the U.S.A. The Heinkel factory told in January 1941, after delays, that 12 planes were ready to deliver. They were to be flown to Sweden by German crews, but ... Around the beginning of March the 12 planes arrived by train, in such a bad condition that they had to be overhauled. On 1 April 1941 all the 12 planes were in service, 9 months delayed. The other 15 planes were not delivered [s75]. The reason that Sweden could buy these Heinkels was, that they were considered to be unsafe during take-off and landing in high sea [s83].
Some examples: Sweden ordered 60 planes from the U.S.A., Republic "Guardsman" - only 2 were delivered. 60 Seversky EP-106 were delivered in the early 1940s. Of the 144 Vultee 48C Vanguard ordered from the U.S.A in February 1940, none was delivered before the export was stopped. [s75]
In the spring of 1940 Sweden got the oppurtunity to buy planes and engines from Italy. The agreement included delivery to Italy of raw materials from Sweden, that were essential for the Italian war industry. [s76]
In most of 1940, the only available import route to Sweden from the west was via the Finnish Arctic Ocean port Petsamo. Among others fighter planes bought in the U.S.A. arrived to Petsamo in boxes, and were freighted on Swedish trucks to Sweden. [s64]
The stopped deliveries from the U.S.A. also included ordered airplane engines. There could not be any production under license either. The Swedish company Svenska Flygmotor found the solution. A Pratt&Whitney Twin Wasp engine was dismantled and the parts measured - and then began the production of the "Swedish Twin Wasp". [s75]
While the 'copying' was under way, Sweden was offered to buy the same type of U.S.A. engines from France - via German contacts. The engines were in various conditions, but with the great need for airplanes Sweden bought some hundred engines to fill the needs for the first of the new Swedish fighters J22. [s75]
In 1942 Sweden bought license for production of airplane engines Daimler-Benz DB605, and in 1943 also some 70 original engines were delivered including propellers. [s76]
Sweden had an agreement with the Allies and the Germans about exchange of soldiers detained in Sweden. It said that if an exchange took place, the number of soldiers from Germany should be the same as the number of soldiers from Britain/USA. [s49]
The Swedish political navigation during WWII had led to an exception for Britain, and Sweden received 50 radar stations. [s49]
In late June 1944 the British air attaché offered the Swedish air force to buy 50 "AMES Type 6" radar stations. His suggestion to start with 5 stations, that were in stock and could be delivered a week after an order, was accepted. The 5 stations arrived to the wing F 8 in early August 1944. On 24 October another 30 radar stations were ordered, and the first 15 of them arrived by planes from mid January to early March 1945. [s75]
During the Sonnie project (see "GB/allied troops in Sweden") a similar exception was made for the USA, and Sweden received 50 P-51 Mustang fighters. The first group was flown to Sweden on 10 April 1945, and the fourth/last on 25 April. One group met two German fighters who were shot down by one USA pilot, and after landing two swastikas were painted on the nose of the Mustang. [s49]
It is told that some USA pilots flew under the bridge Västerbron in Stockholm before landing on Bromma airport. [s49] (At least two such flights under the bridge were made later, with a Saab Safir for the Swedish movie "Gula divisionen" (the Yellow division) released in 1954. The stars of this movie were Saab J29 "Flygande tunnan" (the 'Flying Barrel'.).)
2019-04-07. www.konditori100.se. Text/pictures: Arne Granfoss ©. Prod: AG Informice | <urn:uuid:e00d6ccf-1def-4b98-acf4-9d27e9f52861> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://konditori100.se/SiWW2/sww2mets.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00140.warc.gz | en | 0.982531 | 1,747 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.3994717895984649... | 3 | Sweden in World War II - across borders
After World War I Sweden had cut down on the size of the military. When signals in the 1930s indicated that another large war could take place in Europe, the need for military equipment was large. To handle this, there were among others various contacts and business with other countries. There were also some contacts where Sweden was the provider.
On this page you will foremost find fragments about what crossed Sweden's borders.
In general, Sweden had plenty of suitable production facilities to produce armaments. For example rifles, guns, ammunition, helmets, ball bearings, engines, vehicles and ships. Much of the needed raw material was found in Sweden.
In the 1930s Sweden was one of the leading producers of ships. When the threat of a new large war in Europe grew, the warship production incresed. Among others destroyers were produced. [s26]
During 1933 Sweden invited tenders for delivery of bomb planes. It was recommended to purchase three Junkers K 85, built by the Swedish company AB Flygindustri. The government decided to purchase two planes, but changed the decision within short. Instead they decided to let a British company give an offer. In March 1934 the new recommendation also suggested the Swedish-built Junkers. Then the government wanted to widen the group of potential deliverers. In mid May the new recommendation was given - the same Junkers plane was seen as the best solution for the needs of the air force. In late June the government decided that the British plane should be ordered. [s75]
Eventually two planes were ordered. The first was fetched in Britain in September 1938, the second was delivered from Handley Page to the British Air Ministry - instead of to Sweden. [s75]
Meanwhile, the Swedish air force had ordered 40 Junkers Ju 86K from Germany. The plan was that another 40 planes should be built on licence at the new Swedish company SAAB. [s75]
One reason for the acting of the Swedish government could be that they felt reluctant to order bomb planes from a Swedish company that was a front for a German company. Earlier Sweden also had bought various planes from the Swedish company Svenska Aero, who was a kind of a front for the German company Heinkel. [s75]
In 1938-1939 around 40 U.S. aviation engineers were in Sweden, to help the Swedish company ASJA with the license production of the Northrop 8A-1, in the Swedish airforce called B 5. [s75]
In December 1939 a group of Swedes went to Italy, in order to buy military material. The result was among others 4 destroyers (2 of them called torpedo boats in Italy), 4 motor torpedo boats and torpedoes. [s70]
Sweden also bought engines, mines, a quantity of planes, and some material for the army from Italy. [s72]
The motor torpedo boats arrived to Gothenburg on a Swedish cargo ship around late March 1940, while the destroyers had a more eventful journey to Sweden. [s71]. More about that on the page "Military conflicts, incidents...".
Italian engines for motor torpedo boats were purchased and manufactured under licence during the war. Italian company Baglietto also constructed a new longer motor torpedo boat in 1941, and 11 boats were built in Sweden on licence. [s70]
Sweden also bought 4 motor torpedo boats from Britain - two arrived on a cargo ship in 1940, but the other two were confiscated by the British at the outbreak of the war [s70]. One of them (T4) got a suitable royal commander - Prince Bertil (nicknamed 'the motor Prince' for his interest in motor racing) [s71].
On 30 September 1939 the Swedish government decided to allow negotiations for purchase of reconnaissance seaplanes. The result was to, besides already ordered Seversky 2 P-A bombers, also order seaplane versions. Uncertain about the willingness for the U.S.A. to sell war material to neutral countries, also 27 planes were ordered from Germany - Heinkel He 114. [s75]
No seaplanes were delivered from the U.S.A. The Heinkel factory told in January 1941, after delays, that 12 planes were ready to deliver. They were to be flown to Sweden by German crews, but ... Around the beginning of March the 12 planes arrived by train, in such a bad condition that they had to be overhauled. On 1 April 1941 all the 12 planes were in service, 9 months delayed. The other 15 planes were not delivered [s75]. The reason that Sweden could buy these Heinkels was, that they were considered to be unsafe during take-off and landing in high sea [s83].
Some examples: Sweden ordered 60 planes from the U.S.A., Republic "Guardsman" - only 2 were delivered. 60 Seversky EP-106 were delivered in the early 1940s. Of the 144 Vultee 48C Vanguard ordered from the U.S.A in February 1940, none was delivered before the export was stopped. [s75]
In the spring of 1940 Sweden got the oppurtunity to buy planes and engines from Italy. The agreement included delivery to Italy of raw materials from Sweden, that were essential for the Italian war industry. [s76]
In most of 1940, the only available import route to Sweden from the west was via the Finnish Arctic Ocean port Petsamo. Among others fighter planes bought in the U.S.A. arrived to Petsamo in boxes, and were freighted on Swedish trucks to Sweden. [s64]
The stopped deliveries from the U.S.A. also included ordered airplane engines. There could not be any production under license either. The Swedish company Svenska Flygmotor found the solution. A Pratt&Whitney Twin Wasp engine was dismantled and the parts measured - and then began the production of the "Swedish Twin Wasp". [s75]
While the 'copying' was under way, Sweden was offered to buy the same type of U.S.A. engines from France - via German contacts. The engines were in various conditions, but with the great need for airplanes Sweden bought some hundred engines to fill the needs for the first of the new Swedish fighters J22. [s75]
In 1942 Sweden bought license for production of airplane engines Daimler-Benz DB605, and in 1943 also some 70 original engines were delivered including propellers. [s76]
Sweden had an agreement with the Allies and the Germans about exchange of soldiers detained in Sweden. It said that if an exchange took place, the number of soldiers from Germany should be the same as the number of soldiers from Britain/USA. [s49]
The Swedish political navigation during WWII had led to an exception for Britain, and Sweden received 50 radar stations. [s49]
In late June 1944 the British air attaché offered the Swedish air force to buy 50 "AMES Type 6" radar stations. His suggestion to start with 5 stations, that were in stock and could be delivered a week after an order, was accepted. The 5 stations arrived to the wing F 8 in early August 1944. On 24 October another 30 radar stations were ordered, and the first 15 of them arrived by planes from mid January to early March 1945. [s75]
During the Sonnie project (see "GB/allied troops in Sweden") a similar exception was made for the USA, and Sweden received 50 P-51 Mustang fighters. The first group was flown to Sweden on 10 April 1945, and the fourth/last on 25 April. One group met two German fighters who were shot down by one USA pilot, and after landing two swastikas were painted on the nose of the Mustang. [s49]
It is told that some USA pilots flew under the bridge Västerbron in Stockholm before landing on Bromma airport. [s49] (At least two such flights under the bridge were made later, with a Saab Safir for the Swedish movie "Gula divisionen" (the Yellow division) released in 1954. The stars of this movie were Saab J29 "Flygande tunnan" (the 'Flying Barrel'.).)
2019-04-07. www.konditori100.se. Text/pictures: Arne Granfoss ©. Prod: AG Informice | 1,899 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If you have played the famous 90’s game, ‘The Oregon Trail,’ then you would remember how hard it was to make it all the way to Oregon City (if you could even make it across Columbia River). Well, even more unsettling than how hard that game was, is the fact that that game was based on the real life Oregon Migration of 1846. Here is an insight into what might have made it possible for the pioneers to make it to Oregon City.
The Oregon Trail
The Oregon Trail was traveled through by 400,000 people over a period of six months. The inhabitants of Missouri and Mississippi wanted to get to California and Oregon City for the prospects of better weather, health conditions, and quality crops. Since at that time, airplanes and trains were not easily accessible, the Missourians and Mississippians made their way to the Great Plains using the next best transport available: wagons. The group of wagons was known as a wagon train that made their way with food, furniture, clothing, and people to Oregon and California. The trail was not an easy one, as the travelers had to make their way through difficult terrain and weather to get there.
Wagon trains were made up from a combination of many types of wagons at that time. These wagons were known to go 10-15 miles on a good day, and could carry a maximum of 2000-2500 pounds. They kept the necessary cooking equipment, water kegs, and food supplies that were required for the extremely long journey. Most of the emigrants who had taken their furniture along with them on the wagons had to discard them along the way. Since the wagons mostly were to carry their belongings, people rode on horseback behind the wagons, whereas only the elderly and children were seated inside the wagon.
Types of Wagons
The trains were made up of two main types: the prairie schooner and the Conestoga wagon. The differences between those wagons were:
- The Conestoga wagon was bigger and, thus heavier than the prairie schooner.
- The prairie schooner, due to its lightness, only needed around 2-4 oxen or horses while the Conestoga wagon needed around a dozen oxen or 6-8 horses.
The Components Of The Wagon
The wooden wagons were made from either hickory, oak, or maple woods. The covered wagon consisted of 4 wheels, 2 smaller ones in the front and two bigger ones in the back. There was also a bucket hung from the back of the wagon which contained grease for the wheels. The undercarriage consisted of the wheels, the reach, the tongue, and the bolsters for support. There were wooden hoops known as bows bent above the top of the wagon, attached at both sides to support the canvas cover. The wagons usually had no brakes and a chain was attached to one of the wheels to slow down the wagon. Also, a tree was lugged with the back wheels to keep the wagon slow and steady when going downhill.
The animals pulling the wagons were usually oxen, but horses and mules could be used too. Oxen were the best choice as they were the cheapest and could carry heavier loads and did not need high-quality feed.
Those wagons we see depicted in many TV shows and movies about the wild west actually did exist, but let’s be grateful that we have other forms of transportation available today. | <urn:uuid:92258be3-a280-49a0-9883-40e3ac5e1432> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://carldane.wordpress.com/2019/01/08/wagon-trains/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.986155 | 714 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.103110... | 3 | If you have played the famous 90’s game, ‘The Oregon Trail,’ then you would remember how hard it was to make it all the way to Oregon City (if you could even make it across Columbia River). Well, even more unsettling than how hard that game was, is the fact that that game was based on the real life Oregon Migration of 1846. Here is an insight into what might have made it possible for the pioneers to make it to Oregon City.
The Oregon Trail
The Oregon Trail was traveled through by 400,000 people over a period of six months. The inhabitants of Missouri and Mississippi wanted to get to California and Oregon City for the prospects of better weather, health conditions, and quality crops. Since at that time, airplanes and trains were not easily accessible, the Missourians and Mississippians made their way to the Great Plains using the next best transport available: wagons. The group of wagons was known as a wagon train that made their way with food, furniture, clothing, and people to Oregon and California. The trail was not an easy one, as the travelers had to make their way through difficult terrain and weather to get there.
Wagon trains were made up from a combination of many types of wagons at that time. These wagons were known to go 10-15 miles on a good day, and could carry a maximum of 2000-2500 pounds. They kept the necessary cooking equipment, water kegs, and food supplies that were required for the extremely long journey. Most of the emigrants who had taken their furniture along with them on the wagons had to discard them along the way. Since the wagons mostly were to carry their belongings, people rode on horseback behind the wagons, whereas only the elderly and children were seated inside the wagon.
Types of Wagons
The trains were made up of two main types: the prairie schooner and the Conestoga wagon. The differences between those wagons were:
- The Conestoga wagon was bigger and, thus heavier than the prairie schooner.
- The prairie schooner, due to its lightness, only needed around 2-4 oxen or horses while the Conestoga wagon needed around a dozen oxen or 6-8 horses.
The Components Of The Wagon
The wooden wagons were made from either hickory, oak, or maple woods. The covered wagon consisted of 4 wheels, 2 smaller ones in the front and two bigger ones in the back. There was also a bucket hung from the back of the wagon which contained grease for the wheels. The undercarriage consisted of the wheels, the reach, the tongue, and the bolsters for support. There were wooden hoops known as bows bent above the top of the wagon, attached at both sides to support the canvas cover. The wagons usually had no brakes and a chain was attached to one of the wheels to slow down the wagon. Also, a tree was lugged with the back wheels to keep the wagon slow and steady when going downhill.
The animals pulling the wagons were usually oxen, but horses and mules could be used too. Oxen were the best choice as they were the cheapest and could carry heavier loads and did not need high-quality feed.
Those wagons we see depicted in many TV shows and movies about the wild west actually did exist, but let’s be grateful that we have other forms of transportation available today. | 719 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Battle of Los Angeles, also known as The Great Los Angeles Air Raid, is the name given by contemporary sources to the rumored enemy attack by Japan and subsequent anti-aircraft artillery barrage which took place from late February 24 to early February 25, 1942, over Los Angeles, California. The incident occurred less than three months after the United States entered World War II in response to the Japanese Imperial Navy’s attack on Pearl Harbor, and one day after the bombardment of Ellwood on February 23. Initially, the target of the aerial barrage was thought to be an attacking force from Japan, but speaking at a press conference shortly afterward, Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox called the incident a “false alarm”. Newspapers of the time published a number of reports and speculations of a cover-up.
When documenting the incident in 1949, The United States Coast Artillery Association identified a meteorological balloon sent up at 1:00 a.m. that “started all the shooting” and concluded that “once the firing started, imagination created all kinds of targets in the sky and everyone joined in”. In 1983, the U.S. Office of Air Force History attributed the event to a case of “war nerves” triggered by a lost weather balloon and exacerbated by stray flares and shell bursts from adjoining batteries.
On February 24, 1942, naval intelligence issued a warning that an attack could be expected within the next ten hours. That evening, a large number of flares and blinking lights were reported from the vicinity of defense plants. An alert was called at 7:18 pm, and was lifted at 10:23 pm. Renewed activity began early in the morning of the 25th. Air raid sirens sounded at 2:25 am throughout Los Angeles County. A total blackout was ordered and thousands of Air Raid Wardens were summoned to their positions. At 3:16 am the 37th Coast Artillery Brigade began firing .50 caliber machine guns and 12.8-pound anti-aircraft shells into the air at reported aircraft; over 1,400 shells would eventually be fired. Pilots of the 4th Interceptor Command were alerted but their aircraft remained grounded. The artillery fire continued sporadically until 4:14 am. The “all clear” was sounded and the blackout order lifted at 7:21 am.
Several buildings and vehicles were damaged by shell fragments, and five civilians died as an indirect result of the anti-aircraft fire: three killed in car accidents in the ensuing chaos and two of heart attacks attributed to the stress of the hour-long action. The incident was front-page news along the U.S. Pacific coast and across the nation.
Within hours of the end of the air raid, Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox held a press conference, saying the entire incident was a false alarm due to anxiety and “war nerves.” Knox’s comments were followed by statements from the Army the next day that reflected General George C. Marshall’s supposition that the incident might have been caused by enemy agents using commercial airplanes in a psychological warfare campaign to generate panic.
Some contemporary press outlets suspected a cover-up. An editorial in the Long Beach Independent wrote, “There is a mysterious reticence about the whole affair and it appears that some form of censorship is trying to halt discussion on the matter.” Speculation was rampant as to invading airplanes and their bases. Theories included a secret base in northern Mexico as well as Japanese submarines stationed offshore with the capability of carrying planes. Others speculated that the incident was either staged or exaggerated to give coastal defense industries an excuse to move further inland.
Representative Leland Ford of Santa Monica called for a Congressional investigation, saying, “…none of the explanations so far offered removed the episode from the category of ‘complete mystification’ …this was either a practice raid, or a raid to throw a scare into 2,000,000 people, or a mistaken identity raid, or a raid to lay a political foundation to take away Southern California’s war industries.”
The Japanese government, after the war ended, declared that they had flown no airplanes over Los Angeles during the war.
In 1983, the U.S. Office of Air Force History concluded that an analysis of the evidence points to meteorological balloons as the cause of the initial alarm:
During the course of a fireside report to the nation delivered by President Roosevelt on 23 February 1942, a Japanese submarine rose out of the sea off Ellwood, a hamlet on the California coast north of Santa Barbara, and pumped thirteen shells into tidewater refinery installations. The shots seemed designed to punctuate the President’s statement that “the broad oceans which have been heralded in the past as our protection from attack have become endless battlefields on which we are constantly being challenged by our enemies.” Yet the attack which was supposed to carry the enemy’s defiance, and which did succeed in stealing headlines from the President’s address, was a feeble gesture rather than a damaging blow. The raider surfaced at 1905 (Pacific time), just five minutes after the President started his speech. For about twenty minutes the submarine kept a position 2,500 yards offshore to deliver the shots from its 5½-inch guns. The shells did minor damage to piers and oil wells, but missed the gasoline plant, which appears to have been the aiming point; the military effects of the raid were therefore nil. The first news of the attack led to the dispatch of pursuit planes to the area, and subsequently three bombers joined the attempt to destroy the raider, but without success. The reluctance of AAF commanders to assign larger forces to the task resulted from their belief that such a raid as this would be employed by the enemy to divert attention from a major air task force which would hurl its planes against a really significant target. Loyal Japanese-Americans who had predicted that a demonstration would be made in connection with the President’s speech also prophesied that Los Angeles would be attacked the next night. The Army, too, was convinced that some new action impended, and took all possible precautions. Newspapers were permitted to announce that a strict state of readiness against renewed attacks had been imposed, and there followed the confused action known as “The Battle of Los Angeles.”
During the night of 24/25 February 1942, unidentified objects caused a succession of alerts in southern California. On the 24th, a warning issued by naval intelligence indicated that an attack could be expected within the next ten hours. That evening a large number of flares and blinking lights were reported from the vicinity of defense plants. An alert called at 1918 [7:18 pm, Pacific time] was lifted at 2223, and the tension temporarily relaxed. But early in the morning of the 25th renewed activity began. Radars picked up an unidentified target 120 miles west of Los Angeles. Antiaircraft batteries were alerted at 0215 and were put on Green Alert—ready to fire—a few minutes later. The AAF kept its pursuit planes on the ground, preferring to await indications of the scale and direction of any attack before committing its limited fighter force. Radars tracked the approaching target to within a few miles of the coast, and at 0221 the regional controller ordered a blackout. Thereafter the information center was flooded with reports of “enemy planes, ” even though the mysterious object tracked in from sea seems to have vanished. At 0243, planes were reported near Long Beach, and a few minutes later a coast artillery colonel spotted “about 25 planes at 12,000 feet” over Los Angeles. At 0306 a balloon carrying a red flare was seen over Santa Monica and four batteries of anti-aircraft artillery opened fire, whereupon “the air over Los Angeles erupted like a volcano.” From this point on reports were hopelessly at variance.
Probably much of the confusion came from the fact that anti-aircraft shell bursts, caught by the searchlights, were themselves mistaken for enemy planes. In any case, the next three hours produced some of the most imaginative reporting of the war: “swarms” of planes (or, sometimes, balloons) of all possible sizes, numbering from one to several hundred, traveling at altitudes which ranged from a few thousand feet to more than 20,000 and flying at speeds which were said to have varied from “very slow” to over 200 miles per hour, were observed to parade across the skies. These mysterious forces dropped no bombs and, despite the fact that 1,440 rounds of anti-aircraft ammunition were directed against them, suffered no losses. There were reports, to be sure, that four enemy planes had been shot down, and one was supposed to have landed in flames at a Hollywood intersection. Residents in a forty-mile arc along the coast watched from hills or rooftops as the play of guns and searchlights provided the first real drama of the war for citizens of the mainland. The dawn, which ended the shooting and the fantasy, also proved that the only damage which resulted to the city was such as had been caused by the excitement (there was at least one death from heart failure), by traffic accidents in the blacked-out streets, or by shell fragments from the artillery barrage. Attempts to arrive at an explanation of the incident quickly became as involved and mysterious as the “battle” itself. The Navy immediately insisted that there was no evidence of the presence of enemy planes, and [Secretary of the Navy], Frank Knox announced at a press conference on 25 February that the raid was just a false alarm. At the same conference he admitted that attacks were always possible and indicated that vital industries located along the coast ought to be moved inland. The Army had a hard time making up its mind on the cause of the alert. A report to Washington, made by the Western Defense Command shortly after the raid had ended, indicated that the credibility of reports of an attack had begun to be shaken before the blackout was lifted. This message predicted that developments would prove “that most previous reports had been greatly exaggerated.” The Fourth Air Force had indicated its belief that there were no planes over Los Angeles. But the Army did not publish these initial conclusions. Instead, it waited a day, until after a thorough examination of witnesses had been finished. On the basis of these hearings, local commanders altered their verdict and indicated a belief that from one to five unidentified airplanes had been over Los Angeles. Secretary Stimson announced this conclusion as the War Department version of the incident, and he advanced two theories to account for the mysterious craft: either they were commercial planes operated by an enemy from secret fields in California or Mexico, or they were light planes launched from Japanese submarines. In either case, the enemy’s purpose must have been to locate anti-aircraft defenses in the area or to deliver a blow at civilian morale.
The divergence of views between the War and Navy departments, and the unsatisfying conjectures advanced by the Army to explain the affair, touched off a vigorous public discussion. The Los Angeles Times, in a first-page editorial on 26 February, announced that “the considerable public excitement and confusion” caused by the alert, as well as its “spectacular official accompaniments,” demanded a careful explanation. Fears were expressed lest a few phony raids undermine the confidence of civilian volunteers in the aircraft warning service. In the United States Congress, Representative Leland Ford wanted to know whether the incident was “a practice raid, or a raid to throw a scare into 2,000,000 people, or a mistaken identity raid, or a raid to take away Southern California’s war industries.” Wendell Willkie, speaking in Los Angeles on 26 February, assured Californians on the basis of his experiences in England that when a real air raid began “you won’t have to argue about it—you’ll just know.” He conceded that military authorities had been correct in calling a precautionary alert but deplored the lack of agreement between the Army and Navy. A strong editorial in the Washington Post on 27 February called the handling of the Los Angeles episode a “recipe for jitters,” and censured the military authorities for what it called “stubborn silence” in the face of widespread uncertainty. The editorial suggested that the Army’s theory that commercial planes might have caused the alert “explains everything except where the planes came from, whither they were going, and why no American planes were sent in pursuit of them.” The New York Times on 28 February expressed a belief that the more the incident was studied, the more incredible it became: “If the batteries were firing on nothing at all, as Secretary Knox implies, it is a sign of expensive incompetence and jitters. If the batteries were firing on real planes, some of them as low as 9,000 feet, as Secretary Stimson declares, why were they completely ineffective? Why did no American planes go up to engage them, or even to identify them? …What would have happened if this had been a real air raid?” These questions were appropriate, but for the War Department to have answered them in full frankness would have involved an even more complete revelation of the weakness of our air defenses.
At the end of the war, the Japanese stated that they did not send planes over the area at the time of this alert, although submarine-launched aircraft were subsequently used over Seattle. A careful study of the evidence suggests that meteorological balloons—known to have been released over Los Angeles—may well have caused the initial alarm. This theory is supported by the fact that anti-aircraft artillery units were officially criticized for having wasted ammunition on targets which moved too slowly to have been airplanes. After the firing started, careful observation was difficult because of drifting smoke from shell bursts. The acting commander of the anti-aircraft artillery brigade in the area testified that he had first been convinced that he had seen fifteen planes in the air, but had quickly decided that he was seeing smoke. Competent correspondents like Ernie Pyle and Bill Henry witnessed the shooting and wrote that they were never able to make out an airplane. It is hard to see, in any event, what enemy purpose would have been served by an attack in which no bombs were dropped, unless perhaps, as Mr. Stimson suggested, the purpose had been reconnaissance.
A photo published in the Los Angeles Times on February 26, 1942, has been cited by some ufologists and conspiracy theorists as part of evidence of an extraterrestrial visitation. They assert that the photo clearly shows searchlights focused on an alien spaceship; however, the photo was heavily modified by photo retouching prior to publication, a routine practice in graphic arts of the time intended to improve contrast in black and white photos. Los Angeles Times writer Larry Harnisch noted that the retouched photo along with faked newspaper headlines were presented as true historical material in trailers for the film Battle: Los Angeles. Harnisch commented, “if the publicity campaign wanted to establish UFO research as nothing but lies and fakery, it couldn’t have done a better job.” | <urn:uuid:3857258a-2e27-4830-b8ac-ed1f6c0a7d54> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.creativespirits.net/battle-of-los-angeles/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.98141 | 3,127 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.6998288035392... | 7 | The Battle of Los Angeles, also known as The Great Los Angeles Air Raid, is the name given by contemporary sources to the rumored enemy attack by Japan and subsequent anti-aircraft artillery barrage which took place from late February 24 to early February 25, 1942, over Los Angeles, California. The incident occurred less than three months after the United States entered World War II in response to the Japanese Imperial Navy’s attack on Pearl Harbor, and one day after the bombardment of Ellwood on February 23. Initially, the target of the aerial barrage was thought to be an attacking force from Japan, but speaking at a press conference shortly afterward, Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox called the incident a “false alarm”. Newspapers of the time published a number of reports and speculations of a cover-up.
When documenting the incident in 1949, The United States Coast Artillery Association identified a meteorological balloon sent up at 1:00 a.m. that “started all the shooting” and concluded that “once the firing started, imagination created all kinds of targets in the sky and everyone joined in”. In 1983, the U.S. Office of Air Force History attributed the event to a case of “war nerves” triggered by a lost weather balloon and exacerbated by stray flares and shell bursts from adjoining batteries.
On February 24, 1942, naval intelligence issued a warning that an attack could be expected within the next ten hours. That evening, a large number of flares and blinking lights were reported from the vicinity of defense plants. An alert was called at 7:18 pm, and was lifted at 10:23 pm. Renewed activity began early in the morning of the 25th. Air raid sirens sounded at 2:25 am throughout Los Angeles County. A total blackout was ordered and thousands of Air Raid Wardens were summoned to their positions. At 3:16 am the 37th Coast Artillery Brigade began firing .50 caliber machine guns and 12.8-pound anti-aircraft shells into the air at reported aircraft; over 1,400 shells would eventually be fired. Pilots of the 4th Interceptor Command were alerted but their aircraft remained grounded. The artillery fire continued sporadically until 4:14 am. The “all clear” was sounded and the blackout order lifted at 7:21 am.
Several buildings and vehicles were damaged by shell fragments, and five civilians died as an indirect result of the anti-aircraft fire: three killed in car accidents in the ensuing chaos and two of heart attacks attributed to the stress of the hour-long action. The incident was front-page news along the U.S. Pacific coast and across the nation.
Within hours of the end of the air raid, Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox held a press conference, saying the entire incident was a false alarm due to anxiety and “war nerves.” Knox’s comments were followed by statements from the Army the next day that reflected General George C. Marshall’s supposition that the incident might have been caused by enemy agents using commercial airplanes in a psychological warfare campaign to generate panic.
Some contemporary press outlets suspected a cover-up. An editorial in the Long Beach Independent wrote, “There is a mysterious reticence about the whole affair and it appears that some form of censorship is trying to halt discussion on the matter.” Speculation was rampant as to invading airplanes and their bases. Theories included a secret base in northern Mexico as well as Japanese submarines stationed offshore with the capability of carrying planes. Others speculated that the incident was either staged or exaggerated to give coastal defense industries an excuse to move further inland.
Representative Leland Ford of Santa Monica called for a Congressional investigation, saying, “…none of the explanations so far offered removed the episode from the category of ‘complete mystification’ …this was either a practice raid, or a raid to throw a scare into 2,000,000 people, or a mistaken identity raid, or a raid to lay a political foundation to take away Southern California’s war industries.”
The Japanese government, after the war ended, declared that they had flown no airplanes over Los Angeles during the war.
In 1983, the U.S. Office of Air Force History concluded that an analysis of the evidence points to meteorological balloons as the cause of the initial alarm:
During the course of a fireside report to the nation delivered by President Roosevelt on 23 February 1942, a Japanese submarine rose out of the sea off Ellwood, a hamlet on the California coast north of Santa Barbara, and pumped thirteen shells into tidewater refinery installations. The shots seemed designed to punctuate the President’s statement that “the broad oceans which have been heralded in the past as our protection from attack have become endless battlefields on which we are constantly being challenged by our enemies.” Yet the attack which was supposed to carry the enemy’s defiance, and which did succeed in stealing headlines from the President’s address, was a feeble gesture rather than a damaging blow. The raider surfaced at 1905 (Pacific time), just five minutes after the President started his speech. For about twenty minutes the submarine kept a position 2,500 yards offshore to deliver the shots from its 5½-inch guns. The shells did minor damage to piers and oil wells, but missed the gasoline plant, which appears to have been the aiming point; the military effects of the raid were therefore nil. The first news of the attack led to the dispatch of pursuit planes to the area, and subsequently three bombers joined the attempt to destroy the raider, but without success. The reluctance of AAF commanders to assign larger forces to the task resulted from their belief that such a raid as this would be employed by the enemy to divert attention from a major air task force which would hurl its planes against a really significant target. Loyal Japanese-Americans who had predicted that a demonstration would be made in connection with the President’s speech also prophesied that Los Angeles would be attacked the next night. The Army, too, was convinced that some new action impended, and took all possible precautions. Newspapers were permitted to announce that a strict state of readiness against renewed attacks had been imposed, and there followed the confused action known as “The Battle of Los Angeles.”
During the night of 24/25 February 1942, unidentified objects caused a succession of alerts in southern California. On the 24th, a warning issued by naval intelligence indicated that an attack could be expected within the next ten hours. That evening a large number of flares and blinking lights were reported from the vicinity of defense plants. An alert called at 1918 [7:18 pm, Pacific time] was lifted at 2223, and the tension temporarily relaxed. But early in the morning of the 25th renewed activity began. Radars picked up an unidentified target 120 miles west of Los Angeles. Antiaircraft batteries were alerted at 0215 and were put on Green Alert—ready to fire—a few minutes later. The AAF kept its pursuit planes on the ground, preferring to await indications of the scale and direction of any attack before committing its limited fighter force. Radars tracked the approaching target to within a few miles of the coast, and at 0221 the regional controller ordered a blackout. Thereafter the information center was flooded with reports of “enemy planes, ” even though the mysterious object tracked in from sea seems to have vanished. At 0243, planes were reported near Long Beach, and a few minutes later a coast artillery colonel spotted “about 25 planes at 12,000 feet” over Los Angeles. At 0306 a balloon carrying a red flare was seen over Santa Monica and four batteries of anti-aircraft artillery opened fire, whereupon “the air over Los Angeles erupted like a volcano.” From this point on reports were hopelessly at variance.
Probably much of the confusion came from the fact that anti-aircraft shell bursts, caught by the searchlights, were themselves mistaken for enemy planes. In any case, the next three hours produced some of the most imaginative reporting of the war: “swarms” of planes (or, sometimes, balloons) of all possible sizes, numbering from one to several hundred, traveling at altitudes which ranged from a few thousand feet to more than 20,000 and flying at speeds which were said to have varied from “very slow” to over 200 miles per hour, were observed to parade across the skies. These mysterious forces dropped no bombs and, despite the fact that 1,440 rounds of anti-aircraft ammunition were directed against them, suffered no losses. There were reports, to be sure, that four enemy planes had been shot down, and one was supposed to have landed in flames at a Hollywood intersection. Residents in a forty-mile arc along the coast watched from hills or rooftops as the play of guns and searchlights provided the first real drama of the war for citizens of the mainland. The dawn, which ended the shooting and the fantasy, also proved that the only damage which resulted to the city was such as had been caused by the excitement (there was at least one death from heart failure), by traffic accidents in the blacked-out streets, or by shell fragments from the artillery barrage. Attempts to arrive at an explanation of the incident quickly became as involved and mysterious as the “battle” itself. The Navy immediately insisted that there was no evidence of the presence of enemy planes, and [Secretary of the Navy], Frank Knox announced at a press conference on 25 February that the raid was just a false alarm. At the same conference he admitted that attacks were always possible and indicated that vital industries located along the coast ought to be moved inland. The Army had a hard time making up its mind on the cause of the alert. A report to Washington, made by the Western Defense Command shortly after the raid had ended, indicated that the credibility of reports of an attack had begun to be shaken before the blackout was lifted. This message predicted that developments would prove “that most previous reports had been greatly exaggerated.” The Fourth Air Force had indicated its belief that there were no planes over Los Angeles. But the Army did not publish these initial conclusions. Instead, it waited a day, until after a thorough examination of witnesses had been finished. On the basis of these hearings, local commanders altered their verdict and indicated a belief that from one to five unidentified airplanes had been over Los Angeles. Secretary Stimson announced this conclusion as the War Department version of the incident, and he advanced two theories to account for the mysterious craft: either they were commercial planes operated by an enemy from secret fields in California or Mexico, or they were light planes launched from Japanese submarines. In either case, the enemy’s purpose must have been to locate anti-aircraft defenses in the area or to deliver a blow at civilian morale.
The divergence of views between the War and Navy departments, and the unsatisfying conjectures advanced by the Army to explain the affair, touched off a vigorous public discussion. The Los Angeles Times, in a first-page editorial on 26 February, announced that “the considerable public excitement and confusion” caused by the alert, as well as its “spectacular official accompaniments,” demanded a careful explanation. Fears were expressed lest a few phony raids undermine the confidence of civilian volunteers in the aircraft warning service. In the United States Congress, Representative Leland Ford wanted to know whether the incident was “a practice raid, or a raid to throw a scare into 2,000,000 people, or a mistaken identity raid, or a raid to take away Southern California’s war industries.” Wendell Willkie, speaking in Los Angeles on 26 February, assured Californians on the basis of his experiences in England that when a real air raid began “you won’t have to argue about it—you’ll just know.” He conceded that military authorities had been correct in calling a precautionary alert but deplored the lack of agreement between the Army and Navy. A strong editorial in the Washington Post on 27 February called the handling of the Los Angeles episode a “recipe for jitters,” and censured the military authorities for what it called “stubborn silence” in the face of widespread uncertainty. The editorial suggested that the Army’s theory that commercial planes might have caused the alert “explains everything except where the planes came from, whither they were going, and why no American planes were sent in pursuit of them.” The New York Times on 28 February expressed a belief that the more the incident was studied, the more incredible it became: “If the batteries were firing on nothing at all, as Secretary Knox implies, it is a sign of expensive incompetence and jitters. If the batteries were firing on real planes, some of them as low as 9,000 feet, as Secretary Stimson declares, why were they completely ineffective? Why did no American planes go up to engage them, or even to identify them? …What would have happened if this had been a real air raid?” These questions were appropriate, but for the War Department to have answered them in full frankness would have involved an even more complete revelation of the weakness of our air defenses.
At the end of the war, the Japanese stated that they did not send planes over the area at the time of this alert, although submarine-launched aircraft were subsequently used over Seattle. A careful study of the evidence suggests that meteorological balloons—known to have been released over Los Angeles—may well have caused the initial alarm. This theory is supported by the fact that anti-aircraft artillery units were officially criticized for having wasted ammunition on targets which moved too slowly to have been airplanes. After the firing started, careful observation was difficult because of drifting smoke from shell bursts. The acting commander of the anti-aircraft artillery brigade in the area testified that he had first been convinced that he had seen fifteen planes in the air, but had quickly decided that he was seeing smoke. Competent correspondents like Ernie Pyle and Bill Henry witnessed the shooting and wrote that they were never able to make out an airplane. It is hard to see, in any event, what enemy purpose would have been served by an attack in which no bombs were dropped, unless perhaps, as Mr. Stimson suggested, the purpose had been reconnaissance.
A photo published in the Los Angeles Times on February 26, 1942, has been cited by some ufologists and conspiracy theorists as part of evidence of an extraterrestrial visitation. They assert that the photo clearly shows searchlights focused on an alien spaceship; however, the photo was heavily modified by photo retouching prior to publication, a routine practice in graphic arts of the time intended to improve contrast in black and white photos. Los Angeles Times writer Larry Harnisch noted that the retouched photo along with faked newspaper headlines were presented as true historical material in trailers for the film Battle: Los Angeles. Harnisch commented, “if the publicity campaign wanted to establish UFO research as nothing but lies and fakery, it couldn’t have done a better job.” | 3,147 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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