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Who was John Locke?
Locke’s mother and father were both Puritans; his mother ran the household while his father worked as a lawyer. Because he was a man, Locke was able to go to college at Oxford, though he didn’t like it much. He studied medicine and became a respected doctor. Though he had a romantic partner, the philosopher Damaris Masham, Locke never got married or had any kids.
Limits on the monarchy?
Locke became the doctor for a powerful rich politician, and so he got involved with English politics. In the late 1600s, the most important political question in England was how to keep having kings and queens, but set limits on their power. Like Hobbes, Locke thought people needed “social contracts” and governments to stop wars.
Do people have natural rights?
But Locke didn’t believe in absolute rulers. He thought people had natural rights that the government shouldn’t take away from them. Having lived through the Thirty Years’ War, in which millions of people in Europe died for their religion, Locke followed Roger Williams and Milton in arguing that people had a right to worship God however they pleased.
Should people overthrow governments?
Locke also thought people had a right to life, and to be free, to be healthy, and to keep their own property (as long as it wasn’t too much or too unequal). And Locke wrote that if the government interfered with these natural rights, people had a right – even a duty – to revolt and overthrow that government.
Locke, slavery, and sexism
Even though Locke was all about freedom for English men, he didn’t see any problem with forcing African men to work as slaves in the tobacco fields of the Carolinas. He didn’t care that the money that supported his work as a philosopher came from their hard work. Even though Locke worked with Masham, he didn’t think the question of where women fit into society was important enough to worry about, either. | <urn:uuid:55b6f2ef-3840-4fff-b91f-d477c8eac695> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://quatr.us/modern-europe/john-locke-european-philosophy.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.990615 | 421 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.09691108763... | 11 | Who was John Locke?
Locke’s mother and father were both Puritans; his mother ran the household while his father worked as a lawyer. Because he was a man, Locke was able to go to college at Oxford, though he didn’t like it much. He studied medicine and became a respected doctor. Though he had a romantic partner, the philosopher Damaris Masham, Locke never got married or had any kids.
Limits on the monarchy?
Locke became the doctor for a powerful rich politician, and so he got involved with English politics. In the late 1600s, the most important political question in England was how to keep having kings and queens, but set limits on their power. Like Hobbes, Locke thought people needed “social contracts” and governments to stop wars.
Do people have natural rights?
But Locke didn’t believe in absolute rulers. He thought people had natural rights that the government shouldn’t take away from them. Having lived through the Thirty Years’ War, in which millions of people in Europe died for their religion, Locke followed Roger Williams and Milton in arguing that people had a right to worship God however they pleased.
Should people overthrow governments?
Locke also thought people had a right to life, and to be free, to be healthy, and to keep their own property (as long as it wasn’t too much or too unequal). And Locke wrote that if the government interfered with these natural rights, people had a right – even a duty – to revolt and overthrow that government.
Locke, slavery, and sexism
Even though Locke was all about freedom for English men, he didn’t see any problem with forcing African men to work as slaves in the tobacco fields of the Carolinas. He didn’t care that the money that supported his work as a philosopher came from their hard work. Even though Locke worked with Masham, he didn’t think the question of where women fit into society was important enough to worry about, either. | 400 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Himachal day is celebrated to commemorate the origin of the state of Himachal Pradesh which came into being after independence when 30 princely states of that time were combined into one state. The day is celebrated on the 15th of April every year. History has it that in the year 1948, on this day, Himachal Pradesh was declared as a union territory of India. However, after a few years on 25th January 1971, Himachal Pradesh emerged as the 18th state of the country. It is for this reason that while 15th of April is celebrated as the Himachal day, the 25th of January is celebrated within the state as the Himachal Pradesh Statehood day.
The day is celebrated in different parts of the state and students as well as the various ministers take part in thedifferent type of ceremonies that are held in order to celebrate the formation of this state. Parades are held by the students of various schools and colleges on this day.This Indian state has come a long way ever since it was formed.The ministers who attend the functions conducted on this day celebrate by pointing out some of the commendable achievements that the state has seen in the years since it was formed. For example, the capital income of Himachal Pradesh in the year 1948 was around 240 crores rupees which rose to 1,47,277 crores rupees in the recent times. Some other facts and figures related to the state also vouch for its tremendous achievements. Not only the state is growing at an unprecedented rate but has soon emerged as an important leader of the hill areas present in the country. Testimony to the above statement is the fact that every house located in Himachal Pradesh has electricity and adequate water facility. Not only that, you can find at least one government school within a distance of every three kilometers of the state. These are some of the various achievements that Himachal Pradesh is proud of! | <urn:uuid:9e95adbd-3182-4eba-ab47-e4ec72b04230> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.india2019-20.in/himachal-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.98605 | 394 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1854289770126... | 2 | Himachal day is celebrated to commemorate the origin of the state of Himachal Pradesh which came into being after independence when 30 princely states of that time were combined into one state. The day is celebrated on the 15th of April every year. History has it that in the year 1948, on this day, Himachal Pradesh was declared as a union territory of India. However, after a few years on 25th January 1971, Himachal Pradesh emerged as the 18th state of the country. It is for this reason that while 15th of April is celebrated as the Himachal day, the 25th of January is celebrated within the state as the Himachal Pradesh Statehood day.
The day is celebrated in different parts of the state and students as well as the various ministers take part in thedifferent type of ceremonies that are held in order to celebrate the formation of this state. Parades are held by the students of various schools and colleges on this day.This Indian state has come a long way ever since it was formed.The ministers who attend the functions conducted on this day celebrate by pointing out some of the commendable achievements that the state has seen in the years since it was formed. For example, the capital income of Himachal Pradesh in the year 1948 was around 240 crores rupees which rose to 1,47,277 crores rupees in the recent times. Some other facts and figures related to the state also vouch for its tremendous achievements. Not only the state is growing at an unprecedented rate but has soon emerged as an important leader of the hill areas present in the country. Testimony to the above statement is the fact that every house located in Himachal Pradesh has electricity and adequate water facility. Not only that, you can find at least one government school within a distance of every three kilometers of the state. These are some of the various achievements that Himachal Pradesh is proud of! | 422 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On February 19th 1945, Operation Detachment, the US Marines’ invasion of Iwo Jima, was launched. Iwo Jima was a barren Pacific island guarded by Japanese artillery, but to American military minds, it was prime real estate on which to build airfields to launch bombing raids against Japan, only 660 miles away.
The Americans began applying pressure to the Japanese defence of the island in February 1944, when B-24 and B-25 bombers raided the island for 74 days. It was the longest pre-invasion bombardment of the war, necessary because of the extent to which the Japanese, 21,000 strong, fortified the island, above and below ground, including a network of caves. Underwater demolition teams (“frogmen”) were dispatched by the Americans just before the actual invasion. When the Japanese fired on the frogmen, they gave away many of their “secret” gun positions.
The amphibious landings of Marines began the morning of February 19 as the secretary of the navy, James Forrestal, accompanied by journalists, surveyed the scene from a command ship offshore. As the Marines made their way onto the island, seven Japanese battalions opened fire on them. By evening, more than 550 Marines were dead and more than 1,800 were wounded. The capture of Mount Suribachi, the highest point of the island and bastion of the Japanese defence, took four more days and many more casualties. When the American flag was finally raised on Iwo Jima, the memorable image was captured in a famous photograph that later won the Pulitzer Prize. | <urn:uuid:19c58f9f-81bf-4e93-ba2d-eff8a9c57778> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://craighill.net/2012/02/19/february-19-1945-us-marines-invade-iwo-jima/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.982056 | 325 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.574782073497772... | 2 | On February 19th 1945, Operation Detachment, the US Marines’ invasion of Iwo Jima, was launched. Iwo Jima was a barren Pacific island guarded by Japanese artillery, but to American military minds, it was prime real estate on which to build airfields to launch bombing raids against Japan, only 660 miles away.
The Americans began applying pressure to the Japanese defence of the island in February 1944, when B-24 and B-25 bombers raided the island for 74 days. It was the longest pre-invasion bombardment of the war, necessary because of the extent to which the Japanese, 21,000 strong, fortified the island, above and below ground, including a network of caves. Underwater demolition teams (“frogmen”) were dispatched by the Americans just before the actual invasion. When the Japanese fired on the frogmen, they gave away many of their “secret” gun positions.
The amphibious landings of Marines began the morning of February 19 as the secretary of the navy, James Forrestal, accompanied by journalists, surveyed the scene from a command ship offshore. As the Marines made their way onto the island, seven Japanese battalions opened fire on them. By evening, more than 550 Marines were dead and more than 1,800 were wounded. The capture of Mount Suribachi, the highest point of the island and bastion of the Japanese defence, took four more days and many more casualties. When the American flag was finally raised on Iwo Jima, the memorable image was captured in a famous photograph that later won the Pulitzer Prize. | 346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
- Introduction & Quick Facts
- Government and society
- Cultural life
- Emergence of modern Ethiopia (1855–1916)
- The rise and reign of Haile Selassie I (1916–74)
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia since 1995
In 1994 the EPRDF adopted Ethiopia’s third constitution in 40 years; it was promulgated in 1995, creating the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. This constitution enshrined the principles of regionalism and ethnic autonomy, devolving power to regional states, several of them coalitions of smaller ethnic groups. It also enshrined, for the first time as a constitutional principle, national ownership of land. The country’s first multiparty elections were also held in 1995, but they were boycotted by most opposition groups in protest against the harassment, arrests, and other actions instigated by the EPRDF-led government. As a result, the multiethnic EPRDF easily retained control of the federal government and most of the regional states. Negasso Gidada, a Christian Oromo who had served as minister of information in the transitional government, became president, and Meles became prime minister. The ethnic balance of the country was reflected in the careful selection of members for the Council of Ministers.
The economic-reform efforts that had begun in 1991 were somewhat successful, as the economy showed improvement in the mid-1990s. However, some aspects of reform, such as privatization of state-owned enterprises, progressed slowly, and the government’s cautious approach to economic liberalization remained an obstacle for foreign investment, as did the issue of nationalized property, which continued to be a source of consternation.
In 1998 simmering border tensions between Eritrea and Ethiopia erupted into war. At the heart of the dispute was some 250 square miles (640 square km) of land near Badme, but the conflict quickly spread to two other areas, Zela Ambesa and the important Eritrean port city of Assab. A cease-fire signed in June 2000 provided for a UN mission (United Nations Mission in Eritrea and Ethiopia; UNMEE) to monitor the cease-fire and deploy troops in a buffer zone between the two countries while the border was being demarcated. A peace agreement signed in Algeria in December ended the conflict, although relations between Ethiopia and Eritrea remained tense, and UNMEE troops stayed to monitor the truce and supervise the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops from Eritrean territory. The Ethiopian government was not pleased with the border demarcation proposed in 2002, as the town of Badme was awarded to Eritrea, and Meles protested this decision. Discussions continued during the next few years. UNMEE troops remained until July 2008 but ultimately left with the issue of demarcation still unsettled.
Meanwhile, the EPRDF remained in power into the 2000s, although it was weakened by internal dissent in 2001 when the EPRDF’s TPLF faction split over the government’s anticorruption policies and Meles’s embrace of more-liberal economic policies. The TPLF members who opposed Meles were purged from the party and held under house arrest. President Negasso sided with the TPLF splinter group, and, as a result, he was ousted from the leadership of his own party, the Oromo People’s Democratic Organization (OPDO). He did, however, keep his position as federal president until his term was up in September 2001. He was succeeded by Girma Wolde-Giorgis, who, like Negasso, was an Oromo, although he was not affiliated with the OPDO. Against the backdrop of political infighting, drought and famine continued to periodically plague the country, particularly in 2003, when the crisis was exacerbated by widespread incidence of waterborne illnesses and a malaria epidemic.
A strong performance by opposition parties in the May 2005 elections greatly increased the number of seats they held in the legislature. The EPRDF remained in power but with less of a majority and amid questionable circumstances. Although the elections were initially found to have been generally credible, there were reports of voter intimidation and other problems, and allegations of irregularities from more than half the country’s electoral constituencies delayed the announcement of the results for eight weeks. Accusations of fraud, as well as the final outcome of the elections, led to considerable protests and demonstrations in Addis Ababa; ensuing clashes between protesters and security forces left more than three dozen people dead, hundreds injured, and 3,000 arrested. This was followed in November by additional rioting, which left dozens more dead. Some of the victorious opposition candidates refused to take their legislative seats, in protest against the questionable circumstances surrounding the elections and aftermath; some were arrested for “violent activities aimed at subverting the constitutional order.” Tensions continued into the next year, with thousands of Ethiopians—including activists, journalists, and other legislators—being detained across the country. Many detainees were released periodically throughout 2006, often without having had any charges filed against them. In May 2006 the EPRDF reached an agreement with the two primary opposition political parties, which then took their seats in the legislature.
More than a decade after his ouster, former Derg ruler Mengistu and his legacy still weighed heavily in the Ethiopian consciousness. To the dismay of many, Mengistu continued to live in exile in Zimbabwe, despite the Ethiopian government’s repeated attempts beginning in the 1990s to lobby for his extradition. Nevertheless, he was tried, in absentia, on charges of genocide for his role in the Red Terror campaign. In December 2006 he was found guilty, and the next year he was given a life sentence. Following a successful appeal from the prosecution, he was sentenced to death in May 2008.
Also in 2006, Ethiopia sent troops to neighbouring Somalia to defend that country’s beleaguered transitional government against rebel forces, and in December Ethiopia began a coordinated air and ground war there. Ethiopian troops had withdrawn from the country by January 2009, although they remained close to the Ethiopian-Somali border in case future intervention was deemed necessary. The intervention in the Somali crisis heightened the existing tensions with Eritrea, which supported Somalia’s rebels.
General elections were held in Ethiopia in May 2010. With the memories of the protests, violence, and deaths that followed the 2005 general elections still fresh in the minds of many Ethiopians, the political climate prior to the 2010 elections was somewhat subdued, although not free of controversy. Opposition groups complained that they were not given as much media coverage as the ruling EPRDF and that the government was harassing some opposition leaders. Those claims were supported by some international observers, who noted that not all political groups participating in the elections were afforded the same campaigning opportunities. Some international observers also noted evidence of voter intimidation and violence, although it was not considered to be enough of a factor to affect the final outcome of the elections, which were held on May 23. The EPRDF was overwhelmingly victorious in securing the majority of legislative seats, allowing Meles to remain prime minister. International observers deemed the electoral process to be organized and largely peaceful overall, yet some also noted that it did not quite meet international standards.
Meles’s health became the target of speculation in mid-2012, after he was conspicuously absent from the public eye. After weeks of such speculation, the government issued a comment in July, noting that Meles was doing well as he recuperated from an illness, which was not disclosed. Meles died on August 20, 2012, while he was abroad for medical treatment. He was succeeded by the deputy prime minister and minister of foreign affairs, Hailemariam Desalegn.
The next year saw the regularly scheduled end of Girma’s second presidential term. On October 7, 2013, the parliament elected veteran diplomat Mulatu Teshome Wirtu to succeed him. Prior to his election as president, Mulatu had served as ambassador to Turkey since 2006. He also had held other ambassadorships and ministerial posts as well.
Although Ethiopia had seen considerable economic growth under EPRDF rule—the country’s economy was among the fastest growing in the world—that was contrasted by a worsening human rights record. In 2009 a harsh antiterrorism law had been passed, which in the following years was one of the tools used by the EPRDF-led government to suppress dissent. Numerous journalists and opposition activists were arrested, many of whom were charged with having violated that law; many others fled the country. In 2011 the government declared that two armed opposition groups as well as an opposition movement, Ginbot 7, were terrorist organizations and banned them, which led to a slew of arrests and antiterrorism charges against those accused of having interviewed or otherwise interacted with members of the proscribed groups. Prominent among those charged under the antiterrorism law was journalist Eskinder Nega, who was arrested in 2011 and later sentenced to 18 years in prison.
As the May 2015 general elections approached, opposition groups complained of harassment by the government. The government was also criticized for stifling the independent media and preventing any meaningful political discourse prior to the election. The ruling EPRDF and its affiliates won every legislative seat in the May 24 election, and on October 5 Hailemariam was unanimously reelected prime minister by the lower legislative house.
Meanwhile, a highly controversial plan by the government to expand Addis Ababa by linking it with areas in the neighbouring Oromia region generated months of protest by the Oromo people in 2015; the plan was abandoned in January 2016. More protests occurred in 2016—primarily in the Oromia and Amhara regions and, to a lesser extent, in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ region—fueled by issues such as the government’s questionable detentions of activists and journalists, feelings of political marginalization, and general discontent with the government. Security forces often responded harshly to protests and demonstrations, killing and wounding some of the protesters and arbitrarily arresting thousands more, which elicited condemnation from human rights groups. The government declared a state of emergency in October 2016; it was finally rescinded in August 2017.
In early 2018 the government surprised many by releasing thousands of prisoners, including Eskinder as well as other well-known individuals who had been detained for speaking out against the current administration. The government also announced that it was closing a notorious detention centre. The moves were intended to ease tensions and allow for political dialogue between the government and the opposition. Those events were followed by the equally surprising resignation of Hailemariam, which he announced on February 15, 2018; he agreed to stay on until a new prime minister could be appointed. Hailemariam stated that he hoped his resignation would help usher in political reform. The next day the government declared another state of emergency; it was expected to last six months and was intended to limit the ongoing unrest. On March 25 Eskinder and several other journalists and activists who had been recently released from prison were rearrested, allegedly for holding a gathering in violation of the declared state of emergency and having an older, prohibited version of the country’s flag.
The ruling EPRDF selected a successor to Hailemariam in late March. Abiy Ahmed, of the Oromo ethnic group, was first elected as chair of the ruling coalition on March 27, and he was then elected as prime minister by the lower legislative house on April 2 and was sworn in on the same day. Abiy was the first Oromo to hold the position of prime minister, and it was hoped that his ascent to the post would help calm the ongoing tensions between that group and the government. In his inaugural address, Abiy promised to improve conditions in the country, including strengthening the democratic process, fighting corruption, and growing the economy. He also vowed to work toward resolving the long-standing conflict with Eritrea.
In the months after his inauguration, Abiy quickly made efforts to fulfill his vows. Domestically, thousands more political prisoners were pardoned and released, including Eskinder and prominent opposition leader Andargachew Tsige. The government lifted its latest state of emergency ahead of schedule, on June 5. The government also removed Ginbot 7, the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF), and the OLF from its list of organizations deemed to be terrorist groups. In August the ONLF declared a cease-fire, and in October the government and the group signed a peace agreement that was intended to end the hostilities that had plagued the Ogaden region for more than 30 years. On the economic front, Abiy announced that the government would allow for some degree of privatization of some state-owned industries, such as the national airlines and the country’s telecommunications provider, in an effort to encourage domestic and foreign investment and to spur economic growth. The new developments as well as the pace at which they were unveiled surprised Ethiopians and the international community alike.
Perhaps nothing was as astonishing as the efforts of Abiy and the EPRDF-led government to achieve peace with Eritrea and the swiftness with which they moved. On June 5 Abiy announced that Ethiopia would finally honour the terms of the 2000 peace agreement that was meant to end its war with Eritrea; those terms included accepting and implementing the controversial 2002 ruling that demarcated the border between the two countries. That announcement led to a flurry of diplomatic overtures, and in early July Abiy and Eritrean Pres. Isaias Afwerki met in Eritrea. The two agreed to reopen their borders and reestablish ties between the two countries in the areas of diplomacy, trade, communications, and transportation. Most stunning was the joint statement from Abiy and Isaias on July 9 announcing that the state of war that had existed between their two countries for 20 years had come to an end.
In October 2018 Abiy formed a new cabinet, notable not only for its smaller size—Abiy cut the number of posts in the cabinet from 28 to 20—but, more strikingly, because Abiy appointed women to half of the positions, providing the country with its first gender-balanced cabinet. Later that month President Mulatu resigned before the end of his six-year term, paving the way for a new president to be selected by lawmakers. On October 25 the parliament elected Sahle-Work Zewde to succeed him; she was sworn in the same day, becoming the first woman to serve as president of Ethiopia. Sahle-Work was an accomplished diplomat who had served as an ambassador for Ethiopia and had held several positions with the United Nations.
In October 2019 Abiy was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace. The Nobel Committee highlighted his actions in resolving Ethiopia’s long-running border dispute with Eritrea as an example of his efforts to attain peace.
In November 2019 the Sidamo people held a referendum to determine if there was enough support to create a new ethnic-based regional state for themselves, an option provided to all ethnic groups under the country’s constitution. The referendum passed, with more than 98 percent of Sidamo voters supporting the measure.Donald Edward Crummey The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
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-0.062388211488723... | 1 | Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
- Introduction & Quick Facts
- Government and society
- Cultural life
- Emergence of modern Ethiopia (1855–1916)
- The rise and reign of Haile Selassie I (1916–74)
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia since 1995
In 1994 the EPRDF adopted Ethiopia’s third constitution in 40 years; it was promulgated in 1995, creating the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. This constitution enshrined the principles of regionalism and ethnic autonomy, devolving power to regional states, several of them coalitions of smaller ethnic groups. It also enshrined, for the first time as a constitutional principle, national ownership of land. The country’s first multiparty elections were also held in 1995, but they were boycotted by most opposition groups in protest against the harassment, arrests, and other actions instigated by the EPRDF-led government. As a result, the multiethnic EPRDF easily retained control of the federal government and most of the regional states. Negasso Gidada, a Christian Oromo who had served as minister of information in the transitional government, became president, and Meles became prime minister. The ethnic balance of the country was reflected in the careful selection of members for the Council of Ministers.
The economic-reform efforts that had begun in 1991 were somewhat successful, as the economy showed improvement in the mid-1990s. However, some aspects of reform, such as privatization of state-owned enterprises, progressed slowly, and the government’s cautious approach to economic liberalization remained an obstacle for foreign investment, as did the issue of nationalized property, which continued to be a source of consternation.
In 1998 simmering border tensions between Eritrea and Ethiopia erupted into war. At the heart of the dispute was some 250 square miles (640 square km) of land near Badme, but the conflict quickly spread to two other areas, Zela Ambesa and the important Eritrean port city of Assab. A cease-fire signed in June 2000 provided for a UN mission (United Nations Mission in Eritrea and Ethiopia; UNMEE) to monitor the cease-fire and deploy troops in a buffer zone between the two countries while the border was being demarcated. A peace agreement signed in Algeria in December ended the conflict, although relations between Ethiopia and Eritrea remained tense, and UNMEE troops stayed to monitor the truce and supervise the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops from Eritrean territory. The Ethiopian government was not pleased with the border demarcation proposed in 2002, as the town of Badme was awarded to Eritrea, and Meles protested this decision. Discussions continued during the next few years. UNMEE troops remained until July 2008 but ultimately left with the issue of demarcation still unsettled.
Meanwhile, the EPRDF remained in power into the 2000s, although it was weakened by internal dissent in 2001 when the EPRDF’s TPLF faction split over the government’s anticorruption policies and Meles’s embrace of more-liberal economic policies. The TPLF members who opposed Meles were purged from the party and held under house arrest. President Negasso sided with the TPLF splinter group, and, as a result, he was ousted from the leadership of his own party, the Oromo People’s Democratic Organization (OPDO). He did, however, keep his position as federal president until his term was up in September 2001. He was succeeded by Girma Wolde-Giorgis, who, like Negasso, was an Oromo, although he was not affiliated with the OPDO. Against the backdrop of political infighting, drought and famine continued to periodically plague the country, particularly in 2003, when the crisis was exacerbated by widespread incidence of waterborne illnesses and a malaria epidemic.
A strong performance by opposition parties in the May 2005 elections greatly increased the number of seats they held in the legislature. The EPRDF remained in power but with less of a majority and amid questionable circumstances. Although the elections were initially found to have been generally credible, there were reports of voter intimidation and other problems, and allegations of irregularities from more than half the country’s electoral constituencies delayed the announcement of the results for eight weeks. Accusations of fraud, as well as the final outcome of the elections, led to considerable protests and demonstrations in Addis Ababa; ensuing clashes between protesters and security forces left more than three dozen people dead, hundreds injured, and 3,000 arrested. This was followed in November by additional rioting, which left dozens more dead. Some of the victorious opposition candidates refused to take their legislative seats, in protest against the questionable circumstances surrounding the elections and aftermath; some were arrested for “violent activities aimed at subverting the constitutional order.” Tensions continued into the next year, with thousands of Ethiopians—including activists, journalists, and other legislators—being detained across the country. Many detainees were released periodically throughout 2006, often without having had any charges filed against them. In May 2006 the EPRDF reached an agreement with the two primary opposition political parties, which then took their seats in the legislature.
More than a decade after his ouster, former Derg ruler Mengistu and his legacy still weighed heavily in the Ethiopian consciousness. To the dismay of many, Mengistu continued to live in exile in Zimbabwe, despite the Ethiopian government’s repeated attempts beginning in the 1990s to lobby for his extradition. Nevertheless, he was tried, in absentia, on charges of genocide for his role in the Red Terror campaign. In December 2006 he was found guilty, and the next year he was given a life sentence. Following a successful appeal from the prosecution, he was sentenced to death in May 2008.
Also in 2006, Ethiopia sent troops to neighbouring Somalia to defend that country’s beleaguered transitional government against rebel forces, and in December Ethiopia began a coordinated air and ground war there. Ethiopian troops had withdrawn from the country by January 2009, although they remained close to the Ethiopian-Somali border in case future intervention was deemed necessary. The intervention in the Somali crisis heightened the existing tensions with Eritrea, which supported Somalia’s rebels.
General elections were held in Ethiopia in May 2010. With the memories of the protests, violence, and deaths that followed the 2005 general elections still fresh in the minds of many Ethiopians, the political climate prior to the 2010 elections was somewhat subdued, although not free of controversy. Opposition groups complained that they were not given as much media coverage as the ruling EPRDF and that the government was harassing some opposition leaders. Those claims were supported by some international observers, who noted that not all political groups participating in the elections were afforded the same campaigning opportunities. Some international observers also noted evidence of voter intimidation and violence, although it was not considered to be enough of a factor to affect the final outcome of the elections, which were held on May 23. The EPRDF was overwhelmingly victorious in securing the majority of legislative seats, allowing Meles to remain prime minister. International observers deemed the electoral process to be organized and largely peaceful overall, yet some also noted that it did not quite meet international standards.
Meles’s health became the target of speculation in mid-2012, after he was conspicuously absent from the public eye. After weeks of such speculation, the government issued a comment in July, noting that Meles was doing well as he recuperated from an illness, which was not disclosed. Meles died on August 20, 2012, while he was abroad for medical treatment. He was succeeded by the deputy prime minister and minister of foreign affairs, Hailemariam Desalegn.
The next year saw the regularly scheduled end of Girma’s second presidential term. On October 7, 2013, the parliament elected veteran diplomat Mulatu Teshome Wirtu to succeed him. Prior to his election as president, Mulatu had served as ambassador to Turkey since 2006. He also had held other ambassadorships and ministerial posts as well.
Although Ethiopia had seen considerable economic growth under EPRDF rule—the country’s economy was among the fastest growing in the world—that was contrasted by a worsening human rights record. In 2009 a harsh antiterrorism law had been passed, which in the following years was one of the tools used by the EPRDF-led government to suppress dissent. Numerous journalists and opposition activists were arrested, many of whom were charged with having violated that law; many others fled the country. In 2011 the government declared that two armed opposition groups as well as an opposition movement, Ginbot 7, were terrorist organizations and banned them, which led to a slew of arrests and antiterrorism charges against those accused of having interviewed or otherwise interacted with members of the proscribed groups. Prominent among those charged under the antiterrorism law was journalist Eskinder Nega, who was arrested in 2011 and later sentenced to 18 years in prison.
As the May 2015 general elections approached, opposition groups complained of harassment by the government. The government was also criticized for stifling the independent media and preventing any meaningful political discourse prior to the election. The ruling EPRDF and its affiliates won every legislative seat in the May 24 election, and on October 5 Hailemariam was unanimously reelected prime minister by the lower legislative house.
Meanwhile, a highly controversial plan by the government to expand Addis Ababa by linking it with areas in the neighbouring Oromia region generated months of protest by the Oromo people in 2015; the plan was abandoned in January 2016. More protests occurred in 2016—primarily in the Oromia and Amhara regions and, to a lesser extent, in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ region—fueled by issues such as the government’s questionable detentions of activists and journalists, feelings of political marginalization, and general discontent with the government. Security forces often responded harshly to protests and demonstrations, killing and wounding some of the protesters and arbitrarily arresting thousands more, which elicited condemnation from human rights groups. The government declared a state of emergency in October 2016; it was finally rescinded in August 2017.
In early 2018 the government surprised many by releasing thousands of prisoners, including Eskinder as well as other well-known individuals who had been detained for speaking out against the current administration. The government also announced that it was closing a notorious detention centre. The moves were intended to ease tensions and allow for political dialogue between the government and the opposition. Those events were followed by the equally surprising resignation of Hailemariam, which he announced on February 15, 2018; he agreed to stay on until a new prime minister could be appointed. Hailemariam stated that he hoped his resignation would help usher in political reform. The next day the government declared another state of emergency; it was expected to last six months and was intended to limit the ongoing unrest. On March 25 Eskinder and several other journalists and activists who had been recently released from prison were rearrested, allegedly for holding a gathering in violation of the declared state of emergency and having an older, prohibited version of the country’s flag.
The ruling EPRDF selected a successor to Hailemariam in late March. Abiy Ahmed, of the Oromo ethnic group, was first elected as chair of the ruling coalition on March 27, and he was then elected as prime minister by the lower legislative house on April 2 and was sworn in on the same day. Abiy was the first Oromo to hold the position of prime minister, and it was hoped that his ascent to the post would help calm the ongoing tensions between that group and the government. In his inaugural address, Abiy promised to improve conditions in the country, including strengthening the democratic process, fighting corruption, and growing the economy. He also vowed to work toward resolving the long-standing conflict with Eritrea.
In the months after his inauguration, Abiy quickly made efforts to fulfill his vows. Domestically, thousands more political prisoners were pardoned and released, including Eskinder and prominent opposition leader Andargachew Tsige. The government lifted its latest state of emergency ahead of schedule, on June 5. The government also removed Ginbot 7, the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF), and the OLF from its list of organizations deemed to be terrorist groups. In August the ONLF declared a cease-fire, and in October the government and the group signed a peace agreement that was intended to end the hostilities that had plagued the Ogaden region for more than 30 years. On the economic front, Abiy announced that the government would allow for some degree of privatization of some state-owned industries, such as the national airlines and the country’s telecommunications provider, in an effort to encourage domestic and foreign investment and to spur economic growth. The new developments as well as the pace at which they were unveiled surprised Ethiopians and the international community alike.
Perhaps nothing was as astonishing as the efforts of Abiy and the EPRDF-led government to achieve peace with Eritrea and the swiftness with which they moved. On June 5 Abiy announced that Ethiopia would finally honour the terms of the 2000 peace agreement that was meant to end its war with Eritrea; those terms included accepting and implementing the controversial 2002 ruling that demarcated the border between the two countries. That announcement led to a flurry of diplomatic overtures, and in early July Abiy and Eritrean Pres. Isaias Afwerki met in Eritrea. The two agreed to reopen their borders and reestablish ties between the two countries in the areas of diplomacy, trade, communications, and transportation. Most stunning was the joint statement from Abiy and Isaias on July 9 announcing that the state of war that had existed between their two countries for 20 years had come to an end.
In October 2018 Abiy formed a new cabinet, notable not only for its smaller size—Abiy cut the number of posts in the cabinet from 28 to 20—but, more strikingly, because Abiy appointed women to half of the positions, providing the country with its first gender-balanced cabinet. Later that month President Mulatu resigned before the end of his six-year term, paving the way for a new president to be selected by lawmakers. On October 25 the parliament elected Sahle-Work Zewde to succeed him; she was sworn in the same day, becoming the first woman to serve as president of Ethiopia. Sahle-Work was an accomplished diplomat who had served as an ambassador for Ethiopia and had held several positions with the United Nations.
In October 2019 Abiy was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace. The Nobel Committee highlighted his actions in resolving Ethiopia’s long-running border dispute with Eritrea as an example of his efforts to attain peace.
In November 2019 the Sidamo people held a referendum to determine if there was enough support to create a new ethnic-based regional state for themselves, an option provided to all ethnic groups under the country’s constitution. The referendum passed, with more than 98 percent of Sidamo voters supporting the measure.Donald Edward Crummey The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
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Africa: Relief…are to be found in Ethiopia, parts of which exceed 15,000 feet. Southward the East African Plateau is highest in Kenya, where it is often 8,000 feet or more above sea level; there are occasional volcanic peaks that are much higher, such as Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya (17,058 feet), Meru (14,978…
Africa: ConservationEthiopia has several parks developed largely during the 1970s, while Somalia has only a rudimentary system consisting mostly of game reserves and one area (Luc Badana) nominally a national park but failing to meet UN criteria for such parks. The “W” park is shared between… | 3,580 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Province of Canada
Rep by Pop first arose as an issue prior to 1841. It came up during the debate over whether to unite Upper and Lower Canada under a single government. (See also: Durham Report.) According to the eventual terms of the Act of Union, the two parts of what became the Province of Canada would be represented in the legislature by an equal number of representatives. This was in spite of the fact that Canada East (formerly Lower Canada; present-day Quebec) had 59 per cent of the population. Canada West (formerly Upper Canada; present-day Ontario) had 41 per cent. This meant English-speaking Canadians were overrepresented in the legislature.
The arrangement of equal seats for the two Canadas was called “sectional equality.” It was acceptable to the mostly English-speaking and Protestant population of Canada West. They felt they needed a legislative safeguard against the more populous Canada East. They had long-standing feelings of mistrust and prejudice toward the largely Roman Catholic, French-speaking Canadiens and believed a Roman Catholic “priestocracy” in that colony wielded too much political influence. The goal was to assimilate French Canadians to English Canadian culture and norms.
Sectional equality drew protests from politicians in Canada East. They argued that it left them powerless in the new legislature, and they resented the attempt to assimilate them. They were the first to demand Rep by Pop.
Francis Hincks and George Brown
A decade later, the census of 1851 revealed that immigration, primarily from the British Isles, had made Canada West more populous than Canada East. The situation was now reversed. It was now the French Canadians who were over-represented in the legislature. A growing number of English Canadians regarded this as unfair. However, Canada East still feared domination by Canada West, since it was the preferred destination of most immigrants.
French Canadians in Canada East now wished to retain sectional equality. They had a spokesman in Francis Hincks, a moderate Reformer. He believed that Anglo-French political relationships and alliances required trust, which had to be based on equality. To give either side more influence in the legislature, he said, could destroy trust in the Union itself.
Fellow Reformer George Brown, from Canada West, considered Hincks a sellout for supporting sectional equality. Brown had become a passionate supporter of Rep by Pop as Canada West grew in population and prosperity. He believed most of Canada West’s voters shared his view. He resented what he called “French domination” of the Province of Canada. He was angered by politicians from Canada West whose alliances with those in Canada East kept sectional equality alive.
The debate over Rep by Pop and sectional equality continued for 10 years. It constantly threatened the viability of the Union. More radical reformers, whom Brown called “Clear Grits,” were ready to sacrifice the Union in their quest for Rep by Pop. But Brown wanted the Union remade, not destroyed.
Macdonald and Cartier
George-Étienne Cartier, leader of the conservative Parti bleu in Canada East, opposed Rep by Pop. In 1864, Conservatives in Canada West under John A. Macdonald formed a great coalition with Cartier. With the help of moderate Reformers such as Hincks, the coalition was able to hold onto power in the legislature. This was in spite of Brown’s widespread popular support in Canada West.
However, it soon became clear to Macdonald, Cartier, Brown and other leaders that a compromise between the two sides would be necessary if their mutual goal of Confederation was to become a reality.
Rep by Pop and Confederation
Several political conferences were held to discuss the possibility of Confederation. (See also: Quebec Conference; Charlottetown Conference; London Conference.) They were attended by delegates from the Province of Canada, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Rep by Pop was once again a hotly debated issue. The Maritime provinces, with their relatively small populations, were aware that Rep by Pop was inevitable in any federal assembly. They realized that sectional equality with the much larger Canadian provinces would be unmanageable. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were afraid that their influence in the new government would be minimal. So, they campaigned for some form of balance.
The delegates reached a solution. The federal Parliament would be composed of two houses. The lower house, or House of Commons, would consist of elected members. They would represent their provinces according to population. There would be 82 seats for Ontario, 65 for Quebec, 19 for Nova Scotia and 15 for New Brunswick. The upper house, the Senate, would consist of 72 non-elected members. Each of the three regions — Ontario, Quebec and the Maritimes — would hold 24 seats. Under section 51 of the British North America Act, the number of seats allocated to each province would be recalculated after each 10-year census. (See also: Redistribution of Federal Electoral Districts.) | <urn:uuid:2c01c8b0-303a-4fcf-88b0-3c890f2cf58f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/rep-by-pop | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00170.warc.gz | en | 0.981859 | 1,029 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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Rep by Pop first arose as an issue prior to 1841. It came up during the debate over whether to unite Upper and Lower Canada under a single government. (See also: Durham Report.) According to the eventual terms of the Act of Union, the two parts of what became the Province of Canada would be represented in the legislature by an equal number of representatives. This was in spite of the fact that Canada East (formerly Lower Canada; present-day Quebec) had 59 per cent of the population. Canada West (formerly Upper Canada; present-day Ontario) had 41 per cent. This meant English-speaking Canadians were overrepresented in the legislature.
The arrangement of equal seats for the two Canadas was called “sectional equality.” It was acceptable to the mostly English-speaking and Protestant population of Canada West. They felt they needed a legislative safeguard against the more populous Canada East. They had long-standing feelings of mistrust and prejudice toward the largely Roman Catholic, French-speaking Canadiens and believed a Roman Catholic “priestocracy” in that colony wielded too much political influence. The goal was to assimilate French Canadians to English Canadian culture and norms.
Sectional equality drew protests from politicians in Canada East. They argued that it left them powerless in the new legislature, and they resented the attempt to assimilate them. They were the first to demand Rep by Pop.
Francis Hincks and George Brown
A decade later, the census of 1851 revealed that immigration, primarily from the British Isles, had made Canada West more populous than Canada East. The situation was now reversed. It was now the French Canadians who were over-represented in the legislature. A growing number of English Canadians regarded this as unfair. However, Canada East still feared domination by Canada West, since it was the preferred destination of most immigrants.
French Canadians in Canada East now wished to retain sectional equality. They had a spokesman in Francis Hincks, a moderate Reformer. He believed that Anglo-French political relationships and alliances required trust, which had to be based on equality. To give either side more influence in the legislature, he said, could destroy trust in the Union itself.
Fellow Reformer George Brown, from Canada West, considered Hincks a sellout for supporting sectional equality. Brown had become a passionate supporter of Rep by Pop as Canada West grew in population and prosperity. He believed most of Canada West’s voters shared his view. He resented what he called “French domination” of the Province of Canada. He was angered by politicians from Canada West whose alliances with those in Canada East kept sectional equality alive.
The debate over Rep by Pop and sectional equality continued for 10 years. It constantly threatened the viability of the Union. More radical reformers, whom Brown called “Clear Grits,” were ready to sacrifice the Union in their quest for Rep by Pop. But Brown wanted the Union remade, not destroyed.
Macdonald and Cartier
George-Étienne Cartier, leader of the conservative Parti bleu in Canada East, opposed Rep by Pop. In 1864, Conservatives in Canada West under John A. Macdonald formed a great coalition with Cartier. With the help of moderate Reformers such as Hincks, the coalition was able to hold onto power in the legislature. This was in spite of Brown’s widespread popular support in Canada West.
However, it soon became clear to Macdonald, Cartier, Brown and other leaders that a compromise between the two sides would be necessary if their mutual goal of Confederation was to become a reality.
Rep by Pop and Confederation
Several political conferences were held to discuss the possibility of Confederation. (See also: Quebec Conference; Charlottetown Conference; London Conference.) They were attended by delegates from the Province of Canada, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Rep by Pop was once again a hotly debated issue. The Maritime provinces, with their relatively small populations, were aware that Rep by Pop was inevitable in any federal assembly. They realized that sectional equality with the much larger Canadian provinces would be unmanageable. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were afraid that their influence in the new government would be minimal. So, they campaigned for some form of balance.
The delegates reached a solution. The federal Parliament would be composed of two houses. The lower house, or House of Commons, would consist of elected members. They would represent their provinces according to population. There would be 82 seats for Ontario, 65 for Quebec, 19 for Nova Scotia and 15 for New Brunswick. The upper house, the Senate, would consist of 72 non-elected members. Each of the three regions — Ontario, Quebec and the Maritimes — would hold 24 seats. Under section 51 of the British North America Act, the number of seats allocated to each province would be recalculated after each 10-year census. (See also: Redistribution of Federal Electoral Districts.) | 1,026 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cursuses and Leys
Cursuses and Leys
Cursuses and Leys
There exists substantial evidence that some ancient societies wanted their landscapes to reflect the interconnectedness of life—imitating patterns they noticed in constellations, in changing seasons, or in rituals they performed. Ritual paths are found near some of Great Britain's ancient megalithic sites and are called cursuses. Unlike geoglyphs, which are marked clearly on the land, patterns formed by structures are detected by plotting them on the map of an area and looking for connections—literally, connecting the dots to determine whether or not a pattern emerges.
Ley lines is a term coined by Alfred Watkins (1855–1935), an Englishman who noticed in 1921 that several hilltops with ancient ruins on them in Herefordshire formed a straight alignment. He found several other instances where standing stones, burial mounds, and other ancient sites were aligned, criss-crossing the countryside. He called the straight alignments "leys" and published his findings in a book, The Old Straight Track, in 1925. The theory of ley lines promotes the belief that ancient structures in Great Britain were built on specific sites to form patterns and were so well aligned that if one continued in a straight line after walking from one structure to another one would soon find a third site.
Watkins believed that such alignments were intended as trade routes: the quickest way to get from one point to another is by a straight line. By the mid-twentieth century, however, leys became associated with cosmic lines of force—the belief that unknown forms of energy run in channels through the terrain. The practice of "ley hunting," plotting ancient sites and looking for patterns— straight lines, in particular—became popular in Great Britain during the twentieth century.
Reports of a curious feature found near megalithic sites in Great Britain date back to the 1720s, when William Stukeley (1687–1765), a British antiquarian, noticed parallel lines of banks and ditches at Stonehenge. He called the phenomenon a cursus, a Latin word for racetrack, since the lines were thought to run parallel and were joined at the ends to form an oval. The straight tracks he found were later dated as having been built in the same neolithic period as Stonehenge. Cursuses became a subject of study in the twentieth century when many more of them were discovered through aerial photography, and curiosity was piqued as to what their purpose might be.
The cursus at Stonehenge had chamber graves at both ends. So, too, did a cursus found at Dorset, England. The Dorset Cursuses follow a crescent pattern, each passing by chamber graves dated earlier than the ones at either end of the cursus. Other cursuses waver even further off the straight track, but all of them have burial graves at either end or point to graves or standing stones.
The Dorset Cursuses were called an "Avenue of the Dead" by archaeologist Richard Bradley, who suggested that ancients believed spirits of the dead passed along those lines, which he called avenues. Those wishing to communicate with the dead could meet them on the avenue. It is likely that the cursuses were used in ancient processional rituals in ceremonies honoring the dead.
In Britain, many of the ancient sites on ley lines were erected by Celts, a people who had rituals involving nature. Since the Celts were more attuned to the natural world than modern humans, according to those who believe in cosmic lines of force, their structures were purposefully erected on sites of pulsating energy. Some UFO proponents believe that ley lines were energy forces on which ships from outer space were able to harness energy and move quickly around Earth.
Ley hunting, the act of researching ancient sites to discover straight alignments, has also inspired detractors. Many supposed leys had sites built at various times and by various societies: a Celtic hill-fort from 200 b.c.e. might be followed on a ley by a Christian church erected in medieval times. Watkins countered by noting that Christian sites were often built on places of pagan worship. He also took a practical approach, believing the ley lines indicated trade routes, rather than cosmic lines of force. Interested in establishing sound criteria for leys, Watkins argued that leys involving three sites might just as likely be a chance occurrence as a planned pattern. Five aligned sites, he determined, were necessary to consider a purposeful pattern.
Many claims of ley lines were proven inaccurate: they were not quite straight, or they lumped together many different kinds of things from many different time periods. Even though quite a few intriguing leys were discovered, the theory began losing support because of extravagant claims.
Ley hunting enjoyed a revival beginning in the 1970s. By then, much more information was known about prehistoric civilizations and their capacity for great engineering feats and mastering of sophisticated astronomical and mathematical techniques. The enthusiasm for the pastime was channeled through a magazine, The Ley Hunter, which Paul Devereux took over as editor in 1976. Devereux set up a system where all prospective leys could be catalogued and researched. Hundreds of claims were submitted and checked, and the results were published in The Ley Hunter's Companion (1979). Forty-one leys, each including at least four sites, were presented in that book as being worthy of further research. Virtually all of them failed the test of being straight alignments.
Meanwhile, statisticians showed that the possibility of chance alignments was greater than expected. Random patterns were just as likely to be straight as planned sites because of the large number of items available to be considered. The question concerning leys is whether the sites arise from random connection or whether they were planned to form a pattern. Even if they were not planned, a simple combination involving many sites will form patterns and several straight alignments.
Statistical methods based on rigorous standards for alignment and ensuring that sites on leys were from a certain time period all worked to compromise the theory of leys. Taking the practical and scientific approaches to the ley theory proved to be its undoing. Although the belief that many megaliths erected by neolithic peoples were placed along energy lines persists among a number of ley hunting enthusiasts, except for a few isolated cases, most claims do not match the criteria of straight alignment, and they often incorporate structures from vastly different eras.
Michel, Aime. Flying Saucers and the Straight Line Mystery. New York: Criterion Books, 1958.
Watkins, Alfred. The Old Straight Track. New York: Ballantine Books, 1973. | <urn:uuid:6779ec0a-d854-4d53-b723-4f05e926f983> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/cursuses-and-leys | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.980311 | 1,380 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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Cursuses and Leys
Cursuses and Leys
There exists substantial evidence that some ancient societies wanted their landscapes to reflect the interconnectedness of life—imitating patterns they noticed in constellations, in changing seasons, or in rituals they performed. Ritual paths are found near some of Great Britain's ancient megalithic sites and are called cursuses. Unlike geoglyphs, which are marked clearly on the land, patterns formed by structures are detected by plotting them on the map of an area and looking for connections—literally, connecting the dots to determine whether or not a pattern emerges.
Ley lines is a term coined by Alfred Watkins (1855–1935), an Englishman who noticed in 1921 that several hilltops with ancient ruins on them in Herefordshire formed a straight alignment. He found several other instances where standing stones, burial mounds, and other ancient sites were aligned, criss-crossing the countryside. He called the straight alignments "leys" and published his findings in a book, The Old Straight Track, in 1925. The theory of ley lines promotes the belief that ancient structures in Great Britain were built on specific sites to form patterns and were so well aligned that if one continued in a straight line after walking from one structure to another one would soon find a third site.
Watkins believed that such alignments were intended as trade routes: the quickest way to get from one point to another is by a straight line. By the mid-twentieth century, however, leys became associated with cosmic lines of force—the belief that unknown forms of energy run in channels through the terrain. The practice of "ley hunting," plotting ancient sites and looking for patterns— straight lines, in particular—became popular in Great Britain during the twentieth century.
Reports of a curious feature found near megalithic sites in Great Britain date back to the 1720s, when William Stukeley (1687–1765), a British antiquarian, noticed parallel lines of banks and ditches at Stonehenge. He called the phenomenon a cursus, a Latin word for racetrack, since the lines were thought to run parallel and were joined at the ends to form an oval. The straight tracks he found were later dated as having been built in the same neolithic period as Stonehenge. Cursuses became a subject of study in the twentieth century when many more of them were discovered through aerial photography, and curiosity was piqued as to what their purpose might be.
The cursus at Stonehenge had chamber graves at both ends. So, too, did a cursus found at Dorset, England. The Dorset Cursuses follow a crescent pattern, each passing by chamber graves dated earlier than the ones at either end of the cursus. Other cursuses waver even further off the straight track, but all of them have burial graves at either end or point to graves or standing stones.
The Dorset Cursuses were called an "Avenue of the Dead" by archaeologist Richard Bradley, who suggested that ancients believed spirits of the dead passed along those lines, which he called avenues. Those wishing to communicate with the dead could meet them on the avenue. It is likely that the cursuses were used in ancient processional rituals in ceremonies honoring the dead.
In Britain, many of the ancient sites on ley lines were erected by Celts, a people who had rituals involving nature. Since the Celts were more attuned to the natural world than modern humans, according to those who believe in cosmic lines of force, their structures were purposefully erected on sites of pulsating energy. Some UFO proponents believe that ley lines were energy forces on which ships from outer space were able to harness energy and move quickly around Earth.
Ley hunting, the act of researching ancient sites to discover straight alignments, has also inspired detractors. Many supposed leys had sites built at various times and by various societies: a Celtic hill-fort from 200 b.c.e. might be followed on a ley by a Christian church erected in medieval times. Watkins countered by noting that Christian sites were often built on places of pagan worship. He also took a practical approach, believing the ley lines indicated trade routes, rather than cosmic lines of force. Interested in establishing sound criteria for leys, Watkins argued that leys involving three sites might just as likely be a chance occurrence as a planned pattern. Five aligned sites, he determined, were necessary to consider a purposeful pattern.
Many claims of ley lines were proven inaccurate: they were not quite straight, or they lumped together many different kinds of things from many different time periods. Even though quite a few intriguing leys were discovered, the theory began losing support because of extravagant claims.
Ley hunting enjoyed a revival beginning in the 1970s. By then, much more information was known about prehistoric civilizations and their capacity for great engineering feats and mastering of sophisticated astronomical and mathematical techniques. The enthusiasm for the pastime was channeled through a magazine, The Ley Hunter, which Paul Devereux took over as editor in 1976. Devereux set up a system where all prospective leys could be catalogued and researched. Hundreds of claims were submitted and checked, and the results were published in The Ley Hunter's Companion (1979). Forty-one leys, each including at least four sites, were presented in that book as being worthy of further research. Virtually all of them failed the test of being straight alignments.
Meanwhile, statisticians showed that the possibility of chance alignments was greater than expected. Random patterns were just as likely to be straight as planned sites because of the large number of items available to be considered. The question concerning leys is whether the sites arise from random connection or whether they were planned to form a pattern. Even if they were not planned, a simple combination involving many sites will form patterns and several straight alignments.
Statistical methods based on rigorous standards for alignment and ensuring that sites on leys were from a certain time period all worked to compromise the theory of leys. Taking the practical and scientific approaches to the ley theory proved to be its undoing. Although the belief that many megaliths erected by neolithic peoples were placed along energy lines persists among a number of ley hunting enthusiasts, except for a few isolated cases, most claims do not match the criteria of straight alignment, and they often incorporate structures from vastly different eras.
Michel, Aime. Flying Saucers and the Straight Line Mystery. New York: Criterion Books, 1958.
Watkins, Alfred. The Old Straight Track. New York: Ballantine Books, 1973. | 1,392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Emmons County was established before the state of North Dakota. The county was originated by an act of territorial legislation during February 1879. However, it was not officially organized until November 9, 1883. It was named for James A. Emmons, who was a steamboat navigator from Virginia and merchant in Bismarck.
The first settlers of Emmons County came from parts of Europe and the eastern United States. The earliest were mostly soldiers discharged from Fort Yates, but civilians began arriving in the 1880s. Two large ethnic groups soon developed: Germans from both Russia and Germany (the latter called Reich Germans) and Hollanders who had come from the eastern United States. The Hollanders lived only in the southwestern part of the county while the Germans settled throughout the area.
The settlers faced many hardships upon arrival in Emmons County. The worst of which was probably the adverse climate. Extreme seasonal variations in temperature, wind, rain, and snow made life difficult. Severe winter blizzards and summer thunderstorms and tornadoes were a constant threat. To shelter themselves against the sometimes inhospitable climate, early settlers built crude but durable dwellings using whatever materials they could find. The first building in Emmons county was a log cabin built near what was to become the town of Winona in 1852. Some other early dwellings were built of tar paper or local rocks. Rocks were a common sight on the prairie, but stone houses were a rarity because they took great care to build. The most common type of dwelling was the sod house, which later became synonymous with pioneering life on the prairie. Sod is prairie grass and dirt cut into blocks and stacked to form walls. Sod was an effective solution to the problem of limited lumber availability. These crude dwellings were eventually abandoned in favor of more modern homes as soon as the necessary building materials became available.
Another hardship was transportation. There were no roads and the nearest railroad station was in Eureka, South Dakota (40 miles (64 km) away). A horse and wagon were typically used for transportation. Buffalo bones were often piled up and used as landmarks to aid navigating the vast prairie. Since no bridges existed, creeks and streams presented a major difficulty. Settlers usually traveled in pairs and used both of their teams of horses to pull each wagon across a creek or stream. The first bridge in Emmons County was not built until 1889.
The Missouri River is the western boundary of Emmons County. An early industry to develop was one of providing cordwood for the steamboats plying the river. The steamboats could operate only during the summer months due to the river freezing over in the winter. The lack of bridges necessitated the use of ferries to traverse the river (the last of which washed ashore in 1940). Barges were also used to move freight up and down the river.
The history of the towns that presently exist in Emmons County begins with Braddock. It is the oldest existing town in the county (established in 1898). That same year, Braddock had the distinction of becoming the first town in Emmons County to receive train service. In 1899, Linton was plotted for the sole purpose of creating a geographically centralized government. The town was named for George Lynn. By 1901, Linton had reached a population of 118 and within two years the population had jumped to 245 residents. Linton was incorporated as a village in 1906 and incorporated as a town in 1914. Tirsbol was established in 1902 ten miles (16 km) south of Linton. However, it eventually became the center of the German immigrant community and was renamed Strasburg. Also in 1902, the town of Hague was established southeast of Strasburg. The last currently existing town to be incorporated is Hazelton. At the time, the Northern Pacific Railroad was trying to start hundreds of new towns along their tracks to compete with the Burlington Northern Railroad. The railroad decided to plot the town on land near Williamsport owned by a man named John Roop. Hazelton was named after Hazel, John Roop's daughter.
Although no longer in existence, Winona was the oldest town created in Emmons County. Winona was established in 1874 with the name "Devil’s Colony". The town was built to serve the soldiers at Fort Yates as well as the few farmers in the area. During the 1880s it was the largest town between Bismarck, North Dakota and Pierre, South Dakota. The first school in the county was built there in 1884 and the county's first newspaper was published there in 1885. By 1894, the population of the town peaked at over 200. However, the creation of Linton spelled the beginning of the end for Winona and it was gone by the early 1900s. The town of Williamsport was established in 1883 by a group of people from Ashland, Ohio and was the first county seat of government. The creation of Linton and Hazelton drained the population from Williamsport and it was subsequently abandoned in 1903.
Other towns no longer in existence include Emmonsburg which was located west of Linton, in Beaver Bay, on the Missouri River. It was established in 1888 and abandoned in 1912. Glencoe was also established in 1883 in the northwest corner of the county, but it was abandoned in 1930. Winchester was established in 1884 along Beaver Creek (west of Linton), but was completely abandoned by 1909. Westfield was established in 1888 in the center of the Dutch colony. It was named for Westfield, Iowa but was never incorporated. Godkin was established in 1902, six miles (10 km) north of Linton. Its name was later changed to Temvik, combining the last names of early settlers - the Tempel brothers and Ed Larvik. By 1925 its population peaked to over 200, but the effects of the 1930s Great Depression and being bypassed by the construction of U.S. Highway 83 led to its downfall. Its post office was abandoned in 1968. The final town of note is Kintyre. Settled by Swedes and Norwegians in the 1880s; it was established in 1908 and subsequently abandoned.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,555 square miles (4,030 km2), of which 1,510 square miles (3,900 km2) is land and 45 square miles (120 km2) (2.9%) is water.Burleigh County (north)
Kidder County (northeast)
Logan County (east)
McIntosh County (southeast)
Campbell County, South Dakota (south)
Sioux County (west)
Morton County (northwest)
U.S. Highway 83
North Dakota Highway 11
North Dakota Highway 13
North Dakota Highway 34
North Dakota Highway 1804
Appert Lake National Wildlife Refuge
Springwater National Wildlife Refuge
Sunburst Lake National Wildlife Refuge
As of the census of 2000, there were 4,331 people, 1,786 households, and 1,241 families residing in the county. The population density was 3 people per square mile (1/km²). There were 2,168 housing units at an average density of 1 per square mile (1/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 99.05% White, 0.05% Black or African American, 0.14% Native American, 0.16% Asian, 0.18% Pacific Islander, 0.30% from other races, and 0.12% from two or more races. 1.15% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 69.2% were of German, 7.5% Dutch, 6.9% American and 5.1% Norwegian ancestry.
There were 1,786 households out of which 27.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.00% were married couples living together, 4.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.50% were non-families. 28.40% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.92.
In the county, the population was spread out with 24.80% under the age of 18, 3.70% from 18 to 24, 22.30% from 25 to 44, 23.60% from 45 to 64, and 25.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 101.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.90 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $26,119, and the median income for a family was $31,857. Males had a median income of $23,235 versus $15,590 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,604. About 14.70% of families and 20.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.40% of those under age 18 and 24.60% of those age 65 or over.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 3,550 people, 1,594 households, and 1,003 families residing in the county. The population density was 2.4 inhabitants per square mile (0.93/km2). There were 2,085 housing units at an average density of 1.4 per square mile (0.54/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 98.5% white, 0.4% American Indian, 0.2% Asian, 0.1% black or African American, 0.2% from other races, and 0.8% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1.0% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 69.1% were German, 16.8% were Russian, 12.3% were Norwegian, 9.6% were Dutch, 5.9% were English, and 1.4% were American.
Of the 1,594 households, 22.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.4% were married couples living together, 3.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 37.1% were non-families, and 34.4% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.81. The median age was 50.5 years.
The median income for a household in the county was $35,615 and the median income for a family was $45,464. Males had a median income of $31,468 versus $26,700 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,358. About 12.4% of families and 16.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.0% of those under age 18 and 20.4% of those age 65 or over.Braddock
Linton (county seat) | <urn:uuid:c4f3b7d9-d897-43e4-a957-8e351fe8a6be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Emmons-County%2C-North-Dakota | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.988092 | 2,309 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.03567126... | 1 | Emmons County was established before the state of North Dakota. The county was originated by an act of territorial legislation during February 1879. However, it was not officially organized until November 9, 1883. It was named for James A. Emmons, who was a steamboat navigator from Virginia and merchant in Bismarck.
The first settlers of Emmons County came from parts of Europe and the eastern United States. The earliest were mostly soldiers discharged from Fort Yates, but civilians began arriving in the 1880s. Two large ethnic groups soon developed: Germans from both Russia and Germany (the latter called Reich Germans) and Hollanders who had come from the eastern United States. The Hollanders lived only in the southwestern part of the county while the Germans settled throughout the area.
The settlers faced many hardships upon arrival in Emmons County. The worst of which was probably the adverse climate. Extreme seasonal variations in temperature, wind, rain, and snow made life difficult. Severe winter blizzards and summer thunderstorms and tornadoes were a constant threat. To shelter themselves against the sometimes inhospitable climate, early settlers built crude but durable dwellings using whatever materials they could find. The first building in Emmons county was a log cabin built near what was to become the town of Winona in 1852. Some other early dwellings were built of tar paper or local rocks. Rocks were a common sight on the prairie, but stone houses were a rarity because they took great care to build. The most common type of dwelling was the sod house, which later became synonymous with pioneering life on the prairie. Sod is prairie grass and dirt cut into blocks and stacked to form walls. Sod was an effective solution to the problem of limited lumber availability. These crude dwellings were eventually abandoned in favor of more modern homes as soon as the necessary building materials became available.
Another hardship was transportation. There were no roads and the nearest railroad station was in Eureka, South Dakota (40 miles (64 km) away). A horse and wagon were typically used for transportation. Buffalo bones were often piled up and used as landmarks to aid navigating the vast prairie. Since no bridges existed, creeks and streams presented a major difficulty. Settlers usually traveled in pairs and used both of their teams of horses to pull each wagon across a creek or stream. The first bridge in Emmons County was not built until 1889.
The Missouri River is the western boundary of Emmons County. An early industry to develop was one of providing cordwood for the steamboats plying the river. The steamboats could operate only during the summer months due to the river freezing over in the winter. The lack of bridges necessitated the use of ferries to traverse the river (the last of which washed ashore in 1940). Barges were also used to move freight up and down the river.
The history of the towns that presently exist in Emmons County begins with Braddock. It is the oldest existing town in the county (established in 1898). That same year, Braddock had the distinction of becoming the first town in Emmons County to receive train service. In 1899, Linton was plotted for the sole purpose of creating a geographically centralized government. The town was named for George Lynn. By 1901, Linton had reached a population of 118 and within two years the population had jumped to 245 residents. Linton was incorporated as a village in 1906 and incorporated as a town in 1914. Tirsbol was established in 1902 ten miles (16 km) south of Linton. However, it eventually became the center of the German immigrant community and was renamed Strasburg. Also in 1902, the town of Hague was established southeast of Strasburg. The last currently existing town to be incorporated is Hazelton. At the time, the Northern Pacific Railroad was trying to start hundreds of new towns along their tracks to compete with the Burlington Northern Railroad. The railroad decided to plot the town on land near Williamsport owned by a man named John Roop. Hazelton was named after Hazel, John Roop's daughter.
Although no longer in existence, Winona was the oldest town created in Emmons County. Winona was established in 1874 with the name "Devil’s Colony". The town was built to serve the soldiers at Fort Yates as well as the few farmers in the area. During the 1880s it was the largest town between Bismarck, North Dakota and Pierre, South Dakota. The first school in the county was built there in 1884 and the county's first newspaper was published there in 1885. By 1894, the population of the town peaked at over 200. However, the creation of Linton spelled the beginning of the end for Winona and it was gone by the early 1900s. The town of Williamsport was established in 1883 by a group of people from Ashland, Ohio and was the first county seat of government. The creation of Linton and Hazelton drained the population from Williamsport and it was subsequently abandoned in 1903.
Other towns no longer in existence include Emmonsburg which was located west of Linton, in Beaver Bay, on the Missouri River. It was established in 1888 and abandoned in 1912. Glencoe was also established in 1883 in the northwest corner of the county, but it was abandoned in 1930. Winchester was established in 1884 along Beaver Creek (west of Linton), but was completely abandoned by 1909. Westfield was established in 1888 in the center of the Dutch colony. It was named for Westfield, Iowa but was never incorporated. Godkin was established in 1902, six miles (10 km) north of Linton. Its name was later changed to Temvik, combining the last names of early settlers - the Tempel brothers and Ed Larvik. By 1925 its population peaked to over 200, but the effects of the 1930s Great Depression and being bypassed by the construction of U.S. Highway 83 led to its downfall. Its post office was abandoned in 1968. The final town of note is Kintyre. Settled by Swedes and Norwegians in the 1880s; it was established in 1908 and subsequently abandoned.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 1,555 square miles (4,030 km2), of which 1,510 square miles (3,900 km2) is land and 45 square miles (120 km2) (2.9%) is water.Burleigh County (north)
Kidder County (northeast)
Logan County (east)
McIntosh County (southeast)
Campbell County, South Dakota (south)
Sioux County (west)
Morton County (northwest)
U.S. Highway 83
North Dakota Highway 11
North Dakota Highway 13
North Dakota Highway 34
North Dakota Highway 1804
Appert Lake National Wildlife Refuge
Springwater National Wildlife Refuge
Sunburst Lake National Wildlife Refuge
As of the census of 2000, there were 4,331 people, 1,786 households, and 1,241 families residing in the county. The population density was 3 people per square mile (1/km²). There were 2,168 housing units at an average density of 1 per square mile (1/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 99.05% White, 0.05% Black or African American, 0.14% Native American, 0.16% Asian, 0.18% Pacific Islander, 0.30% from other races, and 0.12% from two or more races. 1.15% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 69.2% were of German, 7.5% Dutch, 6.9% American and 5.1% Norwegian ancestry.
There were 1,786 households out of which 27.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.00% were married couples living together, 4.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.50% were non-families. 28.40% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.92.
In the county, the population was spread out with 24.80% under the age of 18, 3.70% from 18 to 24, 22.30% from 25 to 44, 23.60% from 45 to 64, and 25.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 101.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.90 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $26,119, and the median income for a family was $31,857. Males had a median income of $23,235 versus $15,590 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,604. About 14.70% of families and 20.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.40% of those under age 18 and 24.60% of those age 65 or over.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 3,550 people, 1,594 households, and 1,003 families residing in the county. The population density was 2.4 inhabitants per square mile (0.93/km2). There were 2,085 housing units at an average density of 1.4 per square mile (0.54/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 98.5% white, 0.4% American Indian, 0.2% Asian, 0.1% black or African American, 0.2% from other races, and 0.8% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1.0% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 69.1% were German, 16.8% were Russian, 12.3% were Norwegian, 9.6% were Dutch, 5.9% were English, and 1.4% were American.
Of the 1,594 households, 22.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.4% were married couples living together, 3.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 37.1% were non-families, and 34.4% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.81. The median age was 50.5 years.
The median income for a household in the county was $35,615 and the median income for a family was $45,464. Males had a median income of $31,468 versus $26,700 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,358. About 12.4% of families and 16.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.0% of those under age 18 and 20.4% of those age 65 or over.Braddock
Linton (county seat) | 2,687 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born on April 24, 1827, Ghana’s Kwasi Boakye is the world’s first black mining engineer. The African-Dutch mining engineer was a prince of the Ashanti Empire and the eldest son of Kwaku Dua II, a king of the Ashanti kingdom.
In 1837, along with his cousin Kwame Poku, the prince left to pursue an education in the Netherlands. The prince and his cousin were sent from their homeland to the Netherlands as part of a deal that gave the Dutch ”recruits” from Africa when they could no longer legally take slaves.
The king received a portion of the agreed sum and offered his eldest son Boakye and his cousin Kwame Poku, both aged 10, to Holland. They were given to the governor in Gijzel.
More about this
The two boys arrived at Netherlands at a French boarding school.
They were both raised with the Christian doctrine and in 1843, they were baptized in the Dutch Reformed Church of Delft.
Although history has it that the boys were treated well, ‘The Two Hearts of Kwasi Boachi’, a novel that tells the story of Kwame Poku and Kwasi Boakye, portrays otherwise.
According to Dutch author Arthur Japin, the young princes were beaten up on the street and bullied at school; they were flustered by the Dutch Christmas custom of blackface.
They inevitably grew apart. Kwasi trained as a mining engineer at Delft University, where he graduated in 1847. His cousin Kwame Poku returned to the Gold Coast (now Ghana) while prince Kwasi stayed in the Netherlands.
He successfully completed his civil engineering examinations in 1847, and was subsequently assigned to a mining engineer. In contrast to the other students, from July 1847 to July 1848, he became a student at the mining academy in Freiberg in Saxony, where, among other things, he was taught by the then famous Bernhard von Cotta.
While others were made available to the governor-general of the Dutch East Indies on February 19, 1850, as second class engineers and as aspiring engineers, Kwasi waited until April 22, 1850, to learn that he would become an ‘extraordinary’ aspiring engineer.
He was reportedly discriminated by his superior Cornelius de Groot van Embden. He was described as highly intelligent and very good at what he did yet due to his colour, he was barely recognized.
He resigned and requested a public service. He also requested the Minister of Colonies Pieter Mijer to be compensated for the non-fulfilment of promises made to him.
In 1857, Kwasi became entitled to a monthly allowance of 500 guilders and 710 hectares of waste land in the residence Madiun in leasehold that was liquidated in 1898.
Kwasi later settled in Bantar Peteh, a little south of Buitenzorg. He reportedly bore several children outside of marriage to native women.
He was a member of the Association of Civil Engineers (later called the Association of Delft Engineers). In 1871, he again became a member and correspondent for the Dutch East Indies.
In 1893, he was appointed honorary member. He died in 1904. | <urn:uuid:b7e9ecef-d4b0-42ee-a43e-a7f824948e7f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://face2faceafrica.com/article/this-ashanti-prince-became-the-first-black-engineer-in-the-world-in-the-1850s | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00384.warc.gz | en | 0.989749 | 687 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3548732399940... | 3 | Born on April 24, 1827, Ghana’s Kwasi Boakye is the world’s first black mining engineer. The African-Dutch mining engineer was a prince of the Ashanti Empire and the eldest son of Kwaku Dua II, a king of the Ashanti kingdom.
In 1837, along with his cousin Kwame Poku, the prince left to pursue an education in the Netherlands. The prince and his cousin were sent from their homeland to the Netherlands as part of a deal that gave the Dutch ”recruits” from Africa when they could no longer legally take slaves.
The king received a portion of the agreed sum and offered his eldest son Boakye and his cousin Kwame Poku, both aged 10, to Holland. They were given to the governor in Gijzel.
More about this
The two boys arrived at Netherlands at a French boarding school.
They were both raised with the Christian doctrine and in 1843, they were baptized in the Dutch Reformed Church of Delft.
Although history has it that the boys were treated well, ‘The Two Hearts of Kwasi Boachi’, a novel that tells the story of Kwame Poku and Kwasi Boakye, portrays otherwise.
According to Dutch author Arthur Japin, the young princes were beaten up on the street and bullied at school; they were flustered by the Dutch Christmas custom of blackface.
They inevitably grew apart. Kwasi trained as a mining engineer at Delft University, where he graduated in 1847. His cousin Kwame Poku returned to the Gold Coast (now Ghana) while prince Kwasi stayed in the Netherlands.
He successfully completed his civil engineering examinations in 1847, and was subsequently assigned to a mining engineer. In contrast to the other students, from July 1847 to July 1848, he became a student at the mining academy in Freiberg in Saxony, where, among other things, he was taught by the then famous Bernhard von Cotta.
While others were made available to the governor-general of the Dutch East Indies on February 19, 1850, as second class engineers and as aspiring engineers, Kwasi waited until April 22, 1850, to learn that he would become an ‘extraordinary’ aspiring engineer.
He was reportedly discriminated by his superior Cornelius de Groot van Embden. He was described as highly intelligent and very good at what he did yet due to his colour, he was barely recognized.
He resigned and requested a public service. He also requested the Minister of Colonies Pieter Mijer to be compensated for the non-fulfilment of promises made to him.
In 1857, Kwasi became entitled to a monthly allowance of 500 guilders and 710 hectares of waste land in the residence Madiun in leasehold that was liquidated in 1898.
Kwasi later settled in Bantar Peteh, a little south of Buitenzorg. He reportedly bore several children outside of marriage to native women.
He was a member of the Association of Civil Engineers (later called the Association of Delft Engineers). In 1871, he again became a member and correspondent for the Dutch East Indies.
In 1893, he was appointed honorary member. He died in 1904. | 716 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Situated just south of Cuba in the Caribbean Sea, Jamaica is well known as a popular tourist spot and the birthplace of reggae music. Populated initially by native Arawak Indians, who gave the island its name, “land of wood and water (Jamaica).” However, this beautiful land’s almost pristine beauty was shattered by outbursts of violence surrounding the 1980 political elections. This fighting was sparked by the people’s mistrust of the ruling socialist party at the time. The reasons for this fighting and this mistrust are not simple, they are intrinsically tied to the island nation’s history from the beginning of its colonial period five hundred years before.
The island was first discovered by Christopher Columbus on his second voyage in 1494 and became a colony of Spain in 1509. They founded the town now known as Spanish Town and it was the capital of the island until the 1800s. Under the Spanish, the native Arawak Indians died out because of slavery and disease, and Africans were brought in to work in their place. The Spanish ruled the country until 1655 when Sir William Penn of the British captured the colony by force. It was later tuned over legally under the Treaty of Madrid in 1670(Jamaica).
Once the British gained control of the island, development was swift. The industries of sugar cane and other agricultural resources were increased, thus creating a larger demand for African slaves. Due to this explosion of growth in the late 17th century, Jamaica became one of the largest slave trading centers in the world. The slave trade was conducted out of the city of Port Royal, made famous for being a hideout of the pirate Blackbeard, until the city was destroyed by an earthquake in 1692. The destruction of Port Royal led to the founding of the city of Kingston, the current capital of the country (Jamaica).
In 1833, Britain abolished slavery and its trade in its colonies, and Jamaica released about 310,000 slaves with about 30 million dollars in compensation for their former owners. These freed slaves left the plantations and took control of the empty lands in the interior of the country. This move had a noted negative effect on the economy, creating labor shortages, declining trade, and widespread bankruptcy. The leadership soon began to oppress the former slaves in the forms of unfair taxation, prejudiced rulings by judges, and limiting land ownership rights. This new oppression caused the blacks to riot and lead an insurrection at the city of Port Morant in 1865. Because of this and the growing economic crisis, Jamaica was made a “crown colony” which meant that the colony was stripped of much of its representation and self-governing abilities (Jamaica).
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a vast increase in the importance of exporting bananas to the US. This increase, however, was not enough to create an effective and stable workforce, causing many Jamaicans to leave the island and search for work elsewhere. The worldwide... | <urn:uuid:12bfb951-1b28-4f96-85a9-b1f4b1df65f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/a-political-and-cultural-history-of-jamaica | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.982064 | 609 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.312573671... | 1 | Situated just south of Cuba in the Caribbean Sea, Jamaica is well known as a popular tourist spot and the birthplace of reggae music. Populated initially by native Arawak Indians, who gave the island its name, “land of wood and water (Jamaica).” However, this beautiful land’s almost pristine beauty was shattered by outbursts of violence surrounding the 1980 political elections. This fighting was sparked by the people’s mistrust of the ruling socialist party at the time. The reasons for this fighting and this mistrust are not simple, they are intrinsically tied to the island nation’s history from the beginning of its colonial period five hundred years before.
The island was first discovered by Christopher Columbus on his second voyage in 1494 and became a colony of Spain in 1509. They founded the town now known as Spanish Town and it was the capital of the island until the 1800s. Under the Spanish, the native Arawak Indians died out because of slavery and disease, and Africans were brought in to work in their place. The Spanish ruled the country until 1655 when Sir William Penn of the British captured the colony by force. It was later tuned over legally under the Treaty of Madrid in 1670(Jamaica).
Once the British gained control of the island, development was swift. The industries of sugar cane and other agricultural resources were increased, thus creating a larger demand for African slaves. Due to this explosion of growth in the late 17th century, Jamaica became one of the largest slave trading centers in the world. The slave trade was conducted out of the city of Port Royal, made famous for being a hideout of the pirate Blackbeard, until the city was destroyed by an earthquake in 1692. The destruction of Port Royal led to the founding of the city of Kingston, the current capital of the country (Jamaica).
In 1833, Britain abolished slavery and its trade in its colonies, and Jamaica released about 310,000 slaves with about 30 million dollars in compensation for their former owners. These freed slaves left the plantations and took control of the empty lands in the interior of the country. This move had a noted negative effect on the economy, creating labor shortages, declining trade, and widespread bankruptcy. The leadership soon began to oppress the former slaves in the forms of unfair taxation, prejudiced rulings by judges, and limiting land ownership rights. This new oppression caused the blacks to riot and lead an insurrection at the city of Port Morant in 1865. Because of this and the growing economic crisis, Jamaica was made a “crown colony” which meant that the colony was stripped of much of its representation and self-governing abilities (Jamaica).
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a vast increase in the importance of exporting bananas to the US. This increase, however, was not enough to create an effective and stable workforce, causing many Jamaicans to leave the island and search for work elsewhere. The worldwide... | 645 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“My fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” This is a quote that President John Fitzgerald Kennedy used during his terms of presidency before he was assassinated in 1964. For many, his assassination remains one of the most traumatic events in their memory and even history. Although, John Fitzgerald Kennedy was much more than a president that got assassinated while in office.
While still attending college at Harvard University, Kennedy volunteered for hazardous combat duty in the Pacific during World War II. His time spent volunteering made him a war hero. Coming from a long family line of political history, Kennedy began working in the House of Representatives for six years from 1947-1953. After the House, he moved to the Senate where he served for eight years from 1963-1961. The election of 1960 set records for the youngest elected president as Kennedy, forty-three years old, became our nation’s 35th president.
With such a close race between Nixon and Kennedy, Kennedy knew his inaugural speech had to win over all of Nixon’s supporters. Although his age and religion made Kennedy seem inexperienced and disagreeable, he overcame the doubts by promising to get America out of the “conservative rut” they were in and promised that the United States would have the strength to resist communism around the world.
Kennedy had many successes in his cut-short time in office. The first of which was his preventing nuclear Armageddon known as the Cuban missile crisis. The Soviet leader, Nikita Krushchev, who secretly deployed ninety nuclear missiles in Cuba also had a tie-up plan if the United States were to attack the weapon sites. Krushchev wrote in his memoirs, “if a quarter or even a tenth of our missiles survived—even if only one or two big ones were left—we could still hit New York, and there wouldn’t be much of New York left” (1). President Kennedy offhandedly created a jerry-built policy that included an ban on any shipment of Soviet missiles and demanded that all weapons in Cuba be removed. Khrushchev then turned back the cargo ships and removed the missiles. Many believed this to be the end of it until years later when the truth came out that Kennedy made a hidden arrangement with the Soviet leader giving him exactly what he needed. Kennedy claims he did what was necessary and made a deal he knew he couldn’t sell to his fellow Americans. Another success of John F. Kennedy’s presidency was that he planned to put man on the moon before the end of the 1960’s. In 1969, the plan came to life when Neil Armstrong’s boot hit the lunar dirt on July 20th. This was a huge achievement for humanity and a prideful boost in our technologies especially after the many space race defeats to the Soviet Union. Lastly, Kennedy emphasized public service, established the Peace Corps, and gave his civil rights address saying that black Americans deserved equal treatment under the law. Over 210,000 Peace Corps... | <urn:uuid:3306dcb1-6b76-4935-bc86-bf6ff5063c0a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/john-fitzgerald-kennedy-17 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.982128 | 623 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.40893352031707764,... | 1 | “My fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” This is a quote that President John Fitzgerald Kennedy used during his terms of presidency before he was assassinated in 1964. For many, his assassination remains one of the most traumatic events in their memory and even history. Although, John Fitzgerald Kennedy was much more than a president that got assassinated while in office.
While still attending college at Harvard University, Kennedy volunteered for hazardous combat duty in the Pacific during World War II. His time spent volunteering made him a war hero. Coming from a long family line of political history, Kennedy began working in the House of Representatives for six years from 1947-1953. After the House, he moved to the Senate where he served for eight years from 1963-1961. The election of 1960 set records for the youngest elected president as Kennedy, forty-three years old, became our nation’s 35th president.
With such a close race between Nixon and Kennedy, Kennedy knew his inaugural speech had to win over all of Nixon’s supporters. Although his age and religion made Kennedy seem inexperienced and disagreeable, he overcame the doubts by promising to get America out of the “conservative rut” they were in and promised that the United States would have the strength to resist communism around the world.
Kennedy had many successes in his cut-short time in office. The first of which was his preventing nuclear Armageddon known as the Cuban missile crisis. The Soviet leader, Nikita Krushchev, who secretly deployed ninety nuclear missiles in Cuba also had a tie-up plan if the United States were to attack the weapon sites. Krushchev wrote in his memoirs, “if a quarter or even a tenth of our missiles survived—even if only one or two big ones were left—we could still hit New York, and there wouldn’t be much of New York left” (1). President Kennedy offhandedly created a jerry-built policy that included an ban on any shipment of Soviet missiles and demanded that all weapons in Cuba be removed. Khrushchev then turned back the cargo ships and removed the missiles. Many believed this to be the end of it until years later when the truth came out that Kennedy made a hidden arrangement with the Soviet leader giving him exactly what he needed. Kennedy claims he did what was necessary and made a deal he knew he couldn’t sell to his fellow Americans. Another success of John F. Kennedy’s presidency was that he planned to put man on the moon before the end of the 1960’s. In 1969, the plan came to life when Neil Armstrong’s boot hit the lunar dirt on July 20th. This was a huge achievement for humanity and a prideful boost in our technologies especially after the many space race defeats to the Soviet Union. Lastly, Kennedy emphasized public service, established the Peace Corps, and gave his civil rights address saying that black Americans deserved equal treatment under the law. Over 210,000 Peace Corps... | 640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What does Reformation Day commemorate?
A German scholar and monk named Martin Luther was upset that a representative of the Catholic Church was coming to his hometown of Wittenberg, a little backwater of a town, to raise money for the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. The church planned to sell “indulgences” — a way of winning remission from penance in this life or in purgatory by making a donation to the church. There was a popular saying of the time: “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.” Luther wasn’t having that, and he wrote down his reasons — his 95 Theses, or grievances against the pope and the church. On Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed them to the door of Castle Church in the center of town.
Luther’s main idea, developed in subsequent years, was this: We do not enter heaven not through sacraments like baptism or absolution, but through faith alone — “sola fide,” in the Latin of the church. Luther had five “solas” he believed Christians needed: faith, Scripture, Jesus, grace and glory.
“I began to understand that the righteousness of God is that through which the righteous live by a gift of God, namely by faith,” Luther wrote. “Here I felt as if I were entirely born again and had entered paradise itself through the gates that had been flung open.”
It was like a theological bomb going off. Thanks to the newly invented printing press, Luther’s theses were printed, translated into different languages and spread around Europe. People flocked to Germany to hear Luther speak, the Protestant Reformation was born. | <urn:uuid:99a2f570-6896-47c9-95a9-5dd596a2db3b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.livinghopecrc.com/reformation-sunday/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00539.warc.gz | en | 0.984962 | 375 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.01685991510... | 2 | What does Reformation Day commemorate?
A German scholar and monk named Martin Luther was upset that a representative of the Catholic Church was coming to his hometown of Wittenberg, a little backwater of a town, to raise money for the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. The church planned to sell “indulgences” — a way of winning remission from penance in this life or in purgatory by making a donation to the church. There was a popular saying of the time: “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.” Luther wasn’t having that, and he wrote down his reasons — his 95 Theses, or grievances against the pope and the church. On Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed them to the door of Castle Church in the center of town.
Luther’s main idea, developed in subsequent years, was this: We do not enter heaven not through sacraments like baptism or absolution, but through faith alone — “sola fide,” in the Latin of the church. Luther had five “solas” he believed Christians needed: faith, Scripture, Jesus, grace and glory.
“I began to understand that the righteousness of God is that through which the righteous live by a gift of God, namely by faith,” Luther wrote. “Here I felt as if I were entirely born again and had entered paradise itself through the gates that had been flung open.”
It was like a theological bomb going off. Thanks to the newly invented printing press, Luther’s theses were printed, translated into different languages and spread around Europe. People flocked to Germany to hear Luther speak, the Protestant Reformation was born. | 354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
00Ludovice, AndreiTerry, RyanPeriod 5
Q) In what ways does Polyphemus reflect his father?
A) Polyphemus, like his father, is one with a higher rank than others. He is considered “the chief representative” of the Cyclops. His father, Poseidon, is part of the big three. This may affect their judgment when a being that seems lower challenges them. This leads into the next quality that they both share. They both can become ruthless at times, especially when challenged by others. For example, when Polyphemus is attracted to a nymph, but is rejected for a youth named Acis, Polyphemus crushes him with a boulder. One time, Poseidon had a competition with Athena and when he lost he flooded the place they were competing for.
Q) Why do you think a mythical creature would live their lives as workers instead of something more powerful?
A) The Cyclops differ from any of the other mythical creature because they had a job given to them, when they were saved from the dark pits of Tartarus. They took it because they probably felt they were in debt and they were good at metalworking. The next generation were a primitive tribe that were shepherds. This generation had the mentality that they were normal and didn’t differ much from mortals. The Cyclops were just one-eyed creatures that got angered easily. They had no intention of conquering the world or become powerful.
Q) What did Homer want his people to learn when he told the story where Odysseus blinds Polyphemus and Poseidon punishes him?
A) Homer probably wanted his people to learn that everything you do in life will affect you, if it’s in a big way or in a little way. When Polyphemus starts eating Odysseus’s men, Odysseus has to do something about it. So when Polyphemus gets blinded by Odysseus’s spear, Poseidon gets irritated and tries to buffet him from return home. For every action, there is a reaction.
Q) How does Cronus’s banishing of the Cyclops to Tartarus show how powerful they are?
A) Cronus’s punishment to the first generation of Cyclops was way over the top. They were put there because of Cronus feared being overthrown by his own brothers. He threw them in to the darkest, deepest pits of the Earth, where it is nearly impossible to escape. Tartarus is one of the most relentless places in Greek mythology, but even so the Cyclops were able to escape, twice. The Cyclops are very powerful creatures, but are workers of the gods.
Q) How do Homer’s Cyclops differ to those of Hesiod?
A) You may not have known but there are two generations or species of Cyclops in Greek mythology. The first generation were told by Hesiod. The first generation consisted of Argos, Steropes, and Brontes. They were banished to Tartarus twice by their family. At first, their father Ouranos, and then their brother Cronus. Once they were freed, Zeus made them the metalworkers of Olympus. They were the ones who gave Zeus his lightning bolt, Poseidon his trident, and Hades his helmet. The second generation of Cyclops were told through Homer’s writings. The second generation of Cyclops were… | <urn:uuid:d86f27c8-e667-4c57-9ed1-9a8b9c991320> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Greek-Mythology-And-Cyclops-560391.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.989452 | 723 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0.021486695855... | 1 | 00Ludovice, AndreiTerry, RyanPeriod 5
Q) In what ways does Polyphemus reflect his father?
A) Polyphemus, like his father, is one with a higher rank than others. He is considered “the chief representative” of the Cyclops. His father, Poseidon, is part of the big three. This may affect their judgment when a being that seems lower challenges them. This leads into the next quality that they both share. They both can become ruthless at times, especially when challenged by others. For example, when Polyphemus is attracted to a nymph, but is rejected for a youth named Acis, Polyphemus crushes him with a boulder. One time, Poseidon had a competition with Athena and when he lost he flooded the place they were competing for.
Q) Why do you think a mythical creature would live their lives as workers instead of something more powerful?
A) The Cyclops differ from any of the other mythical creature because they had a job given to them, when they were saved from the dark pits of Tartarus. They took it because they probably felt they were in debt and they were good at metalworking. The next generation were a primitive tribe that were shepherds. This generation had the mentality that they were normal and didn’t differ much from mortals. The Cyclops were just one-eyed creatures that got angered easily. They had no intention of conquering the world or become powerful.
Q) What did Homer want his people to learn when he told the story where Odysseus blinds Polyphemus and Poseidon punishes him?
A) Homer probably wanted his people to learn that everything you do in life will affect you, if it’s in a big way or in a little way. When Polyphemus starts eating Odysseus’s men, Odysseus has to do something about it. So when Polyphemus gets blinded by Odysseus’s spear, Poseidon gets irritated and tries to buffet him from return home. For every action, there is a reaction.
Q) How does Cronus’s banishing of the Cyclops to Tartarus show how powerful they are?
A) Cronus’s punishment to the first generation of Cyclops was way over the top. They were put there because of Cronus feared being overthrown by his own brothers. He threw them in to the darkest, deepest pits of the Earth, where it is nearly impossible to escape. Tartarus is one of the most relentless places in Greek mythology, but even so the Cyclops were able to escape, twice. The Cyclops are very powerful creatures, but are workers of the gods.
Q) How do Homer’s Cyclops differ to those of Hesiod?
A) You may not have known but there are two generations or species of Cyclops in Greek mythology. The first generation were told by Hesiod. The first generation consisted of Argos, Steropes, and Brontes. They were banished to Tartarus twice by their family. At first, their father Ouranos, and then their brother Cronus. Once they were freed, Zeus made them the metalworkers of Olympus. They were the ones who gave Zeus his lightning bolt, Poseidon his trident, and Hades his helmet. The second generation of Cyclops were told through Homer’s writings. The second generation of Cyclops were… | 694 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Strengths and weaknesses of weimar republic Essay
The Weimar Republic was set up in Germany after world war one, after the Kaiser had been abducted in 1918 . It was the most democratic government in the world, even allowing women to vote. The new government got off to a bad start, Germany was nearly bankrupt and unemployment was higher than ever. They were labelled ‘November criminals’ due to the agreement of the treaty of Versailles and unpaid reparations lead to challenges from political extremists. The new system of government was weak and faced some economic disasters such as hyperinflation in 1923 and the Wall Street Crash that left Germany under serious strain in 1929.
In some ways they dealt with these problems successfully but in others not. The problem the Weimar government faced was the resentment German people had against the Politian’s that signed the treaty of Versailles. They were names the ‘November criminals.’ Germans disagreed with the terms of the peace treaty and few accepted that Germany was responsible for the First World War and depended on the politicians to deliver this point across.
The treaty demanded high levels of reparations which made it difficult for the Weimar republic to cope with the economic strain. The public became even more portrayed when this lead to the Ruhr invasion. This then caused hyperinflation and high levels of unemployment.
On the other hand the German citizens didn’t considered the consequences of not accepting the treaty and blamed all their struggles on the politicians agreement. This did not lead the government to a very successful start. Germany had been run as a dictatorship by the Kaiser until he fled in 1919 , a new constitution was set up by the Weimar Republic. The new government was the biggest democracy in the world. Which allowed anyone over twenty including women to vote. The new government looked perfect, a new Bill of Rights gave every German citizen freedom of speech and religion, all men and women had rights to for an elected president and chancellor and the government had to do what the Reichstag wanted. But there were two major faults in the new constitution.. The new law of proportional Voting made it difficult for a party to get a majority vote. The government was run by weak coalitions of parties that didn’t agree on ideas and had different opinions on how the government should be run. During 1919-1932 there were 20 different parties which made German citizens lose faith in their republic. Also Article 43 meant that the president did not need the agreement of the Reichstag in case of an emergency. This was a problem as it did not state what an emergency was and later on let Hitler take power legally. The Weimar Government faced lots of challenges from political extremists. The Weimar republic were firstly challenged by The Spartacist revolt in 1919. The Spartacists were a group of left wing communists that tried but failed to start revolution again Weimar. The revolution was very badly organized which allowed the Weimar Republic to crush the Spartacists. The Weimar called on ex-soldiers that were decommissioned because of the treaty of Versailles to destroy their revolt. They were successful in killing their two main leaders and 100 other rebellions.
They were successful again in a big revolt a year later in 1920 in stopping the Freikorps. It came about by the Allies ordering the Weimar to shut down the Freikorps. They felt betrayed by this and marched to Berlin armed. With Weimar without the support of the army they turned to the workers. All workers went on strike leaving the Freikorps unsuccessful in their revolt because there was no public services and industry. The Munich putsch was another big putsch that Hitler led. It was very unorganized and badly planned. Hitler thought it was a perfect time to seize power but he was wrong. The putschists were not even unified in their goals and they somehow had no real plan what to do once they started. They might have expected to gain thousands of supporters very quickly by having famous General Ludendorff as their a world war one hero but in the end only 100 soldiers turned up to contribute to the riot. On the 9 November 1923, Hitler and his Nazis went into Munich on what they thought would be a triumphal march to take power. However, Kahr had called in police and army reinforcements. The police were forced to killed 16 Nazis. Hitler fled but two days later Hitler was arrested. The biggest struggle Weimar government faced were economic problems. The country was already was already struggling with economic difficulties before the French invaded the ruhr due to unpaid reparations. The invasion of the Ruhr caused shortage of economic resources. This caused hyper-inflation, the government then decided to print a large amount of paper money in to the economy in 1923.
Money became so common and so much of it that is was virtually worthless. It was cheaper to burn a bag of money than to buy a bag of coal. Thanks to Gustav Stresemann the government was able to get the situation under control when in 1924 the Dawes Plan was agreed. It meant Germany had more time to pay reparations and 800 million marks in US loans. Stresemann also helped the country through improving diplomatic relations. He signed the Locarno treaties, which promised to honour the Versailles agreement. He also secured German membership of the league of nations. The young plan was also a major turning point for the country’s economy. The total amount of reparations had been left unchanged by the Dawes Plan of 1924. In 1929 Owen Young an American banker created an international committee which reduced Germany’s reparations from 6.6 billion to 2 billion to be paid off by 1988. Just before Stresemann death in 1929 he said: “The economic position is only flourishing on the surface. Germany is in fact dancing on a volcano. If the short-term credits are called in, a large section of our economy will collapse…” This was shown to be true when, in October 1929, the Wall Street Crash saw the value of US shares collapse. US bankers and businesses started recalling their loans from Germany. The result was a worldwide depression. This meant economic disaster for Germany. Companies went bankrupt overnight, workers were sacked and poverty gripped the nation again. The Weimar republic was partly successful in dealing with the economic problems by the reduce in reparations and hyperinflations, but Stresemann efforts were put down after the Wall street crash of 1929. Workers were laid off in their millions and Germany was back to square one.
The Weimar republic is traditionally known as a failure that led Germany into depression but many problems they faced were dealt with successfully. The republic destroyed the three main revolts I discussed earlier and put Germany out of violent danger. Also Stresemann and Owen Young introuduced the Dawes Plan, The Young Plan and signed the Locarno Treaty which reduced reparation, increased the time Germany had to repay the reparations and Germany was accepted into the League of Nations. But despite these successes the republic dealt with the majority of problems unsuccessfully. They got off to a bad start by lots of Germans labelled them the ‘November criminals’ because they agreed to the treaty of Versailles. Even though the economic crisis seemed to be recovering in 1923 onwards, Owen Young and Stresemann’s major improvements were crushed by the the Wall Street Crash which put Germany in the original state they began with. The new constitution was
partly beneficial to Germany by giving every German citizen over 20 a vote and all citizens the right of speech and religion but the Article 43 was not clearly thought out not stating what an emergency was and proportional representation lead to no one party leading the government and lots disagreed on how the country should be run. Overall I think the republic was unsuccessful as more problems weren’t solved successfully than successfully solved.
Cite this Strengths and weaknesses of weimar republic Essay
Strengths and weaknesses of weimar republic Essay. (2016, Oct 26). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/strengths-and-weaknesses-of-weimar-republic/ | <urn:uuid:1b899fa6-cba4-4c62-a2d3-999597414496> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/strengths-and-weaknesses-of-weimar-republic/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.985606 | 1,660 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.499709337... | 1 | Strengths and weaknesses of weimar republic Essay
The Weimar Republic was set up in Germany after world war one, after the Kaiser had been abducted in 1918 . It was the most democratic government in the world, even allowing women to vote. The new government got off to a bad start, Germany was nearly bankrupt and unemployment was higher than ever. They were labelled ‘November criminals’ due to the agreement of the treaty of Versailles and unpaid reparations lead to challenges from political extremists. The new system of government was weak and faced some economic disasters such as hyperinflation in 1923 and the Wall Street Crash that left Germany under serious strain in 1929.
In some ways they dealt with these problems successfully but in others not. The problem the Weimar government faced was the resentment German people had against the Politian’s that signed the treaty of Versailles. They were names the ‘November criminals.’ Germans disagreed with the terms of the peace treaty and few accepted that Germany was responsible for the First World War and depended on the politicians to deliver this point across.
The treaty demanded high levels of reparations which made it difficult for the Weimar republic to cope with the economic strain. The public became even more portrayed when this lead to the Ruhr invasion. This then caused hyperinflation and high levels of unemployment.
On the other hand the German citizens didn’t considered the consequences of not accepting the treaty and blamed all their struggles on the politicians agreement. This did not lead the government to a very successful start. Germany had been run as a dictatorship by the Kaiser until he fled in 1919 , a new constitution was set up by the Weimar Republic. The new government was the biggest democracy in the world. Which allowed anyone over twenty including women to vote. The new government looked perfect, a new Bill of Rights gave every German citizen freedom of speech and religion, all men and women had rights to for an elected president and chancellor and the government had to do what the Reichstag wanted. But there were two major faults in the new constitution.. The new law of proportional Voting made it difficult for a party to get a majority vote. The government was run by weak coalitions of parties that didn’t agree on ideas and had different opinions on how the government should be run. During 1919-1932 there were 20 different parties which made German citizens lose faith in their republic. Also Article 43 meant that the president did not need the agreement of the Reichstag in case of an emergency. This was a problem as it did not state what an emergency was and later on let Hitler take power legally. The Weimar Government faced lots of challenges from political extremists. The Weimar republic were firstly challenged by The Spartacist revolt in 1919. The Spartacists were a group of left wing communists that tried but failed to start revolution again Weimar. The revolution was very badly organized which allowed the Weimar Republic to crush the Spartacists. The Weimar called on ex-soldiers that were decommissioned because of the treaty of Versailles to destroy their revolt. They were successful in killing their two main leaders and 100 other rebellions.
They were successful again in a big revolt a year later in 1920 in stopping the Freikorps. It came about by the Allies ordering the Weimar to shut down the Freikorps. They felt betrayed by this and marched to Berlin armed. With Weimar without the support of the army they turned to the workers. All workers went on strike leaving the Freikorps unsuccessful in their revolt because there was no public services and industry. The Munich putsch was another big putsch that Hitler led. It was very unorganized and badly planned. Hitler thought it was a perfect time to seize power but he was wrong. The putschists were not even unified in their goals and they somehow had no real plan what to do once they started. They might have expected to gain thousands of supporters very quickly by having famous General Ludendorff as their a world war one hero but in the end only 100 soldiers turned up to contribute to the riot. On the 9 November 1923, Hitler and his Nazis went into Munich on what they thought would be a triumphal march to take power. However, Kahr had called in police and army reinforcements. The police were forced to killed 16 Nazis. Hitler fled but two days later Hitler was arrested. The biggest struggle Weimar government faced were economic problems. The country was already was already struggling with economic difficulties before the French invaded the ruhr due to unpaid reparations. The invasion of the Ruhr caused shortage of economic resources. This caused hyper-inflation, the government then decided to print a large amount of paper money in to the economy in 1923.
Money became so common and so much of it that is was virtually worthless. It was cheaper to burn a bag of money than to buy a bag of coal. Thanks to Gustav Stresemann the government was able to get the situation under control when in 1924 the Dawes Plan was agreed. It meant Germany had more time to pay reparations and 800 million marks in US loans. Stresemann also helped the country through improving diplomatic relations. He signed the Locarno treaties, which promised to honour the Versailles agreement. He also secured German membership of the league of nations. The young plan was also a major turning point for the country’s economy. The total amount of reparations had been left unchanged by the Dawes Plan of 1924. In 1929 Owen Young an American banker created an international committee which reduced Germany’s reparations from 6.6 billion to 2 billion to be paid off by 1988. Just before Stresemann death in 1929 he said: “The economic position is only flourishing on the surface. Germany is in fact dancing on a volcano. If the short-term credits are called in, a large section of our economy will collapse…” This was shown to be true when, in October 1929, the Wall Street Crash saw the value of US shares collapse. US bankers and businesses started recalling their loans from Germany. The result was a worldwide depression. This meant economic disaster for Germany. Companies went bankrupt overnight, workers were sacked and poverty gripped the nation again. The Weimar republic was partly successful in dealing with the economic problems by the reduce in reparations and hyperinflations, but Stresemann efforts were put down after the Wall street crash of 1929. Workers were laid off in their millions and Germany was back to square one.
The Weimar republic is traditionally known as a failure that led Germany into depression but many problems they faced were dealt with successfully. The republic destroyed the three main revolts I discussed earlier and put Germany out of violent danger. Also Stresemann and Owen Young introuduced the Dawes Plan, The Young Plan and signed the Locarno Treaty which reduced reparation, increased the time Germany had to repay the reparations and Germany was accepted into the League of Nations. But despite these successes the republic dealt with the majority of problems unsuccessfully. They got off to a bad start by lots of Germans labelled them the ‘November criminals’ because they agreed to the treaty of Versailles. Even though the economic crisis seemed to be recovering in 1923 onwards, Owen Young and Stresemann’s major improvements were crushed by the the Wall Street Crash which put Germany in the original state they began with. The new constitution was
partly beneficial to Germany by giving every German citizen over 20 a vote and all citizens the right of speech and religion but the Article 43 was not clearly thought out not stating what an emergency was and proportional representation lead to no one party leading the government and lots disagreed on how the country should be run. Overall I think the republic was unsuccessful as more problems weren’t solved successfully than successfully solved.
Cite this Strengths and weaknesses of weimar republic Essay
Strengths and weaknesses of weimar republic Essay. (2016, Oct 26). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/strengths-and-weaknesses-of-weimar-republic/ | 1,706 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 4th-century martyr showed up in the Middle Ages and saved the day.
Lucy was born in Syracuse in 283 to wealthy noble parents. Her father died when she was young, leaving her alone with her mother, Eutychia.
Even though at the time it was illegal to be Christian, Lucy secretly consecrated herself to God. She promised to stay a virgin and use her dowry money to help the poor.
But Lucy’s mother had other ideas. Eutychia had a terminal blood disease. She wanted to see Lucy married off before she died, so she arranged for her to marry a well-off pagan man. Lucy wanted nothing to do with this and set about to change her mother’s mind.
In nearby Catania, miracles and healings were being reported at the tomb of St. Agatha. Lucy prayed to St. Agatha and took her mother on pilgrimage to the tomb. Eutychia was miraculously healed and agreed that Lucy should be free to dedicate her life to God.
This turn of events enraged the pagan man to whom Eutychia had promised Lucy. He reported Lucy to the governor of Sicily for being a Christian. Diocletian was emperor at the time.
A few different accounts of Lucy’s death exist and it is impossible to know which is correct. In one version she was sentenced to become a prostitute. But when guards tried to carry her off to the brothel her body was too heavy to move. In another version they tried to burn her alive, but failed. Finally she was stabbed in the neck with a dagger. Some versions of the story say Lucy’s eyes were gouged out by the Romans. This is why she is sometimes depicted holding her eyes on a tray.
Whatever happened, we know Lucy was killed by the Roman governor because she was a Christian.
But how did devotion to Lucy spread to Scandinavia?
By 400 Lucy was being venerated as a martyr by Christians in Europe. Around the 1100s the first monks reached Sweden. They brought with them stories of St. Lucy and devotion began there.
There is a story told that during the Middle Ages a famine hit southern Sweden. During this famine, on the darkest night of the year (the winter solstice), a ship sailed into Lake Vannern with a lady standing at the helm, surrounded by an “unearthly light” — St. Lucy. Once in port, the saint distributed bags of wheat that lasted all winter long.
It is also told that Lucy used to bring food to persecuted Christians. To free her hands in order to carry more supplies, she placed a wreath of candles on her head to light her way.
Even today In Swedish tradition, the oldest girl in the family dresses as St. Lucy. She wears a white robe with a red sash around her waist, and a crown with lit candles on her head (nowadays the candles are battery operated LED candles). She serves coffee and baked goodies to the family. Churches in Sweden often have St. Lucy processions. A a girl dressed as the saint leads a candlelight procession of young boys and girls. Once in the church “Lucy” and her entourage lead the congregation in singing carols and hymns.
St. Lucy is venerated by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Lutherans and Anglicans. In the Catholic Church she is the patron saint of Syracuse, virgins, and the blind.
The popular Italian song “Santa Lucia” is often associated with the saint. But the song is actually about the waterfront Santa Lucia neighborhood in Naples. In Scandinavian countries, however, the song has been given lyrics that are linked to the saint.
Since you are here…
…we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you? | <urn:uuid:66ec6439-5848-452e-9f28-25a060454519> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aleteia.org/2018/12/13/why-st-lucy-is-popular-in-sweden-and-how-shes-still-celebrated-in-that-non-religious-country/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00147.warc.gz | en | 0.982239 | 912 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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-0.094768874347209... | 1 | The 4th-century martyr showed up in the Middle Ages and saved the day.
Lucy was born in Syracuse in 283 to wealthy noble parents. Her father died when she was young, leaving her alone with her mother, Eutychia.
Even though at the time it was illegal to be Christian, Lucy secretly consecrated herself to God. She promised to stay a virgin and use her dowry money to help the poor.
But Lucy’s mother had other ideas. Eutychia had a terminal blood disease. She wanted to see Lucy married off before she died, so she arranged for her to marry a well-off pagan man. Lucy wanted nothing to do with this and set about to change her mother’s mind.
In nearby Catania, miracles and healings were being reported at the tomb of St. Agatha. Lucy prayed to St. Agatha and took her mother on pilgrimage to the tomb. Eutychia was miraculously healed and agreed that Lucy should be free to dedicate her life to God.
This turn of events enraged the pagan man to whom Eutychia had promised Lucy. He reported Lucy to the governor of Sicily for being a Christian. Diocletian was emperor at the time.
A few different accounts of Lucy’s death exist and it is impossible to know which is correct. In one version she was sentenced to become a prostitute. But when guards tried to carry her off to the brothel her body was too heavy to move. In another version they tried to burn her alive, but failed. Finally she was stabbed in the neck with a dagger. Some versions of the story say Lucy’s eyes were gouged out by the Romans. This is why she is sometimes depicted holding her eyes on a tray.
Whatever happened, we know Lucy was killed by the Roman governor because she was a Christian.
But how did devotion to Lucy spread to Scandinavia?
By 400 Lucy was being venerated as a martyr by Christians in Europe. Around the 1100s the first monks reached Sweden. They brought with them stories of St. Lucy and devotion began there.
There is a story told that during the Middle Ages a famine hit southern Sweden. During this famine, on the darkest night of the year (the winter solstice), a ship sailed into Lake Vannern with a lady standing at the helm, surrounded by an “unearthly light” — St. Lucy. Once in port, the saint distributed bags of wheat that lasted all winter long.
It is also told that Lucy used to bring food to persecuted Christians. To free her hands in order to carry more supplies, she placed a wreath of candles on her head to light her way.
Even today In Swedish tradition, the oldest girl in the family dresses as St. Lucy. She wears a white robe with a red sash around her waist, and a crown with lit candles on her head (nowadays the candles are battery operated LED candles). She serves coffee and baked goodies to the family. Churches in Sweden often have St. Lucy processions. A a girl dressed as the saint leads a candlelight procession of young boys and girls. Once in the church “Lucy” and her entourage lead the congregation in singing carols and hymns.
St. Lucy is venerated by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Lutherans and Anglicans. In the Catholic Church she is the patron saint of Syracuse, virgins, and the blind.
The popular Italian song “Santa Lucia” is often associated with the saint. But the song is actually about the waterfront Santa Lucia neighborhood in Naples. In Scandinavian countries, however, the song has been given lyrics that are linked to the saint.
Since you are here…
…we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you? | 884 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire, what ensued was an extremely turbulent time period. The country had some trouble establishing a form of government after occupation was over. After a few false attempts, a king was brought in from another kingdom. King Otto I was originally a Bavarian prince, but he ended up becoming the first King of Greece. Here’s more information about him:
Otto’s Early Years
Born in Austria in 1815, it didn’t seem too likely that the young Otto would one day be the king of Greece. His connection to Greece was quite loose and tangential; he could claim very distant relation to two imperial dynasties of the Byzantine Empire. At the time of Otto’s birth, Greece was still under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
In 1821, the Greek people rebelled against their overlords and claimed their nation’s independence. After this, the rest of Europe didn’t really recognize Greek statehood. Instead, the great powers saw Greece as little more an autonomous region of the Ottoman Empire.
Greece had been in chaos for a while because many factions tried to gain control of Greece. Ultimately, Greece was formally recognized by the European powers following the Treaty of London in 1832.
One of the primary goals of the Treaty of London was to establish new leadership for the fledgling nation. The parameters of the treaty were largely dictated by the three great powers of the time — Britain, France, and Russia. An independent Greece favored all three powers by undermining Ottoman influence on the continent. However, no nation wanted any of the other nations to have excessive influence over the country.
With it being agreed that Greece needed a monarch who wasn’t British, French, or Russian, they decided to scour the minor powers of Europe for a candidate who had any tangential claim to this newly-established Greek throne. Eventually, they found a Bavarian prince who met these qualifications, and that’s how Otto I got his title.
Upon arriving in Greece, there was a sense that the 17-year-old Otto I was out of place. He didn’t speak Greek, and he had grown up in Bavaria his entire life. Worst of all, he wasn’t Orthodox Christian. As he was a Roman Catholic, a foreigner, and a very young man, the Greek people were not very happy about his status as their king. He tried to impose a very rigid Bavarian-style government structure on the Greek people, and this was not something that they were used to.
However, he and his ministers did establish a fledgling military, educational system, justice system, and general administration. Despite this, things were difficult for the new king. Greeks were not receptive to his top-down system of governance, and they wanted to establish a parliament.
King Otto didn’t want to establish a parliament and the conflict was one of the things that caused the Revolution of 1843. Eventually, he agreed to the parliament. He allowed the
new Greek National Assembly to enact a constitution. Despite the new constitution, King Otto I still dictated much of the government’s policies, and this angered the Greek people and their representatives. The King’s dismissal of the Greek prime minister in 1862 was the straw that broke the camel’s back, and Otto I was forced to leave the country, never to return.
In 1864, the great powers gave the throne to a Dane who would be known as King George I, and the country adopted a new, more democratic constitution. Otto lived out the rest of his days in exile, lamenting his expulsion from the country he once ruled and still claimed to love. He continued to dress in Greek regalia until his death in 1867.
King Otto I may not have been popular, but he is an important part of Greece’s modern history. | <urn:uuid:f88e5a39-d365-45ae-ab86-f1117d5b0a6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.myparea.com/king-otto/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00175.warc.gz | en | 0.983449 | 802 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.2740214467048... | 4 | After Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire, what ensued was an extremely turbulent time period. The country had some trouble establishing a form of government after occupation was over. After a few false attempts, a king was brought in from another kingdom. King Otto I was originally a Bavarian prince, but he ended up becoming the first King of Greece. Here’s more information about him:
Otto’s Early Years
Born in Austria in 1815, it didn’t seem too likely that the young Otto would one day be the king of Greece. His connection to Greece was quite loose and tangential; he could claim very distant relation to two imperial dynasties of the Byzantine Empire. At the time of Otto’s birth, Greece was still under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
In 1821, the Greek people rebelled against their overlords and claimed their nation’s independence. After this, the rest of Europe didn’t really recognize Greek statehood. Instead, the great powers saw Greece as little more an autonomous region of the Ottoman Empire.
Greece had been in chaos for a while because many factions tried to gain control of Greece. Ultimately, Greece was formally recognized by the European powers following the Treaty of London in 1832.
One of the primary goals of the Treaty of London was to establish new leadership for the fledgling nation. The parameters of the treaty were largely dictated by the three great powers of the time — Britain, France, and Russia. An independent Greece favored all three powers by undermining Ottoman influence on the continent. However, no nation wanted any of the other nations to have excessive influence over the country.
With it being agreed that Greece needed a monarch who wasn’t British, French, or Russian, they decided to scour the minor powers of Europe for a candidate who had any tangential claim to this newly-established Greek throne. Eventually, they found a Bavarian prince who met these qualifications, and that’s how Otto I got his title.
Upon arriving in Greece, there was a sense that the 17-year-old Otto I was out of place. He didn’t speak Greek, and he had grown up in Bavaria his entire life. Worst of all, he wasn’t Orthodox Christian. As he was a Roman Catholic, a foreigner, and a very young man, the Greek people were not very happy about his status as their king. He tried to impose a very rigid Bavarian-style government structure on the Greek people, and this was not something that they were used to.
However, he and his ministers did establish a fledgling military, educational system, justice system, and general administration. Despite this, things were difficult for the new king. Greeks were not receptive to his top-down system of governance, and they wanted to establish a parliament.
King Otto didn’t want to establish a parliament and the conflict was one of the things that caused the Revolution of 1843. Eventually, he agreed to the parliament. He allowed the
new Greek National Assembly to enact a constitution. Despite the new constitution, King Otto I still dictated much of the government’s policies, and this angered the Greek people and their representatives. The King’s dismissal of the Greek prime minister in 1862 was the straw that broke the camel’s back, and Otto I was forced to leave the country, never to return.
In 1864, the great powers gave the throne to a Dane who would be known as King George I, and the country adopted a new, more democratic constitution. Otto lived out the rest of his days in exile, lamenting his expulsion from the country he once ruled and still claimed to love. He continued to dress in Greek regalia until his death in 1867.
King Otto I may not have been popular, but he is an important part of Greece’s modern history. | 785 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919-20, the losses inflicted on the first Armenian state (the Armenian Democratic Republic) during the Armenian Genocide and between 1894 and 1923 were calculated. It amounted to more than 21 million French francs (Western Armenia – 15,000,000,000, and Eastern Armenia – 6,000,000,000), which is around 3.5 trillion dollars.
Below is a map of modern Azerbaijan on which you can see the ethnic population between 1100 and 1880. The ethnic cleansing (Genocide) of the eastern Armenians took place in these territories, which subsequently contributed to the establishment of modern Azerbaijan.
In 1850, the population in this area was about 2,285,000 people, of which more than 60% were Armenians and 15% were Turkic people. And in 1920, after ethnic cleansing, the population was over 2,862,000, of which 70% were Muslims (Lezgins, Talysh, Iranians, Azerbaijanis (Tatars), and others) and over 25% were Armenians who were mainly situated in Artsakh, Nakhichevan, and Baku. | <urn:uuid:a25a9e65-fdb7-4df9-8344-ac5ed8d02371> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://allinnet.info/history/paris-peace-conference-of-1919-1920/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00055.warc.gz | en | 0.985228 | 233 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.572779119... | 9 | At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919-20, the losses inflicted on the first Armenian state (the Armenian Democratic Republic) during the Armenian Genocide and between 1894 and 1923 were calculated. It amounted to more than 21 million French francs (Western Armenia – 15,000,000,000, and Eastern Armenia – 6,000,000,000), which is around 3.5 trillion dollars.
Below is a map of modern Azerbaijan on which you can see the ethnic population between 1100 and 1880. The ethnic cleansing (Genocide) of the eastern Armenians took place in these territories, which subsequently contributed to the establishment of modern Azerbaijan.
In 1850, the population in this area was about 2,285,000 people, of which more than 60% were Armenians and 15% were Turkic people. And in 1920, after ethnic cleansing, the population was over 2,862,000, of which 70% were Muslims (Lezgins, Talysh, Iranians, Azerbaijanis (Tatars), and others) and over 25% were Armenians who were mainly situated in Artsakh, Nakhichevan, and Baku. | 296 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sunni Shia Conflict
Syria is currently all over the news regarding what many have to come to see as a civil war. A term like civil war needs to identify the players and the reasons for the war. In this case the players are being identified as pro government or antigovernment with a Sunni or Shia overtone. Sunni and Shia are the two major sects of Islam and both have a historical based conflict going back to the death of the Prophet Muhammad and how Muslims should be governed. This conflict has caused tensions and violence to flare up throughout Islamic history. This conflict has carried into modern times and has becoming a rallying point for Muslim people calling for change with their government and across the Middle Eastern region. The Sunni Shia conflict is major division within Islam that has and continues to shape Islam and the Middle East.
History of the Conflict
The Sunni Shia conflict can trace its roots back to 632 C.E. when Muhammad died without clearly naming a successor to his budding Islamic empire (Egger 2004). The one group of Muslims felt that following the traditional path of election by consensus was the correct method. The only stipulation was it had to be a member from Muhammad’s tribe, the Quraysh. Another group of Muslims thought that Muhammad had designated Ali, his son-in-law, as his successor. In the end the tribes elected Abu-Bakr as the first caliph and his first act was to make sure the Arab empire stated intact following tribal revolts. Upon Abu-Bakr death Umar was appointed as caliph and once again Ali was passed over. When Umar died Uthman was elected as caliph furthering the resentment felt by those that felt Ali should be caliph. When Uthman was killed Ali was finally named caliph but he would not rule for long. He too was murdered by his own followers when he sought to make peace with a potential rival, Mu’awiya. When Mu’awiya was about to die he named his son as his successor and the Umayyad dynasty was born (Egger 2004). Passing the caliphate to his son broke with the tradition of election that Muslims held to. This drove some Muslims to start a more overt movement that sought to get a direct descendent of Muhammad placed on the throne of the Muslim empire. Ali’s son Husayn was sought out and asked to lead a revolt against the Uyammad’s. When Husayn set out on his journey to overthrow Yazid, the current caliph, his “supporters” failed to join his band. Husayn and 72 of his followers were killed on the plains of Karbala, Iraq. Thus the Shi’at Ali (Party of Ali) or Shia sect of Islam was born (Egger 2004). The Sunni sect would continue to support what they saw as the traditional path of Islam.
From this initial split other divisions and changes occurred within the religious practices and laws of Islam. While both share a belief in the Qur’an and the sunna (sayings or actions) of the Prophet Muhammad there are religious and legal differences. Imams are by the Shia definition the divinely guided ones but the... | <urn:uuid:d30aea2e-1af8-4cd5-bb7c-e947ac01a81a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/sunni-shia-conflict | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00543.warc.gz | en | 0.987945 | 654 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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Syria is currently all over the news regarding what many have to come to see as a civil war. A term like civil war needs to identify the players and the reasons for the war. In this case the players are being identified as pro government or antigovernment with a Sunni or Shia overtone. Sunni and Shia are the two major sects of Islam and both have a historical based conflict going back to the death of the Prophet Muhammad and how Muslims should be governed. This conflict has caused tensions and violence to flare up throughout Islamic history. This conflict has carried into modern times and has becoming a rallying point for Muslim people calling for change with their government and across the Middle Eastern region. The Sunni Shia conflict is major division within Islam that has and continues to shape Islam and the Middle East.
History of the Conflict
The Sunni Shia conflict can trace its roots back to 632 C.E. when Muhammad died without clearly naming a successor to his budding Islamic empire (Egger 2004). The one group of Muslims felt that following the traditional path of election by consensus was the correct method. The only stipulation was it had to be a member from Muhammad’s tribe, the Quraysh. Another group of Muslims thought that Muhammad had designated Ali, his son-in-law, as his successor. In the end the tribes elected Abu-Bakr as the first caliph and his first act was to make sure the Arab empire stated intact following tribal revolts. Upon Abu-Bakr death Umar was appointed as caliph and once again Ali was passed over. When Umar died Uthman was elected as caliph furthering the resentment felt by those that felt Ali should be caliph. When Uthman was killed Ali was finally named caliph but he would not rule for long. He too was murdered by his own followers when he sought to make peace with a potential rival, Mu’awiya. When Mu’awiya was about to die he named his son as his successor and the Umayyad dynasty was born (Egger 2004). Passing the caliphate to his son broke with the tradition of election that Muslims held to. This drove some Muslims to start a more overt movement that sought to get a direct descendent of Muhammad placed on the throne of the Muslim empire. Ali’s son Husayn was sought out and asked to lead a revolt against the Uyammad’s. When Husayn set out on his journey to overthrow Yazid, the current caliph, his “supporters” failed to join his band. Husayn and 72 of his followers were killed on the plains of Karbala, Iraq. Thus the Shi’at Ali (Party of Ali) or Shia sect of Islam was born (Egger 2004). The Sunni sect would continue to support what they saw as the traditional path of Islam.
From this initial split other divisions and changes occurred within the religious practices and laws of Islam. While both share a belief in the Qur’an and the sunna (sayings or actions) of the Prophet Muhammad there are religious and legal differences. Imams are by the Shia definition the divinely guided ones but the... | 657 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the oldest books in the world, Rig Veda is a part of the four sacred texts of Hinduism called Veda. There are four Vedas in all namely Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda.
The Rig Veda was composed around 3,500 years ago and comprises 1,028 hymns, called ‘Suktas’ which means well-said in English.
Rig Veda was initially learned orally as the printed of the same came only 200 years ago. The hymns are to praise God and Goddesses, chiefly Agni, god of fire, Indra, warrior God and Soma, god representing sacred potion.
Rig Veda is written in Vedic Sanskrit, which belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. The hymns are written like dialogues between humans or humans and elements of nature. Apart from gods, Rig Veda also comprises prayers for horses, cattle and children, especially sons.
Horses are mentioned in the hymns as they were used in the battlefields by being attached to the chariots. The battles were fought to capture cattle, land, water and people to serve as slaves. The army concept was not prevalent then, so all men fought in the battles. | <urn:uuid:6800dec1-6fa1-48ba-a5c5-e738d29df2c4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nextgurukul.in/wiki/concept/cbse/class-6/history/what-books-and-burials-tell-us/oldest-books-in-the-world/3960474 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.980133 | 271 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.204680144... | 3 | One of the oldest books in the world, Rig Veda is a part of the four sacred texts of Hinduism called Veda. There are four Vedas in all namely Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda.
The Rig Veda was composed around 3,500 years ago and comprises 1,028 hymns, called ‘Suktas’ which means well-said in English.
Rig Veda was initially learned orally as the printed of the same came only 200 years ago. The hymns are to praise God and Goddesses, chiefly Agni, god of fire, Indra, warrior God and Soma, god representing sacred potion.
Rig Veda is written in Vedic Sanskrit, which belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. The hymns are written like dialogues between humans or humans and elements of nature. Apart from gods, Rig Veda also comprises prayers for horses, cattle and children, especially sons.
Horses are mentioned in the hymns as they were used in the battlefields by being attached to the chariots. The battles were fought to capture cattle, land, water and people to serve as slaves. The army concept was not prevalent then, so all men fought in the battles. | 271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If crude oil had not been discovered, all whales would be hunted for fat, which could lead to their extinction. For a time, whale fat represented the most commonly used fuel with lamps and candle materials, as they were not as unpleasant as animal fats and produced less smoke. After that, he discovered kerosene and replaced the fat of the whale.
In her report published by Oil Price, the writer Irina Slav said that the facts differ and vary with regard to the contribution of the oil industry in the rescue of whales, which have been hunted some species and became on the verge of extinction during the 19th century.
The use of whale fat reached its highest level during the 19th century, with whales being a source of oil for lighting, and used as lubricant for trains. In addition, whale oil was used in heating, soap making and paint materials, and served as a versatile raw material. In order to meet the growing demand for whale oil, the whaling industry has grown and flourished.
According to records, the US whaling fleet totaled 392 vessels in 1833, rising to 735 by 1846.
The average annual production of amber oil was between four and five million gallons, in addition to between six and ten million gallons of "lubricating oil for trains" produced annually.
The United States continued to provide whale oil until 1850, with the total US fleet falling to only 39 ships by 1876, due to the emergence of kerosene.
|Whales formed a source of oil to provide lighting in the 19th century (Getty Images)|
For his part, a Canadian geologist named Abraham Geisner discovered in the 1940s a way to make kerosene, which was much cheaper than other fuels available at the time, which was derived from coal.
The writer stated that in 1859 drilled the first oil well in Pennsylvania, which represented the beginning of the oil industry, and many credit the rescue of whales to John de Rockefeller, who launched several refineries to refine kerosene, which later developed into oil stations, and as a result became cheap kerosene abundant, Thus the demand for whale oil declined and eventually faded.
The oil is bad
The rise of oil-derived kerosene coincided with the demise of the US whaling industry, but there was no strong causal link between the two. Avoiding the extinction of whale species was simply the result of a combination of favorable factors.
Initially, whale oil prices were higher. At some point immediately after the Civil War, its price was affordable for the wealthiest segment of American society, in the early days of the oil industry, where Standard Oil controlled 90% of the market and then invented kerosene at the right moment to offer a cheaper alternative. For expensive whale oil.
The author pointed to the fact that "coal oil", as people called it, was then taxed at much lower rates than some other lighting fuels available on the market.
Supporters of this argument argue that whale oil has never been a competitor. By the time kerosene appeared on the scene, demand for whale oil was declining because of its price and the emergence of other alcohol-based alternatives.
Naturally, electricity was in place before the end of the 19th century, making most whale oil substitutes as useless as whale oil itself.
|1859 Drilling of the first oil well in Pennsylvania (Getty Images)|
Moreover, there were some camps of oil opponents who acknowledged the contribution of the oil industry to saving whales, and the oil industry did not do so intentionally, where oil prospectors seek profits rather than saving species.
However, through this rush to profit, prospectors have come up with a cheaper and better alternative to expensive whale oil, which has dealt a severe blow to demand.
There are those who point to the fact that the rise of oil as a feedstock for motor fuels led to modern whaling, resulting in more whales perishing in the twentieth century than in the history of whaling until then.
It is difficult to refute this argument, especially as oil was the beginning of a technological race that led us to where we are today, and was driven by internal combustion engines.
In general, the question of whether the discovery of crude oil has led to the deterioration of things - not only for whales, but also for the planet and humanity in general - remains open for debate, regardless of the opinion of the schools of thought pro and anti-oil.
However, even if the rise of kerosene as an alternative to whale oil is just a coincidence, it is actually an environmentally good coincidence, she says. | <urn:uuid:4c52b7da-026b-4837-97ea-fd287e6f4d18> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tellerreport.com/news/2019-11-29---use-its-oil-for-lighting-and-other-industries----has-oil-saved-whales-from-extinction--.B1bFROR0hB.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00423.warc.gz | en | 0.983603 | 941 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.036761146038770... | 2 | If crude oil had not been discovered, all whales would be hunted for fat, which could lead to their extinction. For a time, whale fat represented the most commonly used fuel with lamps and candle materials, as they were not as unpleasant as animal fats and produced less smoke. After that, he discovered kerosene and replaced the fat of the whale.
In her report published by Oil Price, the writer Irina Slav said that the facts differ and vary with regard to the contribution of the oil industry in the rescue of whales, which have been hunted some species and became on the verge of extinction during the 19th century.
The use of whale fat reached its highest level during the 19th century, with whales being a source of oil for lighting, and used as lubricant for trains. In addition, whale oil was used in heating, soap making and paint materials, and served as a versatile raw material. In order to meet the growing demand for whale oil, the whaling industry has grown and flourished.
According to records, the US whaling fleet totaled 392 vessels in 1833, rising to 735 by 1846.
The average annual production of amber oil was between four and five million gallons, in addition to between six and ten million gallons of "lubricating oil for trains" produced annually.
The United States continued to provide whale oil until 1850, with the total US fleet falling to only 39 ships by 1876, due to the emergence of kerosene.
|Whales formed a source of oil to provide lighting in the 19th century (Getty Images)|
For his part, a Canadian geologist named Abraham Geisner discovered in the 1940s a way to make kerosene, which was much cheaper than other fuels available at the time, which was derived from coal.
The writer stated that in 1859 drilled the first oil well in Pennsylvania, which represented the beginning of the oil industry, and many credit the rescue of whales to John de Rockefeller, who launched several refineries to refine kerosene, which later developed into oil stations, and as a result became cheap kerosene abundant, Thus the demand for whale oil declined and eventually faded.
The oil is bad
The rise of oil-derived kerosene coincided with the demise of the US whaling industry, but there was no strong causal link between the two. Avoiding the extinction of whale species was simply the result of a combination of favorable factors.
Initially, whale oil prices were higher. At some point immediately after the Civil War, its price was affordable for the wealthiest segment of American society, in the early days of the oil industry, where Standard Oil controlled 90% of the market and then invented kerosene at the right moment to offer a cheaper alternative. For expensive whale oil.
The author pointed to the fact that "coal oil", as people called it, was then taxed at much lower rates than some other lighting fuels available on the market.
Supporters of this argument argue that whale oil has never been a competitor. By the time kerosene appeared on the scene, demand for whale oil was declining because of its price and the emergence of other alcohol-based alternatives.
Naturally, electricity was in place before the end of the 19th century, making most whale oil substitutes as useless as whale oil itself.
|1859 Drilling of the first oil well in Pennsylvania (Getty Images)|
Moreover, there were some camps of oil opponents who acknowledged the contribution of the oil industry to saving whales, and the oil industry did not do so intentionally, where oil prospectors seek profits rather than saving species.
However, through this rush to profit, prospectors have come up with a cheaper and better alternative to expensive whale oil, which has dealt a severe blow to demand.
There are those who point to the fact that the rise of oil as a feedstock for motor fuels led to modern whaling, resulting in more whales perishing in the twentieth century than in the history of whaling until then.
It is difficult to refute this argument, especially as oil was the beginning of a technological race that led us to where we are today, and was driven by internal combustion engines.
In general, the question of whether the discovery of crude oil has led to the deterioration of things - not only for whales, but also for the planet and humanity in general - remains open for debate, regardless of the opinion of the schools of thought pro and anti-oil.
However, even if the rise of kerosene as an alternative to whale oil is just a coincidence, it is actually an environmentally good coincidence, she says. | 967 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archaeological researchers have found what is believed to be the first illustrated book in history in Egypt, which is a new guide that explains the way to the world of the God of reckoning and resurrection at the pharaohs Osiris. The book's age is more than 4 thousand years old, and it may be the oldest version ever present. The book is a copy of "Book of Two Ways", or as it is known as the texts of coffins.
A term that is called more than a thousand talismans, groups of which were written on coffins during the Middle Kingdom (2055-1795 BC), and were intended to ensure survival in the afterlife. Many of these talismans are derived from the texts of the pyramids, while some of them are the origin of some talismans of the Book of the Dead that date back to the era of the modern state.
It is also known as a group of ancient Egyptian funerary texts, which began appearing on coffins at the beginning of the first decay period. These texts were derived from the texts of the pyramids that were for royal use only, where some of their words were replaced to be used by the common people, as it became in the ability of some common Egyptians to own coffins inscribed with funerary texts, meaning that the right of the afterlife is no longer limited to the pharaoh, most of These texts go back to the Middle Kingdom, and sometimes these texts were engraved on the walls of tombs, obelisks, papyri, and even on mummy masks.
According to the book "The Prophets and Sacred Books - The Religious Phenomenon - Part Three", the content of these texts is drawn from many different areas of religious life, such as myths about deities and chants, and magical sayings, as was the case with the Pyramid texts, but the texts of the coffins are not interested in melting the content in Theological theory, but its apparent character is the tendency to confirm its magic effect in the service of the dead.
Moreover, the texts of the coffins have the formula of the speaker and has been added to each text explaining the intended purpose of it, which gave this increase a title stamp for each passage, hence it is clear that these texts were put to the use of the dead in regular batches to secure the service that he needs in the life after death.
Also, these texts were drawn up for the use of commoners, and their effect was not limited to kings. Every person can turn after irrigation into irrigation or to Osiris and thereby obtain a better life in the community of deities, but this is not automatic, as was imagined for kings, but rather The dead here is to appear before the court of the dead, so the value of his life will be related to his moral behavior in his life on the ground and a standard for the judiciary’s ruling in this matter. | <urn:uuid:58675e4f-4fd2-456c-9d80-74c1f893c073> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://egyptfwd.org/Article/6/1070/Learn-about-the-texts-of-coffins-and-their-relationship-to | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00550.warc.gz | en | 0.984411 | 593 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.255856692... | 2 | Archaeological researchers have found what is believed to be the first illustrated book in history in Egypt, which is a new guide that explains the way to the world of the God of reckoning and resurrection at the pharaohs Osiris. The book's age is more than 4 thousand years old, and it may be the oldest version ever present. The book is a copy of "Book of Two Ways", or as it is known as the texts of coffins.
A term that is called more than a thousand talismans, groups of which were written on coffins during the Middle Kingdom (2055-1795 BC), and were intended to ensure survival in the afterlife. Many of these talismans are derived from the texts of the pyramids, while some of them are the origin of some talismans of the Book of the Dead that date back to the era of the modern state.
It is also known as a group of ancient Egyptian funerary texts, which began appearing on coffins at the beginning of the first decay period. These texts were derived from the texts of the pyramids that were for royal use only, where some of their words were replaced to be used by the common people, as it became in the ability of some common Egyptians to own coffins inscribed with funerary texts, meaning that the right of the afterlife is no longer limited to the pharaoh, most of These texts go back to the Middle Kingdom, and sometimes these texts were engraved on the walls of tombs, obelisks, papyri, and even on mummy masks.
According to the book "The Prophets and Sacred Books - The Religious Phenomenon - Part Three", the content of these texts is drawn from many different areas of religious life, such as myths about deities and chants, and magical sayings, as was the case with the Pyramid texts, but the texts of the coffins are not interested in melting the content in Theological theory, but its apparent character is the tendency to confirm its magic effect in the service of the dead.
Moreover, the texts of the coffins have the formula of the speaker and has been added to each text explaining the intended purpose of it, which gave this increase a title stamp for each passage, hence it is clear that these texts were put to the use of the dead in regular batches to secure the service that he needs in the life after death.
Also, these texts were drawn up for the use of commoners, and their effect was not limited to kings. Every person can turn after irrigation into irrigation or to Osiris and thereby obtain a better life in the community of deities, but this is not automatic, as was imagined for kings, but rather The dead here is to appear before the court of the dead, so the value of his life will be related to his moral behavior in his life on the ground and a standard for the judiciary’s ruling in this matter. | 603 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What might have happened if the Americans had stayed out of WW2?
- 6 months ago
United Kingdom would be occupied by Germany and Royal family would seek asylum in Canada but USA government will send them back to Germany because it might draw the Germans on to America. The USA would have defeated him anyway.
- Anonymous6 months ago
We'd all be spekin ze doich.
- denlp96Lv 56 months ago
The Allies would have had their *** well and truly whipped.
- FredLv 76 months ago
Likely the British Commonwealth forces would have been unable to gain a full victory over the German forces. The British did a magnificent job with what they had until the US forces joined them but just were not strong enough for a killer blow to defeat the Germans. For 2 years British Commonwealth forces on their own prevented Hitler getting full control of North Africa, the Middle East oil wells, defended itself from German plans to invade Britain, had stopped the German atomic bomb research, sunk all Germany's super battleships, broke the supposedly unbreakable enigma code, and other important things which held the German war effort back a lot all while America sat on its hands and refused to get involved. If Britain had surrendered it would have meant no place for the US forces to launch bombing raids or an invasion from making it impossible for the US to fight back.
Few Americans realise Germany had an atomic bomb research program before the Americans had even thought of the possibility of atomic weapons. Likely without the British the war would have gone on several more years. During that time Germany likely would have defeated Russia and had unlimited resources and oil and would have built a super military. The Germans would have perfected their atomic bombs and would have also perfected long range jet bombers to deliver them to the east coast cities of the USA. Imagine it is 1946 and so far America has largely been out of range of German aircraft. German U-boats menace US shipping sending huge tonnages to the bottom of the sea. One day out of nowhere comes a group of the new long range German jet bombers flying at 550 miles an hour. No American plane can catch them and American cities believing they were out of range of German aircraft have no anti aircraft defences. The planes split up and head for a city each choosing cities like New York, Washington, and Boston as well as other major cities dropping an atomic bomb on each. At the same time as Germany now owned Russia they had captured the Aleutian islands and had air bases there and sent in atomic bombers to destroy the cities on the western side of the USA. In one day they could have devastated America to the point the USA would have seriously had to consider surrender.
Americans generally think they won the war for Europe but in fact although they were a great help but they were not the major force fighting in Europe. Only 40% of the soldiers who stormed the beaches of Normandy on D-Day were American. It was Britain and American air forces that bombed Germany's manufacturing to nothing not just the US forces. It was a combined effort of Britain, Russia and America that beat the Germans, but the fact is it needed all 3 to win as Germany had been gearing up for war all through he 1930s and perfecting the ways of fighting a modern war. Britain and Russia did more than America in Europe and the fact it won the Battle of Britain and stopped the German's capturing the Middle East oil wells made it possible for America to walk in to a European country and fight from in relative safety that gave them any anility in Europe. Had Britain or Russia fallen and been captured likely America could have been fighting right through the 1940s and could have lost.
- What do you think of the answers? You can sign in to give your opinion on the answer.
- Anonymous6 months ago
All Americans? No Canadians, no Brazilians, no trade with any American country? Or do you want idle speculation about the USA only?
Britain and Canada refine plutonium and manage to develop a dirty atomic device which they use in southern Germany. Germany immediately retreats on all fronts.
And other nonsense.
- ◄♦►Lv 56 months ago
Europe would have solved their own problems - problems that would have never been exacerbated by Roosevelt.
Japan wouldn't have attacked Pearl Harbor because Roosevelt wouldn't have blocked their access to the oil they needed which provoked the Japanese attack.
Britain and the other Allied countries wouldn't have had the financial support they needed to defeat Germany.
The war would have been solely between the Soviet Union and Germany. It's been claimed that Germany wanted to expand its territories "for living space". But the Soviet Union didn't have a problem with "living space" - what was their reason for territorial expansion?
Their reason was to expand Communism into Europe with sights on extending it to the West. Hitler was the only one willing to stop them.
As history has proven with Hitler's defeat, Communism has quickly spread to many parts of the world. The Soviets won in the end.
- robert xLv 76 months ago
The war in Europe would have gone on longer, but the outcome would have been the same since it was Russian military power that really defeated the Germans . The war in the pacific would have gone on too until the British empire had regained it strength .
- michinoku2001Lv 76 months ago
How the could the Americans stay out of WW2? Japan and then Germany declared war on the United States,
- .Lv 76 months ago
The US was the only major power preventing Japanese expansion. If we just ignored the Pearl Harbor thing, Japan would have expanded its territory much more than it did.
- MagmaladLv 46 months ago
Hitler would have conquered Europe. Jews would have all been killed off, then he would have moved on Russia, then south America and up into north America. That's what I think anyway. | <urn:uuid:09b9a97e-5376-4df2-8a46-9de382a2c58f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sg.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20190713175122AAmpwx6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.983514 | 1,202 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.000664257... | 1 | What might have happened if the Americans had stayed out of WW2?
- 6 months ago
United Kingdom would be occupied by Germany and Royal family would seek asylum in Canada but USA government will send them back to Germany because it might draw the Germans on to America. The USA would have defeated him anyway.
- Anonymous6 months ago
We'd all be spekin ze doich.
- denlp96Lv 56 months ago
The Allies would have had their *** well and truly whipped.
- FredLv 76 months ago
Likely the British Commonwealth forces would have been unable to gain a full victory over the German forces. The British did a magnificent job with what they had until the US forces joined them but just were not strong enough for a killer blow to defeat the Germans. For 2 years British Commonwealth forces on their own prevented Hitler getting full control of North Africa, the Middle East oil wells, defended itself from German plans to invade Britain, had stopped the German atomic bomb research, sunk all Germany's super battleships, broke the supposedly unbreakable enigma code, and other important things which held the German war effort back a lot all while America sat on its hands and refused to get involved. If Britain had surrendered it would have meant no place for the US forces to launch bombing raids or an invasion from making it impossible for the US to fight back.
Few Americans realise Germany had an atomic bomb research program before the Americans had even thought of the possibility of atomic weapons. Likely without the British the war would have gone on several more years. During that time Germany likely would have defeated Russia and had unlimited resources and oil and would have built a super military. The Germans would have perfected their atomic bombs and would have also perfected long range jet bombers to deliver them to the east coast cities of the USA. Imagine it is 1946 and so far America has largely been out of range of German aircraft. German U-boats menace US shipping sending huge tonnages to the bottom of the sea. One day out of nowhere comes a group of the new long range German jet bombers flying at 550 miles an hour. No American plane can catch them and American cities believing they were out of range of German aircraft have no anti aircraft defences. The planes split up and head for a city each choosing cities like New York, Washington, and Boston as well as other major cities dropping an atomic bomb on each. At the same time as Germany now owned Russia they had captured the Aleutian islands and had air bases there and sent in atomic bombers to destroy the cities on the western side of the USA. In one day they could have devastated America to the point the USA would have seriously had to consider surrender.
Americans generally think they won the war for Europe but in fact although they were a great help but they were not the major force fighting in Europe. Only 40% of the soldiers who stormed the beaches of Normandy on D-Day were American. It was Britain and American air forces that bombed Germany's manufacturing to nothing not just the US forces. It was a combined effort of Britain, Russia and America that beat the Germans, but the fact is it needed all 3 to win as Germany had been gearing up for war all through he 1930s and perfecting the ways of fighting a modern war. Britain and Russia did more than America in Europe and the fact it won the Battle of Britain and stopped the German's capturing the Middle East oil wells made it possible for America to walk in to a European country and fight from in relative safety that gave them any anility in Europe. Had Britain or Russia fallen and been captured likely America could have been fighting right through the 1940s and could have lost.
- What do you think of the answers? You can sign in to give your opinion on the answer.
- Anonymous6 months ago
All Americans? No Canadians, no Brazilians, no trade with any American country? Or do you want idle speculation about the USA only?
Britain and Canada refine plutonium and manage to develop a dirty atomic device which they use in southern Germany. Germany immediately retreats on all fronts.
And other nonsense.
- ◄♦►Lv 56 months ago
Europe would have solved their own problems - problems that would have never been exacerbated by Roosevelt.
Japan wouldn't have attacked Pearl Harbor because Roosevelt wouldn't have blocked their access to the oil they needed which provoked the Japanese attack.
Britain and the other Allied countries wouldn't have had the financial support they needed to defeat Germany.
The war would have been solely between the Soviet Union and Germany. It's been claimed that Germany wanted to expand its territories "for living space". But the Soviet Union didn't have a problem with "living space" - what was their reason for territorial expansion?
Their reason was to expand Communism into Europe with sights on extending it to the West. Hitler was the only one willing to stop them.
As history has proven with Hitler's defeat, Communism has quickly spread to many parts of the world. The Soviets won in the end.
- robert xLv 76 months ago
The war in Europe would have gone on longer, but the outcome would have been the same since it was Russian military power that really defeated the Germans . The war in the pacific would have gone on too until the British empire had regained it strength .
- michinoku2001Lv 76 months ago
How the could the Americans stay out of WW2? Japan and then Germany declared war on the United States,
- .Lv 76 months ago
The US was the only major power preventing Japanese expansion. If we just ignored the Pearl Harbor thing, Japan would have expanded its territory much more than it did.
- MagmaladLv 46 months ago
Hitler would have conquered Europe. Jews would have all been killed off, then he would have moved on Russia, then south America and up into north America. That's what I think anyway. | 1,222 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In January 1120 the Knights Templar were formed to protect Christian pilgrims in their journey from Jaffa to the Holy Land. This order had humble beginnings, with just nine knights including Godfrey de Saint-Omer and André de Montbard. They relied on donations and had few financial resources. Their emblem was two knights riding on a single horse, to emphasize their poverty.
Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, a French abbot who founded of the Cistercian Order of monks was a nephew of André de Montbard. He was a great advocate for the Templars and wrote on their behalf in his letter “In Praise of the New Knighthood.” In 1129, at the Council of Troyes, he led a group of leading churchmen who officially approved and endorsed the order on behalf of the church. With this formal blessing, the Templars became a favoured charity throughout Christendom. Suddenly, they received money, land and businesses and gradually became a wealthy organisation. Sons from noble families were eager to help and joined in with the fight in the Holy Land.
In 1139 Pope Innocent II exempted the order from local laws. This ruling allowed the Templars to pass freely through all borders, they were not required to pay taxes and exempt from all authority, except that of the pope. Templar knights, wore distinctive white mantles with a red cross, were among the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades. 90% of the order’s members, though, were non-combatant and managed a large economic infrastructure throughout Christendom.
Comments will be approved before showing up. | <urn:uuid:a2ee0b2d-c6ed-44a3-8a6b-b55da45b62cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ancientreasures.com/blogs/secrets-of-the-knights-templar/03-rise-of-the-knights-templar | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.981299 | 332 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.21294985... | 11 | In January 1120 the Knights Templar were formed to protect Christian pilgrims in their journey from Jaffa to the Holy Land. This order had humble beginnings, with just nine knights including Godfrey de Saint-Omer and André de Montbard. They relied on donations and had few financial resources. Their emblem was two knights riding on a single horse, to emphasize their poverty.
Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, a French abbot who founded of the Cistercian Order of monks was a nephew of André de Montbard. He was a great advocate for the Templars and wrote on their behalf in his letter “In Praise of the New Knighthood.” In 1129, at the Council of Troyes, he led a group of leading churchmen who officially approved and endorsed the order on behalf of the church. With this formal blessing, the Templars became a favoured charity throughout Christendom. Suddenly, they received money, land and businesses and gradually became a wealthy organisation. Sons from noble families were eager to help and joined in with the fight in the Holy Land.
In 1139 Pope Innocent II exempted the order from local laws. This ruling allowed the Templars to pass freely through all borders, they were not required to pay taxes and exempt from all authority, except that of the pope. Templar knights, wore distinctive white mantles with a red cross, were among the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades. 90% of the order’s members, though, were non-combatant and managed a large economic infrastructure throughout Christendom.
Comments will be approved before showing up. | 337 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was frowned upon for its frivolity and banished for its extravagance.
Wind the clock back just over 50 years and Christmas was barely celebrated in Scotland as religious piety held firm over society.
From the time Scotland split from the Catholic church in 1560 until 1958, when December 25 was declared a public holiday, Christmas was not freely observed.
Any activity that was judged to be extravagant, or celebrated superstitions, was deemed un-Christian and indeed illegal.
Indeed, there are even records of some people being arrested over unlawful celebrations.
In 1583 ,the Glasgow Kirk at St Mungo’s Cathedral, now known as Glasgow Cathedral, ordered the excommunication of those who celebrated Yule, whilst elsewhere in Scotland, even singing a Christmas carol was considered a serious crime, according to Historic Environment Scotland.
After years of controversy, a 1640 Act of Parliament of Scotland made the celebration of Yule illegal.
READ MORE: 8 Scottish festive traditions explained
This ban was repealed in 1712, but the Church continued to fiercely opposed any celebration given that it did not reflect what was in the Bible.
As Christmas remained out in the cold, the celebration of New Year became an increasingly important one for Scots.
Although business continued as usual for many on December 25 until the late 1950,, there were signs as late as the late 1800s that Scots - for centuries the only people in Christendom not to celebrate Christmas - were starting to warm to the festivities.
On December 27, 1883, newspapers reported that "the popularity of Christmas Day, both as a public holiday and a Church festival, is extending very rapidly".
READ MORE: The Scottish islands that partied like the Vikings for 24 days over Christmas
"This year there has been a marked increase in the observance of the season. In most of the towns the- banks, several of the public works and places of business were closed, while a more than usually lavish display of evergreens and other Christmas decorations was observable," an article in the Morning Post said,
It added: "Midnight masses and special services were celebrated in the various places of worship and the "goodwill" which characterises the season took the form in many places of donations and treats to tho children, the aged, and the poor."
In Glasgow, a dinner for 2,000 poor people of the city was given in City Hall and presided over by the Lord Provost.
"The custom of sending Christmas boxes and greetings has everywhere severely taxed tho energy and efficiency of the Post-office," the report added.
Banks, markets and public buildings were largely closed, but it wasn't until 1958 that a public holiday was declared.
Scots waited another 16 years to get a two-day festive break, with Boxing Day not becoming a public holiday until 1974. | <urn:uuid:6ab4e21d-33dd-4dbe-81c4-e3e20a187e76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.scotsman.com/heritage/when-celebrating-christmas-was-illegal-in-scotland-1-5066334 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.981686 | 579 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.02285666763782... | 1 | It was frowned upon for its frivolity and banished for its extravagance.
Wind the clock back just over 50 years and Christmas was barely celebrated in Scotland as religious piety held firm over society.
From the time Scotland split from the Catholic church in 1560 until 1958, when December 25 was declared a public holiday, Christmas was not freely observed.
Any activity that was judged to be extravagant, or celebrated superstitions, was deemed un-Christian and indeed illegal.
Indeed, there are even records of some people being arrested over unlawful celebrations.
In 1583 ,the Glasgow Kirk at St Mungo’s Cathedral, now known as Glasgow Cathedral, ordered the excommunication of those who celebrated Yule, whilst elsewhere in Scotland, even singing a Christmas carol was considered a serious crime, according to Historic Environment Scotland.
After years of controversy, a 1640 Act of Parliament of Scotland made the celebration of Yule illegal.
READ MORE: 8 Scottish festive traditions explained
This ban was repealed in 1712, but the Church continued to fiercely opposed any celebration given that it did not reflect what was in the Bible.
As Christmas remained out in the cold, the celebration of New Year became an increasingly important one for Scots.
Although business continued as usual for many on December 25 until the late 1950,, there were signs as late as the late 1800s that Scots - for centuries the only people in Christendom not to celebrate Christmas - were starting to warm to the festivities.
On December 27, 1883, newspapers reported that "the popularity of Christmas Day, both as a public holiday and a Church festival, is extending very rapidly".
READ MORE: The Scottish islands that partied like the Vikings for 24 days over Christmas
"This year there has been a marked increase in the observance of the season. In most of the towns the- banks, several of the public works and places of business were closed, while a more than usually lavish display of evergreens and other Christmas decorations was observable," an article in the Morning Post said,
It added: "Midnight masses and special services were celebrated in the various places of worship and the "goodwill" which characterises the season took the form in many places of donations and treats to tho children, the aged, and the poor."
In Glasgow, a dinner for 2,000 poor people of the city was given in City Hall and presided over by the Lord Provost.
"The custom of sending Christmas boxes and greetings has everywhere severely taxed tho energy and efficiency of the Post-office," the report added.
Banks, markets and public buildings were largely closed, but it wasn't until 1958 that a public holiday was declared.
Scots waited another 16 years to get a two-day festive break, with Boxing Day not becoming a public holiday until 1974. | 608 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Common Error in Using English Tenses by EFL Students
Most of English foreign language learners (EFL) in the beginning level face some problems in learning English. They commited different kinds of errors and mistakes in learning English as a foreign language which were due to poor knowledge with grammar. Most of students considered that grammar was difficult, thus their motivation to learn English was also poor. Moreover, problems in foreign language learning especially in English were unavoidable. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify common error in using English tenses by EFL students in the first semester at Putera Batam University. The instrument used was a test on basic English tenses and the data consisted of 50 students. The data sources were taken from the result of students’ test itself. It showed that students’ errors were categorized into six types; (1) Subject – auxiliary agreement, (2) Pronoun mistake or subject was wrong, meanwhile auxiliary verb or verb was right, (3) Auxiliary verb was correct meanwhile verb still added –es/s, (4) Auxiliary verb was wrong in sentence, (5) Double subject in sentence, (6) The sentence did not have subject or verb. Based on the result, it can be concluded some mistakes that students made were caused of they did not really understand the pattern of English tenses. Therefore, students should be given more attention and motivation to learn kinds of tenses correctly.
Keywords : English Grammar, English Tenses, Student’s error. | <urn:uuid:90878781-7028-4a99-8eed-02ce45069fab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://jurnal.idebahasa.or.id/index.php/Idebahasa/article/view/18 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00356.warc.gz | en | 0.981517 | 310 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.5056276321411... | 1 | Common Error in Using English Tenses by EFL Students
Most of English foreign language learners (EFL) in the beginning level face some problems in learning English. They commited different kinds of errors and mistakes in learning English as a foreign language which were due to poor knowledge with grammar. Most of students considered that grammar was difficult, thus their motivation to learn English was also poor. Moreover, problems in foreign language learning especially in English were unavoidable. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify common error in using English tenses by EFL students in the first semester at Putera Batam University. The instrument used was a test on basic English tenses and the data consisted of 50 students. The data sources were taken from the result of students’ test itself. It showed that students’ errors were categorized into six types; (1) Subject – auxiliary agreement, (2) Pronoun mistake or subject was wrong, meanwhile auxiliary verb or verb was right, (3) Auxiliary verb was correct meanwhile verb still added –es/s, (4) Auxiliary verb was wrong in sentence, (5) Double subject in sentence, (6) The sentence did not have subject or verb. Based on the result, it can be concluded some mistakes that students made were caused of they did not really understand the pattern of English tenses. Therefore, students should be given more attention and motivation to learn kinds of tenses correctly.
Keywords : English Grammar, English Tenses, Student’s error. | 301 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hello everyone and welcome back to INK Lingua’s blog. Today we are going to explore Thanksgiving day, which took place last Thursday, so we can know a little bit more about it and its origin. Let’s go!
Most stories of Thanksgiving history start with the harvest celebration of the pilgrims and the Native Americans that took place in the autumn of 1621. Although they did have a three-day feast in celebration of a good harvest, and the local natives did participate, this “first thanksgiving” was not a holiday, simply a gathering. There is little evidence that this feast of thanks led directly to our modern Thanksgiving Day holiday. Thanksgiving can, however, be traced back to 1863 when Pres. Lincoln became the first president to proclaim Thanksgiving Day. The holiday has been a fixture of late November ever since.
Pilgrims and Indians
However, since most school children are taught that the first Thanksgiving was held in 1621 with the Pilgrims and Indians, let us take a closer look at just what took place leading up to that event, and then what happened in the centuries afterward that finally gave us our modern Thanksgiving.
The Pilgrims who sailed to this country aboard the Mayflower were originally members of the English Separatist Church (a Puritan sect). They had earlier fled their home in England and sailed to Holland (The Netherlands) to escape religious persecution. There, they enjoyed more religious tolerance, but they eventually became disenchanted with the Dutch way of life, thinking it ungodly. Seeking a better life, the Separatists negotiated with a London stock company to finance a pilgrimage to America. Most of those making the trip aboard the Mayflower were non-Separatists, but were hired to protect the company’s interests. Only about one-third of the original colonists were Separatists.
The Pilgrims set ground at Plymouth Rock on December 11, 1620. Their first winter was devastating. At the beginning of the following fall, they had lost 46 of the original 102 who sailed on the Mayflower. But the harvest of 1621 was a bountiful one. And the remaining colonists decided to celebrate with a feast – including 91 natives who had helped the Pilgrims survive their first year. It is believed that the Pilgrims would not have made it through the year without the help of the natives. The feast was more of a traditional English harvest festival than a true “thanksgiving” observance. It lasted three days.
More about the feast
Governor William Bradford sent “four men fowling” after wild ducks and geese. It is not certain that wild turkey was part of their feast. However, it is certain that they had venison. The term “turkey” was used by the Pilgrims to mean any sort of wild fowl.
Another modern staple at almost every Thanksgiving table is pumpkin pie. But it is unlikely that the first feast included that treat. The supply of flour had been long diminished, so there was no bread or pastries of any kind. However, they did eat boiled pumpkin, and they produced a type of fried bread from their corn crop. There was also no milk, cider, potatoes, or butter. There was no domestic cattle for dairy products, and the newly-discovered potato was still considered by many Europeans to be poisonous. But the feast did include fish, berries, watercress, lobster, dried fruit, clams, venison, and plums.
This “thanksgiving” feast was not repeated the following year. Many years passed before the event was repeated. It wasn’t until June of 1676 that another Day of Thanksgiving was proclaimed. On June 20 of that year the governing council of Charlestown, Massachusetts, held a meeting to determine how best to express thanks for the good fortune that had seen their community securely established. By unanimous vote they instructed Edward Rawson, the clerk, to proclaim June 29 as a day of thanksgiving. It is notable that this thanksgiving celebration probably did not include Native Americans, as the celebration was meant partly to be in recognition of the colonists’ recent victory over the “heathen natives”. By then, it had become apparent to the settlers that the natives were a hindrance to their quest for more land, so the goodwill they shared at the first feast had long been lost.
A hundred years later, in October of 1777 all 13 colonies joined in a thanksgiving celebration. It also commemorated the patriotic victory over the British at Saratoga. But it was a one-time affair.
George Washington proclaimed a National Day of Thanksgiving in 1789, although some were opposed to it. There was discord among the colonies, many feeling the hardships of a few pilgrims did not warrant a national holiday. And later, President Thomas Jefferson opposed the idea of having a day of thanksgiving.
It was Sarah Josepha Hale, a magazine editor, whose efforts eventually led to what we recognize as Thanksgiving. Hale wrote many editorials championing her cause in her Boston Ladies’ Magazine, and later, in Godey’s Lady’s Book. Finally, after a 40-year campaign of writing editorials and letters to governors and presidents, Hale’s obsession became a reality when, in 1863, President Lincoln proclaimed the last Thursday in November as a national day of Thanksgiving.
Thanksgiving was proclaimed by every president after Lincoln. The date was changed a couple of times, most recently by Franklin Roosevelt, who set it up one week to the next-to-last Thursday in order to create a longer Christmas shopping season. Public uproar against this decision caused the president to move Thanksgiving back to its original date two years later. And in 1941, Thanksgiving was finally sanctioned by Congress as a legal holiday, as the fourth Thursday in November.
Do you want to know more about Thanksgiving? Please, check: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanksgiving_(United_States) | <urn:uuid:90fd74c5-0e2c-402d-9224-a145e8748733> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://inklingua.es/blog/category/novedades/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.98313 | 1,238 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.4782988727... | 5 | Hello everyone and welcome back to INK Lingua’s blog. Today we are going to explore Thanksgiving day, which took place last Thursday, so we can know a little bit more about it and its origin. Let’s go!
Most stories of Thanksgiving history start with the harvest celebration of the pilgrims and the Native Americans that took place in the autumn of 1621. Although they did have a three-day feast in celebration of a good harvest, and the local natives did participate, this “first thanksgiving” was not a holiday, simply a gathering. There is little evidence that this feast of thanks led directly to our modern Thanksgiving Day holiday. Thanksgiving can, however, be traced back to 1863 when Pres. Lincoln became the first president to proclaim Thanksgiving Day. The holiday has been a fixture of late November ever since.
Pilgrims and Indians
However, since most school children are taught that the first Thanksgiving was held in 1621 with the Pilgrims and Indians, let us take a closer look at just what took place leading up to that event, and then what happened in the centuries afterward that finally gave us our modern Thanksgiving.
The Pilgrims who sailed to this country aboard the Mayflower were originally members of the English Separatist Church (a Puritan sect). They had earlier fled their home in England and sailed to Holland (The Netherlands) to escape religious persecution. There, they enjoyed more religious tolerance, but they eventually became disenchanted with the Dutch way of life, thinking it ungodly. Seeking a better life, the Separatists negotiated with a London stock company to finance a pilgrimage to America. Most of those making the trip aboard the Mayflower were non-Separatists, but were hired to protect the company’s interests. Only about one-third of the original colonists were Separatists.
The Pilgrims set ground at Plymouth Rock on December 11, 1620. Their first winter was devastating. At the beginning of the following fall, they had lost 46 of the original 102 who sailed on the Mayflower. But the harvest of 1621 was a bountiful one. And the remaining colonists decided to celebrate with a feast – including 91 natives who had helped the Pilgrims survive their first year. It is believed that the Pilgrims would not have made it through the year without the help of the natives. The feast was more of a traditional English harvest festival than a true “thanksgiving” observance. It lasted three days.
More about the feast
Governor William Bradford sent “four men fowling” after wild ducks and geese. It is not certain that wild turkey was part of their feast. However, it is certain that they had venison. The term “turkey” was used by the Pilgrims to mean any sort of wild fowl.
Another modern staple at almost every Thanksgiving table is pumpkin pie. But it is unlikely that the first feast included that treat. The supply of flour had been long diminished, so there was no bread or pastries of any kind. However, they did eat boiled pumpkin, and they produced a type of fried bread from their corn crop. There was also no milk, cider, potatoes, or butter. There was no domestic cattle for dairy products, and the newly-discovered potato was still considered by many Europeans to be poisonous. But the feast did include fish, berries, watercress, lobster, dried fruit, clams, venison, and plums.
This “thanksgiving” feast was not repeated the following year. Many years passed before the event was repeated. It wasn’t until June of 1676 that another Day of Thanksgiving was proclaimed. On June 20 of that year the governing council of Charlestown, Massachusetts, held a meeting to determine how best to express thanks for the good fortune that had seen their community securely established. By unanimous vote they instructed Edward Rawson, the clerk, to proclaim June 29 as a day of thanksgiving. It is notable that this thanksgiving celebration probably did not include Native Americans, as the celebration was meant partly to be in recognition of the colonists’ recent victory over the “heathen natives”. By then, it had become apparent to the settlers that the natives were a hindrance to their quest for more land, so the goodwill they shared at the first feast had long been lost.
A hundred years later, in October of 1777 all 13 colonies joined in a thanksgiving celebration. It also commemorated the patriotic victory over the British at Saratoga. But it was a one-time affair.
George Washington proclaimed a National Day of Thanksgiving in 1789, although some were opposed to it. There was discord among the colonies, many feeling the hardships of a few pilgrims did not warrant a national holiday. And later, President Thomas Jefferson opposed the idea of having a day of thanksgiving.
It was Sarah Josepha Hale, a magazine editor, whose efforts eventually led to what we recognize as Thanksgiving. Hale wrote many editorials championing her cause in her Boston Ladies’ Magazine, and later, in Godey’s Lady’s Book. Finally, after a 40-year campaign of writing editorials and letters to governors and presidents, Hale’s obsession became a reality when, in 1863, President Lincoln proclaimed the last Thursday in November as a national day of Thanksgiving.
Thanksgiving was proclaimed by every president after Lincoln. The date was changed a couple of times, most recently by Franklin Roosevelt, who set it up one week to the next-to-last Thursday in order to create a longer Christmas shopping season. Public uproar against this decision caused the president to move Thanksgiving back to its original date two years later. And in 1941, Thanksgiving was finally sanctioned by Congress as a legal holiday, as the fourth Thursday in November.
Do you want to know more about Thanksgiving? Please, check: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanksgiving_(United_States) | 1,245 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When did the practice of branding livestock begin in the U.S.?
Branding of livestock dates back to the Egyptians circa 2700 B.C. It spread to Europe in the Middle Ages and was introduced by the Spanish and later Mexican vaqueros in what is today the southwestern United States.
The open ranges made it essential for ranchers to have a brand that identified their cows during a roundup where cattle from many ranches were gathered.
Ironically, the first brands were not found on livestock but on the Aztec slaves of Spanish conquistadors. The slaves were branded on their cheeks with the letter “G,” for guerra (prisoner of war). Since many of these slaves were put to work herding cattle, branding soon moved from man to beast. | <urn:uuid:07e5fefb-f6c7-47f8-a0ce-15c750c77ab7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://truewestmagazine.com/article/when-did-the-practice-of-branding-livestock-begin-in-the-u-s-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.984478 | 161 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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-0.07228127... | 11 | When did the practice of branding livestock begin in the U.S.?
Branding of livestock dates back to the Egyptians circa 2700 B.C. It spread to Europe in the Middle Ages and was introduced by the Spanish and later Mexican vaqueros in what is today the southwestern United States.
The open ranges made it essential for ranchers to have a brand that identified their cows during a roundup where cattle from many ranches were gathered.
Ironically, the first brands were not found on livestock but on the Aztec slaves of Spanish conquistadors. The slaves were branded on their cheeks with the letter “G,” for guerra (prisoner of war). Since many of these slaves were put to work herding cattle, branding soon moved from man to beast. | 155 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hello readers, In the last two posts I have been sharing information that I received from Alexander Hamilton about the compromises needed to ratify the constitution, which was ratified in 1789. Last time he told me about the 3/5 compromise, and how every five slaves would count as three people. And before that he told me about how the delegates decided that the legislative body in the United States would be bicameral, being made up of two houses. Then I asked him about how the delegates at the constitutional convention decided to handle the issue of the slave trade in the United States. He first gave me a background on the issue. Apparently when the declaration of independence was being passed to send to King George III the slave trade was an issue. Representatives such as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and James Madison condemned slavery, and wanted to abolish it. However, representatives to thew continental congress from the southern states (colonies) at the time did not want the slave trade to stop, and wanted to continue owning slaves. Eventually, the southern states got their way, after South Carolina threatened to leave the U.S. The reason the southern states didn't want to stop the slave trade or slavery, is because they were making so much money with slavery. They used slaves on their plantations to harvest crops, and that was an enormous part of the southern states economies. During the constitutional convention, many delegates wanted to stop the slave trade. Ten states had already made the trade of slaves illegal. At first it looked like the slave trade was going to be banned, but then Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina threatened to leave the convention if the slave trade was banned. They were making a ton of money selling and using slaves. A special committee of delegates had to be formed to deal with this issue. Eventually the delegates at the constitutional convention decided on a solution. They decided that the slave trade would be legal, at least until 1808, when congress would vote on if the slave trade should continue to be legal. | <urn:uuid:a4c80f0a-598a-479a-9b4f-210a3f87709d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.weird-geography.com/my-blog/interview-with-alexander-hamilton-the-slave-trade-part-three-of-series | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00449.warc.gz | en | 0.984654 | 406 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.2867... | 11 | Hello readers, In the last two posts I have been sharing information that I received from Alexander Hamilton about the compromises needed to ratify the constitution, which was ratified in 1789. Last time he told me about the 3/5 compromise, and how every five slaves would count as three people. And before that he told me about how the delegates decided that the legislative body in the United States would be bicameral, being made up of two houses. Then I asked him about how the delegates at the constitutional convention decided to handle the issue of the slave trade in the United States. He first gave me a background on the issue. Apparently when the declaration of independence was being passed to send to King George III the slave trade was an issue. Representatives such as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and James Madison condemned slavery, and wanted to abolish it. However, representatives to thew continental congress from the southern states (colonies) at the time did not want the slave trade to stop, and wanted to continue owning slaves. Eventually, the southern states got their way, after South Carolina threatened to leave the U.S. The reason the southern states didn't want to stop the slave trade or slavery, is because they were making so much money with slavery. They used slaves on their plantations to harvest crops, and that was an enormous part of the southern states economies. During the constitutional convention, many delegates wanted to stop the slave trade. Ten states had already made the trade of slaves illegal. At first it looked like the slave trade was going to be banned, but then Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina threatened to leave the convention if the slave trade was banned. They were making a ton of money selling and using slaves. A special committee of delegates had to be formed to deal with this issue. Eventually the delegates at the constitutional convention decided on a solution. They decided that the slave trade would be legal, at least until 1808, when congress would vote on if the slave trade should continue to be legal. | 412 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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An autonomous priory is ruled by a superior who bears the title of prior instead of that of abbot ; but this distinction was unknown in the first centuries of monastic history. Such were the twelve great cathedral priories of England, immediately governed by a prior, the diocesan being considered the abbot. Other priories were founded as cells, or offshoots from the great abbeys, and remained dependent on the parent house, by whose abbot the prior was appointed, and was removable at will. Originally the term monastery designated, both in the East and in the West, the dwelling either of a solitary or of a community; while caenobium, congregatio, fraternitas, asceterion, etc. were applied solely to the houses of communities. Monasteries took their names from either their locality, their founders, or from some monk whose life has shed lustre upon them; and later, from some saint whose relics were there preserved, or who was locally an object of special veneration. The monks of Egypt and Palestine, as may be gathered from the "Peregrinatio Etheriae," also selected for their monasteries sites famous for their connection with some biblical event or personage. The first monks generally settled in solitary places, away from the haunts of men, though sometimes they were to be found also in cities like Alexandria, Rome, Carthage, and Hippo. Monasteries, founded in country places, not infrequently gathered around them settlements which, particularly in England and Germany, in the course of time developed into great centres of population and industry. Many important towns owe their origin to this cause; but the tendency never showed itself in Africa and the East. Though the sites selected were often beautiful, many settlements, especially in Egypt, were of set purpose made amid arid deserts. Nor was this form of austerity confined to them. In the Middle Ages, the more dismal and savage did this site appear to be, the more did it appeal to the rigid mood of the Cistercians. Still, the preference, at least with the majority of the monks of the West, was for fertile lands, suitable for cultivation and agriculture.
The formation of communities dates from pre-Christian times, as witness the Essenes ; but the earliest Christian monastic foundations of which we have definite knowledge were simply groups of huts without any orderly arrangement, erected about the abode of some solitary famous for holiness and asceticism, around whom had gathered a knot of disciples anxious to learn his doctrine and to imitate his way of life. Communities that had outgrown the accommodation afforded by their monasteries founded branch houses, and thus propagated themselves like the swarming of a beehive. Bishops founded many monasteries, while others owed their existence to the piety of princes and nobles, who also generously endowed them. The Council of Chalcedon (451) forbade the foundation of any monastery without the permission of the local bishop, thus obviating the difficulties likely to arise from irresponsible action. This became the universal law, and it also safeguarded these institutions against disbandment or ruin, since they enjoyed a certain sacredness of character in popular estimation. Double monasteries were those in which dwelt communities both of men and women at one and the same time, under the government of a common superior, either an abbot or an abbess. The Emperor Justinian suppressed them in the East on account of the abuses which this arrangement might lead to; but the custom long prevailed in England, France, and Spain, where strict rules, keeping the sexes entirely separate at all times, minimized the danger of scandals. Examples of these were the houses of the Order of St. Gilbert of Sempringham ; and in France, Faremoutiers, Chelles, Remiremont, etc.
In the beginning, solitaries attached no importance whatever to the form of design of their dwellings. They made use of anything that Nature afforded, or their circumstances suggested. In the East, especially in Egypt, abandoned tombs and burial caves; in the West, cave and rude huts constructed of branches of trees, mud, or sun-dried bricks, and furnished with the barest necessities, sheltered many an early solitary. When the number of such solitaries in a certain locality grew, and huts increased in proportion, gradually they came to subject themselves to a common superior and to follow a common rule of life; but they had no common buildings except a church to which they all repaired for the Sunday services. At Tabennae on the Nile, in Upper Egypt, however, St. Pachomius laid the foundations of the coenobitical life, arranging everything in an organized manner. He built several monasteries, each containing about 1,600 separate cells laid out in lines as an encampment, where the monks slept and performed some of their manual tasks; but there were large halls for their common needs, as the church, refectory, kitchen, even an infirmary and a guest-house. An enclosure protecting all these buildings gave the settlement the appearance of a walled village; but every part was of the utmost simplicity, without any pretense to architectural style. It was this arrangement of monasteries, inaugurated by St. Pachomius, which finally spread throughout Palestine, and received the name of laurae, that is "lanes" or "alleys." In addition to these congregations of solitaries, all living in huts apart, there were caenobia, monasteries wherein the inmates lived a common life, none of them being permitted to retire to the cells of a laurae before they had therein undergone a lengthy period of training. In time this form of common life superseded that of the older laurae.
Monasticism in the West owes its development to St. Benedict (480-543). His Rule spread rapidly, and the number of monasteries founded in England, France, Spain, and Italy between 520 and 700 was very great. More than 15,000 Abbeys, following the Benedictine Rule, had been established before the Council of Constance in 1415. No special plan was adopted or followed in the building of the first caenobia, or monasteries as we understand the term today. The monks simply copied the buildings familiar to them, the Roman house or villa, whose plan, throughout the extent of the Roman Empire, was practically uniform. The founders of monasteries had often merely to install a community in an already existing villa. When they had to build, the natural instinct was to copy old models. If they fixed upon a site with existing buildings in good repair, they simply adapted them to their requirements, as St. Benedict did at Monte Cassino, not disdaining to turn to Christian uses what had before served for the worship of idols. The spread of the monastic life gradually effected great changes in the model of the Roman villa. The various avocations followed by the monks required suitable buildings, which were at first erected not upon any premeditated plan, but just as the need for them arose. These requirements, however, being practically the same in every country, resulted in practically similar arrangements everywhere.
The monastic lawgivers of the East have left no written record of the principal parts of their monasteries. St. Benedict, however, mentions the chief component parts with great exactness, in his Rule, as the oratory, dormitory, refectory, kitchen, workshops, cellars for stores, infirmary, novitiate, guest-house, and by inference, the conference-room or chapter-house. These, therefore, find a place in all Benedictine abbeys, which all followed one common plan, occasionally modified to suit local conditions. The chief buildings were arranged around a quadrangle. Taking the normal English arrangement, it will be found that the church was situated as a rule on the north side, its high and massive walls affording the monks a good shelter from the rough north winds. The buildings of the choir, presbytery, and retrochapels extending more to the east, gave some protection from the biting east wind. Canterbury and Chester, however, were exceptions, their churches being on the southern side, where also they were frequently found in warm and sunny climates, with the obvious purpose of obtaining some shelter from the heat of the sun. The choir was ordinarily entered, in the normally planned English monasteries, by a door at the junction of the northern and eastern cloisters, another door at the western end of the north cloister being reserved for the more solemn processions. Although in the course of time there came into existence private rooms (chequer or saccarium ) wherein the officials transacted their business, and later still private cells are to be met with, the cloisters were, in the main, the dwelling-place of the entire community, and here the common life was lived. The northern cloister, looking south, was the warmest of the four divisions. Here was the prior's seat, next to the door of the church; then those of the rest, more or less in order. The abbot's place was at the northeastern corner. The novice-master with his novices occupied the southern portion of the eastern cloister, while the junior monks were opposite in the western limb. The cold, sunless, southern walk was not used; but out of it opened the refectory, with the lavatory close at hand. In Cistercian houses it stood at right angles to the cloister. Near the refectory was the conventual kitchen with its various offices. The chapter-house opened out of the eastern cloister, as near the church as possible. The position of the dormitory was not so fixed. Normally, it communicated with the southern transept, hence it was over the eastern cloister ; occasionally it stood at right angles to it, as at Winchester, or on the western side, as at Worcester. The infirmary usually appears to have been to the east of the dormitory, but no fixed position was assigned to it. The guest-house was situated where it would be least likely to interfere the privacy of the monastery. In later days, when books had multiplied, a special building for the library was added, at right angles to one of the walks of the cloister. To these may be added the calefactory, the parlour, or locutorium, the almonry, and the offices of the obedientiaries ; but these additional buildings fitted into the general plan where they best might, and their disposition differed somewhat in the various monasteries. The English Cistercian houses, of which there are so many extensive and beautiful remains, were mainly arranged after the plan of Cîteaux, in Burgundy, the mother-house, with slight local variations.
The Carthusian monastery differed considerably in its arrangements from those of other orders. The monks were practically hermits, and each occupied a small detached cottage, containing three rooms, which they left only to attend the services of the church and on certain days when the community met together in the refectory. These cottages opened out of three sides of a quadrangular cloister, and on the fourth side were the church, refectory, chapter-house, and other public offices. Both laurae and caenobium were surrounded by walls which protected the inmates either from the intrusion of seculars or from the violence of marauders. No monk might go beyond this enclosure without permission. The monks of the earlier period considered this separation from the outer world as a matter of prime importance. Women were never permitted to enter the precincts of monasteries for men; even access to the church was oftentimes denied them, or, if accorded admission, as at Durham, they were relegated to a strictly limited space, farthest removed from the monks' choir. Even greater strictness was observed in safe-guarding the enclosure of nuns. The danger of attack from Saracen hordes necessitated, in the case of Eastern monasteries, the erection of lofty walls, with only one entrance place many feet above the ground, reached by a stairway or drawbridge that could be raised for defense. The monks of the West, not standing in fear of such incursions, did not need such elaborate safeguards, and therefore contented themselves with ordinary enclosure walls. A religious of mature age and character was selected for the responsible office of porter, and to act as the channel of communication between the inmates and the outside world. His chamber was always close by, so that he might be at hand to fulfill his duties of receiving the poor and of announcing the arrival of guests. In the Egyptian monasteries the guest-house, situated near the entrance gateway, was place under the charge of the porter, who was assisted by the novices. St. Benedict so arranged that it should be a building distinct from the monastery itself, although within the enclosure. It had its own kitchen, served by two of the brethren appointed for that purpose annually; a refectory where the abbot took his meals with distinguished guests, and, when he thought fit, invited some of the seniors to join him there; an apartment for the solemn reception of guests, in which the ceremony of washing their feet, as prescribed by the Rule, was performed by the abbot and his community; and a dormitory suitably furnished. Thus the guests received every attention due to them by the laws of charity and hospitality, and the community, while gaining the merit of dispensing them in a large-hearted way, through the appointed officials, suffered no disturbance of their own peace and quiet. It was usual for the buildings dedicated for hospitality to be divided into four: one for the reception of guests of distinction, another for poor travelers and pilgrims, a third for merchants arriving on business with the cellarer, and the last for monk-visitors.
Formerly, as now, monastic communities always and everywhere extended a generous hospitality to all comers as an important way of fulfilling their social duties ; hence monasteries lying on or near the main highways enjoyed particular consideration and esteem. Where guests were frequent and numerous, the accommodation provided for them was on a commensurate scale. And as it was necessary for great personages to travel accompanied by a crowd of retainers, vast stables and other outhouses were added to these monastic hostels. Later xenodochia, or infirmaries, were attached to these guest-houses, where sick travelers could receive medical treatment. St. Benedict ordained that the monastic oratory should be what its name implied, a place exclusively reserved for public and private prayer. In the beginning it was a mere chapel, only large enough to hold the religious, since externs were not admitted. The size of these oratories were gradually enlarged to meet the requirements of the liturgy. There was also usually an oratory, outside the monastic enclosure, to which women were admitted.
The refectory was the common hall where the monks assembled for their meals. Strict silence was observed there, but during the meals one of the brethren read aloud to the community. The refectory was originally built on the plan of the ancient Roman triclinium , terminating in an apse. The tables were ranged along three sides of the room near the walls, leaving the interior space for the movements of the servers. Near the door of the refectory was invariably to be found the lavatory, where the monks washed their hands before and after meals. The kitchen, was, for convenience, always situated near the refectory. In the larger monasteries separate kitchens were provided for the community (where the brethren performed the duties in weekly turns), the abbot, the sick, and the guests. The dormitory was the community bed-chamber. A lamp burned in it throughout the night. The monks slept clothed, so as to be ready, as St. Benedict says, to rise without delay for the night Office. The normal arrangement, where the numbers permitted it, was for all to sleep in one dormitory, hence there were often very large; sometimes more than one was required. The practice, however, gradually came in of dividing the large dormitory into numerous small cubicles, one being allotted to each monk. The latrines were separated from the main buildings by a passage, and were always planned with the greatest regard to health and cleanliness, a copious supply of running water being used wherever possible.
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Although St. Benedict makes no specific mention of a chapter-house, nevertheless he does order monks to "come together presently after supper to read the 'Collations.'" No chapter-house appears on the plan of the great Swiss monastery of St. Gall, dating back to the ninth century; in the early days, therefore, the cloisters must have served for the meetings of the community, either for instruction or to discuss the affairs of the monastery. But convenience soon suggested a special place for these purposes, and there is mention of chapter-rooms in the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle (817). The chapter-room was always on the cloister level, on to which it opened. The cloisters, though covered, were generally open to the weather, and were an adaptation of the old Roman atrium . Besides providing a means of communication between the various parts of the monastery, they were both the dwelling-place and the workshop of the monks, and thus the word cloister became a synonym for the monastic life. How the monks managed to live in these open galleries during the winter months, in cold climates, is a mystery; a room, called a "calefactory," heated by flues, or in which a fire was kept up, where the monks might retire occasionally to warm themselves, was provided in English monasteries.
On the Continent the practice in regard to the novices differed somewhat from that prevailing in England. Not being as yet incorporated into the community, they were not permitted to dwell in the interior of the monastery. They had their places in choir during the Divine Office, but they spent the rest of their time in the novitiate. A senior monk, called the novice-master, instructed them in the principles of the religious life, and "tried their spirits if they be of God," as St. Benedict's Rule prescribed. This period of probation lasted a whole year. Abroad, the building set apart for the novices was provided with its own dormitory, kitchen, refectory, workroom, and occasionally even its own cloisters ; it was, in fact, a miniature monastery within a larger one.
The infirmary was a special building set apart for the accommodation of the sick and infirm brethren, who there received the particular care and attention they needed, at the hands of those appointed to the duty. A herbal garden provided many of the remedies. When death had brought its reward, the monks were laid to rest in a cemetery within the monastic precincts. The honour of burial amongst the religious, a privilege highly esteemed, was also sometimes accorded bishops, royal personages, and distinguished benefactors.
No monastery was complete without its cellars for the storing of provisions. There were, in addition, the granaries, barns, etc., all under the care of the cellarer, as also such buildings and outhouses as were used for agricultural purposes. Gardens and orchards provided such vegetables and fruit as were cultivated in the Middle Ages. The work of the fields did not, however, occupy all the time of the monks. Besides cultivating the arts, and transcribing manuscripts, they plied many trades, such as tailoring, shoe-making, carpentering, etc., while others baked the bread for daily consumption. Most monasteries had a mill for grinding their own corn. It will thus be seen that an Abbey, especially if it maintained a large community, was a little city, self-contained and self-sufficing, as St. Benedict wished it to be, to obviate as far as possible any necessity for the monks to leave the enclosure. The enormous development of the monastic life brought in its train a similar development in the accommodation suitable for it. The monastic buildings, at first so primitive, grew in time till they presented a very imposing appearance; and the arts were requisitioned and ancient models of architecture copied, adapted, and modified. The Basilican plan, indigenous to Italy, was, naturally, that first adopted. Its churches consisted of a nave and aisles, lighted by clerestory windows, and terminating in a semicircular sanctuary or apse. As time went on, the round arch, typical of Basilican and Romanesque architecture, gradually gave place to the pointed arch, peculiar to the new Gothic style, which is defined as "perfected Romanesque." In England a tendency developed of making the sanctuary rectangular instead of apsidal. The Normans adopted this arrangement; and in their church-planning the English oblong type of chancel gradually took the place of the Romanesque and continental apse, and the Basilica plan was abandoned for that of the Gothic, of a crossing or transept, separating nave from chancel, the latter being extended to make room for the choir. The final evolution of the style peculiar to England is due to the Cistercians, the characteristic of whose Abbeys was extreme simplicity and the absence of needless ornament; their renunciation of the world was evidenced in all that met the eye. Pinnacles, turrets, traceried windows, and stained glass were, in their early days at least, proscribed. And during the twelfth century Cistercian influence predominated throughout Western Europe. The Cistercian churches of this period, Fountains, Kirkstall, Jervaulx, Netly, and Tintern, have rectangular chancels. These and other twelfth century churches belong to what is known as the Transitional or Pointed Norman style. Then followed the greater elaboration of Early and Decorated English, as seen at Norwich and Worcester, or rebuilt Westminster, culminating in the splendours of the Perpendicular, or Tudor style, of which Henry VII's Chapel, at Westminster, is so superb an example. Few English Abbeys of note, however, were of homogeneous architecture; in fact, the mixture of styles, though sometimes almost bewildering, adds to what is left of these stately piles a greater picturesqueness ever pleasing to archaeologist and artist.
The routine of a monastery could be maintained and supervised only by the delegation of some of the abbot's authority to various officials, who thus shared with him the burden of rule and administration, and the transaction of business--considerable and ever increasing in volume, where a large and important monastery was concerned. The rule was exercised in subordination to the abbot by the claustral prior and sub-prior; the administration, by officials termed obedientiaries who possessed extensive powers in their own spheres. Their number varied in different houses; but the following were the ordinary officials, together with their duties, most commonly named in old Customals: The cantor, or precentor, regulated the singing in the church service, and was assisted by the succentor or sub-cantor. He trained the novices to render the traditional chant properly. In some places he acted as master to the boys of the claustral school. He was the librarian and archivist, and in this capacity, had charge of the precious tomes and manuscripts preserved in a special aumbry or book-cupboard, and had to provide the choirbooks and those for reading in the refectory. He prepared and sent round the briefs, or mortuary-rolls, announcing the death of any of the brethren to other monasteries. He was also one of the three official custodians of the convent seal, holding one of the keys to the chest where it was kept. To the sacrist and his assistants was committed the care of the church fabric, together with its sacred plate and vestments. He had to see to the cleaning and lighting of the church, its decking for great festivals, and the vestments used by the sacred vestments. The cemetery was also under his charge. To his office pertained the lighting of the entire of the entire monastery : and thus he superintended the candle-making, and bought the necessary stores of wax, tallow, and cotton for wicks. He slept in the church, and took his meals near at hand, so that day and night the church was never left without a guardian. His chief assistants were a revestiarius, who saw to the vestments, the linen, and the hangings of the church, and was responsible for their being kept in repair, or replaced when worn out; and the treasurer, who was in special charge of the shrines, reliquaries, sacred vessels, and other plate.
The cellarer was the purveyor of all food-stuffs and drink for the use of the community. This entailed frequent absences, and hence exemption from much of the ordinary choir duties. He had charge of the hired servants, whom he alone could engage, dismiss, or punish. He superintended the serving up of the meals. To his office belonged the supplying of fuel, carriage of goods, repairs of the house, etc. He was aided by a sub-cellarer and, in the bakery, by a granatorius, or keeper of the grain, who saw to the grinding and quality of flour. The refectorian had charge of the refectory, or "fratry," keeping it clean, supplied with cloths, napkins, jugs, and dishes, and superintended the laying of the tables. To him, too, was assigned the care of the lavatory, and the providing it with towels and, if necessary, hot water. The office of the kitchener was one of great responsibility, for to him fell the portioning out of the food, and it was only great experience which could preserve the happy mean between waste and niggardliness. He had under him an emptor, or buyer, experienced in marketing. He had to keep a strict account of his expenditures and of the stores, presenting in books weekly to the abbot for examination. He presided over the entire kitchen department, seeing particularly that all the utensils were kept scrupulously clean. The discharge of his duty entailed frequent exemption from choir. The weekly servers helped in the kitchen, under the kitchener's orders, and waited at table during the meals. The concluded their week's work on Saturday evenings by washing the feet of the brethren. The infirmarian had to tend the sick with affectionate sympathy, and, as far as might be necessary, was excused from regular duties. If a priest, he said Mass for the sick; if not, he got a priest to do so. He always slept in the infirmary, even when there were no sick there, so as to be found on the spot in case of emergency. The curious practice of blood-letting, looked on as so salutary in ancient times, was carried out by the infirmarian. The chief duty of the almoner was to distribute the alms of the monastery, in food and clothing, to the poor, with kindness and discretion; and; while ministering to their bodily wants, he was not to forget those of their soul also. He superintended the daily maundy or washing of the feet of the poor selected for that purpose. Another of his duties was to take charge of any school, other than the claustral school, connected with the monastery. To him also fell the task of seeing to the circulation of the mortuary-rolls.
In medieval days the hospitality extended to travelers by the monasteries was of such constant occurrences that the guest-master required a full measure of tact, prudence, and discretion, as well as affability, since the reputation of the house was in his keeping. His first duty was to see that the guest-house always ready for the reception of visitors, whom he was to receive, as enjoined by the Rule, as he would Christ Himself, and during their stay to supply their wants, entertain them, conduct them to the church services, and generally to hold himself at their disposal. The chief duties of the chamberlain of a monastery were concerned with the wardrobe of the brethren, repairing or renewing their worn-out garments, and preserving cast-off clothes for distribution to the poor by the almoner. He had also to superintend the laundry. As it belonged to him to provide cloth and other material for the clothing, he had to attend the neighbouring fairs to purchase his stock. On him, too, devolved the task of making preparation for the baths, feet-washing, and shaving of the brethren.
The novice-master was of course one of the most important officials in every monastery. In church, in the refectory, in the cloister, in the dormitory, he kept a watchful control over the novices, and spent the day teaching them and exercising them in the rules and traditional practices of the religious life, encouraging and helping those who showed real signs of a monastic vocation. The weekly officials included, besides the servers already referred to, the reader in the refectory, who was enjoined to make careful preparation so as to avoid mistakes. Also, the antiphoner whose duty it was to read the invitatory at Matins, intone the first antiphon of the Psalms, the versicles and responsories, after the lessons, and the capitulum, or little chapter, etc. The hebdomadarian, or priest of the week, had to commence all the various canonical Hours, give all the blessings that might be required, and sing the High Mass each day.
The greater Abbeys in England were represented through their superiors in Parliament, in Convocations, and in Synod. Their superiors were regularly included in the Commissions of Peace, and in all things acted as, and were considered the equals of, their great feudal neighbours. The alms bestowed on the poor by the monasteries, together with those furnished by law, by the parish priests, served to support them without recourse to the more recent poor-laws. The lot of the poor was lightened, and they knew that they could turn for help and sympathy to the religious houses. Poverty as witnessed in these days was impossible in all the Middle Ages , because the monks, spread over all the country, acted as merely stewards of God's property, and dispensed it, if lavishly, yet with discretion. The relations between the monks and their tenants were uniformly kindly; the smaller cottagers were treated with much consideration, and if it became necessary to inflict fines, justice was tempered with mercy. The monastic manors were worked somewhat on the principle of a co-operative farm. If we may form a judgment on the whole of England from the "Durham Halmote Rolls," the conditions of village life left little to be desired. Provisions for watching over the public health were enforced, a guard kept over water supplies, stringent measures taken in regard to springs and wells, and the cleansing of ponds and milldams. A common mill ground the tenants' corn, and their bread was baked in a common oven. The relation of the monks to their peasant-tenants was rather that of rent-chargers than of absolute owners.
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An autonomous priory is ruled by a superior who bears the title of prior instead of that of abbot ; but this distinction was unknown in the first centuries of monastic history. Such were the twelve great cathedral priories of England, immediately governed by a prior, the diocesan being considered the abbot. Other priories were founded as cells, or offshoots from the great abbeys, and remained dependent on the parent house, by whose abbot the prior was appointed, and was removable at will. Originally the term monastery designated, both in the East and in the West, the dwelling either of a solitary or of a community; while caenobium, congregatio, fraternitas, asceterion, etc. were applied solely to the houses of communities. Monasteries took their names from either their locality, their founders, or from some monk whose life has shed lustre upon them; and later, from some saint whose relics were there preserved, or who was locally an object of special veneration. The monks of Egypt and Palestine, as may be gathered from the "Peregrinatio Etheriae," also selected for their monasteries sites famous for their connection with some biblical event or personage. The first monks generally settled in solitary places, away from the haunts of men, though sometimes they were to be found also in cities like Alexandria, Rome, Carthage, and Hippo. Monasteries, founded in country places, not infrequently gathered around them settlements which, particularly in England and Germany, in the course of time developed into great centres of population and industry. Many important towns owe their origin to this cause; but the tendency never showed itself in Africa and the East. Though the sites selected were often beautiful, many settlements, especially in Egypt, were of set purpose made amid arid deserts. Nor was this form of austerity confined to them. In the Middle Ages, the more dismal and savage did this site appear to be, the more did it appeal to the rigid mood of the Cistercians. Still, the preference, at least with the majority of the monks of the West, was for fertile lands, suitable for cultivation and agriculture.
The formation of communities dates from pre-Christian times, as witness the Essenes ; but the earliest Christian monastic foundations of which we have definite knowledge were simply groups of huts without any orderly arrangement, erected about the abode of some solitary famous for holiness and asceticism, around whom had gathered a knot of disciples anxious to learn his doctrine and to imitate his way of life. Communities that had outgrown the accommodation afforded by their monasteries founded branch houses, and thus propagated themselves like the swarming of a beehive. Bishops founded many monasteries, while others owed their existence to the piety of princes and nobles, who also generously endowed them. The Council of Chalcedon (451) forbade the foundation of any monastery without the permission of the local bishop, thus obviating the difficulties likely to arise from irresponsible action. This became the universal law, and it also safeguarded these institutions against disbandment or ruin, since they enjoyed a certain sacredness of character in popular estimation. Double monasteries were those in which dwelt communities both of men and women at one and the same time, under the government of a common superior, either an abbot or an abbess. The Emperor Justinian suppressed them in the East on account of the abuses which this arrangement might lead to; but the custom long prevailed in England, France, and Spain, where strict rules, keeping the sexes entirely separate at all times, minimized the danger of scandals. Examples of these were the houses of the Order of St. Gilbert of Sempringham ; and in France, Faremoutiers, Chelles, Remiremont, etc.
In the beginning, solitaries attached no importance whatever to the form of design of their dwellings. They made use of anything that Nature afforded, or their circumstances suggested. In the East, especially in Egypt, abandoned tombs and burial caves; in the West, cave and rude huts constructed of branches of trees, mud, or sun-dried bricks, and furnished with the barest necessities, sheltered many an early solitary. When the number of such solitaries in a certain locality grew, and huts increased in proportion, gradually they came to subject themselves to a common superior and to follow a common rule of life; but they had no common buildings except a church to which they all repaired for the Sunday services. At Tabennae on the Nile, in Upper Egypt, however, St. Pachomius laid the foundations of the coenobitical life, arranging everything in an organized manner. He built several monasteries, each containing about 1,600 separate cells laid out in lines as an encampment, where the monks slept and performed some of their manual tasks; but there were large halls for their common needs, as the church, refectory, kitchen, even an infirmary and a guest-house. An enclosure protecting all these buildings gave the settlement the appearance of a walled village; but every part was of the utmost simplicity, without any pretense to architectural style. It was this arrangement of monasteries, inaugurated by St. Pachomius, which finally spread throughout Palestine, and received the name of laurae, that is "lanes" or "alleys." In addition to these congregations of solitaries, all living in huts apart, there were caenobia, monasteries wherein the inmates lived a common life, none of them being permitted to retire to the cells of a laurae before they had therein undergone a lengthy period of training. In time this form of common life superseded that of the older laurae.
Monasticism in the West owes its development to St. Benedict (480-543). His Rule spread rapidly, and the number of monasteries founded in England, France, Spain, and Italy between 520 and 700 was very great. More than 15,000 Abbeys, following the Benedictine Rule, had been established before the Council of Constance in 1415. No special plan was adopted or followed in the building of the first caenobia, or monasteries as we understand the term today. The monks simply copied the buildings familiar to them, the Roman house or villa, whose plan, throughout the extent of the Roman Empire, was practically uniform. The founders of monasteries had often merely to install a community in an already existing villa. When they had to build, the natural instinct was to copy old models. If they fixed upon a site with existing buildings in good repair, they simply adapted them to their requirements, as St. Benedict did at Monte Cassino, not disdaining to turn to Christian uses what had before served for the worship of idols. The spread of the monastic life gradually effected great changes in the model of the Roman villa. The various avocations followed by the monks required suitable buildings, which were at first erected not upon any premeditated plan, but just as the need for them arose. These requirements, however, being practically the same in every country, resulted in practically similar arrangements everywhere.
The monastic lawgivers of the East have left no written record of the principal parts of their monasteries. St. Benedict, however, mentions the chief component parts with great exactness, in his Rule, as the oratory, dormitory, refectory, kitchen, workshops, cellars for stores, infirmary, novitiate, guest-house, and by inference, the conference-room or chapter-house. These, therefore, find a place in all Benedictine abbeys, which all followed one common plan, occasionally modified to suit local conditions. The chief buildings were arranged around a quadrangle. Taking the normal English arrangement, it will be found that the church was situated as a rule on the north side, its high and massive walls affording the monks a good shelter from the rough north winds. The buildings of the choir, presbytery, and retrochapels extending more to the east, gave some protection from the biting east wind. Canterbury and Chester, however, were exceptions, their churches being on the southern side, where also they were frequently found in warm and sunny climates, with the obvious purpose of obtaining some shelter from the heat of the sun. The choir was ordinarily entered, in the normally planned English monasteries, by a door at the junction of the northern and eastern cloisters, another door at the western end of the north cloister being reserved for the more solemn processions. Although in the course of time there came into existence private rooms (chequer or saccarium ) wherein the officials transacted their business, and later still private cells are to be met with, the cloisters were, in the main, the dwelling-place of the entire community, and here the common life was lived. The northern cloister, looking south, was the warmest of the four divisions. Here was the prior's seat, next to the door of the church; then those of the rest, more or less in order. The abbot's place was at the northeastern corner. The novice-master with his novices occupied the southern portion of the eastern cloister, while the junior monks were opposite in the western limb. The cold, sunless, southern walk was not used; but out of it opened the refectory, with the lavatory close at hand. In Cistercian houses it stood at right angles to the cloister. Near the refectory was the conventual kitchen with its various offices. The chapter-house opened out of the eastern cloister, as near the church as possible. The position of the dormitory was not so fixed. Normally, it communicated with the southern transept, hence it was over the eastern cloister ; occasionally it stood at right angles to it, as at Winchester, or on the western side, as at Worcester. The infirmary usually appears to have been to the east of the dormitory, but no fixed position was assigned to it. The guest-house was situated where it would be least likely to interfere the privacy of the monastery. In later days, when books had multiplied, a special building for the library was added, at right angles to one of the walks of the cloister. To these may be added the calefactory, the parlour, or locutorium, the almonry, and the offices of the obedientiaries ; but these additional buildings fitted into the general plan where they best might, and their disposition differed somewhat in the various monasteries. The English Cistercian houses, of which there are so many extensive and beautiful remains, were mainly arranged after the plan of Cîteaux, in Burgundy, the mother-house, with slight local variations.
The Carthusian monastery differed considerably in its arrangements from those of other orders. The monks were practically hermits, and each occupied a small detached cottage, containing three rooms, which they left only to attend the services of the church and on certain days when the community met together in the refectory. These cottages opened out of three sides of a quadrangular cloister, and on the fourth side were the church, refectory, chapter-house, and other public offices. Both laurae and caenobium were surrounded by walls which protected the inmates either from the intrusion of seculars or from the violence of marauders. No monk might go beyond this enclosure without permission. The monks of the earlier period considered this separation from the outer world as a matter of prime importance. Women were never permitted to enter the precincts of monasteries for men; even access to the church was oftentimes denied them, or, if accorded admission, as at Durham, they were relegated to a strictly limited space, farthest removed from the monks' choir. Even greater strictness was observed in safe-guarding the enclosure of nuns. The danger of attack from Saracen hordes necessitated, in the case of Eastern monasteries, the erection of lofty walls, with only one entrance place many feet above the ground, reached by a stairway or drawbridge that could be raised for defense. The monks of the West, not standing in fear of such incursions, did not need such elaborate safeguards, and therefore contented themselves with ordinary enclosure walls. A religious of mature age and character was selected for the responsible office of porter, and to act as the channel of communication between the inmates and the outside world. His chamber was always close by, so that he might be at hand to fulfill his duties of receiving the poor and of announcing the arrival of guests. In the Egyptian monasteries the guest-house, situated near the entrance gateway, was place under the charge of the porter, who was assisted by the novices. St. Benedict so arranged that it should be a building distinct from the monastery itself, although within the enclosure. It had its own kitchen, served by two of the brethren appointed for that purpose annually; a refectory where the abbot took his meals with distinguished guests, and, when he thought fit, invited some of the seniors to join him there; an apartment for the solemn reception of guests, in which the ceremony of washing their feet, as prescribed by the Rule, was performed by the abbot and his community; and a dormitory suitably furnished. Thus the guests received every attention due to them by the laws of charity and hospitality, and the community, while gaining the merit of dispensing them in a large-hearted way, through the appointed officials, suffered no disturbance of their own peace and quiet. It was usual for the buildings dedicated for hospitality to be divided into four: one for the reception of guests of distinction, another for poor travelers and pilgrims, a third for merchants arriving on business with the cellarer, and the last for monk-visitors.
Formerly, as now, monastic communities always and everywhere extended a generous hospitality to all comers as an important way of fulfilling their social duties ; hence monasteries lying on or near the main highways enjoyed particular consideration and esteem. Where guests were frequent and numerous, the accommodation provided for them was on a commensurate scale. And as it was necessary for great personages to travel accompanied by a crowd of retainers, vast stables and other outhouses were added to these monastic hostels. Later xenodochia, or infirmaries, were attached to these guest-houses, where sick travelers could receive medical treatment. St. Benedict ordained that the monastic oratory should be what its name implied, a place exclusively reserved for public and private prayer. In the beginning it was a mere chapel, only large enough to hold the religious, since externs were not admitted. The size of these oratories were gradually enlarged to meet the requirements of the liturgy. There was also usually an oratory, outside the monastic enclosure, to which women were admitted.
The refectory was the common hall where the monks assembled for their meals. Strict silence was observed there, but during the meals one of the brethren read aloud to the community. The refectory was originally built on the plan of the ancient Roman triclinium , terminating in an apse. The tables were ranged along three sides of the room near the walls, leaving the interior space for the movements of the servers. Near the door of the refectory was invariably to be found the lavatory, where the monks washed their hands before and after meals. The kitchen, was, for convenience, always situated near the refectory. In the larger monasteries separate kitchens were provided for the community (where the brethren performed the duties in weekly turns), the abbot, the sick, and the guests. The dormitory was the community bed-chamber. A lamp burned in it throughout the night. The monks slept clothed, so as to be ready, as St. Benedict says, to rise without delay for the night Office. The normal arrangement, where the numbers permitted it, was for all to sleep in one dormitory, hence there were often very large; sometimes more than one was required. The practice, however, gradually came in of dividing the large dormitory into numerous small cubicles, one being allotted to each monk. The latrines were separated from the main buildings by a passage, and were always planned with the greatest regard to health and cleanliness, a copious supply of running water being used wherever possible.
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Although St. Benedict makes no specific mention of a chapter-house, nevertheless he does order monks to "come together presently after supper to read the 'Collations.'" No chapter-house appears on the plan of the great Swiss monastery of St. Gall, dating back to the ninth century; in the early days, therefore, the cloisters must have served for the meetings of the community, either for instruction or to discuss the affairs of the monastery. But convenience soon suggested a special place for these purposes, and there is mention of chapter-rooms in the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle (817). The chapter-room was always on the cloister level, on to which it opened. The cloisters, though covered, were generally open to the weather, and were an adaptation of the old Roman atrium . Besides providing a means of communication between the various parts of the monastery, they were both the dwelling-place and the workshop of the monks, and thus the word cloister became a synonym for the monastic life. How the monks managed to live in these open galleries during the winter months, in cold climates, is a mystery; a room, called a "calefactory," heated by flues, or in which a fire was kept up, where the monks might retire occasionally to warm themselves, was provided in English monasteries.
On the Continent the practice in regard to the novices differed somewhat from that prevailing in England. Not being as yet incorporated into the community, they were not permitted to dwell in the interior of the monastery. They had their places in choir during the Divine Office, but they spent the rest of their time in the novitiate. A senior monk, called the novice-master, instructed them in the principles of the religious life, and "tried their spirits if they be of God," as St. Benedict's Rule prescribed. This period of probation lasted a whole year. Abroad, the building set apart for the novices was provided with its own dormitory, kitchen, refectory, workroom, and occasionally even its own cloisters ; it was, in fact, a miniature monastery within a larger one.
The infirmary was a special building set apart for the accommodation of the sick and infirm brethren, who there received the particular care and attention they needed, at the hands of those appointed to the duty. A herbal garden provided many of the remedies. When death had brought its reward, the monks were laid to rest in a cemetery within the monastic precincts. The honour of burial amongst the religious, a privilege highly esteemed, was also sometimes accorded bishops, royal personages, and distinguished benefactors.
No monastery was complete without its cellars for the storing of provisions. There were, in addition, the granaries, barns, etc., all under the care of the cellarer, as also such buildings and outhouses as were used for agricultural purposes. Gardens and orchards provided such vegetables and fruit as were cultivated in the Middle Ages. The work of the fields did not, however, occupy all the time of the monks. Besides cultivating the arts, and transcribing manuscripts, they plied many trades, such as tailoring, shoe-making, carpentering, etc., while others baked the bread for daily consumption. Most monasteries had a mill for grinding their own corn. It will thus be seen that an Abbey, especially if it maintained a large community, was a little city, self-contained and self-sufficing, as St. Benedict wished it to be, to obviate as far as possible any necessity for the monks to leave the enclosure. The enormous development of the monastic life brought in its train a similar development in the accommodation suitable for it. The monastic buildings, at first so primitive, grew in time till they presented a very imposing appearance; and the arts were requisitioned and ancient models of architecture copied, adapted, and modified. The Basilican plan, indigenous to Italy, was, naturally, that first adopted. Its churches consisted of a nave and aisles, lighted by clerestory windows, and terminating in a semicircular sanctuary or apse. As time went on, the round arch, typical of Basilican and Romanesque architecture, gradually gave place to the pointed arch, peculiar to the new Gothic style, which is defined as "perfected Romanesque." In England a tendency developed of making the sanctuary rectangular instead of apsidal. The Normans adopted this arrangement; and in their church-planning the English oblong type of chancel gradually took the place of the Romanesque and continental apse, and the Basilica plan was abandoned for that of the Gothic, of a crossing or transept, separating nave from chancel, the latter being extended to make room for the choir. The final evolution of the style peculiar to England is due to the Cistercians, the characteristic of whose Abbeys was extreme simplicity and the absence of needless ornament; their renunciation of the world was evidenced in all that met the eye. Pinnacles, turrets, traceried windows, and stained glass were, in their early days at least, proscribed. And during the twelfth century Cistercian influence predominated throughout Western Europe. The Cistercian churches of this period, Fountains, Kirkstall, Jervaulx, Netly, and Tintern, have rectangular chancels. These and other twelfth century churches belong to what is known as the Transitional or Pointed Norman style. Then followed the greater elaboration of Early and Decorated English, as seen at Norwich and Worcester, or rebuilt Westminster, culminating in the splendours of the Perpendicular, or Tudor style, of which Henry VII's Chapel, at Westminster, is so superb an example. Few English Abbeys of note, however, were of homogeneous architecture; in fact, the mixture of styles, though sometimes almost bewildering, adds to what is left of these stately piles a greater picturesqueness ever pleasing to archaeologist and artist.
The routine of a monastery could be maintained and supervised only by the delegation of some of the abbot's authority to various officials, who thus shared with him the burden of rule and administration, and the transaction of business--considerable and ever increasing in volume, where a large and important monastery was concerned. The rule was exercised in subordination to the abbot by the claustral prior and sub-prior; the administration, by officials termed obedientiaries who possessed extensive powers in their own spheres. Their number varied in different houses; but the following were the ordinary officials, together with their duties, most commonly named in old Customals: The cantor, or precentor, regulated the singing in the church service, and was assisted by the succentor or sub-cantor. He trained the novices to render the traditional chant properly. In some places he acted as master to the boys of the claustral school. He was the librarian and archivist, and in this capacity, had charge of the precious tomes and manuscripts preserved in a special aumbry or book-cupboard, and had to provide the choirbooks and those for reading in the refectory. He prepared and sent round the briefs, or mortuary-rolls, announcing the death of any of the brethren to other monasteries. He was also one of the three official custodians of the convent seal, holding one of the keys to the chest where it was kept. To the sacrist and his assistants was committed the care of the church fabric, together with its sacred plate and vestments. He had to see to the cleaning and lighting of the church, its decking for great festivals, and the vestments used by the sacred vestments. The cemetery was also under his charge. To his office pertained the lighting of the entire of the entire monastery : and thus he superintended the candle-making, and bought the necessary stores of wax, tallow, and cotton for wicks. He slept in the church, and took his meals near at hand, so that day and night the church was never left without a guardian. His chief assistants were a revestiarius, who saw to the vestments, the linen, and the hangings of the church, and was responsible for their being kept in repair, or replaced when worn out; and the treasurer, who was in special charge of the shrines, reliquaries, sacred vessels, and other plate.
The cellarer was the purveyor of all food-stuffs and drink for the use of the community. This entailed frequent absences, and hence exemption from much of the ordinary choir duties. He had charge of the hired servants, whom he alone could engage, dismiss, or punish. He superintended the serving up of the meals. To his office belonged the supplying of fuel, carriage of goods, repairs of the house, etc. He was aided by a sub-cellarer and, in the bakery, by a granatorius, or keeper of the grain, who saw to the grinding and quality of flour. The refectorian had charge of the refectory, or "fratry," keeping it clean, supplied with cloths, napkins, jugs, and dishes, and superintended the laying of the tables. To him, too, was assigned the care of the lavatory, and the providing it with towels and, if necessary, hot water. The office of the kitchener was one of great responsibility, for to him fell the portioning out of the food, and it was only great experience which could preserve the happy mean between waste and niggardliness. He had under him an emptor, or buyer, experienced in marketing. He had to keep a strict account of his expenditures and of the stores, presenting in books weekly to the abbot for examination. He presided over the entire kitchen department, seeing particularly that all the utensils were kept scrupulously clean. The discharge of his duty entailed frequent exemption from choir. The weekly servers helped in the kitchen, under the kitchener's orders, and waited at table during the meals. The concluded their week's work on Saturday evenings by washing the feet of the brethren. The infirmarian had to tend the sick with affectionate sympathy, and, as far as might be necessary, was excused from regular duties. If a priest, he said Mass for the sick; if not, he got a priest to do so. He always slept in the infirmary, even when there were no sick there, so as to be found on the spot in case of emergency. The curious practice of blood-letting, looked on as so salutary in ancient times, was carried out by the infirmarian. The chief duty of the almoner was to distribute the alms of the monastery, in food and clothing, to the poor, with kindness and discretion; and; while ministering to their bodily wants, he was not to forget those of their soul also. He superintended the daily maundy or washing of the feet of the poor selected for that purpose. Another of his duties was to take charge of any school, other than the claustral school, connected with the monastery. To him also fell the task of seeing to the circulation of the mortuary-rolls.
In medieval days the hospitality extended to travelers by the monasteries was of such constant occurrences that the guest-master required a full measure of tact, prudence, and discretion, as well as affability, since the reputation of the house was in his keeping. His first duty was to see that the guest-house always ready for the reception of visitors, whom he was to receive, as enjoined by the Rule, as he would Christ Himself, and during their stay to supply their wants, entertain them, conduct them to the church services, and generally to hold himself at their disposal. The chief duties of the chamberlain of a monastery were concerned with the wardrobe of the brethren, repairing or renewing their worn-out garments, and preserving cast-off clothes for distribution to the poor by the almoner. He had also to superintend the laundry. As it belonged to him to provide cloth and other material for the clothing, he had to attend the neighbouring fairs to purchase his stock. On him, too, devolved the task of making preparation for the baths, feet-washing, and shaving of the brethren.
The novice-master was of course one of the most important officials in every monastery. In church, in the refectory, in the cloister, in the dormitory, he kept a watchful control over the novices, and spent the day teaching them and exercising them in the rules and traditional practices of the religious life, encouraging and helping those who showed real signs of a monastic vocation. The weekly officials included, besides the servers already referred to, the reader in the refectory, who was enjoined to make careful preparation so as to avoid mistakes. Also, the antiphoner whose duty it was to read the invitatory at Matins, intone the first antiphon of the Psalms, the versicles and responsories, after the lessons, and the capitulum, or little chapter, etc. The hebdomadarian, or priest of the week, had to commence all the various canonical Hours, give all the blessings that might be required, and sing the High Mass each day.
The greater Abbeys in England were represented through their superiors in Parliament, in Convocations, and in Synod. Their superiors were regularly included in the Commissions of Peace, and in all things acted as, and were considered the equals of, their great feudal neighbours. The alms bestowed on the poor by the monasteries, together with those furnished by law, by the parish priests, served to support them without recourse to the more recent poor-laws. The lot of the poor was lightened, and they knew that they could turn for help and sympathy to the religious houses. Poverty as witnessed in these days was impossible in all the Middle Ages , because the monks, spread over all the country, acted as merely stewards of God's property, and dispensed it, if lavishly, yet with discretion. The relations between the monks and their tenants were uniformly kindly; the smaller cottagers were treated with much consideration, and if it became necessary to inflict fines, justice was tempered with mercy. The monastic manors were worked somewhat on the principle of a co-operative farm. If we may form a judgment on the whole of England from the "Durham Halmote Rolls," the conditions of village life left little to be desired. Provisions for watching over the public health were enforced, a guard kept over water supplies, stringent measures taken in regard to springs and wells, and the cleansing of ponds and milldams. A common mill ground the tenants' corn, and their bread was baked in a common oven. The relation of the monks to their peasant-tenants was rather that of rent-chargers than of absolute owners.
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Near the close of the nineteenth century, Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois both strived for change in ending racism each in their own way. There are some people that believed the peaceful way that Washington went about achieving change to end racism was the best way, and there are others that believed that DuBois’ idea to agitate to achieve the end of racism was a better plan. Washington was very non-confrontational in his stance of how African-American people should ultimately achieve this goal. DuBois tried to achieve the goal in a very aggressive way compared to his contemporaries, including Washington.
Washington, in his “Atlanta Exposition Address”, called for the appeasement of the people in the North and the South, and in…show more content…
DuBois also had distinct theories of what he thought African-Americans needed to put into practice, so that they would not be oppressed any longer. DuBois definitely saw the value and worth of African-American people getting both industrial and traditional education. DuBois envisioned all African-Americans being well educated, in the industrial arts and the classics, which would lead to being able to rise up in the world as leaders and teachers. DuBois explained Washington’s mindset as “And so thoroughly did he learn the speech and thought of triumphant commercialism, and the ideals of material prosperity, that the picture of a lone black boy poring over a French grammar amid the weeds and dirt of a neglected home soon seemed to him the acme of absurdities.” (DuBois, 2).
Washington recommended that African-Americans should start by being in the workforce first, and then after they get wealthy, gaining power through other means and equality would come. Washington thought that his way, his process of easing into society and ending racism, was better than trying to make several demands all at once. DuBois didn’t seem to be as patient with how slowly things were progressing along with the end of racism. So much so, that DuBois believed that African-Americans should fight for their rights as humans to be immediately integrated completely into society. | <urn:uuid:dae94553-23d4-4171-966e-c0f0a8e14182> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Booker-T-Washington-Vs-Dubois-Analysis-PK5AQE9WPEP | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.985954 | 447 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.2771546244621277... | 1 | Near the close of the nineteenth century, Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois both strived for change in ending racism each in their own way. There are some people that believed the peaceful way that Washington went about achieving change to end racism was the best way, and there are others that believed that DuBois’ idea to agitate to achieve the end of racism was a better plan. Washington was very non-confrontational in his stance of how African-American people should ultimately achieve this goal. DuBois tried to achieve the goal in a very aggressive way compared to his contemporaries, including Washington.
Washington, in his “Atlanta Exposition Address”, called for the appeasement of the people in the North and the South, and in…show more content…
DuBois also had distinct theories of what he thought African-Americans needed to put into practice, so that they would not be oppressed any longer. DuBois definitely saw the value and worth of African-American people getting both industrial and traditional education. DuBois envisioned all African-Americans being well educated, in the industrial arts and the classics, which would lead to being able to rise up in the world as leaders and teachers. DuBois explained Washington’s mindset as “And so thoroughly did he learn the speech and thought of triumphant commercialism, and the ideals of material prosperity, that the picture of a lone black boy poring over a French grammar amid the weeds and dirt of a neglected home soon seemed to him the acme of absurdities.” (DuBois, 2).
Washington recommended that African-Americans should start by being in the workforce first, and then after they get wealthy, gaining power through other means and equality would come. Washington thought that his way, his process of easing into society and ending racism, was better than trying to make several demands all at once. DuBois didn’t seem to be as patient with how slowly things were progressing along with the end of racism. So much so, that DuBois believed that African-Americans should fight for their rights as humans to be immediately integrated completely into society. | 427 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Col. John Dooly was Georgia’s first folk hero; a man who lost a brother in an Indian attack, then led Patriot forces to victory at the Battle of Kettle Creek, and finally died as a martyr to the American cause. When Georgia’s colonial government ceased to exist in 1775, John Dooly formed a vigilante Patriotic militia to defend Savannah from the British at the Battle of the Rice Boats. As a continental officer, he traveled to Virginia in 1777 to recruit men to fight in Georgia. He had to resign his commission after he illegally and irresponsibly held a Creek Indian peace delegation hostage in retaliation for his brother’s death at Creek hands. At one time, Dooly simultaneously was a member of the state’s ruling Executive Council, commander of the militia, and State’s Attorney. He was on the commission that laid out Washington as the county seat of Wilkes County and was their first sheriff. In June 1780, all of Georgia and South Carolina had been overrun by the British except for our upper backwoods, and Colonel Thomas Brown was ordered to subdue those proud Patriots. Brown, the commander of the Loyalist garrison occupying Augusta, sent William Manson, a successful Wrightsborough merchant, to convince them to capitulate. Manson found Dooly and offered his militia, the only organized resistance left in Georgia, surrender terms under British protection as prisoners of war on parole. Dooly, on a hillside near Washington, gave up his 300 men and 280 arms without a fight. Two-thirds of the men took their slips of paper and went home, but 100 men fled with Colonel Elijah Clark to South Carolina to fight another day. At that moment, Georgia became the only state to revert back to a British colony. Clark returned to Wilkes County to plan his attack to retake Augusta. He tried to persuade officers and enlisted men to violate their paroles and fight again, but no one would, they’d had enough. Clark assembled 400 brave men, although some had to be coerced, and retook Augusta on September 14, 1780. Four days later, Loyalist troops from Carolina arrived and drove Clark out. British Colonel John Cruger hanged 13 captured Patriots known to have received those paroles and sent another 13 to the Indians in Ninety Six to be tortured and burned alive. He then sent Loyalist militia and Indians to sweep across Wilkes County, burning 100 farms, barns, houses, forts and the court house. Clark escaped and led 600 men, women and children to Tennessee and returned to fight with ‘the Gamecock,’ General Thomas Sumter, until the war’s end.
Nothing in Dooly’s life was simple, not even his death. His first biographer wrote that Dooly’s murderer was a McCorkle of South Carolina. Another said Dooly was killed one night on his porch in full view of his family by a Capt. William Corker as revenge for his brother’s death by Dooly’s men during their June 1779 campaign in Burke County. Dooly was originally a merchant, surveyor and land speculator in South Carolina whose numerous court suits prompted death threats; did his murder stem from those? In 1774, Dooly settled his family on the ‘Savannah River Leesburg plantation’ in original Wilkes County in the newly opened Ceded Land of Georgia. Unfortunately, Thomas Lee owned the land, yet Dooly refused to give it up even after successful law suits were filed against him. It would almost seem reasonable had he been shot for that. As a colonel, Dooly had confiscated private property for his troops, and as state’s attorney had prosecuted several of his neighbors as Loyalists, and nine were condemned to die. Reprieves were eventually given to six of them, leaving three roaming around with just one thing on their mind: killing Dooly. Was he murdered because he was preparing to rejoin the militia, breaking his parole, because the British had ordered his Leesburg property, or Thomas Lee’s anyway, to be confiscated? Unfortunately, Dooly’s widow and children were ultimately evicted from the Leesburg property and lost their remaining property due to his enormous debts. To avoid his creditors, his family did not apply for the military bounty land for his service until after 1796. In 1821, Dooly County was named for him.
Lewis Smith lives in Thomson. Contact him at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:028449f0-be38-4d43-a78b-9345deaa7670> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mcduffieprogress.com/opinion/the-murder-of-col-john-dooly/article_71582158-0fdf-11ea-936d-5fa50827c9a3.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.988061 | 932 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.4741761684417... | 1 | Col. John Dooly was Georgia’s first folk hero; a man who lost a brother in an Indian attack, then led Patriot forces to victory at the Battle of Kettle Creek, and finally died as a martyr to the American cause. When Georgia’s colonial government ceased to exist in 1775, John Dooly formed a vigilante Patriotic militia to defend Savannah from the British at the Battle of the Rice Boats. As a continental officer, he traveled to Virginia in 1777 to recruit men to fight in Georgia. He had to resign his commission after he illegally and irresponsibly held a Creek Indian peace delegation hostage in retaliation for his brother’s death at Creek hands. At one time, Dooly simultaneously was a member of the state’s ruling Executive Council, commander of the militia, and State’s Attorney. He was on the commission that laid out Washington as the county seat of Wilkes County and was their first sheriff. In June 1780, all of Georgia and South Carolina had been overrun by the British except for our upper backwoods, and Colonel Thomas Brown was ordered to subdue those proud Patriots. Brown, the commander of the Loyalist garrison occupying Augusta, sent William Manson, a successful Wrightsborough merchant, to convince them to capitulate. Manson found Dooly and offered his militia, the only organized resistance left in Georgia, surrender terms under British protection as prisoners of war on parole. Dooly, on a hillside near Washington, gave up his 300 men and 280 arms without a fight. Two-thirds of the men took their slips of paper and went home, but 100 men fled with Colonel Elijah Clark to South Carolina to fight another day. At that moment, Georgia became the only state to revert back to a British colony. Clark returned to Wilkes County to plan his attack to retake Augusta. He tried to persuade officers and enlisted men to violate their paroles and fight again, but no one would, they’d had enough. Clark assembled 400 brave men, although some had to be coerced, and retook Augusta on September 14, 1780. Four days later, Loyalist troops from Carolina arrived and drove Clark out. British Colonel John Cruger hanged 13 captured Patriots known to have received those paroles and sent another 13 to the Indians in Ninety Six to be tortured and burned alive. He then sent Loyalist militia and Indians to sweep across Wilkes County, burning 100 farms, barns, houses, forts and the court house. Clark escaped and led 600 men, women and children to Tennessee and returned to fight with ‘the Gamecock,’ General Thomas Sumter, until the war’s end.
Nothing in Dooly’s life was simple, not even his death. His first biographer wrote that Dooly’s murderer was a McCorkle of South Carolina. Another said Dooly was killed one night on his porch in full view of his family by a Capt. William Corker as revenge for his brother’s death by Dooly’s men during their June 1779 campaign in Burke County. Dooly was originally a merchant, surveyor and land speculator in South Carolina whose numerous court suits prompted death threats; did his murder stem from those? In 1774, Dooly settled his family on the ‘Savannah River Leesburg plantation’ in original Wilkes County in the newly opened Ceded Land of Georgia. Unfortunately, Thomas Lee owned the land, yet Dooly refused to give it up even after successful law suits were filed against him. It would almost seem reasonable had he been shot for that. As a colonel, Dooly had confiscated private property for his troops, and as state’s attorney had prosecuted several of his neighbors as Loyalists, and nine were condemned to die. Reprieves were eventually given to six of them, leaving three roaming around with just one thing on their mind: killing Dooly. Was he murdered because he was preparing to rejoin the militia, breaking his parole, because the British had ordered his Leesburg property, or Thomas Lee’s anyway, to be confiscated? Unfortunately, Dooly’s widow and children were ultimately evicted from the Leesburg property and lost their remaining property due to his enormous debts. To avoid his creditors, his family did not apply for the military bounty land for his service until after 1796. In 1821, Dooly County was named for him.
Lewis Smith lives in Thomson. Contact him at firstname.lastname@example.org. | 965 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On January 21, 1793, French King Louis XVI was executed by guillotine at the Place de la Revolution in Paris following a conviction of high treason by the National Convention. The execution was a direct result of the fall of the Bourbon monarchy and marked an important turn of events in the French Revolution.
Louis was born at Versailles in August 1754. In 1770, a royal marriage was arranged between Louis and Marie Antoinette, the daughter of the Emperor and Empress of Austria in an alliance that was intended to consolidate cordial relations between France and Austria. By 1774, Louis had ascended the throne previously held by his grandfather Louis XV as the King of France. By the time the excesses of the Bourbon royal family had not only gained the monarchy the displeasure of the people but also had nearly emptied the royal exchequer. Wars, extravagances, and fantastic constructions had led the economy to ruin and the rising costs had made basic items of necessity beyond the reach of an ordinary man. Failing crops and soaring unemployment fueled the rage of the French masses. Marie Antoinette became the cause for much contention, as the relations with Austria started to sour.
In 1788, Louis made one last attempt to rescue the country from what looked like certain economic ruin by reinstating the French National Assembly or the Estates-General. The Assembly was meant to have representation from all the three “estates” of the French people – the clergy, the nobles, and the commons. The Third Estate, the commons, was incensed as the King disallowed the three estates to meet simultaneously. They declared that they alone were the representatives of the French people and soon seized all power; the Third Estate started to curtail the monarchy, leading up to the French Revolution. On July 14, 1789, mobs of Parisians stormed the hated prison at the Bastille, where the ammunitions of the French military were believed to be stored. Louis, while pretending to accept the revolution and acquiescing to the demands of the people, kept resisting all attempts to reform the monarchy into a more suitable form.
The King’s consort, Marie Antoinette had acquired a terrible reputation due to her scant regard for established French royal traditions. The liberty she enjoyed with the upbringing of her children and her attempts to repair the image of the royalty were perceived negatively. As the Dauphine of France she had incurred much displeasure due to her extravagant expenditure in times of famine and due to the rumors of treason and promiscuity that had become a matter of gossip through the country. In many cases the Queen had been innocent, but the accusations leveled against her had been difficult to quell. In October 1789, thousands of French people marched towards the royal palace at Versailles. After a violent demonstration here, Louis accepted some of the proposed reforms. The royal family was forced to take up residence at the Palace de Tuileries. By June 1791, the revolution had reached a climax and the royal family was forced to flee to Austria. They were, however, apprehended at Varennes and brought back to Paris. In August 1792, the King and Queen were arrested. The Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. In January the following year, Louis was tried by the National Convention which had replaced the National Assembly and was sentenced to death by guillotine the following day.
Louis spent the evening of January 20 saying goodbye to his wife and children. He rose at five the next morning and attended mass. After confession, an English priest Henry Essex Edgeworth accompanied Louis. In his personal account, Edgeworth describes the gravity and courage with which the king bore his last hours. He went with a dignity rare to men and refused to be bound. According to Edgeworth, the king’s last words were “I die innocent of all the crimes laid to my charge; I pardon those who have occasioned my death; and I pray to God that the blood you are going to shed may never be visited on France.”
Louis’ wife, Marie Antoinette was also tried by the National Convention nine months later. She was found guilty of treason and sentenced to the guillotine on October 16. With the execution of Louis started what would be described by historians as the “Reign of Terror”, one of the most anarchic periods of revolution – unexpected in the history of a country of such refinement as France. Records say, 16,594 French men and women were executed by guillotine and over 25,000 more in other executions across France. The country was torn apart by the conflict between the Jacobins and the Girondins – rival political factions. The execution saw the last of the Bourbon kings till Louis XVIII, known as “the Desired”, took over the as the King of France in 1814.
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January 21 1954 – USS Nautilus, the First Nuclear-Powered Submarine, is Christened in Connecticut | <urn:uuid:f55bcac1-e2d6-49bf-8a63-740cacc5ebfc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thisdayinworldhistory.com/january-21-1793-king-louis-xvi-of-france-is-guillotined-as-part-of-the-french-revolution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.984599 | 1,028 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.010369006544... | 3 | On January 21, 1793, French King Louis XVI was executed by guillotine at the Place de la Revolution in Paris following a conviction of high treason by the National Convention. The execution was a direct result of the fall of the Bourbon monarchy and marked an important turn of events in the French Revolution.
Louis was born at Versailles in August 1754. In 1770, a royal marriage was arranged between Louis and Marie Antoinette, the daughter of the Emperor and Empress of Austria in an alliance that was intended to consolidate cordial relations between France and Austria. By 1774, Louis had ascended the throne previously held by his grandfather Louis XV as the King of France. By the time the excesses of the Bourbon royal family had not only gained the monarchy the displeasure of the people but also had nearly emptied the royal exchequer. Wars, extravagances, and fantastic constructions had led the economy to ruin and the rising costs had made basic items of necessity beyond the reach of an ordinary man. Failing crops and soaring unemployment fueled the rage of the French masses. Marie Antoinette became the cause for much contention, as the relations with Austria started to sour.
In 1788, Louis made one last attempt to rescue the country from what looked like certain economic ruin by reinstating the French National Assembly or the Estates-General. The Assembly was meant to have representation from all the three “estates” of the French people – the clergy, the nobles, and the commons. The Third Estate, the commons, was incensed as the King disallowed the three estates to meet simultaneously. They declared that they alone were the representatives of the French people and soon seized all power; the Third Estate started to curtail the monarchy, leading up to the French Revolution. On July 14, 1789, mobs of Parisians stormed the hated prison at the Bastille, where the ammunitions of the French military were believed to be stored. Louis, while pretending to accept the revolution and acquiescing to the demands of the people, kept resisting all attempts to reform the monarchy into a more suitable form.
The King’s consort, Marie Antoinette had acquired a terrible reputation due to her scant regard for established French royal traditions. The liberty she enjoyed with the upbringing of her children and her attempts to repair the image of the royalty were perceived negatively. As the Dauphine of France she had incurred much displeasure due to her extravagant expenditure in times of famine and due to the rumors of treason and promiscuity that had become a matter of gossip through the country. In many cases the Queen had been innocent, but the accusations leveled against her had been difficult to quell. In October 1789, thousands of French people marched towards the royal palace at Versailles. After a violent demonstration here, Louis accepted some of the proposed reforms. The royal family was forced to take up residence at the Palace de Tuileries. By June 1791, the revolution had reached a climax and the royal family was forced to flee to Austria. They were, however, apprehended at Varennes and brought back to Paris. In August 1792, the King and Queen were arrested. The Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. In January the following year, Louis was tried by the National Convention which had replaced the National Assembly and was sentenced to death by guillotine the following day.
Louis spent the evening of January 20 saying goodbye to his wife and children. He rose at five the next morning and attended mass. After confession, an English priest Henry Essex Edgeworth accompanied Louis. In his personal account, Edgeworth describes the gravity and courage with which the king bore his last hours. He went with a dignity rare to men and refused to be bound. According to Edgeworth, the king’s last words were “I die innocent of all the crimes laid to my charge; I pardon those who have occasioned my death; and I pray to God that the blood you are going to shed may never be visited on France.”
Louis’ wife, Marie Antoinette was also tried by the National Convention nine months later. She was found guilty of treason and sentenced to the guillotine on October 16. With the execution of Louis started what would be described by historians as the “Reign of Terror”, one of the most anarchic periods of revolution – unexpected in the history of a country of such refinement as France. Records say, 16,594 French men and women were executed by guillotine and over 25,000 more in other executions across France. The country was torn apart by the conflict between the Jacobins and the Girondins – rival political factions. The execution saw the last of the Bourbon kings till Louis XVIII, known as “the Desired”, took over the as the King of France in 1814.
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January 21 1954 – USS Nautilus, the First Nuclear-Powered Submarine, is Christened in Connecticut | 1,055 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 5 (1076 words)
What was the significance of D-Day to the outcome of World War 2? D-Day happened on 6th June 1944 after five years of war with Germany. D-Day was an invasion towards Germany by a massive military force that set out from England towards France. It was going to take over Nazi Germany and Germany’s leader Adolf Hitler because the Nazi’s had nearly taken over the whole of Europe which wouldn’t have happened if appeasement didn’t occur. The allied forces landed on the beaches of Normandy and started to break through the German army’s defences.
They began an attack that lasted for eleven months which took them all the way to the German capital Berlin, to the bunker that was Adolf Hitler’s headquarters. In April 1943 the British General Fredrick Morgan was selected the chief of staff to the supreme allied commander (CASSAC) for the D-Day invasion. He was to draw up blueprints of the attack, Morgan finalized the planning in July 1943 and he had considered both the Pas de Calais and Caen as possible landings areas but although Pas de Calais was closer to southern England it was also heavily defended which is why he opted for Caen as the landing place.
Surprise was crucial, not just to allow the troops to get ashore but also to prevent the Germans from sending significant reinforcements quickly from elsewhere. Britain wanted to trick the Germans into believing that the landings would be in Pas de Calais because the Germans also feared an allied invasion of Norway so they retained a large number of troops there. The Germans had their troops spread out around the coastline which meant a good chance of Britain reaching Hitler’s headquarters.
Morgan’s plans were approved at a conference in Quebec one 17th August 1943 but it wasn’t until the start of December 1934 that Eisenhower (President of the United Sates from 1953 until 1961) was made supreme allied commander in Europe for the invasion which was codenamed “Operation Overload”, two weeks later the attack began. The invasion began when allied planes and warships bombarded German positions along the coastline, this was to damage the defences making it easier for the troops to get ashore.
At the same time planes and gliders dropped tens of thousands of allied soldiers behind the German defences, so they could take control of important roads and bridges to make it harder for the German army to rush extra men towards the areas where the troops were landing. Masses of ships set out from the South coast of England, in total over 6,000 vessels joined the attack and were supported by over 11,000 planes. The naval force crossed the channel overnight, at 6:30 am on June 6 troops started to land on the beaches of Normandy and by the end of D-Day the allies had put 156,000 troops ashore in Normandy.
The troops landed on beaches along an 80km stretch of Normandy coastline in the North of France it’s not the closest part of France to the UK but it was chosen because Hitler was expecting the invasion force to cross the English Channel at its narrowest point. However by making a longer sea voyage they avoided some of the heaviest coastal defences. There were five main landing beaches: Juno, Gold, Omaha, Sword and Utah. The heaviest fighting was on Omaha beach; overall the soldiers suffered about 10,000 casualties (dead or wounded) on D-Day itself.
The allied troops were mainly made up of forces from United Kingdom, Canada and the U. S but there were other countries that helped with the Battle of Normandy including France, Australia, Norway and Poland. The allies landed around 156,000 troops in Normandy. The American forces landed 73,000 troops in Normandy, 23,250 troops on Utah Beach, 34,250 on Omaha Beach and 15,500 airborne troops. In the British and Canadian region 83,115 troops landed of which 61,715 were British; 24,970 on Gold Beach, 21,400 on Juno Beach, 28,845 Sword Beach and 7900 airborne troops.
In the airborne landings on both sides of the beaches 2395 aircraft and 867 gliders of the RAF and USAAF were used on D-day. Operation Neptune involved huge naval forces including 6939 vessels, 1213 naval combat ships, 4126 landing ships and landing craft, 736 ancillary craft and 864 merchant vessels. 195,700 personnel were assigned to Operation Neptune: 52,889 US, 112,824 British and 4988 from the other allied countries. The US lost more troops than any other allies but they had more troops to start with. 3184 were wounded, 1928 missing and 26 captured.
However each country lost a lot of troops that day but US suffered a greater loss than any other, which is one reason why the US wanted to join in World War 2 but when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbour they realised they had to join. This is one of the outcomes to World War 2. There are many impacts that were caused by D-day and they were social, political and technological impacts. The social impacts were the Americans freeing the French and after the French were free, Paris then became liberated. Another social impact is that Hitler absolutely hated the Jews and Christians because the Jews wrote the bible.
The allied forces later freed the Jews when they started to encounter and release camp prisoners. The political impacts were; when the allied forces released the French government. Also a political impact was when the Germans were forced to retreat because of the U. S. troops crossing the Rhine on the western front. Another impact happened on January 16th 1945 when the battle of the bulge ended with a defeat ad retreat from Germany as their supplies grew short and its forces were overcome by allied forces. There were also technological problems with D-Day. Which were; during the war everything was paid for.
The allied forces began developing new weapons and thanks, Like the M3 Stuart, the M4 Sherman and the M7 priest tank and various other weapons such as pistols and ships. This meant that the new weapons would be able to continue fighting in the wars to come and other countries would have less advantage than others. Germany started World War 2 by invading on September 1st 1939 and then on May 10th 1940 began attacking on Western Europe but started by invading the Low countries, the Low counties consist of; the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. D-Day was a major turning point in World War 2.
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What Was the Significance of D-Day to the Outcome of World War 2. (2016, Sep 08). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/what-was-the-significance-of-d-day-to-the-outcome-of-world-war-2-essay | <urn:uuid:ef57d724-3a0d-458b-9988-096c4914e6b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/what-was-the-significance-of-d-day-to-the-outcome-of-world-war-2-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00028.warc.gz | en | 0.981012 | 1,403 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.4295670... | 1 | Paper type: Essay Pages: 5 (1076 words)
What was the significance of D-Day to the outcome of World War 2? D-Day happened on 6th June 1944 after five years of war with Germany. D-Day was an invasion towards Germany by a massive military force that set out from England towards France. It was going to take over Nazi Germany and Germany’s leader Adolf Hitler because the Nazi’s had nearly taken over the whole of Europe which wouldn’t have happened if appeasement didn’t occur. The allied forces landed on the beaches of Normandy and started to break through the German army’s defences.
They began an attack that lasted for eleven months which took them all the way to the German capital Berlin, to the bunker that was Adolf Hitler’s headquarters. In April 1943 the British General Fredrick Morgan was selected the chief of staff to the supreme allied commander (CASSAC) for the D-Day invasion. He was to draw up blueprints of the attack, Morgan finalized the planning in July 1943 and he had considered both the Pas de Calais and Caen as possible landings areas but although Pas de Calais was closer to southern England it was also heavily defended which is why he opted for Caen as the landing place.
Surprise was crucial, not just to allow the troops to get ashore but also to prevent the Germans from sending significant reinforcements quickly from elsewhere. Britain wanted to trick the Germans into believing that the landings would be in Pas de Calais because the Germans also feared an allied invasion of Norway so they retained a large number of troops there. The Germans had their troops spread out around the coastline which meant a good chance of Britain reaching Hitler’s headquarters.
Morgan’s plans were approved at a conference in Quebec one 17th August 1943 but it wasn’t until the start of December 1934 that Eisenhower (President of the United Sates from 1953 until 1961) was made supreme allied commander in Europe for the invasion which was codenamed “Operation Overload”, two weeks later the attack began. The invasion began when allied planes and warships bombarded German positions along the coastline, this was to damage the defences making it easier for the troops to get ashore.
At the same time planes and gliders dropped tens of thousands of allied soldiers behind the German defences, so they could take control of important roads and bridges to make it harder for the German army to rush extra men towards the areas where the troops were landing. Masses of ships set out from the South coast of England, in total over 6,000 vessels joined the attack and were supported by over 11,000 planes. The naval force crossed the channel overnight, at 6:30 am on June 6 troops started to land on the beaches of Normandy and by the end of D-Day the allies had put 156,000 troops ashore in Normandy.
The troops landed on beaches along an 80km stretch of Normandy coastline in the North of France it’s not the closest part of France to the UK but it was chosen because Hitler was expecting the invasion force to cross the English Channel at its narrowest point. However by making a longer sea voyage they avoided some of the heaviest coastal defences. There were five main landing beaches: Juno, Gold, Omaha, Sword and Utah. The heaviest fighting was on Omaha beach; overall the soldiers suffered about 10,000 casualties (dead or wounded) on D-Day itself.
The allied troops were mainly made up of forces from United Kingdom, Canada and the U. S but there were other countries that helped with the Battle of Normandy including France, Australia, Norway and Poland. The allies landed around 156,000 troops in Normandy. The American forces landed 73,000 troops in Normandy, 23,250 troops on Utah Beach, 34,250 on Omaha Beach and 15,500 airborne troops. In the British and Canadian region 83,115 troops landed of which 61,715 were British; 24,970 on Gold Beach, 21,400 on Juno Beach, 28,845 Sword Beach and 7900 airborne troops.
In the airborne landings on both sides of the beaches 2395 aircraft and 867 gliders of the RAF and USAAF were used on D-day. Operation Neptune involved huge naval forces including 6939 vessels, 1213 naval combat ships, 4126 landing ships and landing craft, 736 ancillary craft and 864 merchant vessels. 195,700 personnel were assigned to Operation Neptune: 52,889 US, 112,824 British and 4988 from the other allied countries. The US lost more troops than any other allies but they had more troops to start with. 3184 were wounded, 1928 missing and 26 captured.
However each country lost a lot of troops that day but US suffered a greater loss than any other, which is one reason why the US wanted to join in World War 2 but when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbour they realised they had to join. This is one of the outcomes to World War 2. There are many impacts that were caused by D-day and they were social, political and technological impacts. The social impacts were the Americans freeing the French and after the French were free, Paris then became liberated. Another social impact is that Hitler absolutely hated the Jews and Christians because the Jews wrote the bible.
The allied forces later freed the Jews when they started to encounter and release camp prisoners. The political impacts were; when the allied forces released the French government. Also a political impact was when the Germans were forced to retreat because of the U. S. troops crossing the Rhine on the western front. Another impact happened on January 16th 1945 when the battle of the bulge ended with a defeat ad retreat from Germany as their supplies grew short and its forces were overcome by allied forces. There were also technological problems with D-Day. Which were; during the war everything was paid for.
The allied forces began developing new weapons and thanks, Like the M3 Stuart, the M4 Sherman and the M7 priest tank and various other weapons such as pistols and ships. This meant that the new weapons would be able to continue fighting in the wars to come and other countries would have less advantage than others. Germany started World War 2 by invading on September 1st 1939 and then on May 10th 1940 began attacking on Western Europe but started by invading the Low countries, the Low counties consist of; the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. D-Day was a major turning point in World War 2.
Cite this page
What Was the Significance of D-Day to the Outcome of World War 2. (2016, Sep 08). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/what-was-the-significance-of-d-day-to-the-outcome-of-world-war-2-essay | 1,529 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Vietnam War was and is still considered the longest deployment of the U.S military in the history of U.S wars. It took place when John F. Kennedy was in power in the 1960’s. Over two thousand military soldiers were deployed to the South Vietnam where the number increased gradually over time.
President John Kennedy’s intention was to preserve an independent as well as a non communist state in South Vietnam but failed to do so due to the harsh resistance that he faced. The U.S, headed by president Dwight D. Eisenhower was unable to neither contain nor regulate small unit and terrorist attacks that were being carried out by troops popularly known as Vietcong (Brocheux, 2007).
A diplomatic negotiation is a term used to describe the process where different countries carry out a dialogue with the aim of generating a consensus. During the talks that preceded the Vietnam War, an agreement appeared to have been reached by the negotiating parties, or so it seemed. The sham peace deals and fabricated diplomatic dialogues bore no fruit but resulted to false results and hope. The war took a turn for the worse when U.S. reinforced its military grip and they dug their claws deeper into North Vietnam.
It was the year 1967 that beckoned the birth of the failed negotiations that would result in massive losses to both parties involved in the Vietnam War. However, the real trouble begun brewing two years earlier. In 1965, the year that the last of the rational diplomatic negotiations appeared to have taken place, Premier Pham Van Dong established the four point program that sought to weaken the hold of the U.S on Vietnam (Palmer, 1978).
The recommendations appeared to bring bad taste in the mouths of those in U.S., and they did not let the moment slip right through their fingers. They retaliated by saying that the recommendations were undemocratic as they insinuated that the National Liberation Force was the only representative of the Vietnamese People. At this point, no agreement could be reached and both parties resorted to taking matters into their own hands (Herring, 1979).
The Vietnam War seemed to have begun with the ‘honorable’ intentions of serving the American people’s interests but as is the case with any war, its brutal aftermath brought about both cultural and social devastation among people. It brought about social unrest among students and the young activists who frantically campaigned for the end of the killing of innocent persons in Vietnam (Moss, 2010).
In the U.S., the deep hatred for the way the war had been conducted and the way it had ended caused the people to give a cold welcome to their troops as they came back from the war. The war also caused the American people to lose faith in their leaders when they learned that Lyndon Johnson had lied to them regarding the war.
Back in Vietnam, the war had catalyzed the defeat of the South and its subsequent absorption by the North which had been persistently seeking to impose its will on the South. Millions of Vietnamese were killed, displaced and some were even completely disabled as a result of the war.
To date, vast acres of land still remain wasted as they were destroyed by the poisonous herbicides that were used during the war and the government of Vietnam still struggles to cope with the needs of its people (Moss, 2010). In a nut shell, the Vietnam War brought more harm than good both to the people of America as well as the Vietnamese.
Presidential leadership during the Vietnam War can be explained in ways such as the ethics and efforts that were put to ensure that peace was restored.
President Kennedy had been advised by France president Charles de Gaulle that he would not succeed even if he injected more funds and soldiers into North Vietnam. In the period between 1961 and 1963 his military advisors had requested him to send combat divisions instead of the so called advisors to aid the Diem government.
President Kennedy was in support of a coup where Diem together with his brother died. However, he did not last long in the war as he was assassinated three weeks later. Lyndon Johnson took over and was in power when the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution took place. He sent the first combat troops to Vietnam with hope that North Vietnam would give up and surrender to peace talks.
Richard Nixon succeeded Johnson by claiming he had a secret plan to the war. He intended to train South Vietnamese and slowly pulling out American troops (Neale, 2001). Vietnam was headed by Eisenhower who reigned from 1953 to 1961. He did not support the Geneva Accords that were between Vietnam and France thus, led to the division of the country into two, North Vietnam and South Vietnam.
South Vietnam was ruled by Ngo Dinh Diem who won the elections and later on claimed that his country was under communist attack. This marked the beginning of the Vietnam War in 1957 and Diem imprisoned all those who were suspected to belong to the communist and this led to demonstrations and protests (Brocheux, 2007).
In conclusion, both the U.S. and the Vietnam governments have a lot to ponder regarding the outcome of the Vietnam War. Years have gone, but people are still agonizing from the effects of the war. Proper negotiations and good governance should be embraced before any war is embarked on, in order to avoid a repeat of what was witnessed during the Vietnam War.
Brocheux, P. (2007). Ho Chi Minh: a biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Herring, C. (1979). America’s longest war: the United States and Vietnam 1950–1975 New York: Wiley publishers.
Moss, G. (2010). Vietnam: An American Ordeal (6th Ed). Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall.
Neale, J. (2001). The American War. London: Bookmarks.
Palmer, D. (1978). Summons of the Trumpet: U.S.-Vietnam in Perspective. Novato: Presidio Press. | <urn:uuid:8617c849-6cde-4d6f-9634-17e6ecd204e1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virginiaangerclass.com/vietnam-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00130.warc.gz | en | 0.983559 | 1,218 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.549947261810... | 2 | The Vietnam War was and is still considered the longest deployment of the U.S military in the history of U.S wars. It took place when John F. Kennedy was in power in the 1960’s. Over two thousand military soldiers were deployed to the South Vietnam where the number increased gradually over time.
President John Kennedy’s intention was to preserve an independent as well as a non communist state in South Vietnam but failed to do so due to the harsh resistance that he faced. The U.S, headed by president Dwight D. Eisenhower was unable to neither contain nor regulate small unit and terrorist attacks that were being carried out by troops popularly known as Vietcong (Brocheux, 2007).
A diplomatic negotiation is a term used to describe the process where different countries carry out a dialogue with the aim of generating a consensus. During the talks that preceded the Vietnam War, an agreement appeared to have been reached by the negotiating parties, or so it seemed. The sham peace deals and fabricated diplomatic dialogues bore no fruit but resulted to false results and hope. The war took a turn for the worse when U.S. reinforced its military grip and they dug their claws deeper into North Vietnam.
It was the year 1967 that beckoned the birth of the failed negotiations that would result in massive losses to both parties involved in the Vietnam War. However, the real trouble begun brewing two years earlier. In 1965, the year that the last of the rational diplomatic negotiations appeared to have taken place, Premier Pham Van Dong established the four point program that sought to weaken the hold of the U.S on Vietnam (Palmer, 1978).
The recommendations appeared to bring bad taste in the mouths of those in U.S., and they did not let the moment slip right through their fingers. They retaliated by saying that the recommendations were undemocratic as they insinuated that the National Liberation Force was the only representative of the Vietnamese People. At this point, no agreement could be reached and both parties resorted to taking matters into their own hands (Herring, 1979).
The Vietnam War seemed to have begun with the ‘honorable’ intentions of serving the American people’s interests but as is the case with any war, its brutal aftermath brought about both cultural and social devastation among people. It brought about social unrest among students and the young activists who frantically campaigned for the end of the killing of innocent persons in Vietnam (Moss, 2010).
In the U.S., the deep hatred for the way the war had been conducted and the way it had ended caused the people to give a cold welcome to their troops as they came back from the war. The war also caused the American people to lose faith in their leaders when they learned that Lyndon Johnson had lied to them regarding the war.
Back in Vietnam, the war had catalyzed the defeat of the South and its subsequent absorption by the North which had been persistently seeking to impose its will on the South. Millions of Vietnamese were killed, displaced and some were even completely disabled as a result of the war.
To date, vast acres of land still remain wasted as they were destroyed by the poisonous herbicides that were used during the war and the government of Vietnam still struggles to cope with the needs of its people (Moss, 2010). In a nut shell, the Vietnam War brought more harm than good both to the people of America as well as the Vietnamese.
Presidential leadership during the Vietnam War can be explained in ways such as the ethics and efforts that were put to ensure that peace was restored.
President Kennedy had been advised by France president Charles de Gaulle that he would not succeed even if he injected more funds and soldiers into North Vietnam. In the period between 1961 and 1963 his military advisors had requested him to send combat divisions instead of the so called advisors to aid the Diem government.
President Kennedy was in support of a coup where Diem together with his brother died. However, he did not last long in the war as he was assassinated three weeks later. Lyndon Johnson took over and was in power when the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution took place. He sent the first combat troops to Vietnam with hope that North Vietnam would give up and surrender to peace talks.
Richard Nixon succeeded Johnson by claiming he had a secret plan to the war. He intended to train South Vietnamese and slowly pulling out American troops (Neale, 2001). Vietnam was headed by Eisenhower who reigned from 1953 to 1961. He did not support the Geneva Accords that were between Vietnam and France thus, led to the division of the country into two, North Vietnam and South Vietnam.
South Vietnam was ruled by Ngo Dinh Diem who won the elections and later on claimed that his country was under communist attack. This marked the beginning of the Vietnam War in 1957 and Diem imprisoned all those who were suspected to belong to the communist and this led to demonstrations and protests (Brocheux, 2007).
In conclusion, both the U.S. and the Vietnam governments have a lot to ponder regarding the outcome of the Vietnam War. Years have gone, but people are still agonizing from the effects of the war. Proper negotiations and good governance should be embraced before any war is embarked on, in order to avoid a repeat of what was witnessed during the Vietnam War.
Brocheux, P. (2007). Ho Chi Minh: a biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Herring, C. (1979). America’s longest war: the United States and Vietnam 1950–1975 New York: Wiley publishers.
Moss, G. (2010). Vietnam: An American Ordeal (6th Ed). Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall.
Neale, J. (2001). The American War. London: Bookmarks.
Palmer, D. (1978). Summons of the Trumpet: U.S.-Vietnam in Perspective. Novato: Presidio Press. | 1,268 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Catholic Church played a significant role in the rise and development of Medieval Europe. Every aspect of society was controlled by the church, and to that end the church integrated itself into the lives of the people. As spectacular was the rise, so was the fall. The ascendency of the church was marked with violence, piety, and attempts by popes to both usurp power and dominate the ruling class. The decline was marked by the Babylonian captivity, and the scandal that it created, and the Great Schism and its aftermath. The Christian Church was established as a ruling path after the fall of the Roman Empire.
There was very little government, so people relied on the church for direction and guidance. The rise of the church began relatively with the building of the Hagia Sophia by the Emperor Justinian. The building of the church touched off a storm of building that led to the rise of the church in both the east and the west. Many of the spiritual foundations of the Western Church were built around events that occurred in the east. The Emperor Constantine was very much interested in the development and spread of Christianity, but he also saw inherent weaknesses in the system that needed to be corrected.
As controversies developed, Constantine would convene councils to handle the problems, and would create new church doctrine. One of these issues was the creation of a faith statement that set out exactly what the beliefs of the Christian faith were. The other controversy was the Iconoclastic controversy. This involved the use of icons in the church and in the practice of Christianity. The Second Council of Nicaea roundly denounced iconoclasm, choosing instead to venerate the long tradition of using sacred objects and icons in the church. The church was also established in what was referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance.
During this time, education became extremely important, and it was also during this time when the church became the primary way men and to some extent women were able to become literate. When men or women committed their lives to Christ, they took upon themselves an opportunity to learn the scriptures as they applied their lives to Christ. Violence also marked the rise of the church. One of the most popular ordeals to place people under was the ordeal of hot iron. This involved branding a person with a hot iron that was “blessed” by the priests. The person was branded, and then the wound was covered.
If the wound was festered, the person was judged guilty, and if the wound was healing, the person was judged innocent. The other, most violent incident in the history of Christianity is the Crusades. The seven crusades that were launched were some of the most violent encounters ever experienced by humankind. The Crusades were launched by the fall of Jerusalem to the Seljuq Turks. The Christians retook the city, but it fell again three years later. The violent struggle was detailed by several authors, both Muslim and Christian. A Muslim author noted that the Franks were “superior in courage, but nothing else (page 256).
” As some have remarked, Christianity can sometimes be a violent religion, and the violence certainly reared its ugly head during the time of the Crusades. There were also two controversies that fueled the direction of the church. One controversy was a test of wills between Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV. The controversy involved the investiture of clergy. Henry felt that he should have the ultimate say in who should be selected to serve in his country, while Gregory felt that the selection of clergy should lie in the hands of the Papal authority.
The controversy led to the excommunication of Henry by Gregory, and led to Henry going to Canossa to ask Gregory for penance. In return for being readmitted in the church, Henry had to swear an oath of allegiance to Gregory. Henry then tried to reestablish his authority, but was unable to do so. Gregory tried to support a rival king, but since Henry’s power was growing, Gregory’s attempt to build a king was thwarted. A solution to the problem was not found during the lifetime of Henry and Gregory. It was not until the Concordat of Worms in 1122 was a compromise reached.
The essence of the compromise was that while the Pope would select the prelates for each region, the emperor had the right to be at the investiture of the prelates and to assign them their lands. While not everyone was happy, the compromise worked well and allowed the church to continue to play a significant role in the lives of the people. The Babylonian Captivity was another controversy that raged within the church. However, unlike the investiture controversy which existed as a test of wills between a pope and a king, the Babylonian Captivity involved the pope being almost subservient to the king.
When the king of France came into conflict with the Pope, he usurped the pope and replaced him with one of his choosing. He then moved the pope to Avignon, which was where he remained for 68 years. The controversy was ended after there were three popes which were removed and replaced by one pope who again resided in Rome. The self-imposed exile from Rome damaged the church irrevocably and hastened its decline and loss of supremacy. The church gave much impetus to the direction of medieval civilization. If one were to be honest, the church was medieval civilization.
From the creation of monasteries and convents to the blatant interference of popes in the affairs of state, the church ran medieval civilization to its very core. To a large degree, the medieval church even was the main employer of artisans, architects and builders during this time. The building of the grand cathedrals like Notre Dame and Chartres took many years, and it would sometimes even take five generations before a church was completed. There was also the political impetus given by things such as the investiture controversy and the papacy of Innocent III.
Innocent was probably one of the most influential popes of the medieval world. Not only did he manage some of the Crusades, he was also a highly influential pope who was an able administrator and also believed strongly in the supremacy of the papacy. He felt that the medieval rulers should be accountable to him and that he should be the feudal lord and the kings should be the vassals. This statement was very succinctly worded by Innocent in his writing called “The Sun and the Moon. ” In it, he compares the pope to the sun and the king to the moon.
He states that while the sun is the stronger of the lights and rules the day, the king was the weaker light of the moon. The day was construed to mean the kings, while the moon was construed to mean the people. This was expressed very strongly when King John was excommunicated by Innocent and England was placed under interdict. The controversy was over money that John took from the church that Innocent felt he was not entitled to. By the time the controversy ended, Innocent had his way. John capitulated and became Innocent’s vassal and Innocent became lord over all of England. Why is all of this important? Why do we need religion?
Religion is meant to be a guiding light, a moral standard by which we should all live. Many writers stress how important religion is, and as we have seen, it can be a source of order and comfort when all around one is chaos. Religion also gives us a set of moral principles on which to stand. As noted in Magna Carta and the Rule of Saint Benedict, the classification of rules and order and faith can be a way to spread a moral system to people that need desperately to believe in something. Religion is also a comfort during troubling times, and can be something for the people to look to when things become uncertain.
Religion is a certainty, an absolute, and something that can be unshakeable. We can learn much from the rise and decline of the supremacy of the Catholic Church in medieval Europe. We can learn first and foremost that it takes men and women of incredible faith to build an empire. It also takes men in leadership roles to make decisions that have positive impacts on the society. When the decisions are bad, we see the morals of the society begin to give way to a secularism that defiles the intentions that came before. When leaders are strong, it gives people security to get through the difficult times.
When leaders are weak, people are less secure in the future and things begin to fall apart. The medieval period tells us that we as people need to continue to grow as people and not stagnate. The time period is interesting and well worth learning from, and we need to continue to do so. If we continue to grow as people, we will no longer have the educational and social stagnation that so defined the period sometimes referred to as the dark ages.
Works Cited Rogers, Perry. Aspects of Western Civilization: Volume 1 Problems and Sources in History. 6th.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. Print. Chapter 8-Icon, Scimitar and Cross: Early Medieval Civilization (500-1100) Rogers, Perry. Aspects of Western Civilization: Volume 1 Problems and Sources in History. 6th. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. Print. Chapter 9-The Sword of Faith: The High Middle Ages (1100-1300) Rogers, Perry. Aspects of Western Civilization: Volume 1 Problems and Sources in History. 6th. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. Print. Chapter 10-The Waning of the Middle Ages | <urn:uuid:329c6890-a9d6-44b7-96f0-9bba618a0b74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://custom-essays-writings.com/the-catholic-church | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00437.warc.gz | en | 0.985602 | 1,976 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.131708025932312... | 9 | The Catholic Church played a significant role in the rise and development of Medieval Europe. Every aspect of society was controlled by the church, and to that end the church integrated itself into the lives of the people. As spectacular was the rise, so was the fall. The ascendency of the church was marked with violence, piety, and attempts by popes to both usurp power and dominate the ruling class. The decline was marked by the Babylonian captivity, and the scandal that it created, and the Great Schism and its aftermath. The Christian Church was established as a ruling path after the fall of the Roman Empire.
There was very little government, so people relied on the church for direction and guidance. The rise of the church began relatively with the building of the Hagia Sophia by the Emperor Justinian. The building of the church touched off a storm of building that led to the rise of the church in both the east and the west. Many of the spiritual foundations of the Western Church were built around events that occurred in the east. The Emperor Constantine was very much interested in the development and spread of Christianity, but he also saw inherent weaknesses in the system that needed to be corrected.
As controversies developed, Constantine would convene councils to handle the problems, and would create new church doctrine. One of these issues was the creation of a faith statement that set out exactly what the beliefs of the Christian faith were. The other controversy was the Iconoclastic controversy. This involved the use of icons in the church and in the practice of Christianity. The Second Council of Nicaea roundly denounced iconoclasm, choosing instead to venerate the long tradition of using sacred objects and icons in the church. The church was also established in what was referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance.
During this time, education became extremely important, and it was also during this time when the church became the primary way men and to some extent women were able to become literate. When men or women committed their lives to Christ, they took upon themselves an opportunity to learn the scriptures as they applied their lives to Christ. Violence also marked the rise of the church. One of the most popular ordeals to place people under was the ordeal of hot iron. This involved branding a person with a hot iron that was “blessed” by the priests. The person was branded, and then the wound was covered.
If the wound was festered, the person was judged guilty, and if the wound was healing, the person was judged innocent. The other, most violent incident in the history of Christianity is the Crusades. The seven crusades that were launched were some of the most violent encounters ever experienced by humankind. The Crusades were launched by the fall of Jerusalem to the Seljuq Turks. The Christians retook the city, but it fell again three years later. The violent struggle was detailed by several authors, both Muslim and Christian. A Muslim author noted that the Franks were “superior in courage, but nothing else (page 256).
” As some have remarked, Christianity can sometimes be a violent religion, and the violence certainly reared its ugly head during the time of the Crusades. There were also two controversies that fueled the direction of the church. One controversy was a test of wills between Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV. The controversy involved the investiture of clergy. Henry felt that he should have the ultimate say in who should be selected to serve in his country, while Gregory felt that the selection of clergy should lie in the hands of the Papal authority.
The controversy led to the excommunication of Henry by Gregory, and led to Henry going to Canossa to ask Gregory for penance. In return for being readmitted in the church, Henry had to swear an oath of allegiance to Gregory. Henry then tried to reestablish his authority, but was unable to do so. Gregory tried to support a rival king, but since Henry’s power was growing, Gregory’s attempt to build a king was thwarted. A solution to the problem was not found during the lifetime of Henry and Gregory. It was not until the Concordat of Worms in 1122 was a compromise reached.
The essence of the compromise was that while the Pope would select the prelates for each region, the emperor had the right to be at the investiture of the prelates and to assign them their lands. While not everyone was happy, the compromise worked well and allowed the church to continue to play a significant role in the lives of the people. The Babylonian Captivity was another controversy that raged within the church. However, unlike the investiture controversy which existed as a test of wills between a pope and a king, the Babylonian Captivity involved the pope being almost subservient to the king.
When the king of France came into conflict with the Pope, he usurped the pope and replaced him with one of his choosing. He then moved the pope to Avignon, which was where he remained for 68 years. The controversy was ended after there were three popes which were removed and replaced by one pope who again resided in Rome. The self-imposed exile from Rome damaged the church irrevocably and hastened its decline and loss of supremacy. The church gave much impetus to the direction of medieval civilization. If one were to be honest, the church was medieval civilization.
From the creation of monasteries and convents to the blatant interference of popes in the affairs of state, the church ran medieval civilization to its very core. To a large degree, the medieval church even was the main employer of artisans, architects and builders during this time. The building of the grand cathedrals like Notre Dame and Chartres took many years, and it would sometimes even take five generations before a church was completed. There was also the political impetus given by things such as the investiture controversy and the papacy of Innocent III.
Innocent was probably one of the most influential popes of the medieval world. Not only did he manage some of the Crusades, he was also a highly influential pope who was an able administrator and also believed strongly in the supremacy of the papacy. He felt that the medieval rulers should be accountable to him and that he should be the feudal lord and the kings should be the vassals. This statement was very succinctly worded by Innocent in his writing called “The Sun and the Moon. ” In it, he compares the pope to the sun and the king to the moon.
He states that while the sun is the stronger of the lights and rules the day, the king was the weaker light of the moon. The day was construed to mean the kings, while the moon was construed to mean the people. This was expressed very strongly when King John was excommunicated by Innocent and England was placed under interdict. The controversy was over money that John took from the church that Innocent felt he was not entitled to. By the time the controversy ended, Innocent had his way. John capitulated and became Innocent’s vassal and Innocent became lord over all of England. Why is all of this important? Why do we need religion?
Religion is meant to be a guiding light, a moral standard by which we should all live. Many writers stress how important religion is, and as we have seen, it can be a source of order and comfort when all around one is chaos. Religion also gives us a set of moral principles on which to stand. As noted in Magna Carta and the Rule of Saint Benedict, the classification of rules and order and faith can be a way to spread a moral system to people that need desperately to believe in something. Religion is also a comfort during troubling times, and can be something for the people to look to when things become uncertain.
Religion is a certainty, an absolute, and something that can be unshakeable. We can learn much from the rise and decline of the supremacy of the Catholic Church in medieval Europe. We can learn first and foremost that it takes men and women of incredible faith to build an empire. It also takes men in leadership roles to make decisions that have positive impacts on the society. When the decisions are bad, we see the morals of the society begin to give way to a secularism that defiles the intentions that came before. When leaders are strong, it gives people security to get through the difficult times.
When leaders are weak, people are less secure in the future and things begin to fall apart. The medieval period tells us that we as people need to continue to grow as people and not stagnate. The time period is interesting and well worth learning from, and we need to continue to do so. If we continue to grow as people, we will no longer have the educational and social stagnation that so defined the period sometimes referred to as the dark ages.
Works Cited Rogers, Perry. Aspects of Western Civilization: Volume 1 Problems and Sources in History. 6th.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. Print. Chapter 8-Icon, Scimitar and Cross: Early Medieval Civilization (500-1100) Rogers, Perry. Aspects of Western Civilization: Volume 1 Problems and Sources in History. 6th. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. Print. Chapter 9-The Sword of Faith: The High Middle Ages (1100-1300) Rogers, Perry. Aspects of Western Civilization: Volume 1 Problems and Sources in History. 6th. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. Print. Chapter 10-The Waning of the Middle Ages | 2,009 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Privilege is an advantage granted to a certain group of people. The privilege is much more certain to get a position in power. They have a higher chance of having a commanding influence in politics. Privileged people can be a lot more successful than others. Groups that are privileged have way more power and influence over oppressed people. These people can control and have a big impact on social media. Privileged people can also use their position to help assist other privileged people.
Our individual responsibility in terms of perpetuating or abolishing white privilege is to teach people who do not know they have privilege. Teaching them will help people understand more about how minorities are treated in America. People need to learn that white privileged does not always mean you have a good life or that you did not work hard. White privilege can mean that you do not have to face certain obstacles minorities face in life. There are many ways people with white privilege can access and utilize their privilege.
Colored men are sentenced for much longer time in prison than white men. According to the States Sentencing Commission black men who commits the same crimes as white men receive almost 20 percent longer sentences. Judges are more likely to voluntarily revise sentences committed by white people. For colored people judges are less likely to revise sentences. When judges reduce black offenders sentences they barely reduce the amount. For white offenders they reduce the sentences way more than black offenders.
White people accessing and utilizing their white privilege was in the article “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack” by Peggy McIntosh. McIntosh created a list of privileges that she had as a white person. She said, “I can go shopping alone most of the time, pretty well assured that I will not be followed or harassed.” She is saying because of her white privilege she able to be safe going to a store but for colored people it is the opposite. She is saying that she could walk around not look suspicious to anyone and feel safe. McIntosh knows that people of color can get followed by cops because they look suspicious, when they are just walking to a store. She knows that colored people have hard life always having to watch their backs.
After reading “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack” McIntosh was trying to explain that white privilege is really embed into American life. Some white Americans grow up not knowing they have privileges that other people do not have. They need to see how hard it is for colored people in America to live. Also, need to see how their white privilege makes them have better lives than others. These people need to be more educated about the privileges they have in America. White privilege is just as much a form of social control as limiting access because people with white privileges have a lot of power. One way some white people try to social control is be Linguistic terrorism. Linguistic terrorism is forcing someone or a group of people to change their language to a new language, so they can fit in. This happens a lot in America today. The people who suffer the most to linguistic terrorism is minorities in America. Some white people want people to only speak American English. They want to take away people culture and heritage and assimilate everyone that comes to America. Trying to take away someone’s language is the same thing as trying to take away their identity. People should not have to change their identity to fit into America. Some examples of linguistic terrorism were in the story “How to Tame a Wild Tongue” by Gloria Anzaldua.
In this story I came to understand how important it is to be proud of your identity. In the story Anzaldua got in trouble for speaking Spanish at school. Her teacher told her “If you want to be American, speak ‘American.’ If you don’t like it, go back to Mexico where you belong.” At a young she was already being forced to assimilate to be more American. She even took 2 speech classes to fix the accent she had. Anzaldua said, “I will no longer be made to feel ashamed of existing. I will have my voice: Indian, Spanish, white. I will have my serpent’s tongue”. What she meant when she wrote this was that no matter what language or accent she speaks she will not let anyone stop her from being who she really is.
Another example of linguistic terrorism was in an article called “Notes of a Native Speaker” by Eric Liu. Liu talked about how he was assimilated into the American culture. He was a Chinese American who felt like he was forced to fit in to the American standards. Liu said, “Thus it is that I have been described as an “honorary white,” by other whites, and as a “banana,” by other Asians” His own people does not like Liu now because he has forgot about his culture. After assimilating to American Liu does not feel ok forgetting about his culture. People should be proud of their identity. You should not force yourself to change identity just to fit in. Losing your identity could affect you in a negative way, just how it affected Eric Liu. No one should be able to take away someone’s identity. It does not matter what ethnicity you are you should be proud of your identity. There are many submissive tactics used by white privilege groups to limit access for color people. It is easier for white privilege people to get a loan form the bank then a colored person. Colored people are turned down loans, so it is harder for them to buy homes or even start a business. Colored people are getting limited because we are not able to get loans to start are own business and make money. It is harder for colored people to get loans because their wealth is significantly lower than white people. Colored people do not get loans for businesses because of the location. Big banks sometimes do not like to approve businesses in poorer communities. This makes colored people lives much more difficult because they would not be able to make money. If more colored people can get loans for businesses, it would really help their community a lot. They could hire people who need jobs in their community.
Another example of white privilege using tactics to limit other groups is by some white CEOs they do not hire many people of color. More white people have better opportunities. A poor colored person will not have these connections and resources. Colored people are very likely to be racially attacked. Prejudice towards colored people today is much stealthier and more unspoken. People will cover it up with made up stories to legitimize discrimination. Some white supervisor or co-workers may complain or give a colored employee a harder time for everything he or she does. This type of racism is more difficult to fight against because it allows people to pretend not to understand or know of any discrimination.
Some white people are privileged enough to go to low poverty schools and get a better education. While colored people go to high poverty schools. Kids at these school receive torn up textbooks. At high poverty school kids do not always get the best lunches. The classrooms are in bad condition. Kids that go to high poverty schools are more likely to dropout. If a school is in bad condition and do not provide a good lunch kids is not going to want to go to school. The kids who drop out of school is more likely to cause crimes. High Poverty schools school has lower math and reading scores then the low poverty schools. Not being able to get a good education is really bad for a kid. When they grow up they will not be able to help their community. Not being educated enough will stop them from being able to get a good job to support their family. Their kids will grow up in the same poor community and go to same high poverty school. This is reason why many colored people do not have money to support their themselves. These high poverty schools need to be helped so colored people can be more successful when they are older. Having a good education is very important and their need to be a change so less colored kids’ dropout school and start doing positive stuff in their lives. White privilege kids are lucky they are able to go to school in nice buildings and brand new text books. These kids are able to grow up and get a well-paying job. They have the opportunity to give back to their community to make it even better. Being able to get a good education allows white privilege people to get better jobs then a lot of color people. Being colored in America is never easy.
Some white people in America are stereotypical of black people. Even though colored people have shaped American history in different ways through sports, inventions and politically. The way some white people in America have looked at colored people has never changed. No matter how successful a colored person is or how they impacted the world in a positive way, we are still discriminated against in America. Colored people have been fighting for equality since the birth of this nation, and we are still fighting to this day. | <urn:uuid:17df65dd-a043-4a6c-8d7c-7a1a0f482f8a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayhub.net/essays/white-privilege-and-black-discrimination | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.982232 | 1,855 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.108148500... | 3 | Privilege is an advantage granted to a certain group of people. The privilege is much more certain to get a position in power. They have a higher chance of having a commanding influence in politics. Privileged people can be a lot more successful than others. Groups that are privileged have way more power and influence over oppressed people. These people can control and have a big impact on social media. Privileged people can also use their position to help assist other privileged people.
Our individual responsibility in terms of perpetuating or abolishing white privilege is to teach people who do not know they have privilege. Teaching them will help people understand more about how minorities are treated in America. People need to learn that white privileged does not always mean you have a good life or that you did not work hard. White privilege can mean that you do not have to face certain obstacles minorities face in life. There are many ways people with white privilege can access and utilize their privilege.
Colored men are sentenced for much longer time in prison than white men. According to the States Sentencing Commission black men who commits the same crimes as white men receive almost 20 percent longer sentences. Judges are more likely to voluntarily revise sentences committed by white people. For colored people judges are less likely to revise sentences. When judges reduce black offenders sentences they barely reduce the amount. For white offenders they reduce the sentences way more than black offenders.
White people accessing and utilizing their white privilege was in the article “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack” by Peggy McIntosh. McIntosh created a list of privileges that she had as a white person. She said, “I can go shopping alone most of the time, pretty well assured that I will not be followed or harassed.” She is saying because of her white privilege she able to be safe going to a store but for colored people it is the opposite. She is saying that she could walk around not look suspicious to anyone and feel safe. McIntosh knows that people of color can get followed by cops because they look suspicious, when they are just walking to a store. She knows that colored people have hard life always having to watch their backs.
After reading “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack” McIntosh was trying to explain that white privilege is really embed into American life. Some white Americans grow up not knowing they have privileges that other people do not have. They need to see how hard it is for colored people in America to live. Also, need to see how their white privilege makes them have better lives than others. These people need to be more educated about the privileges they have in America. White privilege is just as much a form of social control as limiting access because people with white privileges have a lot of power. One way some white people try to social control is be Linguistic terrorism. Linguistic terrorism is forcing someone or a group of people to change their language to a new language, so they can fit in. This happens a lot in America today. The people who suffer the most to linguistic terrorism is minorities in America. Some white people want people to only speak American English. They want to take away people culture and heritage and assimilate everyone that comes to America. Trying to take away someone’s language is the same thing as trying to take away their identity. People should not have to change their identity to fit into America. Some examples of linguistic terrorism were in the story “How to Tame a Wild Tongue” by Gloria Anzaldua.
In this story I came to understand how important it is to be proud of your identity. In the story Anzaldua got in trouble for speaking Spanish at school. Her teacher told her “If you want to be American, speak ‘American.’ If you don’t like it, go back to Mexico where you belong.” At a young she was already being forced to assimilate to be more American. She even took 2 speech classes to fix the accent she had. Anzaldua said, “I will no longer be made to feel ashamed of existing. I will have my voice: Indian, Spanish, white. I will have my serpent’s tongue”. What she meant when she wrote this was that no matter what language or accent she speaks she will not let anyone stop her from being who she really is.
Another example of linguistic terrorism was in an article called “Notes of a Native Speaker” by Eric Liu. Liu talked about how he was assimilated into the American culture. He was a Chinese American who felt like he was forced to fit in to the American standards. Liu said, “Thus it is that I have been described as an “honorary white,” by other whites, and as a “banana,” by other Asians” His own people does not like Liu now because he has forgot about his culture. After assimilating to American Liu does not feel ok forgetting about his culture. People should be proud of their identity. You should not force yourself to change identity just to fit in. Losing your identity could affect you in a negative way, just how it affected Eric Liu. No one should be able to take away someone’s identity. It does not matter what ethnicity you are you should be proud of your identity. There are many submissive tactics used by white privilege groups to limit access for color people. It is easier for white privilege people to get a loan form the bank then a colored person. Colored people are turned down loans, so it is harder for them to buy homes or even start a business. Colored people are getting limited because we are not able to get loans to start are own business and make money. It is harder for colored people to get loans because their wealth is significantly lower than white people. Colored people do not get loans for businesses because of the location. Big banks sometimes do not like to approve businesses in poorer communities. This makes colored people lives much more difficult because they would not be able to make money. If more colored people can get loans for businesses, it would really help their community a lot. They could hire people who need jobs in their community.
Another example of white privilege using tactics to limit other groups is by some white CEOs they do not hire many people of color. More white people have better opportunities. A poor colored person will not have these connections and resources. Colored people are very likely to be racially attacked. Prejudice towards colored people today is much stealthier and more unspoken. People will cover it up with made up stories to legitimize discrimination. Some white supervisor or co-workers may complain or give a colored employee a harder time for everything he or she does. This type of racism is more difficult to fight against because it allows people to pretend not to understand or know of any discrimination.
Some white people are privileged enough to go to low poverty schools and get a better education. While colored people go to high poverty schools. Kids at these school receive torn up textbooks. At high poverty school kids do not always get the best lunches. The classrooms are in bad condition. Kids that go to high poverty schools are more likely to dropout. If a school is in bad condition and do not provide a good lunch kids is not going to want to go to school. The kids who drop out of school is more likely to cause crimes. High Poverty schools school has lower math and reading scores then the low poverty schools. Not being able to get a good education is really bad for a kid. When they grow up they will not be able to help their community. Not being educated enough will stop them from being able to get a good job to support their family. Their kids will grow up in the same poor community and go to same high poverty school. This is reason why many colored people do not have money to support their themselves. These high poverty schools need to be helped so colored people can be more successful when they are older. Having a good education is very important and their need to be a change so less colored kids’ dropout school and start doing positive stuff in their lives. White privilege kids are lucky they are able to go to school in nice buildings and brand new text books. These kids are able to grow up and get a well-paying job. They have the opportunity to give back to their community to make it even better. Being able to get a good education allows white privilege people to get better jobs then a lot of color people. Being colored in America is never easy.
Some white people in America are stereotypical of black people. Even though colored people have shaped American history in different ways through sports, inventions and politically. The way some white people in America have looked at colored people has never changed. No matter how successful a colored person is or how they impacted the world in a positive way, we are still discriminated against in America. Colored people have been fighting for equality since the birth of this nation, and we are still fighting to this day. | 1,804 | ENGLISH | 1 |
January 8, 1815 – The final act of the War of 1812 — the Battle of New Orleans — was fought. General Andrew Jackson and a rag-tag army of American militia, regular army soldiers, Indians, free blacks, and Jean Lafitte’s pirates defended the city against a ferocious British attack, inflicting over 2,000 casualties and killing the British commander. Tragically, both sides in this battle were unaware that peace had already been declared two weeks earlier with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent in Europe.
As negotiations to end the War of 1812 were being carried out in Europe in November of 1814, British Major General Edward Pakenham and Admiral Alexander Cochrane conceived of a plan to capture the major U.S. port city of New Orleans, which controlled the mouth of the Mississippi River. As Cochrane sailed towards his target with Pakenham and 8,000 British soldiers, U.S. General Andrew Jackson, who had recently defeated the Red Stick Creek Indians in Alabama at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, raced to assemble an army to defend New Orleans.
By December 23, 1814, the British army had landed and were advancing on New Orleans. Jackson scrambled to defend the city, having his men work feverishly to dig defensive ditches and throw up redoubts to protect his artillery. Jackson’s ragtag army was as eclectic as it was outnumbered: he had, under his command, an assortment of U.S. army soldiers, U.S. marines, sailors, local Louisiana militia (including about 500 free blacks), Tennessee militia that had come with Jackson from his home state, Choctaw Indian allies, and local pirates working for the legendary Pirate Captain Jean Lafitte (who had turned down an offer from Admiral Cochrane to fight for the British). Jackson’s defenders were outnumbered about 2-1 by 8,000 regular British soldiers, all battle-hardened and experienced.
After two weeks of maneuvering, Pakenham’s assault on the city began on the morning of January 7, 1815. From the start Pakenham’s carefully laid out battle plans went awry. A unit sent to flank the American positions simultaneous with his main assault had been delayed in getting into position, and the unit with ladders necessary to breach the American redoubts went missing. The main attack force advanced anyway into the teeth of the American defenses and were ripped apart with cannon and musket fire. While a few British soldiers made it to the top of the redoubts, they were easily repulsed.
The plains before the American lines became a killing field. Pakenham and his second in command, General Gibbs, were mortally wounded and died on the battlefield along with 300 others before the retreat was finally sounded. Overall, the British suffered over 2,000 casualties; the Americans, fewer than 100. Several days later the British abandoned its attempt to take New Orleans and set sail for Mobile, Alabama, to try to take that port city. On February 13, 2015, however, before the attack could begin, news arrived that the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War, had been signed.
Under the terms of the Treaty of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814, and ratified by the British government on December 28, neither side gained or lost anything. Instead, it simply returned both sides to the status quo ante bellum. Since neither the Americans nor English gave anything up, there was no resentment on either side over the treaty. In fact, the years soon after the war saw English and American relations warm into a lasting friendship.
At the moment, however, the tragedy still remained that the treaty had been ratified 10 days before the Battle of New Orleans was fought. The battle, which cost so many brave soldiers their lives, should never have been fought. It did, however, propel Jackson – the “hero” of the Battle of New Orleans – into the presidency 14 years later, proving once again that killing large numbers of men do not necessarily make one qualified for public office.
As a footnote, the Battle of New Orleans also accelerated the demise of the Federalist political party. In the fall of 1814, before New Orleans, when American prospects in the war looked particularly bleak, opposition to the war swelled in New England. New Englanders had never supported the war in the first place; every coastal state in New England, along with New York and New Jersey, had voted against Madison (and thereby the war) in 1812. Early in the war, in fact, New England merchants had even sold food to the English. Then, as the war progressed, the British blockade had particularly crippled the New England economy. New Englanders were simply fed up.
Accordingly, in December 1814, Federalist leaders from the five New England States held a convention in Hartford, Connecticut, where they publicly denounced the war and proposed several amendments to the Constitution to increase the power of the New England states. Then came the victory in New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent.
The successful end of the war did more than just make the Hartford Convention seem pointless; most Americans saw it as being terribly unpatriotic. Since it had been led by New England Federalists, the public backlash effectively ended the Federalist Party. In the 1816 presidential election, the Federalists – the party of Washington, Hamilton, and John Adams – ran their last candidate for president, Rufus King. He was trounced by Republican James Monroe. | <urn:uuid:24c685de-1d8f-459f-a1cb-b2ada3aa643b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yeoldehistoryteacher.com/2020/01/06/this-week-in-history-jan-8/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00314.warc.gz | en | 0.9806 | 1,133 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.14691115915... | 12 | January 8, 1815 – The final act of the War of 1812 — the Battle of New Orleans — was fought. General Andrew Jackson and a rag-tag army of American militia, regular army soldiers, Indians, free blacks, and Jean Lafitte’s pirates defended the city against a ferocious British attack, inflicting over 2,000 casualties and killing the British commander. Tragically, both sides in this battle were unaware that peace had already been declared two weeks earlier with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent in Europe.
As negotiations to end the War of 1812 were being carried out in Europe in November of 1814, British Major General Edward Pakenham and Admiral Alexander Cochrane conceived of a plan to capture the major U.S. port city of New Orleans, which controlled the mouth of the Mississippi River. As Cochrane sailed towards his target with Pakenham and 8,000 British soldiers, U.S. General Andrew Jackson, who had recently defeated the Red Stick Creek Indians in Alabama at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, raced to assemble an army to defend New Orleans.
By December 23, 1814, the British army had landed and were advancing on New Orleans. Jackson scrambled to defend the city, having his men work feverishly to dig defensive ditches and throw up redoubts to protect his artillery. Jackson’s ragtag army was as eclectic as it was outnumbered: he had, under his command, an assortment of U.S. army soldiers, U.S. marines, sailors, local Louisiana militia (including about 500 free blacks), Tennessee militia that had come with Jackson from his home state, Choctaw Indian allies, and local pirates working for the legendary Pirate Captain Jean Lafitte (who had turned down an offer from Admiral Cochrane to fight for the British). Jackson’s defenders were outnumbered about 2-1 by 8,000 regular British soldiers, all battle-hardened and experienced.
After two weeks of maneuvering, Pakenham’s assault on the city began on the morning of January 7, 1815. From the start Pakenham’s carefully laid out battle plans went awry. A unit sent to flank the American positions simultaneous with his main assault had been delayed in getting into position, and the unit with ladders necessary to breach the American redoubts went missing. The main attack force advanced anyway into the teeth of the American defenses and were ripped apart with cannon and musket fire. While a few British soldiers made it to the top of the redoubts, they were easily repulsed.
The plains before the American lines became a killing field. Pakenham and his second in command, General Gibbs, were mortally wounded and died on the battlefield along with 300 others before the retreat was finally sounded. Overall, the British suffered over 2,000 casualties; the Americans, fewer than 100. Several days later the British abandoned its attempt to take New Orleans and set sail for Mobile, Alabama, to try to take that port city. On February 13, 2015, however, before the attack could begin, news arrived that the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War, had been signed.
Under the terms of the Treaty of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814, and ratified by the British government on December 28, neither side gained or lost anything. Instead, it simply returned both sides to the status quo ante bellum. Since neither the Americans nor English gave anything up, there was no resentment on either side over the treaty. In fact, the years soon after the war saw English and American relations warm into a lasting friendship.
At the moment, however, the tragedy still remained that the treaty had been ratified 10 days before the Battle of New Orleans was fought. The battle, which cost so many brave soldiers their lives, should never have been fought. It did, however, propel Jackson – the “hero” of the Battle of New Orleans – into the presidency 14 years later, proving once again that killing large numbers of men do not necessarily make one qualified for public office.
As a footnote, the Battle of New Orleans also accelerated the demise of the Federalist political party. In the fall of 1814, before New Orleans, when American prospects in the war looked particularly bleak, opposition to the war swelled in New England. New Englanders had never supported the war in the first place; every coastal state in New England, along with New York and New Jersey, had voted against Madison (and thereby the war) in 1812. Early in the war, in fact, New England merchants had even sold food to the English. Then, as the war progressed, the British blockade had particularly crippled the New England economy. New Englanders were simply fed up.
Accordingly, in December 1814, Federalist leaders from the five New England States held a convention in Hartford, Connecticut, where they publicly denounced the war and proposed several amendments to the Constitution to increase the power of the New England states. Then came the victory in New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent.
The successful end of the war did more than just make the Hartford Convention seem pointless; most Americans saw it as being terribly unpatriotic. Since it had been led by New England Federalists, the public backlash effectively ended the Federalist Party. In the 1816 presidential election, the Federalists – the party of Washington, Hamilton, and John Adams – ran their last candidate for president, Rufus King. He was trounced by Republican James Monroe. | 1,185 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This week the children have been creating new characters for 'Charlie & The Chocolate Factory'. They have been writing character descriptions to go with them. In Maths we have been working on pictograms and answering questions on data. We have been focussing on our reading skills, being able to locate answers in a text and will continue with this. In Topic we have continued to learn about the Mayans and where they came from. Another great week.
This week the children have been writing diary entries as Charlie from Charlie & The Chocolate Factory. They were working on their punctuation. In Maths we have been learning about division, how to divide even numbers by 2. In topic we learnt what countries the Mayans came from and in Science as you can see below, the children were making their own wax paper using wax crayons and comparing results from testing normal plain paper and wax paper with pipettes and water to see how many drops were needed before the water went through the paper. In music we have been learning songs to do with chocolate which the children are enjoying. A great week.
Welcome back and Happy New Year.
This week we started our new topic on 'Chocolate drops & Lollipops'. They were introduced to the character of Charlie from 'Charlie & The Chocolate Factory'. We looked at his home and how poor he was and compared his house to ours. We discussed that his house was made of wood with holes in. So in Science we tested a number of materials to see how absorbent they were and which material would be the most waterproof to use on Charlies house. We also tested some wood and a brick.
Also this week the children were introduced to the Mayans, who they were and what was so special about them. In Maths we have been looking at multiplication and repeated addition. The children have been doing their multiplication timed tests which then go home for you to support in their learning of them. I have been impressed at how focussed the children have been having returned from the holidays and how mature they have become.
A very successful start to the term. Well done Y2
Just a reminder please that PE kits needs to be in school for Fridays PE lesson with the correct items of uniform, school shorts, school PE shirts, school tracksuit bottoms and trainers.
Could you also hear your child read every day and sign the reading record please. We do check them daily and we also check their reading/ comprehension skills regularly in order to make sure they are on the appropriate level. I would just like to mention that it is not just the ability to read the words on the page but also to be able to discuss the content of the book securely and answer the questions at the back of the book/comprehension sheet before we move them onto the next level. Each level has a wide selection of books that progress their reading skills. Children need to complete these books and the comprehensions that go with them before moving up a level. Some children will have these comprehensions sent home to complete.
What a fun packed week. We started the week by making a giant igloo from milk bottles. We had our class governor Mr Bonner in to help and the children had great fun building it. They also took turns to get in it and finally they knocked it down and used the bottles as skates around the playground. Also this week the children did a couple of experiments where they had to test materials to see which one insulated best, they wrapped the different materials around a cardboard cup to see which would keep hot water hot for the longest. They measured the temperature using a thermometer every 10 mins and recorded the results, then put those results into a line graph. The next experiment, using the same cups and materials, was to see which one would keep ice the coldest for longest. We measured the amount of water that had melted using a measuring cup in ml after every 10 mins, recorded the results and put them into a bar graph. We decorated our salt dough snowflakes, had a visit from Santa and enjoyed a festive Christmas lunch. We finished the week by freezing water coloured with food dye into different shaped containers and made ice sculptures with them.
We wish you all a restful and happy holiday and a big thank you for all your generous gifts.
What another fantastic week. The children really shone this week with our performances of 'Hey Ewe'. Well done to all the children involved, they practiced and performed brilliantly. Inbetween that they still managed to get some learning in, making warm clothes for Inuit people. Next week we will be focussing on our Science and Topic before the end of term.
What another exciting week. We have had the book fair, a fantastic assembly from a company called I Rock. We made snowflakes from salt dough, next week we will be decorating them. We wrote newspaper reports as reporters. We touched on patterns in shapes in Maths and we created Grinch Christmas cards and did some Grinch maths. All alongside rehearsals for our Nativity next week which the children are really excited about.
You should have received your tickets today for our Nativity and a letter about a trip to the Lookout later on next year. The cost for this trip is £16.50.
Please can I ask that children have the correct clothing for PE, we still have a few children with shorts in this cold weather and no PE trainers. They should have tracksuit bottoms as PE will be outside whenever possible and the correct footwear is needed.
This week we also had the added excitement of a trip to the BCA to watch some students perform 'The Grinch', which the children thought was amazing and thoroughly enjoyed the afternoon out. A big thank you to BCA for inviting us and providing transport for us it was a wonderful experience for the children.
This week Year 2 have learning about capacity and how to measure liquids in ml. In English we have been doing guided reading groups and the children have enjoyed reading different texts and answering questions on them. In the afternoons we have been busy working on our Nativity which is really beginning to take shape. We will be catching up on our Science and Topic work the last week of term. The children have also been busy making snowflakes out of pasta and salt dough.
This week the children had fun writing instructions on how to make a jam sandwich and then how to make an igloo. In Maths we looked at how to read thermometers and read temperatures. In Topic we looked at Inuit people, where they live, how they live and survive in a frozen environment.
Please look at the Home Learning icon for more fabulous pieces by Y2.
Could I ask that you read every night and children bring their books in everyday. Could you make sure children have tracksuit bottoms now the weather has got cold for PE, we had a lot of chilly legs today outside!
Lastly, please support your child with learning their Nativity lines. They are working hard learning songs ready to perform to you all.
Welcome back after hopefully a restful but fun half term. This week the children have been reading 'The Last Polar Bears' a text written in diary form. They have written their own diary for a day over the holiday that they enjoyed using the past tense, time connectives, adverbs and conjunctions. In Maths we have been looking at subtraction. In topic they have been comparing climates in the Arctic and Antarctic with the UK and Mexico. We have also started learning our Christmas Nativity songs which the children are very excited about. Copies of all letters recently sent out regarding our Nativity are under the 'Trips and Events icon.
This week the children made and tested their igloos. We tested them to see how strong they were and many were built extremely well. In English we went over some grammar, we also wrote some fun fact files about different animals, what they eat and how they survive in the cold. In maths we went over place value and addition. The children were also introduce to the Christmas Nativity we are going to be doing. Letters will be going home after half term informing you of your child's part and costume needed. In Science we looked at the animals found in the Arctic and Antarctic and sorted them into correct regions.
Please keep handing in the home learning from the grid, we have had some exceptional pieces. Well done Y2 for all your hard work and great learning this half term.
This week the children tested their sledges to find out which design had the least amount of friction when pulled across snow and of course, magically we made snow to test them on! The children had great fun and many sledges had little friction so well done with your designing and building. We also learnt about the first men to successfully climb Mount Everest. The children found this really interesting, particularly the dangerous parts!! They have also started on designing an igloo, we looked at how they are constructed and what they are used for. Next week we hope to make them and test how strong they are.
This week in class the children listened to the beginning of a story called 'The Great Explorer'. It's about a boy who reads in a newspaper that his explorer Dad is lost in the Arctic. He goes to rescue him. They had to write the story in paragraphs, an opening, a build up and problem, a resolution and lastly an ending. We focused on punctuation, adjectives and interesting sentence starters. I have to say we had some great writing, lovely joining and wonderful ideas as to what happened in the story. Great work Year 2
In Maths we looked at addition with 1 and 2 digit numbers using frog maths. We also looked at what we would pack to take to the South Pole for an expedition.
Lastly thank you to all who have been supplying us with empty milk bottles. We now have enough for our project. Have a good weekend.
This week the children have had great fun in designing their own sledges. They had to make one that could be pulled with as little friction as possible across snow and we will be testing them next week on snow! Well done Year 2
This Friday Year 2 had great fun throwing bean bags in the wind!
In music this week the children listen to an extract with voices, the music talked about it being very cold, vocals were short and sharp. The children in groups had to replicate the music using only their voices and the words 'chatter' or 'freezing cold', then we combined the groups together to make one class composition, below is the extract from the composer Purcell and then the class version. They all did very well and had lots of fun.
This week the children were looking at poetry. They wrote their own based on our Brrr… theme. We looked at shape poems and again the children planned their own. In topic we looked at Scott and Amundsen, the 2 major explorers to try and reach the South Pole. We will continue with this learning next week. We looked at healthy eating in Science and designed our own pack lunch and sorted foods into healthy and unhealthy choices. In Maths we have been practicing our times tables and using greater than, less than and equals symbols. We have also had some more great home learning pieces in. Keep them coming
This week the children looked at some unusual homes and wrote about who they thought might live there and why, they came up with some great ideas. In Maths we looked at place value, what a ten is and what a one is. See pictures below. In Science we looked at the life cycle of a human and in topic we learnt about continents and researched on the iPad facts about them. We have also had some more fantastic home learning pieces in, please see the home learning tab for more photos. Our display board is jam packed full of wonderful work. In music we carried on with composition and Vivaldi's 4 seasons. The children composed music on the theme of a snow blizzard. Well done Y2.
We have had a wonderful first week of term. The children have settled in well. We have started our topic by finding out where the Northern, Southern Hemisphere and equator are. We located the Arctic and Antarctic. We learnt about the life cycle of a penguin and a polar bear. In maths we have been doing number bonds to 10, 20 and 100. In English we have watched the beginning of Happy Feet and described the setting and written a story opening for the film. Music: we compose our own music to replicate the sound of teeth chattering and our bodies shivering after listening to Vivaldi's 4 seasons (Winter). They all did amazingly well.
Just a note about reading records. We will be changing books every Monday, Wednesday and Friday. It would be helpful if you could write down the page numbers that have been read and whether the book has been finished so we know to change it and sign please .
Please can reading be done every day and returned to school everyday as we have volunteer readers in school on a Tuesday and Thursday.
If you have any questions about our learning please don't hesitate to come and speak to me.
If you have any empty milk cartons, the larger ones, we would be very grateful if you could bring them into school for a topic project later on in the term. Thank you. | <urn:uuid:44201107-e216-4009-ac79-619046e8afcd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.larchfieldschool.co.uk/class-activities-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.982315 | 2,724 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.28106039762... | 1 | This week the children have been creating new characters for 'Charlie & The Chocolate Factory'. They have been writing character descriptions to go with them. In Maths we have been working on pictograms and answering questions on data. We have been focussing on our reading skills, being able to locate answers in a text and will continue with this. In Topic we have continued to learn about the Mayans and where they came from. Another great week.
This week the children have been writing diary entries as Charlie from Charlie & The Chocolate Factory. They were working on their punctuation. In Maths we have been learning about division, how to divide even numbers by 2. In topic we learnt what countries the Mayans came from and in Science as you can see below, the children were making their own wax paper using wax crayons and comparing results from testing normal plain paper and wax paper with pipettes and water to see how many drops were needed before the water went through the paper. In music we have been learning songs to do with chocolate which the children are enjoying. A great week.
Welcome back and Happy New Year.
This week we started our new topic on 'Chocolate drops & Lollipops'. They were introduced to the character of Charlie from 'Charlie & The Chocolate Factory'. We looked at his home and how poor he was and compared his house to ours. We discussed that his house was made of wood with holes in. So in Science we tested a number of materials to see how absorbent they were and which material would be the most waterproof to use on Charlies house. We also tested some wood and a brick.
Also this week the children were introduced to the Mayans, who they were and what was so special about them. In Maths we have been looking at multiplication and repeated addition. The children have been doing their multiplication timed tests which then go home for you to support in their learning of them. I have been impressed at how focussed the children have been having returned from the holidays and how mature they have become.
A very successful start to the term. Well done Y2
Just a reminder please that PE kits needs to be in school for Fridays PE lesson with the correct items of uniform, school shorts, school PE shirts, school tracksuit bottoms and trainers.
Could you also hear your child read every day and sign the reading record please. We do check them daily and we also check their reading/ comprehension skills regularly in order to make sure they are on the appropriate level. I would just like to mention that it is not just the ability to read the words on the page but also to be able to discuss the content of the book securely and answer the questions at the back of the book/comprehension sheet before we move them onto the next level. Each level has a wide selection of books that progress their reading skills. Children need to complete these books and the comprehensions that go with them before moving up a level. Some children will have these comprehensions sent home to complete.
What a fun packed week. We started the week by making a giant igloo from milk bottles. We had our class governor Mr Bonner in to help and the children had great fun building it. They also took turns to get in it and finally they knocked it down and used the bottles as skates around the playground. Also this week the children did a couple of experiments where they had to test materials to see which one insulated best, they wrapped the different materials around a cardboard cup to see which would keep hot water hot for the longest. They measured the temperature using a thermometer every 10 mins and recorded the results, then put those results into a line graph. The next experiment, using the same cups and materials, was to see which one would keep ice the coldest for longest. We measured the amount of water that had melted using a measuring cup in ml after every 10 mins, recorded the results and put them into a bar graph. We decorated our salt dough snowflakes, had a visit from Santa and enjoyed a festive Christmas lunch. We finished the week by freezing water coloured with food dye into different shaped containers and made ice sculptures with them.
We wish you all a restful and happy holiday and a big thank you for all your generous gifts.
What another fantastic week. The children really shone this week with our performances of 'Hey Ewe'. Well done to all the children involved, they practiced and performed brilliantly. Inbetween that they still managed to get some learning in, making warm clothes for Inuit people. Next week we will be focussing on our Science and Topic before the end of term.
What another exciting week. We have had the book fair, a fantastic assembly from a company called I Rock. We made snowflakes from salt dough, next week we will be decorating them. We wrote newspaper reports as reporters. We touched on patterns in shapes in Maths and we created Grinch Christmas cards and did some Grinch maths. All alongside rehearsals for our Nativity next week which the children are really excited about.
You should have received your tickets today for our Nativity and a letter about a trip to the Lookout later on next year. The cost for this trip is £16.50.
Please can I ask that children have the correct clothing for PE, we still have a few children with shorts in this cold weather and no PE trainers. They should have tracksuit bottoms as PE will be outside whenever possible and the correct footwear is needed.
This week we also had the added excitement of a trip to the BCA to watch some students perform 'The Grinch', which the children thought was amazing and thoroughly enjoyed the afternoon out. A big thank you to BCA for inviting us and providing transport for us it was a wonderful experience for the children.
This week Year 2 have learning about capacity and how to measure liquids in ml. In English we have been doing guided reading groups and the children have enjoyed reading different texts and answering questions on them. In the afternoons we have been busy working on our Nativity which is really beginning to take shape. We will be catching up on our Science and Topic work the last week of term. The children have also been busy making snowflakes out of pasta and salt dough.
This week the children had fun writing instructions on how to make a jam sandwich and then how to make an igloo. In Maths we looked at how to read thermometers and read temperatures. In Topic we looked at Inuit people, where they live, how they live and survive in a frozen environment.
Please look at the Home Learning icon for more fabulous pieces by Y2.
Could I ask that you read every night and children bring their books in everyday. Could you make sure children have tracksuit bottoms now the weather has got cold for PE, we had a lot of chilly legs today outside!
Lastly, please support your child with learning their Nativity lines. They are working hard learning songs ready to perform to you all.
Welcome back after hopefully a restful but fun half term. This week the children have been reading 'The Last Polar Bears' a text written in diary form. They have written their own diary for a day over the holiday that they enjoyed using the past tense, time connectives, adverbs and conjunctions. In Maths we have been looking at subtraction. In topic they have been comparing climates in the Arctic and Antarctic with the UK and Mexico. We have also started learning our Christmas Nativity songs which the children are very excited about. Copies of all letters recently sent out regarding our Nativity are under the 'Trips and Events icon.
This week the children made and tested their igloos. We tested them to see how strong they were and many were built extremely well. In English we went over some grammar, we also wrote some fun fact files about different animals, what they eat and how they survive in the cold. In maths we went over place value and addition. The children were also introduce to the Christmas Nativity we are going to be doing. Letters will be going home after half term informing you of your child's part and costume needed. In Science we looked at the animals found in the Arctic and Antarctic and sorted them into correct regions.
Please keep handing in the home learning from the grid, we have had some exceptional pieces. Well done Y2 for all your hard work and great learning this half term.
This week the children tested their sledges to find out which design had the least amount of friction when pulled across snow and of course, magically we made snow to test them on! The children had great fun and many sledges had little friction so well done with your designing and building. We also learnt about the first men to successfully climb Mount Everest. The children found this really interesting, particularly the dangerous parts!! They have also started on designing an igloo, we looked at how they are constructed and what they are used for. Next week we hope to make them and test how strong they are.
This week in class the children listened to the beginning of a story called 'The Great Explorer'. It's about a boy who reads in a newspaper that his explorer Dad is lost in the Arctic. He goes to rescue him. They had to write the story in paragraphs, an opening, a build up and problem, a resolution and lastly an ending. We focused on punctuation, adjectives and interesting sentence starters. I have to say we had some great writing, lovely joining and wonderful ideas as to what happened in the story. Great work Year 2
In Maths we looked at addition with 1 and 2 digit numbers using frog maths. We also looked at what we would pack to take to the South Pole for an expedition.
Lastly thank you to all who have been supplying us with empty milk bottles. We now have enough for our project. Have a good weekend.
This week the children have had great fun in designing their own sledges. They had to make one that could be pulled with as little friction as possible across snow and we will be testing them next week on snow! Well done Year 2
This Friday Year 2 had great fun throwing bean bags in the wind!
In music this week the children listen to an extract with voices, the music talked about it being very cold, vocals were short and sharp. The children in groups had to replicate the music using only their voices and the words 'chatter' or 'freezing cold', then we combined the groups together to make one class composition, below is the extract from the composer Purcell and then the class version. They all did very well and had lots of fun.
This week the children were looking at poetry. They wrote their own based on our Brrr… theme. We looked at shape poems and again the children planned their own. In topic we looked at Scott and Amundsen, the 2 major explorers to try and reach the South Pole. We will continue with this learning next week. We looked at healthy eating in Science and designed our own pack lunch and sorted foods into healthy and unhealthy choices. In Maths we have been practicing our times tables and using greater than, less than and equals symbols. We have also had some more great home learning pieces in. Keep them coming
This week the children looked at some unusual homes and wrote about who they thought might live there and why, they came up with some great ideas. In Maths we looked at place value, what a ten is and what a one is. See pictures below. In Science we looked at the life cycle of a human and in topic we learnt about continents and researched on the iPad facts about them. We have also had some more fantastic home learning pieces in, please see the home learning tab for more photos. Our display board is jam packed full of wonderful work. In music we carried on with composition and Vivaldi's 4 seasons. The children composed music on the theme of a snow blizzard. Well done Y2.
We have had a wonderful first week of term. The children have settled in well. We have started our topic by finding out where the Northern, Southern Hemisphere and equator are. We located the Arctic and Antarctic. We learnt about the life cycle of a penguin and a polar bear. In maths we have been doing number bonds to 10, 20 and 100. In English we have watched the beginning of Happy Feet and described the setting and written a story opening for the film. Music: we compose our own music to replicate the sound of teeth chattering and our bodies shivering after listening to Vivaldi's 4 seasons (Winter). They all did amazingly well.
Just a note about reading records. We will be changing books every Monday, Wednesday and Friday. It would be helpful if you could write down the page numbers that have been read and whether the book has been finished so we know to change it and sign please .
Please can reading be done every day and returned to school everyday as we have volunteer readers in school on a Tuesday and Thursday.
If you have any questions about our learning please don't hesitate to come and speak to me.
If you have any empty milk cartons, the larger ones, we would be very grateful if you could bring them into school for a topic project later on in the term. Thank you. | 2,699 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Gloster Meteor was the first jet fighter aircraft of the British Royal Air Force, and was introduced into service in August, 1944, only weeks after the Third Reich's Messerschmitt Me262 jet aircraft. It was thus the world's second jet fighter aircraft, and the first and only one of the WWII Allied powers.
The Gloster Meteor was developed in order to combat the V1 flying bombs, themselves powered by a type of jet engine known as a pulse-jet.
Principle of Jet Propulsion
Jet flight is a practical application of Newton's Third Law of Motion, which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This can be observed by the simple act of inflating a balloon and then letting it go. While the neck is held closed the air is trapped, but when it is released the air rushes out. This action causes a reaction and so the balloon shoots forwards in the opposite direction to the escaping air. Indeed, Sir Isaac Newton suggested that a steam jet might be used to propel a vehicle on land. The jet engine works exactly on this principle.
This same principle was known to the ancient Greeks. Hero of Alexandria, in the 1st Century AD, built an 'engine' from a hollow metal ball pivoted on upright supports, suspended over a flame. The ball contained an amount of water which escaped as steam from two jet nozzles placed around its circumference, thus causing the ball to spin round.
Early Applications of Jet Propulsion
Small rockets are known to have been used as missiles by the Chinese in the 13th Century AD, whilst the first practical attempts to apply jet propulsion on a larger scale were not made until the 1880s when the British Navy experimented with propelling ships using water jets discharged by pumps. However, these experiments were unsuccessful and were discontinued.
Apparently the idea of using jets to propel aircraft was first suggested in 1865 but, despite the simplicity of jets, the earliest aircraft to be built and flown were propeller-driven. Jet propulsion was not seriously considered again until some 25 years after the Wright brothers were credited with achieving the first sustained and controlled, powered flight. This was by a young English airman by the name of Frank Whittle.
Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle (1907 - 1996)
As a young boy, Frank Whittle used to help his father in his engineering business, and, on joining the Royal Air Force, continued to study engineering. Whilst still a student at the Royal Air Force College, Cranwell he conceived the idea of an aircraft powered by hot gas. He submitted his plans to the Air Ministry who rejected the idea. However, in 1935 a friend helped him to raise the money to develop his idea and he formed Power Jets Limited in 1936.
One of Whittle's earliest patents was for a 'bench-test' gas-turbine engine called the 'Whittle Unit (WU)', on which tests were begun in 1937. Their first working engine ran on 1 April, 1937 and, from all accounts, subsequent tests, although successful, were extremely frightening affairs, with the engine having a 'mind of its own'.
Fortunately, Whittle survived these experiences unscathed and managed to get the WU working sufficiently reliably that, by 1938, the British Air Ministry began to provide him with modest funds to help him continue his work.
In June 1939, the WU was working reliably enough that the Air Ministry ordered a flight-worthy engine, the 'W1.' In September of that year, the Air Ministry further ordered that Gloster design an aircraft to test-fly the engine. This was the 'E28/39', nicknamed 'the Squirt.' This required that Whittle's scientists and engineers find a metal capable of withstanding the high temperature of the burning gas. This aircraft took to the air for the first time on 15 May, 1941, flown by Flight Lieutenant PEG Sayer. Whittle's engine, an early turbo-jet, gave the Squirt, on its very first flight, a speed almost as fast as the Spitfire; and it later achieved 750kph.
In the meantime, Whittle was hearing rumours that the Germans were also working on 'turbojet' engines, as they came to be known.
The invention of the jet engine revolutionised flight, leading to the development of the de Havilland Comet (the world's first passenger jet) and Concorde. Whittle later became Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle, KBE, receiving his knighthood in 1948, seven years after the maiden flight of the Gloster E28/39.
Sir Frank Whittle died in America in 1996, and is regarded as the greatest aero-engineer of the 20th Century.
The V1 Flying Bomb
During 1944, the Germans began using the V1 flying bomb, powered by a pulse-jet, to bomb London. This weapon was capable of carrying one ton of explosives some 200 miles; and was launched against London and eastern Holland from bases in northern France and Holland. A pulse-jet allows 'gulps' of air to pass into a combustion chamber, where it is mixed with fuel (petrol) and ignited. The V1 flying bomb was the first application of jet propulsion on an extensive scale.
The Gloster Meteor
In the meantime, by 1940 Britain's Air Ministry had already perceived the need for an operational turbojet-powered fighter. Gloster's Chief Engineer, George Carter had realised that Whittle's W1 and possible derivatives were underpowered and proposed a twin-engine aircraft with the company designation 'G41'.
Development of this aircraft began in November 1940 and the Air Ministry ordered a batch of 12 prototypes on 7 February, 1941; although only eight were actually completed. This aircraft was originally to have been named the Thunderbolt, but possible confusion with the American Republic P47 resulted in a name change to 'Meteor.'
The first Meteor to fly was, in fact, the fifth prototype, which made its maiden test flight on 5 March, 1943, piloted by Michael Daunt. The prototypes were powered by two de Havilland Halford H1 turbojets, but de Havilland later reserved the production of these engines for use in the de Havilland Vampire design.
For the production Meteor Mk I the Whittle W2 engine was used, now manufactured by Rolls-Royce. This aircraft had a maximum speed of 417mph (670 km/h) at 3,000m, and a range of 1,610km. The design was of an all-metal, low-wing monoplane, with two turbojets mounted mid-wing. The distinctive tailplane was high-mounted to keep it clear of the jet exhausts. The aircraft was armed with four 20mm Hispano cannons.
The sixth prototype led to the Meteor Mark II series, which didn't enter production. The other prototypes were fitted with variations on the W2B engine, except for the eighth, which was fitted with Rolls-Royce Derwent I engines. This aircraft flew on 18 April, 1944, and pointed the way to the operational Meteor marks.
By mid-1943, intelligence reports were being received of new German jet aircraft and missiles, indicating that possession of an operational jet fighter was now imperative. This resulted in the first production Meteor, the 'Mark I (G41A)' Some 20 of these aircraft, which were mainly used for operational evaluation, were built; with the first flying on 12 January, 1944.
The first Meteor 1s began to enter RAF squadron service from 12 July, 1944, with Number 616 (South Yorkshire) Squadron, which was given a detached flight of seven Meteor F Mark I's when it moved to Manston in Kent. The following is a quote from an engine fitter serving with 6616 Engineering Echelon:
'We were shown into a hangar in the centre of which was an aircraft completely covered with a tarpaulin. (The Gloster Meteor was top secret at the time and nobody had even heard of jet engines). We were told that this was a new design of aircraft being delivered to the RAF and we were to be servicing its engines. When the covers were removed, we were astounded, 'But where are the ****** propellers?', someone asked'.
This first batch of Meteors had a flying time of only 30 minutes, due to having white metal1 bearings; hence they were used only in frontline operations. Ball-bearings only became available towards the end of the war.
The Meteor was first used in action on 27 July, 1944, against the V1 flying bombs, although on this occasion it was unsuccessful. Although the Meteor I was no faster than contemporary piston-engine fighters at high altitude, unlike them it was able to retain its speed at low altitude.
The Meteor's first 'kill', against the V1 was scored by Flying Officer 'Dixie' Dean, on 4 August, 1944. As his cannons had jammed, Dean manoeuvred his aircraft under the wing of the flying bomb to throw it off guidance and into the ground. Minutes later another Meteor pilot, Flying Officer J Roger, used his cannons to shoot down another flying bomb. Between then and the end of August, when flying bomb attacks ceased, Meteor pilots recorded a total of 13 'kills'. Although this was insignificant compared to the thousands of flying bomb strikes, a useful propaganda purpose was served.
The Meteor Mark III
The Meteor 'Mark III (G41C)' was the first variant to go into full production. Some 210 were built, with initial deliveries to the RAF being made in December 1944 and the last of the variant rolling off the production line in 1947. The Meteor I's were all quickly replaced by Meteor III's.
The Meteor III featured a stronger airframe, greater internal fuel capacity, and a rear-sliding canopy, as opposed to the side-hinged canopy of the Meteor I. The first 15 Meteor IIIs were powered by Rolls Royce W2B/Welland I turbojets, but the rest were fitted with Rolls Royce Derwent I turbojets. The heavier engines increased an existing problem with balance, which was solved by adding yet more ballast.
A few Meteor IIIs flew to the Continent in January 1945, and operated out of the Low Countries with the 2nd Tactical Air Force until the end of the war in early May, 1945. They performed ground strafing attacks, but never engaged in aerial combat.
Although the Meteor pilots were obviously keen to test their aircraft against the German Messerschmitt Me262 jet fighter, their initial orders were to not fly beyond enemy lines. This was to avoid an aircraft being shot down and examined. Furthermore, following the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe flew fewer and fewer sorties and opportunities for a jet-on-jet encounter diminished and the Me262 and the Meteor never fought one another.
In November, 1945, a standard Meteor Mark IV, piloted by Group Captain H J Wilson, AFC, broke the World Air Speed Record at Herne Bay with a speed of 606mph. This was the first jet air speed record and the first air speed record over 600mph.
The most prolific version of the Meteor to be built was the Meteor F.Mark 8, which had gyroscopic gun sights, a bubble canopy, ejection seats and larger Derwent engines. This version had a maximum speed of 600mph (966kph); and had the nicknames of Meatbox and/or Meaty Whore. The Meteor F8 was the RAF's principal day-fighter from 1950 to 1955.
A two-seat, dual-control training version was built for the RAF under the designation of Meteor T Mark 7; and a two-seat night fighter known as the Meteor NF Mark 13, entered service in 1952. By this time production had been handed over to Armstrong-Whitworth who, along with Gloster, were part of the Hawker-Siddely Group.
Production of the Gloster Meteor finally ended in 1954, a total of 3,947 having been built; of which 547 were night fighters built by Armstrong-Whitworth.
Versions of the Meteor remained in front-line service for many years, and Meteor night fighters, in particular, remained in front-line RAF service until 1961. After this some night fighters were converted to navigation trainers, whilst some 30 Meteor F8's were converted to a simple target tug configuration and re-designated Meteor F(TT).82 Target tug Meteors remained in RAF service at least until the 1970s.
Today, there are approximately half a dozen Meteors still airworthy, with most being in the UK. The Temora Aircraft Museum in New South Wales, Australia, however, has the only Meteor F8 in the world still flying.
Versions of the Gloster Meteor can be seen in several museums, notably the RAF Museum at Cosford, which has four. | <urn:uuid:9d99f13a-6039-44d7-ac5b-8e1f44b9a75e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/dna/ptop/alabaster/A12746162 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.980553 | 2,662 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.4216650... | 2 | The Gloster Meteor was the first jet fighter aircraft of the British Royal Air Force, and was introduced into service in August, 1944, only weeks after the Third Reich's Messerschmitt Me262 jet aircraft. It was thus the world's second jet fighter aircraft, and the first and only one of the WWII Allied powers.
The Gloster Meteor was developed in order to combat the V1 flying bombs, themselves powered by a type of jet engine known as a pulse-jet.
Principle of Jet Propulsion
Jet flight is a practical application of Newton's Third Law of Motion, which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This can be observed by the simple act of inflating a balloon and then letting it go. While the neck is held closed the air is trapped, but when it is released the air rushes out. This action causes a reaction and so the balloon shoots forwards in the opposite direction to the escaping air. Indeed, Sir Isaac Newton suggested that a steam jet might be used to propel a vehicle on land. The jet engine works exactly on this principle.
This same principle was known to the ancient Greeks. Hero of Alexandria, in the 1st Century AD, built an 'engine' from a hollow metal ball pivoted on upright supports, suspended over a flame. The ball contained an amount of water which escaped as steam from two jet nozzles placed around its circumference, thus causing the ball to spin round.
Early Applications of Jet Propulsion
Small rockets are known to have been used as missiles by the Chinese in the 13th Century AD, whilst the first practical attempts to apply jet propulsion on a larger scale were not made until the 1880s when the British Navy experimented with propelling ships using water jets discharged by pumps. However, these experiments were unsuccessful and were discontinued.
Apparently the idea of using jets to propel aircraft was first suggested in 1865 but, despite the simplicity of jets, the earliest aircraft to be built and flown were propeller-driven. Jet propulsion was not seriously considered again until some 25 years after the Wright brothers were credited with achieving the first sustained and controlled, powered flight. This was by a young English airman by the name of Frank Whittle.
Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle (1907 - 1996)
As a young boy, Frank Whittle used to help his father in his engineering business, and, on joining the Royal Air Force, continued to study engineering. Whilst still a student at the Royal Air Force College, Cranwell he conceived the idea of an aircraft powered by hot gas. He submitted his plans to the Air Ministry who rejected the idea. However, in 1935 a friend helped him to raise the money to develop his idea and he formed Power Jets Limited in 1936.
One of Whittle's earliest patents was for a 'bench-test' gas-turbine engine called the 'Whittle Unit (WU)', on which tests were begun in 1937. Their first working engine ran on 1 April, 1937 and, from all accounts, subsequent tests, although successful, were extremely frightening affairs, with the engine having a 'mind of its own'.
Fortunately, Whittle survived these experiences unscathed and managed to get the WU working sufficiently reliably that, by 1938, the British Air Ministry began to provide him with modest funds to help him continue his work.
In June 1939, the WU was working reliably enough that the Air Ministry ordered a flight-worthy engine, the 'W1.' In September of that year, the Air Ministry further ordered that Gloster design an aircraft to test-fly the engine. This was the 'E28/39', nicknamed 'the Squirt.' This required that Whittle's scientists and engineers find a metal capable of withstanding the high temperature of the burning gas. This aircraft took to the air for the first time on 15 May, 1941, flown by Flight Lieutenant PEG Sayer. Whittle's engine, an early turbo-jet, gave the Squirt, on its very first flight, a speed almost as fast as the Spitfire; and it later achieved 750kph.
In the meantime, Whittle was hearing rumours that the Germans were also working on 'turbojet' engines, as they came to be known.
The invention of the jet engine revolutionised flight, leading to the development of the de Havilland Comet (the world's first passenger jet) and Concorde. Whittle later became Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle, KBE, receiving his knighthood in 1948, seven years after the maiden flight of the Gloster E28/39.
Sir Frank Whittle died in America in 1996, and is regarded as the greatest aero-engineer of the 20th Century.
The V1 Flying Bomb
During 1944, the Germans began using the V1 flying bomb, powered by a pulse-jet, to bomb London. This weapon was capable of carrying one ton of explosives some 200 miles; and was launched against London and eastern Holland from bases in northern France and Holland. A pulse-jet allows 'gulps' of air to pass into a combustion chamber, where it is mixed with fuel (petrol) and ignited. The V1 flying bomb was the first application of jet propulsion on an extensive scale.
The Gloster Meteor
In the meantime, by 1940 Britain's Air Ministry had already perceived the need for an operational turbojet-powered fighter. Gloster's Chief Engineer, George Carter had realised that Whittle's W1 and possible derivatives were underpowered and proposed a twin-engine aircraft with the company designation 'G41'.
Development of this aircraft began in November 1940 and the Air Ministry ordered a batch of 12 prototypes on 7 February, 1941; although only eight were actually completed. This aircraft was originally to have been named the Thunderbolt, but possible confusion with the American Republic P47 resulted in a name change to 'Meteor.'
The first Meteor to fly was, in fact, the fifth prototype, which made its maiden test flight on 5 March, 1943, piloted by Michael Daunt. The prototypes were powered by two de Havilland Halford H1 turbojets, but de Havilland later reserved the production of these engines for use in the de Havilland Vampire design.
For the production Meteor Mk I the Whittle W2 engine was used, now manufactured by Rolls-Royce. This aircraft had a maximum speed of 417mph (670 km/h) at 3,000m, and a range of 1,610km. The design was of an all-metal, low-wing monoplane, with two turbojets mounted mid-wing. The distinctive tailplane was high-mounted to keep it clear of the jet exhausts. The aircraft was armed with four 20mm Hispano cannons.
The sixth prototype led to the Meteor Mark II series, which didn't enter production. The other prototypes were fitted with variations on the W2B engine, except for the eighth, which was fitted with Rolls-Royce Derwent I engines. This aircraft flew on 18 April, 1944, and pointed the way to the operational Meteor marks.
By mid-1943, intelligence reports were being received of new German jet aircraft and missiles, indicating that possession of an operational jet fighter was now imperative. This resulted in the first production Meteor, the 'Mark I (G41A)' Some 20 of these aircraft, which were mainly used for operational evaluation, were built; with the first flying on 12 January, 1944.
The first Meteor 1s began to enter RAF squadron service from 12 July, 1944, with Number 616 (South Yorkshire) Squadron, which was given a detached flight of seven Meteor F Mark I's when it moved to Manston in Kent. The following is a quote from an engine fitter serving with 6616 Engineering Echelon:
'We were shown into a hangar in the centre of which was an aircraft completely covered with a tarpaulin. (The Gloster Meteor was top secret at the time and nobody had even heard of jet engines). We were told that this was a new design of aircraft being delivered to the RAF and we were to be servicing its engines. When the covers were removed, we were astounded, 'But where are the ****** propellers?', someone asked'.
This first batch of Meteors had a flying time of only 30 minutes, due to having white metal1 bearings; hence they were used only in frontline operations. Ball-bearings only became available towards the end of the war.
The Meteor was first used in action on 27 July, 1944, against the V1 flying bombs, although on this occasion it was unsuccessful. Although the Meteor I was no faster than contemporary piston-engine fighters at high altitude, unlike them it was able to retain its speed at low altitude.
The Meteor's first 'kill', against the V1 was scored by Flying Officer 'Dixie' Dean, on 4 August, 1944. As his cannons had jammed, Dean manoeuvred his aircraft under the wing of the flying bomb to throw it off guidance and into the ground. Minutes later another Meteor pilot, Flying Officer J Roger, used his cannons to shoot down another flying bomb. Between then and the end of August, when flying bomb attacks ceased, Meteor pilots recorded a total of 13 'kills'. Although this was insignificant compared to the thousands of flying bomb strikes, a useful propaganda purpose was served.
The Meteor Mark III
The Meteor 'Mark III (G41C)' was the first variant to go into full production. Some 210 were built, with initial deliveries to the RAF being made in December 1944 and the last of the variant rolling off the production line in 1947. The Meteor I's were all quickly replaced by Meteor III's.
The Meteor III featured a stronger airframe, greater internal fuel capacity, and a rear-sliding canopy, as opposed to the side-hinged canopy of the Meteor I. The first 15 Meteor IIIs were powered by Rolls Royce W2B/Welland I turbojets, but the rest were fitted with Rolls Royce Derwent I turbojets. The heavier engines increased an existing problem with balance, which was solved by adding yet more ballast.
A few Meteor IIIs flew to the Continent in January 1945, and operated out of the Low Countries with the 2nd Tactical Air Force until the end of the war in early May, 1945. They performed ground strafing attacks, but never engaged in aerial combat.
Although the Meteor pilots were obviously keen to test their aircraft against the German Messerschmitt Me262 jet fighter, their initial orders were to not fly beyond enemy lines. This was to avoid an aircraft being shot down and examined. Furthermore, following the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe flew fewer and fewer sorties and opportunities for a jet-on-jet encounter diminished and the Me262 and the Meteor never fought one another.
In November, 1945, a standard Meteor Mark IV, piloted by Group Captain H J Wilson, AFC, broke the World Air Speed Record at Herne Bay with a speed of 606mph. This was the first jet air speed record and the first air speed record over 600mph.
The most prolific version of the Meteor to be built was the Meteor F.Mark 8, which had gyroscopic gun sights, a bubble canopy, ejection seats and larger Derwent engines. This version had a maximum speed of 600mph (966kph); and had the nicknames of Meatbox and/or Meaty Whore. The Meteor F8 was the RAF's principal day-fighter from 1950 to 1955.
A two-seat, dual-control training version was built for the RAF under the designation of Meteor T Mark 7; and a two-seat night fighter known as the Meteor NF Mark 13, entered service in 1952. By this time production had been handed over to Armstrong-Whitworth who, along with Gloster, were part of the Hawker-Siddely Group.
Production of the Gloster Meteor finally ended in 1954, a total of 3,947 having been built; of which 547 were night fighters built by Armstrong-Whitworth.
Versions of the Meteor remained in front-line service for many years, and Meteor night fighters, in particular, remained in front-line RAF service until 1961. After this some night fighters were converted to navigation trainers, whilst some 30 Meteor F8's were converted to a simple target tug configuration and re-designated Meteor F(TT).82 Target tug Meteors remained in RAF service at least until the 1970s.
Today, there are approximately half a dozen Meteors still airworthy, with most being in the UK. The Temora Aircraft Museum in New South Wales, Australia, however, has the only Meteor F8 in the world still flying.
Versions of the Gloster Meteor can be seen in several museums, notably the RAF Museum at Cosford, which has four. | 2,834 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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The McClellan saddle was a riding saddle designed by George B. McClellan, a career Army officer in the U.S. Army, after his tour of Europe as the member of a military commission charged with studying the latest developments in engineer and cavalry forces including field equipment. Based on his observations, McClellan proposed a design that was adopted by the Army in 1859. The McClellan saddle was a success and continued in use in various forms until the US Army's last horse cavalry and horse artillery was dismounted late in World War II. Today, the McClellan saddle is used by ceremonial mounted units in the US Army. The saddle was used by several other nations, including Rhodesia and Mexico, and to a degree by the British in the Boer War. The saddle came in various seat sizes that predominantly ranged from approximately 11 to 12 ½ inches.
Origin and development
In April 1855, six years before the start of the Civil War, Captain George B. McClellan sailed to Europe as part of a military commission to study developments in European tactics, weaponry, and logistics. McClellan's focus was the organization of engineer troops and cavalry. After the one-year tour, during which time McClellan observed several battles of the Crimean War, McClellan brought back almost 100 books and manuals. These he read before writing his report, which concluded with his proposed manual for American cavalry adapted from existing Russian cavalry regulations. He also proposed a cavalry saddle that he claimed was a modification of a Hungarian model used in the Prussian service. The saddle was almost certainly a modification of the Spanish tree saddle in common use in Mexico during this period, and which had become common in some parts of the US.
The McClellan saddle was adopted by the US War Department in 1859 and remained standard issue, in various models, for the remaining history of the horse cavalry. The original M1859 version was the form used during the Civil War, and the design saw subsequent modifications. The saddle always remained recognizable as McClellan's design, which included cavalry and artillery models. In addition, a model for packers was introduced as the M1913.
Confederate variants in the Civil War
During the American Civil War, many Confederate cavalrymen provided their own horses and civilian saddles. In time, the Confederacy issued the Jenifer saddle. But when Southerners' horses grew thin because of inadequate food supply, the Jenifer saddle became painful to the bony withers of the horses. In 1863, the Confederate army issued the lighter and better-contoured McClellan saddle to its cavalry. Because leather was scarce in the South during the Civil War, many of the McClellan saddles had skirts of painted canvas. The Confederate Army also used some British saddles as well.
Influences on McClellan's design
The design was based on the Spanish tree saddles in wide use in the United States at the time, and which had seen US Army use, although McClellan claimed that it was based on Hussar saddles he'd observed in use in the Crimean War. While McClellan did go overseas and observe the Crimean War for the US, the saddle does not closely duplicate any pattern in use by the armies in that conflict, but is very close to the widely used Spanish tree saddle, which was originally a saddle in common use in Mexico. The design underwent modifications over time, although in many ways it remained remarkably unchanged. The saddle was simple and less expensive than existing saddles, light enough not to burden the horse, but sturdy enough to give good support to the rider and his gear. It supported a rawhide-covered open seat, a thick leather skirt, wooden stirrups, and a girth strap of woolen yarn. Added accessories to the saddle sometimes included a nose bag for horse feed, a curry comb to groom the horse, a picket pin and lariat to tether the horse while grazing, saddlebags, and a "thimble" that held the muzzle of the cavalryman's carbine. The McClellan saddle was placed on top of a saddlecloth, shabrack, or saddle blanket.
Service and rivals in the US Army
As noted above, the McClellan saddle served, and has continued to serve, for an extraordinarily long time in the U.S. Army. The saddle has been in uninterrupted use since 1859.
The saddle did see some modification over time. Perhaps the most significant alterations occurred in the 20th Century, when the rigging was changed twice. The first time, an adjustable rigging was adopted, leading to the M1904 McClellan. That pattern is the most common of all McClellan saddles, and continued in use throughout World War I and World War II.
However, increased emphasis on equitation in the US Army also lead to the M1928, which was an M1904 with English rigging and fenders. This variant, the final one in US service, fit closer than other McClellan saddles, and is still used by the US Army in ceremonial uses.
The saddle, while passing the test of time, was not without its rivals or critics. The first significant challenger was the Whitman saddle, named after a former US Army officer who designed it. The Whitman had many of the McClellan's features and is often mistaken for the McClellan. While not supplanting it, it was approved for use by officers and remained an approved officers' saddle throughout World War I. In later years, it incorporated so many McClellan features that it became known as the "Whitman-McClellan."
In the 20th Century, a serious effort was made to replace the McClellan through tests of the US Army's M1912 equipments. The M1912 saddle proved to be unsuccessful in the Punitive Expedition, but it demonstrated a great departure from the McClellan design, resembling in some ways the British Universal Pattern saddle. Subsequently, the Army tested the M1917 saddle, but it was not adopted.
Enormous quantities of M1904 McClellans were purchased by the US Army in World War I, effectively preventing any new saddle from being adopted for general use for decades. The US Army did approve a saddle of the English saddle type prior to World War I for officers, and after the war approved another, with the adoption of the Philip's saddle for officers.
Use and service outside the United States
The saddle also saw considerable civilian use, and was made for civilian sales by a variety of manufacturers. It was widely used in the United States by mounted policemen. It was adopted by Mexico, in a Mexican-made version, for their army. At least some were sold to the Dominion forces in the Boer War, and the North-West Mounted Police in Canada obtained at least a few for test purposes. The saddle was adopted by Rhodesia in the 1970s for use by the Grey's Scouts. South Africa used some quantities for mounted game wardens in the 1980s in South West Africa.
Legacy and continued use
While the McClellan saddle was not perfect and had critics, it was one of the most enduring military saddles of all time, rivaled only by the British Universal Pattern saddle in its longevity. The saddle was used by every branch of the US Army, the US Marine Corps, and was widely used by mounted police units throughout the US.
The McClellan saddle continues to be made in the US, and was used by endurance riders at one time. It is made for use as a pleasure saddle for those few who like it for that purpose, and as a saddle for historical reenactors. | <urn:uuid:11929bdd-80d4-46e5-bb04-a58d5f34871e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McClellan_saddle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00539.warc.gz | en | 0.983492 | 1,602 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.168637752532958... | 1 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The McClellan saddle was a riding saddle designed by George B. McClellan, a career Army officer in the U.S. Army, after his tour of Europe as the member of a military commission charged with studying the latest developments in engineer and cavalry forces including field equipment. Based on his observations, McClellan proposed a design that was adopted by the Army in 1859. The McClellan saddle was a success and continued in use in various forms until the US Army's last horse cavalry and horse artillery was dismounted late in World War II. Today, the McClellan saddle is used by ceremonial mounted units in the US Army. The saddle was used by several other nations, including Rhodesia and Mexico, and to a degree by the British in the Boer War. The saddle came in various seat sizes that predominantly ranged from approximately 11 to 12 ½ inches.
Origin and development
In April 1855, six years before the start of the Civil War, Captain George B. McClellan sailed to Europe as part of a military commission to study developments in European tactics, weaponry, and logistics. McClellan's focus was the organization of engineer troops and cavalry. After the one-year tour, during which time McClellan observed several battles of the Crimean War, McClellan brought back almost 100 books and manuals. These he read before writing his report, which concluded with his proposed manual for American cavalry adapted from existing Russian cavalry regulations. He also proposed a cavalry saddle that he claimed was a modification of a Hungarian model used in the Prussian service. The saddle was almost certainly a modification of the Spanish tree saddle in common use in Mexico during this period, and which had become common in some parts of the US.
The McClellan saddle was adopted by the US War Department in 1859 and remained standard issue, in various models, for the remaining history of the horse cavalry. The original M1859 version was the form used during the Civil War, and the design saw subsequent modifications. The saddle always remained recognizable as McClellan's design, which included cavalry and artillery models. In addition, a model for packers was introduced as the M1913.
Confederate variants in the Civil War
During the American Civil War, many Confederate cavalrymen provided their own horses and civilian saddles. In time, the Confederacy issued the Jenifer saddle. But when Southerners' horses grew thin because of inadequate food supply, the Jenifer saddle became painful to the bony withers of the horses. In 1863, the Confederate army issued the lighter and better-contoured McClellan saddle to its cavalry. Because leather was scarce in the South during the Civil War, many of the McClellan saddles had skirts of painted canvas. The Confederate Army also used some British saddles as well.
Influences on McClellan's design
The design was based on the Spanish tree saddles in wide use in the United States at the time, and which had seen US Army use, although McClellan claimed that it was based on Hussar saddles he'd observed in use in the Crimean War. While McClellan did go overseas and observe the Crimean War for the US, the saddle does not closely duplicate any pattern in use by the armies in that conflict, but is very close to the widely used Spanish tree saddle, which was originally a saddle in common use in Mexico. The design underwent modifications over time, although in many ways it remained remarkably unchanged. The saddle was simple and less expensive than existing saddles, light enough not to burden the horse, but sturdy enough to give good support to the rider and his gear. It supported a rawhide-covered open seat, a thick leather skirt, wooden stirrups, and a girth strap of woolen yarn. Added accessories to the saddle sometimes included a nose bag for horse feed, a curry comb to groom the horse, a picket pin and lariat to tether the horse while grazing, saddlebags, and a "thimble" that held the muzzle of the cavalryman's carbine. The McClellan saddle was placed on top of a saddlecloth, shabrack, or saddle blanket.
Service and rivals in the US Army
As noted above, the McClellan saddle served, and has continued to serve, for an extraordinarily long time in the U.S. Army. The saddle has been in uninterrupted use since 1859.
The saddle did see some modification over time. Perhaps the most significant alterations occurred in the 20th Century, when the rigging was changed twice. The first time, an adjustable rigging was adopted, leading to the M1904 McClellan. That pattern is the most common of all McClellan saddles, and continued in use throughout World War I and World War II.
However, increased emphasis on equitation in the US Army also lead to the M1928, which was an M1904 with English rigging and fenders. This variant, the final one in US service, fit closer than other McClellan saddles, and is still used by the US Army in ceremonial uses.
The saddle, while passing the test of time, was not without its rivals or critics. The first significant challenger was the Whitman saddle, named after a former US Army officer who designed it. The Whitman had many of the McClellan's features and is often mistaken for the McClellan. While not supplanting it, it was approved for use by officers and remained an approved officers' saddle throughout World War I. In later years, it incorporated so many McClellan features that it became known as the "Whitman-McClellan."
In the 20th Century, a serious effort was made to replace the McClellan through tests of the US Army's M1912 equipments. The M1912 saddle proved to be unsuccessful in the Punitive Expedition, but it demonstrated a great departure from the McClellan design, resembling in some ways the British Universal Pattern saddle. Subsequently, the Army tested the M1917 saddle, but it was not adopted.
Enormous quantities of M1904 McClellans were purchased by the US Army in World War I, effectively preventing any new saddle from being adopted for general use for decades. The US Army did approve a saddle of the English saddle type prior to World War I for officers, and after the war approved another, with the adoption of the Philip's saddle for officers.
Use and service outside the United States
The saddle also saw considerable civilian use, and was made for civilian sales by a variety of manufacturers. It was widely used in the United States by mounted policemen. It was adopted by Mexico, in a Mexican-made version, for their army. At least some were sold to the Dominion forces in the Boer War, and the North-West Mounted Police in Canada obtained at least a few for test purposes. The saddle was adopted by Rhodesia in the 1970s for use by the Grey's Scouts. South Africa used some quantities for mounted game wardens in the 1980s in South West Africa.
Legacy and continued use
While the McClellan saddle was not perfect and had critics, it was one of the most enduring military saddles of all time, rivaled only by the British Universal Pattern saddle in its longevity. The saddle was used by every branch of the US Army, the US Marine Corps, and was widely used by mounted police units throughout the US.
The McClellan saddle continues to be made in the US, and was used by endurance riders at one time. It is made for use as a pleasure saddle for those few who like it for that purpose, and as a saddle for historical reenactors. | 1,676 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Karl M. Baer
Karl Baer was born on May 20, 1885, as Martha Baer, the daughter of a German Jewish family from Arolsen, Germany. Although the midwife declared the new Baby Baer to be a girl, she privately confided to Martha’s father that his daughter’s body had “such strange characteristics that she had no way of determining the gender.” However a doctor confirmed Martha to be a girl, and so it was as a girl her parents her raised- until in 1906 Martha became the first person to undergo sex change surgery.
Childhood was uncomfortable for Baer. As he put it quite simply later in life: “I was born as a boy and raised as a girl.” At puberty, Baer did not develop a woman’s body. Despite not feeling feminine, Baer became heavily involved in women’s rights- perhaps as a direct result of his experience of life as a woman. After studying political economy and sociology, he became a social worker and a suffragette and joined the international Jewish organization, B’nai Brith in 1904.
At the same time, Baer finally began to live as a man, smoking cigars, drinking beer and acting in a masculine way. This behavior did not look odd at all as Baer did not look like a woman. He had male features, facial hair, and a deep voice. Not everyone could tolerate this male behavior and appearance, however, and Baer was sent home from an assignment in Galicia, Spain one year early because of ‘her’ insistence on dressing and behaving like a man.’
Then, in 1906, Baer was knocked over by a tram, and the medical staff in hospital noted his ‘unusual’ anatomy. The hospital put the patient in touch with Magnus Hirschfeld, a doctor and sexologist who immediately diagnosed Baer as “a man who was mistakenly identified as a woman”. That same year and in the same hospital, Baer began to have surgery to correct his erroneous sexual features. The hospital issued him with a medical certificate confirming his new gender, and on January 8, 1907, a court ratified Karl Baer’s identity as a man.
Karl Baer married twice and for some years held official posts in B’nai Brith. With the help of Hirschfeld, he wrote a semi-fictional memoir “ “Man’s Years as a Young Girl”. However, with the rise of the Nazis, Baer’s life in Germany came to an end. In 1937, he was arrested and tortured but then released and allowed to emigrate to Israel in 1938. There, he worked as an accountant and insurance agent, married again and died anonymously in 1956. | <urn:uuid:f552e226-449f-459c-80f8-f79d252d767f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/11-remarkable-transgender-people-history/4/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.990538 | 583 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.0585217103362083... | 2 | Karl M. Baer
Karl Baer was born on May 20, 1885, as Martha Baer, the daughter of a German Jewish family from Arolsen, Germany. Although the midwife declared the new Baby Baer to be a girl, she privately confided to Martha’s father that his daughter’s body had “such strange characteristics that she had no way of determining the gender.” However a doctor confirmed Martha to be a girl, and so it was as a girl her parents her raised- until in 1906 Martha became the first person to undergo sex change surgery.
Childhood was uncomfortable for Baer. As he put it quite simply later in life: “I was born as a boy and raised as a girl.” At puberty, Baer did not develop a woman’s body. Despite not feeling feminine, Baer became heavily involved in women’s rights- perhaps as a direct result of his experience of life as a woman. After studying political economy and sociology, he became a social worker and a suffragette and joined the international Jewish organization, B’nai Brith in 1904.
At the same time, Baer finally began to live as a man, smoking cigars, drinking beer and acting in a masculine way. This behavior did not look odd at all as Baer did not look like a woman. He had male features, facial hair, and a deep voice. Not everyone could tolerate this male behavior and appearance, however, and Baer was sent home from an assignment in Galicia, Spain one year early because of ‘her’ insistence on dressing and behaving like a man.’
Then, in 1906, Baer was knocked over by a tram, and the medical staff in hospital noted his ‘unusual’ anatomy. The hospital put the patient in touch with Magnus Hirschfeld, a doctor and sexologist who immediately diagnosed Baer as “a man who was mistakenly identified as a woman”. That same year and in the same hospital, Baer began to have surgery to correct his erroneous sexual features. The hospital issued him with a medical certificate confirming his new gender, and on January 8, 1907, a court ratified Karl Baer’s identity as a man.
Karl Baer married twice and for some years held official posts in B’nai Brith. With the help of Hirschfeld, he wrote a semi-fictional memoir “ “Man’s Years as a Young Girl”. However, with the rise of the Nazis, Baer’s life in Germany came to an end. In 1937, he was arrested and tortured but then released and allowed to emigrate to Israel in 1938. There, he worked as an accountant and insurance agent, married again and died anonymously in 1956. | 581 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What kind of a King is Claudius in Hamlet? What evidence shows the kind of monarch he is and the kind of man he is?
Shakespeare's Hamlet is set in Denmark in the Middle Ages, at some time between 1100–1500 CE. Until about 1660, Danish kings were elected. In actual practice the eldest son of the reigning king usually was elected King, but it wasn't until after 1660 that the throne of Denmark was formally made hereditary.
When Hamlet's father dies, or, more correctly, when Hamlet's father is murdered by Hamlet's uncle, Claudius—although the Danish people didn't know that—Hamlet is a university student in Wittenberg, Germany.
Denmark is under threat of invasion from Fortinbras , the son of the former King of...
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 772 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
King Claudius is old Hamlet's brother and nephew to the existing Hamlet...And what an evil man he is!
Claudius married Old Hamlet's wife Gertrude almost immediately after the death of his brother. In fact, Hamlet jokes bitterly that the food served hot at the wake for his father was stored and served cold for the wedding ceremony.
Act 1, Scene 2 is our first introduction to the charecter of Claudius and in first light he appears to be a kindly, able man who cares for the welfare of both his country and family. His long winded speech and acknowledgements, however, are merely a smoke screen to cover up the fact that he has taken the wife, position of power, and the castle of his dead brother whom he murdered by dropping poison in his ear.
The friction between Claudius and Hamlet is clear in this scene. Hamlet is resetful of both Claudius and Gertrude (his mother) and refuses to be taken in by his stepfather's small talk. He belives that his mother and uncle's relationship is based solely on incest and believes that nothing good is to come of it...He may well be correct... | <urn:uuid:dfb0e11e-3df2-4424-b26c-0d4b82ab5e2d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-kind-king-claudius-hamlet-what-evidence-shows-94525 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.982498 | 439 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.35827761888504... | 1 | What kind of a King is Claudius in Hamlet? What evidence shows the kind of monarch he is and the kind of man he is?
Shakespeare's Hamlet is set in Denmark in the Middle Ages, at some time between 1100–1500 CE. Until about 1660, Danish kings were elected. In actual practice the eldest son of the reigning king usually was elected King, but it wasn't until after 1660 that the throne of Denmark was formally made hereditary.
When Hamlet's father dies, or, more correctly, when Hamlet's father is murdered by Hamlet's uncle, Claudius—although the Danish people didn't know that—Hamlet is a university student in Wittenberg, Germany.
Denmark is under threat of invasion from Fortinbras , the son of the former King of...
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 772 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial
King Claudius is old Hamlet's brother and nephew to the existing Hamlet...And what an evil man he is!
Claudius married Old Hamlet's wife Gertrude almost immediately after the death of his brother. In fact, Hamlet jokes bitterly that the food served hot at the wake for his father was stored and served cold for the wedding ceremony.
Act 1, Scene 2 is our first introduction to the charecter of Claudius and in first light he appears to be a kindly, able man who cares for the welfare of both his country and family. His long winded speech and acknowledgements, however, are merely a smoke screen to cover up the fact that he has taken the wife, position of power, and the castle of his dead brother whom he murdered by dropping poison in his ear.
The friction between Claudius and Hamlet is clear in this scene. Hamlet is resetful of both Claudius and Gertrude (his mother) and refuses to be taken in by his stepfather's small talk. He belives that his mother and uncle's relationship is based solely on incest and believes that nothing good is to come of it...He may well be correct... | 444 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Subsistence and Commercial Activities. The entire economy was based on hunting and fishing and, to a much more moderate extent, on the gathering of plant products. Whales, seals, caribou, several species of fish, and a variety of fur-bearing animals, small game, and birds provided them with all the raw materials they needed for food and clothing and, to a significant extent, for tools, weapons, and utensils as well. Wood was used in house construction and in the manufacture of some weapons and tools; leaves, berries, and some roots were collected for food. Hunting, fishing, and gathering continue to be important sources of food today, but are significantly supplemented by foodstuffs imported from regions farther south. Gardening is carried on to a very Limited extent in a few villages where soil and summer weather conditions permit. Cash income is derived from welfare payments and by employment in a variety of private commercial enterprises—particularly in the oil, mining, and service industries—and government agencies. Traditionally, the only domesticated animals were large dogs. In winter they were used to pull sleds; in summer, to track boats along the seacoast and rivers and as pack animals. For about half a Century, beginning in the 1890s, imported reindeer were raised on a relatively large scale, but that industry has declined to only a few small herds today. Cats and dogs are now kept as pets; teams of sled dogs are kept only for racing.
Industrial Arts. The North Alaskan Eskimos were noted for the quality of their work in ivory and flint. Skin sewing was developed to a high level. Beautiful birchbark baskets were made in the southern interior. Except for work in flint, these traditional manufactures are perpetuated today, skin sewing primarily for personal or family use, ivory and bone carving and basket making as a source of cash income.
Trade. Aboriginally there was a well-developed intersocietal trade network in North Alaska. It was based upon trading partnerships and implemented through two major Summer fairs and a system of winter feasts during both of which partners from different societies came together. The whole system was connected by similar links with Athapaskan Indian societies in the Alaskan interior, with other Eskimos in the Bering Strait area and southwestern Alaska, and with Eskimos and Chuckchees in easternmost Asia.
Division of Labor. Aboriginally there was a sharp division of labor based on gender. Men hunted big game, built houses, and manufactured weapons, tools, and utensils. Women looked after most game from the time it was killed: retrieving it, storing it, and performing whatever processing chores were required prior to ultimate consumption. Women also did the sewing and child rearing. Fishing, trapping, and hunting birds and small game were either men's work or women's work, with regional and seasonal variations in the precise allocation of duties. The traditional division of labor based on gender persisted with only a few modifications until the 1960s. Since then, although the pursuit of large game is still carried out Primarily by men, the great increase in the opportunities for local employment in teaching, government, and service industries has changed the primary basis of the division of labor to one's level of education and technical training rather than gender.
Land Tenure. Aboriginally, land ownership was vested at the societal level; it was owned in common by all the members of the society. Within the territory of a society, its members were free to live, hunt, and fish where they wished, subject only to the provision that people who first occupied a place had the primary right to use it until they abandoned it. There was no other private ownership of land, nor were there Individual or family hunting or fishing territories. Today land ownership in North Alaska follows the pattern that exists generally in the United States; the region is a patchwork of properties owned by individuals and corporations—much of it by native corporations established under ANCSA, local governments, the state of Alaska, and various agencies of the U.S. government. | <urn:uuid:9d51315a-1dd8-46d1-b14c-72c20b13ad3b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/North-Alaskan-Eskimos-Economy.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.982062 | 837 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.2127727568... | 2 | Subsistence and Commercial Activities. The entire economy was based on hunting and fishing and, to a much more moderate extent, on the gathering of plant products. Whales, seals, caribou, several species of fish, and a variety of fur-bearing animals, small game, and birds provided them with all the raw materials they needed for food and clothing and, to a significant extent, for tools, weapons, and utensils as well. Wood was used in house construction and in the manufacture of some weapons and tools; leaves, berries, and some roots were collected for food. Hunting, fishing, and gathering continue to be important sources of food today, but are significantly supplemented by foodstuffs imported from regions farther south. Gardening is carried on to a very Limited extent in a few villages where soil and summer weather conditions permit. Cash income is derived from welfare payments and by employment in a variety of private commercial enterprises—particularly in the oil, mining, and service industries—and government agencies. Traditionally, the only domesticated animals were large dogs. In winter they were used to pull sleds; in summer, to track boats along the seacoast and rivers and as pack animals. For about half a Century, beginning in the 1890s, imported reindeer were raised on a relatively large scale, but that industry has declined to only a few small herds today. Cats and dogs are now kept as pets; teams of sled dogs are kept only for racing.
Industrial Arts. The North Alaskan Eskimos were noted for the quality of their work in ivory and flint. Skin sewing was developed to a high level. Beautiful birchbark baskets were made in the southern interior. Except for work in flint, these traditional manufactures are perpetuated today, skin sewing primarily for personal or family use, ivory and bone carving and basket making as a source of cash income.
Trade. Aboriginally there was a well-developed intersocietal trade network in North Alaska. It was based upon trading partnerships and implemented through two major Summer fairs and a system of winter feasts during both of which partners from different societies came together. The whole system was connected by similar links with Athapaskan Indian societies in the Alaskan interior, with other Eskimos in the Bering Strait area and southwestern Alaska, and with Eskimos and Chuckchees in easternmost Asia.
Division of Labor. Aboriginally there was a sharp division of labor based on gender. Men hunted big game, built houses, and manufactured weapons, tools, and utensils. Women looked after most game from the time it was killed: retrieving it, storing it, and performing whatever processing chores were required prior to ultimate consumption. Women also did the sewing and child rearing. Fishing, trapping, and hunting birds and small game were either men's work or women's work, with regional and seasonal variations in the precise allocation of duties. The traditional division of labor based on gender persisted with only a few modifications until the 1960s. Since then, although the pursuit of large game is still carried out Primarily by men, the great increase in the opportunities for local employment in teaching, government, and service industries has changed the primary basis of the division of labor to one's level of education and technical training rather than gender.
Land Tenure. Aboriginally, land ownership was vested at the societal level; it was owned in common by all the members of the society. Within the territory of a society, its members were free to live, hunt, and fish where they wished, subject only to the provision that people who first occupied a place had the primary right to use it until they abandoned it. There was no other private ownership of land, nor were there Individual or family hunting or fishing territories. Today land ownership in North Alaska follows the pattern that exists generally in the United States; the region is a patchwork of properties owned by individuals and corporations—much of it by native corporations established under ANCSA, local governments, the state of Alaska, and various agencies of the U.S. government. | 829 | ENGLISH | 1 |
by Natura Naturans
Great Storm of 1703, UK.
While we soak in storm footage this week, imagine this storm!
Back when CO2 levels were ideal, the UK was hit by a monster nine-day storm: at least 8,000 dead, maybe as many as 15,000 people. Some 2,000 chimney stacks were blown down and 4,000 oak trees were lost in the New Forest alone. About 400 windmills were destroyed, with “the wind driving their wooden gears so fast that some burst into flames”. The worst toll was probably on ships — with some 6,000 sailors thought to be lost. As many as 700 ships were heaped together in the Pool of London, one ship was found 15 miles (24 km) inland. A ship torn from its moorings in the Helford River in Cornwall was blown for 200 miles (320 km) before grounding eight hours later on the Isle of Wight.
The storm uprooted thousands of trees; blew tiles from rooftops, which smashed windows in their paths; and flung ships from their moorings in the River Thames. A boat in Whitstable, Kent was blown 250m inland from the water’s edge.
As Britain slept, the wind lifted and dropped chimney stacks, killing people in their beds. It blew fish out of the ponds and onto the banks in London’s St James’s Park, beat birds to the ground and swept farm animals away to their deaths. Oaks collapsed and pieces of timber, iron and lead blasted through the streets. The gales blew a man into the air and over a hedge. A cow was blown into the high branches of a tree. Lightning kindled fires in Whitehall and Greenwich. From the hours of five in the morning until half past six, the storm roared at its strongest. It is thought between 8,000 and 15,000 people in total were killed.
At the time, the country was in the so-called Little Ice Age.
“It’s quite possible that the chilliness may well have contributed to the storm, but like all these things they are multi-causal,” says Wheeler. “Certainly as far as the British Isles were concerned, the 1680s and 1690s were arguably the coldest two decades since the ice retreated about 12,000 years ago.”
Nearly one third of the British Navy drowned
Close to a third of the entire British Navy were drowned during the storm, as ships were driven as much as 15 miles inland. Many ships disappeared forever. Others washed up on the shores of Denmark and Norway. | <urn:uuid:6b6bb66c-3222-4cc5-a84d-fecf4baba6b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.investmentwatchblog.com/worst-storm-ever-over-8000-people-killed-in-uk-extreme-storm-lasted-nine-days/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.984955 | 547 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.11806009709... | 3 | by Natura Naturans
Great Storm of 1703, UK.
While we soak in storm footage this week, imagine this storm!
Back when CO2 levels were ideal, the UK was hit by a monster nine-day storm: at least 8,000 dead, maybe as many as 15,000 people. Some 2,000 chimney stacks were blown down and 4,000 oak trees were lost in the New Forest alone. About 400 windmills were destroyed, with “the wind driving their wooden gears so fast that some burst into flames”. The worst toll was probably on ships — with some 6,000 sailors thought to be lost. As many as 700 ships were heaped together in the Pool of London, one ship was found 15 miles (24 km) inland. A ship torn from its moorings in the Helford River in Cornwall was blown for 200 miles (320 km) before grounding eight hours later on the Isle of Wight.
The storm uprooted thousands of trees; blew tiles from rooftops, which smashed windows in their paths; and flung ships from their moorings in the River Thames. A boat in Whitstable, Kent was blown 250m inland from the water’s edge.
As Britain slept, the wind lifted and dropped chimney stacks, killing people in their beds. It blew fish out of the ponds and onto the banks in London’s St James’s Park, beat birds to the ground and swept farm animals away to their deaths. Oaks collapsed and pieces of timber, iron and lead blasted through the streets. The gales blew a man into the air and over a hedge. A cow was blown into the high branches of a tree. Lightning kindled fires in Whitehall and Greenwich. From the hours of five in the morning until half past six, the storm roared at its strongest. It is thought between 8,000 and 15,000 people in total were killed.
At the time, the country was in the so-called Little Ice Age.
“It’s quite possible that the chilliness may well have contributed to the storm, but like all these things they are multi-causal,” says Wheeler. “Certainly as far as the British Isles were concerned, the 1680s and 1690s were arguably the coldest two decades since the ice retreated about 12,000 years ago.”
Nearly one third of the British Navy drowned
Close to a third of the entire British Navy were drowned during the storm, as ships were driven as much as 15 miles inland. Many ships disappeared forever. Others washed up on the shores of Denmark and Norway. | 574 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The play hamlet agrees with the character Hamlet because the play of itself was set in a time where women were viewed as weak and frail regardless of their status in society. That is exactly how the two main and only female characters Gertrude the queen of Denmark and Ophelia the love of Hamlets life were set up in the play to be portrayed.
It can be seen throughout the play how these women roles were set to portray them as weak and frail. Even though one is a queen which is Gertrude and the other is a princess Ophelia they don’t really have any stand in society and their voices are hardly ever heard amongst the men, their actions, faiths and even decisions are greatly influenced or made by men and their powers in their lives.
Even though these characters are not well developed throughout the play their actions and influences throughout the play are set to make them appear weak and frail. Gertrude the queen of Denmark whose husband the King of Denmark was killed by his brother Claudius unbeknownst to her; She then got remarried right after the death of her husband to said brother that had killed him fully knowing that this would affect her son who was next in line for the throne. Even though her son disapproved of the marriage to Claudius and tried to show her that it was him that killed her previous husband but because she had become so subservient to him she failed or refused to see or believe it until the end near her death The question in this case is why Gertrude couldn’t run the country of Denmark on her own why did she see the need to remarry so hastily after the death of her husband. Was it to the fact that she felt herself incompetent and inferior of running a country and that the people of Denmark wouldn’t respect her and the country would fall apart with her at the head of the throne or was it that she was so easily seduced and manipulated by her once brother-in-law into marriage or was it that simply for pacifying her loneliness and grief that she sought companionship even if it was from her own brother-in-law. After which she became subservient too and he in turn was only using her to get to the throne. Is Gertrude so frail a woman that she thinks the only way to live is within the shadows of a man?
Ophelia the daughter of Polonius the kings’ advisor, sister of Laertes and the love of hamlets life the other main female character within the play hamlet is portrayed… | <urn:uuid:c2a6467b-11ce-4071-ae14-688598928eaf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Hamlet-Marriage-And-Ophelia-600808.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.991652 | 529 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.1206542551517486... | 1 | The play hamlet agrees with the character Hamlet because the play of itself was set in a time where women were viewed as weak and frail regardless of their status in society. That is exactly how the two main and only female characters Gertrude the queen of Denmark and Ophelia the love of Hamlets life were set up in the play to be portrayed.
It can be seen throughout the play how these women roles were set to portray them as weak and frail. Even though one is a queen which is Gertrude and the other is a princess Ophelia they don’t really have any stand in society and their voices are hardly ever heard amongst the men, their actions, faiths and even decisions are greatly influenced or made by men and their powers in their lives.
Even though these characters are not well developed throughout the play their actions and influences throughout the play are set to make them appear weak and frail. Gertrude the queen of Denmark whose husband the King of Denmark was killed by his brother Claudius unbeknownst to her; She then got remarried right after the death of her husband to said brother that had killed him fully knowing that this would affect her son who was next in line for the throne. Even though her son disapproved of the marriage to Claudius and tried to show her that it was him that killed her previous husband but because she had become so subservient to him she failed or refused to see or believe it until the end near her death The question in this case is why Gertrude couldn’t run the country of Denmark on her own why did she see the need to remarry so hastily after the death of her husband. Was it to the fact that she felt herself incompetent and inferior of running a country and that the people of Denmark wouldn’t respect her and the country would fall apart with her at the head of the throne or was it that she was so easily seduced and manipulated by her once brother-in-law into marriage or was it that simply for pacifying her loneliness and grief that she sought companionship even if it was from her own brother-in-law. After which she became subservient too and he in turn was only using her to get to the throne. Is Gertrude so frail a woman that she thinks the only way to live is within the shadows of a man?
Ophelia the daughter of Polonius the kings’ advisor, sister of Laertes and the love of hamlets life the other main female character within the play hamlet is portrayed… | 510 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are three popular theories as to the origin of the terra-cotta warriors.
First, it was to protect Qin Shihuang’s rule and military power. Qin is a believer in feudal superstition. He believed in immortality, that people could enjoy what they had in another world even after they died. He wanted the army to protect and serve him after he died, just as it had served him during his lifetime. So, while he was alive, he spent a great deal of time and military effort searching for the “elixir of life”, and after his death built the massive terracotta army for his empire. At the site where the Terracotta Army was discovered, more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots, and 670 horses have been uncovered. Terracotta musicians, acrobats, and concubines have also been found.
Secondly, it is said that the terra-cotta warriors were built to show the glory of Qin Shihuang. He unified China and established one of the most powerful empires of his time. He was committed to showing China to the world and making sure that his descendants would remember him as a legend. So he built this terracotta army.
Third, the life-size statues are said to have been replaced by human sacrifices. In feudal society, leaders and soldiers were buried with them when they died. Early dynasties, such as the shang and zhou dynasties, had human sacrifices buried with deceased rulers. These offerings included soldiers, officials, slaves, and other attendants of a particular ruler. These items include jewelry, slaves, weapons, silks and satins. As an emperor, qin had grander sacrificial objects. | <urn:uuid:2f17da4b-d545-4d37-8da2-1acc245991c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.chinaexpeditiontours.com/blog/why-the-terracotta-army-was-made/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.992416 | 356 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.25440266728401184,... | 9 | There are three popular theories as to the origin of the terra-cotta warriors.
First, it was to protect Qin Shihuang’s rule and military power. Qin is a believer in feudal superstition. He believed in immortality, that people could enjoy what they had in another world even after they died. He wanted the army to protect and serve him after he died, just as it had served him during his lifetime. So, while he was alive, he spent a great deal of time and military effort searching for the “elixir of life”, and after his death built the massive terracotta army for his empire. At the site where the Terracotta Army was discovered, more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots, and 670 horses have been uncovered. Terracotta musicians, acrobats, and concubines have also been found.
Secondly, it is said that the terra-cotta warriors were built to show the glory of Qin Shihuang. He unified China and established one of the most powerful empires of his time. He was committed to showing China to the world and making sure that his descendants would remember him as a legend. So he built this terracotta army.
Third, the life-size statues are said to have been replaced by human sacrifices. In feudal society, leaders and soldiers were buried with them when they died. Early dynasties, such as the shang and zhou dynasties, had human sacrifices buried with deceased rulers. These offerings included soldiers, officials, slaves, and other attendants of a particular ruler. These items include jewelry, slaves, weapons, silks and satins. As an emperor, qin had grander sacrificial objects. | 357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Explaining what the Golden Age means as part of my World Facts and Knowledge learning towards the history of the world. The Golden Age as one of man's pinnacle of progress towards the modern life as we know it.
In any civilizations of the world, there will be a period where is reaches its peak and men of this time were also able to accomplish great things. One civilization that is well-known to have reached its peak period was called the “Golden Age of Greece”. This period is between 500 and 429 B.C. But what are man’s significant accomplishments which make this called such?
Before explaining, it is better understand the history of Greece during those times. At first, in early 5th century, the Persians had invaded Greece. But the Greece stood up and pushed the invaders out of their country.
The people who led this war were the Athenians. Because of this, the state of Athens became the richest and the most powerful state in Greece. And no other state had come to challenge the Athenians.
This is because, the Athenians had built the largest and the most advance fleet of ships in the entire Greece. The fleet is larger than the rest of fleets of all the states combined. This resulted to the drastic flow of wealth into Athens to which many are tributes coming from other states while others come from commerce and some comes from silver mines.
As Athens becomes the richest state, so does the rise of its population. At this point, the population of Athens increased four times. Along with all of this large population, power, prosperity and arts of Athens also flourished as never before seen in the entire history of mankind.
This age was called as the “Age of Pericles” after the wise leader of Athens. During this period, Athenians began constructing large buildings. New sorts of building designs emerge from the best building designers of Greece. One of these construction was the Parthenon, considered as one of the most beautiful and famous buildings in the world. During this time, well-known men had emerged to become important people in the history of mankind. These include Phidias, the great sculpture; Socrates, the great teacher; and Sophocles and Euripides, the great playwrights who wrote some of the world’s greatest play.
At the same time, every Greek was encouraged to help make Athens the most beautiful state in the entire world. This resulted in many masterpiece and arts created by many men. Because of the great deal of wealth and power, the people of Athens also created various forms of leisure. This resulted to its people’s more interest in both the intellectual and cultural aspects of life to which no other society had done before or since.
In later part of the 5th century, war broke down between Greece and Sparta together with their allies. The Athenian way of life began to decline and the “Golden Age” had ended. But, up to this day, many treasures, masterpieces, and works of art had influence the whole world was made during the “Golden Age”.
Read the underlying article to know about the first invasion of Greece by the Persian King Xersis. Hope the material will prove to be useful for you..
A visit to the Neamt Citadel is like a journey back into the fascinating and agitated history of the Romanian province of Moldavia..
Raid on Scarborough, was attack by german navy on Scarborough. Read the below given article to know about it in detail.. | <urn:uuid:07f1d53b-bf8d-48f0-bebc-1182d433c0c6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/explaining-meaning-golden-age | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00531.warc.gz | en | 0.982259 | 722 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.4700064659118... | 1 | Explaining what the Golden Age means as part of my World Facts and Knowledge learning towards the history of the world. The Golden Age as one of man's pinnacle of progress towards the modern life as we know it.
In any civilizations of the world, there will be a period where is reaches its peak and men of this time were also able to accomplish great things. One civilization that is well-known to have reached its peak period was called the “Golden Age of Greece”. This period is between 500 and 429 B.C. But what are man’s significant accomplishments which make this called such?
Before explaining, it is better understand the history of Greece during those times. At first, in early 5th century, the Persians had invaded Greece. But the Greece stood up and pushed the invaders out of their country.
The people who led this war were the Athenians. Because of this, the state of Athens became the richest and the most powerful state in Greece. And no other state had come to challenge the Athenians.
This is because, the Athenians had built the largest and the most advance fleet of ships in the entire Greece. The fleet is larger than the rest of fleets of all the states combined. This resulted to the drastic flow of wealth into Athens to which many are tributes coming from other states while others come from commerce and some comes from silver mines.
As Athens becomes the richest state, so does the rise of its population. At this point, the population of Athens increased four times. Along with all of this large population, power, prosperity and arts of Athens also flourished as never before seen in the entire history of mankind.
This age was called as the “Age of Pericles” after the wise leader of Athens. During this period, Athenians began constructing large buildings. New sorts of building designs emerge from the best building designers of Greece. One of these construction was the Parthenon, considered as one of the most beautiful and famous buildings in the world. During this time, well-known men had emerged to become important people in the history of mankind. These include Phidias, the great sculpture; Socrates, the great teacher; and Sophocles and Euripides, the great playwrights who wrote some of the world’s greatest play.
At the same time, every Greek was encouraged to help make Athens the most beautiful state in the entire world. This resulted in many masterpiece and arts created by many men. Because of the great deal of wealth and power, the people of Athens also created various forms of leisure. This resulted to its people’s more interest in both the intellectual and cultural aspects of life to which no other society had done before or since.
In later part of the 5th century, war broke down between Greece and Sparta together with their allies. The Athenian way of life began to decline and the “Golden Age” had ended. But, up to this day, many treasures, masterpieces, and works of art had influence the whole world was made during the “Golden Age”.
Read the underlying article to know about the first invasion of Greece by the Persian King Xersis. Hope the material will prove to be useful for you..
A visit to the Neamt Citadel is like a journey back into the fascinating and agitated history of the Romanian province of Moldavia..
Raid on Scarborough, was attack by german navy on Scarborough. Read the below given article to know about it in detail.. | 702 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Stephen Crane (November 1, 1871 – June 5, 1900) was an American author. Prolific throughout his short life, he wrote notable works in the Realist tradition as well as early examples of American Naturalism and Impressionism. He is recognized by modern critics as one of the most innovative writers of his generation.
The eighth surviving child of Protestant Methodist parents, Crane began writing at the age of four and had published several articles by the age of 16. Having little interest in university studies, he left college in 1891 to work as a reporter and writer. Crane's first novel was the 1893 Bowery tale Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, generally considered by critics to be the first work of American literary Naturalism. He won international acclaim in 1895 for his Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage, which he wrote without having any battle experience. | <urn:uuid:d9df3fe3-c484-42ad-83cd-804fe4c1e2e2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bookrix.de/_ebook-stephen-crane-active-service-4/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.987714 | 176 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.1079668253660... | 1 | Stephen Crane (November 1, 1871 – June 5, 1900) was an American author. Prolific throughout his short life, he wrote notable works in the Realist tradition as well as early examples of American Naturalism and Impressionism. He is recognized by modern critics as one of the most innovative writers of his generation.
The eighth surviving child of Protestant Methodist parents, Crane began writing at the age of four and had published several articles by the age of 16. Having little interest in university studies, he left college in 1891 to work as a reporter and writer. Crane's first novel was the 1893 Bowery tale Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, generally considered by critics to be the first work of American literary Naturalism. He won international acclaim in 1895 for his Civil War novel The Red Badge of Courage, which he wrote without having any battle experience. | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Does Dialogue Reveal Aspects About One's Character?
Dialogue is very important when defining a character. Dialogue between characters can help reveal what one character thinks of another or the thoughts and emotions of a character at a specific time. Dialogue can also cause actions to be made. This essay will analyze how dialogue helps reveal aspects of the characters in "The Diary of Anne Frank."
In "The Diary of Anne Frank" the dialogue between Anne Frank and Peter shows aspects about their characters. When they first talked, it was revealed that Peter actually already knew a bit about Anne. They also touched on their opinions on the Star of David. Peter dislikes the star, calling it something that they were "branded with." It might show how he dislikes being Jewish or the people who force him to wear something that deems him as "something they spit on." Anne however shows how she likes the Star of David. She shows this when she says she couldn't get rid of it even with the negative connotation it came with at the time. In scene 3, which is 2 months later, when Anne steals Peter's shoes, he teased her. He referenced a time back in school where the teacher made her write a composition because she was talking so much and got the nickname "Mrs. Quack Quack." Anne reacts to this by being outraged and saying, "You are the most intolerable, insufferable, boy I've ever met." The dialogue shows how much Peter and Anne have grown to dislike each other now. From this dialogue, we can also see that Anne is a talkative person, and thus probably has an energetic personality. We can also see how Peter dislikes it when Anne messes around with his things, which shows how protective he is of his things as well as how shy and quiet of a person he usually is until provoked. So that's how the dialogue reveals aspects about Peter and Anne in "The Diary of Anne Frank," but other characters also have aspects about their character revealed through dialogue.
In "The Diary of Anne Frank" the dialogue interactions between Anne and her mother show aspects about their characters. Anne's mother seems to believe that Margot is a "better version" of Anne and because of that, Anne feels second rate compared to her "perfect sister." Whenever Anne's mother talks to Margot, she listens. Margot also basically never gets in trouble. Anne however gets in trouble a lot with her mother and the Van Daans. This could lead to Anne envying or being jealous of Margot. We can see this happen when Anne has an outburst after her mother kept telling her to be like Margot. Anne states, "Everything she does is right, and everything I do is wrong!...You're all against me! And you worst of all!" This shows how Anne is annoyed of being compared to Margot and being ridiculed for doing what she wants. She also references her mother as the "worst of all." This shows that currently, Anne hates her mother the most out of everyone living there. With her hating her mother but being trapped with her for who knows how long, it's going to lead to many bad consequences. So that's how the dialogue reveals aspects about Anne, Peter, and Anne's mother in "The Diary of Anne Frank," but other characters also have aspects about their character revealed through dialogue.
In "The Diary of Anne Frank" the dialogue interactions between Mr. Van Daan and Anne show aspects about their characters. Mr. Van Daan seems to dislike Anne from him complaining about how much she talks, how she isn't as quiet as her sister, and how ill-mannered she is. Mr. Van Daan also points out how her personality doesn't match a " proper girl" in his eyes. He also complains about her actions as well as makes fun of her dream. From these acts, one could assume that he usually has a grumpy personality and is usually on edge. We can also see that Mr. Van Daan doesn't like it when people disobey him, which doesn't work well with Anne's energetic personality and her current rebellious state with her mother. From the conversations between Mr. Van Daan and Anne, we can also see that Anne aspires to go to Paris and become a dancer or singer, though the way it's phrased lacks certainty and shows how Anne is still indecisive about what she wants to do in the future. Her thinking about the future while ignoring the fact that she is living in terrible conditions where she could be killed at any time shows that she is really hopeful that she is going to live or is just very ignorant. So that's how the dialogue reveals aspects about Anne, Peter, Anne's mother, and Mr. Van Daan in "The Diary of Anne Frank."
In conclusion, that's how the dialogue interactions between Anne, Peter, Mr. Van Daan, and Anne's mother show aspects about their characters. The dialogue between Anne and Peter reveal their thoughts about the Star of David, some character traits, and reveal some backstory of Anne. The dialogue between Mr. Van Daan and Anne show how the current interactions with the Van Daans are going and how they are functioning living together now. The dialogue between Anne's Mother and Anne show the current state of their own family and shows what the impact of the war and having to deal with being compared to someone "better" than her does. So that's how the dialogue in "The Diary of Anne Frank" helped reveal aspects about the characters. After hearing what Anne has been through, does she deserve to be detested for trying to have a little bit of fun or does she deserve to be let off the hook sometimes?
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0.149415388703... | 1 | How Does Dialogue Reveal Aspects About One's Character?
Dialogue is very important when defining a character. Dialogue between characters can help reveal what one character thinks of another or the thoughts and emotions of a character at a specific time. Dialogue can also cause actions to be made. This essay will analyze how dialogue helps reveal aspects of the characters in "The Diary of Anne Frank."
In "The Diary of Anne Frank" the dialogue between Anne Frank and Peter shows aspects about their characters. When they first talked, it was revealed that Peter actually already knew a bit about Anne. They also touched on their opinions on the Star of David. Peter dislikes the star, calling it something that they were "branded with." It might show how he dislikes being Jewish or the people who force him to wear something that deems him as "something they spit on." Anne however shows how she likes the Star of David. She shows this when she says she couldn't get rid of it even with the negative connotation it came with at the time. In scene 3, which is 2 months later, when Anne steals Peter's shoes, he teased her. He referenced a time back in school where the teacher made her write a composition because she was talking so much and got the nickname "Mrs. Quack Quack." Anne reacts to this by being outraged and saying, "You are the most intolerable, insufferable, boy I've ever met." The dialogue shows how much Peter and Anne have grown to dislike each other now. From this dialogue, we can also see that Anne is a talkative person, and thus probably has an energetic personality. We can also see how Peter dislikes it when Anne messes around with his things, which shows how protective he is of his things as well as how shy and quiet of a person he usually is until provoked. So that's how the dialogue reveals aspects about Peter and Anne in "The Diary of Anne Frank," but other characters also have aspects about their character revealed through dialogue.
In "The Diary of Anne Frank" the dialogue interactions between Anne and her mother show aspects about their characters. Anne's mother seems to believe that Margot is a "better version" of Anne and because of that, Anne feels second rate compared to her "perfect sister." Whenever Anne's mother talks to Margot, she listens. Margot also basically never gets in trouble. Anne however gets in trouble a lot with her mother and the Van Daans. This could lead to Anne envying or being jealous of Margot. We can see this happen when Anne has an outburst after her mother kept telling her to be like Margot. Anne states, "Everything she does is right, and everything I do is wrong!...You're all against me! And you worst of all!" This shows how Anne is annoyed of being compared to Margot and being ridiculed for doing what she wants. She also references her mother as the "worst of all." This shows that currently, Anne hates her mother the most out of everyone living there. With her hating her mother but being trapped with her for who knows how long, it's going to lead to many bad consequences. So that's how the dialogue reveals aspects about Anne, Peter, and Anne's mother in "The Diary of Anne Frank," but other characters also have aspects about their character revealed through dialogue.
In "The Diary of Anne Frank" the dialogue interactions between Mr. Van Daan and Anne show aspects about their characters. Mr. Van Daan seems to dislike Anne from him complaining about how much she talks, how she isn't as quiet as her sister, and how ill-mannered she is. Mr. Van Daan also points out how her personality doesn't match a " proper girl" in his eyes. He also complains about her actions as well as makes fun of her dream. From these acts, one could assume that he usually has a grumpy personality and is usually on edge. We can also see that Mr. Van Daan doesn't like it when people disobey him, which doesn't work well with Anne's energetic personality and her current rebellious state with her mother. From the conversations between Mr. Van Daan and Anne, we can also see that Anne aspires to go to Paris and become a dancer or singer, though the way it's phrased lacks certainty and shows how Anne is still indecisive about what she wants to do in the future. Her thinking about the future while ignoring the fact that she is living in terrible conditions where she could be killed at any time shows that she is really hopeful that she is going to live or is just very ignorant. So that's how the dialogue reveals aspects about Anne, Peter, Anne's mother, and Mr. Van Daan in "The Diary of Anne Frank."
In conclusion, that's how the dialogue interactions between Anne, Peter, Mr. Van Daan, and Anne's mother show aspects about their characters. The dialogue between Anne and Peter reveal their thoughts about the Star of David, some character traits, and reveal some backstory of Anne. The dialogue between Mr. Van Daan and Anne show how the current interactions with the Van Daans are going and how they are functioning living together now. The dialogue between Anne's Mother and Anne show the current state of their own family and shows what the impact of the war and having to deal with being compared to someone "better" than her does. So that's how the dialogue in "The Diary of Anne Frank" helped reveal aspects about the characters. After hearing what Anne has been through, does she deserve to be detested for trying to have a little bit of fun or does she deserve to be let off the hook sometimes?
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- Why People Should Stop Smoking | 1,240 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the period from 1880 to 1905, and way before Marcus Garvey in 1919, there was an effort for blacks to leave the United States and settle in Mexico. Most of the African efforts failed, in part, because the organizers failed to understand that Africans are not one ethnic group. Africa has hundreds and hundreds of various ethnic groups and languages and with many different religions including Christian, Muslim, and animal and water spirit customs. Additionally, most of these African ethnic societies fought each other, and are still doing so, and before the advent of the African slave trade never identified themselves as “black.” In fact, most identified themselves by their tribal and ethnic group and just like European ethnic groups (Angles and Saxons) they fought each other for dominance in their particular region. Today, many Africans do not even call themselves African, as in many places (Nigeria for an example). Africans fought each other and when they could trade slaves for guns with the Europeans they did so; these were the divide and conquer methods of colonialism. European slave owners took advantage of the ethnic conflicts that were already going on ages before they arrived in Africa.
The same thing happened in America as various Native American tribes fought each other before the arrival of Columbus, but the European colonial powers took advantage of this and used one tribe against another with the intent of killing or conquering them all. This same colonial method was used in Africa. In San Antonio, a man by the name of W.H. Ellis had a different idea. He proposed moving thousands of African Americans to Mexico, which was closer and had a history of being friendly to black folk ever since the days of Vicente Guerrero (Mexico’s only black president) and Santa Anna’s war against Anglo slave owners. In fact, William Ellis led approximately 800 African Americans to settle in Mexico in the area known as Tlahualilo, Mexico in the state of Durango in February of 1895. Hundreds of blacks left Alabama and Georgia and were sent off by cheering crowds in across various cities along the way. After they traveled hundreds of miles they finally crossed the border at Eagle Pass (Piedras Negras, Mexico). This train caravan most likely passed through San Antonio, as W.H. Ellis had an office in San Antonio and was related to the only black doctor in the area named Greene Starnes. Starnes was a resident of San Antonio in the 1880s and may have been the first black doctor in San Antonio.
W.H. Ellis was born in Victoria, Texas and was a slave as a child. He became fluent in Spanish and because of his complexion was able to be accepted by the people of Mexico.He was multi-cultural and was able to navigate his way around the racist structures and Jim Crow law in the United States. Having some wealth, Ellis actually had offices in New York, Mexico City, and San Antonio. Unfortunately, Ellis’ migration plan was short lived, but his efforts had long lasting effects. Many of those African Americans from the South, including some from San Antonio, stayed in Mexico and now only speak Spanish. Their ancestors still live in Mexico and can tell the story of how these families escaped the racist confines of Jim Crow law in the United States. The concept of leaving the land of racism was hatched way back in the 1700s and by 1854 was a project by several African Americans. W.H. Ellis was a pioneer in these efforts and was more successful than Marcus Garvey in many ways. | <urn:uuid:4af7fb9c-c7b0-4f40-888c-01cb1547b8d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.saobserver.com/single-post/2019/03/05/Black-Migration-to-Mexico | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00525.warc.gz | en | 0.985469 | 710 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.229665011... | 2 | During the period from 1880 to 1905, and way before Marcus Garvey in 1919, there was an effort for blacks to leave the United States and settle in Mexico. Most of the African efforts failed, in part, because the organizers failed to understand that Africans are not one ethnic group. Africa has hundreds and hundreds of various ethnic groups and languages and with many different religions including Christian, Muslim, and animal and water spirit customs. Additionally, most of these African ethnic societies fought each other, and are still doing so, and before the advent of the African slave trade never identified themselves as “black.” In fact, most identified themselves by their tribal and ethnic group and just like European ethnic groups (Angles and Saxons) they fought each other for dominance in their particular region. Today, many Africans do not even call themselves African, as in many places (Nigeria for an example). Africans fought each other and when they could trade slaves for guns with the Europeans they did so; these were the divide and conquer methods of colonialism. European slave owners took advantage of the ethnic conflicts that were already going on ages before they arrived in Africa.
The same thing happened in America as various Native American tribes fought each other before the arrival of Columbus, but the European colonial powers took advantage of this and used one tribe against another with the intent of killing or conquering them all. This same colonial method was used in Africa. In San Antonio, a man by the name of W.H. Ellis had a different idea. He proposed moving thousands of African Americans to Mexico, which was closer and had a history of being friendly to black folk ever since the days of Vicente Guerrero (Mexico’s only black president) and Santa Anna’s war against Anglo slave owners. In fact, William Ellis led approximately 800 African Americans to settle in Mexico in the area known as Tlahualilo, Mexico in the state of Durango in February of 1895. Hundreds of blacks left Alabama and Georgia and were sent off by cheering crowds in across various cities along the way. After they traveled hundreds of miles they finally crossed the border at Eagle Pass (Piedras Negras, Mexico). This train caravan most likely passed through San Antonio, as W.H. Ellis had an office in San Antonio and was related to the only black doctor in the area named Greene Starnes. Starnes was a resident of San Antonio in the 1880s and may have been the first black doctor in San Antonio.
W.H. Ellis was born in Victoria, Texas and was a slave as a child. He became fluent in Spanish and because of his complexion was able to be accepted by the people of Mexico.He was multi-cultural and was able to navigate his way around the racist structures and Jim Crow law in the United States. Having some wealth, Ellis actually had offices in New York, Mexico City, and San Antonio. Unfortunately, Ellis’ migration plan was short lived, but his efforts had long lasting effects. Many of those African Americans from the South, including some from San Antonio, stayed in Mexico and now only speak Spanish. Their ancestors still live in Mexico and can tell the story of how these families escaped the racist confines of Jim Crow law in the United States. The concept of leaving the land of racism was hatched way back in the 1700s and by 1854 was a project by several African Americans. W.H. Ellis was a pioneer in these efforts and was more successful than Marcus Garvey in many ways. | 725 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Protestant Reformation
The single most printed book following the creation of the printing press in the middle of the 15th Century (and indeed, the most printed book in history) was the Holy Bible. Bibles began to become more available and were being printed in the languages that the people spoke, rather than just in Latin. Many now had the opportunity to read the Bible for themselves for the first time. As a result, vastly more people began to have access to religous text and began to see differences between what they read and what was practiced in the Catholic Church. Influential religous leaders and scholars such as Girolamo Savanarola, Martin Luther, John Calvin and Henry VIII drastically changed the European landscape at this time.
Some of the problems that reformers found with the Catholic Church included the following:
The Sale of Indulgences. The Church sold indulgences, which were essentially forgiveness from sin, for money. It began with people paying their way out of purgatory, but eventually evolved into paying for sins not yet committed and then to paying for the sins of deceased ancestors to free them from purgatory.
Chritianity looked different all throughout Europe. To a large degree, this was because no one understood theteachings of the Bible, as many of the sermons and religious texts were not in the language that people spoke. As a result, no one was really sure exactly what it was to be Christian, other than just following what their local priest said.
The best religious jobs were often sold to the highest bidder or given to representatives from wealthy families. As a result, many priests did not know much about Christianity, and did not live according to its precepts. As a result, people were taught many different things. Some of those things were contrary to much of what was written in the Bible.
In 1515, the Pope began a new indulgence campaign throughout all of Christendom to raise money to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. A German monk named Martin Luther took exception to this, among other things and nailed 95 complaints about the current Church to the door of the Castle Church at Wittenberg in protest. Thus began the Protestant Reformation.
A 1530 woodcut Jörg Breu the Elder of Augsburg depicting the Sale of Indulgences.
Key Figures of the Reformation
Click on the pictures for more information and assignments. | <urn:uuid:75cba830-8e4e-4aa4-85cd-35888001b322> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mrberrigan.com/protestant-reform | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00170.warc.gz | en | 0.983218 | 498 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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The single most printed book following the creation of the printing press in the middle of the 15th Century (and indeed, the most printed book in history) was the Holy Bible. Bibles began to become more available and were being printed in the languages that the people spoke, rather than just in Latin. Many now had the opportunity to read the Bible for themselves for the first time. As a result, vastly more people began to have access to religous text and began to see differences between what they read and what was practiced in the Catholic Church. Influential religous leaders and scholars such as Girolamo Savanarola, Martin Luther, John Calvin and Henry VIII drastically changed the European landscape at this time.
Some of the problems that reformers found with the Catholic Church included the following:
The Sale of Indulgences. The Church sold indulgences, which were essentially forgiveness from sin, for money. It began with people paying their way out of purgatory, but eventually evolved into paying for sins not yet committed and then to paying for the sins of deceased ancestors to free them from purgatory.
Chritianity looked different all throughout Europe. To a large degree, this was because no one understood theteachings of the Bible, as many of the sermons and religious texts were not in the language that people spoke. As a result, no one was really sure exactly what it was to be Christian, other than just following what their local priest said.
The best religious jobs were often sold to the highest bidder or given to representatives from wealthy families. As a result, many priests did not know much about Christianity, and did not live according to its precepts. As a result, people were taught many different things. Some of those things were contrary to much of what was written in the Bible.
In 1515, the Pope began a new indulgence campaign throughout all of Christendom to raise money to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. A German monk named Martin Luther took exception to this, among other things and nailed 95 complaints about the current Church to the door of the Castle Church at Wittenberg in protest. Thus began the Protestant Reformation.
A 1530 woodcut Jörg Breu the Elder of Augsburg depicting the Sale of Indulgences.
Key Figures of the Reformation
Click on the pictures for more information and assignments. | 498 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Raman also contributed to the establishment of the Indian Academy of Sciences. He served it as the President since its origin. Raman’s areas of research interest were optics and acoustics. He dedicated his entire career to them. In 1922, Raman first published his work on the ‘Molecular Diffraction of Light’, the first of a series of his investigations which led him to his landmark discovery—the Raman Effect—in 1928. His other interests include optics of colloids, electrical and magnetic anisotropy and physiology of human vision.
C.V. Raman had to his credit a number of awards and prizes, including the Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award of India. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1954 and with the Lenin Prize in 1957. Besides, he had been honoured with a large number of honorary doctorates and memberships of scientific societies. As a mark of honor to Raman’s discovery in 1928, India celebrates 28th February as National Science Day every year. This great genius of India passed away on 21 November, 1970. | <urn:uuid:f121e434-5733-4574-9a19-76159b60afd7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/essay-on-the-biography-of-chandrasekhar-raman-a-great-genius/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00291.warc.gz | en | 0.985552 | 228 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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C.V. Raman had to his credit a number of awards and prizes, including the Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award of India. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1954 and with the Lenin Prize in 1957. Besides, he had been honoured with a large number of honorary doctorates and memberships of scientific societies. As a mark of honor to Raman’s discovery in 1928, India celebrates 28th February as National Science Day every year. This great genius of India passed away on 21 November, 1970. | 243 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lee's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel To Kill a Mockingbird has remained enormously popular since its publication in 1960. Recalling her experiences as a six-year-old from an adult perspective, Jean Louise Finch, nicknamed "Scout," describes the circumstances involving her widowed father, Atticus, and his legal defense of Tom Robinson, a local black man falsely accused of raping a white woman. In the three years surrounding the trial, Scout and her older brother, Jem, witness the unjust consequences of prejudice and hate while at the same time witnessing the values of courage and integrity through their father's example. Lee's first and only novel, To Kill a Mockingbird was published during the Civil Rights movement and was hailed as an exposé of Southern racist society. The heroic character of Atticus Finch has been held up as a role model of moral virtue and impeccable character for lawyers to emulate. To Kill a Mockingbird has endured as a mainstay on high school and college reading lists. It was adapted to film in 1962 as a major motion picture starring Gregory Peck.
Plot and Major Characters.
To Kill a Mockingbird is set in the small, rural town of Maycomb, Alabama, during the early 1930s. The character of Atticus Finch, Scout's father, was based on Lee's own father, a liberal Alabama lawyer and statesman who frequently defended African Americans within the racially prejudiced Southern legal system. Scout and her brother Jem are raised by their father and by Calpurnia, an African-American housekeeper who works for the family. Scout and Jem meet and befriend seven-year-old Dill Harris, a boy who has arrived in Maycomb to stay with his aunt for the summer. Lee has stated that the character of Dill is based on young Truman Capote, a well-known Southern writer and childhood friend. Together with Dill, Scout and Jem make a game of observing "Boo" Radley, a town recluse who has remained inside his house for fifteen years, trying to provoke him to come outside. | <urn:uuid:75c3b86c-c3d5-44ce-af5b-4980620a883f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/219369.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00402.warc.gz | en | 0.982764 | 417 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.138470634818... | 7 | Lee's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel To Kill a Mockingbird has remained enormously popular since its publication in 1960. Recalling her experiences as a six-year-old from an adult perspective, Jean Louise Finch, nicknamed "Scout," describes the circumstances involving her widowed father, Atticus, and his legal defense of Tom Robinson, a local black man falsely accused of raping a white woman. In the three years surrounding the trial, Scout and her older brother, Jem, witness the unjust consequences of prejudice and hate while at the same time witnessing the values of courage and integrity through their father's example. Lee's first and only novel, To Kill a Mockingbird was published during the Civil Rights movement and was hailed as an exposé of Southern racist society. The heroic character of Atticus Finch has been held up as a role model of moral virtue and impeccable character for lawyers to emulate. To Kill a Mockingbird has endured as a mainstay on high school and college reading lists. It was adapted to film in 1962 as a major motion picture starring Gregory Peck.
Plot and Major Characters.
To Kill a Mockingbird is set in the small, rural town of Maycomb, Alabama, during the early 1930s. The character of Atticus Finch, Scout's father, was based on Lee's own father, a liberal Alabama lawyer and statesman who frequently defended African Americans within the racially prejudiced Southern legal system. Scout and her brother Jem are raised by their father and by Calpurnia, an African-American housekeeper who works for the family. Scout and Jem meet and befriend seven-year-old Dill Harris, a boy who has arrived in Maycomb to stay with his aunt for the summer. Lee has stated that the character of Dill is based on young Truman Capote, a well-known Southern writer and childhood friend. Together with Dill, Scout and Jem make a game of observing "Boo" Radley, a town recluse who has remained inside his house for fifteen years, trying to provoke him to come outside. | 428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For the purposes of introduction, the gramophone and the phonograph have been considered a single invention since the former evolved out of the latter to eventually replace it. Both were inscribing, groove based systems. The gramophone/phonograph was the keystone innovation on which the record industry was invented.
A good place to begin an exploration of the technological development of the record and the industry it spawned is in the early 1860s. This was when a Frenchman named Leon Scott, working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, Massachusetts), came up with a device called a phonautograph for tracing vocal patterns.
A thin hog’s bristle quill was attached to the centre of a compliant diaphragm at the back of a tapered horn that concentrated the sound. The other end of the quill was a sharp fine point. A piece of smoked glass would travel past the point as a sound entered the horn causing a wavy line that corresponded to the sound vibrations to be scratched into the soot.
A later version of the device positioned the stylus against a cylinder of heavy paper coated with soot. The cylinder was rotated by hand, and if someone shouted into the horn, an image of the vibrations were captured on the paper. There was no provision to manufacture Leon Scott’s device as it was not a marketable product aside from its scientific applications, but it did point the way towards later invention.
In 1877 a French inventor, Charles Cros, proposed the Phono-Graphos. He never had the money to build his idea, but it was much closer to what would become the gramophone. Cros described a method for recording on a round flat glass plate. He also suggested a means of playback. Like Scott, Cros failed to commercialize his idea because he could not see a wide market for the Phono-Graphos.
By the 1860s, telegraph and Morse code had become widely used. Two major problems were that the messages could not be stored and they could not be transmitted very far without requiring the weak signal to be listened to, copied and repeated by an operator.
One of these young telegraph operators was Thomas Edison. In the late 1860s, he figured out that you could take a magnetically actuated stylus and vibrate it up and down to emboss a waxed paper disc.
To repeat the indented message, the disc was flipped over so that the indented dots and dashes were now seen as a series of bumps of two different lengths. A “playback” stylus rode over the bumps, and, as it moved up and down, would make contact with a switch that repeated the original message.
This was the first of a long line of commercially successful inventions by Edison, whose inventiveness was only matched by his ability to develop his ideas into commercial products.
One day he heard his telegraph repeater operating at high speed and noted it sounded somewhat like music (Edison was not a particularly musical person). He took the same horn and membrane type “microphone” that Scott had invented and mounted it on a screw mechanism. This was made to travel across a revolving cylinder that had been wrapped in tin foil. When he cranked the cylinder and talked loudly into the horn a continuous groove was embossed which represented the sound.
He then took the cylinder and played it back on a similar mechanism with a lighter and more compliant stylus and diaphragm. The first working model of the phonograph used an up and down motion called “hill and dale” recording and was patented in December 1877. Edison’s first recorded words to himself were “Mary had a little lamb”.
The quick success of his invention had as much to do with his marketing genius as it did with its ability to record and playback sound. Edison believed the phonograph would be used for archival purposes, not as a means of playing distributed duplicates. He wrote:
“We will be able to preserve and hear again, one year or one century later a memorable speech, a worthy tribute, a famous singer, etc… We could use it in a more private manner: to preserve religiously the last words of a dying man, the voice of one who has died, of a distant parent, a lover, a mistress.”
Within the scientific intellectual community, the phonograph was seen as a means of preserving truth and maintaining cultural stability. A prominent magazine of the time, The Electrical Review (1888), speculated:
“Had Beethoven possessed a phonograph the musical world would not be left to the uncertainties of metronomic indications which we may interpret wrongly, and which at best we have but feeble suggestions; while Mozart, who had not even a metronome, might have saved his admirers many a squabble by giving the exact fashion in which he wished his symphonies to be played.”
In 1887 Edison licensed to Jesse Lippincott to franchise the phonograph as a dictating machine. He went about setting up 33 franchises across the U.S. All went bankrupt pursuing this misconception of application, except for the District of Columbia franchise, incorporated in 1889 by Edward Easton as the Washington D.C. franchise of the Jesse Lippincott’s North American Phonograph Company.
It was one of 33 franchises set up to lease and service phonographs. All of them failed with the exception of the D.C. franchise. The D.C. operation quickly realized that the device was not suitable for dictating when, after renting a hundred units to Congress, got all of them back because they were evaluated as unsuitable for Hansard purposes.
The only precursor of the record’s ultimate commercial success was the common practice to use the voice to demonstrate the quality of the recordings. Naturally, a few demonstrations were sung, and of course some instrumental accompaniment was added. By and large, however, the first companies involved in phonographs saw the device as a business machine. It was seen as a tool for documentation, dictation and sound analysis for historical and scientific purposes and office, court, and hospital reporting.
The phonograph was soon being used by researchers for anthropological and cultural field studies to document the oral histories and ceremonies of indigenous people. Some of the earliest phonograph recordings of indigenous people’s oral histories and ceremonies were done of the Torres Strait Islanders.
Many publications speculated on how it might have been if there had been a recording available of great events of the past and how in the future there would be such recordings. There were also descriptions of famous people making mistakes and these too became part of the record. There was also speculation that in decades to come, sound production would allow the removal of anything undesirable.
Unfortunately, the anticipated market had several problems with the device’s capabilities. The amount of time that could be recorded on each cylinder was very limited.
The recording and playback machine, out of technological necessity, evolved into different machines to optimize performance thus eliminating the notion that one machine could do both. The machines were so bulky that portability was out of the question.
Other Edison licensees began commercializing cylinder phonographs in other applications more suitable to exploit the features of the phonograph, and the Washington D.C. franchise followed suit. A market grew in amusement arcades, carnivals, amusement parks, and nickelodeons and in other public and semi-public establishments.
In a considerably less noble application, the phonograph would find a market in whorehouses. Recorded music became a common backdrop for amorous endeavour.
Although there were probably many times when the privacy of a theatre box provided a place for discrete interludes accompanied by music, and just as likely the hedonist might occasionally find a piano player in the salon of their favorite whore house, but a client needed to be a bit of an exhibitionist to perform while a live musician chorused him on. Records provided music without the musician thus eliminating a physical presence and a source of inhibition. | <urn:uuid:31380df7-dc1b-4d7c-a31e-c3e04cda6a26> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.prosoundweb.com/the-invention-of-the-phonograph-from-early-recordings-to-modern-time/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.980881 | 1,659 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.0716129317879... | 2 | For the purposes of introduction, the gramophone and the phonograph have been considered a single invention since the former evolved out of the latter to eventually replace it. Both were inscribing, groove based systems. The gramophone/phonograph was the keystone innovation on which the record industry was invented.
A good place to begin an exploration of the technological development of the record and the industry it spawned is in the early 1860s. This was when a Frenchman named Leon Scott, working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, Massachusetts), came up with a device called a phonautograph for tracing vocal patterns.
A thin hog’s bristle quill was attached to the centre of a compliant diaphragm at the back of a tapered horn that concentrated the sound. The other end of the quill was a sharp fine point. A piece of smoked glass would travel past the point as a sound entered the horn causing a wavy line that corresponded to the sound vibrations to be scratched into the soot.
A later version of the device positioned the stylus against a cylinder of heavy paper coated with soot. The cylinder was rotated by hand, and if someone shouted into the horn, an image of the vibrations were captured on the paper. There was no provision to manufacture Leon Scott’s device as it was not a marketable product aside from its scientific applications, but it did point the way towards later invention.
In 1877 a French inventor, Charles Cros, proposed the Phono-Graphos. He never had the money to build his idea, but it was much closer to what would become the gramophone. Cros described a method for recording on a round flat glass plate. He also suggested a means of playback. Like Scott, Cros failed to commercialize his idea because he could not see a wide market for the Phono-Graphos.
By the 1860s, telegraph and Morse code had become widely used. Two major problems were that the messages could not be stored and they could not be transmitted very far without requiring the weak signal to be listened to, copied and repeated by an operator.
One of these young telegraph operators was Thomas Edison. In the late 1860s, he figured out that you could take a magnetically actuated stylus and vibrate it up and down to emboss a waxed paper disc.
To repeat the indented message, the disc was flipped over so that the indented dots and dashes were now seen as a series of bumps of two different lengths. A “playback” stylus rode over the bumps, and, as it moved up and down, would make contact with a switch that repeated the original message.
This was the first of a long line of commercially successful inventions by Edison, whose inventiveness was only matched by his ability to develop his ideas into commercial products.
One day he heard his telegraph repeater operating at high speed and noted it sounded somewhat like music (Edison was not a particularly musical person). He took the same horn and membrane type “microphone” that Scott had invented and mounted it on a screw mechanism. This was made to travel across a revolving cylinder that had been wrapped in tin foil. When he cranked the cylinder and talked loudly into the horn a continuous groove was embossed which represented the sound.
He then took the cylinder and played it back on a similar mechanism with a lighter and more compliant stylus and diaphragm. The first working model of the phonograph used an up and down motion called “hill and dale” recording and was patented in December 1877. Edison’s first recorded words to himself were “Mary had a little lamb”.
The quick success of his invention had as much to do with his marketing genius as it did with its ability to record and playback sound. Edison believed the phonograph would be used for archival purposes, not as a means of playing distributed duplicates. He wrote:
“We will be able to preserve and hear again, one year or one century later a memorable speech, a worthy tribute, a famous singer, etc… We could use it in a more private manner: to preserve religiously the last words of a dying man, the voice of one who has died, of a distant parent, a lover, a mistress.”
Within the scientific intellectual community, the phonograph was seen as a means of preserving truth and maintaining cultural stability. A prominent magazine of the time, The Electrical Review (1888), speculated:
“Had Beethoven possessed a phonograph the musical world would not be left to the uncertainties of metronomic indications which we may interpret wrongly, and which at best we have but feeble suggestions; while Mozart, who had not even a metronome, might have saved his admirers many a squabble by giving the exact fashion in which he wished his symphonies to be played.”
In 1887 Edison licensed to Jesse Lippincott to franchise the phonograph as a dictating machine. He went about setting up 33 franchises across the U.S. All went bankrupt pursuing this misconception of application, except for the District of Columbia franchise, incorporated in 1889 by Edward Easton as the Washington D.C. franchise of the Jesse Lippincott’s North American Phonograph Company.
It was one of 33 franchises set up to lease and service phonographs. All of them failed with the exception of the D.C. franchise. The D.C. operation quickly realized that the device was not suitable for dictating when, after renting a hundred units to Congress, got all of them back because they were evaluated as unsuitable for Hansard purposes.
The only precursor of the record’s ultimate commercial success was the common practice to use the voice to demonstrate the quality of the recordings. Naturally, a few demonstrations were sung, and of course some instrumental accompaniment was added. By and large, however, the first companies involved in phonographs saw the device as a business machine. It was seen as a tool for documentation, dictation and sound analysis for historical and scientific purposes and office, court, and hospital reporting.
The phonograph was soon being used by researchers for anthropological and cultural field studies to document the oral histories and ceremonies of indigenous people. Some of the earliest phonograph recordings of indigenous people’s oral histories and ceremonies were done of the Torres Strait Islanders.
Many publications speculated on how it might have been if there had been a recording available of great events of the past and how in the future there would be such recordings. There were also descriptions of famous people making mistakes and these too became part of the record. There was also speculation that in decades to come, sound production would allow the removal of anything undesirable.
Unfortunately, the anticipated market had several problems with the device’s capabilities. The amount of time that could be recorded on each cylinder was very limited.
The recording and playback machine, out of technological necessity, evolved into different machines to optimize performance thus eliminating the notion that one machine could do both. The machines were so bulky that portability was out of the question.
Other Edison licensees began commercializing cylinder phonographs in other applications more suitable to exploit the features of the phonograph, and the Washington D.C. franchise followed suit. A market grew in amusement arcades, carnivals, amusement parks, and nickelodeons and in other public and semi-public establishments.
In a considerably less noble application, the phonograph would find a market in whorehouses. Recorded music became a common backdrop for amorous endeavour.
Although there were probably many times when the privacy of a theatre box provided a place for discrete interludes accompanied by music, and just as likely the hedonist might occasionally find a piano player in the salon of their favorite whore house, but a client needed to be a bit of an exhibitionist to perform while a live musician chorused him on. Records provided music without the musician thus eliminating a physical presence and a source of inhibition. | 1,621 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The border between man and woman are crossed, according to Feinberg, the border can be crossed when you are indeed a woman, but people see you as a man because of your physical appearance. You then can pass as a man; the border can be crossed by challenging the boundaries of sex and gender. Transgender people travel through, and bridge or blur the boundary of the gender expression they were assigned at birth. If man and woman was created, then nature created beings who are neither, simply because they transgress the limitations of two-gender, two-sex categories. In relation to trying to understand gender identities and sexualities, “passing”, crosses it owns definitional borders and is associated with other terms, like transgender and transsexual. Hence, the movement of passing as a woman to a transgender butch.
Other than sex and gender, Feinberg’s novel questions other categories such as race, education level, class, and religion. These types of categories are ones that occurs when the borders between things are often positioned as binary opposites. Such as black or white, old or young, new or used, gay or straight, religious or atheist, etc. In this novel some of these other categories are revealed, the class struggle is almost as important as being on the receiving end of the gender injustice.
At the beginning of the story Jess is born to a mother and father that didn’t really want her in the first place. Due to their lower working class, they were not well off, Jess mother’s work status was a housewife and her father worked at a factory. They accepted their other daughter, Rachel, but did not accept Jess because of her appearance and attitude. I think if Jess parents were maybe in the middle- or upper-income level and upper working class, they might have dealt with Jess situation a little better. Jess was so psychologically abused that she ran away from home, and here we see her parents didn’t bother to try and find out where she was living.
In chapter five, we see how race plays important part in Jess life, the Native Americans were able to accept Jess’s gender expression, when the non-native people like her parents were not acceptable of their child’s gender. Jess was able to find refuge with the Native American women and witness their religious beliefs. Their spirituality and culture propose a validation and appreciation towards Jess’s true self identification. Another concern of Jess was that during the post WWII, society vision of women was to be homemakers or mothers, this period of extreme sexual reaction had a tremendous impact on growing up as a masculine girl child (Feinberg 1993, p. 340).
Looking at the education level and economics, Jess drops out of school at this point due to the her being raped and the one teacher did not see that as an issue. As well as, the racial discrimination she witnesses with her friend Karla and Ed (Edwin), a strong, proud black butch, who was targeted with discrimination on three sides; as a black, female and lesbian, because of the pain and despair she later committed suicide. Jess refused to abide by the pre-Civil Rights rules that mandated that white and black students should eat lunch separately. So, school or work wasn’t a good place for Jess to deal with her sexuality, however; she did have one teacher, Mrs. Noble who saw Jess’s potential, she believed Jess was smart enough to go to college, but to Jess that was a financial impossibility.
If we review the novel for race issues, not only was there a problem at school but also in Jess social life, every day she was seen a Jew, lower class and unsure of her gender, she identified as a butch. Jess had issues with work discrimination, as noted in chapter nine, Jess, is injured on the job, nearly losing a finger, it was later discovered that the incident was a set-up from a male co-worker. Her friend Duffy tries to purse justice with the union to no avail. There was more discrimination in the disguise of legalities, this was witness by Jess, as the police raided the gay bars with such brutality and degrading attacks. Jess was attacked by law enforcement multiple times and was nearly beaten to death on one occasion, only because she was considered butch.
There were many legal discriminations, for example, there was a law which said that as a girl you must wear at least three female cloths, otherwise the police can arrest the female. More working-class issues, Jess was offered a promotion and Duffy, one of the union organizers, asked her not to take the promotion. They needed her not to accept the position because the union has filed a lawsuit to give the job to Leroy, a black co-worker who one of the managers wanted to discriminate against. We see here that the lesbian (butches) at the factory were also victims of discrimination; not one of them had achieved status like all the men, except Leroy was in the same category as the butches. Duffy asked Jess to wait, promising to include the butches in the next round of negotiation and talked about how this would unite the union later if they needed to strike.
Looking at the educational level issue; because Jess and her partner Theresa was not college educated and because their gender character was not acceptable, they were not allowed to be part of the feminist movement that took place in the seventies. And we know during those times there were many different acts of racism, bigotry, violence against immigrants, gays and people of color, as well as poverty and housing discrimination among the lower-class citizens. In conclusion I can see the reason that Jess considered herself as a stone blue butch, she had been battered so much by homophobia and sex ism and the intractable human fear of difference overall that her emotions had turned to stone, and she has every reason to feel the blues, thus Stone Butch Blues. | <urn:uuid:3c81b9bc-5f2d-400c-82f8-bd870d8f5452> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayhub.net/essays/problems-of-discrimination-in-the-novel-stone-butch-blues-by-feinberg | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00026.warc.gz | en | 0.988366 | 1,219 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.150316283106803... | 2 | The border between man and woman are crossed, according to Feinberg, the border can be crossed when you are indeed a woman, but people see you as a man because of your physical appearance. You then can pass as a man; the border can be crossed by challenging the boundaries of sex and gender. Transgender people travel through, and bridge or blur the boundary of the gender expression they were assigned at birth. If man and woman was created, then nature created beings who are neither, simply because they transgress the limitations of two-gender, two-sex categories. In relation to trying to understand gender identities and sexualities, “passing”, crosses it owns definitional borders and is associated with other terms, like transgender and transsexual. Hence, the movement of passing as a woman to a transgender butch.
Other than sex and gender, Feinberg’s novel questions other categories such as race, education level, class, and religion. These types of categories are ones that occurs when the borders between things are often positioned as binary opposites. Such as black or white, old or young, new or used, gay or straight, religious or atheist, etc. In this novel some of these other categories are revealed, the class struggle is almost as important as being on the receiving end of the gender injustice.
At the beginning of the story Jess is born to a mother and father that didn’t really want her in the first place. Due to their lower working class, they were not well off, Jess mother’s work status was a housewife and her father worked at a factory. They accepted their other daughter, Rachel, but did not accept Jess because of her appearance and attitude. I think if Jess parents were maybe in the middle- or upper-income level and upper working class, they might have dealt with Jess situation a little better. Jess was so psychologically abused that she ran away from home, and here we see her parents didn’t bother to try and find out where she was living.
In chapter five, we see how race plays important part in Jess life, the Native Americans were able to accept Jess’s gender expression, when the non-native people like her parents were not acceptable of their child’s gender. Jess was able to find refuge with the Native American women and witness their religious beliefs. Their spirituality and culture propose a validation and appreciation towards Jess’s true self identification. Another concern of Jess was that during the post WWII, society vision of women was to be homemakers or mothers, this period of extreme sexual reaction had a tremendous impact on growing up as a masculine girl child (Feinberg 1993, p. 340).
Looking at the education level and economics, Jess drops out of school at this point due to the her being raped and the one teacher did not see that as an issue. As well as, the racial discrimination she witnesses with her friend Karla and Ed (Edwin), a strong, proud black butch, who was targeted with discrimination on three sides; as a black, female and lesbian, because of the pain and despair she later committed suicide. Jess refused to abide by the pre-Civil Rights rules that mandated that white and black students should eat lunch separately. So, school or work wasn’t a good place for Jess to deal with her sexuality, however; she did have one teacher, Mrs. Noble who saw Jess’s potential, she believed Jess was smart enough to go to college, but to Jess that was a financial impossibility.
If we review the novel for race issues, not only was there a problem at school but also in Jess social life, every day she was seen a Jew, lower class and unsure of her gender, she identified as a butch. Jess had issues with work discrimination, as noted in chapter nine, Jess, is injured on the job, nearly losing a finger, it was later discovered that the incident was a set-up from a male co-worker. Her friend Duffy tries to purse justice with the union to no avail. There was more discrimination in the disguise of legalities, this was witness by Jess, as the police raided the gay bars with such brutality and degrading attacks. Jess was attacked by law enforcement multiple times and was nearly beaten to death on one occasion, only because she was considered butch.
There were many legal discriminations, for example, there was a law which said that as a girl you must wear at least three female cloths, otherwise the police can arrest the female. More working-class issues, Jess was offered a promotion and Duffy, one of the union organizers, asked her not to take the promotion. They needed her not to accept the position because the union has filed a lawsuit to give the job to Leroy, a black co-worker who one of the managers wanted to discriminate against. We see here that the lesbian (butches) at the factory were also victims of discrimination; not one of them had achieved status like all the men, except Leroy was in the same category as the butches. Duffy asked Jess to wait, promising to include the butches in the next round of negotiation and talked about how this would unite the union later if they needed to strike.
Looking at the educational level issue; because Jess and her partner Theresa was not college educated and because their gender character was not acceptable, they were not allowed to be part of the feminist movement that took place in the seventies. And we know during those times there were many different acts of racism, bigotry, violence against immigrants, gays and people of color, as well as poverty and housing discrimination among the lower-class citizens. In conclusion I can see the reason that Jess considered herself as a stone blue butch, she had been battered so much by homophobia and sex ism and the intractable human fear of difference overall that her emotions had turned to stone, and she has every reason to feel the blues, thus Stone Butch Blues. | 1,197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Video games might do more than get you off your fanny.
What’s the News: Getting in shape with Wii Bowling was just the beginning: scientists are now studying whether videogames that use breath as a controller can encourage healthy habits in children with cystic fibrosis. What’s the Context:
Cystic fibrosis is an inherited, debilitating disease that causes thick, ropy mucus to build up in the airways and throughout the body, leading to serious complications. One of the primary therapies is daily rounds of “huffing,” forceful exhalations to dislodge mucus. Getting children to follow their prescribed therapy, though, is difficult—they’re more likely to want to want to do something else (like play video games).
Biofeedback games, which take an input like increased pulse and translate it into action on the screen, have been around for a while—Freer Logic has a game intended to help kids with ADHD learn to focus, while other games teach players to control their breath and pulse, like meditation-influenced Journey to Wild Divine and games based on HeartMath’s emWave system.
Linking video games to breath, then, might go a long way towards making huffing less of a drag. In the games used in the study, which were built by students at Champlain College in Vermont, a device for measuring lung capacity called a spirometer is used as a controller. In one game, players rambling though a wooded world encounter slime-coated animals that can be cleaned off with a few puffs on the spirometer; in another, a racecar powered by breath zips around a track.
How the Heck:
The team gave children computers and spirometers, and, as a control, had them leave the equipment around but not play the games for 2–4 weeks. They then played the games over a similar length of time. The scientists recorded how many times kids huffed over both periods and also measured their lung capacity after each period.
During the experiment, kids had much better huffing track records than they had had before getting involved in the study. But interestingly, just having the equipment around was enough to make them stay on task. They huffed about the same amount during the control period as they did during the game-playing period. So while it’s definitely positive that kids were sticking to their therapy as a result of the experiment, it’s not clear that the video games caused it. Just knowing that someone other than their normal doctor was keeping track of their adherence might have played a larger role.
Another interesting tidbit is that even though game playing didn’t make the kids huff more, they were able to take deeper breaths after having played the games for several weeks. It’s not clear why this would be—perhaps practicing deep breathing with a direct goal in mind, like cleaning off an animal or driving a car, is more effective than doing it without.
Not So Fast: The study was very small: just 13 kids participated. It’s hard to draw any kind of conclusion from so few subjects, and the lack of difference between the control period and the game-playing period suggest that there may be complicating factors that should be controlled for. The Future Holds: Hopefully more, larger studies. While it's always possible that video games really don't have anything to offer cystic fibrosis suffers, if they could be designed and deployed in such a way that they do make a difference in getting kids to adhere to therapy, they'd be most welcome. (via ScienceDaily
) Image credit: TheMuuj/Flickr | <urn:uuid:321bdb18-3d9d-43ee-a79c-ada3370acfda> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.discovermagazine.com/technology/can-video-games-help-sick-kids-stick-to-their-treatments | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.980463 | 758 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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What’s the News: Getting in shape with Wii Bowling was just the beginning: scientists are now studying whether videogames that use breath as a controller can encourage healthy habits in children with cystic fibrosis. What’s the Context:
Cystic fibrosis is an inherited, debilitating disease that causes thick, ropy mucus to build up in the airways and throughout the body, leading to serious complications. One of the primary therapies is daily rounds of “huffing,” forceful exhalations to dislodge mucus. Getting children to follow their prescribed therapy, though, is difficult—they’re more likely to want to want to do something else (like play video games).
Biofeedback games, which take an input like increased pulse and translate it into action on the screen, have been around for a while—Freer Logic has a game intended to help kids with ADHD learn to focus, while other games teach players to control their breath and pulse, like meditation-influenced Journey to Wild Divine and games based on HeartMath’s emWave system.
Linking video games to breath, then, might go a long way towards making huffing less of a drag. In the games used in the study, which were built by students at Champlain College in Vermont, a device for measuring lung capacity called a spirometer is used as a controller. In one game, players rambling though a wooded world encounter slime-coated animals that can be cleaned off with a few puffs on the spirometer; in another, a racecar powered by breath zips around a track.
How the Heck:
The team gave children computers and spirometers, and, as a control, had them leave the equipment around but not play the games for 2–4 weeks. They then played the games over a similar length of time. The scientists recorded how many times kids huffed over both periods and also measured their lung capacity after each period.
During the experiment, kids had much better huffing track records than they had had before getting involved in the study. But interestingly, just having the equipment around was enough to make them stay on task. They huffed about the same amount during the control period as they did during the game-playing period. So while it’s definitely positive that kids were sticking to their therapy as a result of the experiment, it’s not clear that the video games caused it. Just knowing that someone other than their normal doctor was keeping track of their adherence might have played a larger role.
Another interesting tidbit is that even though game playing didn’t make the kids huff more, they were able to take deeper breaths after having played the games for several weeks. It’s not clear why this would be—perhaps practicing deep breathing with a direct goal in mind, like cleaning off an animal or driving a car, is more effective than doing it without.
Not So Fast: The study was very small: just 13 kids participated. It’s hard to draw any kind of conclusion from so few subjects, and the lack of difference between the control period and the game-playing period suggest that there may be complicating factors that should be controlled for. The Future Holds: Hopefully more, larger studies. While it's always possible that video games really don't have anything to offer cystic fibrosis suffers, if they could be designed and deployed in such a way that they do make a difference in getting kids to adhere to therapy, they'd be most welcome. (via ScienceDaily
) Image credit: TheMuuj/Flickr | 728 | ENGLISH | 1 |
from the Ohio Historical Society
Charles F. Brush was the inventor of the arc lamp. He attended the University of Michigan and then resided in Cleveland, Ohio. He spent much of his life attempting to understand electricity and how to make it useful to human beings.
In 1879, Brush succeeded in creating the first arc lamp. After some more experimentation and modifications, Brush created a lamp that burned as brightly as four thousand candles. Such a bright light, obviously, could not be used inside of people’s homes. Brush decided to market his invention to cities, so that they could light their streets at night. On April 29, 1879, Brush made a presentation of his invention to Cleveland residents. He had placed twenty arc lamps in the city’s Monumental Park. Not sure of what to expect, people in attendance wore smoked glasses to protect their eyes. After the demonstration, numerous women complained that the lights would make it impossible for them to conceal imperfections on their skin. Cleveland officials, however, were impressed, and soon Cleveland had lights across the city. Cleveland was the first city to have electric street lighting in the United States.
Brush continued to experiment with electricity for the remainder of his life. He was responsible for numerous discoveries involving electricity’s uses and received several dozen patents for his inventions. | <urn:uuid:359203fd-3189-473a-9434-7f04038f83bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://teachingcleveland.org/charles-brush-biography/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.98587 | 268 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.1405072212219... | 12 | from the Ohio Historical Society
Charles F. Brush was the inventor of the arc lamp. He attended the University of Michigan and then resided in Cleveland, Ohio. He spent much of his life attempting to understand electricity and how to make it useful to human beings.
In 1879, Brush succeeded in creating the first arc lamp. After some more experimentation and modifications, Brush created a lamp that burned as brightly as four thousand candles. Such a bright light, obviously, could not be used inside of people’s homes. Brush decided to market his invention to cities, so that they could light their streets at night. On April 29, 1879, Brush made a presentation of his invention to Cleveland residents. He had placed twenty arc lamps in the city’s Monumental Park. Not sure of what to expect, people in attendance wore smoked glasses to protect their eyes. After the demonstration, numerous women complained that the lights would make it impossible for them to conceal imperfections on their skin. Cleveland officials, however, were impressed, and soon Cleveland had lights across the city. Cleveland was the first city to have electric street lighting in the United States.
Brush continued to experiment with electricity for the remainder of his life. He was responsible for numerous discoveries involving electricity’s uses and received several dozen patents for his inventions. | 268 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hamlet and Gertrude
William Shakespeare’s Hamlet depicts the dilemma faced an average man trapped in the overwhelming demands of life. Prince Hamlet’s attempts at resolving the moral issues related to incest and power can possibly lead to many critical interpretations. The role played by women in the play, though seemingly minimal, cannot be undermined if one approaches it with psychoanalytical parameters. The presence of ‘Oedipus Complex’ in Prince Hamlet’s psyche can be explicated with the help of a close analysis. It can even be argued that the entire action of the play revolves around the desire of Claudius and Prince Hamlet to possess a woman- Gertrude. However, it remains doubtful whether one could accuse Gertrude for being the cause of all the mishaps that ensue.
The major obstacle in Prince Hamlet’s way in avenging the murder of his father is his ambivalent relationship with his mother, Gertrude. He is utterly disappointed by her hasty marriage to Claudius soon after his father’s mysterious death. Even as he realizes that Gertrude is unaware of the heinous acts of Claudius, he finds it difficult to relate to her normally. What makes the situation worse is his intense feelings for her, both as a son and an adult man, which could be interpreted as the manifestation of ‘Oedipus Complex’. He tells Gertrude, “You are the Queen, your husband’s brother’s wife: / And – would it were not so! – you are my mother” (Act III, Scene IV, 15-16). These words explain the prince’s predicament of having to despise his own blood to unveil the mystery surrounding his father’s death. The fact that Claudius married Gertrude in a hurry makes the situation complex. If he had been after power, his decision to marry Gertrude can be considered just a means to fulfill his ambition. But it is also possible to argue that he killed King Hamlet out of his desire for Gertrude.
Gertrude is not presented in the play as a seductress who encouraged Claudius’s motives. On the contrary, she is forced to marry Claudius in the guise of a political emergency. She confirms to the general demands and tries to conceal her grief in order to be faithful wife of the new king. Prince Hamlet’s strange behavior is of grave concern for her, and she tries everything possible to reach out to him. It is not possible to blame her for any of the mishaps that took place in relations to her identity as a woman. However, Claudius and Prince Hamlet are in many ways influenced by her existence in the order of events.
Prince Hamlet’s negligence towards Ophelia, which leads to the innocent girl’s suicide, is also a result of his solemn preoccupation with Gertrude’s relationship with Claudius and his own affinity towards her. The prince finds it impossible that his beloved mother has indeed married his father’s murderer. Claudius’s existence as the king is inextricably linked to his status as the husband of Gertrude. People relate to him as a king mainly through her. And the ways in which he establishes their relationship is an exhibition of power, and a challenge to Prince Hamlet. In this respect, it is the presence of a woman which determines the course of action in the play. It can also be assumed that the tragic events that fill the stage are also indebted to the awe-inspiring presence of Gertrude at every turn.
It would be a gross injustice to blame Gertrude for the events that unfurled around her without her knowledge. However, the complex feelings that guided Claudius and Prince Hamlet through their choices of action were intricately linked to their relationship with her. The human interest and concern for the events in the play would not have been sustained without the presence of Gertrude, which makes it possible to state that the major events in the play occur because of a woman. | <urn:uuid:b95c0c97-dae3-422e-9fcf-974be6d4bea3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/hamlet/hamlet-and-gertrude/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00426.warc.gz | en | 0.98089 | 868 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.10468323528... | 10 | Hamlet and Gertrude
William Shakespeare’s Hamlet depicts the dilemma faced an average man trapped in the overwhelming demands of life. Prince Hamlet’s attempts at resolving the moral issues related to incest and power can possibly lead to many critical interpretations. The role played by women in the play, though seemingly minimal, cannot be undermined if one approaches it with psychoanalytical parameters. The presence of ‘Oedipus Complex’ in Prince Hamlet’s psyche can be explicated with the help of a close analysis. It can even be argued that the entire action of the play revolves around the desire of Claudius and Prince Hamlet to possess a woman- Gertrude. However, it remains doubtful whether one could accuse Gertrude for being the cause of all the mishaps that ensue.
The major obstacle in Prince Hamlet’s way in avenging the murder of his father is his ambivalent relationship with his mother, Gertrude. He is utterly disappointed by her hasty marriage to Claudius soon after his father’s mysterious death. Even as he realizes that Gertrude is unaware of the heinous acts of Claudius, he finds it difficult to relate to her normally. What makes the situation worse is his intense feelings for her, both as a son and an adult man, which could be interpreted as the manifestation of ‘Oedipus Complex’. He tells Gertrude, “You are the Queen, your husband’s brother’s wife: / And – would it were not so! – you are my mother” (Act III, Scene IV, 15-16). These words explain the prince’s predicament of having to despise his own blood to unveil the mystery surrounding his father’s death. The fact that Claudius married Gertrude in a hurry makes the situation complex. If he had been after power, his decision to marry Gertrude can be considered just a means to fulfill his ambition. But it is also possible to argue that he killed King Hamlet out of his desire for Gertrude.
Gertrude is not presented in the play as a seductress who encouraged Claudius’s motives. On the contrary, she is forced to marry Claudius in the guise of a political emergency. She confirms to the general demands and tries to conceal her grief in order to be faithful wife of the new king. Prince Hamlet’s strange behavior is of grave concern for her, and she tries everything possible to reach out to him. It is not possible to blame her for any of the mishaps that took place in relations to her identity as a woman. However, Claudius and Prince Hamlet are in many ways influenced by her existence in the order of events.
Prince Hamlet’s negligence towards Ophelia, which leads to the innocent girl’s suicide, is also a result of his solemn preoccupation with Gertrude’s relationship with Claudius and his own affinity towards her. The prince finds it impossible that his beloved mother has indeed married his father’s murderer. Claudius’s existence as the king is inextricably linked to his status as the husband of Gertrude. People relate to him as a king mainly through her. And the ways in which he establishes their relationship is an exhibition of power, and a challenge to Prince Hamlet. In this respect, it is the presence of a woman which determines the course of action in the play. It can also be assumed that the tragic events that fill the stage are also indebted to the awe-inspiring presence of Gertrude at every turn.
It would be a gross injustice to blame Gertrude for the events that unfurled around her without her knowledge. However, the complex feelings that guided Claudius and Prince Hamlet through their choices of action were intricately linked to their relationship with her. The human interest and concern for the events in the play would not have been sustained without the presence of Gertrude, which makes it possible to state that the major events in the play occur because of a woman. | 814 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What Does It Mean to Be a Hero
People assume a hero is a person who has a heart of gold and always does the right thing. However, the truth is anyone can be a hero. From mild-mannered citizens to holy figures like The Pope, anyone can be a hero. Most often, people see heroes in movies. Characters like Mulan and King Arthur have two different backgrounds, yet they are still heroes. The one thing that connects them both is the fact that they put others before themselves. Arthur took the responsibility of being King even though he did not want to because he knew his people needed him. Mulan happily stepped up to the plate and went to war in place of her father, even though she was a woman and not her place to do so. She sacrificed herself to save her father, and since he was too old, and she sacrificed herself to protect the Emperor from the wrath of the Huns. Anyone can be a hero because they can be selfless and put others before themselves.Arthur, from Arthur Becomes King of Britain, chooses to put others before him. When Arthur pulled the sword from the stone for Kay, he let Kay take the credit for it. “‘I have it... I pulled it out'” (White 892). Arthur did not take credit for pulling the sword out of the stone, even though it was his accomplishment. Kay's father, Sir Ector, is deeply proud of his son. Sir Ector could have been proud of Arthur, but he did not take the credit because Arthur put Kay before him. Arthur is a hero because he did the humble thing and chose to let his brother take credit for his achievement.
Mulan chose to sacrifice herself to save her dad's life when the Huns were attacking China. At the beginning of the movie, Mulan's father got called to war with the Huns. She knows her father isn't capable enough to go, so she steps in and takes his place disguised as a man. Mulan fights for China as a man named Ping, and overcomes many obstacles during her time in the army. Once her army finds out who she is, they abandon her. She still goes to fight the Huns, and in turn defeats them and saves all of China (Mulan). Mulan sacrificed her life and social standing to save her father, and does so again when her army turns their back on her because she is a woman. She is selfless because she put others' needs before her own. Mulan could have let her father go to war and die, but she did not and took his place. Mulan's army could have also died without Mulan because she knew the Huns were attacking, but they did not. Mulan went back to China and could have lived and let the army die because they abandoned her, but she put them before own life, and saved them along with many lives if they lost. Mulan's selflessness saved the lives of her family and her country's, making her a hero that will be put down in history.
Anyone can be a hero with selfless actions and putting other people's needs before their own. Arthur from Arthur Becomes King of Britain was selfless and let Kay take the credit for his accomplishment of pulling the sword from the stone instead of reaping the benefits if he said something himself. Arthur knew their father would be proud of who pulled the sword and he still let Kay take responsibility. He put Kay before himself because he did not want Kay to be embarrassed. Mulan puts not simply her father's life before her, but her army's and her country's. Mulan disguised herself as a man and joined the army in place of her father because he was too old to serve and she did not want him to die. Also, she returned to China and defeated the Huns because she knew people was in danger. This was selfless because her army abandoned her when they found out she was a woman, and Mulan could have let them die because she was upset, but she put their lives before her. Even the smallest acts of selflessness can make a hero. It can brighten their day and inspire them to do the same to others. No one must sacrifice their lives, but being humble and kind is a trait everyone is capable of possessing.
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- Why You Should Get a Dog Persuasive Essay Example | <urn:uuid:e989f38d-622e-4b4c-9554-5e8fd4e75d00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://samples.essaytopicsmasters.com/persuasive/what-does-it-mean-to-be-a-hero-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.98929 | 979 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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People assume a hero is a person who has a heart of gold and always does the right thing. However, the truth is anyone can be a hero. From mild-mannered citizens to holy figures like The Pope, anyone can be a hero. Most often, people see heroes in movies. Characters like Mulan and King Arthur have two different backgrounds, yet they are still heroes. The one thing that connects them both is the fact that they put others before themselves. Arthur took the responsibility of being King even though he did not want to because he knew his people needed him. Mulan happily stepped up to the plate and went to war in place of her father, even though she was a woman and not her place to do so. She sacrificed herself to save her father, and since he was too old, and she sacrificed herself to protect the Emperor from the wrath of the Huns. Anyone can be a hero because they can be selfless and put others before themselves.Arthur, from Arthur Becomes King of Britain, chooses to put others before him. When Arthur pulled the sword from the stone for Kay, he let Kay take the credit for it. “‘I have it... I pulled it out'” (White 892). Arthur did not take credit for pulling the sword out of the stone, even though it was his accomplishment. Kay's father, Sir Ector, is deeply proud of his son. Sir Ector could have been proud of Arthur, but he did not take the credit because Arthur put Kay before him. Arthur is a hero because he did the humble thing and chose to let his brother take credit for his achievement.
Mulan chose to sacrifice herself to save her dad's life when the Huns were attacking China. At the beginning of the movie, Mulan's father got called to war with the Huns. She knows her father isn't capable enough to go, so she steps in and takes his place disguised as a man. Mulan fights for China as a man named Ping, and overcomes many obstacles during her time in the army. Once her army finds out who she is, they abandon her. She still goes to fight the Huns, and in turn defeats them and saves all of China (Mulan). Mulan sacrificed her life and social standing to save her father, and does so again when her army turns their back on her because she is a woman. She is selfless because she put others' needs before her own. Mulan could have let her father go to war and die, but she did not and took his place. Mulan's army could have also died without Mulan because she knew the Huns were attacking, but they did not. Mulan went back to China and could have lived and let the army die because they abandoned her, but she put them before own life, and saved them along with many lives if they lost. Mulan's selflessness saved the lives of her family and her country's, making her a hero that will be put down in history.
Anyone can be a hero with selfless actions and putting other people's needs before their own. Arthur from Arthur Becomes King of Britain was selfless and let Kay take the credit for his accomplishment of pulling the sword from the stone instead of reaping the benefits if he said something himself. Arthur knew their father would be proud of who pulled the sword and he still let Kay take responsibility. He put Kay before himself because he did not want Kay to be embarrassed. Mulan puts not simply her father's life before her, but her army's and her country's. Mulan disguised herself as a man and joined the army in place of her father because he was too old to serve and she did not want him to die. Also, she returned to China and defeated the Huns because she knew people was in danger. This was selfless because her army abandoned her when they found out she was a woman, and Mulan could have let them die because she was upset, but she put their lives before her. Even the smallest acts of selflessness can make a hero. It can brighten their day and inspire them to do the same to others. No one must sacrifice their lives, but being humble and kind is a trait everyone is capable of possessing.
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- Why You Should Get a Dog Persuasive Essay Example | 965 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Have you ever wondered why red robins are associated with Christmas? Read on to find out why!
Back in the times of Victorian Britain, postmen were nicknamed “robins” because of their red-breasted coloured uniforms. From there, the robin on the Christmas card came to represent the postman who delivered the card. But it isn't quite as simple as that, as there are links that pre-date this explanation.
Legend has it that the robin's redbreast provides a direct link to Christianity. Whilst Christ was on the cross and sang to relieve his suffering, a robin plucked a thorn from his crown. From there it is said Christs blood created the robins red breast.
Other folklore indicates that when the baby Jesus was in his manger in the stable, the fire which had been lit to keep him warm started to blaze up very strongly. A brown robin, noticing that Mary had been distracted by the inn-keeper’s wife, placed himself between the fire and the face of baby Jesus. The robin fluffed out its feathers to protect the baby, but in so-doing its breast was scorched by the fire. These red plumage was then passed onto future generations of robins.
Have you noticed a robin’s red-breast is actually orange? The bird was named before the English language had a word for the colour ‘orange’. Many things that were really orange were called red instead even though we did have the word for ‘orange’ as in the fruit. The colour orange was not named as a colour in English until the 16th century. The name for the colour comes from the fruit.
Our affection for the robin was cemented in 1960 when it was voted our national bird. Christmas robins will forever be commemorated on Christmas cards so lets hope they remain a common sight in our gardens for future generations to appreciate their fabled history.
We'd love to see any robins from your garden, so please share your photos in the comments below! | <urn:uuid:321fdb06-8571-40c2-8233-f58eae07909a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.gardenwildlifedirect.co.uk/why-do-we-associate-robins-with-christmas-the-legends-of-our-christmas-robin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.987358 | 426 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.00908390805... | 5 | Have you ever wondered why red robins are associated with Christmas? Read on to find out why!
Back in the times of Victorian Britain, postmen were nicknamed “robins” because of their red-breasted coloured uniforms. From there, the robin on the Christmas card came to represent the postman who delivered the card. But it isn't quite as simple as that, as there are links that pre-date this explanation.
Legend has it that the robin's redbreast provides a direct link to Christianity. Whilst Christ was on the cross and sang to relieve his suffering, a robin plucked a thorn from his crown. From there it is said Christs blood created the robins red breast.
Other folklore indicates that when the baby Jesus was in his manger in the stable, the fire which had been lit to keep him warm started to blaze up very strongly. A brown robin, noticing that Mary had been distracted by the inn-keeper’s wife, placed himself between the fire and the face of baby Jesus. The robin fluffed out its feathers to protect the baby, but in so-doing its breast was scorched by the fire. These red plumage was then passed onto future generations of robins.
Have you noticed a robin’s red-breast is actually orange? The bird was named before the English language had a word for the colour ‘orange’. Many things that were really orange were called red instead even though we did have the word for ‘orange’ as in the fruit. The colour orange was not named as a colour in English until the 16th century. The name for the colour comes from the fruit.
Our affection for the robin was cemented in 1960 when it was voted our national bird. Christmas robins will forever be commemorated on Christmas cards so lets hope they remain a common sight in our gardens for future generations to appreciate their fabled history.
We'd love to see any robins from your garden, so please share your photos in the comments below! | 407 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Viking ships strike a powerful image of the battle-hardened, invading Norsemen of Scandinavia. With their low sides, tall bow and stern, their silhouette on the water was something to be feared.
Design of the Viking Ships
Viking ships were incredibly well designed for the time, with their wide low hull, they could sail in shallow rivers at high speed. They were also excellent at navigating the high seas too, with huge sails to propel them to foreign lands. These longships, or dragonships as the English called them, were well ahead of their time.
They were normally constructed from oak timbers and decorated with beautiful carvings. The bow and stern would rise up 3-4 metres high, the hull would sit around 5 metres wide and the ship’s length would have been around 20 metres long.
These uniquely shaped longboats would normally carry up to 30 oarsmen, 1 helmsmen, 1 look out, and sometimes live animals for food on longer journeys. But with the variation in designs, smaller ships would carry as little as 6 crew, while the largest could carry up to 80! Due to their clever design, the ships weighed very little, which allowed the Vikings to haul the boats ashore, and also enabled them to make quick escapes in times of raiding!
History of the Viking Ships
The classic Viking ships we think of today, were first established around the 9th century, and traditions and skills used back then are still followed today. However, the Norsemen have used ships like the Umiak since the Nordic Stone Age, as stone engravings show, with elaborate carvings depicting boats being used for transporting materials, food and trade goods.
There is an abundance of evidence that show these Viking ships were also used in sacrifice, and buried in barrows with their high-ranking owners. Treasures would be sent with the boats, as gifts on their final journey to death. In Norway, there are three excellent examples of Viking ships that were discovered buried as part of their sacrificial rituals, the Oseberg ship, the Gokstad ship and the Tune ship.
The Oseberg Viking Ship
The Oseberg ship was built around 820AD, and in 834AD was used as a burial ship for two powerful women. The women were aged around 75 and 50, and were given a magnificent send off to the after-life.
Some of the burial gifts sent with them in the buried ship were carved animal heads, a wagon, three elaborate sledges, five beds, six dogs, fifteen horses and two cows. These artifacts were seen as items needed by the deceased on their journey.
The Gokstad Viking Ship
The Gokstad ship was built around 900AD, and was used as a burial ship for a powerful man. The ship was very well built, and would have been suitable for sailing the open seas. Again, this ship was built with huge oak timbers as standard, and was equipped with 32 shields hanging along the sides of the boat’s low hull. These shields would have been highly decorated in black and gold paint.
The deceased man was around 45, and shows signs of battle, with cuts visible on his legs from the blows of a sharp sword or axe. Some burial gifts had been raided since the burial, but the items remaining include guilded bronze, utensils, a game board, three small boats, a tent, a sledge, six beds, 12 horses, eight dogs and two peacocks.
The Tune Viking Ship
The Tune ship was the first Viking ship to be excavated and preserved.
This ship was clinker-built, like the other two boats and dates to around 900AD.
The ship was buried with a man, along with his weapons, chain mail armour, a die and a horse.
Not much of this Viking ship remains, and is now exhibited as it was originally found.
Types of Viking Ships
Vikings spent most of their time on or near water, and so they heavily relied on their Viking ships for not only war, but trade, commerce and exploration too. This means they would have needed a variety of ship designs to meet each purpose, including the following:
The Karve Viking ships are the smallest of the longships, and were built with six to sixteen rowing benches. These boats were used for general purpose, like fishing and small trades.
The Snekkja Viking ships were the smallest warships, and were built with 20 rowing benches. These boats would be able to carry around 40 men, and were heavily used by King Canute in 1028.
The Skeid Viking ships were larger than the Snekkja, and were built with 30 rowing benches. These boats were warships and were able to carry up to 80 men, they were among the largest Viking ships ever found. A modern day Skeid, Draken Harald Harfagre, has been built in Norway using traditional techniques, and has set sail to America recently. See the Skeid in action below!
The Drekkar Viking ships are Skeids but with more elegant decoration and carvings. The famous dragon heads adorning the bow of the Drekkars made these ships favourites for raiding, striking fear into any foreign inhabitants. The carvings are said to also protect the boat’s crew and fend off deadly sea monsters in Norse mythology.
The Vikings sailed right across the globe, as far as North America to the west, and the middle east to the south. As the Viking ships could also sail down rivers, the explorers could travel deep inland in Europe and then to the Mediterranean. But how did they find their way?
Theories suggest that using the stars by night, and the sun by day, the Vikings could tell what direction they were travelling in. Additionally to that, traditional methods such as tidal times and landmarks would have also been used extensively to navigate rivers and shorelines.
However, when sailing out in the open seas, and the sun disappears behind clouds, or the stars vanish in the night, navigation would have been virtually impossible. Experts now believe, and some sagas show, that sun-stones must have been used. Sun-stones come from the mineral cordierite, which exists in Norway, and the locals refer to it as the Vikings Compass. The stones work by reflecting the sun’s position through the stone, even on foggy/cloudy days, as it polarizes the light. When the sun is low enough, the stone works best, and can point directly to the sun, providing a navigational point on seemingly sunless days. | <urn:uuid:0123adfb-6c38-4231-a355-ffb45079ecec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.discovermiddleages.co.uk/viking-ships/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.987432 | 1,359 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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-0.0596872717142... | 6 | Viking ships strike a powerful image of the battle-hardened, invading Norsemen of Scandinavia. With their low sides, tall bow and stern, their silhouette on the water was something to be feared.
Design of the Viking Ships
Viking ships were incredibly well designed for the time, with their wide low hull, they could sail in shallow rivers at high speed. They were also excellent at navigating the high seas too, with huge sails to propel them to foreign lands. These longships, or dragonships as the English called them, were well ahead of their time.
They were normally constructed from oak timbers and decorated with beautiful carvings. The bow and stern would rise up 3-4 metres high, the hull would sit around 5 metres wide and the ship’s length would have been around 20 metres long.
These uniquely shaped longboats would normally carry up to 30 oarsmen, 1 helmsmen, 1 look out, and sometimes live animals for food on longer journeys. But with the variation in designs, smaller ships would carry as little as 6 crew, while the largest could carry up to 80! Due to their clever design, the ships weighed very little, which allowed the Vikings to haul the boats ashore, and also enabled them to make quick escapes in times of raiding!
History of the Viking Ships
The classic Viking ships we think of today, were first established around the 9th century, and traditions and skills used back then are still followed today. However, the Norsemen have used ships like the Umiak since the Nordic Stone Age, as stone engravings show, with elaborate carvings depicting boats being used for transporting materials, food and trade goods.
There is an abundance of evidence that show these Viking ships were also used in sacrifice, and buried in barrows with their high-ranking owners. Treasures would be sent with the boats, as gifts on their final journey to death. In Norway, there are three excellent examples of Viking ships that were discovered buried as part of their sacrificial rituals, the Oseberg ship, the Gokstad ship and the Tune ship.
The Oseberg Viking Ship
The Oseberg ship was built around 820AD, and in 834AD was used as a burial ship for two powerful women. The women were aged around 75 and 50, and were given a magnificent send off to the after-life.
Some of the burial gifts sent with them in the buried ship were carved animal heads, a wagon, three elaborate sledges, five beds, six dogs, fifteen horses and two cows. These artifacts were seen as items needed by the deceased on their journey.
The Gokstad Viking Ship
The Gokstad ship was built around 900AD, and was used as a burial ship for a powerful man. The ship was very well built, and would have been suitable for sailing the open seas. Again, this ship was built with huge oak timbers as standard, and was equipped with 32 shields hanging along the sides of the boat’s low hull. These shields would have been highly decorated in black and gold paint.
The deceased man was around 45, and shows signs of battle, with cuts visible on his legs from the blows of a sharp sword or axe. Some burial gifts had been raided since the burial, but the items remaining include guilded bronze, utensils, a game board, three small boats, a tent, a sledge, six beds, 12 horses, eight dogs and two peacocks.
The Tune Viking Ship
The Tune ship was the first Viking ship to be excavated and preserved.
This ship was clinker-built, like the other two boats and dates to around 900AD.
The ship was buried with a man, along with his weapons, chain mail armour, a die and a horse.
Not much of this Viking ship remains, and is now exhibited as it was originally found.
Types of Viking Ships
Vikings spent most of their time on or near water, and so they heavily relied on their Viking ships for not only war, but trade, commerce and exploration too. This means they would have needed a variety of ship designs to meet each purpose, including the following:
The Karve Viking ships are the smallest of the longships, and were built with six to sixteen rowing benches. These boats were used for general purpose, like fishing and small trades.
The Snekkja Viking ships were the smallest warships, and were built with 20 rowing benches. These boats would be able to carry around 40 men, and were heavily used by King Canute in 1028.
The Skeid Viking ships were larger than the Snekkja, and were built with 30 rowing benches. These boats were warships and were able to carry up to 80 men, they were among the largest Viking ships ever found. A modern day Skeid, Draken Harald Harfagre, has been built in Norway using traditional techniques, and has set sail to America recently. See the Skeid in action below!
The Drekkar Viking ships are Skeids but with more elegant decoration and carvings. The famous dragon heads adorning the bow of the Drekkars made these ships favourites for raiding, striking fear into any foreign inhabitants. The carvings are said to also protect the boat’s crew and fend off deadly sea monsters in Norse mythology.
The Vikings sailed right across the globe, as far as North America to the west, and the middle east to the south. As the Viking ships could also sail down rivers, the explorers could travel deep inland in Europe and then to the Mediterranean. But how did they find their way?
Theories suggest that using the stars by night, and the sun by day, the Vikings could tell what direction they were travelling in. Additionally to that, traditional methods such as tidal times and landmarks would have also been used extensively to navigate rivers and shorelines.
However, when sailing out in the open seas, and the sun disappears behind clouds, or the stars vanish in the night, navigation would have been virtually impossible. Experts now believe, and some sagas show, that sun-stones must have been used. Sun-stones come from the mineral cordierite, which exists in Norway, and the locals refer to it as the Vikings Compass. The stones work by reflecting the sun’s position through the stone, even on foggy/cloudy days, as it polarizes the light. When the sun is low enough, the stone works best, and can point directly to the sun, providing a navigational point on seemingly sunless days. | 1,375 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Stamp Act of 1765 was an Act that was used by Britain to impose direct tax on American colonies. The Act was passed on March 22, 1765. This Act was meant to enforce direct tax to anything printed by the American Colonists. The printed sheets that were taxed included ship’s papers, licenses, newspapers, playing cards, inventories, testimonials, calendars, educational diplomas and certificates, pamphlets, advertisements, court orders, and other legal publications. Just like many other forms of previous taxes, the tax was supposed to be paid in British currency and not in the colonial paper money.
The Passing of the Stamp Act
Britain emerged victorious in the Seven Years’ War, otherwise referred to as the French and Indian War, which lasted from 1756 to 1763. At the end of the war, Britain was largely indebted. The debt kept rising because the British government had to sustain a large troop in the American colonies. The political class in London came up with the idea that the Americans had to bear the cost of their own defense. Stamp Act had been effective in Britain since 1694. Raising the tax in Britain was not ideal because the taxes were already high. In 1764, the British parliament made it public to the American colonies that they were considering passing the Stamp Act. The news was largely rejected by the Americans. However, the Stamp Act was passed on March 22, 1765. The Act was supported by 205 against 49 members of the House of Commons. It became effective on November 1, 1765.
Reaction to the Passing of the Stamp Act
The Stamp Act of 1765 was received with a lot of resistance and opposition. The Americans saw the imposition of the tax as a violation of their rights. The Stamp Act was seen as a move to squeeze money out of the colonists. In fact, there were many protests and demonstrations held against the act. Some of the protests against the act turned very violent and destructive. The British manufacturers and business people who benefitted from exporting their goods to the colonies were also affected. Their business ventures were affected by the violent protests. Therefore, they pressured the government to either drop the collection of the tax or moderate it. Due to the protests, the collection of the direct tax was not smooth and effective. In fact, it failed completely with the British collecting less than 30% of what they had targeted. The protests also led to vandalizing of property.
How Effective Was the Stamp Act of 1765?
The money obtained from the collection of the direct tax was effective in funding the American Frontier that was located near the Appalachian Mountains. The tax enabled for the compensation for the troops who were located in North America after the Seven Years’ War. The troop was composed of around 10,000 soldiers. The Americans suggested that Britain should take up the responsibility of protecting the Americans from Indians. It was, therefore, the obligation of Britain to pay the troops. The resistance to the Stamp Act of 1765 set the stage for a similar resistance to the Townshend Act of 1767.
What Was The Stamp Act Of 1765?
The Stamp Act of 1765 was an Act that was used by Britain to impose direct tax on the American colonies. The Act was passed on March 22, 1765. This Act was meant to enforce direct tax to anything printed by the American Colonists.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
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0.222485929727... | 2 | The Stamp Act of 1765 was an Act that was used by Britain to impose direct tax on American colonies. The Act was passed on March 22, 1765. This Act was meant to enforce direct tax to anything printed by the American Colonists. The printed sheets that were taxed included ship’s papers, licenses, newspapers, playing cards, inventories, testimonials, calendars, educational diplomas and certificates, pamphlets, advertisements, court orders, and other legal publications. Just like many other forms of previous taxes, the tax was supposed to be paid in British currency and not in the colonial paper money.
The Passing of the Stamp Act
Britain emerged victorious in the Seven Years’ War, otherwise referred to as the French and Indian War, which lasted from 1756 to 1763. At the end of the war, Britain was largely indebted. The debt kept rising because the British government had to sustain a large troop in the American colonies. The political class in London came up with the idea that the Americans had to bear the cost of their own defense. Stamp Act had been effective in Britain since 1694. Raising the tax in Britain was not ideal because the taxes were already high. In 1764, the British parliament made it public to the American colonies that they were considering passing the Stamp Act. The news was largely rejected by the Americans. However, the Stamp Act was passed on March 22, 1765. The Act was supported by 205 against 49 members of the House of Commons. It became effective on November 1, 1765.
Reaction to the Passing of the Stamp Act
The Stamp Act of 1765 was received with a lot of resistance and opposition. The Americans saw the imposition of the tax as a violation of their rights. The Stamp Act was seen as a move to squeeze money out of the colonists. In fact, there were many protests and demonstrations held against the act. Some of the protests against the act turned very violent and destructive. The British manufacturers and business people who benefitted from exporting their goods to the colonies were also affected. Their business ventures were affected by the violent protests. Therefore, they pressured the government to either drop the collection of the tax or moderate it. Due to the protests, the collection of the direct tax was not smooth and effective. In fact, it failed completely with the British collecting less than 30% of what they had targeted. The protests also led to vandalizing of property.
How Effective Was the Stamp Act of 1765?
The money obtained from the collection of the direct tax was effective in funding the American Frontier that was located near the Appalachian Mountains. The tax enabled for the compensation for the troops who were located in North America after the Seven Years’ War. The troop was composed of around 10,000 soldiers. The Americans suggested that Britain should take up the responsibility of protecting the Americans from Indians. It was, therefore, the obligation of Britain to pay the troops. The resistance to the Stamp Act of 1765 set the stage for a similar resistance to the Townshend Act of 1767.
What Was The Stamp Act Of 1765?
The Stamp Act of 1765 was an Act that was used by Britain to impose direct tax on the American colonies. The Act was passed on March 22, 1765. This Act was meant to enforce direct tax to anything printed by the American Colonists.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 801 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mary Edwards Walker
In all of United States History, there has only been one woman to receive the Presidential Medal of Honor. Mary Edwards Walker is that woman. As a surgeon, women’s rights advocate, abolitionist, and spy, Walker became the first female U.S. Army surgeon during the Civil War. Her legacy has been celebrated across the country, and in 2012 Walker’s hometown unveiled a 900-pound bronze statue in honor of her contributions.
Mary Edwards Walker was born on November 26, 1832 in Oswego, New York. She was the fifth daughter of abolitionists Alvah and Vesta Whitcomb Walker. Her parents encouraged her to think freely, and allowed her to wear “bloomer” pants, instead of the skits and corsets women were required to wear at the time. Education was also very important to the Walker family. Mary’s parents started the first free school in Oswego, New York so their daughters would be just as educated as their son. Outside of school, all of the children helped with manual labor on the farm. After finishing at her parent’s school, Walker and two of her older sisters attended Falley Seminary in Fulton, New York. When Walker graduated, she became a teacher in Minetto, New York but she knew she wanted to become a doctor. She worked until she saved enough money to pay for medical school. Walker then attended Syracuse Medical College and received her medical degree in 1855. She became the second woman to graduate from this college after Elizabeth Blackwell.
Shortly after she graduated, Walker married another medical school student Albert Miller on November 16, 1855. They started a medical practice together in Rome, New York. However, the practice did not succeed because the public did not want to accept a female doctor. When the Civil War began in 1861, Walker wanted to join the Union’s efforts. She went to Washington but was not allowed to serve as a medical officer because she was a woman. She decided to still serve as an unpaid volunteer surgeon at the U.S. Patent Office Hospital in Washington. At the time, the army had no female surgeons, so Walker was only allowed to practice as a nurse. After this, she organized the Women's Relief Organization that helped families of the wounded who came to visit their loved ones at the hospital. In 1862, Walker moved to Virginia and started treating wounded soldiers near the front lines. She also wrote to the War Department in September of that year requesting to become a spy, but she was rejected. However, in 1863 her request to practice as a surgeon was finally accepted. She became the first female U.S. Army surgeon as a "Contract Acting Assistant Surgeon (civilian)" in Ohio.
During her work as a surgeon in the war, Walker often crossed battle lines to care for soldiers and civilians. In April of 1864, Walker had just finished helping a Confederate doctor with a surgery when she was captured by Confederate troops as a spy. She was held as a prisoner of war for four months. While imprisoned, she refused to wear the women’s clothes provided to her. She wore men’s clothes her entire life because they were more comfortable and hygienic. She even wore pants under her skirt at her wedding. Walker was released from prison in August of 1864 and became the assistant surgeon of the Ohio 52nd Infantry a month later. After the war, Walker was awarded the Presidential Medal of Honor by President Andrew Johnson. A few years later, Walker published a book called Hit in 1871.
In addition to her work with the army, she began to advocate for women’s rights. She famously wore pants and advocated for “dress reform.” She was arrested in New Orleans in 1870 because she was dressed like a man. Walker responded by saying, "I don't wear men's clothes, I wear my own clothes." She also fought for suffrage and tried to register to vote in 1871, but she was denied. Walker then participated in politics by campaigning for the U.S. Senate in 1881 and running as a Democratic candidate for Congress in 1890. Although she lost both times, she testified in front of the US House of Representatives in support of women's suffrage. In 1916, the Medal of Honor was taken away from Walker and many others after the government reviewed their eligibility. Although she was given the award by the President, she did not meet the requirements to qualify for the award. However, this did not stop Walker from wearing her award until her death in 1919. At the age of eighty-six, Mary Edwards Walker died of illness. Decades later, President Jimmy Carter legally restored the Medal of Honor to Walker’s name.
National Parks Service. "Dr. Mary Edwards Walker." Accessed June 27, 2019. https://www.nps.gov/people/mary-walker.htm.
- U.S. National Library of Medicine. "Changing the Face of Medicine | Mary Edwards Walker." October 14, 2003. https://cfmedicine.nlm.nih.gov/physicians/biography_325.html.
- National Parks Service. "Dr. Mary Edwards Walker." Accessed June 27, 2019. https://www.nps.gov/people/mary-walker.htm.
- Lange, Katie. "Meet Dr. Mary Walker: The Only Female Medal of Honor Recipient." U.S. Army. Accessed March 7, 2017. https://www.army.mil/article/183800/meet_dr_mary_walker_the_only_female_medal_of_honor_recipient.
- Military.com. "Medal of Honor Spotlight: Dr. Mary Edwards Walker." Accessed July 13, 2019. https://www.military.com/history/dr-mary-edwards-walker.html.
Photo: National Parks Service-https://www.nps.gov/people/mary-walker.htm
MLA – Alexander, Kerri Lee. “Mary Edwards Walker.” National Women’s History Museum, 2019. Date accessed.
Chicago – Alexander, Kerri Lee. “Mary Edwards Walker.” National Women’s History Museum. 2019. www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/mary-edwards-walker.
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In all of United States History, there has only been one woman to receive the Presidential Medal of Honor. Mary Edwards Walker is that woman. As a surgeon, women’s rights advocate, abolitionist, and spy, Walker became the first female U.S. Army surgeon during the Civil War. Her legacy has been celebrated across the country, and in 2012 Walker’s hometown unveiled a 900-pound bronze statue in honor of her contributions.
Mary Edwards Walker was born on November 26, 1832 in Oswego, New York. She was the fifth daughter of abolitionists Alvah and Vesta Whitcomb Walker. Her parents encouraged her to think freely, and allowed her to wear “bloomer” pants, instead of the skits and corsets women were required to wear at the time. Education was also very important to the Walker family. Mary’s parents started the first free school in Oswego, New York so their daughters would be just as educated as their son. Outside of school, all of the children helped with manual labor on the farm. After finishing at her parent’s school, Walker and two of her older sisters attended Falley Seminary in Fulton, New York. When Walker graduated, she became a teacher in Minetto, New York but she knew she wanted to become a doctor. She worked until she saved enough money to pay for medical school. Walker then attended Syracuse Medical College and received her medical degree in 1855. She became the second woman to graduate from this college after Elizabeth Blackwell.
Shortly after she graduated, Walker married another medical school student Albert Miller on November 16, 1855. They started a medical practice together in Rome, New York. However, the practice did not succeed because the public did not want to accept a female doctor. When the Civil War began in 1861, Walker wanted to join the Union’s efforts. She went to Washington but was not allowed to serve as a medical officer because she was a woman. She decided to still serve as an unpaid volunteer surgeon at the U.S. Patent Office Hospital in Washington. At the time, the army had no female surgeons, so Walker was only allowed to practice as a nurse. After this, she organized the Women's Relief Organization that helped families of the wounded who came to visit their loved ones at the hospital. In 1862, Walker moved to Virginia and started treating wounded soldiers near the front lines. She also wrote to the War Department in September of that year requesting to become a spy, but she was rejected. However, in 1863 her request to practice as a surgeon was finally accepted. She became the first female U.S. Army surgeon as a "Contract Acting Assistant Surgeon (civilian)" in Ohio.
During her work as a surgeon in the war, Walker often crossed battle lines to care for soldiers and civilians. In April of 1864, Walker had just finished helping a Confederate doctor with a surgery when she was captured by Confederate troops as a spy. She was held as a prisoner of war for four months. While imprisoned, she refused to wear the women’s clothes provided to her. She wore men’s clothes her entire life because they were more comfortable and hygienic. She even wore pants under her skirt at her wedding. Walker was released from prison in August of 1864 and became the assistant surgeon of the Ohio 52nd Infantry a month later. After the war, Walker was awarded the Presidential Medal of Honor by President Andrew Johnson. A few years later, Walker published a book called Hit in 1871.
In addition to her work with the army, she began to advocate for women’s rights. She famously wore pants and advocated for “dress reform.” She was arrested in New Orleans in 1870 because she was dressed like a man. Walker responded by saying, "I don't wear men's clothes, I wear my own clothes." She also fought for suffrage and tried to register to vote in 1871, but she was denied. Walker then participated in politics by campaigning for the U.S. Senate in 1881 and running as a Democratic candidate for Congress in 1890. Although she lost both times, she testified in front of the US House of Representatives in support of women's suffrage. In 1916, the Medal of Honor was taken away from Walker and many others after the government reviewed their eligibility. Although she was given the award by the President, she did not meet the requirements to qualify for the award. However, this did not stop Walker from wearing her award until her death in 1919. At the age of eighty-six, Mary Edwards Walker died of illness. Decades later, President Jimmy Carter legally restored the Medal of Honor to Walker’s name.
National Parks Service. "Dr. Mary Edwards Walker." Accessed June 27, 2019. https://www.nps.gov/people/mary-walker.htm.
- U.S. National Library of Medicine. "Changing the Face of Medicine | Mary Edwards Walker." October 14, 2003. https://cfmedicine.nlm.nih.gov/physicians/biography_325.html.
- National Parks Service. "Dr. Mary Edwards Walker." Accessed June 27, 2019. https://www.nps.gov/people/mary-walker.htm.
- Lange, Katie. "Meet Dr. Mary Walker: The Only Female Medal of Honor Recipient." U.S. Army. Accessed March 7, 2017. https://www.army.mil/article/183800/meet_dr_mary_walker_the_only_female_medal_of_honor_recipient.
- Military.com. "Medal of Honor Spotlight: Dr. Mary Edwards Walker." Accessed July 13, 2019. https://www.military.com/history/dr-mary-edwards-walker.html.
Photo: National Parks Service-https://www.nps.gov/people/mary-walker.htm
MLA – Alexander, Kerri Lee. “Mary Edwards Walker.” National Women’s History Museum, 2019. Date accessed.
Chicago – Alexander, Kerri Lee. “Mary Edwards Walker.” National Women’s History Museum. 2019. www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/mary-edwards-walker.
Freethought Trail. "Walker, Mary Edwards." Accessed July 13, 2019. https://freethought-trail.org/profiles/profile:walker-mary-edwards/. | 1,372 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The extinct elephant bird could grow to over ten feet tall and weigh in at around half a ton, with its eggs about 180 times the size of a chicken egg. They lived well in Madagascar until about 2,000 years ago, when humans first settled the island; then, about 1,000 years later, they were extinct. In an upcoming documentary, Sir David Attenborough says it wasn't the skill of human hunters that caused the big bird's demise:
"I doubt it was hunted to extinction – anyone who has seen an ostrich in a zoo knows that it has a kick which can open a man's stomach and an enraged elephant bird, many times the size of an ostrich, must have been a truly formidable opponent."
Instead, he says, humans probably killed off the elephant bird by eating all their eggs---someone stumbling on a nest and stealing one of it's calorie-rich eggs could keep their family happy for several meals. Attenborough discovered the egg shells on a visit to Madagascar in the 1960's. For the documentary he returns to the area which has changed dramatically in the 50 years since then, he told The Telegraph
"I go back to a place where there was forest 50 years ago when I was there and it has all been knocked down the only thing that is there is an abandoned saw mill. It was sad to go back and see that. It is an example of the way the island has changed over the years. There are now three times as many people living on the island since I was there 50 years ago. The only places they can live and grow food were the only places that were wild. The wild places are being taken over by people building villages on them and rice fields."
More information from Attenborough on giant birds in the video below. Attenborough and the Giant Egg will air on BBC Two in 2011. Related content: 80beats: The Complicated History of the Domesticated Turkey
Not Exactly Rocket Science: Float like a butterfly, sting like a terror bird
Not Exactly Rocket Science: DNA from the largest bird ever sequenced from fossil eggshells
Not Exactly Rocket Science: Argentavis, the largest flying bird, was a master glider | <urn:uuid:d300c0d0-011c-4e42-aa54-1b704507a15b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/elephant-birds-tasty-giant-eggs-were-most-likely-its-downfall | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00501.warc.gz | en | 0.980196 | 450 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.499312013387680... | 7 | The extinct elephant bird could grow to over ten feet tall and weigh in at around half a ton, with its eggs about 180 times the size of a chicken egg. They lived well in Madagascar until about 2,000 years ago, when humans first settled the island; then, about 1,000 years later, they were extinct. In an upcoming documentary, Sir David Attenborough says it wasn't the skill of human hunters that caused the big bird's demise:
"I doubt it was hunted to extinction – anyone who has seen an ostrich in a zoo knows that it has a kick which can open a man's stomach and an enraged elephant bird, many times the size of an ostrich, must have been a truly formidable opponent."
Instead, he says, humans probably killed off the elephant bird by eating all their eggs---someone stumbling on a nest and stealing one of it's calorie-rich eggs could keep their family happy for several meals. Attenborough discovered the egg shells on a visit to Madagascar in the 1960's. For the documentary he returns to the area which has changed dramatically in the 50 years since then, he told The Telegraph
"I go back to a place where there was forest 50 years ago when I was there and it has all been knocked down the only thing that is there is an abandoned saw mill. It was sad to go back and see that. It is an example of the way the island has changed over the years. There are now three times as many people living on the island since I was there 50 years ago. The only places they can live and grow food were the only places that were wild. The wild places are being taken over by people building villages on them and rice fields."
More information from Attenborough on giant birds in the video below. Attenborough and the Giant Egg will air on BBC Two in 2011. Related content: 80beats: The Complicated History of the Domesticated Turkey
Not Exactly Rocket Science: Float like a butterfly, sting like a terror bird
Not Exactly Rocket Science: DNA from the largest bird ever sequenced from fossil eggshells
Not Exactly Rocket Science: Argentavis, the largest flying bird, was a master glider | 469 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Because of the rise of rock and roll, a statement has been made where rock and roll influenced the lifestyle, attitude, and fashion of the many Individuals. L. Rock and Roll and the Counterculture Movement. A. Rock music became more than Just a form of popular culture. B. Younger generations are able to find their identities C. Economic depression led individuals to turn to ways to solve their suffering II. Social Effects on Younger Generations and Lifestyle. A. Rock and roll impacted on the lives of many including teenagers.
B. Many saw the culture as a way to rebel against the old traditions C. Rock and rollers led a “hard” life which included drugs and alcohol D. The fashion reflected the lifestyles of the rock and rollers. Ill. Saving the World. A. Love and peace are common themes in rock and roll music. B. Fellow musicians like Woody Guthrie and Bob Dylan. C. Musicians have adopted causes ranging from environments. D. Songs would be “Sunday Bloody Sundae. ‘V. Roller of Phrase. A. Origin of Phrase came from blacks as a form of slang. B. First used in 1951 but credited to Alan Freed. C. One of Paul Backcombs in 1947 D.
Terrier Smith’s song “My Man Rocks Me With One Steady Roll”. V. Cultural Impact. A. Although many older generation viewed the revolution ear as a underground movement. B. Rock and roll came during tensions between blacks and whites. C. Music brought the segregation to an end VI. Rock and Roll and uniqueness A. Brought politics together B. Rose charity money VII. Weapon is Rock and Roll Conclusion A. Rock and roll is a weapon of Cultural Revolution. B. Jon Sinclair talks about freedom and differences C. There are not many genuine artists in the world anymore The asses was considered to be called the time of change.
During this time, many movements had taken place. Reasons for this would be due to the economic depression because of the Vietnam War. Several Americans were against the Idea of war. The prices of food rose up and living necessities became too expensive to afford. Not only were prices rising but people were losing their Jobs. Since no one wanted to spend, stores were not able to keep a sufficient Income to keep their workers. Thus, employees were forced to be let go. During a time of economic hardships, people turned for ways to relief the stress and trouble that they were Tackling.
I nuns, a revolution was Odor. Rock Ana roll was Torment In ten late the United States. Born in a time of change and crisis, people saw the counterculture movement as a way to fight against the mishaps. Traditional music became loud and noisy with inappropriate lyrics that were sung by new artists. Because of how new rock and roll was, it was considered to be an underground genre and was viewed negatively by older generations. In many aspects, Rock and roll was a movement that rebelled against politics. It was not common for songs to include topics that were related about war.
Well known Rock and Rollers would be Elvis Presley (The King of Rock and Roll), The Ink Blots, and Luis Jordan. Each of these artists brought a unique piece of music to make rock and roll a unique genre. As stated by Alan Freed, “Rock and roll is a river of music that has absorbed many streams; rhythms, blues, Jazz, rag time, cowboy songs, country songs, and folk songs. ” Soon, rock and roll became part of the popular culture of the United States. Not only that but, the rock and roll movement help shaped the attitude, lifestyle, fashion, and even language of the many individuals in the United States.
Rock and roll music became more than Just a popular culture that made its way urine the asses. It became a movement and possibly even an ideology. Those who followed the movement sought ways to put their emotions and beliefs into song. Unlike the millions of different popular culture, it had allowed people to live life differently than most. It was a movement that was against everything that made the world impure. Rock and roll allowed followers to play their music loud and harsh. Lyrics became over flown with emotions so strong, that older generations sought ways to stop the movement.
However, in the eyes of the newer generations, it was considered a revolution. Not Just any kind, but as the Music Revolution. Attempts to merge politics and music were made possible due to the hard efforts of John Sinclair. Born on October 2, 1941 in Flint, Michigan, he was known for being a one-time manager of the band MAC and leader of the White Panther Party- a militantly anti- racist counterculture group of the white Socialists that sought to assist the Black Panthers in the Civil Rights movement. Sinclair, known for his active involvement with the MAC, managed the hard-edged punk-look from 1966 through 1969.
The MAC band was able to embrace the counterculture revolutionary politics of the White Panther Party under the guidance of Sinclair, himself. Even if MAC and Sinclair were both deeply involved with the revolutionary politics, MAC came to a realization that Sinclair was “too heavy-handed”. Although the band and Sinclair are no longer working together, they are still close friends. In 1968, Sinclair “Rock and Roll Is a Weapon of Cultural Revolution” was published in a magazine. He claimed that there are not many genuine music artists left in the world that would sing purely because of a cause rather than Just for money.
Sinclair also states multiple times that “music is revolution”. According to Sinclair, “Rock and roll not only is a weapon of Cultural Revolution, it is the model of the revolutionary future. It’s best the music works to free people on all levels, and production unit. ” Here, Sinclair gives his explanations on why rock and roll was indeed a revolutionary weapon. Because Rock and Roll music is so unique, it allows followers to be set free from many things. People don’t have to stress over simple daily situations. With rock and roll, people were able to formulate a sense of culture.
Scalar continual to say, “People nave got to get It together, not apart People are owe stuck with bullwhip Jobs, bullwhip schools, bullwhip houses, bullwhip marriages… And there’s no need for it anymore. ” He also continued to insist that “Everything has to be free or else! ” In this article, Sinclair puts his focus on the new generations whom he believes are the Music Revolution. He encouraged the youths to start writing music and express their feelings about politics. Sinclair stated that the world is corrupted because humans made nothing but anti-human products.
Daily things such as toilet paper, plastic cups, and forks are Just some of the things that were mentioned. In edition, Sinclair concluded strongly that, “It’s time to turn on, tune in and take over! Up against the ceiling, motherhood’s! ” Not too long after this article was published, Sinclair Music Revolution came into reality and that his famous quote “turn on, tune in, and take over! ” would play a huge role in the rock and roll movement. Rock and roll became more than Just a form of popular culture. Many individuals, especially the younger generations, saw it as a form of lifestyle and culture.
Several rock and rollers found that the popular culture of rock and roll was a central component of the Cultural Revolution. The reason why the followers felt this way was because unlike other music genres, rock and roll allowed artists to sing about situations with anger. In addition, rock and roll was like an escape away from the economic depression that people were facing during the late asses to the asses. The depression affected many families, and because of this, songs began to reflect that era. Thus, rock and roll was formed. Due to its popularity, it was adopted into the lifestyles and attitudes of many Americans.
Teenagers started to live the “hard” life by drinking hard liquor. Drugs such as LSI, pot, heroin, and crack were used to fleet their lifestyle. The rock and roll fashion in the asses-ass consisted of mostly black leather. Males usually followed the famous actor, James Dean, style. They would wear a tight white t-shirt and have their hair swept to the side and a comb in their leather Jacket. For the females, they would wear leather Jackets as well with edgy skirts and leggings. Favorite rock and roll celebrities would be seen on magazine covers and products of them would be sold in stores.
To outsiders especially the older generations, this was considered to be very shocking and disappointing. Soon, fellow rock and rollers were considered to be an outcast. Although this may be true, with the help of the Music Revolution the attitudes of the people changed from strained and depressed to hard living and optimistic. Because of rock and roll, individuals were able to get on with their lives with minimum stress Peace and love were common themes in rock and roll music. Rock artists in the asses and ass have often addressed economic issues as commentary action.
For instance, during the Vietnam War, one of the very first rock songs to protest was heard. The artists of the song were Bob Dylan and Woody Guthrie. Many well known rock musicians have adapted to the attempt of addressing economic and social issues. For example, some well known songs would be “Mercy Mercy Me”, “Sunday Bloody Sunday’, and “Kill the Poor”. Some notably musicians that were very active in politics were John Lennox and his former girlfriend, Yoke Non. The duo was known to give their speeches about their anti-war sentiment both in music and in the public statements.
Sometimes, the involvement of rock musicians would go more than Just songwriting and take the form of concerts, events, and charity. Rock and roll was a social catcalls Tanat NAS Racine a milestone In ten Level AI cone arts. It NAS outgrown the 1984 charity single “Do They Know It’s Christmas? Also, it has become the largest musical concert in history with performers on two main stages. People featured in this charity concert were all the face of rock music back in the days. Live Aid help became a model for many other fund raising. Environmental issues have been a common theme.
An example would be Live Earth. The origin of the phrase “rock and roll” may surprise many for some did not know that it was not the Whites that came up with that phrase. Instead, the phrase of rock and roll came from the Blacks as a form of slang. In 1951, Alan Freed, a disk Jockey, began playing blues and country music for a multi-racial audience. He is credited with the first for using the phrase “rock and roll” to describe the music he played. But the phrase was introduced to Americans in words of blues and rhythm. There are three different songs that are titled “rock and roll”.
Some were recorded as early as the asses. One was recorded by Paul Backcomb around 1947; in 1948 Wild Bill Moore decides to Join in and lastly, Doles Dickens in 1949. It is also not out of the ordinary for people to find Rock and Roll in R&B songs. Back then, “rock and roll” was a black slang for sex or perhaps dancing. The first record of the usage of “rock and OLL” would be from her one song called, “My Man Rocks Me with One Steady Roll. ” Going back even further in time, minion, the term “rock and rolling” was often used with a religious meaning.
The word “rock” had a history in the English language as a metaphor to “shake up, loosen up, or to be disturbed”. Example would be, “Rock It for Me, Baby,” and “Rock and roll my life with the music. ” During the asses, sex in songs became very common. The verb “roll” was in fact a medieval metaphor which meant “to be having sex”. Examples in sentences would be “l rolled her in the clover” or “They had rolled all day and night in the house. The terms of “rock and roll” was often used together to describe the ship’s motion at sea as well. Simply to say, the term “rock and roll” basically means to loosen up and have sex.
It is not hard to understand why the people began to use this word; to rebel against the world of what was going on. Perhaps, due to all the depression, individuals saw that the way of “rock and roll” was a solution to their endless problems. Rock and roll is a way of life and those who live it are in freedom. Rock and rollers such as Elvis Presley and John Lennox went for something different and that was to choose to be in a different popular culture. Because of rock and roll, many individuals found their identities by finding the lifestyle and culture that fits those best.
Back in the days, rock and roll music was considered to be underground. Before it had gained its popularity, rock and roll culture was not big on older generations, especially among parents of teenagers. Parents viewed it as a ludicrous to be considered as music. Older generations were used to listening to soft and classical music such as opera, and Mozart, however unlike classical music; rock and roll music does not have any of those traits in its genre. Rock and roll music is loud and very heavy that consists of drums and guitars whether it may be electric or acoustic, it depends on the type of song that is being played.
The media portrayed rock and rollers as a “bad kid” or “troublemaker”. However, all of this is proven to be wrong for rock and roll did much more than that. During hard times, Rock and roll appeared when racial tensions in the United States were coming to the surface. African Americans were protesting segregation AT cocoons Ana puddle Tactless. I en “separate but equal” doctrine was nominally overturned by the Supreme Court in 1954, and the official task of enforcing this new doctrine lay ahead. This new musical form combining elements of white and black music inevitably provoked strong reactions.
This Just proves that music can do many things that others may have thought impossible since because of the music it has helped blacks and whites to overcome their differences. Rock and roll has impacted so much in America along with the world. It has swept people’s feet with its rhythm, beats, and blues. Rock and roll has everything to offer for an individual. It’s different and unique and because of it, rock and roll has earned its place in the popular culture. It has created a difference too many lives. Because of rock and roll, the youth of the asses and asses were able to find their identity.
There is so much more to life than the music of rock and roll. To many, it is a culture and lifestyle. It changed the attitudes of many and thanks to rock and roll, it has patched up the wounds between the blacks and the whites. For once, there was something that the two groups have in common. Rock and roll brought family together. It didn’t matter if you were rich or poor or if you were black or white, music is music and rock and roll is the Music Revolution. Just like how Jon Sinclair would have put it, “its time to turn on, tune in, and take over. Notes 1 Rock and roll evolved in the United States during the asses and early asses. Rock and roll consisted of mainly blues, country, folk, and gospel along with Jazz. Rock and roll led to modern rock music such as glamour, metal, and death metal music. The instruments involved are usually guitars. In rock and roll there are two electric guitars along with saxophone and piano (asses). As rock and roll aged dance got more popular such as the “boogie-woozier”. 2 Rock and roll became more than Just a type of popular culture. It has evolved over time.
As it grew with age, rock and roll became simply Just rock music. The popular culture took over the world with music, television; it influenced lifestyles, attitude, and even language. Rock and roll did more than Just that but it also helped bring people from different cultures together. Because of rock music the segregation act disappeared. Black and white individuals came together and enjoyed listening to the same type of rock music. Soon, the white music entertainment industry realized that there was room for black music. Because of this, hip hop earn its popularity long with rhythm and beat music. Alan Freed is credited for the term of “rock and roll”. However the real origin of rock and roll came from Terrier whose lyrics contained, “My man rocks me with one steady roll. ” Rock and roll was also a slang used by blacks. The word “rock” meant to “shake up and loosen” while “roll” was a term meant “to have sex”. Rock and roll affected the teenage culture of many generations in several ways. For instance, it changed the aspects of teenagers. It helped teenagers find their own identity. Because of this, their fashion made a statement of who they are and what teen level Tort. | <urn:uuid:763260a1-9186-498b-bc05-c74f71cc8665> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://paperap.com/paper-on-rock-and-roll/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.981871 | 3,625 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.004842598922550... | 3 | Because of the rise of rock and roll, a statement has been made where rock and roll influenced the lifestyle, attitude, and fashion of the many Individuals. L. Rock and Roll and the Counterculture Movement. A. Rock music became more than Just a form of popular culture. B. Younger generations are able to find their identities C. Economic depression led individuals to turn to ways to solve their suffering II. Social Effects on Younger Generations and Lifestyle. A. Rock and roll impacted on the lives of many including teenagers.
B. Many saw the culture as a way to rebel against the old traditions C. Rock and rollers led a “hard” life which included drugs and alcohol D. The fashion reflected the lifestyles of the rock and rollers. Ill. Saving the World. A. Love and peace are common themes in rock and roll music. B. Fellow musicians like Woody Guthrie and Bob Dylan. C. Musicians have adopted causes ranging from environments. D. Songs would be “Sunday Bloody Sundae. ‘V. Roller of Phrase. A. Origin of Phrase came from blacks as a form of slang. B. First used in 1951 but credited to Alan Freed. C. One of Paul Backcombs in 1947 D.
Terrier Smith’s song “My Man Rocks Me With One Steady Roll”. V. Cultural Impact. A. Although many older generation viewed the revolution ear as a underground movement. B. Rock and roll came during tensions between blacks and whites. C. Music brought the segregation to an end VI. Rock and Roll and uniqueness A. Brought politics together B. Rose charity money VII. Weapon is Rock and Roll Conclusion A. Rock and roll is a weapon of Cultural Revolution. B. Jon Sinclair talks about freedom and differences C. There are not many genuine artists in the world anymore The asses was considered to be called the time of change.
During this time, many movements had taken place. Reasons for this would be due to the economic depression because of the Vietnam War. Several Americans were against the Idea of war. The prices of food rose up and living necessities became too expensive to afford. Not only were prices rising but people were losing their Jobs. Since no one wanted to spend, stores were not able to keep a sufficient Income to keep their workers. Thus, employees were forced to be let go. During a time of economic hardships, people turned for ways to relief the stress and trouble that they were Tackling.
I nuns, a revolution was Odor. Rock Ana roll was Torment In ten late the United States. Born in a time of change and crisis, people saw the counterculture movement as a way to fight against the mishaps. Traditional music became loud and noisy with inappropriate lyrics that were sung by new artists. Because of how new rock and roll was, it was considered to be an underground genre and was viewed negatively by older generations. In many aspects, Rock and roll was a movement that rebelled against politics. It was not common for songs to include topics that were related about war.
Well known Rock and Rollers would be Elvis Presley (The King of Rock and Roll), The Ink Blots, and Luis Jordan. Each of these artists brought a unique piece of music to make rock and roll a unique genre. As stated by Alan Freed, “Rock and roll is a river of music that has absorbed many streams; rhythms, blues, Jazz, rag time, cowboy songs, country songs, and folk songs. ” Soon, rock and roll became part of the popular culture of the United States. Not only that but, the rock and roll movement help shaped the attitude, lifestyle, fashion, and even language of the many individuals in the United States.
Rock and roll music became more than Just a popular culture that made its way urine the asses. It became a movement and possibly even an ideology. Those who followed the movement sought ways to put their emotions and beliefs into song. Unlike the millions of different popular culture, it had allowed people to live life differently than most. It was a movement that was against everything that made the world impure. Rock and roll allowed followers to play their music loud and harsh. Lyrics became over flown with emotions so strong, that older generations sought ways to stop the movement.
However, in the eyes of the newer generations, it was considered a revolution. Not Just any kind, but as the Music Revolution. Attempts to merge politics and music were made possible due to the hard efforts of John Sinclair. Born on October 2, 1941 in Flint, Michigan, he was known for being a one-time manager of the band MAC and leader of the White Panther Party- a militantly anti- racist counterculture group of the white Socialists that sought to assist the Black Panthers in the Civil Rights movement. Sinclair, known for his active involvement with the MAC, managed the hard-edged punk-look from 1966 through 1969.
The MAC band was able to embrace the counterculture revolutionary politics of the White Panther Party under the guidance of Sinclair, himself. Even if MAC and Sinclair were both deeply involved with the revolutionary politics, MAC came to a realization that Sinclair was “too heavy-handed”. Although the band and Sinclair are no longer working together, they are still close friends. In 1968, Sinclair “Rock and Roll Is a Weapon of Cultural Revolution” was published in a magazine. He claimed that there are not many genuine music artists left in the world that would sing purely because of a cause rather than Just for money.
Sinclair also states multiple times that “music is revolution”. According to Sinclair, “Rock and roll not only is a weapon of Cultural Revolution, it is the model of the revolutionary future. It’s best the music works to free people on all levels, and production unit. ” Here, Sinclair gives his explanations on why rock and roll was indeed a revolutionary weapon. Because Rock and Roll music is so unique, it allows followers to be set free from many things. People don’t have to stress over simple daily situations. With rock and roll, people were able to formulate a sense of culture.
Scalar continual to say, “People nave got to get It together, not apart People are owe stuck with bullwhip Jobs, bullwhip schools, bullwhip houses, bullwhip marriages… And there’s no need for it anymore. ” He also continued to insist that “Everything has to be free or else! ” In this article, Sinclair puts his focus on the new generations whom he believes are the Music Revolution. He encouraged the youths to start writing music and express their feelings about politics. Sinclair stated that the world is corrupted because humans made nothing but anti-human products.
Daily things such as toilet paper, plastic cups, and forks are Just some of the things that were mentioned. In edition, Sinclair concluded strongly that, “It’s time to turn on, tune in and take over! Up against the ceiling, motherhood’s! ” Not too long after this article was published, Sinclair Music Revolution came into reality and that his famous quote “turn on, tune in, and take over! ” would play a huge role in the rock and roll movement. Rock and roll became more than Just a form of popular culture. Many individuals, especially the younger generations, saw it as a form of lifestyle and culture.
Several rock and rollers found that the popular culture of rock and roll was a central component of the Cultural Revolution. The reason why the followers felt this way was because unlike other music genres, rock and roll allowed artists to sing about situations with anger. In addition, rock and roll was like an escape away from the economic depression that people were facing during the late asses to the asses. The depression affected many families, and because of this, songs began to reflect that era. Thus, rock and roll was formed. Due to its popularity, it was adopted into the lifestyles and attitudes of many Americans.
Teenagers started to live the “hard” life by drinking hard liquor. Drugs such as LSI, pot, heroin, and crack were used to fleet their lifestyle. The rock and roll fashion in the asses-ass consisted of mostly black leather. Males usually followed the famous actor, James Dean, style. They would wear a tight white t-shirt and have their hair swept to the side and a comb in their leather Jacket. For the females, they would wear leather Jackets as well with edgy skirts and leggings. Favorite rock and roll celebrities would be seen on magazine covers and products of them would be sold in stores.
To outsiders especially the older generations, this was considered to be very shocking and disappointing. Soon, fellow rock and rollers were considered to be an outcast. Although this may be true, with the help of the Music Revolution the attitudes of the people changed from strained and depressed to hard living and optimistic. Because of rock and roll, individuals were able to get on with their lives with minimum stress Peace and love were common themes in rock and roll music. Rock artists in the asses and ass have often addressed economic issues as commentary action.
For instance, during the Vietnam War, one of the very first rock songs to protest was heard. The artists of the song were Bob Dylan and Woody Guthrie. Many well known rock musicians have adapted to the attempt of addressing economic and social issues. For example, some well known songs would be “Mercy Mercy Me”, “Sunday Bloody Sunday’, and “Kill the Poor”. Some notably musicians that were very active in politics were John Lennox and his former girlfriend, Yoke Non. The duo was known to give their speeches about their anti-war sentiment both in music and in the public statements.
Sometimes, the involvement of rock musicians would go more than Just songwriting and take the form of concerts, events, and charity. Rock and roll was a social catcalls Tanat NAS Racine a milestone In ten Level AI cone arts. It NAS outgrown the 1984 charity single “Do They Know It’s Christmas? Also, it has become the largest musical concert in history with performers on two main stages. People featured in this charity concert were all the face of rock music back in the days. Live Aid help became a model for many other fund raising. Environmental issues have been a common theme.
An example would be Live Earth. The origin of the phrase “rock and roll” may surprise many for some did not know that it was not the Whites that came up with that phrase. Instead, the phrase of rock and roll came from the Blacks as a form of slang. In 1951, Alan Freed, a disk Jockey, began playing blues and country music for a multi-racial audience. He is credited with the first for using the phrase “rock and roll” to describe the music he played. But the phrase was introduced to Americans in words of blues and rhythm. There are three different songs that are titled “rock and roll”.
Some were recorded as early as the asses. One was recorded by Paul Backcomb around 1947; in 1948 Wild Bill Moore decides to Join in and lastly, Doles Dickens in 1949. It is also not out of the ordinary for people to find Rock and Roll in R&B songs. Back then, “rock and roll” was a black slang for sex or perhaps dancing. The first record of the usage of “rock and OLL” would be from her one song called, “My Man Rocks Me with One Steady Roll. ” Going back even further in time, minion, the term “rock and rolling” was often used with a religious meaning.
The word “rock” had a history in the English language as a metaphor to “shake up, loosen up, or to be disturbed”. Example would be, “Rock It for Me, Baby,” and “Rock and roll my life with the music. ” During the asses, sex in songs became very common. The verb “roll” was in fact a medieval metaphor which meant “to be having sex”. Examples in sentences would be “l rolled her in the clover” or “They had rolled all day and night in the house. The terms of “rock and roll” was often used together to describe the ship’s motion at sea as well. Simply to say, the term “rock and roll” basically means to loosen up and have sex.
It is not hard to understand why the people began to use this word; to rebel against the world of what was going on. Perhaps, due to all the depression, individuals saw that the way of “rock and roll” was a solution to their endless problems. Rock and roll is a way of life and those who live it are in freedom. Rock and rollers such as Elvis Presley and John Lennox went for something different and that was to choose to be in a different popular culture. Because of rock and roll, many individuals found their identities by finding the lifestyle and culture that fits those best.
Back in the days, rock and roll music was considered to be underground. Before it had gained its popularity, rock and roll culture was not big on older generations, especially among parents of teenagers. Parents viewed it as a ludicrous to be considered as music. Older generations were used to listening to soft and classical music such as opera, and Mozart, however unlike classical music; rock and roll music does not have any of those traits in its genre. Rock and roll music is loud and very heavy that consists of drums and guitars whether it may be electric or acoustic, it depends on the type of song that is being played.
The media portrayed rock and rollers as a “bad kid” or “troublemaker”. However, all of this is proven to be wrong for rock and roll did much more than that. During hard times, Rock and roll appeared when racial tensions in the United States were coming to the surface. African Americans were protesting segregation AT cocoons Ana puddle Tactless. I en “separate but equal” doctrine was nominally overturned by the Supreme Court in 1954, and the official task of enforcing this new doctrine lay ahead. This new musical form combining elements of white and black music inevitably provoked strong reactions.
This Just proves that music can do many things that others may have thought impossible since because of the music it has helped blacks and whites to overcome their differences. Rock and roll has impacted so much in America along with the world. It has swept people’s feet with its rhythm, beats, and blues. Rock and roll has everything to offer for an individual. It’s different and unique and because of it, rock and roll has earned its place in the popular culture. It has created a difference too many lives. Because of rock and roll, the youth of the asses and asses were able to find their identity.
There is so much more to life than the music of rock and roll. To many, it is a culture and lifestyle. It changed the attitudes of many and thanks to rock and roll, it has patched up the wounds between the blacks and the whites. For once, there was something that the two groups have in common. Rock and roll brought family together. It didn’t matter if you were rich or poor or if you were black or white, music is music and rock and roll is the Music Revolution. Just like how Jon Sinclair would have put it, “its time to turn on, tune in, and take over. Notes 1 Rock and roll evolved in the United States during the asses and early asses. Rock and roll consisted of mainly blues, country, folk, and gospel along with Jazz. Rock and roll led to modern rock music such as glamour, metal, and death metal music. The instruments involved are usually guitars. In rock and roll there are two electric guitars along with saxophone and piano (asses). As rock and roll aged dance got more popular such as the “boogie-woozier”. 2 Rock and roll became more than Just a type of popular culture. It has evolved over time.
As it grew with age, rock and roll became simply Just rock music. The popular culture took over the world with music, television; it influenced lifestyles, attitude, and even language. Rock and roll did more than Just that but it also helped bring people from different cultures together. Because of rock music the segregation act disappeared. Black and white individuals came together and enjoyed listening to the same type of rock music. Soon, the white music entertainment industry realized that there was room for black music. Because of this, hip hop earn its popularity long with rhythm and beat music. Alan Freed is credited for the term of “rock and roll”. However the real origin of rock and roll came from Terrier whose lyrics contained, “My man rocks me with one steady roll. ” Rock and roll was also a slang used by blacks. The word “rock” meant to “shake up and loosen” while “roll” was a term meant “to have sex”. Rock and roll affected the teenage culture of many generations in several ways. For instance, it changed the aspects of teenagers. It helped teenagers find their own identity. Because of this, their fashion made a statement of who they are and what teen level Tort. | 3,510 | ENGLISH | 1 |
American History Terms Essay
They were not even considered citizens in the United States. During this period African American were slaves, working in fields and being servants for the white slave owners. During the year of 1861-1865, the union states were fighting the federate states in which the union won and slavery was later abolished. After this period, things for African Americans did not change. Blacks were segregated from whites, they were still considered minorities, and blacks are still mistreated by the whites.
Although African Americans were freed overtime, the life for African Americans did not change in the wake of the Civil War.
Violence was the worst during the segregation time period. Blacks were mistreated and often looked down upon. There was always a threat by terrorist violence. The UK Klux Klan, Knights of White Camellia, and other terrorists killed many blacks to keep them from voting and participating in public life. Founded in 1 865, the UK Klux Klan did everything they could to attack he blacks from having their rights.
The Auk’s main form main form of violence towards blacks was lynching.
Meaning, the UK Klux Klan was known to kill African Americans by hanging for an alleged offense with or without a legal trial. In the south, over 2,000 African Americans were lynched between the years of 1884 until the early 1 ass’s. They also did other types of violence such as shooting, burying African Americans alive, and beat them to death. The UK Klux Klan was not only violent towards African Americans, but they attacked citizens who supported Republicans or racial equalities. Frederick Douglas, a dominant Republican said “Rebellion has been subdued, slavery abolished, and peace proclaimed,” He said, “and yet our work is not done…
We are face to face with the same old enemy of liberty and progress…. The South today is a field of blood. ” Meaning, even slaves were freed from working in fields and being servants, they still were mistreated because of the color of their skin. Even in the North where most civil rights reformers hailed from, people discriminated based on color. In the Ignited States, racial segregation and discrimination was enforced by the Jim Crow Laws, a system of laws and customs. Jim Crow Laws were enacted by lawmakers who were set and bitter about their loss to the north and the ending of slavery.
The laws were written to and applied in a way that discriminated against African Americans, but yet the laws did not specifically mention race. February 1843, started the tradition of the Jim Crow with a performed song and dance act by four white men from Virginia. The successful troops were individual performers who copied African American’s singing and dancing. Jim Crow grew slowly. In the last two decades of the nineteenth century, many African Americans still enjoyed the rights granted in the 13th, 14th, and 15th
Amendments, along with the 1875 Civil Rights Act. Blacks and Whites rode together in the same railway cars, ate in the same restaurants, used the same public facilities, but did not interact as equals. Held at the Civil Rights Act in 1875 the court case Peoples v. Ferguson was unconstitutional and ruled that the 14th Amendment did not prohibit individuals and private organizations from discriminating on the basis of race. The court case started the “separate but equal” status. This means, blacks were free, but they were to remain separated from the white Americans.
Later, blacks were denied social forms of respect. Signs were posted stating “Whites Only” and “Colored. Black male adults were often called “boy” by the whites. Eventually, by the year 191 2, in the south laws were passed for two separate societies. One society was black and the other was white. Blacks were not allowed to sit on the same train as whites, eat in the same diner with whites, or sit in the same movie theatre with a white person. During the Jim Crow era, the separation of schools for children encouraged blacks to leave the south.
There was segregation in tolls, stores, entertainment, and libraries. Segregation within the south caused all this fueling an atmosphere of racism and a rise in lynching, rioting, and the UK Klux Klan. Most blacks in the south were not granted jobs or housing because of their skin color. Blacks were also often denied the right to vote through literacy tests and poll taxes that was giving with trick questions on the test. When blacks Were hired, some jobs prohibited blacks from working in the same room as a white person. During the year of 1 954, court case Brown v.
Board of Education declared integration in schools. This court case led to legal suits, mass sit-ins, and boycotts to force dash desegregation. Although blacks were undefeated against segregation and discrimination, they still faced hard times such as unequal opportunities. Having new approaches, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1 964, the Voting Rights Act of 1 965, the Fair Housing Act of 1968, and the Black Power Movement, this led to the ending to the Jim Crow Laws. The violence and the power of state governments made segregation complicating.
African Americans used ballot boxes, courtrooms, and organizations such as the National Association f the Advancement of Colored People to help them fight segregation. Meetings were held by blacks after the Civil Rights Act of 1883. Many speeches were given from black leaders who chose to fight for rights in their communities. W. E. B. Dubos, the first African American to receive a doctoral degree from Harvard University, was followed by several Black activists to Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada to plan strategies to fight racial equality in 1905. They were later known as the Niagara Movement by the year of 1909.
The Great Migration, the changing nature of African American politics, and the social and cultural changes connected to war itself were the three major factors that contributed to the Civil Rights Movement. Until the 1 ass’s, Blacks loyally voted for Republicans. While during the 1 CSS, he democratic Part remained dominated by the Southern, segregationist wing. Because President Franklin Roosevelt hated segregation, he appointed blacks to high offices. The rights for African Americans were slowly but surely gaining at this time. Roosevelt was not the only one who hated segregation.
The National Council of Negro Women was invited by Eleanor Roosevelt to have tea. When she resigned from the Daughters of America Revolution when they refused to allow an opera singer, Marina Anderson, to give a concert because she was lack was one of Eleanor Roosevelt most important act against segregation. Later in the 1 ass’s, when more blacks in the north began voting for Democrats instead of Republicans, things started to shift. Arthur W. Mitchell eventually became the first black Democrat in the history of Congress. World War II was the final attempt to replace the Civil Rights Movement.
Jackie Robinson was signed to the Brooklyn Dodgers because the manager Rickety legalized that segregation in Major League Baseball was morally wrong. Robinson played for the Doge Minor League his first year. Soon the team accepted more African Americans and the team became stars with blacks and whites on the team. Although African Americans were freed overtime, the life for African Americans did not change in the wake of the Civil War. To a good extent, W. E. B. Dubos was correct when he wrote that the single greatest issue of the 20th century would be the “color line”. Because of the 13th, 14, and 1 5th Amendments segregation was over.
Even though blacks and whites are integrated in today’s society, blacks are still being judged and stereotyped because of their skin color. In fact, some towns in the south still have active members of good and organizations such as the UK Klux Klan, and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. As a African American living in the south, I believe having the right to vote and getting a good education is important because so many African Americans fought hard for black students to be able to get a good education and vote for a President of the country I represent.
Cite this American History Terms Essay
American History Terms Essay. (2018, May 03). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/african-american-history-6/ | <urn:uuid:1c270a99-70ab-487f-b205-ce52180011e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/african-american-history-6/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00046.warc.gz | en | 0.98329 | 1,703 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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-0.005908455234020... | 1 | American History Terms Essay
They were not even considered citizens in the United States. During this period African American were slaves, working in fields and being servants for the white slave owners. During the year of 1861-1865, the union states were fighting the federate states in which the union won and slavery was later abolished. After this period, things for African Americans did not change. Blacks were segregated from whites, they were still considered minorities, and blacks are still mistreated by the whites.
Although African Americans were freed overtime, the life for African Americans did not change in the wake of the Civil War.
Violence was the worst during the segregation time period. Blacks were mistreated and often looked down upon. There was always a threat by terrorist violence. The UK Klux Klan, Knights of White Camellia, and other terrorists killed many blacks to keep them from voting and participating in public life. Founded in 1 865, the UK Klux Klan did everything they could to attack he blacks from having their rights.
The Auk’s main form main form of violence towards blacks was lynching.
Meaning, the UK Klux Klan was known to kill African Americans by hanging for an alleged offense with or without a legal trial. In the south, over 2,000 African Americans were lynched between the years of 1884 until the early 1 ass’s. They also did other types of violence such as shooting, burying African Americans alive, and beat them to death. The UK Klux Klan was not only violent towards African Americans, but they attacked citizens who supported Republicans or racial equalities. Frederick Douglas, a dominant Republican said “Rebellion has been subdued, slavery abolished, and peace proclaimed,” He said, “and yet our work is not done…
We are face to face with the same old enemy of liberty and progress…. The South today is a field of blood. ” Meaning, even slaves were freed from working in fields and being servants, they still were mistreated because of the color of their skin. Even in the North where most civil rights reformers hailed from, people discriminated based on color. In the Ignited States, racial segregation and discrimination was enforced by the Jim Crow Laws, a system of laws and customs. Jim Crow Laws were enacted by lawmakers who were set and bitter about their loss to the north and the ending of slavery.
The laws were written to and applied in a way that discriminated against African Americans, but yet the laws did not specifically mention race. February 1843, started the tradition of the Jim Crow with a performed song and dance act by four white men from Virginia. The successful troops were individual performers who copied African American’s singing and dancing. Jim Crow grew slowly. In the last two decades of the nineteenth century, many African Americans still enjoyed the rights granted in the 13th, 14th, and 15th
Amendments, along with the 1875 Civil Rights Act. Blacks and Whites rode together in the same railway cars, ate in the same restaurants, used the same public facilities, but did not interact as equals. Held at the Civil Rights Act in 1875 the court case Peoples v. Ferguson was unconstitutional and ruled that the 14th Amendment did not prohibit individuals and private organizations from discriminating on the basis of race. The court case started the “separate but equal” status. This means, blacks were free, but they were to remain separated from the white Americans.
Later, blacks were denied social forms of respect. Signs were posted stating “Whites Only” and “Colored. Black male adults were often called “boy” by the whites. Eventually, by the year 191 2, in the south laws were passed for two separate societies. One society was black and the other was white. Blacks were not allowed to sit on the same train as whites, eat in the same diner with whites, or sit in the same movie theatre with a white person. During the Jim Crow era, the separation of schools for children encouraged blacks to leave the south.
There was segregation in tolls, stores, entertainment, and libraries. Segregation within the south caused all this fueling an atmosphere of racism and a rise in lynching, rioting, and the UK Klux Klan. Most blacks in the south were not granted jobs or housing because of their skin color. Blacks were also often denied the right to vote through literacy tests and poll taxes that was giving with trick questions on the test. When blacks Were hired, some jobs prohibited blacks from working in the same room as a white person. During the year of 1 954, court case Brown v.
Board of Education declared integration in schools. This court case led to legal suits, mass sit-ins, and boycotts to force dash desegregation. Although blacks were undefeated against segregation and discrimination, they still faced hard times such as unequal opportunities. Having new approaches, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1 964, the Voting Rights Act of 1 965, the Fair Housing Act of 1968, and the Black Power Movement, this led to the ending to the Jim Crow Laws. The violence and the power of state governments made segregation complicating.
African Americans used ballot boxes, courtrooms, and organizations such as the National Association f the Advancement of Colored People to help them fight segregation. Meetings were held by blacks after the Civil Rights Act of 1883. Many speeches were given from black leaders who chose to fight for rights in their communities. W. E. B. Dubos, the first African American to receive a doctoral degree from Harvard University, was followed by several Black activists to Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada to plan strategies to fight racial equality in 1905. They were later known as the Niagara Movement by the year of 1909.
The Great Migration, the changing nature of African American politics, and the social and cultural changes connected to war itself were the three major factors that contributed to the Civil Rights Movement. Until the 1 ass’s, Blacks loyally voted for Republicans. While during the 1 CSS, he democratic Part remained dominated by the Southern, segregationist wing. Because President Franklin Roosevelt hated segregation, he appointed blacks to high offices. The rights for African Americans were slowly but surely gaining at this time. Roosevelt was not the only one who hated segregation.
The National Council of Negro Women was invited by Eleanor Roosevelt to have tea. When she resigned from the Daughters of America Revolution when they refused to allow an opera singer, Marina Anderson, to give a concert because she was lack was one of Eleanor Roosevelt most important act against segregation. Later in the 1 ass’s, when more blacks in the north began voting for Democrats instead of Republicans, things started to shift. Arthur W. Mitchell eventually became the first black Democrat in the history of Congress. World War II was the final attempt to replace the Civil Rights Movement.
Jackie Robinson was signed to the Brooklyn Dodgers because the manager Rickety legalized that segregation in Major League Baseball was morally wrong. Robinson played for the Doge Minor League his first year. Soon the team accepted more African Americans and the team became stars with blacks and whites on the team. Although African Americans were freed overtime, the life for African Americans did not change in the wake of the Civil War. To a good extent, W. E. B. Dubos was correct when he wrote that the single greatest issue of the 20th century would be the “color line”. Because of the 13th, 14, and 1 5th Amendments segregation was over.
Even though blacks and whites are integrated in today’s society, blacks are still being judged and stereotyped because of their skin color. In fact, some towns in the south still have active members of good and organizations such as the UK Klux Klan, and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. As a African American living in the south, I believe having the right to vote and getting a good education is important because so many African Americans fought hard for black students to be able to get a good education and vote for a President of the country I represent.
Cite this American History Terms Essay
American History Terms Essay. (2018, May 03). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/african-american-history-6/ | 1,740 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How 9-Year-Old Sylvia Mendez Helped Desegregate Schools
I get heated when I talk about education. Even more so when I recognize how far we’ve come and how much further we still have left to go. I took umbrage with my school experience, but I was relieved to be educated in the 2000s when hearing stories from generations past.
Brown v. Board of Education is a long cited case steeped in cultural importance that opened access to education for students of all races and ethnicities in the US. However, it isn’t the only case to make a stand for equal education. When I matured out of public school, I learned about the landmark case, which set a precedent for desegregation of schools and a young girl whose parents fought for her education.
Sylvia Mendez is the daughter of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigrants who operated an agricultural business in Westminster, CA. In the 1940s, Sylvia and her brothers began attending Hoover Elementary, the only school in the district open to Hispanic students. When Sylvia’s parents saw the education received by students of the ‘white-only’ school, 17th St Elementary, they wanted to enroll her and the other children of their family.
17th St Elementary denied entry to the Mendez family’s children citing their skin color and Hispanic surname. The entire family was rightfully outraged and decided to move forward with their case, Mendez v. Westminster, in a fight to end segregation of schools in California.
Mendez v. Westminster was a class action lawsuit against several school districts in California representing five Mexican-American families and ‘5,000 similarly situated children’. The case gained support from numerous groups, including the NAACP, the American Jewish Congress, and the Japanese American Citizens League.
As a young girl, Sylvia watched her father give the education system hell and stand up for their rights during a time when people were being blacklisted for suspected communism or imprisoned for being Japanese. She remarks on her father during that time:
“He knew that what he was doing was the right thing to do. He was going to right a wrong.”
The case was found in favor of the Mendez family. Schools integrated throughout California, and those 5,000 children would be able to access the education they deserved. The judge stated in the ruling that:
“segregation prevalent in the defendant school districts foster antagonisms in the children and suggest inferiority among them where none exists.”
It would be nice to think that in the aftermath, the children were happy and treated with kindness by their peers in the integrated system. As we all know, there is no rest for those that spark change. Sylvia attended 17th St Elementary facing anti-Hispanic sentiment head-on during her school years. She went on to become a dedicated nurse for 30 years and eventually, an activist for Hispanic student rights. US history has failed to acknowledge the Mendez family’s contribution to the desegregation of schools.
I want to say gracias to Sylvia and her family. I’m grateful for their tireless work and the ripple it left for all communities of color. | <urn:uuid:34cd6b97-f963-448a-b016-7acef460b7e1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://latinx.com/discover/how-9-year-old-sylvia-mendez-helped-desegregate-schools/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.983095 | 657 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.06281106... | 12 | How 9-Year-Old Sylvia Mendez Helped Desegregate Schools
I get heated when I talk about education. Even more so when I recognize how far we’ve come and how much further we still have left to go. I took umbrage with my school experience, but I was relieved to be educated in the 2000s when hearing stories from generations past.
Brown v. Board of Education is a long cited case steeped in cultural importance that opened access to education for students of all races and ethnicities in the US. However, it isn’t the only case to make a stand for equal education. When I matured out of public school, I learned about the landmark case, which set a precedent for desegregation of schools and a young girl whose parents fought for her education.
Sylvia Mendez is the daughter of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigrants who operated an agricultural business in Westminster, CA. In the 1940s, Sylvia and her brothers began attending Hoover Elementary, the only school in the district open to Hispanic students. When Sylvia’s parents saw the education received by students of the ‘white-only’ school, 17th St Elementary, they wanted to enroll her and the other children of their family.
17th St Elementary denied entry to the Mendez family’s children citing their skin color and Hispanic surname. The entire family was rightfully outraged and decided to move forward with their case, Mendez v. Westminster, in a fight to end segregation of schools in California.
Mendez v. Westminster was a class action lawsuit against several school districts in California representing five Mexican-American families and ‘5,000 similarly situated children’. The case gained support from numerous groups, including the NAACP, the American Jewish Congress, and the Japanese American Citizens League.
As a young girl, Sylvia watched her father give the education system hell and stand up for their rights during a time when people were being blacklisted for suspected communism or imprisoned for being Japanese. She remarks on her father during that time:
“He knew that what he was doing was the right thing to do. He was going to right a wrong.”
The case was found in favor of the Mendez family. Schools integrated throughout California, and those 5,000 children would be able to access the education they deserved. The judge stated in the ruling that:
“segregation prevalent in the defendant school districts foster antagonisms in the children and suggest inferiority among them where none exists.”
It would be nice to think that in the aftermath, the children were happy and treated with kindness by their peers in the integrated system. As we all know, there is no rest for those that spark change. Sylvia attended 17th St Elementary facing anti-Hispanic sentiment head-on during her school years. She went on to become a dedicated nurse for 30 years and eventually, an activist for Hispanic student rights. US history has failed to acknowledge the Mendez family’s contribution to the desegregation of schools.
I want to say gracias to Sylvia and her family. I’m grateful for their tireless work and the ripple it left for all communities of color. | 642 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Surname: 5 Name: Professor: Course: Date: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE UNION AND THE CONFEDERACY The Civil War, which started in April 1861, was a war between the northerners and the southerners in America. The war began after President Abraham Lincoln came into office and pledged the abolishment of slavery in the southern colonies. These colonies wanted nothing to do with the northern states, therefore, they had to secede or separate from the northern states. Moreover, to avoid the country from becoming pieces of fragments and small countries, Lincoln had to do something. The southern territories had named themselves the Confederacy, while the northern states were known as the union. However, after the Confederate army took over Fort Sumter, Lincoln stated that this behavior should be stopped, and opted to attack the Confederacy. Moreover, after this particular event, several states joined the Confederacy in the fight against the northerners. The war continued for four good years, however, the outcomes of the war shaped the country into what we see today. Both sides of the war had certain things which were going on for them and other things which were against them. Let’s take a look at the disadvantages and the advantages of the Union and the Confederacy. The union Advantages Great population The north had a population of 22 million people, which was large in number compared to the 9 million of the Confederacy. Moreover, following the freeing of the slaves, the population of the union grew by an addition of 200, 000 people. Superior leadership The union boasted that it had valuable leaders compared to the Confederacy. Some of these leaders include, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Gant, and Philip Sheridan. It also had an organized government which was experienced and established, this was a huge benefit for them because it was difficult for the Confederacy to organize attacks. More railroads 70% of the railroads in the country were located within the southern region. Therefore, this allowed the union to move supplies, artillery, and people a lot easier. Disadvantages Terrain The northerners were not familiar with the terrain of the confederates land like the southerners did. Additionally, not knowing the easiest way in and out was a huge disadvantage for them. Pressure to get victory Since victory was an essential aspect of the union, the union faced a lot of pressure to win the battle because if they had lost then the country would be divided, thus compromising the democracy. Different opinions Not everyone in the Union wanted to abolish slavery, therefore, this forced men to be lost in the south. The Confederacy Advantages Outstanding Army Values and life were very different in the union and confederacy. The south mostly emphasizes on arms and tactical training which came in handy during the civil war. Home advantage The Confederate soldiers were very familiar with the terrain than their counterparts, therefore they used this to their advantage and fought for their land and families. Strong motivation The southerners had a strong will and power, since the battle was fought on their territory, they fought to defend their homes and families. Disadvantages Europe did not recognize the Confederacy It was hard for the state to get foreign aid when Europe failed to recognize the Confederacy. Trade Since the southerners relied heavily on conducting trade with foreign countries, the Union took advantage of it and blocked the Confederate supplies, thus destroying their economy. Gun to men ratio The Confederacy had enough guns and few men to fight the war. This made them weak to the extent of losing the war. Events that were a turning point to the Union Army. Emancipation Proclamation The emancipation proclamation was a significant turning point for the Union in succeeding the war. Lincoln issued the proclamation immediately after the battle of Antietam as a strategy of pushing the northern Army back into the Confederate territory, and effectively repell the confederate’s invasion of the north region. Moreover, Lincoln believed that this victory will act as a leverage to demand the Confederates to surrender and go back to the Union. The 13th Amendment The president and the Union knew that the Emancipation Proclamation might be viewed as a temporary measure of war and not an abolition of slavery once the war came to an end, so the president focused on passing a constitutional amendment that would abolish slavery. Moreover, since the 13th Amendment was a way of abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude, the union used it as a form of punishing any form of crimes committed by the blacks. Battle of Antietam Also known as the battle of Sharpsburg, the battle of Antietam was a war fought between the Confederates and the union. However, even though the battle ended in a draw it marked the turning point for the Union, because General Lee granted Lincoln the victory which he desired at the end of the War. | <urn:uuid:88778402-7218-4ea1-bab5-af3ab65d20a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://westvirginiaangerclass.com/surname-from-the-northern-states-moreover-to-avoid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00536.warc.gz | en | 0.981316 | 983 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.2084357887506485... | 6 | Surname: 5 Name: Professor: Course: Date: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE UNION AND THE CONFEDERACY The Civil War, which started in April 1861, was a war between the northerners and the southerners in America. The war began after President Abraham Lincoln came into office and pledged the abolishment of slavery in the southern colonies. These colonies wanted nothing to do with the northern states, therefore, they had to secede or separate from the northern states. Moreover, to avoid the country from becoming pieces of fragments and small countries, Lincoln had to do something. The southern territories had named themselves the Confederacy, while the northern states were known as the union. However, after the Confederate army took over Fort Sumter, Lincoln stated that this behavior should be stopped, and opted to attack the Confederacy. Moreover, after this particular event, several states joined the Confederacy in the fight against the northerners. The war continued for four good years, however, the outcomes of the war shaped the country into what we see today. Both sides of the war had certain things which were going on for them and other things which were against them. Let’s take a look at the disadvantages and the advantages of the Union and the Confederacy. The union Advantages Great population The north had a population of 22 million people, which was large in number compared to the 9 million of the Confederacy. Moreover, following the freeing of the slaves, the population of the union grew by an addition of 200, 000 people. Superior leadership The union boasted that it had valuable leaders compared to the Confederacy. Some of these leaders include, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Gant, and Philip Sheridan. It also had an organized government which was experienced and established, this was a huge benefit for them because it was difficult for the Confederacy to organize attacks. More railroads 70% of the railroads in the country were located within the southern region. Therefore, this allowed the union to move supplies, artillery, and people a lot easier. Disadvantages Terrain The northerners were not familiar with the terrain of the confederates land like the southerners did. Additionally, not knowing the easiest way in and out was a huge disadvantage for them. Pressure to get victory Since victory was an essential aspect of the union, the union faced a lot of pressure to win the battle because if they had lost then the country would be divided, thus compromising the democracy. Different opinions Not everyone in the Union wanted to abolish slavery, therefore, this forced men to be lost in the south. The Confederacy Advantages Outstanding Army Values and life were very different in the union and confederacy. The south mostly emphasizes on arms and tactical training which came in handy during the civil war. Home advantage The Confederate soldiers were very familiar with the terrain than their counterparts, therefore they used this to their advantage and fought for their land and families. Strong motivation The southerners had a strong will and power, since the battle was fought on their territory, they fought to defend their homes and families. Disadvantages Europe did not recognize the Confederacy It was hard for the state to get foreign aid when Europe failed to recognize the Confederacy. Trade Since the southerners relied heavily on conducting trade with foreign countries, the Union took advantage of it and blocked the Confederate supplies, thus destroying their economy. Gun to men ratio The Confederacy had enough guns and few men to fight the war. This made them weak to the extent of losing the war. Events that were a turning point to the Union Army. Emancipation Proclamation The emancipation proclamation was a significant turning point for the Union in succeeding the war. Lincoln issued the proclamation immediately after the battle of Antietam as a strategy of pushing the northern Army back into the Confederate territory, and effectively repell the confederate’s invasion of the north region. Moreover, Lincoln believed that this victory will act as a leverage to demand the Confederates to surrender and go back to the Union. The 13th Amendment The president and the Union knew that the Emancipation Proclamation might be viewed as a temporary measure of war and not an abolition of slavery once the war came to an end, so the president focused on passing a constitutional amendment that would abolish slavery. Moreover, since the 13th Amendment was a way of abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude, the union used it as a form of punishing any form of crimes committed by the blacks. Battle of Antietam Also known as the battle of Sharpsburg, the battle of Antietam was a war fought between the Confederates and the union. However, even though the battle ended in a draw it marked the turning point for the Union, because General Lee granted Lincoln the victory which he desired at the end of the War. | 999 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“The Chrysanthemums” is written by John Steinbeck, an author whose works are infused with political and social undertones. In “The Chrysanthemums”, Steinbeck focuses on the role and struggles of a woman in the 1930s. It is a story about Elisa, a lonely, childless woman who lives with her husband, Henry, in Salinas Valley, California, a dark, isolated place. The story presents several themes such as gender inequality, the role of women, sexuality and the relationship between a man and a woman.
Steinbeck’s “The Chrysanthemums” is his way of highlighting to his readers the unacceptable gender inequality that persisted in the past. The traditional role of a woman is presented in the story and that is a housekeeper, a person subservient to her husband and even a sex object. Elisa simply stays at home, does the gardening and sees to it that the needs of her husband are met. Elisa’s subservience to his husband is illustrated in Part 95, when she had to prepare the clothes and shoes of her husband while he was taking a bath, when, in fact, she could just have let her husband do it himself (Steinbeck, 2011). Being the traditional woman of the house, she is not expected to go out unless in the company of her husband. She is not even expected to be expanding her knowledge when her husband remarked in Part 115, “I didn’t know you read things like that” (Steinbeck, 2011). It seems that it was unusual for women at that time to read about things that relate to men.
The inequality between the two genders is emphasized as Henry is shown to be the breadwinner while Elisa stays at home. Society would probably frown if Elisa worked while her husband stayed at home. The “wagon man” even thinks that traveling along the country is something which is unfit for a woman.
The story shows that women are viewed as the weaker sex, as someone whose role is to be a housewife fit for child-bearing and caring for children only. This is symbolized by Elisa’s planting, taking care and propagation of the chrysanthemums. In Part 10, when Elisa talks to Henry about her skill with chrysanthemums, one senses that she is so proud of this accomplishment, maybe, her only accomplishment.
The era described in the story is the time when women feel so lowly about themselves. This is illustrated through Elisa’s perception of herself. She feels unappreciated by her husband. She even had to convince him that she was good at something, and that is the planting of chrysanthemums. Although they have a good relationship, it seems to be lacking in passion; thus, one observes Elisa as a wife who is longing for a more meaningful sexual relationship with her husband. Elisa’s desire for sex is ignited by her encounter with the “wagon man” as shown by her reaction after they met. However, her false sense of being appreciated is cut short when she sees the chrysanthemums which she gave left on the road.
The story also depicts how women suppress their feelings and thoughts, maybe, for fear of being reprimanded by their husbands or fear that they may be accused of knowing too much for a woman. One further observes this suppression of feelings in Part 120 when Elisa cried, yet she did not want her husband to see it (Steinbeck, 2011). She views crying as a sign of weakness which she does not want to admit in front of her husband. Elisa is actually devastated inside but would not show it to her husband. She wants him to believe that everything was alright and that she is satisfied with her life, when deep inside she is longing for greater things. She wants self-fulfillment which she is not allowed to pursue because she is a woman and women are supposed to be satisfied with being a housewife.
Steinbeck used this story in light of improving society’s perception of the roles of the man and the woman. The woman need not be someone who simply lurks at the shadow of the man. The woman should be given a chance to be her own person and prove that she can do something aside from being a housekeeper. Men, on the other hand, should accept the fact that women are not just sex objects whom they can manipulate. Men and women should have equal roles in society and this is, probably, what Steinbeck wants to inculcate to his readers.
Steinbeck, J. (2011). The chrysanthemums. In D.L. Pike and A.M. Acostas (Eds.) Literature: A world of writing stories, poems, plays, and essays [VitalSource digital version] (pp. 375-380). Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions. | <urn:uuid:a0bcd451-e0d8-426a-88de-efb5703e12ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebookessay.com/free-essay-examples/literary-analysis-paper-from-feminist-perspective-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.98241 | 1,024 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.07461293041... | 2 | “The Chrysanthemums” is written by John Steinbeck, an author whose works are infused with political and social undertones. In “The Chrysanthemums”, Steinbeck focuses on the role and struggles of a woman in the 1930s. It is a story about Elisa, a lonely, childless woman who lives with her husband, Henry, in Salinas Valley, California, a dark, isolated place. The story presents several themes such as gender inequality, the role of women, sexuality and the relationship between a man and a woman.
Steinbeck’s “The Chrysanthemums” is his way of highlighting to his readers the unacceptable gender inequality that persisted in the past. The traditional role of a woman is presented in the story and that is a housekeeper, a person subservient to her husband and even a sex object. Elisa simply stays at home, does the gardening and sees to it that the needs of her husband are met. Elisa’s subservience to his husband is illustrated in Part 95, when she had to prepare the clothes and shoes of her husband while he was taking a bath, when, in fact, she could just have let her husband do it himself (Steinbeck, 2011). Being the traditional woman of the house, she is not expected to go out unless in the company of her husband. She is not even expected to be expanding her knowledge when her husband remarked in Part 115, “I didn’t know you read things like that” (Steinbeck, 2011). It seems that it was unusual for women at that time to read about things that relate to men.
The inequality between the two genders is emphasized as Henry is shown to be the breadwinner while Elisa stays at home. Society would probably frown if Elisa worked while her husband stayed at home. The “wagon man” even thinks that traveling along the country is something which is unfit for a woman.
The story shows that women are viewed as the weaker sex, as someone whose role is to be a housewife fit for child-bearing and caring for children only. This is symbolized by Elisa’s planting, taking care and propagation of the chrysanthemums. In Part 10, when Elisa talks to Henry about her skill with chrysanthemums, one senses that she is so proud of this accomplishment, maybe, her only accomplishment.
The era described in the story is the time when women feel so lowly about themselves. This is illustrated through Elisa’s perception of herself. She feels unappreciated by her husband. She even had to convince him that she was good at something, and that is the planting of chrysanthemums. Although they have a good relationship, it seems to be lacking in passion; thus, one observes Elisa as a wife who is longing for a more meaningful sexual relationship with her husband. Elisa’s desire for sex is ignited by her encounter with the “wagon man” as shown by her reaction after they met. However, her false sense of being appreciated is cut short when she sees the chrysanthemums which she gave left on the road.
The story also depicts how women suppress their feelings and thoughts, maybe, for fear of being reprimanded by their husbands or fear that they may be accused of knowing too much for a woman. One further observes this suppression of feelings in Part 120 when Elisa cried, yet she did not want her husband to see it (Steinbeck, 2011). She views crying as a sign of weakness which she does not want to admit in front of her husband. Elisa is actually devastated inside but would not show it to her husband. She wants him to believe that everything was alright and that she is satisfied with her life, when deep inside she is longing for greater things. She wants self-fulfillment which she is not allowed to pursue because she is a woman and women are supposed to be satisfied with being a housewife.
Steinbeck used this story in light of improving society’s perception of the roles of the man and the woman. The woman need not be someone who simply lurks at the shadow of the man. The woman should be given a chance to be her own person and prove that she can do something aside from being a housekeeper. Men, on the other hand, should accept the fact that women are not just sex objects whom they can manipulate. Men and women should have equal roles in society and this is, probably, what Steinbeck wants to inculcate to his readers.
Steinbeck, J. (2011). The chrysanthemums. In D.L. Pike and A.M. Acostas (Eds.) Literature: A world of writing stories, poems, plays, and essays [VitalSource digital version] (pp. 375-380). Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions. | 1,025 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Term 3- Superheroes
We’ve had a super first day back as we’ve started term 3 with our Superhero impact day. We visited the different classes in year one and carried out different activities. We had four super activities which were: Den making- making a superhero den for us to hide in. Super hero team games where we had to collect lives. Making a magical potion to help us with our very own superhero power and finally, making a waterproof superhero cape and designing a mask. Our favourite activities were the Den making and the designing and making the superhero capes and masks.
Class 6 had a fantastic day on the Impact Day. They have used lots of skills today doing a number of activities. They especially loved PE and doing team games.
Class 7 have enjoyed Science this week! We have been learning about our bodies including our senses. We explored each sense, which included tasting some interesting foods (celery was not very popular!), smelling different things such as toothpaste, comparing how different materials feel, listening to different instruments and using our sight to measure and compare length.
Our favourite sense to use was taste because we got to taste some yummy fruit! Our least favourite was the hearing table because some of the instruments were too noisy.
Class 8- In our Science lesson we were learning all about our bodies. We were naming as many body parts as possible. We worked in Disney groups and we first drew around one of our friends. We then had labels with different body parts on and we placed them on the correct part of the body. Finally we spoke about our different body parts and why they were important and what they helped us to do. We spoke about the five different senses that we have and why they are so important. We could name the five senses and the body part they went with, which are: Eyes- Sight, Ears- Hearing, Mouth- Taste, Nose- Smell, Hand- Touch.
In our first Science lesson we learnt about our bodies and named and labelled different body parts. We also spoke about our senses.
To put our senses to the test in our second Science lesson we had to help Mrs Khan find her missing keys, as a ‘naughty teddy’ had stolen them.
The teddy left us five different activities that we had to solve. Once we had solved the activity it revealed a colour. The colour then went with one of the five teddy culprits.
The activities were:
Table 1: Finding the piece of equipment that made a squeaking noise. We had to use our ears to help us with this.
Table 2: Measuring and finding the teddy paw print that measured 11cms. We used our sight to help us with this.
Table 3: Finding the piece of material that was the fluffiest. We had to use our hands to help us to do this.
Table 4: Finding the cup which had the minty smell in it. We had to use our noses to solve this activity.
Table 5: We had to be blind folded and try different food. We were trying to find the one that tasted like an apple.
After completing all of our activities we worked out that all the clues led us to the Purple teddy bear, as the Purple teddy bear made a squeaking noise, had a paw that measured 11cms, had the fluffiest fur, smelt like mint and loved eating apples. When we went over to the Purple teddy bear and we found Mrs Khan’s keys.
Class 5 have enjoyed the beginning of our Superhero Topic.We had an impact day where we had team building games, made masks and made Superhero potions. We are also learning about our bodies and senses labelling our body parts and using our senses to solve a mystery.We look forward to the rest of this exciting term.
Class 8 have had a super 'outdoor learning' day today. We will be having a weekly outdoor learning day on a Monday.
We have enjoyed exploring the Forest School and using our senses to help us find objects to make a 'feely mobile'. We have also had a super time carrying out different activities in our year 1 outside area. We have created a superhero in Paul Klee's style by collaging. We have drawn and painted our own superhero, we also thought of adjectives to describe our superhero. We have created a superhero den. We have used the Gym equipment, as it is important for superheroes to stay fit! Finally we have learnt how to read a number in words and match it to the numeral.
Class 7 loved outdoor learning day which we will be doing every Thursday. We enjoyed visiting Forest School and some of us tried making mobiles out of natural materials. We also had fun in our outside area where we did some superhero painting, some maths challenges such as matching numbers and words, using collage to make a superhero picture and den building.
We’ve had a super day learning about Florence Nightingale. We had a great workshop and played lots of games to learn about how Florence Nightingale looked after the soldiers. We became nurses and soldiers and we used bandages to help our soldier friends feel better. We learnt lots of facts, such as, Florence Nightingale was known as the ‘Lady of the Lamp’ and that she travelled to Turkey in a boat. It took her 13 days! We also found out that she helped the wounded soldiers in a hospital called Scutari. | <urn:uuid:8429d3dd-ca2d-45db-a7c1-ce40a45fae8e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://shearsgreeninfantschool.co.uk/children/year-group-pages/year-1-2019-2020/year-1-term-1-2019-2020 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00397.warc.gz | en | 0.982407 | 1,127 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.0859816819429397... | 1 | Term 3- Superheroes
We’ve had a super first day back as we’ve started term 3 with our Superhero impact day. We visited the different classes in year one and carried out different activities. We had four super activities which were: Den making- making a superhero den for us to hide in. Super hero team games where we had to collect lives. Making a magical potion to help us with our very own superhero power and finally, making a waterproof superhero cape and designing a mask. Our favourite activities were the Den making and the designing and making the superhero capes and masks.
Class 6 had a fantastic day on the Impact Day. They have used lots of skills today doing a number of activities. They especially loved PE and doing team games.
Class 7 have enjoyed Science this week! We have been learning about our bodies including our senses. We explored each sense, which included tasting some interesting foods (celery was not very popular!), smelling different things such as toothpaste, comparing how different materials feel, listening to different instruments and using our sight to measure and compare length.
Our favourite sense to use was taste because we got to taste some yummy fruit! Our least favourite was the hearing table because some of the instruments were too noisy.
Class 8- In our Science lesson we were learning all about our bodies. We were naming as many body parts as possible. We worked in Disney groups and we first drew around one of our friends. We then had labels with different body parts on and we placed them on the correct part of the body. Finally we spoke about our different body parts and why they were important and what they helped us to do. We spoke about the five different senses that we have and why they are so important. We could name the five senses and the body part they went with, which are: Eyes- Sight, Ears- Hearing, Mouth- Taste, Nose- Smell, Hand- Touch.
In our first Science lesson we learnt about our bodies and named and labelled different body parts. We also spoke about our senses.
To put our senses to the test in our second Science lesson we had to help Mrs Khan find her missing keys, as a ‘naughty teddy’ had stolen them.
The teddy left us five different activities that we had to solve. Once we had solved the activity it revealed a colour. The colour then went with one of the five teddy culprits.
The activities were:
Table 1: Finding the piece of equipment that made a squeaking noise. We had to use our ears to help us with this.
Table 2: Measuring and finding the teddy paw print that measured 11cms. We used our sight to help us with this.
Table 3: Finding the piece of material that was the fluffiest. We had to use our hands to help us to do this.
Table 4: Finding the cup which had the minty smell in it. We had to use our noses to solve this activity.
Table 5: We had to be blind folded and try different food. We were trying to find the one that tasted like an apple.
After completing all of our activities we worked out that all the clues led us to the Purple teddy bear, as the Purple teddy bear made a squeaking noise, had a paw that measured 11cms, had the fluffiest fur, smelt like mint and loved eating apples. When we went over to the Purple teddy bear and we found Mrs Khan’s keys.
Class 5 have enjoyed the beginning of our Superhero Topic.We had an impact day where we had team building games, made masks and made Superhero potions. We are also learning about our bodies and senses labelling our body parts and using our senses to solve a mystery.We look forward to the rest of this exciting term.
Class 8 have had a super 'outdoor learning' day today. We will be having a weekly outdoor learning day on a Monday.
We have enjoyed exploring the Forest School and using our senses to help us find objects to make a 'feely mobile'. We have also had a super time carrying out different activities in our year 1 outside area. We have created a superhero in Paul Klee's style by collaging. We have drawn and painted our own superhero, we also thought of adjectives to describe our superhero. We have created a superhero den. We have used the Gym equipment, as it is important for superheroes to stay fit! Finally we have learnt how to read a number in words and match it to the numeral.
Class 7 loved outdoor learning day which we will be doing every Thursday. We enjoyed visiting Forest School and some of us tried making mobiles out of natural materials. We also had fun in our outside area where we did some superhero painting, some maths challenges such as matching numbers and words, using collage to make a superhero picture and den building.
We’ve had a super day learning about Florence Nightingale. We had a great workshop and played lots of games to learn about how Florence Nightingale looked after the soldiers. We became nurses and soldiers and we used bandages to help our soldier friends feel better. We learnt lots of facts, such as, Florence Nightingale was known as the ‘Lady of the Lamp’ and that she travelled to Turkey in a boat. It took her 13 days! We also found out that she helped the wounded soldiers in a hospital called Scutari. | 1,111 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Theme 1: Social Justice
You can say that personnel management started in the 19th century. The basis for this was the works of different reformers such as Robert Owen as well as Lord Shaftesbury. These people were quite critical of the system of free enterprise that existed during that time. Different kinds of hardships were in fact taking place owing to the exploitation that the workers had to endure. As a result of this, the personnel managers were being appointed. These people worked for the benefit of the workers and provide them with a better life. The concerns of these peoples are not fake at all in nature. The requirement for these people has also not become obsolete even in the present times. This is because you will still get reports of exploitation of the laborers by the employers. All this is done by disobeying the laws made for the protection of employees from exploitation. In the different organizations, there remains a certain distance between the people who take decisions for the company and those who implement those decisions. Hence in this manner the workers are driven away from their jobs.
You will see that from the later part of the 19th century and earlier part of the 20th century, some of the big employers of the companies having a father figure like outlook, began the appointment of different kinds of welfare officers. These officers would be managing new schemes which were especially designed to make the lives of the different employees easy. Some of the benefits associated with these schemes included, providing benefit of unemployment to the people as well as money when the employees were sick, providing the advantage of housing at really nominal rates so that the workers can live in peace. If you turn the pages of the history book then you will find the names of the firms of the Quaker family as well as the soap business run by the Lever Brothers. The main motives of these people for initiating these schemes were completely acts of charity. There was also a sense of understanding that attention was needed to be paid for the welfare of the people. With help of these welfare schemes, the kind of commitment that the staffs provided with also improved greatly. The best employees also flocked to these business houses on comparing the working conditions with those of the rival businesses. Hence the end result was that the production of the companies improved tremendously and the group of people working kept doing so for a long period of time. When looking after the welfare of the employees, the chances of relation becoming sour between the employee and company also decreased. In the present times, the welfare schemes being floated include assistance for the different employees in different fields as well as providing different facilities to take care of the family, children, their health as well as other issues.
Theme 2: humane bureaucracy
In the next stage of development, the focus was shifted a little from the welfare of the people to the completion of some other objectives of the company. The different managers now had all the responsibilities in areas such as looking after and training of staffs as well as designing the organization. Different scientists such as F.W. Taylor as well as Henri Fayol were specialists in the sector of personnel management. They began to view the different managerial as well as administrative jobs in a very analytical manner. These people began to devise the means for designing of structures of organizations and the deployment of the labor forces in order to get the maximum efficiency out of jobs. The School of Human Relations also had a role to play in the development of the thinking of the personnel. It aimed to better the potential of this kind of management to prevent all kinds of conflict of interests in the industries. This kind of scientific approach was considered too much stiff during process of dehumanization. Thinkers of the likes of Elton Mayo, also had great ideas for these projects they planted the seeds for consolidating the relationship between people in places of work. The maintenance of morale of the employees thus became really important. In this way the level of production was also increased tremendously.
Theme 3: negotiated consent
Bargaining is an art that the managers and all people doing service need to understand. This is a skill that has to be present in your arsenal if you wish to be successful. The World Wars caused too many men to leave the country and serve in the front. Hence labor became something quite scarce in those times, hence this lead to a rise in the trade unions and their increase in say and strength. The top industrial analysts have to say that this kind of uprising was also referred to as a challenge coming from the lower ranks. The needs for the personnel managers became even more important as a result of this. Different new kinds of institutions such as consultation committees as well as production committees were formed in order to account for the new requirements. There were many industries which attained national stature in the period of 1940s. The different employers were asked to do negotiations with the various unions which acted as representatives of the workforce. Hence the governments themselves now promoted the appointment of the personnel managers. There were even courses taught in the university to make able personnel managers. The Ministry of Labor usually looked into all these things.
Theme 4: Organisation
You will see that in the later part of the 1960s, the agenda of the personnel managers changed a little bit. They deflected from arranging the different employees on basis of ranks in a filing system and rather adapted to dealing in the management procedures themselves and brought about a togetherness of different kinds of managerial activities in practice. You could very well see that there were lots of opportunities for people at that time and new ways of careers were getting formed and that brought about a growth in the different organizations. The specialists dealing with personnel today are alert because of the fact that lots of time as well as other such resources are getting devoted for firstly the recruitment and then the maintenance of groups of people in elite positions, on whom a major portion of business may be dependent. The different people looking into personnel management have techniques of their own by which they can look after the use of manpower as well as understand its planning. This kind of activity can be regarded as quantitative in nature. The coming of the latest technology, which can forecast lots of things are also being used widely for determining what kind of skills the employees need to possess.
Theme 5: human resource management
You will find the explanation for this in the pages previous to this.
You need to think up a HRM role that you are quite familiar with. You need to ask yourself how quickly and efficiently, you will be able to mark that role in the company of other themes concerned with the growth and development of the Human Resource Management.
Links of Previous Main Topic:-
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0.24264726042... | 6 | Theme 1: Social Justice
You can say that personnel management started in the 19th century. The basis for this was the works of different reformers such as Robert Owen as well as Lord Shaftesbury. These people were quite critical of the system of free enterprise that existed during that time. Different kinds of hardships were in fact taking place owing to the exploitation that the workers had to endure. As a result of this, the personnel managers were being appointed. These people worked for the benefit of the workers and provide them with a better life. The concerns of these peoples are not fake at all in nature. The requirement for these people has also not become obsolete even in the present times. This is because you will still get reports of exploitation of the laborers by the employers. All this is done by disobeying the laws made for the protection of employees from exploitation. In the different organizations, there remains a certain distance between the people who take decisions for the company and those who implement those decisions. Hence in this manner the workers are driven away from their jobs.
You will see that from the later part of the 19th century and earlier part of the 20th century, some of the big employers of the companies having a father figure like outlook, began the appointment of different kinds of welfare officers. These officers would be managing new schemes which were especially designed to make the lives of the different employees easy. Some of the benefits associated with these schemes included, providing benefit of unemployment to the people as well as money when the employees were sick, providing the advantage of housing at really nominal rates so that the workers can live in peace. If you turn the pages of the history book then you will find the names of the firms of the Quaker family as well as the soap business run by the Lever Brothers. The main motives of these people for initiating these schemes were completely acts of charity. There was also a sense of understanding that attention was needed to be paid for the welfare of the people. With help of these welfare schemes, the kind of commitment that the staffs provided with also improved greatly. The best employees also flocked to these business houses on comparing the working conditions with those of the rival businesses. Hence the end result was that the production of the companies improved tremendously and the group of people working kept doing so for a long period of time. When looking after the welfare of the employees, the chances of relation becoming sour between the employee and company also decreased. In the present times, the welfare schemes being floated include assistance for the different employees in different fields as well as providing different facilities to take care of the family, children, their health as well as other issues.
Theme 2: humane bureaucracy
In the next stage of development, the focus was shifted a little from the welfare of the people to the completion of some other objectives of the company. The different managers now had all the responsibilities in areas such as looking after and training of staffs as well as designing the organization. Different scientists such as F.W. Taylor as well as Henri Fayol were specialists in the sector of personnel management. They began to view the different managerial as well as administrative jobs in a very analytical manner. These people began to devise the means for designing of structures of organizations and the deployment of the labor forces in order to get the maximum efficiency out of jobs. The School of Human Relations also had a role to play in the development of the thinking of the personnel. It aimed to better the potential of this kind of management to prevent all kinds of conflict of interests in the industries. This kind of scientific approach was considered too much stiff during process of dehumanization. Thinkers of the likes of Elton Mayo, also had great ideas for these projects they planted the seeds for consolidating the relationship between people in places of work. The maintenance of morale of the employees thus became really important. In this way the level of production was also increased tremendously.
Theme 3: negotiated consent
Bargaining is an art that the managers and all people doing service need to understand. This is a skill that has to be present in your arsenal if you wish to be successful. The World Wars caused too many men to leave the country and serve in the front. Hence labor became something quite scarce in those times, hence this lead to a rise in the trade unions and their increase in say and strength. The top industrial analysts have to say that this kind of uprising was also referred to as a challenge coming from the lower ranks. The needs for the personnel managers became even more important as a result of this. Different new kinds of institutions such as consultation committees as well as production committees were formed in order to account for the new requirements. There were many industries which attained national stature in the period of 1940s. The different employers were asked to do negotiations with the various unions which acted as representatives of the workforce. Hence the governments themselves now promoted the appointment of the personnel managers. There were even courses taught in the university to make able personnel managers. The Ministry of Labor usually looked into all these things.
Theme 4: Organisation
You will see that in the later part of the 1960s, the agenda of the personnel managers changed a little bit. They deflected from arranging the different employees on basis of ranks in a filing system and rather adapted to dealing in the management procedures themselves and brought about a togetherness of different kinds of managerial activities in practice. You could very well see that there were lots of opportunities for people at that time and new ways of careers were getting formed and that brought about a growth in the different organizations. The specialists dealing with personnel today are alert because of the fact that lots of time as well as other such resources are getting devoted for firstly the recruitment and then the maintenance of groups of people in elite positions, on whom a major portion of business may be dependent. The different people looking into personnel management have techniques of their own by which they can look after the use of manpower as well as understand its planning. This kind of activity can be regarded as quantitative in nature. The coming of the latest technology, which can forecast lots of things are also being used widely for determining what kind of skills the employees need to possess.
Theme 5: human resource management
You will find the explanation for this in the pages previous to this.
You need to think up a HRM role that you are quite familiar with. You need to ask yourself how quickly and efficiently, you will be able to mark that role in the company of other themes concerned with the growth and development of the Human Resource Management.
Links of Previous Main Topic:-
Links of Next HR Management Topics:- | 1,351 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today we celebrate a man whose name may not be familiar, but whose work most certainly is. James Matthew Barrie (May 9, 1860–June 19, 1937), known better as J. M. Barrie, was the man who introduced Peter Pan to the world in 1904, inspiring hundreds of books and dozens of movies. And though he didn’t write the first Peter Pan book until he was 51 (seven years after the play was first performed), little traces of the story of Peter Pan can be found throughout Barrie’s life.
Born ninth of 10 children, J. M. Barrie had a crowded childhood. Two of his siblings died before he was born, but when his older brother David died, Barrie spent time with his mother, listening to stories of her childhood, reading books together, and even going so far as to dress in his brother’s clothes and whistle his favorite tunes to try and comfort his mother—that is, until his mother mistook him for his deceased brother.
Barrie’s mother took solace in the fact that, while her son was gone from her, he would remain a boy forever, something that stuck with Barrie. The thread’s of Peter Pan’s origins are even tangled in his school years, where he and his friends played pirate games that Barrie said were “in a sort of Odyssey that was long afterwards to become the play of Peter Pan.”
After Barrie graduated, his sister found him a job, and from there Barrie’s career in writing began: first as a drama reviewer, then as a staff writer for a newspaper. After submitting a work of fiction to a journal, based off the stories his mother told to him growing up, Barrie’s literary career began in earnest. He published novels and plays, both to praise and criticism, for years. But the most influential people he met were the Llewelyn Davies family.
This family consisted of Arthur and Sylvia, and their five boys, George, John, Peter, Michael, and Nicholas. Barrie became acquainted with the family at Kensington Gardens, meeting their nanny while he walked his St. Bernard, Porthos. Barrie entertained the boys with his stories, and eventually met the rest of the family, becoming Uncle Jim to the Llewelyn Davies family. Barrie would become somewhat of a fixture at the family home, spending time with Sylvia and the boys and telling them stories. One story that George and Michael were especially fond of was how their little brother Peter could fly. Barrie told the boys that all children were birds before they were infants, and that parents barred nursery windows not to keep dangers out, but to keep flying babies in.
It was this story that led to The Little White Bird (or Adventures in Kensington Gardens), where Barrie introduced the character he would be most famous for—Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn’t Grow Up is Barrie’s most famous and lasting work. Performed on stage on December 27th, 1904, the play was well received, and lauded for its appeal to children and adults, alike. After this performance, Barrie had a slew of successes on stage before, in 1911, developing his most popular work into the novel Peter and Wendy.
The character of Peter Pan was created for the Llewelyn Davies’ children, specifically George and Jack. Barrie became more involved with the family in 1907, following the death of Arthur, offering financial and emotional support to the surviving family. And after the family matriarch Sylvia died in 1910, Barrie adopted the children, as well as taking care of Sylvia’s mother and brother and Arthur’s surviving brother.
Much like his childhood, the last years of Barrie’s life were crowded, and then tragically less so. The two of the five boys Barrie was closest with died in their early 20s: George was killed in action during WWI in 1915 and Michael drowned at university in 1921. Barrie himself died on June 19th, 1937 from pneumonia. Most of his works were left to his secretary, Cynthia Asquith, except for his Peter Pan books, which he left to Great Ormond Street Hospital, a leading children’s hospital in 1929.
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0.341926932334899... | 2 | Today we celebrate a man whose name may not be familiar, but whose work most certainly is. James Matthew Barrie (May 9, 1860–June 19, 1937), known better as J. M. Barrie, was the man who introduced Peter Pan to the world in 1904, inspiring hundreds of books and dozens of movies. And though he didn’t write the first Peter Pan book until he was 51 (seven years after the play was first performed), little traces of the story of Peter Pan can be found throughout Barrie’s life.
Born ninth of 10 children, J. M. Barrie had a crowded childhood. Two of his siblings died before he was born, but when his older brother David died, Barrie spent time with his mother, listening to stories of her childhood, reading books together, and even going so far as to dress in his brother’s clothes and whistle his favorite tunes to try and comfort his mother—that is, until his mother mistook him for his deceased brother.
Barrie’s mother took solace in the fact that, while her son was gone from her, he would remain a boy forever, something that stuck with Barrie. The thread’s of Peter Pan’s origins are even tangled in his school years, where he and his friends played pirate games that Barrie said were “in a sort of Odyssey that was long afterwards to become the play of Peter Pan.”
After Barrie graduated, his sister found him a job, and from there Barrie’s career in writing began: first as a drama reviewer, then as a staff writer for a newspaper. After submitting a work of fiction to a journal, based off the stories his mother told to him growing up, Barrie’s literary career began in earnest. He published novels and plays, both to praise and criticism, for years. But the most influential people he met were the Llewelyn Davies family.
This family consisted of Arthur and Sylvia, and their five boys, George, John, Peter, Michael, and Nicholas. Barrie became acquainted with the family at Kensington Gardens, meeting their nanny while he walked his St. Bernard, Porthos. Barrie entertained the boys with his stories, and eventually met the rest of the family, becoming Uncle Jim to the Llewelyn Davies family. Barrie would become somewhat of a fixture at the family home, spending time with Sylvia and the boys and telling them stories. One story that George and Michael were especially fond of was how their little brother Peter could fly. Barrie told the boys that all children were birds before they were infants, and that parents barred nursery windows not to keep dangers out, but to keep flying babies in.
It was this story that led to The Little White Bird (or Adventures in Kensington Gardens), where Barrie introduced the character he would be most famous for—Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn’t Grow Up is Barrie’s most famous and lasting work. Performed on stage on December 27th, 1904, the play was well received, and lauded for its appeal to children and adults, alike. After this performance, Barrie had a slew of successes on stage before, in 1911, developing his most popular work into the novel Peter and Wendy.
The character of Peter Pan was created for the Llewelyn Davies’ children, specifically George and Jack. Barrie became more involved with the family in 1907, following the death of Arthur, offering financial and emotional support to the surviving family. And after the family matriarch Sylvia died in 1910, Barrie adopted the children, as well as taking care of Sylvia’s mother and brother and Arthur’s surviving brother.
Much like his childhood, the last years of Barrie’s life were crowded, and then tragically less so. The two of the five boys Barrie was closest with died in their early 20s: George was killed in action during WWI in 1915 and Michael drowned at university in 1921. Barrie himself died on June 19th, 1937 from pneumonia. Most of his works were left to his secretary, Cynthia Asquith, except for his Peter Pan books, which he left to Great Ormond Street Hospital, a leading children’s hospital in 1929.
All photos courtesy of Wikipedia. | 907 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article covers the life of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius from his accession on 7 March 161 to his death on 17 March 180. Marcus' life before his accession is covered in Early life and career of Marcus Aurelius. This article focuses on personal and administrative matters; military matters are covered in more detail in Roman–Parthian War of 161–66 and Marcomannic Wars.
At the death of Antoninus Pius, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow: The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title imperator, and he would soon be formally elected as Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was "compelled" to take imperial power. This may have been a genuine horror imperii, "fear of imperial power". Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear. It was his duty.
Although Marcus shows no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his Meditations), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans. Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers. The senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the name Augustus. Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus' family name, Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus. It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.
In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or "authority", than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Pius' administration, and he alone was Pontifex Maximus. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior. As the biographer wrote, "Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor."
Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the praetorian guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores. Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special donative. This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors. The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus' accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.
Pius' funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, "elaborate". If his funeral followed the pattern of past funerals, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, while his spirit would rise to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behavior during Pius' campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Pius, now Divus Antoninus. Pius' remains were laid to rest in the Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus' children and of Hadrian himself. The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.
In accordance with his will, Pius' fortune passed on to Faustina. (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other. On 31 August she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus. Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children. The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.
Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus' eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle). At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations. Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their civiliter ("lacking pomp") behavior. The emperors permitted free speech, evinced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. At any other time, under any other emperor, he would have been executed. But it was a peaceful time, a forgiving time. And thus, as the biographer wrote, "No one missed the lenient ways of Pius."
Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ab epistulis Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis. Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus' former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus' accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (aerarium Saturni). He was made consul soon after. Fronto's son-in-law, Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Upper Germany.
Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly. The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: "There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality." Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.
Lucius was less esteemed by his tutor than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors. Marcus told Fronto of his reading—Coelius and a little Cicero—and his family. His daughters were in Rome, with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for "some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus—or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties." Marcus' early reign proceeded smoothly. Marcus was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection. Soon, however, Marcus would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the felicitas temporum ("happy times") that the coinage of 161 had so glibly proclaimed.
In the spring of 162, the Tiber flooded over its banks, destroying much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention. In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.
Fronto's letters continued through Marcus' early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus' prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was "beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence". Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: "Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape." The early days of Marcus' reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: his pupil was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and, perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished. Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: "not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech". Fronto was hugely pleased.For details, see: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166. See also: Roman–Persian Wars
On his deathbed, Pius spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him. One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161. Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own—Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself. The governor of Cappadocia, the front-line in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters. Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily, and win glory for himself, Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. Severianus made some attempt to fight Chosrhoes, but soon realized the futility of his campaign, and committed suicide. His legion was massacred. The campaign had only lasted three days.
There was threat of war on other frontiers as well—in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes. Marcus was unprepared. Pius seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Pius' twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side—and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.
More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray. Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions. Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany, II Adiutrix from Aquincum, and V Macedonica from Troesmis. The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible. M. Annius Libo, Marcus' first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. He was young—his first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties—and, as a mere patrician, lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.
Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the Etrurian coast. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday. Fronto replied ironically: "What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking and complete leisure for four whole days?" He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Pius had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy), going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening—Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure. Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. "I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off," he wrote back. Marcus put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: "'Much good has my advice done you', you will say!" He had rested, and would rest often, but "—this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!"
Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, but, in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: "always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs".
Over the winter of 161–162, as more bad news arrived—a rebellion was brewing in Syria—it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, more suited to military activity. Lucius' biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius' debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, to realize that he was an emperor. Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome; the city "demanded the presence of an emperor".
Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch. Critics declaimed Lucius' luxurious lifestyle. He had taken to gambling, they said; he would "dice the whole night through". He enjoyed the company of actors. Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.
In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus' daughter Lucilla. Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius' mistress, the low-born and beautiful Panthea. Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen. Marcus had moved up the date: perhaps stories of Panthea had disturbed him. Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, the half-brother of Lucius' father. Civica was made comes Augusti, "companion of the emperors"; perhaps Marcus wanted him to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.
Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would); this did not happen. Marcus only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east. Marcus returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.
The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163. At the end of the year, Verus took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year. When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.
Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata. A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, C. Iulius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus. Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohamenus stood before him, saluting the emperor.
In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centered on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne. In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point. Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank. Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town south-west of Edessa.
In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed. The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris. A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura. By the end of the year, Cassius' army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city got sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius' reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.
Cassius' army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely. Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'. Cassius' army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus', and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.
Most of the credit for the war's success must be ascribed to subordinate generals, the most prominent of which was C. Avidius Cassius, commander of III Gallica, one of the Syrian legions. Cassius was young senator of low birth from the north Syrian town of Cyrrhus. His father, Heliodorus, had not been a senator, but was nonetheless a man of some standing: he had been Hadrian's ab epistulis, followed the emperor on his travels, and was prefect of Egypt at the end of Hadrian's reign. Cassius also, with no small sense of self-worth, claimed descent from the Seleucid kings. Cassius and his fellow commander in the war, Martius Verus, still probably in their mid-thirties, took the consulships for 166. After their consulships, they were made governors: Cassius, of Syria; Martius Verus, of Cappadocia.
At Rome, Marcus was occupied with family matters. Matidia, his great-aunt, had died. Her will was invalid under the lex Falcidia: Matidia had assigned more than three-quarters of her estate to non-relatives; her clients had convinced her to include them in codicils to her will. Matidia had never confirmed the documents, but, as she lay unconscious, her clients had sealed them in with the original, making them valid. It was an embarrassing situation. Fronto urged Marcus to push the family's case; Marcus demurred. He was going to consult his brother, who would make the final call.
On the return from the campaign, Lucius was awarded with a triumph; the parade was unusual because it included the two emperors, their sons and unmarried daughters as a big family celebration. Marcus Aurelius' two sons, Commodus five years old and Annius Verus of three, were elevated to the status of Caesar for the occasion.
The returning army carried with them a plague, afterwards known as the Antonine Plague, or the Plague of Galen, which spread through the Roman Empire between 165 and 180. The disease was a pandemic believed to be either of smallpox or measles, and would ultimately claim the lives of two Roman emperors—Lucius Verus, who died in 169, and Marcus Aurelius, whose family name, Antoninus, was given to the epidemic. The disease broke out again nine years later, according to the Roman historian Dio Cassius, and caused up to 2,000 deaths a day at Rome, one-quarter of those infected. Total deaths have been estimated at five million.
A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus Aurelius or his predecessor Antoninus Pius. In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea, Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and perhaps even Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and laying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula). Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centered there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.
Like nearly all emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing petitions and hearing disputes—that is, on matters of law. Marcus took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him "an emperor most skilled in the law" and "a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor". He shows marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).For details, see: Marcomannic Wars
During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome). The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes. Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus' son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.
Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes and other nomadic people launched raids along the Northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes farther east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162. Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other German tribes. At the same time, the Iranian Sarmatians attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.
Due to the situation in the East, only a punitive expedition could be launched in 167. Both Marcus and Verus led the troops. After the death of Verus (169), Marcus led personally the struggle against the Germans for the great part of his remaining life. The Romans suffered at least two serious defeats by the Quadi and Marcomanni, who could cross the Alps, ravage Opitergium (Oderzo) and besiege Aquileia, the Roman main city of north-east Italy. At the same time the Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus Aurelius managed to push back the invaders. Numerous Germans settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Bohemia and Hungary.
The emperor's plans were, however, prevented by a revolt in East, led by Avidius Cassius, which was prompted by false news of the death of Marcus after an illness. Of the eastern provinces, only Cappadocia and Bithynia did not side with the rebels. When it became clear that Marcus Aurelius was still alive, Cassius' fortunes declined quickly and he was killed by his troops after only 100 days of power.
Together with his wife Faustina, Marcus Aurelius toured the eastern provinces until 173. He visited Athens, declaring himself a protector of philosophy. After a triumph in Rome, the following year he marched again to the Danubian frontier. After a decisive victory in 178, the plan to annex Bohemia seemed poised for success but was abandoned after Marcus Aurelius again fell ill in 180.
Marcus Aurelius died on 17 March 180, in the city of Vindobona (modern Vienna), his son and successor Commodus accompanying him. He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, and rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple built in Rome.
Marcus Aurelius was able to secure the succession for Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and made co-emperor in 177, though the choice may have been unknowingly unfortunate. This decision, which put an end to the fortunate series of "adoptive emperors", was highly criticized by later historians since Commodus was a political and military outsider, as well as an extreme egotist with neurotic problems. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius' death is often held to have been the end of the Pax Romana.
At the end of his history of Marcus' reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus, to Dio's own times, with sorrow.
It is possible that he chose Commodus simply in the absence of other candidates, or as a result of the fear of succession issues and the possibility of civil war. Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome (1968), writes of Commodus: "The youth turned out to be very erratic or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrous around future successions." | <urn:uuid:d8c2e710-9a05-4c26-8dcc-f94f467ead93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Emperorship-of-Marcus-Aurelius | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.981959 | 6,211 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.13555324077606... | 1 | This article covers the life of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius from his accession on 7 March 161 to his death on 17 March 180. Marcus' life before his accession is covered in Early life and career of Marcus Aurelius. This article focuses on personal and administrative matters; military matters are covered in more detail in Roman–Parthian War of 161–66 and Marcomannic Wars.
At the death of Antoninus Pius, Marcus was effectively sole ruler of the Empire. The formalities of the position would follow: The senate would soon grant him the name Augustus and the title imperator, and he would soon be formally elected as Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was "compelled" to take imperial power. This may have been a genuine horror imperii, "fear of imperial power". Marcus, with his preference for the philosophic life, found the imperial office unappealing. His training as a Stoic, however, had made the choice clear. It was his duty.
Although Marcus shows no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his Meditations), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans. Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers. The senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the name Augustus. Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus' family name, Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus. It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors.
In spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or "authority", than Lucius. He had been consul once more than Lucius, he had shared in Pius' administration, and he alone was Pontifex Maximus. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior. As the biographer wrote, "Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor."
Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria, the camp of the praetorian guard. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores. Then, like every new emperor since Claudius, Lucius promised the troops a special donative. This donative, however, was twice the size of those past: 20,000 sesterces (5,000 denarii) per capita, more to officers. In return for this bounty, equivalent to several years' pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors. The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus' accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles.
Pius' funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, "elaborate". If his funeral followed the pattern of past funerals, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, while his spirit would rise to the gods' home in the heavens. Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behavior during Pius' campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A flamen, or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Pius, now Divus Antoninus. Pius' remains were laid to rest in the Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus' children and of Hadrian himself. The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.
In accordance with his will, Pius' fortune passed on to Faustina. (Marcus had little need of his wife's fortune. Indeed, at his accession, Marcus transferred part of his mother's estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other. On 31 August she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus. Aside from the fact that the twins shared Caligula's birthday, the omens were favorable, and the astrologers drew positive horoscopes for the children. The births were celebrated on the imperial coinage.
Soon after the emperors' accession, Marcus' eleven-year-old daughter, Annia Lucilla, was betrothed to Lucius (in spite of the fact that he was, formally, her uncle). At the ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations. Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their civiliter ("lacking pomp") behavior. The emperors permitted free speech, evinced by the fact that the comedy writer Marullus was able to criticize them without suffering retribution. At any other time, under any other emperor, he would have been executed. But it was a peaceful time, a forgiving time. And thus, as the biographer wrote, "No one missed the lenient ways of Pius."
Marcus replaced a number of the empire's major officials. The ab epistulis Sextus Caecilius Crescens Volusianus, in charge of the imperial correspondence, was replaced with Titus Varius Clemens. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis. Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus' former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus' accession. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (aerarium Saturni). He was made consul soon after. Fronto's son-in-law, Aufidius Victorinus, was appointed governor of Upper Germany.
Fronto returned to his Roman townhouse at dawn on 28 March, having left his home in Cirta as soon as news of his pupils' accession reached him. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly. The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebullient: "There was then an outstanding natural ability in you; there is now perfected excellence. There was then a crop of growing corn; there is now a ripe, gathered harvest. What I was hoping for then, I have now. The hope has become a reality." Fronto called on Marcus alone; neither thought to invite Lucius.
Lucius was less esteemed by his tutor than his brother, as his interests were on a lower level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors. Marcus told Fronto of his reading—Coelius and a little Cicero—and his family. His daughters were in Rome, with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evening air of the country was too cold for them. He asked Fronto for "some particularly eloquent reading matter, something of your own, or Cato, or Cicero, or Sallust or Gracchus—or some poet, for I need distraction, especially in this kind of way, by reading something that will uplift and diffuse my pressing anxieties." Marcus' early reign proceeded smoothly. Marcus was able to give himself wholly to philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection. Soon, however, Marcus would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the felicitas temporum ("happy times") that the coinage of 161 had so glibly proclaimed.
In the spring of 162, the Tiber flooded over its banks, destroying much of Rome. It drowned many animals, leaving the city in famine. Marcus and Lucius gave the crisis their personal attention. In other times of famine, the emperors are said to have provided for the Italian communities out of the Roman granaries.
Fronto's letters continued through Marcus' early reign. Fronto felt that, because of Marcus' prominence and public duties, lessons were more important now than they had ever been before. He believed Marcus was "beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence". Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: "Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisdom of Cleanthes and Zeno, yet, against your will, not the philosopher's woolen cape." The early days of Marcus' reign were the happiest of Fronto's life: his pupil was beloved by the people of Rome, an excellent emperor, a fond pupil, and, perhaps most importantly, as eloquent as could be wished. Marcus had displayed rhetorical skill in his speech to the senate after an earthquake at Cyzicus. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: "not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech". Fronto was hugely pleased.For details, see: Roman–Parthian War of 161–166. See also: Roman–Persian Wars
On his deathbed, Pius spoke of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him. One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161. Vologases entered the Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own—Pacorus, an Arsacid like himself. The governor of Cappadocia, the front-line in all Armenian conflicts, was Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a Gaul with much experience in military matters. Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily, and win glory for himself, Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, high up past the headwaters of the Euphrates. Severianus made some attempt to fight Chosrhoes, but soon realized the futility of his campaign, and committed suicide. His legion was massacred. The campaign had only lasted three days.
There was threat of war on other frontiers as well—in Britain, and in Raetia and Upper Germany, where the Chatti of the Taunus mountains had recently crossed over the limes. Marcus was unprepared. Pius seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Pius' twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side—and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.
More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray. Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. P. Julius Geminius Marcianus, an African senator commanding X Gemina at Vindobona (Vienna), left for Cappadocia with detachments from the Danubian legions. Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany, II Adiutrix from Aquincum, and V Macedonica from Troesmis. The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible. M. Annius Libo, Marcus' first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. He was young—his first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties—and, as a mere patrician, lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.
Marcus took a four-day public holiday at Alsium, a resort town on the Etrurian coast. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to Fronto, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday. Fronto replied ironically: "What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking and complete leisure for four whole days?" He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Pius had enjoyed exercise in the palaestra, fishing, and comedy), going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening—Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of at leisure. Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. "I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off," he wrote back. Marcus put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: "'Much good has my advice done you', you will say!" He had rested, and would rest often, but "—this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!"
Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, but, in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: "always and everywhere [Mars] has changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs".
Over the winter of 161–162, as more bad news arrived—a rebellion was brewing in Syria—it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, more suited to military activity. Lucius' biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius' debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, to realize that he was an emperor. Whatever the case, the senate gave its assent, and, in the summer of 162, Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome; the city "demanded the presence of an emperor".
Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch. Critics declaimed Lucius' luxurious lifestyle. He had taken to gambling, they said; he would "dice the whole night through". He enjoyed the company of actors. Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.
In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus' daughter Lucilla. Marcus moved up the date; perhaps he had already heard of Lucius' mistress, the low-born and beautiful Panthea. Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen. Marcus had moved up the date: perhaps stories of Panthea had disturbed him. Lucilla was accompanied by her mother Faustina and M. Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, the half-brother of Lucius' father. Civica was made comes Augusti, "companion of the emperors"; perhaps Marcus wanted him to watch over Lucius, the job Libo had failed at.
Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would); this did not happen. Marcus only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east. Marcus returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception.
The Armenian capital Artaxata was captured in 163. At the end of the year, Verus took the title Armeniacus, despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year. When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him.
Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata. A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, C. Iulius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus. Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend Rex armeniis Datus: Lucius sat on a throne with his staff while Sohamenus stood before him, saluting the emperor.
In 163, the Parthians intervened in Osroene, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia centered on Edessa, and installed their own king on its throne. In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point. Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank. Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town south-west of Edessa.
In 165, Roman forces moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, and Mannus, the king deposed by the Parthians, was re-installed. The Parthians retreated to Nisibis, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris. A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the III Gallica, moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at Dura. By the end of the year, Cassius' army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the Seleucid empire, one of Alexander the Great's successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city got sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius' reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version had it that the Seleucids broke faith first.
Cassius' army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the effects of a plague contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely. Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. III'. Cassius' army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus', and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. IV' in imperial titulature. Marcus took the Parthicus Maximus now, after another tactful delay.
Most of the credit for the war's success must be ascribed to subordinate generals, the most prominent of which was C. Avidius Cassius, commander of III Gallica, one of the Syrian legions. Cassius was young senator of low birth from the north Syrian town of Cyrrhus. His father, Heliodorus, had not been a senator, but was nonetheless a man of some standing: he had been Hadrian's ab epistulis, followed the emperor on his travels, and was prefect of Egypt at the end of Hadrian's reign. Cassius also, with no small sense of self-worth, claimed descent from the Seleucid kings. Cassius and his fellow commander in the war, Martius Verus, still probably in their mid-thirties, took the consulships for 166. After their consulships, they were made governors: Cassius, of Syria; Martius Verus, of Cappadocia.
At Rome, Marcus was occupied with family matters. Matidia, his great-aunt, had died. Her will was invalid under the lex Falcidia: Matidia had assigned more than three-quarters of her estate to non-relatives; her clients had convinced her to include them in codicils to her will. Matidia had never confirmed the documents, but, as she lay unconscious, her clients had sealed them in with the original, making them valid. It was an embarrassing situation. Fronto urged Marcus to push the family's case; Marcus demurred. He was going to consult his brother, who would make the final call.
On the return from the campaign, Lucius was awarded with a triumph; the parade was unusual because it included the two emperors, their sons and unmarried daughters as a big family celebration. Marcus Aurelius' two sons, Commodus five years old and Annius Verus of three, were elevated to the status of Caesar for the occasion.
The returning army carried with them a plague, afterwards known as the Antonine Plague, or the Plague of Galen, which spread through the Roman Empire between 165 and 180. The disease was a pandemic believed to be either of smallpox or measles, and would ultimately claim the lives of two Roman emperors—Lucius Verus, who died in 169, and Marcus Aurelius, whose family name, Antoninus, was given to the epidemic. The disease broke out again nine years later, according to the Roman historian Dio Cassius, and caused up to 2,000 deaths a day at Rome, one-quarter of those infected. Total deaths have been estimated at five million.
A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identified either with Marcus Aurelius or his predecessor Antoninus Pius. In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea, Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and perhaps even Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and laying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula). Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centered there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia.
Like nearly all emperors, Marcus spent most of his time addressing petitions and hearing disputes—that is, on matters of law. Marcus took great care in the theory and practice of legislation. Professional jurists called him "an emperor most skilled in the law" and "a most prudent and conscientiously just emperor". He shows marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors (decuriones).For details, see: Marcomannic Wars
During the early 160s, Fronto's son-in-law Victorinus was stationed as a legate in Germany. He was there with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome). The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes. Experienced governors had been replaced by friends and relatives of the imperial family. Lucius Dasumius Tullius Tuscus, a distant relative of Hadrian, was in Upper Pannonia, succeeding the experienced Marcus Nonius Macrinus. Lower Pannonia was under the obscure Tiberius Haterius Saturnius. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus' son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia did not even have a legion.
Starting in the 160s, Germanic tribes and other nomadic people launched raids along the Northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. This new impetus westwards was probably due to attacks from tribes farther east. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162. Far more dangerous was the invasion of 166, when the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other German tribes. At the same time, the Iranian Sarmatians attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.
Due to the situation in the East, only a punitive expedition could be launched in 167. Both Marcus and Verus led the troops. After the death of Verus (169), Marcus led personally the struggle against the Germans for the great part of his remaining life. The Romans suffered at least two serious defeats by the Quadi and Marcomanni, who could cross the Alps, ravage Opitergium (Oderzo) and besiege Aquileia, the Roman main city of north-east Italy. At the same time the Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, Macedonia and Greece. After a long struggle, Marcus Aurelius managed to push back the invaders. Numerous Germans settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany and Italy itself. This was not a new thing, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia, including today's Bohemia and Hungary.
The emperor's plans were, however, prevented by a revolt in East, led by Avidius Cassius, which was prompted by false news of the death of Marcus after an illness. Of the eastern provinces, only Cappadocia and Bithynia did not side with the rebels. When it became clear that Marcus Aurelius was still alive, Cassius' fortunes declined quickly and he was killed by his troops after only 100 days of power.
Together with his wife Faustina, Marcus Aurelius toured the eastern provinces until 173. He visited Athens, declaring himself a protector of philosophy. After a triumph in Rome, the following year he marched again to the Danubian frontier. After a decisive victory in 178, the plan to annex Bohemia seemed poised for success but was abandoned after Marcus Aurelius again fell ill in 180.
Marcus Aurelius died on 17 March 180, in the city of Vindobona (modern Vienna), his son and successor Commodus accompanying him. He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, and rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. His campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians were also commemorated by a column and a temple built in Rome.
Marcus Aurelius was able to secure the succession for Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and made co-emperor in 177, though the choice may have been unknowingly unfortunate. This decision, which put an end to the fortunate series of "adoptive emperors", was highly criticized by later historians since Commodus was a political and military outsider, as well as an extreme egotist with neurotic problems. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius' death is often held to have been the end of the Pax Romana.
At the end of his history of Marcus' reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus, to Dio's own times, with sorrow.
It is possible that he chose Commodus simply in the absence of other candidates, or as a result of the fear of succession issues and the possibility of civil war. Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome (1968), writes of Commodus: "The youth turned out to be very erratic or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. But whether or not Marcus ought to have known this to be so, the rejections of his son's claims in favour of someone else would almost certainly involved one of the civil wars which were to proliferate so disastrous around future successions." | 6,326 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The discovery of ether as an anesthesia substance was quite vital in eliminating pain during surgery procedures. Dr. William Morton’s discovery of the use of ether to tranquilize patients was indeed a milestone. A frozen limit had indeed been realized. Previously, patients who underwent tooth removal and other surgery procedures had to endure a lot of pain associated with such operations (BLTC 2. No form of pain reliever existed in the many years that doctors have practiced medicine before William Morton. Most patients were given alcohol and opium to create some sense of drunkenness while the operations were going on. The alcoholic substances however failed to spare the patients of pain associated with surgery. In 1846, William Morton successfully came up with ether as a way to desensitize patient’s nerves to help them avoid pain (Hilds and Kansagra 7). Such an invention was such iconic and helpful in medicine field from that time till now.
Surgery before Anesthesia
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- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
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Surgical procedures were always a painful process prior to the invention of anesthesia. Patients’ skin and internal body parts were opened crudely with full exposure to pain (Dorin 4). However, medical experts worked to find ways to divert patient’s concentration way from the pain. As early as early 17th century, doctors started using opium and other alcohol laced drinks to divert patient’s attention from the surgical pain. It is worth noting that surgery operations were almost the last resort to help a patient. Before the surgery procedures, other medical inventions were tried so as to help patients recover without having to face surgery. Dr. William Morton operated his tooth removal exercises by aid of Opium (Sullivan 9). Such alcoholic substances were to keep the patients drunk so as to keep their concentration away from the pain during surgical procedures. Other docors dealing with internal body operations and surgeries also tried nitrogen Oxides to sedate and tranquilize their patients but the pain was still significant. It is sad that some patients even died as a result of excessive pains during the surgery procedures.
Dr. William Morton’s version of Anesthesia
Dr. Morton started his studies in dental medicine in 1840 and later started practice in 1842 with his associate Mr. Horace (Markel 3). His tooth removal procedures could only be sedated with alcohol and opium. William also ventured into establishing how to sooth the pains using nitrogen oxide but found no success. Morton however continued his investigations on anesthesia even after the end of his enterprise with Mr. Wells. In one of his chemistry classes in Harvard medical school, Dr. Morton learnt that sulfuric solvent could make a person lose consciousness (Markel 2). Later in his research, Dr. Morton tried to expose himself to this organic solvent to check its safety on human beings. Later, he started using ether in his tooth extraction operations. The addition of this organic solvent to Dr. William’s operations resulted into instant success. Many people came into his offices t have their tooth removed. The success in pain relief was so amazing and unbelievable. Finally, patients could have their tooth removed without pain. This was indeed great; a frozen limit had truly been reached.
The determined Williams realized that ether could offer more help in the field of medicine than just in tooth procedures. Letheon became the name of his discovered drug after the Greek river which was known to erase painful memories (Science Museum 2). Dr. William Morton later gave an illustration of how the drug could work in Massachusetts hospital hence getting an international recognition. Following the discovery of ether as an anesthesia substance by Dr. William, a lot of excitement was in the air. People could not be operateed without pain. Dr. William pursued patent for his discovery so that he could protect its ownership.
Events after the discovery of ether
Dr. William’s discovery came with excitement and pain so much so that he could have been better off practicing dentistry that engage in patent issues. His former associate known as Horace demanded to be included in the ownership document while at the same time; Professor Jackson also wanted recognition for the invention. Mr. Crowford Long also claimed that he had discovered the use of ether in the treatment patients but was busy to publish his findings. It is interesting that many doctors ventured into the actualization of ether as an anesthesia agent after Dr. William’s discovery. Horace and Long also put the ether to practice in surgery procedures but failed in knowing how much was enough in a procedure. Dr. William is the only person who was able to establish a system of administering ether to patients in a controlled set up. In Dr. William’s set up, he could expose patients to ether fumes in a regulated procedure and stop then start again (Markel 5). As a result of his system, patients could remain unconscious for as long as the operation was on. Dr. William’s discovery was later explored and used to develop better anesthesia drugs.
William Morton’s discovery of Anesthesia brought a great relief to patients who had to endure long hours of pain on the operating table. This success in anesthesia medicine is what the paper has considered as a frozen limit in history. Dr. William Morton succeeded in putting his dental patients under the ether fumes to help make them unconscious during the extraction procedure. The success of this procedure helped doctors conducting other surgeries to keep patients unconscious. This discovery by Dr. William was vital in the development of anesthesia in medical surgery.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:848a1e70-e801-4255-abae-3c7a4b5fb80d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/the-medical-breakthrough-following-the-invention.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00455.warc.gz | en | 0.980561 | 1,156 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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-0.053935... | 1 | The discovery of ether as an anesthesia substance was quite vital in eliminating pain during surgery procedures. Dr. William Morton’s discovery of the use of ether to tranquilize patients was indeed a milestone. A frozen limit had indeed been realized. Previously, patients who underwent tooth removal and other surgery procedures had to endure a lot of pain associated with such operations (BLTC 2. No form of pain reliever existed in the many years that doctors have practiced medicine before William Morton. Most patients were given alcohol and opium to create some sense of drunkenness while the operations were going on. The alcoholic substances however failed to spare the patients of pain associated with surgery. In 1846, William Morton successfully came up with ether as a way to desensitize patient’s nerves to help them avoid pain (Hilds and Kansagra 7). Such an invention was such iconic and helpful in medicine field from that time till now.
Surgery before Anesthesia
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Surgical procedures were always a painful process prior to the invention of anesthesia. Patients’ skin and internal body parts were opened crudely with full exposure to pain (Dorin 4). However, medical experts worked to find ways to divert patient’s concentration way from the pain. As early as early 17th century, doctors started using opium and other alcohol laced drinks to divert patient’s attention from the surgical pain. It is worth noting that surgery operations were almost the last resort to help a patient. Before the surgery procedures, other medical inventions were tried so as to help patients recover without having to face surgery. Dr. William Morton operated his tooth removal exercises by aid of Opium (Sullivan 9). Such alcoholic substances were to keep the patients drunk so as to keep their concentration away from the pain during surgical procedures. Other docors dealing with internal body operations and surgeries also tried nitrogen Oxides to sedate and tranquilize their patients but the pain was still significant. It is sad that some patients even died as a result of excessive pains during the surgery procedures.
Dr. William Morton’s version of Anesthesia
Dr. Morton started his studies in dental medicine in 1840 and later started practice in 1842 with his associate Mr. Horace (Markel 3). His tooth removal procedures could only be sedated with alcohol and opium. William also ventured into establishing how to sooth the pains using nitrogen oxide but found no success. Morton however continued his investigations on anesthesia even after the end of his enterprise with Mr. Wells. In one of his chemistry classes in Harvard medical school, Dr. Morton learnt that sulfuric solvent could make a person lose consciousness (Markel 2). Later in his research, Dr. Morton tried to expose himself to this organic solvent to check its safety on human beings. Later, he started using ether in his tooth extraction operations. The addition of this organic solvent to Dr. William’s operations resulted into instant success. Many people came into his offices t have their tooth removed. The success in pain relief was so amazing and unbelievable. Finally, patients could have their tooth removed without pain. This was indeed great; a frozen limit had truly been reached.
The determined Williams realized that ether could offer more help in the field of medicine than just in tooth procedures. Letheon became the name of his discovered drug after the Greek river which was known to erase painful memories (Science Museum 2). Dr. William Morton later gave an illustration of how the drug could work in Massachusetts hospital hence getting an international recognition. Following the discovery of ether as an anesthesia substance by Dr. William, a lot of excitement was in the air. People could not be operateed without pain. Dr. William pursued patent for his discovery so that he could protect its ownership.
Events after the discovery of ether
Dr. William’s discovery came with excitement and pain so much so that he could have been better off practicing dentistry that engage in patent issues. His former associate known as Horace demanded to be included in the ownership document while at the same time; Professor Jackson also wanted recognition for the invention. Mr. Crowford Long also claimed that he had discovered the use of ether in the treatment patients but was busy to publish his findings. It is interesting that many doctors ventured into the actualization of ether as an anesthesia agent after Dr. William’s discovery. Horace and Long also put the ether to practice in surgery procedures but failed in knowing how much was enough in a procedure. Dr. William is the only person who was able to establish a system of administering ether to patients in a controlled set up. In Dr. William’s set up, he could expose patients to ether fumes in a regulated procedure and stop then start again (Markel 5). As a result of his system, patients could remain unconscious for as long as the operation was on. Dr. William’s discovery was later explored and used to develop better anesthesia drugs.
William Morton’s discovery of Anesthesia brought a great relief to patients who had to endure long hours of pain on the operating table. This success in anesthesia medicine is what the paper has considered as a frozen limit in history. Dr. William Morton succeeded in putting his dental patients under the ether fumes to help make them unconscious during the extraction procedure. The success of this procedure helped doctors conducting other surgeries to keep patients unconscious. This discovery by Dr. William was vital in the development of anesthesia in medical surgery.
Most popular orders | 1,153 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During child initiated learning the children practised their maths skills by playing giant snakes and ladders. They rolled the dice and were practising counting the dots 1:1 and then moving their counter the correct number of spaces. The children also had practised their recognition of numbers beyond 20.
They have also been busy building in the construction area and making labels for their work using their phonics skillls.
We made firework pictures using pastels. The children explored the sounds that different fireworks make and thought about how we could draw these.
This term we are looking at festivals, we have been learning about Diwali. As a class we listened to the story of Rama and Sita; the children then created their own puppets of the characters and made a puppet show. The children also enjoyed making Diva lamps and Diwali treats.
We looked at the story "Pumpkin Soup" by Helen Cooper. The children explored the feelings of the characters in the story and we decided that they all needed to take turns. We used our sounds knowledge from phonics to write some shopping lists to make our own soup. The children then used these ingredients to make their own pumpkin soup; making sure that everyone had the opportunity to chop some of the vegetables.
After the soup was cooked we all tasted the soup to decide if it was the best soup they had ever tasted just like the characters in the story.
The children have also been busy learning to count accurately and we have begun to use numicon. The children worked with a partner to order the numicon and match the numeral cards to it.
After reading the story "The Very Helpful Hedgehog" the children explored apples and thought about words to describe them. They then made marks to describe the apples and explored using the apples to create artwork.
We have begun to learn the sounds that letters make in our Read Write Inc. lessons. The children have been practising writing these letters in the outside area. They have also begun to make and read words using the magnetic letters.
We are learning to take turns and share with our new friends. We have been practising using the resources in the classroom and putting them away when we finish before we go to do something different.
We have been busy settling into school and learning our new routines. The children have had great fun sharing their chatterboxes with each other. This is a great way for the children to talk about themselves; their likes and dislikes, with new friends.
This term our learning is based around stories written by Julia Donaldson. This week the children went on a trip to Minnis Bay. They had a wonderful time looking for different shells and searching for sea snails just like the one in Julia Donaldson's story "The Snail and the Whale". The children also enjoyed making sandcastles and decorating these with the shells that they had found. The morning was finished off with an ice cream.
This week we have based our learning around the story Zog. This book is all about a dragon who goes to school to learn. He doesn't find learning easy but after lots of practise he finds what he is best at. On Friday the children worked in teams to make a suit of armour for the knight in the story. They considered the different materials that they could use and decided to try paper, tissue paper and cardboard. The children then worked in three teams to create a suit of armour. This involved lots of teamwork, communication and problem solving.
The children also explored making their own dragons out of reclaimed materials. They used their phonics skills to write labels for their work.
Term 5 - Duckling Experience
In Term 5 the children continued their topic "Great to be Alive!". We had a very special delivery of duck eggs. The children wrote their own set of instructions for how to care for the ducklings and thought about rules to make sure that the ducklings were safe in the classroom.
We began the term looking at the story of Mr Wolf's Pancakes. The children wrote their own shopping lists and then worked in small groups to make and eat their pancakes.
We then began our topic "Great to be Alive!". The looked at the story of the Hungry Caterpillar and the children learnt about the life cycle of a butterfly. We were lucky enough to watch our own caterpillars grow and transform into butterflies. We also explored some of the different fruits that the caterpillar ate in the story and created our own fruit kebabs.
We also explored what plants need to grow and the children have had the opportunity to plant some runner beans and watch them grow. They have also taken part in the 100 day potato challenge. In child initiated the children have been applying their reading, writing and maths skills independently.
The children had a fantastic time when we visited Pizza Express in Whitstable. The children became chefs for the morning and learnt how to make a traditional Italian pizza as part of our topic "Foods from around the World". The children had a wonderful time and thoroughly enjoyed themselves. We were extremely proud of all of them as the staff commented on how well behaved they were.
What a great start to Term 3. This term the children will be learning about "Food from around the World". We began our topic by looking at traditional English food. The children prepared a traditional afternoon tea by baking scones and making finger sandwiches. They then sat down to enjoy the afternoon tea with their friends. The children enjoyed being able to select what they wanted from the cake stand as well as having a cup and saucer to drink their tea or milk out of.
We have had a very busy end to the term with lots of lovely Christmas celebrations. We have been to Forest School where we had the chance to make Christmas decorations using a bow saw and we visited Father Christmas.
The children also worked very hard to learn all of the songs and rhymes for our Early Years nativity. They looked fantastic in their costumes and enjoyed sharing this special time with parents and carers. The children also enjoyed Christmas dinner and our class party.
Pass the parcel
As it was Bonfire night this week we have been busy thinking about fireworks. We have explored the different sounds that they make and have enjoyed making our own fireworks pictures using lots of different art materials. We also wrote some group poems.
This week we have been learning about Diwali. The children listened to the story of Rama and Sita and have made their own Diva lamps using clay and coloured rice.
This week we have had some fantastic work in our construction site. The children created their own car wash using the crates and bricks. They then rode their bikes through the car wash.
This week in Reception we began "word time" in our phonics lessons. We listen Fred the frog as he sounds out a word to us and then watch as our grown ups show us the word using the sound cards. We then use magnets to make the word ourselves and then point and sweep to read it. Finally we have a go at writing the words in our books.
We have been very busy this week. We have enjoyed lots of outdoor learning.
Finley created a road block in the bike area after seeing the road block on Nash Road. He made a sign to tell the bikes that they needed to stop.
We have also enjoyed exploring portraits using paints and the transient art resources. The children really impressed us with the detail that they used. | <urn:uuid:cd3fc80f-667a-4147-a780-207fd97079c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.st-gregorys.kent.sch.uk/our-learning-in-walpole-bay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.982325 | 1,518 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.3658143281... | 1 | During child initiated learning the children practised their maths skills by playing giant snakes and ladders. They rolled the dice and were practising counting the dots 1:1 and then moving their counter the correct number of spaces. The children also had practised their recognition of numbers beyond 20.
They have also been busy building in the construction area and making labels for their work using their phonics skillls.
We made firework pictures using pastels. The children explored the sounds that different fireworks make and thought about how we could draw these.
This term we are looking at festivals, we have been learning about Diwali. As a class we listened to the story of Rama and Sita; the children then created their own puppets of the characters and made a puppet show. The children also enjoyed making Diva lamps and Diwali treats.
We looked at the story "Pumpkin Soup" by Helen Cooper. The children explored the feelings of the characters in the story and we decided that they all needed to take turns. We used our sounds knowledge from phonics to write some shopping lists to make our own soup. The children then used these ingredients to make their own pumpkin soup; making sure that everyone had the opportunity to chop some of the vegetables.
After the soup was cooked we all tasted the soup to decide if it was the best soup they had ever tasted just like the characters in the story.
The children have also been busy learning to count accurately and we have begun to use numicon. The children worked with a partner to order the numicon and match the numeral cards to it.
After reading the story "The Very Helpful Hedgehog" the children explored apples and thought about words to describe them. They then made marks to describe the apples and explored using the apples to create artwork.
We have begun to learn the sounds that letters make in our Read Write Inc. lessons. The children have been practising writing these letters in the outside area. They have also begun to make and read words using the magnetic letters.
We are learning to take turns and share with our new friends. We have been practising using the resources in the classroom and putting them away when we finish before we go to do something different.
We have been busy settling into school and learning our new routines. The children have had great fun sharing their chatterboxes with each other. This is a great way for the children to talk about themselves; their likes and dislikes, with new friends.
This term our learning is based around stories written by Julia Donaldson. This week the children went on a trip to Minnis Bay. They had a wonderful time looking for different shells and searching for sea snails just like the one in Julia Donaldson's story "The Snail and the Whale". The children also enjoyed making sandcastles and decorating these with the shells that they had found. The morning was finished off with an ice cream.
This week we have based our learning around the story Zog. This book is all about a dragon who goes to school to learn. He doesn't find learning easy but after lots of practise he finds what he is best at. On Friday the children worked in teams to make a suit of armour for the knight in the story. They considered the different materials that they could use and decided to try paper, tissue paper and cardboard. The children then worked in three teams to create a suit of armour. This involved lots of teamwork, communication and problem solving.
The children also explored making their own dragons out of reclaimed materials. They used their phonics skills to write labels for their work.
Term 5 - Duckling Experience
In Term 5 the children continued their topic "Great to be Alive!". We had a very special delivery of duck eggs. The children wrote their own set of instructions for how to care for the ducklings and thought about rules to make sure that the ducklings were safe in the classroom.
We began the term looking at the story of Mr Wolf's Pancakes. The children wrote their own shopping lists and then worked in small groups to make and eat their pancakes.
We then began our topic "Great to be Alive!". The looked at the story of the Hungry Caterpillar and the children learnt about the life cycle of a butterfly. We were lucky enough to watch our own caterpillars grow and transform into butterflies. We also explored some of the different fruits that the caterpillar ate in the story and created our own fruit kebabs.
We also explored what plants need to grow and the children have had the opportunity to plant some runner beans and watch them grow. They have also taken part in the 100 day potato challenge. In child initiated the children have been applying their reading, writing and maths skills independently.
The children had a fantastic time when we visited Pizza Express in Whitstable. The children became chefs for the morning and learnt how to make a traditional Italian pizza as part of our topic "Foods from around the World". The children had a wonderful time and thoroughly enjoyed themselves. We were extremely proud of all of them as the staff commented on how well behaved they were.
What a great start to Term 3. This term the children will be learning about "Food from around the World". We began our topic by looking at traditional English food. The children prepared a traditional afternoon tea by baking scones and making finger sandwiches. They then sat down to enjoy the afternoon tea with their friends. The children enjoyed being able to select what they wanted from the cake stand as well as having a cup and saucer to drink their tea or milk out of.
We have had a very busy end to the term with lots of lovely Christmas celebrations. We have been to Forest School where we had the chance to make Christmas decorations using a bow saw and we visited Father Christmas.
The children also worked very hard to learn all of the songs and rhymes for our Early Years nativity. They looked fantastic in their costumes and enjoyed sharing this special time with parents and carers. The children also enjoyed Christmas dinner and our class party.
Pass the parcel
As it was Bonfire night this week we have been busy thinking about fireworks. We have explored the different sounds that they make and have enjoyed making our own fireworks pictures using lots of different art materials. We also wrote some group poems.
This week we have been learning about Diwali. The children listened to the story of Rama and Sita and have made their own Diva lamps using clay and coloured rice.
This week we have had some fantastic work in our construction site. The children created their own car wash using the crates and bricks. They then rode their bikes through the car wash.
This week in Reception we began "word time" in our phonics lessons. We listen Fred the frog as he sounds out a word to us and then watch as our grown ups show us the word using the sound cards. We then use magnets to make the word ourselves and then point and sweep to read it. Finally we have a go at writing the words in our books.
We have been very busy this week. We have enjoyed lots of outdoor learning.
Finley created a road block in the bike area after seeing the road block on Nash Road. He made a sign to tell the bikes that they needed to stop.
We have also enjoyed exploring portraits using paints and the transient art resources. The children really impressed us with the detail that they used. | 1,497 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Early Pākehā settlers
European settlers brought their religious traditions, loyalties and conflicts with them to New Zealand. More than 90% of Pākehā were Christian, and more than three-quarters were Protestant.
Religious group membership
From the 1870s to the 1930s:
- Anglicans were about 40% of the population
- Presbyterians, mostly from Scotland, were more than 20% of the population
- Methodists, mostly from England, were about 10% of the population
- Catholics, mostly Irish, were about 14% of the population
- evangelical groups included Baptists, Congregationalists and the Salvation Army
- Jews were few in number but important in New Zealand’s cultural and economic life
- Chinese had Confucian, Buddhist and Taoist traditions
- small groups of secularists (non-religious people) also flourished.
Some churches had been a majority in the countries where they originated, but in New Zealand no one group dominated and there was no state church.
From the late 1820s many Māori converted to Christianity. The largest group were Anglicans.
Independent Māori Christian movements developed, often to resist the loss of land.
- Pai Mārire (meaning goodness and peace) flourished during the 1860s wars.
- The Ringatū faith was founded in 1867 by Te Kooti Arikirangi. Government soldiers later pursued him through the Urewera.
- Te Whiti-o-Rongomai was a prophet and resistance leader at Parihaka, Taranaki. The government sent over 1,500 troops to arrest him and disperse his followers.
- Rua Kēnana built a ‘City of God’ in the Urewera, where he was arrested by armed police in 1916.
Religion and politics
In the mid-19th century Anglicans led the campaign for Māori rights and welfare, which many settlers opposed.
From the 1870s to the 1930s Presbyterians, Methodists, Congregationalists and others worked together against gambling and alcohol, and in support of votes for women (won in 1893).
The Labour Party, which won power in 1935, presented itself as the party of practical Christian compassion. Many Labour politicians were church ministers, and the party formed an alliance with the Rātana Church.
Conflict sometimes emerged between Catholics and Protestants, as it had in Ireland. Catholic schools were denied government funding until 1975.
Non-religious conscientious objectors were forced to go to war and punished if they refused to do so.
Towards religious diversity
From the 1960s church membership and attendance declined, and in 2013 42% of the population said they had no religion. However, many Pacific Islanders were still Christian. Mosques and temples were built as new immigrants arrived from a wider range of countries. | <urn:uuid:e1fd9cae-f0e3-412e-9941-9998db5947c7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/mi/religion-and-society | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00255.warc.gz | en | 0.986773 | 600 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.255055844783... | 20 | Early Pākehā settlers
European settlers brought their religious traditions, loyalties and conflicts with them to New Zealand. More than 90% of Pākehā were Christian, and more than three-quarters were Protestant.
Religious group membership
From the 1870s to the 1930s:
- Anglicans were about 40% of the population
- Presbyterians, mostly from Scotland, were more than 20% of the population
- Methodists, mostly from England, were about 10% of the population
- Catholics, mostly Irish, were about 14% of the population
- evangelical groups included Baptists, Congregationalists and the Salvation Army
- Jews were few in number but important in New Zealand’s cultural and economic life
- Chinese had Confucian, Buddhist and Taoist traditions
- small groups of secularists (non-religious people) also flourished.
Some churches had been a majority in the countries where they originated, but in New Zealand no one group dominated and there was no state church.
From the late 1820s many Māori converted to Christianity. The largest group were Anglicans.
Independent Māori Christian movements developed, often to resist the loss of land.
- Pai Mārire (meaning goodness and peace) flourished during the 1860s wars.
- The Ringatū faith was founded in 1867 by Te Kooti Arikirangi. Government soldiers later pursued him through the Urewera.
- Te Whiti-o-Rongomai was a prophet and resistance leader at Parihaka, Taranaki. The government sent over 1,500 troops to arrest him and disperse his followers.
- Rua Kēnana built a ‘City of God’ in the Urewera, where he was arrested by armed police in 1916.
Religion and politics
In the mid-19th century Anglicans led the campaign for Māori rights and welfare, which many settlers opposed.
From the 1870s to the 1930s Presbyterians, Methodists, Congregationalists and others worked together against gambling and alcohol, and in support of votes for women (won in 1893).
The Labour Party, which won power in 1935, presented itself as the party of practical Christian compassion. Many Labour politicians were church ministers, and the party formed an alliance with the Rātana Church.
Conflict sometimes emerged between Catholics and Protestants, as it had in Ireland. Catholic schools were denied government funding until 1975.
Non-religious conscientious objectors were forced to go to war and punished if they refused to do so.
Towards religious diversity
From the 1960s church membership and attendance declined, and in 2013 42% of the population said they had no religion. However, many Pacific Islanders were still Christian. Mosques and temples were built as new immigrants arrived from a wider range of countries. | 644 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Federal Tax Bracket
What is a Federal Tax Bracket?
How Does a Federal Tax Bracket Work?
The United States has a progressive tax system, which means that different portions of a person's or company's income are taxed at increasing rates (that's why the rates are often referred to as marginal tax rates). For example, the IRS might hypothetically tax a single filer's $100,000 income as follows:
The first $8,025 is taxed at 10% = $802.50
The next $24,525 is taxed at 15% = $3,678.75
The next $49,100 is taxed at 25% = $12,275
The next and final $18,350 is taxed at 28% = $5,138
Total tax owed: $21,894.25
Because this filer's highest taxable rate is 28%, we say that he or she is in the 28% federal tax bracket. Note, however, that not ALL of the taxpayer's income is taxed at 28%. In fact, the taxpayer's actual total is $21,894.25 / $100,000 = 21.89%.
The highest federal tax bracket changes often, but it is usually around 35% of any income over about $375,000 (note that this excludes state taxes, for a total of as much as 53% in taxes on additional income).and social security/Medicare, which can add as much as another 17% to 18% in
Why Does a Federal Tax Bracket Matter?
You may have heard stories about people delaying income or even getting angry about additional income because it "kicks them up into a higher tax bracket." What they're saying is that the additional income be taxed at a higher federal income than the rest of their income. As we calculated, sometimes have to pay more than half of this additional income in if they're in the highest tax bracket and live in a high-tax state. Tax deductions play important factors in determining what federal tax bracket a ends up in, because deductions lower taxable income, and taxable income is what is actually taxed.
In general discourse, it is important to know the difference between federal tax brackets and federal tax rates. Many people assume that when they're in the 28% tax bracket, for example, that all of their income is taxed at 28%, which is not the case. As our example shows, you can be in the 28% federal tax bracket but actually have a 21.89% effective tax rate on your income. Likewise, executives and public figures are often chastised for having, say, a 15% effective tax rate, but as you now know, this does not that the person is not in a very high tax bracket. | <urn:uuid:0d95fd6b-5a8a-4f13-a700-a610db6c663f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://investinganswers.com/dictionary/f/federal-tax-bracket | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.981493 | 564 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.21927356719970703... | 2 | Federal Tax Bracket
What is a Federal Tax Bracket?
How Does a Federal Tax Bracket Work?
The United States has a progressive tax system, which means that different portions of a person's or company's income are taxed at increasing rates (that's why the rates are often referred to as marginal tax rates). For example, the IRS might hypothetically tax a single filer's $100,000 income as follows:
The first $8,025 is taxed at 10% = $802.50
The next $24,525 is taxed at 15% = $3,678.75
The next $49,100 is taxed at 25% = $12,275
The next and final $18,350 is taxed at 28% = $5,138
Total tax owed: $21,894.25
Because this filer's highest taxable rate is 28%, we say that he or she is in the 28% federal tax bracket. Note, however, that not ALL of the taxpayer's income is taxed at 28%. In fact, the taxpayer's actual total is $21,894.25 / $100,000 = 21.89%.
The highest federal tax bracket changes often, but it is usually around 35% of any income over about $375,000 (note that this excludes state taxes, for a total of as much as 53% in taxes on additional income).and social security/Medicare, which can add as much as another 17% to 18% in
Why Does a Federal Tax Bracket Matter?
You may have heard stories about people delaying income or even getting angry about additional income because it "kicks them up into a higher tax bracket." What they're saying is that the additional income be taxed at a higher federal income than the rest of their income. As we calculated, sometimes have to pay more than half of this additional income in if they're in the highest tax bracket and live in a high-tax state. Tax deductions play important factors in determining what federal tax bracket a ends up in, because deductions lower taxable income, and taxable income is what is actually taxed.
In general discourse, it is important to know the difference between federal tax brackets and federal tax rates. Many people assume that when they're in the 28% tax bracket, for example, that all of their income is taxed at 28%, which is not the case. As our example shows, you can be in the 28% federal tax bracket but actually have a 21.89% effective tax rate on your income. Likewise, executives and public figures are often chastised for having, say, a 15% effective tax rate, but as you now know, this does not that the person is not in a very high tax bracket. | 630 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Quadruped. Graminivorous. Forty teeth, namely twenty-four grinders, four eye-teeth, and twelve incisive. Sheds coat in spring…… ” A perfect example of a product of utilitarian education, Bitzer defines a horse off the top of his head in a split second. Utilitarianism is the assumption that human beings act in a way that highlights their own self interest. It is based on factuality and leaves little room for imagination. Dickens provides three vivid examples of this utilitarian logic in Hard Times. The first; Mr. Thomas Gradgrind, one of the main characters in the book, was the principal of a school in Coketown.
He was a firm believer in utilitarianism and instilled this philosophy into the students at the school from a very young age, as well as his own children. Mr. Josiah Bounderby was also a practitioner of utilitarianism, but was more interested in the profit that stemmed from it. At the other end of the perspective, a group of circus members, who are the total opposite of utilitarians, are added by Dickens to provide a sharp contrast from the ideas of Mr. Bounderby and Mr. Gradgrind. Thomas Gradgrind Sr. , a father of five children, has lived his life by the book and never strayed from his philosophy that ife is nothing more than facts and statistics.
He has successfully incorporated this belief into the school system of Coketown, and has tried his best to do so with his own children. The educators see children as easy targets just waiting to be filled with information. They did not consider, however, the childrens need for fiction, poetry, and other fine arts that are used to expand childrens minds, all of which are essential today in order to produce well-rounded human beings through the educational process. One has to wonder how different the story would be if Gradgrind did not run the school.Order now
How can you give a utilitarian man such as Gradgrind such power over a town? I do like how Dickens structures the book to make one ask obvious questions such as these. Dickens does not tell us much about the success of the other students of the school besides Bitzer, who is fairly successful on paper, but does not have the capacity as a person to deal with lifes everyday struggles. Gradgrinds two oldest children, Tom and Louisa, are examples of how this utilitarian method failed miserably. These children were never given the opportunity to think for themselves, experience fun things in life, or even use their maginations.
True, they are smart people in the factual sense but do not have the street smarts to survive. Tom is a young man who, so fed up with his fathers strictness and repetition, revolts against him and leaves home to work in Mr. Bounderbys bank. Tom, now out from under his fathers wing, he begins to drink and gamble heavily. Eventually, to get out of a deep gambling debt, he robs a bank and is forced to flee the area. When Bitzer realizes that Tom has robbed the bank and catches him, Mr. Gradgrind begs him to let Tom go, reminding him of all of the hard work that was put on him while at the school.
Ironically Bitzer, using the tools of factuality that he had learned in Gradgrinds school, replies that the school was paid for, but it is now over and he owes nothing more. I think this is extremely funny how, at a time of need, Gradgrinds educational theory has backfired in his face. I think Dickens put this irony in as a comical device but also to show how ineffective the utilitarian method of teaching is. Louisa, unlike Tom, does get along with her father. She even agrees to marry Mr. Bounderby, even though she does not love him, in order to please her father. She stays in the marriage with
Bounderby, and goes about life normally and factually, until she is faced with a dilemma and panics. Mr. James Harthouse, a young, good looking guy, is attracted to Louisa and deceivingly draws her attraction to him. She does not know what to do since she has never had feelings of her own before. Her father never gave her the opportunity to think for herself, or even love someone. This is why Louisa goes frantic and ends up crying in her fathers lap.
She has always been told what to do and what is right, and now even her father is stumped. For the first time in the whole novel, Mr. Gradgrind strays from the utilitarian philosophy and shows compassion for his daughter and her feelings. One must think that he is beginning to doubt his philosophy after seeing it backfire in his face more than once. Josiah Bounderby is another prime example of utilitarianism. He is one of the wealthiest people in Coketown; owning a bank and a factory, but is not really a likable person. His utilitarian philosophy is similar to Gradgrinds in the sense that factuality is the single most important virtue that one could posses.
Mr. Bounderby maintained throughout the story his tilitarian views, which basically stated that nothing else is important besides profit. Being the owner of both a factory and a bank, Bounderby employs many workers, yet seems to offer them no respect at all. He refers to the factory workers as “Hands,” because that is all they are to him. Bounderby often states that workers are all looking for “venison, turtle soup, and a golden spoon,” while all they really want is decent working conditions and fair wage for their work. He is not concerned about his employees as human beings, but how much their hands can produce during the workday, resulting with money in his pocket.
When one of his workers, Stephen Blackpool came to Bounderbys house asking for advice about his bad marriage, he was treated as inferior just because of his social status. Dickens portrayed the scene as one in which Blackpool was on a level five steps below Bounderby and his associates because he was a lowly worker who was obviously much less educated than them. It almost seemed like they would not even take him seriously because he was such. Blackpool was told that he could not divorce his wife because it would be against the laws of England. Later in the book, Bounderby divorces his wife.
This shows that wealth played a large role in determining the social classes that people were in and the privileges they had. This was definitely unfair but the social classes were structured in a way which allowed those who had money to look down upon those who were less fortunate. Generally, those who were not well-educated did not have any money, while the well-educated ones such as Bounderby and Gradgrind were wealthy. The people who knew the factual information, (utilitarians) were successful, while those who did not were reduced to working in the factories of the utilitarians.
Dickens paints a vivid picture of this inequality between social classes and shows he does not care much for it. It is fairly easy to see that Dickens holds a contempt for Bounderby and the utilitarian philosophy he carries. The book details the philosophy, then shows how miserably it failed. How much different would their lives be if the town was not run by utilitarians. Dickens cleverly added in circus people as a contrast to the utilitarian approach to life. The circus people could be called the total opposite of utilitarianism. If one element of the book stands out in my mind, it would be this one.
The circus people are simple, open-minded human beings whose goal in life is to make people laugh. Dickens portrays them as a step up from the “Hands” but still close to the bottom in the social structure. These people are hated by Gradgrind, Bounderby and other utilitarians because they represent everything that is shunned in utilitarianism such as love, imagination, and humor. Sissy Jupe, the daughter of a circus man, was taken in by the Gradgrinds to live in their home.
She is representative of the circus people with her innocence and free-will, qualities which are lacking in the lives of the eople around her. Just by her presence, her goodness rubs off on the people around her, although it is too late for most of them. Even after numerous attempts to force utilitarianism into her by Mr. Gradgrind and his school, she is still the fun-loving girl that she always was because she grew up living with “normal” people who thought for themselves and loved each other. She influenced these qualities on the youngest Gradgrind daughter Jane, who led a much more enjoyable and fulfilling life than her older sister Louisa because of those influences. Jane is not spoken of much until he end of the book but I like the way Dickens showed the effects of the utilitarian lifestyle as opposed to the non-utilitarian lifestyle.
The utilitarians ultimately ended with a great downfall because their narrow-minds could not endure the pressures that life can impose on oneself. The people that did not fall victim to the utilitarian trap were able to live their lives happily and freely, able to love, laugh, and use their imagination; which is the way life ought to be lived. Dickens obviously had a definitive opinion of the way life should be lived and did an excellent job of depicting it. His ethod was somewhat indirect in the sense that he worked backwards to get his point across, but turned out to be very effective as the story progressed. Most of the story revolved around utilitarianism and the study of cold hard facts, but when the character flaws began to surface as a result of this philosophy, Dickens is quick to emphasize them. One actually sees the main character of the book and firm supporter of utilitarianism, Mr. Thomas Gradgrind, experience the faults of his practice and begin to stray from it. Now, after watching his life fall apart, maybe he wishes he were in the circus. | <urn:uuid:dc99cfbc-e12f-43ae-ba1d-4d2e6c7a27da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/essays/hard-times-utilitarianism-56632/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.988439 | 2,091 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.1376931369... | 2 | “Quadruped. Graminivorous. Forty teeth, namely twenty-four grinders, four eye-teeth, and twelve incisive. Sheds coat in spring…… ” A perfect example of a product of utilitarian education, Bitzer defines a horse off the top of his head in a split second. Utilitarianism is the assumption that human beings act in a way that highlights their own self interest. It is based on factuality and leaves little room for imagination. Dickens provides three vivid examples of this utilitarian logic in Hard Times. The first; Mr. Thomas Gradgrind, one of the main characters in the book, was the principal of a school in Coketown.
He was a firm believer in utilitarianism and instilled this philosophy into the students at the school from a very young age, as well as his own children. Mr. Josiah Bounderby was also a practitioner of utilitarianism, but was more interested in the profit that stemmed from it. At the other end of the perspective, a group of circus members, who are the total opposite of utilitarians, are added by Dickens to provide a sharp contrast from the ideas of Mr. Bounderby and Mr. Gradgrind. Thomas Gradgrind Sr. , a father of five children, has lived his life by the book and never strayed from his philosophy that ife is nothing more than facts and statistics.
He has successfully incorporated this belief into the school system of Coketown, and has tried his best to do so with his own children. The educators see children as easy targets just waiting to be filled with information. They did not consider, however, the childrens need for fiction, poetry, and other fine arts that are used to expand childrens minds, all of which are essential today in order to produce well-rounded human beings through the educational process. One has to wonder how different the story would be if Gradgrind did not run the school.Order now
How can you give a utilitarian man such as Gradgrind such power over a town? I do like how Dickens structures the book to make one ask obvious questions such as these. Dickens does not tell us much about the success of the other students of the school besides Bitzer, who is fairly successful on paper, but does not have the capacity as a person to deal with lifes everyday struggles. Gradgrinds two oldest children, Tom and Louisa, are examples of how this utilitarian method failed miserably. These children were never given the opportunity to think for themselves, experience fun things in life, or even use their maginations.
True, they are smart people in the factual sense but do not have the street smarts to survive. Tom is a young man who, so fed up with his fathers strictness and repetition, revolts against him and leaves home to work in Mr. Bounderbys bank. Tom, now out from under his fathers wing, he begins to drink and gamble heavily. Eventually, to get out of a deep gambling debt, he robs a bank and is forced to flee the area. When Bitzer realizes that Tom has robbed the bank and catches him, Mr. Gradgrind begs him to let Tom go, reminding him of all of the hard work that was put on him while at the school.
Ironically Bitzer, using the tools of factuality that he had learned in Gradgrinds school, replies that the school was paid for, but it is now over and he owes nothing more. I think this is extremely funny how, at a time of need, Gradgrinds educational theory has backfired in his face. I think Dickens put this irony in as a comical device but also to show how ineffective the utilitarian method of teaching is. Louisa, unlike Tom, does get along with her father. She even agrees to marry Mr. Bounderby, even though she does not love him, in order to please her father. She stays in the marriage with
Bounderby, and goes about life normally and factually, until she is faced with a dilemma and panics. Mr. James Harthouse, a young, good looking guy, is attracted to Louisa and deceivingly draws her attraction to him. She does not know what to do since she has never had feelings of her own before. Her father never gave her the opportunity to think for herself, or even love someone. This is why Louisa goes frantic and ends up crying in her fathers lap.
She has always been told what to do and what is right, and now even her father is stumped. For the first time in the whole novel, Mr. Gradgrind strays from the utilitarian philosophy and shows compassion for his daughter and her feelings. One must think that he is beginning to doubt his philosophy after seeing it backfire in his face more than once. Josiah Bounderby is another prime example of utilitarianism. He is one of the wealthiest people in Coketown; owning a bank and a factory, but is not really a likable person. His utilitarian philosophy is similar to Gradgrinds in the sense that factuality is the single most important virtue that one could posses.
Mr. Bounderby maintained throughout the story his tilitarian views, which basically stated that nothing else is important besides profit. Being the owner of both a factory and a bank, Bounderby employs many workers, yet seems to offer them no respect at all. He refers to the factory workers as “Hands,” because that is all they are to him. Bounderby often states that workers are all looking for “venison, turtle soup, and a golden spoon,” while all they really want is decent working conditions and fair wage for their work. He is not concerned about his employees as human beings, but how much their hands can produce during the workday, resulting with money in his pocket.
When one of his workers, Stephen Blackpool came to Bounderbys house asking for advice about his bad marriage, he was treated as inferior just because of his social status. Dickens portrayed the scene as one in which Blackpool was on a level five steps below Bounderby and his associates because he was a lowly worker who was obviously much less educated than them. It almost seemed like they would not even take him seriously because he was such. Blackpool was told that he could not divorce his wife because it would be against the laws of England. Later in the book, Bounderby divorces his wife.
This shows that wealth played a large role in determining the social classes that people were in and the privileges they had. This was definitely unfair but the social classes were structured in a way which allowed those who had money to look down upon those who were less fortunate. Generally, those who were not well-educated did not have any money, while the well-educated ones such as Bounderby and Gradgrind were wealthy. The people who knew the factual information, (utilitarians) were successful, while those who did not were reduced to working in the factories of the utilitarians.
Dickens paints a vivid picture of this inequality between social classes and shows he does not care much for it. It is fairly easy to see that Dickens holds a contempt for Bounderby and the utilitarian philosophy he carries. The book details the philosophy, then shows how miserably it failed. How much different would their lives be if the town was not run by utilitarians. Dickens cleverly added in circus people as a contrast to the utilitarian approach to life. The circus people could be called the total opposite of utilitarianism. If one element of the book stands out in my mind, it would be this one.
The circus people are simple, open-minded human beings whose goal in life is to make people laugh. Dickens portrays them as a step up from the “Hands” but still close to the bottom in the social structure. These people are hated by Gradgrind, Bounderby and other utilitarians because they represent everything that is shunned in utilitarianism such as love, imagination, and humor. Sissy Jupe, the daughter of a circus man, was taken in by the Gradgrinds to live in their home.
She is representative of the circus people with her innocence and free-will, qualities which are lacking in the lives of the eople around her. Just by her presence, her goodness rubs off on the people around her, although it is too late for most of them. Even after numerous attempts to force utilitarianism into her by Mr. Gradgrind and his school, she is still the fun-loving girl that she always was because she grew up living with “normal” people who thought for themselves and loved each other. She influenced these qualities on the youngest Gradgrind daughter Jane, who led a much more enjoyable and fulfilling life than her older sister Louisa because of those influences. Jane is not spoken of much until he end of the book but I like the way Dickens showed the effects of the utilitarian lifestyle as opposed to the non-utilitarian lifestyle.
The utilitarians ultimately ended with a great downfall because their narrow-minds could not endure the pressures that life can impose on oneself. The people that did not fall victim to the utilitarian trap were able to live their lives happily and freely, able to love, laugh, and use their imagination; which is the way life ought to be lived. Dickens obviously had a definitive opinion of the way life should be lived and did an excellent job of depicting it. His ethod was somewhat indirect in the sense that he worked backwards to get his point across, but turned out to be very effective as the story progressed. Most of the story revolved around utilitarianism and the study of cold hard facts, but when the character flaws began to surface as a result of this philosophy, Dickens is quick to emphasize them. One actually sees the main character of the book and firm supporter of utilitarianism, Mr. Thomas Gradgrind, experience the faults of his practice and begin to stray from it. Now, after watching his life fall apart, maybe he wishes he were in the circus. | 2,075 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thursday 6th June marks 75 years since the Allies invade northern Europe on the beaches of Normandy. The largest seaborne invasion in history was supported by the Mulberry Harbours, and the most moving memorial to those who built the harbours and stormed the beaches is made by Jim Radford, who was just a boy sailor aged 15 when he sailed to Normandy.
Jim has written a song about his experiences; it has been re-recorded for this anniversary and is racing up the charts towards number one.
If you holiday in France you may like to visit Arromanches on the Normandy coast. This was the site of one of the Mulberry Harbours, an amazing engineering feat which helped to change the course of the Second World War. The remains of the harbour can still be seen today.
Both the Allies and Hitler knew that an Allied invasion of Nazi held Europe was essential for the winning of the war. They also knew that any landing was unlikely to succeed without a safe harbour in Allied hands. Once the liberating forces had established a foothold on the Normandy coast enormous amounts of men and supplies would need to be landed to re-enforce the bridgehead before pushing on towards Germany. The problem for the Allies was that the Germans had occupied and heavily fortified all the ports on the northern coast of France. The disastrous Allied raid on Dieppe in 1942 showed that taking such ports would only be done with immense loss of life and would not be quick. What the Allies needed was access to a port that was not controlled by the Germans. Small fishing ports would not be suitable as the large ships needed to transport bulky supplies needed a deep port with harbourside cranes; the Allies therefore decided that if no such ports were available they would have to create their own.
The plan they came up with was simple yet would be incredibly complex to achieve – the construction of a new harbour the size of Dover at the site of the invasion. The plan was to prefabricate the elements needed in Britain before towing them across the English Channel and creating a harbour off the landing beaches. The schedule was to complete the construction within two weeks of the D Day landings in June 1944. Winston Churchill knew that there would be enormous problems with this idea but was determined that it should work if the invasion was to be successful. A trial of three competing designs for the floating harbour was set up in 1943 with prototypes built and tested on the Solway Firth. Once the design was finalised the War Office could begin the prefabrication of the concrete caissons.
The invasion of Europe began on 6th June 1944, D Day, with thousands of Allied troops landing along the Normandy coast. Once the beachheads were secured the work on the floating harbours began, the first stage of which was to scuttle a number of old ships off the coast at Arromanches as temporary outer breakwaters (the Gooseberries) to protect the area where the harbour (the Mulberry) was to be built. The huge prefabricated caissons (water-tight concrete structures codenamed Phoenixes) were then sunk to provide the permanent breakwaters which would shelter the floating roadways and jetties. Once the completed Mulberry Harbour was in place the Allies could begin unloading the supplies which would be so vital for their victory.
There were actually two Mulberry Harbours towed across the English Channel to support the Normandy beachheads. Mulberry A was constructed at Omaha Beach whilst Mulberry B (nicknamed ‘Port Winston’), was constructed off Gold Beach at the town of Arromanches. Once assembled the harbours could unload 7,000 tons of supplies a day. Each incredibly complex harbour had masses of pontoons which supported around 6 miles of flexible roadways ending in huge pier heads supported by underwater ‘legs’.
An incredible feat of engineering had both harbours almost fully functional when they were hit by a storm on 19th June. The Mulberry Harbours had been designed for summer weather not the worst storm to hit the Normandy coast for 40 years, and the harbour at Omaha beach was so badly damaged that it was beyond repair. This could have been a disaster for the Allied forces, but although the second Mulberry suffered some damage it survived the storm and continued to land supplies in support of the invasion. Although it had been designed to last for just ninety days Port Winston was in continuous use for ten months following D Day and in that time landed over half a million vehicles, two and a half million men and four million tons of supplies.
When the invasion had moved eastward and liberated ports from the Nazis the harbour was no longer useful and was abandoned. If you visit Arromanches today you can see the remains of the Mulberry Harbour from the beaches.
The scale and sheer audacity of the Mulberries took the Germans completely by surprise. At the Nurembeurg trials after the war Albert Speer, Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production for Nazi Germany, gave a German perspective on the Mulberry Harbours:
“To construct our defences we had in two years used some 13 million cubic metres of concrete and 1½ million tons of steel. A fortnight after the Normandy Landings, this costly effort was brought to nothing because of an idea of simple genius. As we now know, the invasion force brought their own harbours, and built, at Arromanches and Omaha, on unprotected coast, the necessary landing ramps.”
When we remember the troops who fought and died on the beaches of Normandy we should not forget those who designed and built the Mulberry Harbours which were so instrumental in making D Day and the invasion of Europe such a success. | <urn:uuid:8943af87-0858-4ddd-ba0d-54acd98ceaa3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dorindabalchin.com/tag/d-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00447.warc.gz | en | 0.98098 | 1,167 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.284796416759... | 5 | Thursday 6th June marks 75 years since the Allies invade northern Europe on the beaches of Normandy. The largest seaborne invasion in history was supported by the Mulberry Harbours, and the most moving memorial to those who built the harbours and stormed the beaches is made by Jim Radford, who was just a boy sailor aged 15 when he sailed to Normandy.
Jim has written a song about his experiences; it has been re-recorded for this anniversary and is racing up the charts towards number one.
If you holiday in France you may like to visit Arromanches on the Normandy coast. This was the site of one of the Mulberry Harbours, an amazing engineering feat which helped to change the course of the Second World War. The remains of the harbour can still be seen today.
Both the Allies and Hitler knew that an Allied invasion of Nazi held Europe was essential for the winning of the war. They also knew that any landing was unlikely to succeed without a safe harbour in Allied hands. Once the liberating forces had established a foothold on the Normandy coast enormous amounts of men and supplies would need to be landed to re-enforce the bridgehead before pushing on towards Germany. The problem for the Allies was that the Germans had occupied and heavily fortified all the ports on the northern coast of France. The disastrous Allied raid on Dieppe in 1942 showed that taking such ports would only be done with immense loss of life and would not be quick. What the Allies needed was access to a port that was not controlled by the Germans. Small fishing ports would not be suitable as the large ships needed to transport bulky supplies needed a deep port with harbourside cranes; the Allies therefore decided that if no such ports were available they would have to create their own.
The plan they came up with was simple yet would be incredibly complex to achieve – the construction of a new harbour the size of Dover at the site of the invasion. The plan was to prefabricate the elements needed in Britain before towing them across the English Channel and creating a harbour off the landing beaches. The schedule was to complete the construction within two weeks of the D Day landings in June 1944. Winston Churchill knew that there would be enormous problems with this idea but was determined that it should work if the invasion was to be successful. A trial of three competing designs for the floating harbour was set up in 1943 with prototypes built and tested on the Solway Firth. Once the design was finalised the War Office could begin the prefabrication of the concrete caissons.
The invasion of Europe began on 6th June 1944, D Day, with thousands of Allied troops landing along the Normandy coast. Once the beachheads were secured the work on the floating harbours began, the first stage of which was to scuttle a number of old ships off the coast at Arromanches as temporary outer breakwaters (the Gooseberries) to protect the area where the harbour (the Mulberry) was to be built. The huge prefabricated caissons (water-tight concrete structures codenamed Phoenixes) were then sunk to provide the permanent breakwaters which would shelter the floating roadways and jetties. Once the completed Mulberry Harbour was in place the Allies could begin unloading the supplies which would be so vital for their victory.
There were actually two Mulberry Harbours towed across the English Channel to support the Normandy beachheads. Mulberry A was constructed at Omaha Beach whilst Mulberry B (nicknamed ‘Port Winston’), was constructed off Gold Beach at the town of Arromanches. Once assembled the harbours could unload 7,000 tons of supplies a day. Each incredibly complex harbour had masses of pontoons which supported around 6 miles of flexible roadways ending in huge pier heads supported by underwater ‘legs’.
An incredible feat of engineering had both harbours almost fully functional when they were hit by a storm on 19th June. The Mulberry Harbours had been designed for summer weather not the worst storm to hit the Normandy coast for 40 years, and the harbour at Omaha beach was so badly damaged that it was beyond repair. This could have been a disaster for the Allied forces, but although the second Mulberry suffered some damage it survived the storm and continued to land supplies in support of the invasion. Although it had been designed to last for just ninety days Port Winston was in continuous use for ten months following D Day and in that time landed over half a million vehicles, two and a half million men and four million tons of supplies.
When the invasion had moved eastward and liberated ports from the Nazis the harbour was no longer useful and was abandoned. If you visit Arromanches today you can see the remains of the Mulberry Harbour from the beaches.
The scale and sheer audacity of the Mulberries took the Germans completely by surprise. At the Nurembeurg trials after the war Albert Speer, Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production for Nazi Germany, gave a German perspective on the Mulberry Harbours:
“To construct our defences we had in two years used some 13 million cubic metres of concrete and 1½ million tons of steel. A fortnight after the Normandy Landings, this costly effort was brought to nothing because of an idea of simple genius. As we now know, the invasion force brought their own harbours, and built, at Arromanches and Omaha, on unprotected coast, the necessary landing ramps.”
When we remember the troops who fought and died on the beaches of Normandy we should not forget those who designed and built the Mulberry Harbours which were so instrumental in making D Day and the invasion of Europe such a success. | 1,187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Building Bridges Over Land
Around the globe, from the streets of London to the Arab world’s public squares, youth and disenfranchisement have proved a potent combination. But Surendra Sabar, a 27-year-old occasional day laborer who was just one year ago without a job, without a place to call his own, and without any connection to the authorities in Odisha, India, is now a great supporter of his government.
“Before, the government never came to our hamlet,” Sabar said while sitting on the stoop of his mud brick hut. “We didn’t understand what is a government for. We just cast our wood (a reference to voting in India’s election system) and that was it.”
But a partnership between Landesa and the state government of Odisha, gave Sabar a stake in the system and hope for the future by making him a landowner.
As landowners, Sabar and his neighbors qualify for government agricultural extension services. They’ve received a starter pack of six types of seeds and training in organic farming and they qualify for a host of other government anti-poverty programs: their children can attend government residential schools where they room and board for free and – even more importantly – become among the first of their village to read and write, and Sabar and his neighbors can receive a small grant under the government’s rural housing program to help them build a home on their new micro-plot that is about the size of a tennis court.
Across the developing world, land is often much more than just a place to grow food. Land ownership is often the entry point into becoming a full citizen. So when Landesa and its partners work to provide the poor with land rights, they are also working to ensure that these poor can participate in community decisions, send their children to school, access government agencies, and protect themselves and their property in a court of law.
“Before I had land, my future was dark,” said Sabar, whose family and neighbors have squatted on and tilled vacant government land for generations. They eked out a living on the margins, sharecropping for more established farmers in other villages or offering themselves as day laborers; their children joined their parents laboring in the fields of others after they completed primary education, as they were unable to continue to middle school without a permanent address or land title. Said Sabar, “I had no idea how I would survive in the future.”
But on July 21, 2010, government officers, as part of a program supported by Landesa, gave Sabar and his wife title to a micro-plot of land. Previously owned by the government, the patch of ground is just a short walk from their current home. The pair quickly transformed their new plot into a lush garden full of okra, eggplant and a variety of green leafy vegetables. And they have put the power of their patta (the local name for a land title) to work, by calling on government services and support for their efforts, jointly seizing on this opportunity to carve out a more secure future for themselves.
“Now, I understand that the government’s job is to help the people. And they have helped us to build our future,” said Sabar, while sitting on the stoop of his mud and thatch home. “Now, I have land and hope.” | <urn:uuid:eb66099d-9746-49e0-8586-fcfbb9812849> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.landesa.org/resources/surendras-story/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00000.warc.gz | en | 0.98408 | 715 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.453574... | 8 | Building Bridges Over Land
Around the globe, from the streets of London to the Arab world’s public squares, youth and disenfranchisement have proved a potent combination. But Surendra Sabar, a 27-year-old occasional day laborer who was just one year ago without a job, without a place to call his own, and without any connection to the authorities in Odisha, India, is now a great supporter of his government.
“Before, the government never came to our hamlet,” Sabar said while sitting on the stoop of his mud brick hut. “We didn’t understand what is a government for. We just cast our wood (a reference to voting in India’s election system) and that was it.”
But a partnership between Landesa and the state government of Odisha, gave Sabar a stake in the system and hope for the future by making him a landowner.
As landowners, Sabar and his neighbors qualify for government agricultural extension services. They’ve received a starter pack of six types of seeds and training in organic farming and they qualify for a host of other government anti-poverty programs: their children can attend government residential schools where they room and board for free and – even more importantly – become among the first of their village to read and write, and Sabar and his neighbors can receive a small grant under the government’s rural housing program to help them build a home on their new micro-plot that is about the size of a tennis court.
Across the developing world, land is often much more than just a place to grow food. Land ownership is often the entry point into becoming a full citizen. So when Landesa and its partners work to provide the poor with land rights, they are also working to ensure that these poor can participate in community decisions, send their children to school, access government agencies, and protect themselves and their property in a court of law.
“Before I had land, my future was dark,” said Sabar, whose family and neighbors have squatted on and tilled vacant government land for generations. They eked out a living on the margins, sharecropping for more established farmers in other villages or offering themselves as day laborers; their children joined their parents laboring in the fields of others after they completed primary education, as they were unable to continue to middle school without a permanent address or land title. Said Sabar, “I had no idea how I would survive in the future.”
But on July 21, 2010, government officers, as part of a program supported by Landesa, gave Sabar and his wife title to a micro-plot of land. Previously owned by the government, the patch of ground is just a short walk from their current home. The pair quickly transformed their new plot into a lush garden full of okra, eggplant and a variety of green leafy vegetables. And they have put the power of their patta (the local name for a land title) to work, by calling on government services and support for their efforts, jointly seizing on this opportunity to carve out a more secure future for themselves.
“Now, I understand that the government’s job is to help the people. And they have helped us to build our future,” said Sabar, while sitting on the stoop of his mud and thatch home. “Now, I have land and hope.” | 688 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On March 4, 1852, prominent Russian writer, playwright, poet, critic and publicist of the 19th century, Nikolay Gogol died.
The story of Nikolay Gogol’s death has always been shrouded in mystery.
Gogol himself had always been haunted by the fear of death, or more specifically, of falling into a lethargic sleep and being buried alive. For the last ten years of his life, he never slept lying down and only took naps, cuddled in an armchair. In a letter to a friend he requested that his body be committed to the ground only after it had shown the obvious signs of decay.
For almost half of his life Gogol had been sick, and always due to unknown causes. His illness was very likely of psychiatric origin. He often experienced euphoria and during moments of depression, he would lie down, without taking his clothes off; he would refuse food and continue to lie motionless for hours. To fight depression, Gogol tried traveling, but it didn’t help.
Being a very religious person, he intensified his relationship with a church elder, Matvey Konstantinovsky, whom he had known for several years. However, Father Matvey ‘s advices did not help him; moreover, a series of exaggerated ascetic practices undermined his health and plunged him into a deeper depression.
Following Father Matvey’s advice to renounce literature, Gogol burned the second part of his novel ‘Dead Souls’, took to bed, resorted to self-starvation, and died in great pain nine days later.
Gogol was buried at the Danilov Monastery, but when the ancient monastery was demolished, his remains had to be moved to the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow. Gogol’s body was discovered lying face down, which in fact gave rise to the story that Gogol had been buried alive.
This theory has been refuted by many scientists; however, it still has not been totally disproved. | <urn:uuid:6f19108e-1fd5-4c30-85fa-179c5efe9d10> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tall-white-aliens.com/?p=10980 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00131.warc.gz | en | 0.99333 | 428 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.5527782440185... | 3 | On March 4, 1852, prominent Russian writer, playwright, poet, critic and publicist of the 19th century, Nikolay Gogol died.
The story of Nikolay Gogol’s death has always been shrouded in mystery.
Gogol himself had always been haunted by the fear of death, or more specifically, of falling into a lethargic sleep and being buried alive. For the last ten years of his life, he never slept lying down and only took naps, cuddled in an armchair. In a letter to a friend he requested that his body be committed to the ground only after it had shown the obvious signs of decay.
For almost half of his life Gogol had been sick, and always due to unknown causes. His illness was very likely of psychiatric origin. He often experienced euphoria and during moments of depression, he would lie down, without taking his clothes off; he would refuse food and continue to lie motionless for hours. To fight depression, Gogol tried traveling, but it didn’t help.
Being a very religious person, he intensified his relationship with a church elder, Matvey Konstantinovsky, whom he had known for several years. However, Father Matvey ‘s advices did not help him; moreover, a series of exaggerated ascetic practices undermined his health and plunged him into a deeper depression.
Following Father Matvey’s advice to renounce literature, Gogol burned the second part of his novel ‘Dead Souls’, took to bed, resorted to self-starvation, and died in great pain nine days later.
Gogol was buried at the Danilov Monastery, but when the ancient monastery was demolished, his remains had to be moved to the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow. Gogol’s body was discovered lying face down, which in fact gave rise to the story that Gogol had been buried alive.
This theory has been refuted by many scientists; however, it still has not been totally disproved. | 418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Chinese government (despite its many internal problems) was willing to enter the Great War in order to reclaim concessions lost to Germany and Austria. The Allies were initially hesitant, but as the casualties mounted and the shortage of manpower became acute, Chinese civilian laborers began working behind the front lines. Later, after a U-boat attack killed hundreds of Chinese, China formally entered the war.
Mata Hari earned internationally acclaim as a dancer during the Belle Époque by trading on her exotic (and mostly invented) origins. But during the Great War, being mysterious and not entirely honest can get you killed.
In the autumn of 1917, the Germans lend the Austrians a hand in their losing struggle with Italy. The result is the Battle of Caporetto, which undoes all of Italy's previous gains and brings the Central Powers within 20 miles of Venice.
After the failure of the Nivelle Offensive, and with Russia collapsing into chaos, the British Cabinet unleashes Haig, who begins his latest offensive.
By autumn of 1917, the Russian Provisional Government had failed. It lost popular support, the Army was collapsing, and the Germans were advancing on Petrograd. Lenin determined it was time for the Bolsheviks to make their move.
Following the July Days, Alexander Kerensky became convinced that the biggest threat to his government now loomed on the political right, and he became increasingly suspicious of the new army commander-in-chief, Lavr Kornilov.
The Kerensky Offensive was supposed to prove that the Russian Provisional Government was in control and that Russia could still field an effective army. Instead, it demonstrated that neither of these were true.
The Kerensky Offensive provoked discontent among soldiers in Petrograd which triggered a Bolshevik uprising against the Provisional Government. The uprising was put down and evidence was made public that the Bolsheviks were being supported and funded by Germany.
With the Bolsheviks relentlessly criticizing the Russian government, the question of war aims came to the fore. When the liberals in the government couldn't give a straight answer, a cabinet shuffle followed, giving socialists more power than before. | <urn:uuid:4089f14a-7a83-4d45-a20a-15492ebf03b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://history20th.libsyn.com/page/4/size/10 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.980759 | 438 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.4364420771598816,... | 1 | The Chinese government (despite its many internal problems) was willing to enter the Great War in order to reclaim concessions lost to Germany and Austria. The Allies were initially hesitant, but as the casualties mounted and the shortage of manpower became acute, Chinese civilian laborers began working behind the front lines. Later, after a U-boat attack killed hundreds of Chinese, China formally entered the war.
Mata Hari earned internationally acclaim as a dancer during the Belle Époque by trading on her exotic (and mostly invented) origins. But during the Great War, being mysterious and not entirely honest can get you killed.
In the autumn of 1917, the Germans lend the Austrians a hand in their losing struggle with Italy. The result is the Battle of Caporetto, which undoes all of Italy's previous gains and brings the Central Powers within 20 miles of Venice.
After the failure of the Nivelle Offensive, and with Russia collapsing into chaos, the British Cabinet unleashes Haig, who begins his latest offensive.
By autumn of 1917, the Russian Provisional Government had failed. It lost popular support, the Army was collapsing, and the Germans were advancing on Petrograd. Lenin determined it was time for the Bolsheviks to make their move.
Following the July Days, Alexander Kerensky became convinced that the biggest threat to his government now loomed on the political right, and he became increasingly suspicious of the new army commander-in-chief, Lavr Kornilov.
The Kerensky Offensive was supposed to prove that the Russian Provisional Government was in control and that Russia could still field an effective army. Instead, it demonstrated that neither of these were true.
The Kerensky Offensive provoked discontent among soldiers in Petrograd which triggered a Bolshevik uprising against the Provisional Government. The uprising was put down and evidence was made public that the Bolsheviks were being supported and funded by Germany.
With the Bolsheviks relentlessly criticizing the Russian government, the question of war aims came to the fore. When the liberals in the government couldn't give a straight answer, a cabinet shuffle followed, giving socialists more power than before. | 436 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Being able to play a sport should not be constrained to only a particular sector of people. The world is so accustomed to stereotyping people based on what most people can do and thus giving the name ‘differently-abled’ or ‘disabled’ to those who are not the same as the others. In truth, everyone has skills and abilities that cannot be measured on a scale or even stereotyped.
Today everyone enjoys equal right and events for all kinds of people but starting the era of inclusion was not an easy one. Back in 1948, the first-ever Paralympics competition for archery was the start of sports for the disabled. Ludwig Guttman is the man who should be given credit, and who deserve it, for the spark in Paralympics. When the 2nd world war was in full swing, there were spinal units that were put up all around Britain. The director of these spinal units was Ludwig Guttman. He was a German by birth and a Jewish neurosurgeon who was a refugee from a Nazi camp. He made the breakthrough for the first time in rehabilitating paralysed victims of war. These cases were called hopeless until what Ludwig was able to prove a miracle.
The Start of the Paralympics
While Ludwig was the doctor behind the revolution, the hospital that he headed was Britians Stoke Mandeville. The injured victims in the war began racing on their wheelchair as part of a dressing exercise every day. They would race each other from their beds and strive to be the first to get dressed and hop into their wheelchairs as a fun activity to pass their time. This was in the year 1944. Four years later, Britain hosted the Olympics in London, and an archery competition took place in the lawns of the hospital of Mandeville. The competition was held against the war victims in Richmond. Even two women participated in the event.
The Evolution of The Sporting Events and The Paralympics
Six years later, there was a Mandeville Festival that was hosted in the same lawns and over 12,000 people looked on as netball matches were played by war-victims and survivors. There were even those who had suffered mining injuries on wheelchairs and the court. The games were a big hit and very impressive. After the hit of the festival in Britain, Rome was interested in getting involved too and started hosting sports for the disables with over 450 disabled athletes participating in their sporting festival from around the world.
Soon, sports were being included in the Olympics for the disabled, and a whole set of events were dedicated only to the differently-abled citizens of the world. Today the world enjoys sporting activities and events that are inclusive thanks to what was started decades ago in the lawns of a British hospital. It is the second-largest sporting event in the entire world, and over 5000 disabled sportsmen are known to compete in over 20 sports. The venues and the fully accessible areas are a delight, thanks to one man’s ability to include and a country’s ability to encourage. | <urn:uuid:e388fc35-06d6-4419-ba39-a9f1957f43f2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sportspecial.co.uk/the-history-and-birth-of-paralympics-uk-sporting-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00116.warc.gz | en | 0.988431 | 624 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.32502487301826477... | 4 | Being able to play a sport should not be constrained to only a particular sector of people. The world is so accustomed to stereotyping people based on what most people can do and thus giving the name ‘differently-abled’ or ‘disabled’ to those who are not the same as the others. In truth, everyone has skills and abilities that cannot be measured on a scale or even stereotyped.
Today everyone enjoys equal right and events for all kinds of people but starting the era of inclusion was not an easy one. Back in 1948, the first-ever Paralympics competition for archery was the start of sports for the disabled. Ludwig Guttman is the man who should be given credit, and who deserve it, for the spark in Paralympics. When the 2nd world war was in full swing, there were spinal units that were put up all around Britain. The director of these spinal units was Ludwig Guttman. He was a German by birth and a Jewish neurosurgeon who was a refugee from a Nazi camp. He made the breakthrough for the first time in rehabilitating paralysed victims of war. These cases were called hopeless until what Ludwig was able to prove a miracle.
The Start of the Paralympics
While Ludwig was the doctor behind the revolution, the hospital that he headed was Britians Stoke Mandeville. The injured victims in the war began racing on their wheelchair as part of a dressing exercise every day. They would race each other from their beds and strive to be the first to get dressed and hop into their wheelchairs as a fun activity to pass their time. This was in the year 1944. Four years later, Britain hosted the Olympics in London, and an archery competition took place in the lawns of the hospital of Mandeville. The competition was held against the war victims in Richmond. Even two women participated in the event.
The Evolution of The Sporting Events and The Paralympics
Six years later, there was a Mandeville Festival that was hosted in the same lawns and over 12,000 people looked on as netball matches were played by war-victims and survivors. There were even those who had suffered mining injuries on wheelchairs and the court. The games were a big hit and very impressive. After the hit of the festival in Britain, Rome was interested in getting involved too and started hosting sports for the disables with over 450 disabled athletes participating in their sporting festival from around the world.
Soon, sports were being included in the Olympics for the disabled, and a whole set of events were dedicated only to the differently-abled citizens of the world. Today the world enjoys sporting activities and events that are inclusive thanks to what was started decades ago in the lawns of a British hospital. It is the second-largest sporting event in the entire world, and over 5000 disabled sportsmen are known to compete in over 20 sports. The venues and the fully accessible areas are a delight, thanks to one man’s ability to include and a country’s ability to encourage. | 642 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“The On 2 of February 1585, they had twins’
Tempest” A Play by William Shakespeare
is a person who expert in writing plays for the theatre, television or radio (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. 2015). One of the famous English playwrights was
William Shakespeare. He was considered as the greatest playwright in England.
During his life, William Shakespeare wrote thirty sevenplays. His plays can be
categorized into three categories; history, tragedy and comedy. One of his
plays is The Tempest. The Tempest is the play that is categorized as a comedy.
This play was considered as the last play that Shakespeare wrote during his
life. This essay explains about William Shakespeare’s life, brief story of The
Tempest, and the influencesof why Shakespeare wrote The Tempest.
The first is about William
Shakespeare’s life.Shakespeare lived when Queen Elizabeth reigned England. There
was no accurate record to tell when Shakespeare was born. The church records
told that he was baptized on 26of April 1564 at Stratford-on-Avon. On 23 of
April 1564 was considered as his birth date.
His father was a burgess and his mother was a daughter of landlord. He studied
in the grammar school of the town. In
the grammar school, he learned about Latin and Greek.He died on 23 April 1616.
Shakespeare love’s story was amazing. Soon after he was eighteen
years old, he got married. On 28 of November 1582, he married Anne Hathwey. He married with the woman who eight years older
than him. They had three children. Her first child was a girl named Susanna who
was born on 26 May 1583. On 2 of February 1585, they had twins’ children named
Hamnet and Judith. Unfortunately, His son,
Hamnet died when he was eleven years old. He left his wife and his children in
Stratford, for he went to London to work there.
Shakespeare was a talented person. He began his career to be a playwright
around 1591-1592. Henry VI was the first play that he wrote. He continued write
his plays and the total of his plays were thirty seven plays. Besides he wrote
his plays, he also became the actor of his play. He played his role on the
stage very well. He was also a poet. He wrote two long narrative poems that was
Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. Shakespeare also wrote sonnet during
his life. Shakespeare’s sonnet was also called as English sonnet.
second is about the brief story of The Tempest. The story of The Tempest begins
with the storm which occurs in the middle of the sea. In the middle of the
storm, there is a ship that carries the King of Naples and his crew. Nearby of the stormy sea, there is a man
named Prospero standing on the island who controls the storm. Watching the
storm rages in the middle of sea, Miranda begs her father to stop the storm.
Prospero tells his daughter to do not worry about that, because he brings the
ship safely into the land with his magic. After that, Prospero tells Miranda
about the story of how both of them live on the strange island. Twelve years
ago Prospero was a Duke of Milan, but he was more interested in studying magic.
He entrusted the city to his brother, Antonio, but his brother deceived him.
King of Naples, Alonso helped Antonio to bring Prospero and Miranda into a
leaky boat and sailed the boat into a uninhabited island.
Many things happen on that
uninhabited island. The island formerly belonged to Sycorax, but Prospero
defeated Sycorax. After defeating Sycorax, the land belongs to Prospero and Sycorax’s
spirit named Caliban also belongs to him. He also set free a spirit named Ariel
from Sycorax’s spell. On the other part of the island, all passengers of the
ship landed safely but they were separated in different spots. The passengers
of that ship are Prospero’s brother, the king of Naples and his crew. Ariel
guided the king and his crew to Prospero’s house by his magical song. The
King’s son, Ferdinand meets Miranda and they feel in love each others at the
first sight. King’s court jester and king’s butler meet Caliban and Caliban
asks them to help him to kill Prospero. On the part of the island, Prospero
inaugurates his daughter’s engagement with Ferdinand. Soon, Prospero remembersCaliban’s
plan to kill him and Prospero asks Ariel to overcome Caliban’s plan.
Prospero meets Alonso, Antonio and
their crew by wearing his rich clothes. Alonso recognizes Prospero well and he
begs Prospero’s forgiveness. Alonso wants to hear why Prospero lives here and
Prospero tells him. Alonso is wondering, and he tells Prospero that he lost his
son. Prospero replies that he also lost his daughter too. Then Prospero leads
the king and his crew to his house. After arriving, Alonso sees Ferdinand there
while Ferdinand and Miranda are playing chess. Caliban, Trinculo and Stephano
arrive at Prospero’s house and they gather together with the king’s crew. The
King, the king’s crew and Caliban are forgiven by Prospero and Ariel also gets
its freedom. Prospero decides to return to Milan with all of the members of the
The third is about the influences of
why Shakespeare wrote The Tempest.During Shakespeare’s life, England set sail
to many lands and did many expansions across the sea. According to Mulherin and
Frost (2004) stated that England sent nine ships to America in 1609,
unfortunately a storm happened in the middle of the sea. One ship broke into
uninhabited island. One passenger of that ship, Sir William Strachey wrote a
letter about that island. William Strachey’s letter’s explained that the island
was hideous. From William Strachey’s letter, Shakespeare wrote The Tempest that
reflected the content of the letter. When Shakespeare wrote The Tempest, he was
helped by some people that were survived from that disaster.In the beginning of
The Tempest, Shakespeare showed the audiences about the storm or tempest that made
a ship landed into the mysterious island. The story of The Tempest takes place
in a mysterious island that is reflected the uninhabited island from William
The Tempest is a play that reflects
the England’s colonization. This colonization influenced Shakespeare to write
the story of The Tempest. Shakespeare illustrated of how the native’s reaction
toward the foreigners in The Tempest’s story. Natives in Virginia help the
foreigners to survive on the land. They taught the colonizer of how to plant,
dammed the rivers to get fish, but the foreigners exploited the native’s land.
This cruel event illustrated that the character named Caliban and Ariel arethe
native of the island and Prospero is the foreigner. Caliban helps Prospero to
survive in the new land, but Prospero makes Caliban and Ariel as his slaves and
he controls the island. This reflects the colonization of how the foreigners
occupied the land and enslaved the natives.
The Tempest also reflected what
condition in the society when Shakespeare lived. According to Mulherin and
Frost (2004) stated that during Shakespeare’s life, society believed in magic,
in horoscopes, and in fortune. Magic was popular on that time. Queen Elizabeth
also believed in horoscopes and she had her own astrologer and magician named
John Dee. According to Mulherin and Frost (2004) mentioned that John Dee, was
cheated by his assistant named Edward Kelly. The successful experiments that
were done by Kelly were not true, and he deceived John Dee. The story of John
Dee and Edward Kelly was illustrated by Shakespeare in the story of The Tempest
and his characters in The Tempest, Prospero and his brother Antonio. Shakespeare
illustrated that Prospero is a great magician, but his brother deceived him. He
also illustrated of how magic were popular in society during Shakespeare’s day
by made Prospero becomes a great magician in his story.
William Shakespeare was one of the
greatest dramatists in England.He was born on 23 of April 1564. He married with
a girl who was older than him. He was also known as a playwright, an actor and
a poet. One of his plays is The Tempest. The Tempest was said that was the last
play of William Shakespeare. Story of The Tempest is about a man who rules a
land with his daughter. The influences of why Shakespeare wrote The Tempest
were William Strachey’s letter, the reflection of the England’s colonization,
and the reflection of society’s condition during Shakespeare’s life. Shakespeare
illustrated the events that happened when he lived in this play.So, William
Shakespeare was great playwright that wrote The Tempest based on the events
that occurred during his life. | <urn:uuid:48ca98d5-4eee-4c71-b53a-e72c8a86250a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://learnwaystoearnonline.com/the-on-2-of-february-1585-they-had-twins/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00531.warc.gz | en | 0.981269 | 1,993 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.19883686304... | 1 | “The On 2 of February 1585, they had twins’
Tempest” A Play by William Shakespeare
is a person who expert in writing plays for the theatre, television or radio (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. 2015). One of the famous English playwrights was
William Shakespeare. He was considered as the greatest playwright in England.
During his life, William Shakespeare wrote thirty sevenplays. His plays can be
categorized into three categories; history, tragedy and comedy. One of his
plays is The Tempest. The Tempest is the play that is categorized as a comedy.
This play was considered as the last play that Shakespeare wrote during his
life. This essay explains about William Shakespeare’s life, brief story of The
Tempest, and the influencesof why Shakespeare wrote The Tempest.
The first is about William
Shakespeare’s life.Shakespeare lived when Queen Elizabeth reigned England. There
was no accurate record to tell when Shakespeare was born. The church records
told that he was baptized on 26of April 1564 at Stratford-on-Avon. On 23 of
April 1564 was considered as his birth date.
His father was a burgess and his mother was a daughter of landlord. He studied
in the grammar school of the town. In
the grammar school, he learned about Latin and Greek.He died on 23 April 1616.
Shakespeare love’s story was amazing. Soon after he was eighteen
years old, he got married. On 28 of November 1582, he married Anne Hathwey. He married with the woman who eight years older
than him. They had three children. Her first child was a girl named Susanna who
was born on 26 May 1583. On 2 of February 1585, they had twins’ children named
Hamnet and Judith. Unfortunately, His son,
Hamnet died when he was eleven years old. He left his wife and his children in
Stratford, for he went to London to work there.
Shakespeare was a talented person. He began his career to be a playwright
around 1591-1592. Henry VI was the first play that he wrote. He continued write
his plays and the total of his plays were thirty seven plays. Besides he wrote
his plays, he also became the actor of his play. He played his role on the
stage very well. He was also a poet. He wrote two long narrative poems that was
Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. Shakespeare also wrote sonnet during
his life. Shakespeare’s sonnet was also called as English sonnet.
second is about the brief story of The Tempest. The story of The Tempest begins
with the storm which occurs in the middle of the sea. In the middle of the
storm, there is a ship that carries the King of Naples and his crew. Nearby of the stormy sea, there is a man
named Prospero standing on the island who controls the storm. Watching the
storm rages in the middle of sea, Miranda begs her father to stop the storm.
Prospero tells his daughter to do not worry about that, because he brings the
ship safely into the land with his magic. After that, Prospero tells Miranda
about the story of how both of them live on the strange island. Twelve years
ago Prospero was a Duke of Milan, but he was more interested in studying magic.
He entrusted the city to his brother, Antonio, but his brother deceived him.
King of Naples, Alonso helped Antonio to bring Prospero and Miranda into a
leaky boat and sailed the boat into a uninhabited island.
Many things happen on that
uninhabited island. The island formerly belonged to Sycorax, but Prospero
defeated Sycorax. After defeating Sycorax, the land belongs to Prospero and Sycorax’s
spirit named Caliban also belongs to him. He also set free a spirit named Ariel
from Sycorax’s spell. On the other part of the island, all passengers of the
ship landed safely but they were separated in different spots. The passengers
of that ship are Prospero’s brother, the king of Naples and his crew. Ariel
guided the king and his crew to Prospero’s house by his magical song. The
King’s son, Ferdinand meets Miranda and they feel in love each others at the
first sight. King’s court jester and king’s butler meet Caliban and Caliban
asks them to help him to kill Prospero. On the part of the island, Prospero
inaugurates his daughter’s engagement with Ferdinand. Soon, Prospero remembersCaliban’s
plan to kill him and Prospero asks Ariel to overcome Caliban’s plan.
Prospero meets Alonso, Antonio and
their crew by wearing his rich clothes. Alonso recognizes Prospero well and he
begs Prospero’s forgiveness. Alonso wants to hear why Prospero lives here and
Prospero tells him. Alonso is wondering, and he tells Prospero that he lost his
son. Prospero replies that he also lost his daughter too. Then Prospero leads
the king and his crew to his house. After arriving, Alonso sees Ferdinand there
while Ferdinand and Miranda are playing chess. Caliban, Trinculo and Stephano
arrive at Prospero’s house and they gather together with the king’s crew. The
King, the king’s crew and Caliban are forgiven by Prospero and Ariel also gets
its freedom. Prospero decides to return to Milan with all of the members of the
The third is about the influences of
why Shakespeare wrote The Tempest.During Shakespeare’s life, England set sail
to many lands and did many expansions across the sea. According to Mulherin and
Frost (2004) stated that England sent nine ships to America in 1609,
unfortunately a storm happened in the middle of the sea. One ship broke into
uninhabited island. One passenger of that ship, Sir William Strachey wrote a
letter about that island. William Strachey’s letter’s explained that the island
was hideous. From William Strachey’s letter, Shakespeare wrote The Tempest that
reflected the content of the letter. When Shakespeare wrote The Tempest, he was
helped by some people that were survived from that disaster.In the beginning of
The Tempest, Shakespeare showed the audiences about the storm or tempest that made
a ship landed into the mysterious island. The story of The Tempest takes place
in a mysterious island that is reflected the uninhabited island from William
The Tempest is a play that reflects
the England’s colonization. This colonization influenced Shakespeare to write
the story of The Tempest. Shakespeare illustrated of how the native’s reaction
toward the foreigners in The Tempest’s story. Natives in Virginia help the
foreigners to survive on the land. They taught the colonizer of how to plant,
dammed the rivers to get fish, but the foreigners exploited the native’s land.
This cruel event illustrated that the character named Caliban and Ariel arethe
native of the island and Prospero is the foreigner. Caliban helps Prospero to
survive in the new land, but Prospero makes Caliban and Ariel as his slaves and
he controls the island. This reflects the colonization of how the foreigners
occupied the land and enslaved the natives.
The Tempest also reflected what
condition in the society when Shakespeare lived. According to Mulherin and
Frost (2004) stated that during Shakespeare’s life, society believed in magic,
in horoscopes, and in fortune. Magic was popular on that time. Queen Elizabeth
also believed in horoscopes and she had her own astrologer and magician named
John Dee. According to Mulherin and Frost (2004) mentioned that John Dee, was
cheated by his assistant named Edward Kelly. The successful experiments that
were done by Kelly were not true, and he deceived John Dee. The story of John
Dee and Edward Kelly was illustrated by Shakespeare in the story of The Tempest
and his characters in The Tempest, Prospero and his brother Antonio. Shakespeare
illustrated that Prospero is a great magician, but his brother deceived him. He
also illustrated of how magic were popular in society during Shakespeare’s day
by made Prospero becomes a great magician in his story.
William Shakespeare was one of the
greatest dramatists in England.He was born on 23 of April 1564. He married with
a girl who was older than him. He was also known as a playwright, an actor and
a poet. One of his plays is The Tempest. The Tempest was said that was the last
play of William Shakespeare. Story of The Tempest is about a man who rules a
land with his daughter. The influences of why Shakespeare wrote The Tempest
were William Strachey’s letter, the reflection of the England’s colonization,
and the reflection of society’s condition during Shakespeare’s life. Shakespeare
illustrated the events that happened when he lived in this play.So, William
Shakespeare was great playwright that wrote The Tempest based on the events
that occurred during his life. | 1,976 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Some years before St. Louis led his last Crusade there was born in Venice a boy named Marco Polo. His father was a wealthy merchant who often went on trading journeys to distant lands.
In 1271, when Marco was seventeen years old, he accompanied his father and uncle on a journey through the Holy Land, Persia and Tartary, and at length to the Empire of China — then called Cathay (Ca-thay'). It took the travelers three years to reach Cathay .
The emperor of Cathay was a monarch named Kublai Khan (koo' bli-kan'), who lived in Peking .
Marco's father and uncle had been in Cathay once before and had entertained Kublai Khan by telling him about the manners and customs of Europe .
So when the two Venetian merchants again appeared in Peking , Kublai Khan was glad to see them. He was also greatly pleased with the young Marco, whom he invited to the palace.
Important positions at the Chinese court were given to Marco's father and uncle, and so they and Marco lived in the country for some years. Marco studied the Chinese language, and it was not very long before he could speak it.
When he was about twenty-one Kublai Khan sent him on very important business to a distant part of China . He did the work well and from that time was often employed as an envoy of the Chinese monarch. His travels were sometimes in lands never before visited by Europeans and he had many strange adventures among the almost unknown tribes of Asia . Step by step he was promoted. For several years he was governor of a great Chinese city.
Finally he and his father and uncle desired to return to Venice . They had all served Kublai Khan faithfully and he had appreciated it and given them rich rewards; but he did not wish to let them go.
While the matter was being talked over an embassy arrived in Peking from the king of Persia . This monarch desired to marry the daughter of Kublai Khan, the Princess Cocachin, and he had sent to ask her father for her hand. Consent was given, and Kublai Khan fitted out a fleet of fourteen ships to carry the wedding party to Persia .
The Princess Cocachin was a great friend of Marco Polo, and urged her father to allow him to go with the party. Finally Kublai Khan gave his consent. Marco's father and uncle were also allowed to go, and the three Venetians left China .
The fleet with the wedding party on board sailed southward on the China Sea . It was a long and perilous voyage. Stops were made at Borneo , Sumatra , Ceylon and other places, until the ships entered the Persian Gulf and the princess was safely landed. After they reached the capital of Persia the party, including the three Venetians, was entertained by the Persians for weeks in a magnificent manner and costly presents were given to all.
At last the Venetians left their friends, went to the Black Sea and took ship for Venice .
They had been away so long and were so much changed in appearance that none of their relations and old friends knew them when they arrived in Venice . As they were dressed in Tatar costume and sometimes spoke the Chinese language to one another, they found it hard to convince people that they were members of the Polo family.
At length, on order to show that they were the men that they declared themselves to be, they gave a dinner to all their relations and old friends. When the guests arrived they were greeted by the travelers, arrayed in gorgeous Chinese robes of crimson satin. After the first course they appeared in crimson damask; after the second, they changed their costumes to crimson velvet; while at the end of the dinner they appeared in the usual garb of wealthy Venetians.
"Now, my friends, " said Marco, "I will show you something that will please you." He then brought into the room the rough Tatar coats which he and his father and uncle had worn when they reached Venice . Cutting open the seams, he took from inside the lining packets filled with rubies, emeralds and diamonds. It was the finest collection of jewels ever seen in Venice .
The guests were now persuaded that their hosts were indeed what they claimed to be. | <urn:uuid:63940d6a-5fc3-4a93-b815-ac8f2e6a65f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/87/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00544.warc.gz | en | 0.993389 | 887 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.31399950385... | 1 | Some years before St. Louis led his last Crusade there was born in Venice a boy named Marco Polo. His father was a wealthy merchant who often went on trading journeys to distant lands.
In 1271, when Marco was seventeen years old, he accompanied his father and uncle on a journey through the Holy Land, Persia and Tartary, and at length to the Empire of China — then called Cathay (Ca-thay'). It took the travelers three years to reach Cathay .
The emperor of Cathay was a monarch named Kublai Khan (koo' bli-kan'), who lived in Peking .
Marco's father and uncle had been in Cathay once before and had entertained Kublai Khan by telling him about the manners and customs of Europe .
So when the two Venetian merchants again appeared in Peking , Kublai Khan was glad to see them. He was also greatly pleased with the young Marco, whom he invited to the palace.
Important positions at the Chinese court were given to Marco's father and uncle, and so they and Marco lived in the country for some years. Marco studied the Chinese language, and it was not very long before he could speak it.
When he was about twenty-one Kublai Khan sent him on very important business to a distant part of China . He did the work well and from that time was often employed as an envoy of the Chinese monarch. His travels were sometimes in lands never before visited by Europeans and he had many strange adventures among the almost unknown tribes of Asia . Step by step he was promoted. For several years he was governor of a great Chinese city.
Finally he and his father and uncle desired to return to Venice . They had all served Kublai Khan faithfully and he had appreciated it and given them rich rewards; but he did not wish to let them go.
While the matter was being talked over an embassy arrived in Peking from the king of Persia . This monarch desired to marry the daughter of Kublai Khan, the Princess Cocachin, and he had sent to ask her father for her hand. Consent was given, and Kublai Khan fitted out a fleet of fourteen ships to carry the wedding party to Persia .
The Princess Cocachin was a great friend of Marco Polo, and urged her father to allow him to go with the party. Finally Kublai Khan gave his consent. Marco's father and uncle were also allowed to go, and the three Venetians left China .
The fleet with the wedding party on board sailed southward on the China Sea . It was a long and perilous voyage. Stops were made at Borneo , Sumatra , Ceylon and other places, until the ships entered the Persian Gulf and the princess was safely landed. After they reached the capital of Persia the party, including the three Venetians, was entertained by the Persians for weeks in a magnificent manner and costly presents were given to all.
At last the Venetians left their friends, went to the Black Sea and took ship for Venice .
They had been away so long and were so much changed in appearance that none of their relations and old friends knew them when they arrived in Venice . As they were dressed in Tatar costume and sometimes spoke the Chinese language to one another, they found it hard to convince people that they were members of the Polo family.
At length, on order to show that they were the men that they declared themselves to be, they gave a dinner to all their relations and old friends. When the guests arrived they were greeted by the travelers, arrayed in gorgeous Chinese robes of crimson satin. After the first course they appeared in crimson damask; after the second, they changed their costumes to crimson velvet; while at the end of the dinner they appeared in the usual garb of wealthy Venetians.
"Now, my friends, " said Marco, "I will show you something that will please you." He then brought into the room the rough Tatar coats which he and his father and uncle had worn when they reached Venice . Cutting open the seams, he took from inside the lining packets filled with rubies, emeralds and diamonds. It was the finest collection of jewels ever seen in Venice .
The guests were now persuaded that their hosts were indeed what they claimed to be. | 876 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lately I have been telling you stories about the earth and about how it came to be. We’ve talked about how plants and animals came to live on the earth, and about the coming of human beings. The story I want to tell you today takes place after human beings had already come to live on the earth. There’s no way to tell exactly how long ago the story happened, but it was a long time ago, indeed! No matter, though; this is a true story.
When men and women first lived on the earth they had need of many things: food, shelter, and clothing, to name some. This was a long time ago, though, and there were no food markets or clothing stores. There were no homes to live in. Even so, the earth was ready for humans. The gift of a larger brain and imagination served them well as they searched for what they needed. They told each other about what they found and where they found it. Maybe they used gestures, or a combination of gestures and sounds.
(model some gestures and sounds portraying food and direction)
This system worked fine most of the time. Eventually, though, a challenge presented itself. If a person found something good to eat — say, some fish in a pond — and no one else was there, what could they do? Maybe they thought: “How can I tell about what I have found?” Maybe the first person didn’t solve this problem, but somebody did! Someone, we don’t know who or when, decided to make a picture. The picture told the story, rather than the sounds, or gestures that might have been expressed.
(show a pictograph)
People probably drew these kinds of pictures for a very long time. Pictures were made of what was important, and of what they wanted others to know. For example: a hunter might need to record that 10 animals were spotted near a certain rock. He may have drawn a picture of an animal, with 10 strokes underneath, on the rock to record that message.
(show the hunter’s pictograph)
Time passed and ancient people continued to draw pictures. Some of their pictures were very beautiful. We know this because some of them, drawn a very long time ago, have been found on the walls of caves around the world.
(show the cave painting)
Even more time passed. At a certain point in history, about 5,000 years ago, a group of people called the Egyptians lived in northern Africa along the banks of the Nile River. They made lots of pictures: some were carved in stone, some were painted on stone, and some were painted on paper. The stones came from the land around them, and the paper was made from the papyrus plant, a reed that grew near the river. They first painted pictures on this paper with a brush and then later used a pen to write their picture messages.
(show a picture of hieroglyphics)
As you might imagine, people were sometimes confused by picture messages. This was especially true when people started using the same pictures for different meanings, as the Egyptians did. For example, a picture of a leg could mean:
1. The object, meaning an actual leg
2. An idea, meaning ‘to run’, because the leg was used for running.
3. The tone of the words, as in ‘quickly’
(show pictures of different types of hieroglyphics)
At about the same time in history, a people called the Phoenicians lived around the Mediterranean Sea, north of Africa. They sailed to lands around the Mediterranean and sold many things – ivory, spices, incense, silver, ornaments, glass – and one very, very special thing. Only the Phoenicians sold this one special thing. What was it? It was a rare purple dye, like we use to color cloth. Somehow they discovered that a particular shellfish contained in its shell a tiny particle of bright red coloring that they could use as a dye. These shellfish were gathered by the millions and crushed together to make the dye. Because it was hard to get — only the Phoeenicians had it — the dye was very expensive. Only royalty and the very wealthy were able to dye their clothes with this beautiful color. The Phoenicians were the discoverers of this dye: how it was made was a closely guarded secret.
But as important as this Tyrian Purple Dye was to the Phoenicians, it is not why they are part of this story. Here is the reason why:
The Phoenicians traded with the Egyptians, who by now used pictures that represented sounds as well as objects. Being merchants, the Phoenicians needed a quick and accurate way of recording their business, so they ‘borrowed’ (quite cleverly) just the sound pictures of the Egyptians. This sort of picture could express many different things, like ideas and amounts of money. Best of all, ithese symbols made it easier to tell what was meant, since people who spoke to each other by this time agreed that certain sounds meant certain things. The Phoenicians found out what you found out when you learned to use the sandpaper letters — this mark makes this sound.
(show pictures of the Phoenician alphabet)
Even though it was the Phoenicians who were the first to use what we know as the alphabet, you might not recognize their letters. So, this is not quite the end of the story. You see, it was the Romans who first called these letters ‘the alphabet’. The Roman letters are ones you might recognize. The sandpaper letters you learned are almost the same as the letters used by the Romans.
(show pictures of the Greek, Roman, and modern alphabet)
Remember when I was reading name of book here to you the other day? It is the Phoenicians who first invented the idea of writing only sounds on paper. They did not need to draw pictures of objects, only the marks for sounds.
People today still use this idea. When you write down a story, you write down the letters that make the sound of the word that you want to write. And when you read, you recognize the sounds that the alphabet letters make. Because the Phoenicians recognized the sound alphabet, the author of name of book here could write the book we just read.
This is the Story of Writing. | <urn:uuid:3600c6f3-c96f-4e5f-a2f9-a95932d19a93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://m.montessoriteacherscollective.com/great-lessons-story-of-writing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00525.warc.gz | en | 0.983216 | 1,336 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.2423869073390... | 7 | Lately I have been telling you stories about the earth and about how it came to be. We’ve talked about how plants and animals came to live on the earth, and about the coming of human beings. The story I want to tell you today takes place after human beings had already come to live on the earth. There’s no way to tell exactly how long ago the story happened, but it was a long time ago, indeed! No matter, though; this is a true story.
When men and women first lived on the earth they had need of many things: food, shelter, and clothing, to name some. This was a long time ago, though, and there were no food markets or clothing stores. There were no homes to live in. Even so, the earth was ready for humans. The gift of a larger brain and imagination served them well as they searched for what they needed. They told each other about what they found and where they found it. Maybe they used gestures, or a combination of gestures and sounds.
(model some gestures and sounds portraying food and direction)
This system worked fine most of the time. Eventually, though, a challenge presented itself. If a person found something good to eat — say, some fish in a pond — and no one else was there, what could they do? Maybe they thought: “How can I tell about what I have found?” Maybe the first person didn’t solve this problem, but somebody did! Someone, we don’t know who or when, decided to make a picture. The picture told the story, rather than the sounds, or gestures that might have been expressed.
(show a pictograph)
People probably drew these kinds of pictures for a very long time. Pictures were made of what was important, and of what they wanted others to know. For example: a hunter might need to record that 10 animals were spotted near a certain rock. He may have drawn a picture of an animal, with 10 strokes underneath, on the rock to record that message.
(show the hunter’s pictograph)
Time passed and ancient people continued to draw pictures. Some of their pictures were very beautiful. We know this because some of them, drawn a very long time ago, have been found on the walls of caves around the world.
(show the cave painting)
Even more time passed. At a certain point in history, about 5,000 years ago, a group of people called the Egyptians lived in northern Africa along the banks of the Nile River. They made lots of pictures: some were carved in stone, some were painted on stone, and some were painted on paper. The stones came from the land around them, and the paper was made from the papyrus plant, a reed that grew near the river. They first painted pictures on this paper with a brush and then later used a pen to write their picture messages.
(show a picture of hieroglyphics)
As you might imagine, people were sometimes confused by picture messages. This was especially true when people started using the same pictures for different meanings, as the Egyptians did. For example, a picture of a leg could mean:
1. The object, meaning an actual leg
2. An idea, meaning ‘to run’, because the leg was used for running.
3. The tone of the words, as in ‘quickly’
(show pictures of different types of hieroglyphics)
At about the same time in history, a people called the Phoenicians lived around the Mediterranean Sea, north of Africa. They sailed to lands around the Mediterranean and sold many things – ivory, spices, incense, silver, ornaments, glass – and one very, very special thing. Only the Phoenicians sold this one special thing. What was it? It was a rare purple dye, like we use to color cloth. Somehow they discovered that a particular shellfish contained in its shell a tiny particle of bright red coloring that they could use as a dye. These shellfish were gathered by the millions and crushed together to make the dye. Because it was hard to get — only the Phoeenicians had it — the dye was very expensive. Only royalty and the very wealthy were able to dye their clothes with this beautiful color. The Phoenicians were the discoverers of this dye: how it was made was a closely guarded secret.
But as important as this Tyrian Purple Dye was to the Phoenicians, it is not why they are part of this story. Here is the reason why:
The Phoenicians traded with the Egyptians, who by now used pictures that represented sounds as well as objects. Being merchants, the Phoenicians needed a quick and accurate way of recording their business, so they ‘borrowed’ (quite cleverly) just the sound pictures of the Egyptians. This sort of picture could express many different things, like ideas and amounts of money. Best of all, ithese symbols made it easier to tell what was meant, since people who spoke to each other by this time agreed that certain sounds meant certain things. The Phoenicians found out what you found out when you learned to use the sandpaper letters — this mark makes this sound.
(show pictures of the Phoenician alphabet)
Even though it was the Phoenicians who were the first to use what we know as the alphabet, you might not recognize their letters. So, this is not quite the end of the story. You see, it was the Romans who first called these letters ‘the alphabet’. The Roman letters are ones you might recognize. The sandpaper letters you learned are almost the same as the letters used by the Romans.
(show pictures of the Greek, Roman, and modern alphabet)
Remember when I was reading name of book here to you the other day? It is the Phoenicians who first invented the idea of writing only sounds on paper. They did not need to draw pictures of objects, only the marks for sounds.
People today still use this idea. When you write down a story, you write down the letters that make the sound of the word that you want to write. And when you read, you recognize the sounds that the alphabet letters make. Because the Phoenicians recognized the sound alphabet, the author of name of book here could write the book we just read.
This is the Story of Writing. | 1,285 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Swedish allotment system
The allotment system (Swedish: indelningsverket; Finnish: ruotujakolaitos) was a system used in Sweden for keeping a trained army at all times. This system came into use in around 1640, and was replaced in the early 1900s by the Swedish Armed Forces conscription system. Two different allotment systems have been in use in Sweden; they are the old allotment system (äldre indelningsverket) and the new allotment system (yngre indelningsverket), the latter often referred to as just "the allotment system". The soldiers who were part of these systems were known as "tenement soldiers" (indelta soldater, the Swedish term, does not have the same meaning) due to the small tenements or crofts allotted to them.
Originally, the allotment system was a name for a system used to pay servants of the state, like officers and clergy. It was introduced because of an often felt shortage of money, and the allotment system tried to solve this by localizing taxes; meaning that payment consisted of an individual's right to collect certain taxes. Later on it referred to an organization created to provide soldiers to the armed forces, properly known as det ständiga knektehållet (literally "the permanent soldier household"). The reason for this development of the term is that a large part of the allotment system was used to support det ständiga knektehållet.
After the Swedish secession from the Kalmar Union in 1523, the infantry of the Swedish Army consisted of conscripted soldiers and enlisted mercenaries, both of whom would be called up in wartime only. The units were disbanded in peacetime to reduce costs, and only a few garrison units were present in towns and fortresses. This made it impossible to quickly mobilize a trained army. At the same time, land tax exemption (frälse) was given to those who equipped horsemen for cavalry service, according to the Decree of Alsnö. Coastal defence was provided by several skeppslag (literally "ship teams"), a number of farms located in a coastal district that had to furnish both ships and shipmen for service. After the birth of the Swedish Navy in 1522, the system for recruiting shipmen was changed to rely on forced conscription.
In the 16th century, the system was changed with regard to both cavalry (1536) and infantry (1544), to provide an army that could be quickly mobilized. This was still done through impressment for the infantry, and tax exemptions for those who financed horsemen. The new system gave the conscripted soldiers a means of subsistence between campaigns, by making a whole group of farmers responsible for the keep of each soldier. While the soldiers would be hired and salaried full-time if at war, they lived at home and off duty in peacetime. This meant that it would always be possible to raise a trained army in case of war.
The impressment of the foot soldiers was called utskrivning (literally "writing out"), and was based on a grouping, called a rote (similar to an English "file" or "ward"; in the eastern parts of the Swedish realm, this became the Finnish ruotu), of ten men from an estate or a few farms, fit for military service and between the ages of 15 and 40. One randomly chosen man from each rote was forced to serve in the province's or county's regiment in case of war.
The organization of the cavalry was based on a slightly different grouping. This grouping was known as a rusthåll (literally "arm household"), a bigger farm or estate (practically a peasant manor) that could support a horseman with his horse and equipment in exchange for tax exemption. The horseman who volunteered for service was often the estate master himself or a close relative. This option resembled the medieval origin of knighthood but no longer carried the Swedish noble status with it, as the cavalryman was not permanently stationed in war, but was allowed to remain home at peacetime. In particular cases, the estate owner received some taxes from neighbors to augment his own tax exemption: as the burden of a cavalryman with horse and equipment was deemed considerable, compensation needed to be commensurate.
The infantry was organized in units of 525 (later 300) men called a landsfänika and the cavalry in units of 300 horsemen called a landsfana. Later on, this was changed to a company—battalion—regiment organization. The system, used and refined by Gustav Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus, was later to be known as the old allotment system. Many people disliked forced conscription, though, and the peasantry in some provinces soon wrote contracts with the state to provide a certain number of soldiers in exchange for being spared from conscription.
There were a number of reasons for the dislike of the system. First, any of the ten men in each rote could be picked to serve in case of war, which made it hard for the generals to estimate the knowledge and level of practice their soldiers would have. Secondly, the richest of the men in the rote could buy their way out, which in turn sometimes led to the "10th man" being the poorest or weakest in the rote, which of course was not good for the army. The system of forced conscription also often led to desertions.
A complete reorganization of the military system was made at the end of the 17th century. In 1682 Charles XI decided to reorganize the army, and introduced the new allotment system, often referred to as just "the allotment system". The system was to remain in effect for over 200 years. One of the main reasons for the reorganization was the bad condition the army had been in during the Scanian War (1674–1679). In this system, the overall structure of the old system was retained, but contracts such as those described above were used instead of forced conscription. Contracts were written with counties and provinces, stating that they would have to raise and supply a regiment of 1,000 or 1,200 men in both wartime and peacetime. Usually, four farms (there were exceptions) were to join forces and equip a soldier. Those farms were the rote, and they also provided a croft (soldattorp), farmland, and equipment for one volunteer soldier who could then make a military career, while the rest of the men in the rote escaped conscription. The soldier's duty was to attend military drills, and in time of war was to report for duty, wherever that might be. Royal manors, farms owned by the nobility, and farms used as salary to government officials were exempted and did not need to provide soldiers to the system.
The cavalry was conscripted in the same way as in the old system, with each rusthåll providing a horse and horseman. In later years, contrary to the early times when the rider was often the farmer himself, the horseman was a volunteer in the same way as in the infantry, and he was also supplied with a croft (ryttartorp) and pay from the farmer, who in turn gained a large tax reduction and also did not need to serve in the army. This was mainly done because it was easier to replace a fallen horseman than replace the master of the estate. Usually, the rusthåll was made up of only one estate, and possibly another supporting farmer. In exceptional cases, one rusthåll could support as many as seven horsemen.
While most regiments were allotted in the late 17th century—Dalregementet and a few others allotted earlier—some remained outside the system, including some of the guards regiments and all the artillery regiments with enlisted soldiers. Many new regiments of enlisted mercenaries were also raised in wartime; for example, only one-fifth of soldiers in the Swedish army at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631 were of Swedish or Finnish origin. The rest of the army was made up of German, Scottish and other European mercenaries. This would however change during the Great Northern War, in which a majority of the regiment's soldiers were from Sweden or its dominions.
Allotment for the army was only applied to the countryside and not to the towns, where people were exclusively recruited to the navy. Each province had its own regiment consisting of 1,200 soldiers (and thus also 1,200 rotar, not counting officers) for an infantry regiment, or 1,000 horsemen (and 1,000 rusthåll) for a cavalry regiment. Thus, a rote did not necessarily consist of ten men fit for military service as in the old system; it could instead consist of a single wealthy estate or several small farms, all depending on the tax amount and the number of soldiers the farms or estates would be able to provide.
The Swedish Navy recruited their seamen using the same system as the army, but from coastal provinces and towns (including non-coastal towns). As with the infantry, the farms in coastal areas were organized into rotar, which would each provide a croft (båtmanstorp) for a navy volunteer. Recruits only had duties on board the ships, for example as artillerymen or sailors, and were not used for other combat duties, such as boardings and landings, which were executed by army units transported on the ships. The seamen often served in the navy six months over the summer of every third year. Later, from the middle of the 18th century, some of the rotar in the cities would pay a fee equal to the approximate cost of providing a boatsman, instead of providing one from among themselves.
There were several problems with this system, relating to the fact that a large proportion of the seamen did not live anywhere near the largest naval ports of Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Karlskrona. Many seamen had their crofts along the coast of Norrland and Finland, and thus had several hundred kilometres to travel when called into service. Originally, the seamen had to walk the long way to the nearest port; later, they were transported by horse and carriage. Even the latter method of transport, however, took a long time, and soon the state began to provide tools and materials, excepting the actual timber, to the rote so that the farmers could build a large rowing/sailing boat called a lodja. These boats could transport up to 25 men, and could ease the transport to the naval ports.
Crofts and soldiers
Each rote in the new allotment system had the responsibility to recruit a soldier for the army, provide his croft with a patch of land, a cow, a few chickens and few pigs or sheep so he could support a family, pay him his salary, and supply him with necessities such as hay and seed. The rote also had to provide the soldier with the uniform. The croft and land, located on the land of the rote, only belonged to the soldier as long as he was fit for service. If he died or had to retire, the croft would have to be returned to the rote, even if it made his family homeless; the rote in turn had to find a new recruit. It sometimes happened that a widow of a dead soldier married the rote's new recruit, as the rote was regarded as responsible to take care also of the remaining family of its fallen serviceman. The soldier lived at his croft for large parts of his life, mostly working at the farms that supported his household, and went away to a few training camps a year, honing his tactics and skills with his regiment. When at war, the soldier could be away for years at a time, leaving all of the chores to his wife and children, if he had any. Otherwise, the rote farmers would take over the work themselves.
Recruits in the early 18th century had to be physically and mentally fit, between 18 and 36 years old (18–30 years from 1819, 18–25 years from 1871) and at least 172 centimeters tall (175 cm from 1775, lowered to 167 cm from 1788 as the army was in dire need of soldiers during Gustav III's Russian War). Many soldiers served in the army for more than 30 years, as there was no service time stated in the contract; instead, being discharged required a reason, such as old age, injury, sickness, or the commission of a crime. Discharges were generally only given at general musters, held once a year, or even more sparsely, even though an interim discharge could be given by the regimental commander if the discharge was supported by the soldier. The interim discharge had to be confirmed at the next general muster.
From the 1680s (army) and early 18th century (navy), all soldiers in a given company were required to have a unique name, to make it easier to give specific orders. This could be problematic when several soldiers had the same name (being usually from rural background, they generally had just a patronymic, and such were often very common, e.g. Andersson, Eriksson, Olsson or Persson), giving rise to the Swedish soldier names. When a soldier appeared before the military scribe, he was given a soldier's name (often, a rote's new soldier received his predecessor's name), which he kept during his service. Those surnames also tended to become hereditary, as the soldier often retained it when he was pensioned or left the service, and his children were also registered under it in census lists and church books—this is the origin of many present-day Swedish surnames. The name was usually short, consisting of only one syllable—to make it easy and rapid to say. The names could be taken from a trait, such as the surname Stolt ("Proud") or from military terms, such as Svärd ("Sword"), but were often related to the rote. A soldier from a rote located in the village of Sundby, for example, could be given the surname Sundin. This meant that surnames often stayed with the croft, rather than with the soldier. Common practice amongst discharged soldiers in the 18th century was to reassume their original name. This changed in the 19th century, and many soldiers kept their old soldier names, passing it on to their children. Each soldier in the regiment also had a unique number, between 1 and 1,200, the number of the rote and croft he belonged to (for example nummer 15 Stolt, number 15 Stolt).
Officers were provided with a large farm or a small manor house directly from the Crown, not from a rote. They did not, however, receive a salary from the state, but were instead paid by the rotar around the province, as part of the rote members' tax payments, and by farmers who worked the land belonging to the officer's farm. The officers' homes were loans, rather than outright gifts, and their size and quality was proportionate to the occupants' military rank. It was this system that was originally called the "allotment system". A condition for the system to work was the reductions carried through by the state, expropriating land and farms from the nobles, which were then provided to the officers. The officers' homesteads would be located in the same part of the province as the soldiers whom the officer would command in battle, often close to the rote. The officer thus knew the men he would lead, contrary to the practice in many other countries where the army officers would live on estates that were separated from the soldiers by both distance and lifestyle.
The Swedish military had a unique position in Northern Europe at the time of the new system, being the only army that did not rely only on enlisted soldiers, mercenaries or conscripted soldiers. In relation to population size, the Swedish army was also the largest in Europe. Because of the allotment system, mobilization was quick. It took time, weeks and months, to enlist, equip, train and organize a unit of mercenaries, while the Swedish tenement soldiers gathered at the company meeting place in a couple of days, and then at the regimental meeting place in around a week. The soldiers were already trained and equipped, and knew their precise spot in the formation. Marching routes to the borders or to harbours had already been prepared, and supplies had been gathered at important places.
Swedish battle tactics relied on a high level of organization and the large-scale use of swords and pikes. Other armies had stopped using pikemen in the late 17th century, solely relying on the bayonet of the musketeer to protect against cavalry attacks. Reasons for the Swedish obstinacy in keeping the pikes and making large use of swords in battle include the Swedish loss in the Battle of Kircholm in 1605, where a modernized Swedish army was severely beaten by Polish hussars—partly due to being equipped with the latest muskets which were hard to handle—and the fact that pikemen were very expensive to hire to armies that were formed by mercenaries; however, as Sweden had the allotment system and thus did not pay a higher salary to pikemen, they were kept.
The high level of organization and morale made it possible to base the combat tactics on close combat, rather than long-range shooting. A regular attack would look like the following: When the enemy musketeers started firing, at ranges up to 100 metres, the Swedish infantry would not answer but keep a swift marching pace, not stopping until the range was as little as 40 metres, where the musketeers in the back of the formation would fire their only salvo. At an even closer range, the musketeers in the front would fire their only salvo, and immediately after that, break into the enemy lines—musketeers using their swords, and pikemen using their pikes. This tactic would often result in a fleeing enemy force, which probably stood terrified when their opponent's companies were not stopped by continuous musket fire, but kept marching on towards them in sinister silence.
During the time of the old allotment system, Sweden's involvement in the Thirty Years' War and the Northern Wars did not have a very large impact on the population in general. The armies of Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus and later Charles X had relatively large success due to the superior tactics used, and foreign mercenaries comprised large parts of the armies. Gustavus Adolphus had, when he entered the Thirty Years' War, an army of 14,500 Swedish and Finnish conscripts and more than 20,000 enlisted foreigners, and deaths in the latter group did not affect the Swedish population. Charles XI's new allotment system did not have to see use in the first 20 years of its existence, which was also the longest time of peace Sweden had seen since its independence. Thus, the population continued to grow at a steady rate between 1620 and 1700.
The new system was put to the test for the first time in 1700, when Sweden, under the reign of Charles XII, was attacked by a coalition of its neighbours Russia, Denmark-Norway and Saxony-Poland in the Great Northern War. The mobilization of the soldiers worked well thanks to the new system, with Sweden mobilizing 43,000 men in allotted regiments, and another 33,000 men from various enlisted regiments. The army was one of the largest in Europe at the time, having modern equipment and being very well-trained and organized. However, three enemies were too much, even though Charles XII forced Denmark to leave the war the same year it started, and forced Saxony to leave the war in 1706. After these successful blows to the coalition, Charles XII had the opportunity to sign a peace with the remaining opponent, Russia. He did not, and this decision would have immense effects on the population. Russia's vast plains did not give Charles XII the possibility to beat his enemy with his superior army; instead, he was forced into a war of attrition, a war he could not win.
As the war finally ended in 1721, Sweden had lost an estimated 200,000 men, 150,000 of those from present-day Sweden and 50,000 from the Finnish part of Sweden. This made a huge impact on a population that before the war had barely reached 2 million. The total population did not grow during the 21 years of the war; it was even reduced, according to some sources, as the massive losses outnumbered overall births. For example, the province of Östergötland was supposed to support 2,200 tenement soldiers, making up one infantry and one cavalry regiment. Losses had to be replaced, and during the first years of the war, another 2,400 men were conscripted. After the Battle of Poltava in 1709, both regiments had to be completely reraised. At the end of the war, a total of 10,400 soldiers had been conscripted from the province that was meant to support only a fifth, or 2,200. Another regiment, Hälsinge regemente, had to be completely raised three times during the war. The lack of soldiers became so critical that in the period 1714–1715, the army had to return to the old method of conscripting men by force.
In 1812, a new system was introduced, requiring all males between age 20 and 25 to serve in the armed forces twelve days a year, changing in 1858 to four weeks per two years. At the same time, the new allotment system remained in use up until 1901, when mandatory conscription, with 8–9 months of military service, was introduced. The allotment system was finally abolished in 1904. From that time, regiments began to be garrisoned in towns instead of being spread all over the province with a training ground as the only common meeting place. As tenemented soldiers were contracted by the government for as long as they were fit for service, and as they could not be dismissed, some soldiers lived under the allotment system long after 1901, the last one retiring as late as 1964. Through the reform, the regiments' local connections were partially lost, as conscripts were not necessarily from the regiments' respective provinces. Before the reform, soldiers of the same company generally stemmed from the same village and region.
- History of Sweden
- Military of the Grand Duchy of Finland
- List of Swedish regiments
- List of Swedish wars
- Knight's fee
- Braunstein, Christian (2003). Sveriges arméförband under 1900-talet. Stockholm: Statens Försvarshistoriska Museer. ISBN 91-971584-4-5
- Nelsson, Bertil (1993). Från Brunkeberg till Nordanvind: 500 år med svenskt infanteri. Stockholm: Probus. ISBN 91-87184-23-0
- Högman, Hans (2001). Militaria - Svensk militärhistoria. Retrieved 18 Aug., 2005.
- Martinsson, Örjan (2002). Tacticus.nu. Retrieved 18 Aug., 2005.
- Persson, Mats (1998). The Allotment System. Retrieved 18 Aug., 2005.[dead link]
- ^ For example, out of 306 forcibly conscripted soldiers in Kronoberg County in 1627, only 60 showed up for the first muster. Nelsson, p. 13.
- ^ Nelsson, pp. 32 & 34.
- ^ Recruitment at Militaria (Swedish)
- ^ Nelsson, p. 46.
- ^ Nelsson, p. 42.
- ^ Nelsson, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Thirty Year's War at Militaria (Swedish)
- ^ a b Population statistics at Tacticus.nu. (Swedish)
- ^ In a total of 57 regiments, whereof 34 allotted and 23 enlisted. Navy units were not included in the 57 regiments. Mobilization statistics at Militaria. (Swedish)
- ^ a b Losses statistics at Militaria. (Swedish)
- ^ Nelsson, p. 78.
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0.00909090228... | 1 | Swedish allotment system
The allotment system (Swedish: indelningsverket; Finnish: ruotujakolaitos) was a system used in Sweden for keeping a trained army at all times. This system came into use in around 1640, and was replaced in the early 1900s by the Swedish Armed Forces conscription system. Two different allotment systems have been in use in Sweden; they are the old allotment system (äldre indelningsverket) and the new allotment system (yngre indelningsverket), the latter often referred to as just "the allotment system". The soldiers who were part of these systems were known as "tenement soldiers" (indelta soldater, the Swedish term, does not have the same meaning) due to the small tenements or crofts allotted to them.
Originally, the allotment system was a name for a system used to pay servants of the state, like officers and clergy. It was introduced because of an often felt shortage of money, and the allotment system tried to solve this by localizing taxes; meaning that payment consisted of an individual's right to collect certain taxes. Later on it referred to an organization created to provide soldiers to the armed forces, properly known as det ständiga knektehållet (literally "the permanent soldier household"). The reason for this development of the term is that a large part of the allotment system was used to support det ständiga knektehållet.
After the Swedish secession from the Kalmar Union in 1523, the infantry of the Swedish Army consisted of conscripted soldiers and enlisted mercenaries, both of whom would be called up in wartime only. The units were disbanded in peacetime to reduce costs, and only a few garrison units were present in towns and fortresses. This made it impossible to quickly mobilize a trained army. At the same time, land tax exemption (frälse) was given to those who equipped horsemen for cavalry service, according to the Decree of Alsnö. Coastal defence was provided by several skeppslag (literally "ship teams"), a number of farms located in a coastal district that had to furnish both ships and shipmen for service. After the birth of the Swedish Navy in 1522, the system for recruiting shipmen was changed to rely on forced conscription.
In the 16th century, the system was changed with regard to both cavalry (1536) and infantry (1544), to provide an army that could be quickly mobilized. This was still done through impressment for the infantry, and tax exemptions for those who financed horsemen. The new system gave the conscripted soldiers a means of subsistence between campaigns, by making a whole group of farmers responsible for the keep of each soldier. While the soldiers would be hired and salaried full-time if at war, they lived at home and off duty in peacetime. This meant that it would always be possible to raise a trained army in case of war.
The impressment of the foot soldiers was called utskrivning (literally "writing out"), and was based on a grouping, called a rote (similar to an English "file" or "ward"; in the eastern parts of the Swedish realm, this became the Finnish ruotu), of ten men from an estate or a few farms, fit for military service and between the ages of 15 and 40. One randomly chosen man from each rote was forced to serve in the province's or county's regiment in case of war.
The organization of the cavalry was based on a slightly different grouping. This grouping was known as a rusthåll (literally "arm household"), a bigger farm or estate (practically a peasant manor) that could support a horseman with his horse and equipment in exchange for tax exemption. The horseman who volunteered for service was often the estate master himself or a close relative. This option resembled the medieval origin of knighthood but no longer carried the Swedish noble status with it, as the cavalryman was not permanently stationed in war, but was allowed to remain home at peacetime. In particular cases, the estate owner received some taxes from neighbors to augment his own tax exemption: as the burden of a cavalryman with horse and equipment was deemed considerable, compensation needed to be commensurate.
The infantry was organized in units of 525 (later 300) men called a landsfänika and the cavalry in units of 300 horsemen called a landsfana. Later on, this was changed to a company—battalion—regiment organization. The system, used and refined by Gustav Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus, was later to be known as the old allotment system. Many people disliked forced conscription, though, and the peasantry in some provinces soon wrote contracts with the state to provide a certain number of soldiers in exchange for being spared from conscription.
There were a number of reasons for the dislike of the system. First, any of the ten men in each rote could be picked to serve in case of war, which made it hard for the generals to estimate the knowledge and level of practice their soldiers would have. Secondly, the richest of the men in the rote could buy their way out, which in turn sometimes led to the "10th man" being the poorest or weakest in the rote, which of course was not good for the army. The system of forced conscription also often led to desertions.
A complete reorganization of the military system was made at the end of the 17th century. In 1682 Charles XI decided to reorganize the army, and introduced the new allotment system, often referred to as just "the allotment system". The system was to remain in effect for over 200 years. One of the main reasons for the reorganization was the bad condition the army had been in during the Scanian War (1674–1679). In this system, the overall structure of the old system was retained, but contracts such as those described above were used instead of forced conscription. Contracts were written with counties and provinces, stating that they would have to raise and supply a regiment of 1,000 or 1,200 men in both wartime and peacetime. Usually, four farms (there were exceptions) were to join forces and equip a soldier. Those farms were the rote, and they also provided a croft (soldattorp), farmland, and equipment for one volunteer soldier who could then make a military career, while the rest of the men in the rote escaped conscription. The soldier's duty was to attend military drills, and in time of war was to report for duty, wherever that might be. Royal manors, farms owned by the nobility, and farms used as salary to government officials were exempted and did not need to provide soldiers to the system.
The cavalry was conscripted in the same way as in the old system, with each rusthåll providing a horse and horseman. In later years, contrary to the early times when the rider was often the farmer himself, the horseman was a volunteer in the same way as in the infantry, and he was also supplied with a croft (ryttartorp) and pay from the farmer, who in turn gained a large tax reduction and also did not need to serve in the army. This was mainly done because it was easier to replace a fallen horseman than replace the master of the estate. Usually, the rusthåll was made up of only one estate, and possibly another supporting farmer. In exceptional cases, one rusthåll could support as many as seven horsemen.
While most regiments were allotted in the late 17th century—Dalregementet and a few others allotted earlier—some remained outside the system, including some of the guards regiments and all the artillery regiments with enlisted soldiers. Many new regiments of enlisted mercenaries were also raised in wartime; for example, only one-fifth of soldiers in the Swedish army at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631 were of Swedish or Finnish origin. The rest of the army was made up of German, Scottish and other European mercenaries. This would however change during the Great Northern War, in which a majority of the regiment's soldiers were from Sweden or its dominions.
Allotment for the army was only applied to the countryside and not to the towns, where people were exclusively recruited to the navy. Each province had its own regiment consisting of 1,200 soldiers (and thus also 1,200 rotar, not counting officers) for an infantry regiment, or 1,000 horsemen (and 1,000 rusthåll) for a cavalry regiment. Thus, a rote did not necessarily consist of ten men fit for military service as in the old system; it could instead consist of a single wealthy estate or several small farms, all depending on the tax amount and the number of soldiers the farms or estates would be able to provide.
The Swedish Navy recruited their seamen using the same system as the army, but from coastal provinces and towns (including non-coastal towns). As with the infantry, the farms in coastal areas were organized into rotar, which would each provide a croft (båtmanstorp) for a navy volunteer. Recruits only had duties on board the ships, for example as artillerymen or sailors, and were not used for other combat duties, such as boardings and landings, which were executed by army units transported on the ships. The seamen often served in the navy six months over the summer of every third year. Later, from the middle of the 18th century, some of the rotar in the cities would pay a fee equal to the approximate cost of providing a boatsman, instead of providing one from among themselves.
There were several problems with this system, relating to the fact that a large proportion of the seamen did not live anywhere near the largest naval ports of Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Karlskrona. Many seamen had their crofts along the coast of Norrland and Finland, and thus had several hundred kilometres to travel when called into service. Originally, the seamen had to walk the long way to the nearest port; later, they were transported by horse and carriage. Even the latter method of transport, however, took a long time, and soon the state began to provide tools and materials, excepting the actual timber, to the rote so that the farmers could build a large rowing/sailing boat called a lodja. These boats could transport up to 25 men, and could ease the transport to the naval ports.
Crofts and soldiers
Each rote in the new allotment system had the responsibility to recruit a soldier for the army, provide his croft with a patch of land, a cow, a few chickens and few pigs or sheep so he could support a family, pay him his salary, and supply him with necessities such as hay and seed. The rote also had to provide the soldier with the uniform. The croft and land, located on the land of the rote, only belonged to the soldier as long as he was fit for service. If he died or had to retire, the croft would have to be returned to the rote, even if it made his family homeless; the rote in turn had to find a new recruit. It sometimes happened that a widow of a dead soldier married the rote's new recruit, as the rote was regarded as responsible to take care also of the remaining family of its fallen serviceman. The soldier lived at his croft for large parts of his life, mostly working at the farms that supported his household, and went away to a few training camps a year, honing his tactics and skills with his regiment. When at war, the soldier could be away for years at a time, leaving all of the chores to his wife and children, if he had any. Otherwise, the rote farmers would take over the work themselves.
Recruits in the early 18th century had to be physically and mentally fit, between 18 and 36 years old (18–30 years from 1819, 18–25 years from 1871) and at least 172 centimeters tall (175 cm from 1775, lowered to 167 cm from 1788 as the army was in dire need of soldiers during Gustav III's Russian War). Many soldiers served in the army for more than 30 years, as there was no service time stated in the contract; instead, being discharged required a reason, such as old age, injury, sickness, or the commission of a crime. Discharges were generally only given at general musters, held once a year, or even more sparsely, even though an interim discharge could be given by the regimental commander if the discharge was supported by the soldier. The interim discharge had to be confirmed at the next general muster.
From the 1680s (army) and early 18th century (navy), all soldiers in a given company were required to have a unique name, to make it easier to give specific orders. This could be problematic when several soldiers had the same name (being usually from rural background, they generally had just a patronymic, and such were often very common, e.g. Andersson, Eriksson, Olsson or Persson), giving rise to the Swedish soldier names. When a soldier appeared before the military scribe, he was given a soldier's name (often, a rote's new soldier received his predecessor's name), which he kept during his service. Those surnames also tended to become hereditary, as the soldier often retained it when he was pensioned or left the service, and his children were also registered under it in census lists and church books—this is the origin of many present-day Swedish surnames. The name was usually short, consisting of only one syllable—to make it easy and rapid to say. The names could be taken from a trait, such as the surname Stolt ("Proud") or from military terms, such as Svärd ("Sword"), but were often related to the rote. A soldier from a rote located in the village of Sundby, for example, could be given the surname Sundin. This meant that surnames often stayed with the croft, rather than with the soldier. Common practice amongst discharged soldiers in the 18th century was to reassume their original name. This changed in the 19th century, and many soldiers kept their old soldier names, passing it on to their children. Each soldier in the regiment also had a unique number, between 1 and 1,200, the number of the rote and croft he belonged to (for example nummer 15 Stolt, number 15 Stolt).
Officers were provided with a large farm or a small manor house directly from the Crown, not from a rote. They did not, however, receive a salary from the state, but were instead paid by the rotar around the province, as part of the rote members' tax payments, and by farmers who worked the land belonging to the officer's farm. The officers' homes were loans, rather than outright gifts, and their size and quality was proportionate to the occupants' military rank. It was this system that was originally called the "allotment system". A condition for the system to work was the reductions carried through by the state, expropriating land and farms from the nobles, which were then provided to the officers. The officers' homesteads would be located in the same part of the province as the soldiers whom the officer would command in battle, often close to the rote. The officer thus knew the men he would lead, contrary to the practice in many other countries where the army officers would live on estates that were separated from the soldiers by both distance and lifestyle.
The Swedish military had a unique position in Northern Europe at the time of the new system, being the only army that did not rely only on enlisted soldiers, mercenaries or conscripted soldiers. In relation to population size, the Swedish army was also the largest in Europe. Because of the allotment system, mobilization was quick. It took time, weeks and months, to enlist, equip, train and organize a unit of mercenaries, while the Swedish tenement soldiers gathered at the company meeting place in a couple of days, and then at the regimental meeting place in around a week. The soldiers were already trained and equipped, and knew their precise spot in the formation. Marching routes to the borders or to harbours had already been prepared, and supplies had been gathered at important places.
Swedish battle tactics relied on a high level of organization and the large-scale use of swords and pikes. Other armies had stopped using pikemen in the late 17th century, solely relying on the bayonet of the musketeer to protect against cavalry attacks. Reasons for the Swedish obstinacy in keeping the pikes and making large use of swords in battle include the Swedish loss in the Battle of Kircholm in 1605, where a modernized Swedish army was severely beaten by Polish hussars—partly due to being equipped with the latest muskets which were hard to handle—and the fact that pikemen were very expensive to hire to armies that were formed by mercenaries; however, as Sweden had the allotment system and thus did not pay a higher salary to pikemen, they were kept.
The high level of organization and morale made it possible to base the combat tactics on close combat, rather than long-range shooting. A regular attack would look like the following: When the enemy musketeers started firing, at ranges up to 100 metres, the Swedish infantry would not answer but keep a swift marching pace, not stopping until the range was as little as 40 metres, where the musketeers in the back of the formation would fire their only salvo. At an even closer range, the musketeers in the front would fire their only salvo, and immediately after that, break into the enemy lines—musketeers using their swords, and pikemen using their pikes. This tactic would often result in a fleeing enemy force, which probably stood terrified when their opponent's companies were not stopped by continuous musket fire, but kept marching on towards them in sinister silence.
During the time of the old allotment system, Sweden's involvement in the Thirty Years' War and the Northern Wars did not have a very large impact on the population in general. The armies of Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus and later Charles X had relatively large success due to the superior tactics used, and foreign mercenaries comprised large parts of the armies. Gustavus Adolphus had, when he entered the Thirty Years' War, an army of 14,500 Swedish and Finnish conscripts and more than 20,000 enlisted foreigners, and deaths in the latter group did not affect the Swedish population. Charles XI's new allotment system did not have to see use in the first 20 years of its existence, which was also the longest time of peace Sweden had seen since its independence. Thus, the population continued to grow at a steady rate between 1620 and 1700.
The new system was put to the test for the first time in 1700, when Sweden, under the reign of Charles XII, was attacked by a coalition of its neighbours Russia, Denmark-Norway and Saxony-Poland in the Great Northern War. The mobilization of the soldiers worked well thanks to the new system, with Sweden mobilizing 43,000 men in allotted regiments, and another 33,000 men from various enlisted regiments. The army was one of the largest in Europe at the time, having modern equipment and being very well-trained and organized. However, three enemies were too much, even though Charles XII forced Denmark to leave the war the same year it started, and forced Saxony to leave the war in 1706. After these successful blows to the coalition, Charles XII had the opportunity to sign a peace with the remaining opponent, Russia. He did not, and this decision would have immense effects on the population. Russia's vast plains did not give Charles XII the possibility to beat his enemy with his superior army; instead, he was forced into a war of attrition, a war he could not win.
As the war finally ended in 1721, Sweden had lost an estimated 200,000 men, 150,000 of those from present-day Sweden and 50,000 from the Finnish part of Sweden. This made a huge impact on a population that before the war had barely reached 2 million. The total population did not grow during the 21 years of the war; it was even reduced, according to some sources, as the massive losses outnumbered overall births. For example, the province of Östergötland was supposed to support 2,200 tenement soldiers, making up one infantry and one cavalry regiment. Losses had to be replaced, and during the first years of the war, another 2,400 men were conscripted. After the Battle of Poltava in 1709, both regiments had to be completely reraised. At the end of the war, a total of 10,400 soldiers had been conscripted from the province that was meant to support only a fifth, or 2,200. Another regiment, Hälsinge regemente, had to be completely raised three times during the war. The lack of soldiers became so critical that in the period 1714–1715, the army had to return to the old method of conscripting men by force.
In 1812, a new system was introduced, requiring all males between age 20 and 25 to serve in the armed forces twelve days a year, changing in 1858 to four weeks per two years. At the same time, the new allotment system remained in use up until 1901, when mandatory conscription, with 8–9 months of military service, was introduced. The allotment system was finally abolished in 1904. From that time, regiments began to be garrisoned in towns instead of being spread all over the province with a training ground as the only common meeting place. As tenemented soldiers were contracted by the government for as long as they were fit for service, and as they could not be dismissed, some soldiers lived under the allotment system long after 1901, the last one retiring as late as 1964. Through the reform, the regiments' local connections were partially lost, as conscripts were not necessarily from the regiments' respective provinces. Before the reform, soldiers of the same company generally stemmed from the same village and region.
- History of Sweden
- Military of the Grand Duchy of Finland
- List of Swedish regiments
- List of Swedish wars
- Knight's fee
- Braunstein, Christian (2003). Sveriges arméförband under 1900-talet. Stockholm: Statens Försvarshistoriska Museer. ISBN 91-971584-4-5
- Nelsson, Bertil (1993). Från Brunkeberg till Nordanvind: 500 år med svenskt infanteri. Stockholm: Probus. ISBN 91-87184-23-0
- Högman, Hans (2001). Militaria - Svensk militärhistoria. Retrieved 18 Aug., 2005.
- Martinsson, Örjan (2002). Tacticus.nu. Retrieved 18 Aug., 2005.
- Persson, Mats (1998). The Allotment System. Retrieved 18 Aug., 2005.[dead link]
- ^ For example, out of 306 forcibly conscripted soldiers in Kronoberg County in 1627, only 60 showed up for the first muster. Nelsson, p. 13.
- ^ Nelsson, pp. 32 & 34.
- ^ Recruitment at Militaria (Swedish)
- ^ Nelsson, p. 46.
- ^ Nelsson, p. 42.
- ^ Nelsson, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Thirty Year's War at Militaria (Swedish)
- ^ a b Population statistics at Tacticus.nu. (Swedish)
- ^ In a total of 57 regiments, whereof 34 allotted and 23 enlisted. Navy units were not included in the 57 regiments. Mobilization statistics at Militaria. (Swedish)
- ^ a b Losses statistics at Militaria. (Swedish)
- ^ Nelsson, p. 78.
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Biography of Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens is the greatest Victorian writer.
He was prolific in his output, usually writing his stories for weekly or monthly serials. His best-loved works include A Christmas Carol, Great Expectations, Bleak House, Hard Times and A Tale of Two Cities.
He wrote 20 novels in all, together with a number of short stories, poetry, plays and non-fiction. He was a workaholic, undertaking punishing reading tours until his death, fathered 10 children, and was a great philanthropist. What is more, he is responsible for such phrases as ‘Scrooge’, ‘Bah, Humbug’ and ‘Merry Christmas’ and characters including Tiny Tim, Oliver Twist and Miss Havisham.
Dickens is the eighth greatest Briton.
1. Early Life
Charles John Huffam Dickens was born in February 1812 on a small island off the south coast of England called Landport.
He was the second of eight children born to John and Elizabeth Dickens. Charles’ first ten years were happy: his father was a clerk in the Navy and could pay for his son’s private education; and Dickens read widely and spent time outdoors.
Financial disaster struck in 1822, when Dickens’ father, who was living beyond his means, was sent to the Marshalsea debtors’ prison. His wife and younger children went with him and Dickens boarded with a family friend in Camden, North London.
This brought an abrupt halt to Dickens’ education, and he was forced to work at Warren’s Blacking Warehouse—where he earned six shillings a week—to pay for his board and help his family.
Granny to the rescue!
The Dickens family got back on its feet when Charles’ great grandmother left them £450 in her will. With the family reunited, Dickens was sent to school in North London and then worked in a law firm in Gray’s Inn. He spent his spare time learning shorthand and then used this newfound skill to assist a relative, Thomas Charlton, to report on legal proceedings.
Dickens’ next adventure was to try to break in to the world of acting. But that was short lived and Dickens became a political journalist. He spent his time reporting on events in parliament and covering election campaigns for the Morning Chronicle. His writing, and his sketches in particular, were sufficiently popular to be published as a collection, called Sketches by Boz in 1836.
A Parliamentary Sketch
Here's the first paragraph of one of Dickens' sketches, called 'A Parliamentary Sketch' (the rest of which can be read here):
Half-past four o’clock—and at five the mover of the Address will be ‘on his legs,’ as the newspapers announce sometimes by way of novelty, as if speakers were occasionally in the habit of standing on their heads. The members are pouring in, one after the other, in shoals. The few spectators who can obtain standing-room in the passages, scrutinise them as they pass, with the utmost interest, and the man who can identify a member occasionally, becomes a person of great importance. Every now and then you hear earnest whispers of ‘That’s Sir John Thomson.’ ‘Which? him with the gilt order round his neck?’ ‘No, no; that’s one of the messengers—that other with the yellow gloves, is Sir John Thomson.’ ‘Here’s Mr. Smith.’ ‘Lor!’ ‘Yes, how d’ye do, sir?—(He is our new member)—How do you do, sir?’ Mr. Smith stops: turns round with an air of enchanting urbanity (for the rumour of an intended dissolution has been very extensively circulated this morning); seizes both the hands of his gratified constituent, and, after greeting him with the most enthusiastic warmth, darts into the lobby with an extraordinary display of ardour in the public cause, leaving an immense impression in his favour on the mind of his ‘fellow-townsman.’
2. Later life
Dickens used the success of his sketches to get a deal from publishers Chapman and Hall.
His commission was to write The Pickwick Papers, for publication as a serial accompanied by picture plates. The story Dickens created, revolving around Samuel Pickwick’s travels through the English countryside, were so popular that the final instalment, published in 1836, sold 40,000 copies.
Dickens’ next project was Oliver Twist, also written as a serial, and published in 1838. This was again popular and unusual for having a child protagonist. More books, usually published in serials, followed. Taking them in chronological order they were:
- Nicholas Nickleby in 1838-39;
- The Old Curiosity Shop in 1840-41 (legend has it that American fans met boats brining the latest serialisation at the docks);
- Martin Chuzzlewit in 1843-44;
- A Christmas Carol in 1843;
- David Copperfield in 1849-50;
- Bleak House in 1852-3;
- Hard Times in 1854;
- Little Dorrit in 1856;
- A Tale of Two Cities in 1859; and
- Great Expectations in 1861.
Aside from his novels, Dickens wrote non-fiction and for edited magazines such as All the Year Round and For the Theatre. He was a keen philanthropist (involved with Great Ormond Street Hospital, amongst others), and went on a large number of reading tours around Great Britain and Ireland and to America.
Dickens married Catherine Thomson in 1837, had 10 children and separated in 1858. He left his wife and famously took up with a mistress, the actress Ellen Ternan, until his death.
Dickens' personal life does not suggest he was a happy man. He publicly attacked his wife after they became estranged, complaining that she had put on weight and of her lack of energy. And he found his children a huge disappointment, once suggesting that it would be better if one of his sons were dead.
Dickens was involved in the Staplehurst rail crash in 1865, in which 10 people lost their lives. He was fortunate: the first class carriage, in which he was travelling, was the only one to remain on the tracks. Dickens tended to the injured and dying and was profoundly affected by the tragedy, with the result that his prolific pace of writing slowed substantially (though Dickens still carried out numerous speaking engagements).
Dickens died of a stroke in June 1870, five years to the day after the Staplehurst crash. He is buried in Westminster Abbey’s Poets Corner.
Many of Dickens’ novels had autobiographical elements to them.
Features of Dickens' writing
His unhappy childhood is used extensively in David Copperfield; his time as a legal clerk and court reporter in A Christmas Carol and Bleak House; and his family’s imprisonment in debtors’ prison in Little Dorrit, David Copperfield and Great Expectations.
There are a number of other remarkable features to Dickens’ writing. One is that his novels were written and published in weekly or monthly instalments, with Dickens’ readership expecting cliff-hangers at the end of each serial; yet he was able to produce a coherent whole at the end of the process.
Another is that Dickens pulled no punches in describing the shocking poverty and crime experienced by the least fortunate in society. By contrast, Dickens is often said to be a sentimentalist: A Christmas Carol, for instance, did much to revive the popularity of the Christmas season (which had fallen out of fashion in early Victorian times).
Classic Dickens quotes
You probably know quite a few Dickens quotes off by heart. Here are a few of the best:
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair. (A Tale of Two Cities)
"Ask no questions, and you'll be told no lies" (Great Expectations)
"I loved her against reason, against promise, against peace, against hope, against happiness, against all discouragement that could be." (Great Expectations)
“Merry Christmas! What right have you to be merry? What reason have you to be merry? You’re poor enough. ... Bah ... Humbug. ... [E]very idiot who goes about with ‘Merry Christmas’ on his lips, should be boiled with his own pudding, and buried with a stake of holly through his heart. He should!”” (Scrooge in a Christmas Carol)
"A word in earnest is as good as a speech", "The universe makes rather an indifferent parent, I'm afraid", "All partings foreshadow the great final one", (Bleak House)
"The one great principle of the English law is, to make business for itself. There is no other principle distinctly, certainly, and consistently maintained through all its narrow turnings. Viewed by this light it becomes a coherent scheme, and not the monstrous maze the laity are apt to think it." (Bleak House)
"Please, sir, I want some more" (Oliver in Oliver Twist)
Dickens was the leading Victorian novelist, and probably the greatest writer since Shakespeare.
He popularised phrases such as ‘Bah, Humbug’, ‘scrooge’, the ‘Artful Dodger’ and ‘Merry Christmas’ and most will have heard of characters such as Tiny Tim, Oliver Twist, Fagin, Miss Havisham and Mr Micawber.
His books have never gone out of print, have been translated into all major languages, and have been adapted to over 200 television productions and films.
Statistics for the overall number of books sold by Dickens are unavaiable, though the Economist reported on the 200th anniversary of his birth that during Dickens' life his top-selling work was Bleak House (which sold over 750,000 copies).
The Times got it right when, on his death, it wrote: "The loss of such a man is an event which makes ordinary expressions of regret seem cold and conventional". | <urn:uuid:b158b2b6-4868-4f1b-b1e0-f5bb1e73d66a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://greatestbritons.com/charles-dickens-biography.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00427.warc.gz | en | 0.981932 | 2,213 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.2466616630... | 1 | Biography of Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens is the greatest Victorian writer.
He was prolific in his output, usually writing his stories for weekly or monthly serials. His best-loved works include A Christmas Carol, Great Expectations, Bleak House, Hard Times and A Tale of Two Cities.
He wrote 20 novels in all, together with a number of short stories, poetry, plays and non-fiction. He was a workaholic, undertaking punishing reading tours until his death, fathered 10 children, and was a great philanthropist. What is more, he is responsible for such phrases as ‘Scrooge’, ‘Bah, Humbug’ and ‘Merry Christmas’ and characters including Tiny Tim, Oliver Twist and Miss Havisham.
Dickens is the eighth greatest Briton.
1. Early Life
Charles John Huffam Dickens was born in February 1812 on a small island off the south coast of England called Landport.
He was the second of eight children born to John and Elizabeth Dickens. Charles’ first ten years were happy: his father was a clerk in the Navy and could pay for his son’s private education; and Dickens read widely and spent time outdoors.
Financial disaster struck in 1822, when Dickens’ father, who was living beyond his means, was sent to the Marshalsea debtors’ prison. His wife and younger children went with him and Dickens boarded with a family friend in Camden, North London.
This brought an abrupt halt to Dickens’ education, and he was forced to work at Warren’s Blacking Warehouse—where he earned six shillings a week—to pay for his board and help his family.
Granny to the rescue!
The Dickens family got back on its feet when Charles’ great grandmother left them £450 in her will. With the family reunited, Dickens was sent to school in North London and then worked in a law firm in Gray’s Inn. He spent his spare time learning shorthand and then used this newfound skill to assist a relative, Thomas Charlton, to report on legal proceedings.
Dickens’ next adventure was to try to break in to the world of acting. But that was short lived and Dickens became a political journalist. He spent his time reporting on events in parliament and covering election campaigns for the Morning Chronicle. His writing, and his sketches in particular, were sufficiently popular to be published as a collection, called Sketches by Boz in 1836.
A Parliamentary Sketch
Here's the first paragraph of one of Dickens' sketches, called 'A Parliamentary Sketch' (the rest of which can be read here):
Half-past four o’clock—and at five the mover of the Address will be ‘on his legs,’ as the newspapers announce sometimes by way of novelty, as if speakers were occasionally in the habit of standing on their heads. The members are pouring in, one after the other, in shoals. The few spectators who can obtain standing-room in the passages, scrutinise them as they pass, with the utmost interest, and the man who can identify a member occasionally, becomes a person of great importance. Every now and then you hear earnest whispers of ‘That’s Sir John Thomson.’ ‘Which? him with the gilt order round his neck?’ ‘No, no; that’s one of the messengers—that other with the yellow gloves, is Sir John Thomson.’ ‘Here’s Mr. Smith.’ ‘Lor!’ ‘Yes, how d’ye do, sir?—(He is our new member)—How do you do, sir?’ Mr. Smith stops: turns round with an air of enchanting urbanity (for the rumour of an intended dissolution has been very extensively circulated this morning); seizes both the hands of his gratified constituent, and, after greeting him with the most enthusiastic warmth, darts into the lobby with an extraordinary display of ardour in the public cause, leaving an immense impression in his favour on the mind of his ‘fellow-townsman.’
2. Later life
Dickens used the success of his sketches to get a deal from publishers Chapman and Hall.
His commission was to write The Pickwick Papers, for publication as a serial accompanied by picture plates. The story Dickens created, revolving around Samuel Pickwick’s travels through the English countryside, were so popular that the final instalment, published in 1836, sold 40,000 copies.
Dickens’ next project was Oliver Twist, also written as a serial, and published in 1838. This was again popular and unusual for having a child protagonist. More books, usually published in serials, followed. Taking them in chronological order they were:
- Nicholas Nickleby in 1838-39;
- The Old Curiosity Shop in 1840-41 (legend has it that American fans met boats brining the latest serialisation at the docks);
- Martin Chuzzlewit in 1843-44;
- A Christmas Carol in 1843;
- David Copperfield in 1849-50;
- Bleak House in 1852-3;
- Hard Times in 1854;
- Little Dorrit in 1856;
- A Tale of Two Cities in 1859; and
- Great Expectations in 1861.
Aside from his novels, Dickens wrote non-fiction and for edited magazines such as All the Year Round and For the Theatre. He was a keen philanthropist (involved with Great Ormond Street Hospital, amongst others), and went on a large number of reading tours around Great Britain and Ireland and to America.
Dickens married Catherine Thomson in 1837, had 10 children and separated in 1858. He left his wife and famously took up with a mistress, the actress Ellen Ternan, until his death.
Dickens' personal life does not suggest he was a happy man. He publicly attacked his wife after they became estranged, complaining that she had put on weight and of her lack of energy. And he found his children a huge disappointment, once suggesting that it would be better if one of his sons were dead.
Dickens was involved in the Staplehurst rail crash in 1865, in which 10 people lost their lives. He was fortunate: the first class carriage, in which he was travelling, was the only one to remain on the tracks. Dickens tended to the injured and dying and was profoundly affected by the tragedy, with the result that his prolific pace of writing slowed substantially (though Dickens still carried out numerous speaking engagements).
Dickens died of a stroke in June 1870, five years to the day after the Staplehurst crash. He is buried in Westminster Abbey’s Poets Corner.
Many of Dickens’ novels had autobiographical elements to them.
Features of Dickens' writing
His unhappy childhood is used extensively in David Copperfield; his time as a legal clerk and court reporter in A Christmas Carol and Bleak House; and his family’s imprisonment in debtors’ prison in Little Dorrit, David Copperfield and Great Expectations.
There are a number of other remarkable features to Dickens’ writing. One is that his novels were written and published in weekly or monthly instalments, with Dickens’ readership expecting cliff-hangers at the end of each serial; yet he was able to produce a coherent whole at the end of the process.
Another is that Dickens pulled no punches in describing the shocking poverty and crime experienced by the least fortunate in society. By contrast, Dickens is often said to be a sentimentalist: A Christmas Carol, for instance, did much to revive the popularity of the Christmas season (which had fallen out of fashion in early Victorian times).
Classic Dickens quotes
You probably know quite a few Dickens quotes off by heart. Here are a few of the best:
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair. (A Tale of Two Cities)
"Ask no questions, and you'll be told no lies" (Great Expectations)
"I loved her against reason, against promise, against peace, against hope, against happiness, against all discouragement that could be." (Great Expectations)
“Merry Christmas! What right have you to be merry? What reason have you to be merry? You’re poor enough. ... Bah ... Humbug. ... [E]very idiot who goes about with ‘Merry Christmas’ on his lips, should be boiled with his own pudding, and buried with a stake of holly through his heart. He should!”” (Scrooge in a Christmas Carol)
"A word in earnest is as good as a speech", "The universe makes rather an indifferent parent, I'm afraid", "All partings foreshadow the great final one", (Bleak House)
"The one great principle of the English law is, to make business for itself. There is no other principle distinctly, certainly, and consistently maintained through all its narrow turnings. Viewed by this light it becomes a coherent scheme, and not the monstrous maze the laity are apt to think it." (Bleak House)
"Please, sir, I want some more" (Oliver in Oliver Twist)
Dickens was the leading Victorian novelist, and probably the greatest writer since Shakespeare.
He popularised phrases such as ‘Bah, Humbug’, ‘scrooge’, the ‘Artful Dodger’ and ‘Merry Christmas’ and most will have heard of characters such as Tiny Tim, Oliver Twist, Fagin, Miss Havisham and Mr Micawber.
His books have never gone out of print, have been translated into all major languages, and have been adapted to over 200 television productions and films.
Statistics for the overall number of books sold by Dickens are unavaiable, though the Economist reported on the 200th anniversary of his birth that during Dickens' life his top-selling work was Bleak House (which sold over 750,000 copies).
The Times got it right when, on his death, it wrote: "The loss of such a man is an event which makes ordinary expressions of regret seem cold and conventional". | 2,166 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 18th August 1945 it was reported that Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was seriously injured and badly burned in a plane crash in Taihoku airport, Taiwan and is believed to have passed away in a nearby Japanese military hospital.
Subhas Chandra Bose, fondly known as Netaji, was an important Indian Nationalist leader who fought for Indian Independence from the British during the years following World War II, taking help from the Axis Powers (nations which fought the Second World War against the Allied Forces).
Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23rd January 1897 in Cuttack (then part of the Bengal Presidency) to Janakinath Bose and Prabhavati Devi. Bose graduated from the University of Kolkata in 1919 and left for England to appear for the Indian Civil Service Exam (ICS). He cleared the exam but soon resigned from his job in the Civil Services and came back to India, since he did not want to work under the British. Back in India, Bose took responsibility of the publicity of the Bengal Provincial and in 1923, he was elected as the President of the All India Youth Congress and also as the Secretary of the Bengal State Congress. In 1925 along with the arrest of several other nationalists, Bose was arrested too and was sent to prison in Mandalay.
After being released from Prison in 1927, Bose became General Secretary of the Congress party and worked for Independence along with Jawaharlal Nehru. Bose was soon arrested again for Civil Disobedience and by the time he was released from prison he became Mayor of Kolkata in 1930. In the 1930’s Bose travelled to Europe where he met Indian students and European politicians like Benito Mussolini and observed communism and fascism in action. He had received recognition as a national leader and accepted nomination as Congress President, by end of 1928.
Bose supported Swaraj (self-governance) and also the use of force against the British. Mahatma Gandhi who was a follower and propagator of non-violence did not agree with Bose’s philosophy, which led to a confrontation, since Gandhi opposed Bose as a President. Gandhi eventually advised Bose to form his own cabinet. This disagreement between Bose and Gandhi also led to tension between Bose and Nehru. Yet, in 1939, Bose was elected as Congress President again. However due to the mass support Gandhi enjoyed in the Congress, Bose was soon forced to resign from his presidency.
In 1939 Bose formed the Forward Bloc. During the Second World War in 1939, Bose initiated a mass movement under which he started uniting people from all over the country. Since there was a massive response to his call, Bose was immediately arrested by the British. While in prison, Bose refused to accept food and water for two weeks and with his health condition worsening and fearing an outrage from across the country, Bose was put under house arrest.
While under house arrest, Bose planned his escape. Bose grew a beard and escaped his house dressed as a Pathan so that the British could not identify him. On the night of January 19th 1941 Bose escaped first to Bihar and then to Peshawar (now in Pakistan). Finally Bose reached Germany, via Kabul, Moscow and Rome where he met Hitler. In 1943, Bose left for South East Asia to raise an army to fight for freedom against the British, the army was called the Indian National Army (INA).
While in England, Bose met leaders from the British Labour Party, including Clement Attlee who also served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951. Bose also met Harold Laski, British political theorist and Sir Stafford Cripps, a British Labour politician, with whom he discussed the future of India. Eventually, it was with the Labour Party in power and Attlee as Prime Minister that Indian gained freedom from British rule.
There is a cloud of controversy regarding the death of Subhas Chandra Bose. It is alleged that Bose died in a plane crash in Tiapei in Taiwan on 18th August 1945 while on his way to Tokyo and then the Soviet Union. The Japanese aircraft Bose was travelling in had a technical problem in its engine and it crashed, following which Bose suffered severe burns and died in a nearby Japanese hospital after a few hours. It is believed that his body was cremated and his ashes were interred in at the Rekonji Temple in Tokyo, though there is a dispute if the ashes interred in the temple are indeed his. The absence of Bose’s body has given rise to many theories that it was possible that he may have survived the crash. Several committees were set up by the Government of India to look into this matter. Even though no concrete evidence with regard to Bose’s death has emerged yet, a portrait of Bose is present in the Indian Parliament and a statue of him has been erected outside the West Bengal Legislative Assembly. Bose has also been described as “Patriot of Patriots” by Mahatma Gandhi.
Also on This Day:
1800: Fort William College was established at Kolkata by Lord Wellesley.
1872: Pandit Vishnu Digambar, a blind musical revolutionary of Maharashtra was born.
1900: Indian diplomat and politician, Vijaylakshmi Pandit was born.
1951: The Indian Institute of Technology was opened in Kharagpur. | <urn:uuid:bbc811ec-d514-4f64-9ad8-5b83d020765a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.mapsofindia.com/on-this-day/18th-august-1945-netaji-subhas-chandra-bose-is-reported-seriously-injured-in-a-plane-crash-in-taiwan-and-is-believed-to-have-passed-away-in-a-local-hospital | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.988921 | 1,126 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.7908957... | 2 | On 18th August 1945 it was reported that Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was seriously injured and badly burned in a plane crash in Taihoku airport, Taiwan and is believed to have passed away in a nearby Japanese military hospital.
Subhas Chandra Bose, fondly known as Netaji, was an important Indian Nationalist leader who fought for Indian Independence from the British during the years following World War II, taking help from the Axis Powers (nations which fought the Second World War against the Allied Forces).
Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23rd January 1897 in Cuttack (then part of the Bengal Presidency) to Janakinath Bose and Prabhavati Devi. Bose graduated from the University of Kolkata in 1919 and left for England to appear for the Indian Civil Service Exam (ICS). He cleared the exam but soon resigned from his job in the Civil Services and came back to India, since he did not want to work under the British. Back in India, Bose took responsibility of the publicity of the Bengal Provincial and in 1923, he was elected as the President of the All India Youth Congress and also as the Secretary of the Bengal State Congress. In 1925 along with the arrest of several other nationalists, Bose was arrested too and was sent to prison in Mandalay.
After being released from Prison in 1927, Bose became General Secretary of the Congress party and worked for Independence along with Jawaharlal Nehru. Bose was soon arrested again for Civil Disobedience and by the time he was released from prison he became Mayor of Kolkata in 1930. In the 1930’s Bose travelled to Europe where he met Indian students and European politicians like Benito Mussolini and observed communism and fascism in action. He had received recognition as a national leader and accepted nomination as Congress President, by end of 1928.
Bose supported Swaraj (self-governance) and also the use of force against the British. Mahatma Gandhi who was a follower and propagator of non-violence did not agree with Bose’s philosophy, which led to a confrontation, since Gandhi opposed Bose as a President. Gandhi eventually advised Bose to form his own cabinet. This disagreement between Bose and Gandhi also led to tension between Bose and Nehru. Yet, in 1939, Bose was elected as Congress President again. However due to the mass support Gandhi enjoyed in the Congress, Bose was soon forced to resign from his presidency.
In 1939 Bose formed the Forward Bloc. During the Second World War in 1939, Bose initiated a mass movement under which he started uniting people from all over the country. Since there was a massive response to his call, Bose was immediately arrested by the British. While in prison, Bose refused to accept food and water for two weeks and with his health condition worsening and fearing an outrage from across the country, Bose was put under house arrest.
While under house arrest, Bose planned his escape. Bose grew a beard and escaped his house dressed as a Pathan so that the British could not identify him. On the night of January 19th 1941 Bose escaped first to Bihar and then to Peshawar (now in Pakistan). Finally Bose reached Germany, via Kabul, Moscow and Rome where he met Hitler. In 1943, Bose left for South East Asia to raise an army to fight for freedom against the British, the army was called the Indian National Army (INA).
While in England, Bose met leaders from the British Labour Party, including Clement Attlee who also served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951. Bose also met Harold Laski, British political theorist and Sir Stafford Cripps, a British Labour politician, with whom he discussed the future of India. Eventually, it was with the Labour Party in power and Attlee as Prime Minister that Indian gained freedom from British rule.
There is a cloud of controversy regarding the death of Subhas Chandra Bose. It is alleged that Bose died in a plane crash in Tiapei in Taiwan on 18th August 1945 while on his way to Tokyo and then the Soviet Union. The Japanese aircraft Bose was travelling in had a technical problem in its engine and it crashed, following which Bose suffered severe burns and died in a nearby Japanese hospital after a few hours. It is believed that his body was cremated and his ashes were interred in at the Rekonji Temple in Tokyo, though there is a dispute if the ashes interred in the temple are indeed his. The absence of Bose’s body has given rise to many theories that it was possible that he may have survived the crash. Several committees were set up by the Government of India to look into this matter. Even though no concrete evidence with regard to Bose’s death has emerged yet, a portrait of Bose is present in the Indian Parliament and a statue of him has been erected outside the West Bengal Legislative Assembly. Bose has also been described as “Patriot of Patriots” by Mahatma Gandhi.
Also on This Day:
1800: Fort William College was established at Kolkata by Lord Wellesley.
1872: Pandit Vishnu Digambar, a blind musical revolutionary of Maharashtra was born.
1900: Indian diplomat and politician, Vijaylakshmi Pandit was born.
1951: The Indian Institute of Technology was opened in Kharagpur. | 1,155 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Marcus Aurelius or Marcus Aurelius Antonius Augustus, called the Philosopher, was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD. He was the leader of ancient Roman Empire along with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus until the death of Lucius in 169 AD. He was the fifth of the Five Good Emperors. Moreover, Marcus Aurelius was the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of peace and stability for the Empire.
Marcus’s Aurelius writings, known as “Meditations”, became significant for the modern studies of ancient Stoic philosophy
Marcus Aurelius was born into a Roman patrician family. His father was a praetor; he died in 124 AD. After his death, Marcus was raised by his paternal granfather and mother. Also, he received education at home, which was popular for children from Roman aristocratic families. Among his tutors were the artist Diognetus, who influenced his passion to philosophy, and Tuticius Proclus.
Marcus Aurelius was betrothed to the daughter of Lucius Aelius, his relative Emperor Hadrian‘s adopted son and heir. Aelius died in 138 AD and Hadrian chose as his new heir Antonius Pius, who was the husband of Marcus’ aunt. He wanted Antonius to adopt Marcus and the son of Aelius, Lucius Commodus. As an imperial heir, Marcus studied Greek and Latin. His tutors included Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Marcus learned the notion of Stoicism by Quintus Junius Rusticus; he was made a quaestor and the symbolic head of the Roman equites.
In 140 AD, Marcus and Antonius were appointed consuls
Later, in 145 AD, Marcus married Antonius’ daughter Faustina the Younger. In 147 AD, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. The daughter was the first of at least 13 children that Faustina would give birth in the next two decades. The next day after Domitia’s birth, Antonius gave Marcus the tribunician power and the imperium, which meant the leadership over the armies and provinces of the emperor. First mentions about the daughter of Marcus Aurelius are known from his letters, where he described her as a sick child. Domitia died in 151 AD.
Lucius’ career was started in the role of a quaestor in 153 AD. He was a consul in 154, and together with Marcus he became consul again in 161. Lucius was known as the “son of Augustus.” As Antonius became older, Marcus started to take more care on administrative duties. When Marcus and Lucius were joint consuls, Antonius may have already been ill. Before his death, he had a fever and decided to call on the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. His death was marked as the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months.
After the death of Antonius is 161, the Senate wanted to make Aurelius the only emperor, but he refused the honor unless Lucius Verus was chosen as co-emperor with Marcus. Aurelius and Verus began their reign by creating new programs related to help the poor and gratifying the military with more pay and honors. Rulers highly appreciated free speech, the arts, education, and developed the economical plight by debasing the currency.
The two emperors were popular with the people
👇👍Our Friends Service👍👇
Marcus Aurelius followed Stoic principles in his rule, while Verus organized lavish parties and spent money on expensive gifts to friends. In 161 AD, the Parthian King Vologases IV invaded Armenia, which was under protection of Rome, which led to the revolt of Syria. Verus’ military experience was stronger than Aurelius’ and he took responsibility for the campaigns in the east. The Parthian Wars took place until 166, where Rome got victory. While Verus was away for military purposes, Aurelius remained at Rome. The emperor adjudicated court cases, changed laws and dealt with issues that provinces had. Also, during that period of time, Marcus Aurelius persecuted the new sect of Christianity, which refused to honor the state religion.
By 166 AD, there were no more problems with the Christians and the war in Parthia ended successfully for Rome. Aurelius had married Faustina in 145 and later years were significant for them for the impressive number of children they had. However, some of them died young, but Marcus Aurelius believed that the gods could be smiling upon him with good fortune.
Verus died in 169 AD. Most probably the reason was the plague that his troops had brought back to Rome from campaign. Thus, Marcus Aurelius was ruling alone. Most of the remaining time of reign he spent in Germania to campaigns, where he wrote his famous “Meditations.”
The book “Meditations” by Marcus Aurelius is the main work of the emperor and philosopher. The author and the Stoic school of philosophy, of which he was a devoted follower, valued reason and a logical perception of the world over all else. So, they considered a calm and analytical mind better than one ruled by desires and feelings.
The system of logos by Aurelius means that everything that happens was supposed to and is therefore good
Moreover, according to Aurelius, the only thing people can do is accept pain and move on without complaining. Here, complaining simply disrespects the immortal logic of logos that is embedded in every person, and inflicts further pain oneself. The author coped with the pain caused all this suffering by maintaining his belief that physical pain is still a part of the greater good that is logos.
The main idea of the book is that you are the only person who can decide your fate and actions. Even if someone doesn’t like you, don’t let yourself stoop to their level. Always treat people with dignity and justice and you will never suffer as a result of your own actions.
Talking about last years of the emperor, from 170 to 175, Faustina accompained Marcus Aurelius on campaigns and went with him to Syria, Egypt, and Greece. She died in the witer of 175 AD. In 178 AD, Aurelius defeated the Germanic tribes on the Danube and died two years later in 180 AD. Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by Commodus.
Author: Kate Zusmann
For the last 6 years I live in the Eternal City. Traveling, exploring new things, writing blogs, shooting vlogs are my main hobbies, but the thing that I like even more is to share my experience and thoughts with you! Explore Rome with Us :)
Rome.us © 2020. All Rights Reserved | <urn:uuid:d941ae2a-9565-4841-8ecc-f3868a27df16> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rome.us/roman-emperors/marcus-aurelius.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.984411 | 1,427 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.264293670654... | 1 | Marcus Aurelius or Marcus Aurelius Antonius Augustus, called the Philosopher, was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD. He was the leader of ancient Roman Empire along with his adoptive brother Lucius Verus until the death of Lucius in 169 AD. He was the fifth of the Five Good Emperors. Moreover, Marcus Aurelius was the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of peace and stability for the Empire.
Marcus’s Aurelius writings, known as “Meditations”, became significant for the modern studies of ancient Stoic philosophy
Marcus Aurelius was born into a Roman patrician family. His father was a praetor; he died in 124 AD. After his death, Marcus was raised by his paternal granfather and mother. Also, he received education at home, which was popular for children from Roman aristocratic families. Among his tutors were the artist Diognetus, who influenced his passion to philosophy, and Tuticius Proclus.
Marcus Aurelius was betrothed to the daughter of Lucius Aelius, his relative Emperor Hadrian‘s adopted son and heir. Aelius died in 138 AD and Hadrian chose as his new heir Antonius Pius, who was the husband of Marcus’ aunt. He wanted Antonius to adopt Marcus and the son of Aelius, Lucius Commodus. As an imperial heir, Marcus studied Greek and Latin. His tutors included Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Marcus learned the notion of Stoicism by Quintus Junius Rusticus; he was made a quaestor and the symbolic head of the Roman equites.
In 140 AD, Marcus and Antonius were appointed consuls
Later, in 145 AD, Marcus married Antonius’ daughter Faustina the Younger. In 147 AD, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. The daughter was the first of at least 13 children that Faustina would give birth in the next two decades. The next day after Domitia’s birth, Antonius gave Marcus the tribunician power and the imperium, which meant the leadership over the armies and provinces of the emperor. First mentions about the daughter of Marcus Aurelius are known from his letters, where he described her as a sick child. Domitia died in 151 AD.
Lucius’ career was started in the role of a quaestor in 153 AD. He was a consul in 154, and together with Marcus he became consul again in 161. Lucius was known as the “son of Augustus.” As Antonius became older, Marcus started to take more care on administrative duties. When Marcus and Lucius were joint consuls, Antonius may have already been ill. Before his death, he had a fever and decided to call on the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. His death was marked as the longest reign since Augustus, surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months.
After the death of Antonius is 161, the Senate wanted to make Aurelius the only emperor, but he refused the honor unless Lucius Verus was chosen as co-emperor with Marcus. Aurelius and Verus began their reign by creating new programs related to help the poor and gratifying the military with more pay and honors. Rulers highly appreciated free speech, the arts, education, and developed the economical plight by debasing the currency.
The two emperors were popular with the people
👇👍Our Friends Service👍👇
Marcus Aurelius followed Stoic principles in his rule, while Verus organized lavish parties and spent money on expensive gifts to friends. In 161 AD, the Parthian King Vologases IV invaded Armenia, which was under protection of Rome, which led to the revolt of Syria. Verus’ military experience was stronger than Aurelius’ and he took responsibility for the campaigns in the east. The Parthian Wars took place until 166, where Rome got victory. While Verus was away for military purposes, Aurelius remained at Rome. The emperor adjudicated court cases, changed laws and dealt with issues that provinces had. Also, during that period of time, Marcus Aurelius persecuted the new sect of Christianity, which refused to honor the state religion.
By 166 AD, there were no more problems with the Christians and the war in Parthia ended successfully for Rome. Aurelius had married Faustina in 145 and later years were significant for them for the impressive number of children they had. However, some of them died young, but Marcus Aurelius believed that the gods could be smiling upon him with good fortune.
Verus died in 169 AD. Most probably the reason was the plague that his troops had brought back to Rome from campaign. Thus, Marcus Aurelius was ruling alone. Most of the remaining time of reign he spent in Germania to campaigns, where he wrote his famous “Meditations.”
The book “Meditations” by Marcus Aurelius is the main work of the emperor and philosopher. The author and the Stoic school of philosophy, of which he was a devoted follower, valued reason and a logical perception of the world over all else. So, they considered a calm and analytical mind better than one ruled by desires and feelings.
The system of logos by Aurelius means that everything that happens was supposed to and is therefore good
Moreover, according to Aurelius, the only thing people can do is accept pain and move on without complaining. Here, complaining simply disrespects the immortal logic of logos that is embedded in every person, and inflicts further pain oneself. The author coped with the pain caused all this suffering by maintaining his belief that physical pain is still a part of the greater good that is logos.
The main idea of the book is that you are the only person who can decide your fate and actions. Even if someone doesn’t like you, don’t let yourself stoop to their level. Always treat people with dignity and justice and you will never suffer as a result of your own actions.
Talking about last years of the emperor, from 170 to 175, Faustina accompained Marcus Aurelius on campaigns and went with him to Syria, Egypt, and Greece. She died in the witer of 175 AD. In 178 AD, Aurelius defeated the Germanic tribes on the Danube and died two years later in 180 AD. Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by Commodus.
Author: Kate Zusmann
For the last 6 years I live in the Eternal City. Traveling, exploring new things, writing blogs, shooting vlogs are my main hobbies, but the thing that I like even more is to share my experience and thoughts with you! Explore Rome with Us :)
Rome.us © 2020. All Rights Reserved | 1,451 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Chrysanthemum Throne features the longest continuous imperial line of succession in the world. It dates all the way back to the 660 BC and legend has it that the emperors and empresses of Japan were descended from gods. With 125 different emperors across its history, the Japanese imperial throne is bound to have some pretty wild stories.
From the reign of one of the few empresses to the present day academics of Emperor Akihito, the history of the imperial family is one with many different facets. Sometimes the emperors happily sat in the background of political affairs; at other times, emperors were at the forefront of nationalistic cult followings. Japanese emperors have led varied lives, so here are 42 facts to get you started into their long and fascinating history.
Japanese Emperors Facts
42. Making Bank
In 1881, Empress Jingū became the first woman to appear on a Japanese banknote. Or, well, an approximation of the Empress made it onto the banknote, at least. The image of Jingū was created by the artist Edoardo Chiossone, who had used an employee at the Printing House of the Japanese government as his model. That’s because no actual image survives of the legendary empress. In fact, there’s no historical record of her existence outside of legends and woodblock carvings.
40. Fleeing to the Country
As WWII was drawing to a close, Akihito was taken out of his class at Peers’ School in Tokyo and relocated to the countryside where he would be safe from American bombing raids. Akihito eventually returned to Tokyo after the war and resumed his schooling, but by that time the role of the Emperor was greatly changed and so he had to start pursuing a different kind of education.
39. Hitting the Books
When Akihito returned to Tokyo after the end of WWII, his studies became more focused on Japan’s new relationship with the United States. He learned English and studied Western culture with his American tutor Elizabeth Gray Vining, who was a Quaker. Just like his father, Akihito was very interested in studying marine biology and it became his subject of choice during his university education. Like father, like son!
38. Sun Showers
Emperor Jimmu, the first Japanese Emperor, was descended from the heavens to lead to imperial rule. At least, that’s according to Japanese mythology. The story goes that Jimmu was a descendant of Amaterasu and Susanoo. Amaterasu is the sun goddess in Japanese folk tradition and Susanoo is the storm god.
37. What’s in a Name?
The classical name for Japan, akitsushima (Dragonfly Islands), comes from a legendary story of the first emperor Jimmu. According to the legend, a mosquito once landed on Jimmu and tried to get a quick snack of royal blood. Because Jimmu was a descendant of gods and goddesses, the mosquito was not going to get away with this. A dragonfly swooped in and killed the little sucker, hence the name Dragonfly Islands.
36. We’re Gonna Need a Bigger Boat
One of the reasons that Emperor Meiji was able to raise such a large cult following and restore the political power to the office of the emperor was due to the effect of the arrival of American Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853. Prior to the rise of the Meiji era, the emperor was effectively a status symbol as the real power laid in the hands of the Tokugawa shogunate. Prior to Emperor Meiji, Japan had kept itself isolated from Western powers, but when Perry showed up with large warships in the mid-19th century, the islands were left fairly defenseless. People knew that a change was needed.
35. Hunting Party
Emperor Kōmei’s “Order to expel barbarians” is sometimes seen as causing the Namagumi Incident. Masterless samurai took up the order to revere the Emperor and expel the barbarians by assaulting a compound hosting a recently landed group of British traders. In the ensuing melee, Charles Lennox Richardson was killed and this led the British government to demand reparations. As the deadline for reparations came and went, with the Japanese resisting payment, the British Royal Navy bombarded the port of Kagoshima. The war between the British and the Satsuma region was very brief but further diminished the power of the shogunate.
34. Six to One, Half a Dozen to the Other
It’s hard to get a sense of Emperor Meiji’s childhood since no one person seems to ever give the same account. His biographers are a contradictory bunch. Some say he was an athletic, talented, and strong-willed young man. Others say that he was often ill and fairly weak—he startled when he heard gunfire for the first time. It’s hard to tell which is the truth, but one imagines its somewhere in between.
33. No Name Brand
Emperors and Empresses only have one name titles, like Emperor Meiji, because technically speaking they don’t have last names. They are simply known as the imperial family, so when a woman marries into the family to become the empress, she gives up her maiden name!
32. A Throne by Any Other Name
Just like when we say the British Crown to refer to the monarchy of Great Britain, the common term to refer to the imperial family of Japan is the Chrysanthemum Throne. The name comes in reference to the design of the imperial throne housed in the Imperial Palace in Kyoto. Chrysanthemum blossoms are considered symbols of the Emperor and his court.
31. Throw the Book at Him!
In 2007, the Australian investigative journalist Ben Hills published a book about the controversial figure of Princess Masako. The book claimed that Masako suffered from clinical depression and that she was forced to leave her studies at Oxford University to return to the imperial palace. Hill’s work was not looked on with much fondness. The imperial family refused to let the largest Japanese publishing house, Kodansha, publish the book unless it revised a number of “factual errors.” It was denounced by both the imperial family and the government of Japan and due to the salacious nature of the insights, Hills even received anonymous death threats!
30. Going to Need a Bigger House
Traditionally, the emperor of Japan had many concubines alongside his wife. Emperor Meiji, for example, had a total of five known concubines during his life. This meant there were a lot of children running around. Altogether Emperor Meiji had 15 children with his various concubines. Eight of them was with one woman: Lady Sachiko. Of those eight, only three had long lives—the rest died in infancy.
29. Back to Power
Although the emperor was never abolished in Japan, during the shogunate period, in which Japan was under military rule, the power of the emperor was severely diminished. That all changed thanks to Emperor Meiji. Tired of living on the margins of the country, Meiji decided to rebel against the Tokugawa shogunate for their inability to deal with the threat of technologically advanced foreign powers from Europe and America. The rebellion came to a head in 1869, when the era changed from the Tokugawa shogunate to the Meiji period.
28. Gender Gap
The imperial line is mostly dominated by men. Only 8 women in the entire 125-person-long imperial line have ruled as regnant empress. In general, women tended not to last too long on the throne, as they were often seen as intermediaries between emperors.
27. The Exception to the Rule
In terms of women only having short reigns on the Chrysanthemum Throne, Empress Genmei was definitely the exception to the rule. She ruled for almost a decade from 707 until 715 AD. One of the traits she was known for was her lyrical side. She is said to be the author of a few famous traditional Japanese poems that made it into widespread collections.
26. You’re Not My Mother!
Emperor Taishō took over the throne from Emperor Meiji in 1915. He was the son of Meiji and one of Meiji’s concubines, Yanagihara Naruko. Given that the Emperor had many concubines at the time, the tradition was not to see the child as illegitimate, since these women were a part of the imperial court. Instead, it was just made official that Taishō was the son of Empress Shōken, who was Meiji’s wife.
25. I Want Them Gone!
One of the most famous moments of Emperor Kōmei’s reign was when he enacted his “Order to expel the barbarians” in 1863. Kōmei lived a fairly sheltered life and never met anyone from outside Japan. So with foreign powers starting to visit the nation after Commodore Perry sailed to the shores of the island, Kōmei decided to take matters into his own hands. Nobody really enforced the order, but it did spur some Japanese citizens to take up arms and execute foreign traders.
24. Horsin’ Around
Due to his ill health in childhood, Emperor Taishō was not considered one of the most intellectually gifted emperors. He never made it out of his elementary education, thanks in part to his frequent stays near the sea to help with his health. While he excelled at horse riding, let’s just say his other subjects weren’t quite up to snuff.
23. Parlez-Vous Francais?
Apparently, the soon-to-be emperor Taishō was quite fond of Western culture. This was much to the dismay of his father, Emperor Meiji. His father had helped win back imperial power in part because the shogunate couldn’t deal with foreign powers. Taishō would use French words rather frequently in his conversations and it bugged the heck out of his dad.
22. Out of the Public Eye
Emperor Taishō had suffered poor health since he was a child, so by the time he was crowned as emperor, his advisors were desperate to keep him out of the limelight. It was clear that he suffered from a variety of neurological problems and he was generally unfit to make any major decisions when it came to his role in the public office.
21. A Fish Called Akihito
Did you know that current emperor Akihito is an expert on goby fish? Did you also know that he has a species of fish named after him? Thanks to his keen interest in marine biology, Akihito has written 38 scientific articles on goby fish that have seen publication in respected journals.
20. Making Waves
After Emperor Meiji took charge from the Tokugawa shogunate, he sent a number of like-minded military leaders abroad to help modernize Japan. Chief amongst these delegates was Tōgō Heihachirō, who was absolutely amazed when he first landed in London, England. Both he and his associates couldn’t believe the size of some of the stone buildings, especially St. Paul’s Cathedral. Given that Tokyo was at the time mostly featured wood buildings, this would certainly be quite the change in pace!
19. A Mournful Spectacle
When Japanese emperors die, they leave this earth with a rather extravagant procession. Even a reclusive emperor like Taishō was given a spectacular sending off. His funeral procession was four miles long and more than 20,000 mourners were in attendance. The procession was held at night, so all of the lighted torches made the scene even more impressive.
18. Avoiding Disaster
Emperor Taishō luckily avoided one of the biggest natural disasters in Japanese history. The Great Kantō Earthquake of 1923 was a 7.9 magnitude earthquake that struck Tokyo late into the night on the first of September. The earthquake caused massive amounts of damage and killed around 142,000 people. Much of the damage was caused by fires that swept through the mostly wooden structured neighborhoods. The event was one of the key turning points in solidifying the imperial movement of Japan towards its status as one of the Axis powers in WWII.
17. Duck and Cover
Before he became one of the major figures of the Second World War, Emperor Hirohito was almost killed by a Korean revolutionary. Seeking to gain independence for Koreans, Lee Bong-chang launched a hand grenade at the emperor in 1932. Known as the Sakuradamon Incident, Hirohito narrowly missed being struck with the grenade.
16. Squashing the Rebellion
Things were fairly tumultuous when Hirohito took over the imperial throne in the 1920s and 1930s. With the world on the brink of war, the Japanese government was still figuring out if it should defer to civilians or the emperor. This problem was partly solved by the assassination of Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in 1932. As a moderate politician, Inukai’s assassination did not go down well with Hirohito, who then decided to take matters into his own hands and took over control of the military government that then ruled through WWII.
15. Who’s in Charge Here?
There was a lot of quarreling about the position of the emperor after the defeat of Japan in WWII. The imperial family wanted Emperor Hirohito to abdicate the throne to the young Crown Prince Akihito and take responsibility for the failures of Japan in battle. Hirohito’s brother Prince Mikasa was particularly vocal in his desires to see Hirohito step down, even interrupting the privy council to urge the Emperor’s abdication, much to the shock of everyone present!
14. Criminal Minds
Emperor Hirohito was having a hard enough time dealing with his family members that wished to see him abdicate the throne in the aftermath of WWII, the last thing he needed was the calls for his detainment from other leaders inside and outside the country. Several leaders wished to see Hirohito stand trial for war crimes. One of his saving graces was the fact that the United States portrayed the Emperor and the Japanese people as being pawns of the military, and not active participants in the execution of war plans. The U.S. wanted to keep Hirohito around because he offered to be a calming presence during occupation and reconstruction.
13. Looking for an Olive Branch
Although Emperor Hirohito was used as a symbol for nationalism during Japan’s years as an Axis power, he was not necessarily given to warmongering. In fact, he much preferred peaceful resolutions and diplomacy. He scolded his generals for their continued efforts and failures in China and felt that an international conflict with the powers of America, Britain, and France would prove disastrous. He was unfortunately overruled in this regard.
12. Friends with Benefits
Hirohito avoided any implication in the postwar trials largely thanks to the background work of the International Peacekeeping forces and especially the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, General Douglas MacArthur. MacArthur knew that he could use the popularity of Hirohito as a way to help make reconstruction of Japan a lot smoother, given that the Americans had just dropped two nuclear bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The general ensured that Hirohito’s name was never mentioned by witnesses during the trials.
11. A Man Amongst Gods
Emperor Hirohito was allowed to avoid time on trial under a number of conditions, but General MacArthur stressed one condition in particular. Hirohito had to explicitly and publically reject the claim that the Emperor of Japan was an incarnate divinity. This idea had long been a part of the Shinto religion in Japan and was constitutionally enshrined during the Meiji Restoration. Hirohito accepted these terms in principle but refused to suggest that the imperial family wasn’t descended from divinity.
10. Written in the Stars
Empress Go-Sakuramachi was the last woman to hold the Chrysanthemum Throne and her last full year before abdicating was quite eventful. The Imperial Palace in Kyoto had just been completed when a typhoon flattened the structure. Then, during the summer and autumn, Lexell’s Comet could be seen moving across the night sky. Finally, it was to be the first of 15 drought years in a row. No wonder by 1771 she decided to abdicate the throne—might as well cut your losses with so many bad omens around!
9. How’s Retirement Treating You?
Japan’s current emperor, Akihito, plans to abdicate the imperial throne in 2019 and leave the seat to his son. This decision comes as somewhat of a shock given an emperor hasn’t willfully abdicated the throne in 200 years. During the shogunate era, emperors often died young or were forced to abdicate in order to avoid gaining too much political favor. Since the Meiji restoration, all emperors have ruled until their deaths. Akihito continues his streak as a trailblazer!
8. Tennis, Anyone?
Tennis saw a huge boost in popularity amongst Japanese people in the late 1950s and early 1960s thanks to Emperor Akihito. In 1956, Akihito became the first emperor to be permitted to marry a commoner and not someone connected to the imperial court. He met Michiko Shoda at a tennis club in Tokyo. You gotta shoot your shot, as the kids say.
7. Academics in Power
One of the traditions brought in by Emperor Meiji in the mid-19th century was a series of public lectures held at the beginning of each year. The emperor, along with a few guests, would present scientific papers on topics of their choice, which started the tradition of Japanese emperors working as amateur scientific academics.
6. You Don’t Look So Good
When Emperor Kōmei died from smallpox in 1867, rumors swirled that he had actually been assassinated. His death came after a particularly violent bout of vomiting and diarrhea that blotched up his face. So some thought he was killed by members of the shogunate and traders with foreign powers like the British since Kōmei was resolutely against modernizing Japan and opening it up to foreigners.
5. A Special Place
As was the tradition at the time, Emperor Meiji wasn’t born in the imperial palace. Instead, he was born in a makeshift shelter that was built close to the home of his mother’s father. The reason for this tradition was that it was believed a birth polluted the space in which it occurred. Since the imperial palace could hardly be polluted, births were always made outside its walls.
4. Rough Start
Emperor Taishō had a rough start to life. When he was just three weeks old he contracted cerebral meningitis, which is a swelling of the head that can sometimes cause altered states of consciousness. Some suggest that this illness was caused by poisoning, though not intentionally. Some hypothesize that he contracted the illness from his wet nurse, who might have been wearing lead-based makeup while feeding the infant.
3. I Spy…
As much as his advisors wanted to keep the troubled Emperor Taishō out of public view, they couldn’t just lock up the emperor in the palace. He did have public duties, so his team was careful when to let him speak in public. On one occasion, this didn’t quite go as a planned. While Taishō stepped up to give his address to the public, he rolled up the paper on which his speech was written and began looking at the crowd through it like a spyglass. Some of his aides suggested that he was just making sure he had rolled it up properly because he also suffered from poor eyesight.
2. It’s All Your Fault!
Many reasons exist for the start of WWII, but one of the most overlooked reasons is the Second Sino-Japanese War. Emperor Hirohito was convinced by his staff and the prime minister that he ought to invade China. This in effect started off a chain of events that brought tensions in Europe to a breaking point, since China had already been claimed as a country for trade amongst European nations after the First World War.
1. Gas Attack
Emperor Hirohito was responsible for one of the first recognized war crimes of the Second World War. In 1938, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Hirohito authorized the use of mustard gas on almost 400 different occasions. He even continued to authorize the use of the gas well after the League of Nations officially condemned the practice. | <urn:uuid:f2a4229a-581c-4a13-9663-d6f1d75c5bab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.factinate.com/instant/42-legendary-facts-about-japanese-emperors/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00559.warc.gz | en | 0.982184 | 4,317 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.441113770008... | 4 | The Chrysanthemum Throne features the longest continuous imperial line of succession in the world. It dates all the way back to the 660 BC and legend has it that the emperors and empresses of Japan were descended from gods. With 125 different emperors across its history, the Japanese imperial throne is bound to have some pretty wild stories.
From the reign of one of the few empresses to the present day academics of Emperor Akihito, the history of the imperial family is one with many different facets. Sometimes the emperors happily sat in the background of political affairs; at other times, emperors were at the forefront of nationalistic cult followings. Japanese emperors have led varied lives, so here are 42 facts to get you started into their long and fascinating history.
Japanese Emperors Facts
42. Making Bank
In 1881, Empress Jingū became the first woman to appear on a Japanese banknote. Or, well, an approximation of the Empress made it onto the banknote, at least. The image of Jingū was created by the artist Edoardo Chiossone, who had used an employee at the Printing House of the Japanese government as his model. That’s because no actual image survives of the legendary empress. In fact, there’s no historical record of her existence outside of legends and woodblock carvings.
40. Fleeing to the Country
As WWII was drawing to a close, Akihito was taken out of his class at Peers’ School in Tokyo and relocated to the countryside where he would be safe from American bombing raids. Akihito eventually returned to Tokyo after the war and resumed his schooling, but by that time the role of the Emperor was greatly changed and so he had to start pursuing a different kind of education.
39. Hitting the Books
When Akihito returned to Tokyo after the end of WWII, his studies became more focused on Japan’s new relationship with the United States. He learned English and studied Western culture with his American tutor Elizabeth Gray Vining, who was a Quaker. Just like his father, Akihito was very interested in studying marine biology and it became his subject of choice during his university education. Like father, like son!
38. Sun Showers
Emperor Jimmu, the first Japanese Emperor, was descended from the heavens to lead to imperial rule. At least, that’s according to Japanese mythology. The story goes that Jimmu was a descendant of Amaterasu and Susanoo. Amaterasu is the sun goddess in Japanese folk tradition and Susanoo is the storm god.
37. What’s in a Name?
The classical name for Japan, akitsushima (Dragonfly Islands), comes from a legendary story of the first emperor Jimmu. According to the legend, a mosquito once landed on Jimmu and tried to get a quick snack of royal blood. Because Jimmu was a descendant of gods and goddesses, the mosquito was not going to get away with this. A dragonfly swooped in and killed the little sucker, hence the name Dragonfly Islands.
36. We’re Gonna Need a Bigger Boat
One of the reasons that Emperor Meiji was able to raise such a large cult following and restore the political power to the office of the emperor was due to the effect of the arrival of American Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853. Prior to the rise of the Meiji era, the emperor was effectively a status symbol as the real power laid in the hands of the Tokugawa shogunate. Prior to Emperor Meiji, Japan had kept itself isolated from Western powers, but when Perry showed up with large warships in the mid-19th century, the islands were left fairly defenseless. People knew that a change was needed.
35. Hunting Party
Emperor Kōmei’s “Order to expel barbarians” is sometimes seen as causing the Namagumi Incident. Masterless samurai took up the order to revere the Emperor and expel the barbarians by assaulting a compound hosting a recently landed group of British traders. In the ensuing melee, Charles Lennox Richardson was killed and this led the British government to demand reparations. As the deadline for reparations came and went, with the Japanese resisting payment, the British Royal Navy bombarded the port of Kagoshima. The war between the British and the Satsuma region was very brief but further diminished the power of the shogunate.
34. Six to One, Half a Dozen to the Other
It’s hard to get a sense of Emperor Meiji’s childhood since no one person seems to ever give the same account. His biographers are a contradictory bunch. Some say he was an athletic, talented, and strong-willed young man. Others say that he was often ill and fairly weak—he startled when he heard gunfire for the first time. It’s hard to tell which is the truth, but one imagines its somewhere in between.
33. No Name Brand
Emperors and Empresses only have one name titles, like Emperor Meiji, because technically speaking they don’t have last names. They are simply known as the imperial family, so when a woman marries into the family to become the empress, she gives up her maiden name!
32. A Throne by Any Other Name
Just like when we say the British Crown to refer to the monarchy of Great Britain, the common term to refer to the imperial family of Japan is the Chrysanthemum Throne. The name comes in reference to the design of the imperial throne housed in the Imperial Palace in Kyoto. Chrysanthemum blossoms are considered symbols of the Emperor and his court.
31. Throw the Book at Him!
In 2007, the Australian investigative journalist Ben Hills published a book about the controversial figure of Princess Masako. The book claimed that Masako suffered from clinical depression and that she was forced to leave her studies at Oxford University to return to the imperial palace. Hill’s work was not looked on with much fondness. The imperial family refused to let the largest Japanese publishing house, Kodansha, publish the book unless it revised a number of “factual errors.” It was denounced by both the imperial family and the government of Japan and due to the salacious nature of the insights, Hills even received anonymous death threats!
30. Going to Need a Bigger House
Traditionally, the emperor of Japan had many concubines alongside his wife. Emperor Meiji, for example, had a total of five known concubines during his life. This meant there were a lot of children running around. Altogether Emperor Meiji had 15 children with his various concubines. Eight of them was with one woman: Lady Sachiko. Of those eight, only three had long lives—the rest died in infancy.
29. Back to Power
Although the emperor was never abolished in Japan, during the shogunate period, in which Japan was under military rule, the power of the emperor was severely diminished. That all changed thanks to Emperor Meiji. Tired of living on the margins of the country, Meiji decided to rebel against the Tokugawa shogunate for their inability to deal with the threat of technologically advanced foreign powers from Europe and America. The rebellion came to a head in 1869, when the era changed from the Tokugawa shogunate to the Meiji period.
28. Gender Gap
The imperial line is mostly dominated by men. Only 8 women in the entire 125-person-long imperial line have ruled as regnant empress. In general, women tended not to last too long on the throne, as they were often seen as intermediaries between emperors.
27. The Exception to the Rule
In terms of women only having short reigns on the Chrysanthemum Throne, Empress Genmei was definitely the exception to the rule. She ruled for almost a decade from 707 until 715 AD. One of the traits she was known for was her lyrical side. She is said to be the author of a few famous traditional Japanese poems that made it into widespread collections.
26. You’re Not My Mother!
Emperor Taishō took over the throne from Emperor Meiji in 1915. He was the son of Meiji and one of Meiji’s concubines, Yanagihara Naruko. Given that the Emperor had many concubines at the time, the tradition was not to see the child as illegitimate, since these women were a part of the imperial court. Instead, it was just made official that Taishō was the son of Empress Shōken, who was Meiji’s wife.
25. I Want Them Gone!
One of the most famous moments of Emperor Kōmei’s reign was when he enacted his “Order to expel the barbarians” in 1863. Kōmei lived a fairly sheltered life and never met anyone from outside Japan. So with foreign powers starting to visit the nation after Commodore Perry sailed to the shores of the island, Kōmei decided to take matters into his own hands. Nobody really enforced the order, but it did spur some Japanese citizens to take up arms and execute foreign traders.
24. Horsin’ Around
Due to his ill health in childhood, Emperor Taishō was not considered one of the most intellectually gifted emperors. He never made it out of his elementary education, thanks in part to his frequent stays near the sea to help with his health. While he excelled at horse riding, let’s just say his other subjects weren’t quite up to snuff.
23. Parlez-Vous Francais?
Apparently, the soon-to-be emperor Taishō was quite fond of Western culture. This was much to the dismay of his father, Emperor Meiji. His father had helped win back imperial power in part because the shogunate couldn’t deal with foreign powers. Taishō would use French words rather frequently in his conversations and it bugged the heck out of his dad.
22. Out of the Public Eye
Emperor Taishō had suffered poor health since he was a child, so by the time he was crowned as emperor, his advisors were desperate to keep him out of the limelight. It was clear that he suffered from a variety of neurological problems and he was generally unfit to make any major decisions when it came to his role in the public office.
21. A Fish Called Akihito
Did you know that current emperor Akihito is an expert on goby fish? Did you also know that he has a species of fish named after him? Thanks to his keen interest in marine biology, Akihito has written 38 scientific articles on goby fish that have seen publication in respected journals.
20. Making Waves
After Emperor Meiji took charge from the Tokugawa shogunate, he sent a number of like-minded military leaders abroad to help modernize Japan. Chief amongst these delegates was Tōgō Heihachirō, who was absolutely amazed when he first landed in London, England. Both he and his associates couldn’t believe the size of some of the stone buildings, especially St. Paul’s Cathedral. Given that Tokyo was at the time mostly featured wood buildings, this would certainly be quite the change in pace!
19. A Mournful Spectacle
When Japanese emperors die, they leave this earth with a rather extravagant procession. Even a reclusive emperor like Taishō was given a spectacular sending off. His funeral procession was four miles long and more than 20,000 mourners were in attendance. The procession was held at night, so all of the lighted torches made the scene even more impressive.
18. Avoiding Disaster
Emperor Taishō luckily avoided one of the biggest natural disasters in Japanese history. The Great Kantō Earthquake of 1923 was a 7.9 magnitude earthquake that struck Tokyo late into the night on the first of September. The earthquake caused massive amounts of damage and killed around 142,000 people. Much of the damage was caused by fires that swept through the mostly wooden structured neighborhoods. The event was one of the key turning points in solidifying the imperial movement of Japan towards its status as one of the Axis powers in WWII.
17. Duck and Cover
Before he became one of the major figures of the Second World War, Emperor Hirohito was almost killed by a Korean revolutionary. Seeking to gain independence for Koreans, Lee Bong-chang launched a hand grenade at the emperor in 1932. Known as the Sakuradamon Incident, Hirohito narrowly missed being struck with the grenade.
16. Squashing the Rebellion
Things were fairly tumultuous when Hirohito took over the imperial throne in the 1920s and 1930s. With the world on the brink of war, the Japanese government was still figuring out if it should defer to civilians or the emperor. This problem was partly solved by the assassination of Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in 1932. As a moderate politician, Inukai’s assassination did not go down well with Hirohito, who then decided to take matters into his own hands and took over control of the military government that then ruled through WWII.
15. Who’s in Charge Here?
There was a lot of quarreling about the position of the emperor after the defeat of Japan in WWII. The imperial family wanted Emperor Hirohito to abdicate the throne to the young Crown Prince Akihito and take responsibility for the failures of Japan in battle. Hirohito’s brother Prince Mikasa was particularly vocal in his desires to see Hirohito step down, even interrupting the privy council to urge the Emperor’s abdication, much to the shock of everyone present!
14. Criminal Minds
Emperor Hirohito was having a hard enough time dealing with his family members that wished to see him abdicate the throne in the aftermath of WWII, the last thing he needed was the calls for his detainment from other leaders inside and outside the country. Several leaders wished to see Hirohito stand trial for war crimes. One of his saving graces was the fact that the United States portrayed the Emperor and the Japanese people as being pawns of the military, and not active participants in the execution of war plans. The U.S. wanted to keep Hirohito around because he offered to be a calming presence during occupation and reconstruction.
13. Looking for an Olive Branch
Although Emperor Hirohito was used as a symbol for nationalism during Japan’s years as an Axis power, he was not necessarily given to warmongering. In fact, he much preferred peaceful resolutions and diplomacy. He scolded his generals for their continued efforts and failures in China and felt that an international conflict with the powers of America, Britain, and France would prove disastrous. He was unfortunately overruled in this regard.
12. Friends with Benefits
Hirohito avoided any implication in the postwar trials largely thanks to the background work of the International Peacekeeping forces and especially the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, General Douglas MacArthur. MacArthur knew that he could use the popularity of Hirohito as a way to help make reconstruction of Japan a lot smoother, given that the Americans had just dropped two nuclear bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The general ensured that Hirohito’s name was never mentioned by witnesses during the trials.
11. A Man Amongst Gods
Emperor Hirohito was allowed to avoid time on trial under a number of conditions, but General MacArthur stressed one condition in particular. Hirohito had to explicitly and publically reject the claim that the Emperor of Japan was an incarnate divinity. This idea had long been a part of the Shinto religion in Japan and was constitutionally enshrined during the Meiji Restoration. Hirohito accepted these terms in principle but refused to suggest that the imperial family wasn’t descended from divinity.
10. Written in the Stars
Empress Go-Sakuramachi was the last woman to hold the Chrysanthemum Throne and her last full year before abdicating was quite eventful. The Imperial Palace in Kyoto had just been completed when a typhoon flattened the structure. Then, during the summer and autumn, Lexell’s Comet could be seen moving across the night sky. Finally, it was to be the first of 15 drought years in a row. No wonder by 1771 she decided to abdicate the throne—might as well cut your losses with so many bad omens around!
9. How’s Retirement Treating You?
Japan’s current emperor, Akihito, plans to abdicate the imperial throne in 2019 and leave the seat to his son. This decision comes as somewhat of a shock given an emperor hasn’t willfully abdicated the throne in 200 years. During the shogunate era, emperors often died young or were forced to abdicate in order to avoid gaining too much political favor. Since the Meiji restoration, all emperors have ruled until their deaths. Akihito continues his streak as a trailblazer!
8. Tennis, Anyone?
Tennis saw a huge boost in popularity amongst Japanese people in the late 1950s and early 1960s thanks to Emperor Akihito. In 1956, Akihito became the first emperor to be permitted to marry a commoner and not someone connected to the imperial court. He met Michiko Shoda at a tennis club in Tokyo. You gotta shoot your shot, as the kids say.
7. Academics in Power
One of the traditions brought in by Emperor Meiji in the mid-19th century was a series of public lectures held at the beginning of each year. The emperor, along with a few guests, would present scientific papers on topics of their choice, which started the tradition of Japanese emperors working as amateur scientific academics.
6. You Don’t Look So Good
When Emperor Kōmei died from smallpox in 1867, rumors swirled that he had actually been assassinated. His death came after a particularly violent bout of vomiting and diarrhea that blotched up his face. So some thought he was killed by members of the shogunate and traders with foreign powers like the British since Kōmei was resolutely against modernizing Japan and opening it up to foreigners.
5. A Special Place
As was the tradition at the time, Emperor Meiji wasn’t born in the imperial palace. Instead, he was born in a makeshift shelter that was built close to the home of his mother’s father. The reason for this tradition was that it was believed a birth polluted the space in which it occurred. Since the imperial palace could hardly be polluted, births were always made outside its walls.
4. Rough Start
Emperor Taishō had a rough start to life. When he was just three weeks old he contracted cerebral meningitis, which is a swelling of the head that can sometimes cause altered states of consciousness. Some suggest that this illness was caused by poisoning, though not intentionally. Some hypothesize that he contracted the illness from his wet nurse, who might have been wearing lead-based makeup while feeding the infant.
3. I Spy…
As much as his advisors wanted to keep the troubled Emperor Taishō out of public view, they couldn’t just lock up the emperor in the palace. He did have public duties, so his team was careful when to let him speak in public. On one occasion, this didn’t quite go as a planned. While Taishō stepped up to give his address to the public, he rolled up the paper on which his speech was written and began looking at the crowd through it like a spyglass. Some of his aides suggested that he was just making sure he had rolled it up properly because he also suffered from poor eyesight.
2. It’s All Your Fault!
Many reasons exist for the start of WWII, but one of the most overlooked reasons is the Second Sino-Japanese War. Emperor Hirohito was convinced by his staff and the prime minister that he ought to invade China. This in effect started off a chain of events that brought tensions in Europe to a breaking point, since China had already been claimed as a country for trade amongst European nations after the First World War.
1. Gas Attack
Emperor Hirohito was responsible for one of the first recognized war crimes of the Second World War. In 1938, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Hirohito authorized the use of mustard gas on almost 400 different occasions. He even continued to authorize the use of the gas well after the League of Nations officially condemned the practice. | 4,365 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Regretfully, we are bankrupt” is one of the most famous phrases in modern Greek history and was uttered by Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis at the Parliament on December 10, 1893, referring to the state’s economic situation and its inability to repay its public debt.
His government went bankrupt, which led to the imposition of Greece’s international auditing. Since then, the phrase has been used to indicate failure, mostly in financial issues.
Although it is assumed that the phrase was said during a Parliament speech, that has been disputed since there is no such evidence from the House records.
However, the opposition took advantage of the situation and said that the Prime Minister had officially declared Greece’s bankruptcy on the Parliament stand. Meanwhile, the newspapers reported it as it was presented by the opposition, thus disappointing Trikoupis’ supporters.
A few decades later, in May 1932, Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos used a similar phrase. His government declared the country bankrupt due to its high debt to international lenders. Venizelos blamed the Asia Minor Catastrophe, which had occurred ten years before, and the global economic downturn since the Great Depression of 1929 as the main reasons for Greece’s situation, however, it was actually the accumulation of debt since the beginning of the century that led to the bankruptcy. | <urn:uuid:cde1c252-f1c9-4dc6-8039-3a4b1ff36c6a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://greece.greekreporter.com/2014/12/10/on-this-day-charilaos-trikoupis-declares-greece-bankrupt/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00448.warc.gz | en | 0.983956 | 284 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.52466213... | 4 | “Regretfully, we are bankrupt” is one of the most famous phrases in modern Greek history and was uttered by Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis at the Parliament on December 10, 1893, referring to the state’s economic situation and its inability to repay its public debt.
His government went bankrupt, which led to the imposition of Greece’s international auditing. Since then, the phrase has been used to indicate failure, mostly in financial issues.
Although it is assumed that the phrase was said during a Parliament speech, that has been disputed since there is no such evidence from the House records.
However, the opposition took advantage of the situation and said that the Prime Minister had officially declared Greece’s bankruptcy on the Parliament stand. Meanwhile, the newspapers reported it as it was presented by the opposition, thus disappointing Trikoupis’ supporters.
A few decades later, in May 1932, Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos used a similar phrase. His government declared the country bankrupt due to its high debt to international lenders. Venizelos blamed the Asia Minor Catastrophe, which had occurred ten years before, and the global economic downturn since the Great Depression of 1929 as the main reasons for Greece’s situation, however, it was actually the accumulation of debt since the beginning of the century that led to the bankruptcy. | 282 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Politburo was the central policymaking and governing body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, made up of the top members of the Central Committee. In theory it was the political bureau (hence Politburo) of the Central Committee, elected by them to direct the party between the sessions of the committee and with a mandate that only covered the party. The Politburo was responsible to, and its membership was subject to, the approval of the Central Committee.
In reality it oversaw the operations of the Committee and made all major policy decisions, which were then passed down through the Central Committee, the Supreme Soviet and the Party Congress. Its control extended from the Party and into government because Party personnel held all key government posts and party discipline therefore insured that Politburo policy was implementated by all government organizations.
Members of the Politburo were selected informally by current members through a secret process. The selection was rubber-stamped by the Central Committee. The Politburo had both full and candidate (non-voting) members. The actual size of the Politburo varied, but it usually consisted of fourteen full and eight candidate members. Although it had no formal head, it was always led by the General Secretary of the Party, who was also often head of the Central Committee. In practice the most powerful Politburo members were those who were also members of the Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee, the General Secretary being the leader of this group.Those who were members of only one of these two bodies had less influence.
From 1952 to 1966 the Politburo was called the presidium.
In 1990 the 28th Party Congress agreed to transfer the powers of the Politburo to parliament and the Politburo ceased to exist in August 1991. | <urn:uuid:5b5252a8-a555-4d5b-83db-c095266a71a2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.infomutt.com/p/po/politburo_of_the_cpsu_central_committee.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.98424 | 363 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1996664851903915... | 2 | The Politburo was the central policymaking and governing body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, made up of the top members of the Central Committee. In theory it was the political bureau (hence Politburo) of the Central Committee, elected by them to direct the party between the sessions of the committee and with a mandate that only covered the party. The Politburo was responsible to, and its membership was subject to, the approval of the Central Committee.
In reality it oversaw the operations of the Committee and made all major policy decisions, which were then passed down through the Central Committee, the Supreme Soviet and the Party Congress. Its control extended from the Party and into government because Party personnel held all key government posts and party discipline therefore insured that Politburo policy was implementated by all government organizations.
Members of the Politburo were selected informally by current members through a secret process. The selection was rubber-stamped by the Central Committee. The Politburo had both full and candidate (non-voting) members. The actual size of the Politburo varied, but it usually consisted of fourteen full and eight candidate members. Although it had no formal head, it was always led by the General Secretary of the Party, who was also often head of the Central Committee. In practice the most powerful Politburo members were those who were also members of the Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee, the General Secretary being the leader of this group.Those who were members of only one of these two bodies had less influence.
From 1952 to 1966 the Politburo was called the presidium.
In 1990 the 28th Party Congress agreed to transfer the powers of the Politburo to parliament and the Politburo ceased to exist in August 1991. | 377 | ENGLISH | 1 |
December 7, 1941 – The Empire of Japan launches a surprise attack on US military bases at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
On November 24, 1852, Commodore Matthew Perry embarked from Norfolk, Virginia under orders from President Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese harbors to foreign trade. If the Japanese refused, Fillmore authorized military action if necessary. When the fleet dropped anchor near modern-day Tokyo on July 8, 1853, Perry found a closed society that was entirely self sufficient. But following contact with the outside world, and the restoration of imperial rule, Japan quickly became an industrialized nation that required increasingly more natural resources to keep her factories running. By the 1870s, Japan had begun stretching its tentacles outward from its home islands with its eyes on resources they did not possess, such as coal, oil, steel, tin and rubber. By 1940, Japan’s stated goal became the creation of what they called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, which was really nothing more than a grandiose name for a hoped-for Japanese empire that would encompass most of the western Pacific, a large part of eastern China, southeast Asia, and as far south as New Guinea. Essentially, their goals were identical to those of Germany, as they sought to create their own Lebensraum in the Pacific.
As part of Japan’s expansion, the Second Sino-Japanese War began with the Japanese invasion of China in 1937. But by 1940 the Japanese advance had become bogged down. In order to continue their offensive, the Japanese needed to sever the supply lines coming into China from the South. This meant that the Philippines, Guam and Wake Island would have to be taken, as well as the British Imperial possessions of Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong. However, in order to accomplish this, they would first need to neutralize the American Pacific fleet based in Hawaii.
While many believe that the Japanese attack on December 7 was entirely unprovoked, the US had actually provided Japan with a casus belli. Since the early 1930s, America had been engaged in an increasingly stringent economic war of sanctions against Japan as a protest against Japanese military actions in Indochina. The US was also providing limited military aid to China, which the Japanese believed was hampering their efforts to defeat the Chinese. So, in some ways, it might be argued that America was forcing Japan’s hand. By 1941, with war already under way in Europe, many Americans were non-interventionist. President Franklin Roosevelt, though, was not. He was looking for an excuse to join the war in Europe. With Germany and Japan fighting as allies, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor gave Roosevelt the justification he needed to take America into the Second World War. Some historians go so far as to suggest that Roosevelt had prior knowledge of the attack but allowed it to happen anyway.
On November 26, the Japanese fleet, which included the six aircraft carriers Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū, Shōkaku, and Zuikaku, stood out from northern Japan and steamed towards Hawaii. The fleet arrived north of the islands on December 6, completely undetected by the Americans. Early on the morning of December 7, two successive waves of Mitsubishi A6M Type 0 fighters, Aichi D3A dive bombers and Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers launched from the Japanese carriers. The first wave of 180 aircraft approached Oahu from the northwest, where it was detected by American radar installations. However, the radar operators believed that they had spotted a formation of Boeing B-17 bombers that was scheduled to arrive that morning from California. The Japanese attackers found Pearl Harbor completely open to attack, with ships moored side by side and defensive emplacements unmanned.
The Japanese commenced their attack at 7:48 am local time with the slower torpedo bombers leading the way, since they would be most vulnerable once the Americans realized they were under attack and started shooting back. The torpedo bombers headed straight for Battleship Row, while the dive bombers attacked ships and other targets on Oahu, including Hickam Field, Wheeler Army Airfield, and the seaplane base at Naval Air Station Kaneohe. The second wave, made up of 171 aircraft, arrived at 8:54 am and attacked simultaneously from three separate directions. Of the eight US battleships moored in Pearl Harbor, all were damaged and four were sunk. The attacks also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and a minelaying ship. Attacks on the airfields destroyed 188 aircraft, including four of the B-17s that arrived from the US while the attack was underway. In all, 2,403 Americans were killed, more than half of which perished in the battleship USS Arizona when a bomb penetrated her deck and detonated the forward magazine. Against the American casualties, the Japanese lost 55 airmen, along with nine crewmen from six midget submarines that also took part in the attack.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the island of Oahu ranks as one of the most audacious in military history. For the navies of the world, it demonstrated that the aircraft carrier, not the battleship, was now the most potent capital ship in the modern fleet. And though the attack was judged a tactical success, it ultimately turned out to be a serious strategic blunder. The goal of keeping the Americans from interfering with Japan’s immediate plans in the Pacific was successful, but the attack fell short of its aim of destroying the American Pacific fleet, nor did it put the strategic harbor out of action. The Japanese chose not to launch a third wave, which could have done crippling damage to or destroyed vital American oil and port facilities. Those facilities that sustained damage were quickly repaired, meaning that Oahu never stopped functioning as a forward naval base as the Japanese hoped. Due to the shallow draft of the harbor, all the battleships but Arizona were raised following the attack, and six of the ships were repaired and returned to fight later in the war. The loss of older ships also hastened the modernization of the American fleet. But, most importantly, the three American aircraft carriers stationed in the Pacific—USS Enterprise, USS Hornet, and USS Yorktown—were out to sea on December 7 and escaped the attack. Had they been sunk or seriously damaged, it would likely have set back American efforts in the Pacific for a year or more.
Though some Japanese military commanders advocated for the invasion and occupation of Hawaii, the nation’s leaders decided against it. They believed that simply destroying America’s ability to use Pearl Harbor as a base was enough. They did not consider Hawaii as a place from which to launch further attacks against the US mainland, and they failed to appreciate the importance of Hawaii as a base from which the Americans might launch attacks against Japan. Rather than occupy Hawaii, the Japanese hoped to win a quick, decisive victory in the western Pacific while America licked its wounds, and then defend the captured territory while eventually wearing down their enemies and negotiating treaties to maintain their conquered possessions. But that was not to be. By awakening the military and industrial might of the US and its allies, the Japanese merely sowed the seeds for their ultimate defeat. Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto famously said,
In the first six to twelve months of a war with the United States and Great Britain I will run wild and win victory upon victory. But then, if the war continues after that, I have no expectation of success.
These turned out to be prophetic words. Just six months after the attacks on Pearl Harbor, the US Navy decisively defeated the Japanese in the pivotal Battle of Midway, an American victory that, like the attack on Pearl Harbor, was fought entirely by aircraft. Though the battle cost the US the carrier Yorktown, the Japanese carrier force was crippled when four of the six carriers that had taken part at Pearl Harbor were sent to the bottom of the Pacific by American dive bombers. In a fitting footnote to the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Battle of Midway, which swung the course of the war decidedly in America’s favor, was won by aircraft from the very American carriers that escaped Japanese bombs and torpedoes on December 7, 1941.
If you enjoy these Aviation History posts, please let me know in the comments. And if you missed any of the past articles, you can find them all at Planelopnik History. You can also find more stories about aviation, aviators and airplane oddities at Wingspan. | <urn:uuid:d7708346-b0ed-4a3a-9d64-7db86edfa837> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://oppositelock.kinja.com/this-date-in-aviation-history-december-7-1941-1840009081 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.980428 | 1,760 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.714816689491... | 2 | December 7, 1941 – The Empire of Japan launches a surprise attack on US military bases at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
On November 24, 1852, Commodore Matthew Perry embarked from Norfolk, Virginia under orders from President Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese harbors to foreign trade. If the Japanese refused, Fillmore authorized military action if necessary. When the fleet dropped anchor near modern-day Tokyo on July 8, 1853, Perry found a closed society that was entirely self sufficient. But following contact with the outside world, and the restoration of imperial rule, Japan quickly became an industrialized nation that required increasingly more natural resources to keep her factories running. By the 1870s, Japan had begun stretching its tentacles outward from its home islands with its eyes on resources they did not possess, such as coal, oil, steel, tin and rubber. By 1940, Japan’s stated goal became the creation of what they called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, which was really nothing more than a grandiose name for a hoped-for Japanese empire that would encompass most of the western Pacific, a large part of eastern China, southeast Asia, and as far south as New Guinea. Essentially, their goals were identical to those of Germany, as they sought to create their own Lebensraum in the Pacific.
As part of Japan’s expansion, the Second Sino-Japanese War began with the Japanese invasion of China in 1937. But by 1940 the Japanese advance had become bogged down. In order to continue their offensive, the Japanese needed to sever the supply lines coming into China from the South. This meant that the Philippines, Guam and Wake Island would have to be taken, as well as the British Imperial possessions of Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong. However, in order to accomplish this, they would first need to neutralize the American Pacific fleet based in Hawaii.
While many believe that the Japanese attack on December 7 was entirely unprovoked, the US had actually provided Japan with a casus belli. Since the early 1930s, America had been engaged in an increasingly stringent economic war of sanctions against Japan as a protest against Japanese military actions in Indochina. The US was also providing limited military aid to China, which the Japanese believed was hampering their efforts to defeat the Chinese. So, in some ways, it might be argued that America was forcing Japan’s hand. By 1941, with war already under way in Europe, many Americans were non-interventionist. President Franklin Roosevelt, though, was not. He was looking for an excuse to join the war in Europe. With Germany and Japan fighting as allies, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor gave Roosevelt the justification he needed to take America into the Second World War. Some historians go so far as to suggest that Roosevelt had prior knowledge of the attack but allowed it to happen anyway.
On November 26, the Japanese fleet, which included the six aircraft carriers Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū, Shōkaku, and Zuikaku, stood out from northern Japan and steamed towards Hawaii. The fleet arrived north of the islands on December 6, completely undetected by the Americans. Early on the morning of December 7, two successive waves of Mitsubishi A6M Type 0 fighters, Aichi D3A dive bombers and Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers launched from the Japanese carriers. The first wave of 180 aircraft approached Oahu from the northwest, where it was detected by American radar installations. However, the radar operators believed that they had spotted a formation of Boeing B-17 bombers that was scheduled to arrive that morning from California. The Japanese attackers found Pearl Harbor completely open to attack, with ships moored side by side and defensive emplacements unmanned.
The Japanese commenced their attack at 7:48 am local time with the slower torpedo bombers leading the way, since they would be most vulnerable once the Americans realized they were under attack and started shooting back. The torpedo bombers headed straight for Battleship Row, while the dive bombers attacked ships and other targets on Oahu, including Hickam Field, Wheeler Army Airfield, and the seaplane base at Naval Air Station Kaneohe. The second wave, made up of 171 aircraft, arrived at 8:54 am and attacked simultaneously from three separate directions. Of the eight US battleships moored in Pearl Harbor, all were damaged and four were sunk. The attacks also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and a minelaying ship. Attacks on the airfields destroyed 188 aircraft, including four of the B-17s that arrived from the US while the attack was underway. In all, 2,403 Americans were killed, more than half of which perished in the battleship USS Arizona when a bomb penetrated her deck and detonated the forward magazine. Against the American casualties, the Japanese lost 55 airmen, along with nine crewmen from six midget submarines that also took part in the attack.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the island of Oahu ranks as one of the most audacious in military history. For the navies of the world, it demonstrated that the aircraft carrier, not the battleship, was now the most potent capital ship in the modern fleet. And though the attack was judged a tactical success, it ultimately turned out to be a serious strategic blunder. The goal of keeping the Americans from interfering with Japan’s immediate plans in the Pacific was successful, but the attack fell short of its aim of destroying the American Pacific fleet, nor did it put the strategic harbor out of action. The Japanese chose not to launch a third wave, which could have done crippling damage to or destroyed vital American oil and port facilities. Those facilities that sustained damage were quickly repaired, meaning that Oahu never stopped functioning as a forward naval base as the Japanese hoped. Due to the shallow draft of the harbor, all the battleships but Arizona were raised following the attack, and six of the ships were repaired and returned to fight later in the war. The loss of older ships also hastened the modernization of the American fleet. But, most importantly, the three American aircraft carriers stationed in the Pacific—USS Enterprise, USS Hornet, and USS Yorktown—were out to sea on December 7 and escaped the attack. Had they been sunk or seriously damaged, it would likely have set back American efforts in the Pacific for a year or more.
Though some Japanese military commanders advocated for the invasion and occupation of Hawaii, the nation’s leaders decided against it. They believed that simply destroying America’s ability to use Pearl Harbor as a base was enough. They did not consider Hawaii as a place from which to launch further attacks against the US mainland, and they failed to appreciate the importance of Hawaii as a base from which the Americans might launch attacks against Japan. Rather than occupy Hawaii, the Japanese hoped to win a quick, decisive victory in the western Pacific while America licked its wounds, and then defend the captured territory while eventually wearing down their enemies and negotiating treaties to maintain their conquered possessions. But that was not to be. By awakening the military and industrial might of the US and its allies, the Japanese merely sowed the seeds for their ultimate defeat. Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto famously said,
In the first six to twelve months of a war with the United States and Great Britain I will run wild and win victory upon victory. But then, if the war continues after that, I have no expectation of success.
These turned out to be prophetic words. Just six months after the attacks on Pearl Harbor, the US Navy decisively defeated the Japanese in the pivotal Battle of Midway, an American victory that, like the attack on Pearl Harbor, was fought entirely by aircraft. Though the battle cost the US the carrier Yorktown, the Japanese carrier force was crippled when four of the six carriers that had taken part at Pearl Harbor were sent to the bottom of the Pacific by American dive bombers. In a fitting footnote to the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Battle of Midway, which swung the course of the war decidedly in America’s favor, was won by aircraft from the very American carriers that escaped Japanese bombs and torpedoes on December 7, 1941.
If you enjoy these Aviation History posts, please let me know in the comments. And if you missed any of the past articles, you can find them all at Planelopnik History. You can also find more stories about aviation, aviators and airplane oddities at Wingspan. | 1,806 | ENGLISH | 1 |
by Sir Martin Gilbert
Christmas Day, 1914. German and British troops have been fighting tirelessly for 5 months in one of the bloodiest wars in human history. Suddenly, an unfamiliar sound breaks the tension. A German song, followed by another. Read on for an excerpt from The First World War: A Complete History, covering the remarkable true story of the Christmas truce of 1914.
That Christmas, a spontaneous outburst of pacific feeling took place in the war zones, as the troops of every European army celebrated their Saviour’s birth. For nearly five months the war had been fought with mounting severity. Suddenly, as darkness fell on Christmas Eve, there was, in sections of the front line, a moment of peaceable behaviour. ‘We got into conversation with the Germans who were anxious to arrange an Armistice during Xmas,’ a 25-year-old lieutenant with the Scots Guards, Sir Edward Hulse, wrote in his battalion’s war diary. ‘A scout named E Murker went out and met a German Patrol and was given a glass of whisky and some cigars, and a message was sent back saying that if we didn’t fire at them they would not fire at us.’ That night, on a front where five days earlier there had been savage fighting, the guns were silent.
On the following morning, German soldiers walked across towards the British wire and British soldiers went out to meet them. ‘They appeared to be most amicable and exchanged Souvenirs, cap stars, Badges etc.,’ noted Hulse. The British gave the German soldiers plum puddings ‘which they much appreciated’. Then arrangements were made between the two sides to bury the British dead who had been killed during the disastrous raid on the night of December 18, and whose bodies were still lying between the lines, mostly at the edge of the German front-line wire where they had been shot down. ‘The Germans brought the bodies to a half way line and we buried them,’ Hulse wrote in the battalion diary. ‘Detachments of British and Germans formed a line and a German and English Chaplain read some prayers alternately. The whole of this was done in great solemnity and reverence.’
That Christmas Day, fraternisation between the Germans and their enemies took place almost everywhere in the British No-Man’s Land, and at places in the French and Belgian lines. It was almost always initiated by German troops, through either messages or song. Near Ploegsteert a German-speaking British officer, Captain R.J. Armes, having listened with his men to a German soldier’s serenade, called for another and was treated to Schumann’s ‘The Two Grenadiers’. Men from both sides then left their trenches and met in No-Man’s Land, when there was ‘some conviviality’, as Captain Armes called it, followed by two final songs, ‘Die Wacht Am Rhein’ from the Germans and ‘Christians Wake!’ from the British.
‘Most peculiar Christmas I’ve ever spent and ever likely to,’ Sapper J. Davey wrote in his diary. ‘One could hardly believe the happenings.’ Davey, also on the Western Front, exchanged souvenirs with the Germans in the trenches opposite his. Other British soldiers joined with their fellow German infantrymen in chasing hares. Some kicked a football about in No-Man’s Land. One British officer, 2nd Lieutenant R. D. Gillespie, was taken into the German lines and shown a board which had been put up to honour a British officer who, in an earlier attack, had reached that trench before being killed.
Bruce Bairnsfather, whose book of trench tales, Bullets & Billets, was among the most popular British wartime volumes, recalled going into No-Man’s Land on Christmas Day to join ‘the throng about half-way across to the German trenches. It all felt most curious: here were these sausage-eating wretches, who had elected to start this infernal European fracas, and in so doing had brought us all into the same muddy pickle as themselves.’ It was his first sight of German soldiers close up. ‘There was not an atom of hate on either side that day; and yet, on our side, not for a moment was the will to war and the will to beat them relaxed.’ At one point Bairnsfather used his barbed-wire cutters to swap two coat buttons with a German officer. ‘The last I saw of this little affair’, Bairnsfather recalled two years later, ‘was a vision of one of my machine gunners, who was a bit of an amateur hairdresser in civil life, cutting the unnaturally long hair of a docile Boche, who was patiently kneeling on the ground while the automatic clippers crept up the back of his neck.’
‘I think I have seen one of the most extraordinary sights today that anyone has ever seen,’ Second Lieutenant Dougan Chater wrote to his mother from his trench near Armentieres. ‘About 10 o’clock this morning I was peeping over the parapet when I saw a German, waving his arms, and presently two of them got out of their trenches and some came towards ours. We were just going to fire on them when we saw they had no rifles so one of our men went out to meet them and in about two minutes the ground between the two lines of trenches was swarming with men and officers of both sides, shaking hands and wishing each other a happy Christmas.’
Chater told his mother that this fraternisation continued for about half an hour, until most of the men were ordered back to the trenches. But then it resumed. ‘For the rest of the day nobody has fired a shot and the men have been wandering about at will on the top of the parapet and carrying straw and firewood about in the open. We have also had joint burial parties for some dead – some German and some ours – who were lying out between the lines.
Sir Martin Gilbert was knighted in 1995 “for services to British history and international relations.” Among his many books are The Righteous (0-8050-6260-2), The Holocaust (0-8050-0348-7), The Day the War Ended (0-8050-4735-2), and Churchill: A Life (0-8050-2396-8). He lives in London, England. | <urn:uuid:538198b4-800a-408a-aa7e-73ce96024344> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thehistoryreader.com/military-history/most-peculiar-christmas-ive-ever-spent/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.984503 | 1,397 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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Christmas Day, 1914. German and British troops have been fighting tirelessly for 5 months in one of the bloodiest wars in human history. Suddenly, an unfamiliar sound breaks the tension. A German song, followed by another. Read on for an excerpt from The First World War: A Complete History, covering the remarkable true story of the Christmas truce of 1914.
That Christmas, a spontaneous outburst of pacific feeling took place in the war zones, as the troops of every European army celebrated their Saviour’s birth. For nearly five months the war had been fought with mounting severity. Suddenly, as darkness fell on Christmas Eve, there was, in sections of the front line, a moment of peaceable behaviour. ‘We got into conversation with the Germans who were anxious to arrange an Armistice during Xmas,’ a 25-year-old lieutenant with the Scots Guards, Sir Edward Hulse, wrote in his battalion’s war diary. ‘A scout named E Murker went out and met a German Patrol and was given a glass of whisky and some cigars, and a message was sent back saying that if we didn’t fire at them they would not fire at us.’ That night, on a front where five days earlier there had been savage fighting, the guns were silent.
On the following morning, German soldiers walked across towards the British wire and British soldiers went out to meet them. ‘They appeared to be most amicable and exchanged Souvenirs, cap stars, Badges etc.,’ noted Hulse. The British gave the German soldiers plum puddings ‘which they much appreciated’. Then arrangements were made between the two sides to bury the British dead who had been killed during the disastrous raid on the night of December 18, and whose bodies were still lying between the lines, mostly at the edge of the German front-line wire where they had been shot down. ‘The Germans brought the bodies to a half way line and we buried them,’ Hulse wrote in the battalion diary. ‘Detachments of British and Germans formed a line and a German and English Chaplain read some prayers alternately. The whole of this was done in great solemnity and reverence.’
That Christmas Day, fraternisation between the Germans and their enemies took place almost everywhere in the British No-Man’s Land, and at places in the French and Belgian lines. It was almost always initiated by German troops, through either messages or song. Near Ploegsteert a German-speaking British officer, Captain R.J. Armes, having listened with his men to a German soldier’s serenade, called for another and was treated to Schumann’s ‘The Two Grenadiers’. Men from both sides then left their trenches and met in No-Man’s Land, when there was ‘some conviviality’, as Captain Armes called it, followed by two final songs, ‘Die Wacht Am Rhein’ from the Germans and ‘Christians Wake!’ from the British.
‘Most peculiar Christmas I’ve ever spent and ever likely to,’ Sapper J. Davey wrote in his diary. ‘One could hardly believe the happenings.’ Davey, also on the Western Front, exchanged souvenirs with the Germans in the trenches opposite his. Other British soldiers joined with their fellow German infantrymen in chasing hares. Some kicked a football about in No-Man’s Land. One British officer, 2nd Lieutenant R. D. Gillespie, was taken into the German lines and shown a board which had been put up to honour a British officer who, in an earlier attack, had reached that trench before being killed.
Bruce Bairnsfather, whose book of trench tales, Bullets & Billets, was among the most popular British wartime volumes, recalled going into No-Man’s Land on Christmas Day to join ‘the throng about half-way across to the German trenches. It all felt most curious: here were these sausage-eating wretches, who had elected to start this infernal European fracas, and in so doing had brought us all into the same muddy pickle as themselves.’ It was his first sight of German soldiers close up. ‘There was not an atom of hate on either side that day; and yet, on our side, not for a moment was the will to war and the will to beat them relaxed.’ At one point Bairnsfather used his barbed-wire cutters to swap two coat buttons with a German officer. ‘The last I saw of this little affair’, Bairnsfather recalled two years later, ‘was a vision of one of my machine gunners, who was a bit of an amateur hairdresser in civil life, cutting the unnaturally long hair of a docile Boche, who was patiently kneeling on the ground while the automatic clippers crept up the back of his neck.’
‘I think I have seen one of the most extraordinary sights today that anyone has ever seen,’ Second Lieutenant Dougan Chater wrote to his mother from his trench near Armentieres. ‘About 10 o’clock this morning I was peeping over the parapet when I saw a German, waving his arms, and presently two of them got out of their trenches and some came towards ours. We were just going to fire on them when we saw they had no rifles so one of our men went out to meet them and in about two minutes the ground between the two lines of trenches was swarming with men and officers of both sides, shaking hands and wishing each other a happy Christmas.’
Chater told his mother that this fraternisation continued for about half an hour, until most of the men were ordered back to the trenches. But then it resumed. ‘For the rest of the day nobody has fired a shot and the men have been wandering about at will on the top of the parapet and carrying straw and firewood about in the open. We have also had joint burial parties for some dead – some German and some ours – who were lying out between the lines.
Sir Martin Gilbert was knighted in 1995 “for services to British history and international relations.” Among his many books are The Righteous (0-8050-6260-2), The Holocaust (0-8050-0348-7), The Day the War Ended (0-8050-4735-2), and Churchill: A Life (0-8050-2396-8). He lives in London, England. | 1,338 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The earliest identified organisms were minute and relatively featureless, and their fossils look like small rods, which are very difficult to tell apart from structures that arise through abiotic physical processes. The oldest undisputed evidence of life on Earth, interpreted as fossilized bacteria, dates to 3 Billion years ago. Other finds in rocks dated to about 3.5 billion years ago have been interpreted as bacteria, with geochemical evidence also seeming to show the presence of life 3.8 billion years ago.
However these analyses were closely scrutinized, and non-biological processes were found which could produce all of the “signatures of life” that had been reported. While this does not prove that the structures found had a non-biological origin, they cannot be taken as clear evidence for the presence of life. Geochemical signatures from rocks deposited 3.4 billion years ago have been interpreted as evidence for life, although these statements have not been thoroughly examined by critics. | <urn:uuid:884390eb-5c5c-4e01-bd5d-b58e8e4dca87> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://spacevolve.com/page/173/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00226.warc.gz | en | 0.985196 | 194 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.2342024892568588... | 1 | The earliest identified organisms were minute and relatively featureless, and their fossils look like small rods, which are very difficult to tell apart from structures that arise through abiotic physical processes. The oldest undisputed evidence of life on Earth, interpreted as fossilized bacteria, dates to 3 Billion years ago. Other finds in rocks dated to about 3.5 billion years ago have been interpreted as bacteria, with geochemical evidence also seeming to show the presence of life 3.8 billion years ago.
However these analyses were closely scrutinized, and non-biological processes were found which could produce all of the “signatures of life” that had been reported. While this does not prove that the structures found had a non-biological origin, they cannot be taken as clear evidence for the presence of life. Geochemical signatures from rocks deposited 3.4 billion years ago have been interpreted as evidence for life, although these statements have not been thoroughly examined by critics. | 193 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prague Castle became the official seat of Czechoslovakia when the state was established following World War I, with the indomitable Tomáš G. Masaryk the first to take up the reigns, and one of Masaryk’s closest allies is commemorated in one of the many squares of Prague Castle. Edvard Beneš was one of the most important Czechs of the 20th century, but he is arguably better remembered as one of the most tragic figures of humanity’s most tragic century. Beneš had the misfortune of being the President of Czechoslovakia when the Nazi war machine rolled into town in 1938, before reprising that role just in time for the communist juggernaut to steamroller democracy a decade later. It was all a far cry from those halcyon days studying in Paris and Dijon, years that gave him the rounded education needed to steer a newborn state through the murky waters of initial independence.
Edvard Beneš was actually a student of Masaryk’s, and he quickly became infected with the vivacious nationalism of his teacher. Beneš went on to lecture at Charles University before turning his focus to the establishment and development of an independent Czechoslovak state. Make no mistake about it, Edvard Beneš was a staunch Czechoslovakist — he saw the Czechs and Slovaks as two parts of one major whole. He served as Foreign Minister of the new state until Masaryk’s resignation as President in 1935, replacing his great mentor as the number one man in town. Beneš held that position for three years only, resigning once the West decided to abandon Czechoslovakia to the Nazis.
He soon became the head of Czechoslovak government-in-exile during World War II, and his pre-war experience of the West (you know, the whole abandonment thing) led him to believe that a good relationship with Stalin and the USSR was going to be more beneficial than buddying up to the US and the UK. A 20-year treaty of friendship was thus signed with Stalin, and Beneš was inked in as President once again. He returned to Prague five days after it was liberated at the end of World War II, and he quickly embarked upon rebuilding a state he had helped construct in the first place. The years of fighting had taken its toll on the man, and the ever-growing spectre of communism made his post-war existence far harder than it had been before. Two strokes further ailed him in 1947, and his deteriorating health made it nigh on impossible for him to fight for democracy in the face of political intimidation. The communists took over from him in 1948, and Beneš died just 57 days after his resignation in June 1948.
In Via The Left Bank of the ‘90s, John Bills takes the reader on a tour of Prague using the underground network as his guide, from the birth of the city at Vyšehrad through to the Velvet Revolution at Národní Třída and everywhere in between, including blokes who loved orchids and no small amount of executions. This is everything you ever wanted to know about Prague, and then some. The eBook available in our splendid little shop here. | <urn:uuid:8ebe9266-ac89-439e-b8d5-782019bdbeb5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://billsjohn.wordpress.com/2019/09/03/a-most-tragic-figure-the-life-death-of-edvard-benes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00076.warc.gz | en | 0.983463 | 668 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.224580571055412... | 1 | Prague Castle became the official seat of Czechoslovakia when the state was established following World War I, with the indomitable Tomáš G. Masaryk the first to take up the reigns, and one of Masaryk’s closest allies is commemorated in one of the many squares of Prague Castle. Edvard Beneš was one of the most important Czechs of the 20th century, but he is arguably better remembered as one of the most tragic figures of humanity’s most tragic century. Beneš had the misfortune of being the President of Czechoslovakia when the Nazi war machine rolled into town in 1938, before reprising that role just in time for the communist juggernaut to steamroller democracy a decade later. It was all a far cry from those halcyon days studying in Paris and Dijon, years that gave him the rounded education needed to steer a newborn state through the murky waters of initial independence.
Edvard Beneš was actually a student of Masaryk’s, and he quickly became infected with the vivacious nationalism of his teacher. Beneš went on to lecture at Charles University before turning his focus to the establishment and development of an independent Czechoslovak state. Make no mistake about it, Edvard Beneš was a staunch Czechoslovakist — he saw the Czechs and Slovaks as two parts of one major whole. He served as Foreign Minister of the new state until Masaryk’s resignation as President in 1935, replacing his great mentor as the number one man in town. Beneš held that position for three years only, resigning once the West decided to abandon Czechoslovakia to the Nazis.
He soon became the head of Czechoslovak government-in-exile during World War II, and his pre-war experience of the West (you know, the whole abandonment thing) led him to believe that a good relationship with Stalin and the USSR was going to be more beneficial than buddying up to the US and the UK. A 20-year treaty of friendship was thus signed with Stalin, and Beneš was inked in as President once again. He returned to Prague five days after it was liberated at the end of World War II, and he quickly embarked upon rebuilding a state he had helped construct in the first place. The years of fighting had taken its toll on the man, and the ever-growing spectre of communism made his post-war existence far harder than it had been before. Two strokes further ailed him in 1947, and his deteriorating health made it nigh on impossible for him to fight for democracy in the face of political intimidation. The communists took over from him in 1948, and Beneš died just 57 days after his resignation in June 1948.
In Via The Left Bank of the ‘90s, John Bills takes the reader on a tour of Prague using the underground network as his guide, from the birth of the city at Vyšehrad through to the Velvet Revolution at Národní Třída and everywhere in between, including blokes who loved orchids and no small amount of executions. This is everything you ever wanted to know about Prague, and then some. The eBook available in our splendid little shop here. | 678 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A new species of lizard has been discovered in sand dunes outside Perth but scientists fear it faces extinction with urban sprawl rapidly closing in.
The six-centimetre-long Ctenotus ora, or the coastal plains skink, was found by Australian National University ecologist Geoffrey Kay and colleague Scott Keogh during research on biological diversity in southwestern Australia.
Mr Kay said it was a fantastic discovery, but warned that urban encroachment could wipe the species out.
The small stretch of sand the brown and white skink called home was steadily being concreted, he said.
"Our new lizard is under serious risk of being erased just as suddenly as it appeared to us," Mr Kay said.
"Developments along the coastline near Perth need to consider this new lizard and potentially a large number of other species yet to be discovered in this diverse part of the world."
Mr Kay said the exact size of the skink population was unknown but it was clear that numbers were low as only a few of them had been found.
He said the new research that led to the skink's discovery showed that biodiversity in southwestern Australia - particularly for reptiles - was far deeper and more extreme than previously imagined.
The region is already recognised as one of the top 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world, alongside places like Madagascar.
© AAP 2020 | <urn:uuid:9152feec-9c3a-4706-826f-08fd7de5b154> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.9news.com.au/national/fears-for-lizard-species-discovered-in-wa/4f212dd3-ed4b-44dd-9c94-8d2d58730a17 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00452.warc.gz | en | 0.981306 | 276 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.354877203702926... | 1 | A new species of lizard has been discovered in sand dunes outside Perth but scientists fear it faces extinction with urban sprawl rapidly closing in.
The six-centimetre-long Ctenotus ora, or the coastal plains skink, was found by Australian National University ecologist Geoffrey Kay and colleague Scott Keogh during research on biological diversity in southwestern Australia.
Mr Kay said it was a fantastic discovery, but warned that urban encroachment could wipe the species out.
The small stretch of sand the brown and white skink called home was steadily being concreted, he said.
"Our new lizard is under serious risk of being erased just as suddenly as it appeared to us," Mr Kay said.
"Developments along the coastline near Perth need to consider this new lizard and potentially a large number of other species yet to be discovered in this diverse part of the world."
Mr Kay said the exact size of the skink population was unknown but it was clear that numbers were low as only a few of them had been found.
He said the new research that led to the skink's discovery showed that biodiversity in southwestern Australia - particularly for reptiles - was far deeper and more extreme than previously imagined.
The region is already recognised as one of the top 25 biodiversity hotspots in the world, alongside places like Madagascar.
© AAP 2020 | 271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the Korean War, a number of seeds of alien species were introduced to the peninsula along with U.S. military supplies. White heath aster, a type of chrysanthemum, was among those species. Long after the war was over, in the 1980s, it was found that the flower species was flourishing centered around Gangwon and Gyeonggi provinces. The alien plant grew so tenaciously that those of other types were pushed off from their place, which, in turn, simplified and devastated the ecosystem of plants in particular areas. As with white heath aster, ragweed was brought into the country during the Korean War, which was later classified as an invasive plant.
Snakehead fish, a popular food among Koreans, are an invasive introduced species in the United States. The name Snakehead gives you a hint that they prey on all other fish. In July 2002, thousands of juvenile snakeheads were discovered in a small pond in Crofton, Maryland. Bus an City authorities suspected that Asian immigrants had secretly released them that they could hunt to eat for their stamina and energy. They soon poisoned and removed the entire pond, killing the fish.
Around 1,000 red fire ants, native to South America, were first found at Busan's Gamman Port last September. They are one of the world’s worst invaders nominated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The species has a poisonous sting that can cause pain and itching, and even death by shock. Furthermore, it does not only destroy roots of crops but also has devastating impact on reptiles and native ant populations. The red invaders are so viable and prolific that they can survive in a low temperature of -9 degrees Celsius as well as floods and droughts. In particular, they peak between June and September.
Red fire ants were found once again at a container yard in Incheon Port on Friday and Saturday consecutively, which was the sixth infestation of such insects. A queen ant was found for the first time, raising fear because it lays eggs while worker ants don’t. Some concern that the species may have become naturalized and bred in Korea. Any through quarantine measure should have been taken to prevent against any possible breeding of red fire ants as early as last month when larvae were discovered in Pyeongtaek Port. The Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency said on Sunday that the alien red ants are not in the breeding stage in Korea, asking the public including cargo owners to report any case. However, even after such explanation from the authorities was announced, fears of red fire ants still remain unmitigated across the country.
Kwang-Pyo Lee firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:bf06c99f-064c-4c70-a85c-b657ebac72a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20180709/1380695/1/Invasion-of-red-imported-fire-ants | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00125.warc.gz | en | 0.982515 | 552 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.0074905315414... | 1 | During the Korean War, a number of seeds of alien species were introduced to the peninsula along with U.S. military supplies. White heath aster, a type of chrysanthemum, was among those species. Long after the war was over, in the 1980s, it was found that the flower species was flourishing centered around Gangwon and Gyeonggi provinces. The alien plant grew so tenaciously that those of other types were pushed off from their place, which, in turn, simplified and devastated the ecosystem of plants in particular areas. As with white heath aster, ragweed was brought into the country during the Korean War, which was later classified as an invasive plant.
Snakehead fish, a popular food among Koreans, are an invasive introduced species in the United States. The name Snakehead gives you a hint that they prey on all other fish. In July 2002, thousands of juvenile snakeheads were discovered in a small pond in Crofton, Maryland. Bus an City authorities suspected that Asian immigrants had secretly released them that they could hunt to eat for their stamina and energy. They soon poisoned and removed the entire pond, killing the fish.
Around 1,000 red fire ants, native to South America, were first found at Busan's Gamman Port last September. They are one of the world’s worst invaders nominated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The species has a poisonous sting that can cause pain and itching, and even death by shock. Furthermore, it does not only destroy roots of crops but also has devastating impact on reptiles and native ant populations. The red invaders are so viable and prolific that they can survive in a low temperature of -9 degrees Celsius as well as floods and droughts. In particular, they peak between June and September.
Red fire ants were found once again at a container yard in Incheon Port on Friday and Saturday consecutively, which was the sixth infestation of such insects. A queen ant was found for the first time, raising fear because it lays eggs while worker ants don’t. Some concern that the species may have become naturalized and bred in Korea. Any through quarantine measure should have been taken to prevent against any possible breeding of red fire ants as early as last month when larvae were discovered in Pyeongtaek Port. The Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency said on Sunday that the alien red ants are not in the breeding stage in Korea, asking the public including cargo owners to report any case. However, even after such explanation from the authorities was announced, fears of red fire ants still remain unmitigated across the country.
Kwang-Pyo Lee firstname.lastname@example.org | 551 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Matilda of Flanders, Queen of England and Duchess of Normandy was one of the most influential and formidable medieval Queens of England.
Matilda, or Maud as she was known, was the daughter of Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, and Adela, herself daughter of King Robert II of France. Her great-great-great-great grandfather on her father’s side had married Elftrude, the daughter of Alfred the Great, King of Wessex (England), so she was very high born indeed.
No one is sure of the exact date of Matilda’s birth, but it is estimated to be in 1031. Just after the turn of the millennia, Flanders was a primitive area compared to Normandy, but under the rule of Matilda’s father, things were beginning to improve, mostly due to trade and textiles, so Matilda probably lived in some comfort. Her mother was highly educated and made sure that her children were also given a superior education, including Matilda, and due to Flanders’ strategic position in Europe, her father’s wealth and her high rank, Matilda was highly sought after as a bride.
It is rumoured that when Matilda was between 15 and 18, King Edward the Confessor of England sent an ambassador to Flanders named Brihtric Mau, a rich Anglo-Saxon thegn. Apparently Matilda fell in love with Brihtric and without telling her parents, sent him a message asking him to marry her. He rejected her proposal. Whatever the truth of the matter, years later when she was acting as regent for her husband William in England, she is said to have used her authority to confiscate Brictric's lands and throw him into prison, where he died.
Another legend regarding Matilda claims that when Duke William of Normandy (later called the Conqueror) asked for Matilda's hand in marriage, she refused, stating that she was far too high-born to consider marrying a bastard. After hearing this response, William rode from Normandy to Bruges, found Matilda on her way to church, dragged her off her horse by her long braids, threw her down in the street in front of her flabbergasted attendants and rode off.
Another version of the story states that William rode to Matilda's father's house in Lille, threw her to the ground in her room (again, by her braids) and hit her (or violently battered her) before leaving. Naturally, Baldwin took offence at this; but, before they could draw swords, Matilda settled the matter by refusing to marry anyone but William. Matilda and William were married in 1053.
William spent the years from their marriage to 1066 consolidating his power in Normandy, and when King Edward the Confessor of England died in 1066, William was ready to press his claim to the throne of England by invading and attacking King Harold, Edward’s successor.
When William was preparing to invade England, Matilda outfitted a ship, the Mora, out of her own funds and gave it to him. Additionally, William asked his wife to rule Normandy during his absence. Matilda was crowned queen on 11 May 1068 in Westminster
Even after William conquered England and became its king, it took Matilda more than a year to visit the kingdom. Despite having been crowned queen, she spent most of her time in Normandy, governing the duchy.
Matilda bore William nine or ten children. He was believed to have been faithful to her and never produced a child outside their marriage. Despite her royal duties, Matilda was deeply invested in her children's well-being. All were known for being remarkably educated.
Matilda fell ill during the summer of 1083 and died in November 1083. Her husband was present for her final confession. William died four years later in 1087.
A Stain on the Soul is the second novel in the Caitlyn trilogy, available from Amazon, iBooks, Barnes & Noble, Kobo, GooglePlay Click here to select the bookstore of your choice.
The first, Three Bloody Pieces, is also only 99 little pennies (or cents, if you live across the pond). Also available from Amazon, iBooks, Barnes & Noble, Kobo, GooglePlay Click here to select the bookstore of your choice. | <urn:uuid:99404813-7767-4e80-9b3a-47fd78873ff7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.elizabethdaviesauthor.co.uk/single-post/2018/10/06/Matilda-of-Flanders | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.986421 | 897 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.0645668506... | 3 | Matilda of Flanders, Queen of England and Duchess of Normandy was one of the most influential and formidable medieval Queens of England.
Matilda, or Maud as she was known, was the daughter of Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, and Adela, herself daughter of King Robert II of France. Her great-great-great-great grandfather on her father’s side had married Elftrude, the daughter of Alfred the Great, King of Wessex (England), so she was very high born indeed.
No one is sure of the exact date of Matilda’s birth, but it is estimated to be in 1031. Just after the turn of the millennia, Flanders was a primitive area compared to Normandy, but under the rule of Matilda’s father, things were beginning to improve, mostly due to trade and textiles, so Matilda probably lived in some comfort. Her mother was highly educated and made sure that her children were also given a superior education, including Matilda, and due to Flanders’ strategic position in Europe, her father’s wealth and her high rank, Matilda was highly sought after as a bride.
It is rumoured that when Matilda was between 15 and 18, King Edward the Confessor of England sent an ambassador to Flanders named Brihtric Mau, a rich Anglo-Saxon thegn. Apparently Matilda fell in love with Brihtric and without telling her parents, sent him a message asking him to marry her. He rejected her proposal. Whatever the truth of the matter, years later when she was acting as regent for her husband William in England, she is said to have used her authority to confiscate Brictric's lands and throw him into prison, where he died.
Another legend regarding Matilda claims that when Duke William of Normandy (later called the Conqueror) asked for Matilda's hand in marriage, she refused, stating that she was far too high-born to consider marrying a bastard. After hearing this response, William rode from Normandy to Bruges, found Matilda on her way to church, dragged her off her horse by her long braids, threw her down in the street in front of her flabbergasted attendants and rode off.
Another version of the story states that William rode to Matilda's father's house in Lille, threw her to the ground in her room (again, by her braids) and hit her (or violently battered her) before leaving. Naturally, Baldwin took offence at this; but, before they could draw swords, Matilda settled the matter by refusing to marry anyone but William. Matilda and William were married in 1053.
William spent the years from their marriage to 1066 consolidating his power in Normandy, and when King Edward the Confessor of England died in 1066, William was ready to press his claim to the throne of England by invading and attacking King Harold, Edward’s successor.
When William was preparing to invade England, Matilda outfitted a ship, the Mora, out of her own funds and gave it to him. Additionally, William asked his wife to rule Normandy during his absence. Matilda was crowned queen on 11 May 1068 in Westminster
Even after William conquered England and became its king, it took Matilda more than a year to visit the kingdom. Despite having been crowned queen, she spent most of her time in Normandy, governing the duchy.
Matilda bore William nine or ten children. He was believed to have been faithful to her and never produced a child outside their marriage. Despite her royal duties, Matilda was deeply invested in her children's well-being. All were known for being remarkably educated.
Matilda fell ill during the summer of 1083 and died in November 1083. Her husband was present for her final confession. William died four years later in 1087.
A Stain on the Soul is the second novel in the Caitlyn trilogy, available from Amazon, iBooks, Barnes & Noble, Kobo, GooglePlay Click here to select the bookstore of your choice.
The first, Three Bloody Pieces, is also only 99 little pennies (or cents, if you live across the pond). Also available from Amazon, iBooks, Barnes & Noble, Kobo, GooglePlay Click here to select the bookstore of your choice. | 915 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is the meaning of the following line of Rudyard Kipling's poem "If": "Or walk with Kings—nor lose the common touch"?
When you are trying to understand lines from “If,” by Rudyard Kipling, you have to remember that this poem is meant as advice from a father to his son. The father is saying “if you can be/do all these things, you will be a man, you will be respected.” What this means is that each line is laying out one of the things that the father thinks his son should be able to do or one of the attributes he thinks his son should have.
In order to understand the specific line you are asking about, let us look at it in the context of what comes before it. When we look at it like this, the passage goes as follows:
If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue,
Or walk with Kings—nor lose the common touch,
What Kipling is saying here is that the son needs to be able to interact with any kind of person, high or low, without losing his own personality and the ability to act in correct ways.
The first line says that the son should be able to “talk with crowds” without losing his virtue. In other words, he needs to be able to mingle with the common people without becoming like them (the father is assuming that the crowds do not have as many virtues as the son does). The line you are asking about is the converse of this. Here, the father is telling the son that even if he spends time with the most elite people in the land, he should not act like he is better than other people. He should not lose his ability to relate to regular people.
In this line, the father is telling the son that he must be able to retain his own sensibilities and values even if he ends up hobnobbing with the most important people in society. He is saying that the son should not become big-headed or impressed with his own importance. Even if he walks with kings, he should still have the common touch that allows him to relate to regular people. This is part, in Kipling’s mind, of being a person that everyone can respect.
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0.1050965934... | 1 | What is the meaning of the following line of Rudyard Kipling's poem "If": "Or walk with Kings—nor lose the common touch"?
When you are trying to understand lines from “If,” by Rudyard Kipling, you have to remember that this poem is meant as advice from a father to his son. The father is saying “if you can be/do all these things, you will be a man, you will be respected.” What this means is that each line is laying out one of the things that the father thinks his son should be able to do or one of the attributes he thinks his son should have.
In order to understand the specific line you are asking about, let us look at it in the context of what comes before it. When we look at it like this, the passage goes as follows:
If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue,
Or walk with Kings—nor lose the common touch,
What Kipling is saying here is that the son needs to be able to interact with any kind of person, high or low, without losing his own personality and the ability to act in correct ways.
The first line says that the son should be able to “talk with crowds” without losing his virtue. In other words, he needs to be able to mingle with the common people without becoming like them (the father is assuming that the crowds do not have as many virtues as the son does). The line you are asking about is the converse of this. Here, the father is telling the son that even if he spends time with the most elite people in the land, he should not act like he is better than other people. He should not lose his ability to relate to regular people.
In this line, the father is telling the son that he must be able to retain his own sensibilities and values even if he ends up hobnobbing with the most important people in society. He is saying that the son should not become big-headed or impressed with his own importance. Even if he walks with kings, he should still have the common touch that allows him to relate to regular people. This is part, in Kipling’s mind, of being a person that everyone can respect.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 457 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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