text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Did you know that according to the Center for Disease Control 4,280 pedestrians were killed in traffic crashes in the United States and another 70,000 pedestrians injured in 2010? That averages to one crash-related pedestrian death every 2 hours and a pedestrian injury every 8 minutes.
Research shows that children do not understand the danger of a moving car. They cannot judge the speed of a vehicle coming toward them and often, they don’t recognize danger or react to it. In addition, when they see a car, they think that the driver sees them and can stop for them.
Most children are hit by vehicles near their home during the afternoon in driveways, parking lots or even at the school bus stop. Help your children stay safe by learning the steps of safe street crossing and how to play outdoors even with they are around traffic.
The first thing to teach children about traffic safety is to always be aware of their surroundings. Children pay attention to only one thing at time, which is why when playing they may forget about traffic.
Teach your children not to “dart out” into traffic, chase anything into a roadway or stand between parked cards. Because children are small, it is hard for drivers to see them, even when there are not blind spots on the road.
Pick a play area that is easy to get to from your home. Choose the safest, most direct route and walk it with your children until they demonstrate traffic safety awareness. Remind them they should always take that route and avoid shortcuts to keep them safe. | <urn:uuid:38cdd9ac-86c5-4a94-ae07-0089ac657020> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bannerhealth.com/staying-well/safety/child/pedestrian | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00363.warc.gz | en | 0.980898 | 314 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
0.17842185497283936,
-0.5829925537109375,
0.36350733041763306,
-0.1479465663433075,
-0.3206421434879303,
0.6031504273414612,
0.7463986873626709,
0.3934361934661865,
-0.0038566701114177704,
0.09610150754451752,
0.13146661221981049,
0.3644893169403076,
0.04408625513315201,
0.2515751123428345... | 16 | Did you know that according to the Center for Disease Control 4,280 pedestrians were killed in traffic crashes in the United States and another 70,000 pedestrians injured in 2010? That averages to one crash-related pedestrian death every 2 hours and a pedestrian injury every 8 minutes.
Research shows that children do not understand the danger of a moving car. They cannot judge the speed of a vehicle coming toward them and often, they don’t recognize danger or react to it. In addition, when they see a car, they think that the driver sees them and can stop for them.
Most children are hit by vehicles near their home during the afternoon in driveways, parking lots or even at the school bus stop. Help your children stay safe by learning the steps of safe street crossing and how to play outdoors even with they are around traffic.
The first thing to teach children about traffic safety is to always be aware of their surroundings. Children pay attention to only one thing at time, which is why when playing they may forget about traffic.
Teach your children not to “dart out” into traffic, chase anything into a roadway or stand between parked cards. Because children are small, it is hard for drivers to see them, even when there are not blind spots on the road.
Pick a play area that is easy to get to from your home. Choose the safest, most direct route and walk it with your children until they demonstrate traffic safety awareness. Remind them they should always take that route and avoid shortcuts to keep them safe. | 316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
English society was shattered by the Reformation in the 1530s, which destroyed centuries of provision for the poor by the Roman Catholic church. What had once been a religious duty1 now was a choice. Sixty years of undirected assistance showed the limitations of philanthropy for this social problem. The Elizabethan Poor Law imposed duties across the entire country and was the first secular national welfare system.
The scope of the legislation
The law required each parish to elect two Overseers of the Poor every Easter: those who were elected were unpaid and often were unwilling appointees who acted under the supervision of the JPs.2 The new law was comprehensive in allocating duties to those with oversight of the legislation in their parish. Their duties were-
1) a compulsory poor rate to be levied on every parish
2) the creation of ‘Overseers’ of relief
3) the ‘setting the poor on work’
4) the collection of a poor relief rate from property owners3
The elegance of the Poor Law lay in it being local. Point 1: taxpayers set tax levels to pay for their poor and Point 4: a named local person collected it. The tax was transparent. This pound was collected for those poor people. Point 2 is finely nuanced. Overseers were elected annually which meant a parish didn’t suffer from continuous compassion or harshness. Point 3 gave satisfaction to taxpayers who could see a return for their tax.
The role of the parish
The parish was used as an administrative unit and not as was the case pre-Reformation when the church designed the welfare. Welfare was secular and the poor weren’t God’s Children any more.
By basing poor relief in the parish, the assumption was the poor were personally known to those providing relief:
Choices about who should or should not be relieved were shaped ‘by personal sympathy for suffering people and concern about order and authority’…5
They didn’t want the poor to become dependent and a drain on parish taxpayers. An unfortunate effect of personal knowledge was that anyone they didn’t know was treated with intense suspicion “local xenophobia” [with] local communities [who] were inward looking.6
As a result only impotent4 poor got long term relief. Point 3 is crucial here. Relief came with the obligation that work was allocated and completed satisfactorily. The ultimate premise was that society was static and the poor lived and died in the parish they were born in. This was, and always had been, nonsense.
Given what has been termed ‘local xenophobia’ there was intense suspicion for strangers who were routinely treated with harshness. Being poor was a crime. Asking for relief was a provocation, which could be met with being flogged to the parish boundary.
The Elizabethan Poor Law was the most successful piece of social legislation ever. Apart from a few amendments, it continued until 1834 with the introduction of the New Poor Law. By 1834 the basics of poor relief had changed beyond recognition. Britain was an industrialised society and the population had grown exponentially. The genius of the Tudors is illustrated by this law, which is magnificent.
1 Matt. 25: 32-46 For the text see https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+25%3A32-46&version=NIV
4 ‘Impotent’ in this usage are those who are too old to work or had severe illnesses. | <urn:uuid:63f1b55c-d1f2-4551-ab43-5f80d709895f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://oedeboyz.com/2019/12/12/elizabethan-poor-law-1601-the-first-national-welfare-system/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00384.warc.gz | en | 0.985515 | 726 | 3.75 | 4 | [
-0.29408642649650574,
-0.17504571378231049,
0.21107839047908783,
0.01603098399937153,
0.26122206449508667,
-0.11653165519237518,
-0.3023759424686432,
0.012220609933137894,
0.2603234648704529,
-0.016624249517917633,
-0.16126427054405212,
-0.06729119271039963,
0.04983910173177719,
0.22270400... | 12 | English society was shattered by the Reformation in the 1530s, which destroyed centuries of provision for the poor by the Roman Catholic church. What had once been a religious duty1 now was a choice. Sixty years of undirected assistance showed the limitations of philanthropy for this social problem. The Elizabethan Poor Law imposed duties across the entire country and was the first secular national welfare system.
The scope of the legislation
The law required each parish to elect two Overseers of the Poor every Easter: those who were elected were unpaid and often were unwilling appointees who acted under the supervision of the JPs.2 The new law was comprehensive in allocating duties to those with oversight of the legislation in their parish. Their duties were-
1) a compulsory poor rate to be levied on every parish
2) the creation of ‘Overseers’ of relief
3) the ‘setting the poor on work’
4) the collection of a poor relief rate from property owners3
The elegance of the Poor Law lay in it being local. Point 1: taxpayers set tax levels to pay for their poor and Point 4: a named local person collected it. The tax was transparent. This pound was collected for those poor people. Point 2 is finely nuanced. Overseers were elected annually which meant a parish didn’t suffer from continuous compassion or harshness. Point 3 gave satisfaction to taxpayers who could see a return for their tax.
The role of the parish
The parish was used as an administrative unit and not as was the case pre-Reformation when the church designed the welfare. Welfare was secular and the poor weren’t God’s Children any more.
By basing poor relief in the parish, the assumption was the poor were personally known to those providing relief:
Choices about who should or should not be relieved were shaped ‘by personal sympathy for suffering people and concern about order and authority’…5
They didn’t want the poor to become dependent and a drain on parish taxpayers. An unfortunate effect of personal knowledge was that anyone they didn’t know was treated with intense suspicion “local xenophobia” [with] local communities [who] were inward looking.6
As a result only impotent4 poor got long term relief. Point 3 is crucial here. Relief came with the obligation that work was allocated and completed satisfactorily. The ultimate premise was that society was static and the poor lived and died in the parish they were born in. This was, and always had been, nonsense.
Given what has been termed ‘local xenophobia’ there was intense suspicion for strangers who were routinely treated with harshness. Being poor was a crime. Asking for relief was a provocation, which could be met with being flogged to the parish boundary.
The Elizabethan Poor Law was the most successful piece of social legislation ever. Apart from a few amendments, it continued until 1834 with the introduction of the New Poor Law. By 1834 the basics of poor relief had changed beyond recognition. Britain was an industrialised society and the population had grown exponentially. The genius of the Tudors is illustrated by this law, which is magnificent.
1 Matt. 25: 32-46 For the text see https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+25%3A32-46&version=NIV
4 ‘Impotent’ in this usage are those who are too old to work or had severe illnesses. | 710 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Ghosts of Versailles story was told by two English school teachers, Charlotte Anne Moberly, and Eleanor Jourdain. Both women came from respectable families and held important positions at respectable English schools. The two ladies were in Paris in August of 1901 and on the 10th they decided to visit the Palace of Versailles.
They especially wanted to see a building called the Petit Trianon, but they became lost and felt as if they had wandered onto a set for a stage play.
It was then that the two women saw things that looked very out of place: men in old-fashioned clothing and hats, vintage farming equipment sitting out in the open, a scary man with a face ravaged by smallpox, a pretty woman dressed in clothes a century old.
Later, the women would discovered that the pretty woman they saw sketching in the garden was Marie Antoinette in her last days before imprisonment. | <urn:uuid:e8b9936c-7f44-4342-a10f-327a79dc77e8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://agmogan.com/the-ghosts-of-versailles-is-marie-antoinette-haunting-her-palace/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00281.warc.gz | en | 0.985272 | 189 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
0.033306676894426346,
0.426694393157959,
0.027349554002285004,
0.0972154513001442,
0.15033847093582153,
0.2763415575027466,
0.08292851597070694,
-0.0943860337138176,
-0.21376937627792358,
-0.20858091115951538,
0.2944575846195221,
0.11850474029779434,
-0.2684953510761261,
0.6497568488121033... | 2 | The Ghosts of Versailles story was told by two English school teachers, Charlotte Anne Moberly, and Eleanor Jourdain. Both women came from respectable families and held important positions at respectable English schools. The two ladies were in Paris in August of 1901 and on the 10th they decided to visit the Palace of Versailles.
They especially wanted to see a building called the Petit Trianon, but they became lost and felt as if they had wandered onto a set for a stage play.
It was then that the two women saw things that looked very out of place: men in old-fashioned clothing and hats, vintage farming equipment sitting out in the open, a scary man with a face ravaged by smallpox, a pretty woman dressed in clothes a century old.
Later, the women would discovered that the pretty woman they saw sketching in the garden was Marie Antoinette in her last days before imprisonment. | 191 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lesson time 17:47 min
Some of Joyce’s experimental approaches to structure include considering the shape of a story on its first page and writing a one-sided dialogue. She reads from her story “Heat.”
Topics include: Be Bold With Form · Experiments in Structure: “Heat" · Assembling Structure Like Memories · Write Visual Art
[MUSIC PLAYING] JOYCE CAROL OATES (VOICEOVER): It's very exciting to experiment with structure. I think that many stories are best told in some elliptical way or some unusual way. - There's only one rule of show business or writing, and that's don't be boring. So anything that you can do that's interesting, and novel, and keeps an audience engaged, almost anything you can do that's not boring will be successful. Like you could have a story that was just all the beginning. Now, I've never tried that. Just a story that kept having a beginning, but never went anywhere. But yet, it could have its own ending that would be very experimental, and it couldn't be too long. You could have a story that was just the middle. You could have a story that was just final paragraphs. I've asked my students sometimes to do a story that was just a description of the scene, where you're setting the scene very carefully for a story, using really good descriptions and really original metaphors, but then that's the story. The whole story is setting the scene. So that would be experimental. I've seen a story by somebody who's younger brother died of a drug overdose, and they didn't know he was even a drug addict. It was a shock because no one knew he was taking heroin. So he reported his death. So people in the family are so stunned by this, they just keep remembering when they last saw him, and did they have any hint? You know, people are always saying, oh, we had no hint. When people commit suicide, everyone said I had no idea. Or well, I might have had an idea. Or that's my fault. I didn't help. Or I didn't know what I could have done. All these thoughts lend themselves to a kind of like question and answer. You could have a whole story that was a questionnaire. I probably have done that. You know, a question, a answer. Okay, that would that be a nice story for a writer who wants to experiment. A story in a question and answer mode. Another story could be just the answers. I once wrote a story that was answers. Like the question, you don't see. You just see the answers, and that was fun to do. So I recommend for any story that you have that you like that you're haunted by-- to find some unusual way of telling it. Some experimental writers like Donald Barthelme, Robert Coover, and John Barth, have done all sorts of wild things. I once wrote a short story that was just notes to contributor-- contributors. You know, at the end of a magazine, I have notes on contributors. So my story was called "Notes on contributors," and it was in the magazine. So when people who read the magazine thought that was the notes on the contributors, but it really wasn't. It was a short story. But anybody could do that. I mean, that's something that somebody else could try. Notes are on contributors. I think it'll be really great for a new writer or a young writer to say to herself or himself, I'm going to write a series of prose works so original and novel that there'...
The author of some of the most enduring fiction of our time, Joyce Carol Oates has published 58 novels and thousands of short stories, essays, and articles. Now the award-winning author and Princeton University creative writing professor teaches you how to tap into your storytelling instincts. Find ideas from your own experiences and perceptions, experiment with structure, and improve your craft, one sentence at a time.
Featured Masterclass Instructor
Literary legend Joyce Carol Oates teaches you how to write short stories by developing your voice and exploring classic works of fiction.Explore the Class
loved it all. I learned valuable lessons from every one of the sessions and the exercises are/will be extremely useful in practicing the craft and understanding the nuances of writing and reading.
The class was designed well and the topics were really interesting.
It reminded me of the romance of being a writer writer not just a writer-for-money.
Lots of practical ways to get started and keep going. She shares her joy of writing and learning about yourself through the creative process. | <urn:uuid:0383b5d6-9d51-4b29-a252-0dc86e2f2047> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.masterclass.com/classes/joyce-carol-oates-teaches-the-art-of-the-short-story/chapters/structure-and-form | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00358.warc.gz | en | 0.987011 | 961 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
-0.14623209834098816,
0.0508061945438385,
0.4227948486804962,
0.15169501304626465,
-0.25082796812057495,
0.25995373725891113,
-0.020156241953372955,
0.22042398154735565,
-0.04088115692138672,
-0.1700565069913864,
0.09442085772752762,
0.28926360607147217,
0.2329605519771576,
0.5295770168304... | 1 | Lesson time 17:47 min
Some of Joyce’s experimental approaches to structure include considering the shape of a story on its first page and writing a one-sided dialogue. She reads from her story “Heat.”
Topics include: Be Bold With Form · Experiments in Structure: “Heat" · Assembling Structure Like Memories · Write Visual Art
[MUSIC PLAYING] JOYCE CAROL OATES (VOICEOVER): It's very exciting to experiment with structure. I think that many stories are best told in some elliptical way or some unusual way. - There's only one rule of show business or writing, and that's don't be boring. So anything that you can do that's interesting, and novel, and keeps an audience engaged, almost anything you can do that's not boring will be successful. Like you could have a story that was just all the beginning. Now, I've never tried that. Just a story that kept having a beginning, but never went anywhere. But yet, it could have its own ending that would be very experimental, and it couldn't be too long. You could have a story that was just the middle. You could have a story that was just final paragraphs. I've asked my students sometimes to do a story that was just a description of the scene, where you're setting the scene very carefully for a story, using really good descriptions and really original metaphors, but then that's the story. The whole story is setting the scene. So that would be experimental. I've seen a story by somebody who's younger brother died of a drug overdose, and they didn't know he was even a drug addict. It was a shock because no one knew he was taking heroin. So he reported his death. So people in the family are so stunned by this, they just keep remembering when they last saw him, and did they have any hint? You know, people are always saying, oh, we had no hint. When people commit suicide, everyone said I had no idea. Or well, I might have had an idea. Or that's my fault. I didn't help. Or I didn't know what I could have done. All these thoughts lend themselves to a kind of like question and answer. You could have a whole story that was a questionnaire. I probably have done that. You know, a question, a answer. Okay, that would that be a nice story for a writer who wants to experiment. A story in a question and answer mode. Another story could be just the answers. I once wrote a story that was answers. Like the question, you don't see. You just see the answers, and that was fun to do. So I recommend for any story that you have that you like that you're haunted by-- to find some unusual way of telling it. Some experimental writers like Donald Barthelme, Robert Coover, and John Barth, have done all sorts of wild things. I once wrote a short story that was just notes to contributor-- contributors. You know, at the end of a magazine, I have notes on contributors. So my story was called "Notes on contributors," and it was in the magazine. So when people who read the magazine thought that was the notes on the contributors, but it really wasn't. It was a short story. But anybody could do that. I mean, that's something that somebody else could try. Notes are on contributors. I think it'll be really great for a new writer or a young writer to say to herself or himself, I'm going to write a series of prose works so original and novel that there'...
The author of some of the most enduring fiction of our time, Joyce Carol Oates has published 58 novels and thousands of short stories, essays, and articles. Now the award-winning author and Princeton University creative writing professor teaches you how to tap into your storytelling instincts. Find ideas from your own experiences and perceptions, experiment with structure, and improve your craft, one sentence at a time.
Featured Masterclass Instructor
Literary legend Joyce Carol Oates teaches you how to write short stories by developing your voice and exploring classic works of fiction.Explore the Class
loved it all. I learned valuable lessons from every one of the sessions and the exercises are/will be extremely useful in practicing the craft and understanding the nuances of writing and reading.
The class was designed well and the topics were really interesting.
It reminded me of the romance of being a writer writer not just a writer-for-money.
Lots of practical ways to get started and keep going. She shares her joy of writing and learning about yourself through the creative process. | 945 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander Adams was born December 27, 1780; he left Scotland in 1792 to begin a life of working on the sea. This eventually led him to Hawaiʻi, where he arrived in 1811 on the American trading ship the ‘Albatross’ from Boston.
He became an intimate friend and confidential advisor to King Kamehameha I, who entrusted to him the command of the king’s sandalwood fleet. He became the first regular pilot for the port of Honolulu, a position he held for 30-years.
Adams is credited with helping to design the Hawaiian flag – a new flag for Hawaiʻi was needed to avoid confusion by American vessels (prior to that time, Hawaiian vessels flew the British Union Jack.)
“The Hawaiian flag was designed for King Kamehameha I, in the year 1816. As the King desired to send a vessel to China to sell a cargo of sandal-wood, he in company with John Young, Isaac Davis and Alexander Adams … made this flag for the ship, which was a war vessel, called the Forrester, carrying 16 guns, and was owned by Kamehameha I.” (Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, January 1, 1862)
On March 7, 1817, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi sent Adams to China to sell the sandalwood. When he sailed to China, it was the first vessel under the flag of Hawaiʻi.
To enter the Chinese harbor, the ship was heavily taxed in port charges. Upon returning October 5, 1817, at Hilo and hearing of the amount Adams had to pay, King Kamehameha decided Hawaiʻi should also generate revenue from port charges. This was the origin of harbor dues in the islands.
Kamehameha awarded Adams control of over 2,000-acres in the Niu Valley (much of which is still under the control on his descendants.)
Adams stood on the shore with John Young at Kailua-Kona when the first American Christian missionaries anchored off shore in 1820. He helped convince the King to allow the missionaries to come ashore and take up residence in Hawaiʻi.
When the HMS Blonde arrived in 1825, Adams helped the Scottish naturalist (James Macrae) distribute some plants he thought would be commercially successful in the tropical climate.
In 1828, Queen Kaʻahumanu gave Adams over 290-acres of land in Kalihi Valley (on the island of Oʻahu) in connection with and in gratitude for his services. The area was called Apili.
After 30 years of piloting, Adams retired in 1853, grew fruit on his land in Kalihi Valley, and was great host to visitors. He also had a home on what was named Adams Lane (in 1850,) a small lane in downtown Honolulu off of Hotel Street named after him (near the Hawaiian Telephone company building.)
Adams married three times, his first was to Sarah “Sally” Davis, daughter of Isaac Davis; two of his wives were the Harbottle sisters (Sarah Harbottle and Charlotte Harbottle,) who were reared by Queen Kaʻahumanu and were favorites at court. According to his personal account, he was the father of 15 children, eight of whom were by his third wife.
The estate in Niu Valley was held by his granddaughter Mary Lucas, who started subdividing it in the 1950s. The area created by the filling of Kupapa Fishpond is now the site of numerous oceanfront homes.
Old Niu Fishpond (Kupapa Fishpond) is part of a tract of 2,446 acres that was once a summer home of Kamehameha I and which later claimed by Alexander Adams under Claim No. 802 filed Feb. 14, 1848, with the land commission at the time of the Great Māhele.
The claim states: “From the testimony of Governor Kekūanāoʻa … it appears that the claimant was created lord of konohiki of this land, in the time of Kamehameha I, and that he has exercised the konohikiship of the same without dispute ever since the year of Our Lord 1822.”
It further appears that the claimant obtained his rights in this land, in the same way that he obtained his rights in the land comprised in the Claim No. 801 (in Downtown Honolulu,) namely in remuneration for services rendered the king as sea captain or sailing master.”
Adams died October 17, 1871. He is buried next to his friend and fellow Scotsman Andrew Auld in the Oʻahu Cemetery. Their common tombstone contains the following inscription in the Scots dialect: “Twa croanies frae the land of heather; Are sleepin’ here in death th’gether.” | <urn:uuid:380bbcc5-700a-46d7-9c92-9de5707228da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://imagesofoldhawaii.com/tag/niu/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.980421 | 1,041 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
-0.13556522130966187,
0.37652716040611267,
-0.028486983850598335,
-0.12066596746444702,
-0.31646808981895447,
0.045601554214954376,
0.10594351589679718,
0.399389386177063,
0.03690063953399658,
0.11702525615692139,
0.32109925150871277,
-0.5248095989227295,
-0.0706683099269867,
0.01840100437... | 17 | Alexander Adams was born December 27, 1780; he left Scotland in 1792 to begin a life of working on the sea. This eventually led him to Hawaiʻi, where he arrived in 1811 on the American trading ship the ‘Albatross’ from Boston.
He became an intimate friend and confidential advisor to King Kamehameha I, who entrusted to him the command of the king’s sandalwood fleet. He became the first regular pilot for the port of Honolulu, a position he held for 30-years.
Adams is credited with helping to design the Hawaiian flag – a new flag for Hawaiʻi was needed to avoid confusion by American vessels (prior to that time, Hawaiian vessels flew the British Union Jack.)
“The Hawaiian flag was designed for King Kamehameha I, in the year 1816. As the King desired to send a vessel to China to sell a cargo of sandal-wood, he in company with John Young, Isaac Davis and Alexander Adams … made this flag for the ship, which was a war vessel, called the Forrester, carrying 16 guns, and was owned by Kamehameha I.” (Ka Nupepa Kuokoa, January 1, 1862)
On March 7, 1817, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi sent Adams to China to sell the sandalwood. When he sailed to China, it was the first vessel under the flag of Hawaiʻi.
To enter the Chinese harbor, the ship was heavily taxed in port charges. Upon returning October 5, 1817, at Hilo and hearing of the amount Adams had to pay, King Kamehameha decided Hawaiʻi should also generate revenue from port charges. This was the origin of harbor dues in the islands.
Kamehameha awarded Adams control of over 2,000-acres in the Niu Valley (much of which is still under the control on his descendants.)
Adams stood on the shore with John Young at Kailua-Kona when the first American Christian missionaries anchored off shore in 1820. He helped convince the King to allow the missionaries to come ashore and take up residence in Hawaiʻi.
When the HMS Blonde arrived in 1825, Adams helped the Scottish naturalist (James Macrae) distribute some plants he thought would be commercially successful in the tropical climate.
In 1828, Queen Kaʻahumanu gave Adams over 290-acres of land in Kalihi Valley (on the island of Oʻahu) in connection with and in gratitude for his services. The area was called Apili.
After 30 years of piloting, Adams retired in 1853, grew fruit on his land in Kalihi Valley, and was great host to visitors. He also had a home on what was named Adams Lane (in 1850,) a small lane in downtown Honolulu off of Hotel Street named after him (near the Hawaiian Telephone company building.)
Adams married three times, his first was to Sarah “Sally” Davis, daughter of Isaac Davis; two of his wives were the Harbottle sisters (Sarah Harbottle and Charlotte Harbottle,) who were reared by Queen Kaʻahumanu and were favorites at court. According to his personal account, he was the father of 15 children, eight of whom were by his third wife.
The estate in Niu Valley was held by his granddaughter Mary Lucas, who started subdividing it in the 1950s. The area created by the filling of Kupapa Fishpond is now the site of numerous oceanfront homes.
Old Niu Fishpond (Kupapa Fishpond) is part of a tract of 2,446 acres that was once a summer home of Kamehameha I and which later claimed by Alexander Adams under Claim No. 802 filed Feb. 14, 1848, with the land commission at the time of the Great Māhele.
The claim states: “From the testimony of Governor Kekūanāoʻa … it appears that the claimant was created lord of konohiki of this land, in the time of Kamehameha I, and that he has exercised the konohikiship of the same without dispute ever since the year of Our Lord 1822.”
It further appears that the claimant obtained his rights in this land, in the same way that he obtained his rights in the land comprised in the Claim No. 801 (in Downtown Honolulu,) namely in remuneration for services rendered the king as sea captain or sailing master.”
Adams died October 17, 1871. He is buried next to his friend and fellow Scotsman Andrew Auld in the Oʻahu Cemetery. Their common tombstone contains the following inscription in the Scots dialect: “Twa croanies frae the land of heather; Are sleepin’ here in death th’gether.” | 1,069 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the United State broke off ties with Great Britain for independence, Ben Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and other drafted the Declaration of Independence. Duncan & Juncker, (2004) write that the declaration contained words proclaimed America’s ideals of independence and freedom to all across the world. Even at the time of the writing of the Declaration, almost half a million of African Americans were slaves. Most of these slaves lived in the south, and they comprised of the 40% of the population of the South. Many colonists, including George Washington and Jefferson who opposed slavery, denouncing it as “repugnant” and “evil” and at the same time, contradicting their statements, holding a significant number of African American in their houses as slaves. The Southern colonies, being the richest in America at the time, relied entirely on slaves for their tobacco, indigo and rice plantations. They therefore were not ready to let the slaves go. The first United States government came into existence in 1781 after the adoption of the Articles of Confederation, which was silent on slavery and left the powers to regulate slavery to the individual states (Duncan & Juncker, 2004). The Articles of Confederation failed due to many factors such as the inability to govern and levy taxes, which led to the drafting of the new constitution. During the drafting process, the question as to whether slaves should be counted as part of the population arose. The states with largest populations were to have strong political powers. They also were to pay high taxes. As the southern states led in number of slaves, they agreed to count slaves as part of the population, such as the 3/5 of a slave would be counted in the population. The delegates from the North agreed and a compromise that each slave would count as three fifths of a person was adopted. The compromise brought up another question as to whether slave trade should be discontinued or what should happen about importing of new slaves. Ten states had outlawed slave trade, and three larger states, Georgia, North and South Carolina threatened to leave the convention of creating the new constitution if slavery was outlawed. A special committee worked on the compromised that slave trade would not be banned, until 1800. The convention later voted to extend the date to 1808. Southern states also made a new demand that the Northern states should capture and return all escaped slaves to the south, which was passed through the Fugitive clause. The fugitive clause was a set back to the freed slaved, as they were recaptured and returned to slavery. In 12 out of 16 presidential elections, a slave owner from the south won, extending slave trade past 1800.One of the key aspects of African American slave escape and fugitive tactics consisted of the underground railroad. This network of various routes and multiple checkpoints of running away into free states and Canada was used for nearly a century. Within its last decade, the railroad experienced its peak of 100,000 slaves escaping their owners and traveling mostly north with the help of many allies, other slaves, and abolitionists (Clinton 2005). As a way to find their way north and to certain safe houses, they were told to look for the North Star in their initial day of escaping and keep going in that direction until they meet someone who is helping them and continue their checkpoints and head their way to freedom (Still 1970). Few of the routes lead to major routes that lead to major ones that landed the now free slaves into few midwestern states as well as northeastern as well. The routes themselves were loosely vague and most slaves who were able to receive aid were from the upper portion of the south. The slaves in the deep south had a deeply difficult time to try escaping the several hundreds of miles to reach the very first free state (Clinton 2005). While most of the travel was by foot, it was a challenge itself to find food, shelter, and water, all while hiding from slave owners and white people in general in the huge region of the deep south. In the five years between 1803 and 1808, South Carolina alone imported 400,000 slaves (Jones, 2004). These were so many slaves that pushed slavery to other regions like Louisiana and Georgia. The Northern States were reluctant in fighting slave trade as they were more concerned about the new government and feared to be in conflicts with the south. Most of the states thought that slavery was a passing cloud and that it was bound to fail sooner. The invention of the cotton gin made the cash crop all the more lucrative. This new technology led to the skyrocketing in the number of slaves. With the silent North and a silent Articles of Confederation on the issue of African Americans held as slaves, some of the slaves approached the courts for justice and their freedom. Ehrlich, (2007) gives an account of the court decision of Dred Scott vs. Sanford in 1857. Scott was an enslaved man of the Negro African race who had been taken by his owners to free states and he attempted to sue for his citizenship in the US. In an 8 hour decision written by Chief Justice Rodger Taney, the court denied his request. This was because Americans that of African descent, currently a slave or not, they were not permitted to US citizens and Congress itself is powerless to ban slavery altogether. This judgment was a landmark decision which held that a black man whose ancestors were brought into the U.S as slaves whether enslaved or free could not become a U.S citizen, and therefore had no powers to sue in a federal court. The court also denied the national government power to regulate federal territories which were acquired after the United States was created. The decision for Dred Scott and the African slaves around the country had their identities solidified by marking them as “other” when it came to their identity and placement in the young United States. | <urn:uuid:70aa2898-26b0-4b1b-a9a5-d8ff009e76b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alpinrunning.org/after-their-statements-holding-a-significant-number-of/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.984712 | 1,166 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
-0.2619076371192932,
0.08925694227218628,
0.20773106813430786,
-0.23253807425498962,
-0.23982876539230347,
0.3910139203071594,
-0.01159809809178114,
-0.27489930391311646,
0.005845557898283005,
0.1671707183122635,
0.43568331003189087,
0.35468536615371704,
-0.09439300000667572,
0.02634344622... | 4 | After the United State broke off ties with Great Britain for independence, Ben Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and other drafted the Declaration of Independence. Duncan & Juncker, (2004) write that the declaration contained words proclaimed America’s ideals of independence and freedom to all across the world. Even at the time of the writing of the Declaration, almost half a million of African Americans were slaves. Most of these slaves lived in the south, and they comprised of the 40% of the population of the South. Many colonists, including George Washington and Jefferson who opposed slavery, denouncing it as “repugnant” and “evil” and at the same time, contradicting their statements, holding a significant number of African American in their houses as slaves. The Southern colonies, being the richest in America at the time, relied entirely on slaves for their tobacco, indigo and rice plantations. They therefore were not ready to let the slaves go. The first United States government came into existence in 1781 after the adoption of the Articles of Confederation, which was silent on slavery and left the powers to regulate slavery to the individual states (Duncan & Juncker, 2004). The Articles of Confederation failed due to many factors such as the inability to govern and levy taxes, which led to the drafting of the new constitution. During the drafting process, the question as to whether slaves should be counted as part of the population arose. The states with largest populations were to have strong political powers. They also were to pay high taxes. As the southern states led in number of slaves, they agreed to count slaves as part of the population, such as the 3/5 of a slave would be counted in the population. The delegates from the North agreed and a compromise that each slave would count as three fifths of a person was adopted. The compromise brought up another question as to whether slave trade should be discontinued or what should happen about importing of new slaves. Ten states had outlawed slave trade, and three larger states, Georgia, North and South Carolina threatened to leave the convention of creating the new constitution if slavery was outlawed. A special committee worked on the compromised that slave trade would not be banned, until 1800. The convention later voted to extend the date to 1808. Southern states also made a new demand that the Northern states should capture and return all escaped slaves to the south, which was passed through the Fugitive clause. The fugitive clause was a set back to the freed slaved, as they were recaptured and returned to slavery. In 12 out of 16 presidential elections, a slave owner from the south won, extending slave trade past 1800.One of the key aspects of African American slave escape and fugitive tactics consisted of the underground railroad. This network of various routes and multiple checkpoints of running away into free states and Canada was used for nearly a century. Within its last decade, the railroad experienced its peak of 100,000 slaves escaping their owners and traveling mostly north with the help of many allies, other slaves, and abolitionists (Clinton 2005). As a way to find their way north and to certain safe houses, they were told to look for the North Star in their initial day of escaping and keep going in that direction until they meet someone who is helping them and continue their checkpoints and head their way to freedom (Still 1970). Few of the routes lead to major routes that lead to major ones that landed the now free slaves into few midwestern states as well as northeastern as well. The routes themselves were loosely vague and most slaves who were able to receive aid were from the upper portion of the south. The slaves in the deep south had a deeply difficult time to try escaping the several hundreds of miles to reach the very first free state (Clinton 2005). While most of the travel was by foot, it was a challenge itself to find food, shelter, and water, all while hiding from slave owners and white people in general in the huge region of the deep south. In the five years between 1803 and 1808, South Carolina alone imported 400,000 slaves (Jones, 2004). These were so many slaves that pushed slavery to other regions like Louisiana and Georgia. The Northern States were reluctant in fighting slave trade as they were more concerned about the new government and feared to be in conflicts with the south. Most of the states thought that slavery was a passing cloud and that it was bound to fail sooner. The invention of the cotton gin made the cash crop all the more lucrative. This new technology led to the skyrocketing in the number of slaves. With the silent North and a silent Articles of Confederation on the issue of African Americans held as slaves, some of the slaves approached the courts for justice and their freedom. Ehrlich, (2007) gives an account of the court decision of Dred Scott vs. Sanford in 1857. Scott was an enslaved man of the Negro African race who had been taken by his owners to free states and he attempted to sue for his citizenship in the US. In an 8 hour decision written by Chief Justice Rodger Taney, the court denied his request. This was because Americans that of African descent, currently a slave or not, they were not permitted to US citizens and Congress itself is powerless to ban slavery altogether. This judgment was a landmark decision which held that a black man whose ancestors were brought into the U.S as slaves whether enslaved or free could not become a U.S citizen, and therefore had no powers to sue in a federal court. The court also denied the national government power to regulate federal territories which were acquired after the United States was created. The decision for Dred Scott and the African slaves around the country had their identities solidified by marking them as “other” when it came to their identity and placement in the young United States. | 1,232 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of Easter Island is relatively simple to approach, because it starts relatively late compared to the stands that can be found elsewhere, and it has almost an end date. Everything begins around 1200 and ends at the end of the nineteenth century, and the history of the island has three major phases: A colonization of a Polynesian people (1200-1500, the origin of the Moais), a change of behavior which imposed a new social structure (1500-1687, which made disappear the Moaïs) and the island as stake of the Europeans (1687-1877). From there the original settlement of the island is so weak that it can be considered as having disappeared. The population believes again, but under the action of immigration.
Moais of Easter Island Easter Island
The initial settlement and the erection of Moaïs
Before 1200 there was no human settlement of Easter Island. Of course unknown to the Asian, European, African and Micronesian civilizations, the island of 160 Km2 only was discovered by the Polynesian civilizations only at this period. Although this period is questioned by scientific analyzes done on the spot during the nineteenth century, in practice, the more recent and accurate the analyzes, the less doubtful the settlement of Easter Island has been. around 1200. These migrants probably had to arrive from Mangareva, the main island of the archipelago of Gambier, but we can not exclude an arrival by the other nearest islands: Marquesas Islands or Pitcairn.
Once there, they organized themselves into territorial clans. At the time there were about ten clans that divided the territory into triangular pieces starting from the center of the island. Where all the territories joined was the common territory, where one could discuss the needs of all the clans. Each clan had its villages, a little behind the coast. It was villages of stone houses with common buildings and a social structure turned on the worship of the ancients. The cult of the ancients is a worship that has no gods, it is content to worship the ancestors, a tradition that aims to ensure the oral transmission of the history of the people in question.
The Moaïs are a representation of the ancestors, they are idols in charge of the protection of the island and as such they were placed all around the island. There is also a large number of places of worship on the coast. These statues were installed between 1200 and 1500, the period of belief in ancestor worship. From 1500 an event arrived, upsetting the established society. This date of 1500 is of course very arbitrary, the change having occurred perhaps a little later, sometimes we even announce the 17th century
The cult of Make-make
It was not a sudden upheaval that caused the change in Easter Island society around 1500, but rather an awareness - probably forced by the facts - that the relatively small island could not provide. food to the whole population if the latter did not deal with the problem of the ecosystem. Indeed, in addition to having to deforest for food the inhabitants had to cut the trees to build the Moais, to transport them, carve them, etc. Without trees, the ecosystem was disrupted, food became scarce and part of the population had to leave. Specialists found traces of Pitcairn Island settlements from that time, proving the migration of part of the population. However, this hypothesis has never been proven, and deforestation could very well have happened later. As always, there are surely several factors that have had to intervene, and have excluded neither internal wars, which could have destroyed most of the population and therefore need the establishment of another society, nor natural disasters. they, too, can put on base a civilization so fragile.
To face the problem, and whatever the cause, a simple solution was found: The cult of the ancients was replaced for the benefit of a God, Make-make , the bird-man. The Moais were abandoned, some were willingly laid, others buried. The main quarry in which they were carved was also abandoned. It should be known that there were as many statue in the process of manufacturing as statues already erected, or 400. All those in the process of manufacture were buried, covered or simply left as is. The old places of worship were abandoned. The new society that appeared was spontaneous, it was based on the previous one. A new caste of priests was born, and this new organization was able to resist the extreme island conditions imposed by the geography of the island, and that until 1687, year of the discovery of the island by the pirate Edward Davis.
The harmful influence of Europeans
If Edward Davis was the first to discover the island, he did not disembark, unlike Jakob Roggenveen , a Dutch sailor who acted for the Dutch West India Company. It was he who gave it its name: Easter Island, by the fact that it was addressed April 6, 1722, Easter Sunday.
The second European to approach the island was Felipe González de Ahedo who took possession of it in the name of the Kingdom of Spain. It was November 15, 1770. However he did not know that it had already been discovered and therefore already belonged to a European kingdom, the Netherlands, which claimed it and obtained it.
James Cook made a stop at Easter Island on March 13, 1774, and then the French navigator La Pérouse in 1786. These increasingly frequent stops on the island set up a mechanism that the local population could not guess. namely, its slow eradication by the development of unknown diseases for which it had no natural antibodies, and its abduction to turn them into slaves. This happened in the mid-nineteenth century when traders from South America raided the island to capture as many people as possible to work for their accounts.
The population of the island probably never exceeded 2000 people, when it increased it was naturally limited by the lack of food resources. Once the raids were done, the population was too small to survive. In addition, the people behind these kidnappings took the opportunity to eradicate the culture of the island by suppressing priests and destroying places of worship. The date of 1877 is symptomatic, it corresponds to the smallest population of Polynesian origin that the island has never reached: 111 people. But since the middle of the nineteenth century other populations arrived, forming a mix that will not cease to matter. It is this mix that will save the population on the island and will make that there still exist, today, descendants of primitive people on the island. The migrants coming mainly from Tahiti and the southern islands for the majority of them, from Europe and for a tiny part, from China.
At the end of the 19th century, several Europeans settled on the island, which was then Christianized, and a new organization was set up. In 1888 Chile officially annexed it, and nowadays it is still a Chilean territory. | <urn:uuid:77322fbe-ba0c-41b7-b570-892f2be40f38> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wonders-of-the-world.net/Statues-of-Easter-island/History-of-the-statues-of-Easter-island.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00104.warc.gz | en | 0.981127 | 1,407 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
0.29297542572021484,
0.07569075375795364,
0.3335803151130676,
-0.18320834636688232,
0.0026972671039402485,
-0.21853771805763245,
-0.14646929502487183,
-0.23051422834396362,
-0.0676187202334404,
0.4233250021934509,
0.093859001994133,
-0.534111738204956,
-0.14460988342761993,
0.7798886299133... | 8 | The history of Easter Island is relatively simple to approach, because it starts relatively late compared to the stands that can be found elsewhere, and it has almost an end date. Everything begins around 1200 and ends at the end of the nineteenth century, and the history of the island has three major phases: A colonization of a Polynesian people (1200-1500, the origin of the Moais), a change of behavior which imposed a new social structure (1500-1687, which made disappear the Moaïs) and the island as stake of the Europeans (1687-1877). From there the original settlement of the island is so weak that it can be considered as having disappeared. The population believes again, but under the action of immigration.
Moais of Easter Island Easter Island
The initial settlement and the erection of Moaïs
Before 1200 there was no human settlement of Easter Island. Of course unknown to the Asian, European, African and Micronesian civilizations, the island of 160 Km2 only was discovered by the Polynesian civilizations only at this period. Although this period is questioned by scientific analyzes done on the spot during the nineteenth century, in practice, the more recent and accurate the analyzes, the less doubtful the settlement of Easter Island has been. around 1200. These migrants probably had to arrive from Mangareva, the main island of the archipelago of Gambier, but we can not exclude an arrival by the other nearest islands: Marquesas Islands or Pitcairn.
Once there, they organized themselves into territorial clans. At the time there were about ten clans that divided the territory into triangular pieces starting from the center of the island. Where all the territories joined was the common territory, where one could discuss the needs of all the clans. Each clan had its villages, a little behind the coast. It was villages of stone houses with common buildings and a social structure turned on the worship of the ancients. The cult of the ancients is a worship that has no gods, it is content to worship the ancestors, a tradition that aims to ensure the oral transmission of the history of the people in question.
The Moaïs are a representation of the ancestors, they are idols in charge of the protection of the island and as such they were placed all around the island. There is also a large number of places of worship on the coast. These statues were installed between 1200 and 1500, the period of belief in ancestor worship. From 1500 an event arrived, upsetting the established society. This date of 1500 is of course very arbitrary, the change having occurred perhaps a little later, sometimes we even announce the 17th century
The cult of Make-make
It was not a sudden upheaval that caused the change in Easter Island society around 1500, but rather an awareness - probably forced by the facts - that the relatively small island could not provide. food to the whole population if the latter did not deal with the problem of the ecosystem. Indeed, in addition to having to deforest for food the inhabitants had to cut the trees to build the Moais, to transport them, carve them, etc. Without trees, the ecosystem was disrupted, food became scarce and part of the population had to leave. Specialists found traces of Pitcairn Island settlements from that time, proving the migration of part of the population. However, this hypothesis has never been proven, and deforestation could very well have happened later. As always, there are surely several factors that have had to intervene, and have excluded neither internal wars, which could have destroyed most of the population and therefore need the establishment of another society, nor natural disasters. they, too, can put on base a civilization so fragile.
To face the problem, and whatever the cause, a simple solution was found: The cult of the ancients was replaced for the benefit of a God, Make-make , the bird-man. The Moais were abandoned, some were willingly laid, others buried. The main quarry in which they were carved was also abandoned. It should be known that there were as many statue in the process of manufacturing as statues already erected, or 400. All those in the process of manufacture were buried, covered or simply left as is. The old places of worship were abandoned. The new society that appeared was spontaneous, it was based on the previous one. A new caste of priests was born, and this new organization was able to resist the extreme island conditions imposed by the geography of the island, and that until 1687, year of the discovery of the island by the pirate Edward Davis.
The harmful influence of Europeans
If Edward Davis was the first to discover the island, he did not disembark, unlike Jakob Roggenveen , a Dutch sailor who acted for the Dutch West India Company. It was he who gave it its name: Easter Island, by the fact that it was addressed April 6, 1722, Easter Sunday.
The second European to approach the island was Felipe González de Ahedo who took possession of it in the name of the Kingdom of Spain. It was November 15, 1770. However he did not know that it had already been discovered and therefore already belonged to a European kingdom, the Netherlands, which claimed it and obtained it.
James Cook made a stop at Easter Island on March 13, 1774, and then the French navigator La Pérouse in 1786. These increasingly frequent stops on the island set up a mechanism that the local population could not guess. namely, its slow eradication by the development of unknown diseases for which it had no natural antibodies, and its abduction to turn them into slaves. This happened in the mid-nineteenth century when traders from South America raided the island to capture as many people as possible to work for their accounts.
The population of the island probably never exceeded 2000 people, when it increased it was naturally limited by the lack of food resources. Once the raids were done, the population was too small to survive. In addition, the people behind these kidnappings took the opportunity to eradicate the culture of the island by suppressing priests and destroying places of worship. The date of 1877 is symptomatic, it corresponds to the smallest population of Polynesian origin that the island has never reached: 111 people. But since the middle of the nineteenth century other populations arrived, forming a mix that will not cease to matter. It is this mix that will save the population on the island and will make that there still exist, today, descendants of primitive people on the island. The migrants coming mainly from Tahiti and the southern islands for the majority of them, from Europe and for a tiny part, from China.
At the end of the 19th century, several Europeans settled on the island, which was then Christianized, and a new organization was set up. In 1888 Chile officially annexed it, and nowadays it is still a Chilean territory. | 1,485 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Founding Father: Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton’s Early Life
Alexander Hamilton was born either on January 22, 1757 or 1755 (historians are not sure) in Charlestown, Nevis, in the West Indies. His father and mother had two children. Unfortunately, his parent’s marriage did not last very long. Alexander Hamilton lived with his mother at St. Croix, but she passed away in 1768. Even though his dad was still alive, he and his brother basically became orphans.
Alexander Hamilton’s Education
Alexander Hamilton had been educated by his mother early in his life as well as by a mother and a clergyman. At the age of 12, he started to work as a clerk in a general store where he was found to have great at his job as well as in writing. Alexander Hamilton really wanted to go to college, so his aunt saved up money in order to send him.
In 1772, his aunt had enough money to send Alexander Hamilton to school. He first started in Elizabethtown, NJ, but then moved to Kings College the next year. Even though Alexander Hamilton was only 17, he was very mature and understood politics and both the American and British government very well. He wrote a series of anonymous pamphlets that were so perceptive, they many people thought that John Jay had written them.
Alexander Hamilton’s Military Career
Alexander Hamilton ended his education in 1775 and started a volunteer military company. On March 14, 1776, Alexander Hamilton became the Captain for the Provincial Company on NY Artillery. He was very intelligent and good at his job. George Washington noticed Alexander Hamilton’s leadership skills and writing ability. At the age of 20, Alexander Hamilton was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and Washington’s aide on March 1, 1777. Here Hamilton helped Washington for four and a half years as a military secretary.
Alexander Hamilton got married on December 14, 1780 to Elizabeth Schuyler and had 8 children. He stayed in the military and was promoted to Colonel on September 30, 1783. However, he left the service at the end of the year.
Alexander Hamilton’s Political Career
From there, Alexander Hamilton began his career in politics. Alexander Hamilton was in Congress between 1782 and 1783 and then later worked as a lawyer in New York. Alexander Hamilton was responsible for writing a draft of a report at the Convention in Annapolis that led to the Constitution Convention in 1787. He was an advocate of ratifying the Constitution and also helped write more over half of the Federalist papers as well. Alexander Hamilton became the first Secretary of the Treasury of the Cabinet when George Washington became president. Because the financial situation was bad after the revolution, Alexander Hamilton helped create the first national bank, the United States Mint, and a system of tariffs, duties, and excises which helped replace the bad financial system in 5 years.
Alexander Hamilton also became a leader in the Federalist Party who opposed the Democrat-Republican Party. After this, his political career was not very good. He was very secretive and dishonorable when dealing with other political members and officials. Alexander Hamilton resigned from the Cabinet in January 1795 and went back to practicing law, but still advised George Washington.
During the elections of 1796, Alexander Hamilton was very influential. He tried to get the Federalist Party to vote for Thomas Pinckney as Vice President so that John Adams could be president. However, this plan did not work and Thomas Jefferson became President.
Afterwards, Alexander Hamilton tried to influence the new Secretary of State and the Secretary of Treasury. He had some success until President Jefferson realized what was happening and changed the members of his cabinet.
Alexander Hamilton was commissioned Major General in July of 1798. He was in the military for almost two more years. Afterwards, he got into a fight with President Adams where he attacked this presidency. He tried to get the Federalists to win the 1800 presidential campaign, but they lost. Later on, when Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr were tied in the Presidential election, Alexander Hamilton helped Jefferson win. He helped defeat Burr four years later when Burr wanted to be Governor of New York.
Aaron Burr was very upset at Alexander Hamilton for ruining any political dream he had, so he challenged Alexander Hamilton to a duel. Alexander Hamilton was mortally wounded on July 11, 1804. He died the very next afternoon at the age of 47.
Fun Facts about Alexander Hamilton
• Alexander Hamilton is one of two people who are on money without having been a president. He is on the $10 bill.
• He started the Federalist Party, one of the first two parties in the United States.
• The New York Evening Post newspaper was founded by Alexander. | <urn:uuid:a330ff3e-b121-40e7-b6e5-143259e983dc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.laws.com/alexander-hamilton | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.989792 | 972 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
-0.1394544243812561,
0.2709236145019531,
0.4635790288448334,
-0.21713529527187347,
-1.050264835357666,
-0.009253235533833504,
0.3280741274356842,
0.1431560516357422,
-0.11719828844070435,
0.044108059257268906,
-0.21883323788642883,
0.21566979587078094,
-0.12513618171215057,
0.5758051872253... | 4 | Founding Father: Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton’s Early Life
Alexander Hamilton was born either on January 22, 1757 or 1755 (historians are not sure) in Charlestown, Nevis, in the West Indies. His father and mother had two children. Unfortunately, his parent’s marriage did not last very long. Alexander Hamilton lived with his mother at St. Croix, but she passed away in 1768. Even though his dad was still alive, he and his brother basically became orphans.
Alexander Hamilton’s Education
Alexander Hamilton had been educated by his mother early in his life as well as by a mother and a clergyman. At the age of 12, he started to work as a clerk in a general store where he was found to have great at his job as well as in writing. Alexander Hamilton really wanted to go to college, so his aunt saved up money in order to send him.
In 1772, his aunt had enough money to send Alexander Hamilton to school. He first started in Elizabethtown, NJ, but then moved to Kings College the next year. Even though Alexander Hamilton was only 17, he was very mature and understood politics and both the American and British government very well. He wrote a series of anonymous pamphlets that were so perceptive, they many people thought that John Jay had written them.
Alexander Hamilton’s Military Career
Alexander Hamilton ended his education in 1775 and started a volunteer military company. On March 14, 1776, Alexander Hamilton became the Captain for the Provincial Company on NY Artillery. He was very intelligent and good at his job. George Washington noticed Alexander Hamilton’s leadership skills and writing ability. At the age of 20, Alexander Hamilton was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and Washington’s aide on March 1, 1777. Here Hamilton helped Washington for four and a half years as a military secretary.
Alexander Hamilton got married on December 14, 1780 to Elizabeth Schuyler and had 8 children. He stayed in the military and was promoted to Colonel on September 30, 1783. However, he left the service at the end of the year.
Alexander Hamilton’s Political Career
From there, Alexander Hamilton began his career in politics. Alexander Hamilton was in Congress between 1782 and 1783 and then later worked as a lawyer in New York. Alexander Hamilton was responsible for writing a draft of a report at the Convention in Annapolis that led to the Constitution Convention in 1787. He was an advocate of ratifying the Constitution and also helped write more over half of the Federalist papers as well. Alexander Hamilton became the first Secretary of the Treasury of the Cabinet when George Washington became president. Because the financial situation was bad after the revolution, Alexander Hamilton helped create the first national bank, the United States Mint, and a system of tariffs, duties, and excises which helped replace the bad financial system in 5 years.
Alexander Hamilton also became a leader in the Federalist Party who opposed the Democrat-Republican Party. After this, his political career was not very good. He was very secretive and dishonorable when dealing with other political members and officials. Alexander Hamilton resigned from the Cabinet in January 1795 and went back to practicing law, but still advised George Washington.
During the elections of 1796, Alexander Hamilton was very influential. He tried to get the Federalist Party to vote for Thomas Pinckney as Vice President so that John Adams could be president. However, this plan did not work and Thomas Jefferson became President.
Afterwards, Alexander Hamilton tried to influence the new Secretary of State and the Secretary of Treasury. He had some success until President Jefferson realized what was happening and changed the members of his cabinet.
Alexander Hamilton was commissioned Major General in July of 1798. He was in the military for almost two more years. Afterwards, he got into a fight with President Adams where he attacked this presidency. He tried to get the Federalists to win the 1800 presidential campaign, but they lost. Later on, when Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr were tied in the Presidential election, Alexander Hamilton helped Jefferson win. He helped defeat Burr four years later when Burr wanted to be Governor of New York.
Aaron Burr was very upset at Alexander Hamilton for ruining any political dream he had, so he challenged Alexander Hamilton to a duel. Alexander Hamilton was mortally wounded on July 11, 1804. He died the very next afternoon at the age of 47.
Fun Facts about Alexander Hamilton
• Alexander Hamilton is one of two people who are on money without having been a president. He is on the $10 bill.
• He started the Federalist Party, one of the first two parties in the United States.
• The New York Evening Post newspaper was founded by Alexander. | 1,025 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The coyote, like his brother the wolf, was a spiritual being. In the beginning the coyote left his homeland in the Americas and traveled East-ward across the ocean in the direction of the rising sun. In distant lands, he acquired a bride and with her had a great number of children. These children were Indians, the forefathers of the great tribes that were to inhabit the North and South American continents.
Preparing to return home, the coyote put them all in a wosa, a woven willow basket jug with a cork. Before his journey, he was instructed not to open the jug until he reached his country in the Rockies and the Great Basin.
Being a sly and curious person, and hearing singing and the beating of drums within the wosa, the coyote thought it would not hurt to take a peek when he arrived back on the Eastern coast of the American continent. But when he opened the jug, the children inside jumped out and scattered in all directions across North and South America.
By the time he got the cap back on, the only two persons who remained in the wosa were the Western Shoshone and the Paiute. These he brought home with him. When he reached the Great Basin, he opened the jug, and out fell the last two children. They, at once, began to fight.
The coyote kicked them apart and said to them, "You two are my children. Even though the rest got away, you two will be able to fight against the best and beat them."
Thus, the Western Shoshone and Paiutes, or the Newe and Numa peoples, who now live in California, Nevada, Idaho, Utah, and Oregon, began as allies and populated the Great Basin. | <urn:uuid:792f7c97-f679-44a4-a8c6-bdb2f7448cbe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.legendsofnativeamerica.com/region_basin/legends-Ute/Coyote.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00420.warc.gz | en | 0.980666 | 361 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
-0.03506406396627426,
-0.021807624027132988,
-0.1342771202325821,
-0.01982131600379944,
-0.07545380294322968,
-0.37419360876083374,
0.05952852964401245,
0.21722674369812012,
-0.22959142923355103,
-0.19298750162124634,
0.35113927721977234,
-0.020972466096282005,
0.06502972543239594,
0.01768... | 3 | The coyote, like his brother the wolf, was a spiritual being. In the beginning the coyote left his homeland in the Americas and traveled East-ward across the ocean in the direction of the rising sun. In distant lands, he acquired a bride and with her had a great number of children. These children were Indians, the forefathers of the great tribes that were to inhabit the North and South American continents.
Preparing to return home, the coyote put them all in a wosa, a woven willow basket jug with a cork. Before his journey, he was instructed not to open the jug until he reached his country in the Rockies and the Great Basin.
Being a sly and curious person, and hearing singing and the beating of drums within the wosa, the coyote thought it would not hurt to take a peek when he arrived back on the Eastern coast of the American continent. But when he opened the jug, the children inside jumped out and scattered in all directions across North and South America.
By the time he got the cap back on, the only two persons who remained in the wosa were the Western Shoshone and the Paiute. These he brought home with him. When he reached the Great Basin, he opened the jug, and out fell the last two children. They, at once, began to fight.
The coyote kicked them apart and said to them, "You two are my children. Even though the rest got away, you two will be able to fight against the best and beat them."
Thus, the Western Shoshone and Paiutes, or the Newe and Numa peoples, who now live in California, Nevada, Idaho, Utah, and Oregon, began as allies and populated the Great Basin. | 355 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mary Queen of Scots (born Mary Stuart) was among the most controversial monarchal figures in European history. From Queen to disgrace, Mary had seats both on the throne and in prison. A powerful symbol in the conflict between Protestants and Catholics, she was a threat to more than one kingdom. She lived a short but turbulent life until she was beheaded for treason. But what path led her to that end, and why did she have to die?
Mary Queen of Scots was 45 when she died.
She was betrayed by her country. She wasn’t adored. And, in the end, she was extinguished.
She did attempt to kill a queen, after all. What was she to expect?
It wasn’t just her treasonous plot to assassinate Britain’s legendary Queen Elizabeth I that put Mary Queen of Scots on the wrong end of justice. Mary had just arrived in the world when her father, King James V, unexpectedly died and she assumed the Scottish throne at the rather underprepared age of only six days. And that was just the first of the tragedies she endured.
Mary was shrouded in death her whole life. She was first married in 1558, at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. She was only 15 but had already lived at the French court for a decade. The young bride’s husband Francis was the French Dauphin (or eldest son of the King). When Francis's father, Henry II, passed away in 1559, Mary became Queen of France. She didn’t have much time in the throne, though, as King Francis died within the year. Grief-stricken Mary had lost her husband and her royal title – and her home in France.
Mary, now a very young widow, returned to Scotland – but it wasn’t the homecoming she expected. You see, Mary was Catholic, and by the time she arrived back in Scotland, it had “reformed” into a Protestant country. So, she did what any other newly-single queen would have done: She held her ground and found a new husband. In 1565, she married Henry, Lord Darnley, but their marriage wasn’t exactly built to last: He wanted the crown, and she wasn’t about to give it to him.
Scotland faced many issues in regards to the debate between Catholics and Protestants, and the kingdom was torn in two. The fight between the two religions sent Scotland into a six-year civil war. During this conflict, Mary fled from her home country into exile in England.
She never did agree to make Darnley the Crown Matrimonial (meaning if Mary died, he would be reigning King), but that didn’t matter much anyway. Darnley was mysteriously murdered two years into their marriage. But who would have killed Darnley? Most fingers point at the Earl of Bothwell, whom Mary married after Husband Number Two was, shall we say, removed from the picture.
Crazy, right? But don’t lose your head over it … that’s Mary’s job, and we’re not quite there yet.
Let’s first take a look at why Mary was such a danger to the established order.
Mary Queen of Scots was a devout Catholic – which was pretty risky in a time when Protestantism had planted deep roots on the island of Great Britain. Because of her faith, many viewed her with suspicion. She represented the old ways of the Catholic Church, and those ways no longer worked for much of the population. So, when Mary returned to Scotland, she not only returned as Queen but also as a threat to the Protestant cause – and to the British Crown.
The Protestant Kirk, or Church, of Scotland was established as part of the Scottish Reformation of 1560.
But Mary had allies in England, which her cousin, Queen Elizabeth I, was not particularly thrilled about. You see, Elizabeth had been heir to the English throne by way of her father’s second marriage – her dear old dad, King Henry VIII, had divorced his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, in defiance of the Catholic Church. He then married Elizabeth’s mother, Anne Boleyn (who later lost her own head). And, as long as he was in a defiant mood, Henry thought it would also be a great time to found his own church – the Church of England – and to install himself as its sole leader.
Because the Catholic Church had not cooperated in the annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine – and most emphatically rejected Henry’s establishment of a competing Protestant church – it argued that Elizabeth was an illegitimate monarch and that Mary Queen of Scots was the rightful heir to the throne, as she was the granddaughter of Margaret Tudor, Henry VIII’s very Catholic sister. So, the Catholic population of England wanted Mary to move in, thus forcing the Protestant Queen Elizabeth out. After all, the throne supports only one monarch at a time, and, no doubt, Elizabeth didn’t love the idea of Mary stealing her seat.
Did Mary’s nefarious new husband, the Earl of Bothwell, kill Husband Number Two, a.k.a. Lord Darnley? And was Mary complicit in the murder? Well, we don’t have a clear answer to those questions. Regardless of proof, however, Mary was imprisoned for the dastardly deed in Scotland’s Lochleven Castle.
But imprisonment wasn’t the whole problem for Mary – she was also forced to relinquish the throne to her son, who instantly became King James VI. Ironically, James, just like his mother, was an infant when he received his regal title.
After being imprisoned for over a year, Mary managed to escape and flee to England, in 1568. Once there, she sought refuge with her less-than-loving cousin, Queen Elizabeth. Unfortunately for Mary, things didn’t go according to plan. And why would they? Elizabeth feared that Mary would conspire to have her eliminated in order to claim the throne, and so she did the only reasonable thing: She had Mary thrown into an English prison and devised a plan to take her out. This was Elizabethan England, after all, and, as we’ve learned from Shakespeare, it was often kill or be killed.
During her time of confinement, several plots to assassinate Queen Elizabeth were exposed – and they all had one motive in common: to install Mary on the English throne. Mary surely didn’t need the suspicions the plots inevitably provoked, but it was hard for her to control events from a prison cell. Things took a turn for the worse when Sir Anthony Babington, a Catholic nobleman and supposed friend to Mary, appeared on the scene.
The evidence against Mary included several documents, called the "Casket Letters," supposedly written by her hand, but historians differ as to their authenticity.
Babington joined the cause to depose Elizabeth by force, and Mary made the literally fatal mistake of trusting him. When Babington attempted to assassinate the Queen (and failed), Mary was exposed as an accomplice – a revelation that Queen Elizabeth and her spies were able to orchestrate (and perhaps embellish). Was Mary actually an active conspirator, or were the charges against her trumped up?
Regardless of the legitimacy of the charges, Mary’s future certainly wasn’t looking too bright. She now faced trial for conspiracy and treason, and such charges in those days did not bode well for the accused. Her fate was sealed.
Mary was sentenced to death at Fotheringhay Castle in England.
She was beheaded on February 8, 1587.
Though she stayed steadfast and true to her faith and her cause, she was extinguished.
It all makes for quite a good story, and who doesn’t love a great rivalry? The power struggle between Queen Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots is beautifully presented in the historical series, Queens: The Virgin and the Martyr.
Catherine the Great’s rise to power was marked by intrigue, betrayals, and other court chicanery. But from these...
Women in the Bible play many roles, and while few actually make it into the spotlight, the ones who do leave their...
Alexander entered Egypt in 332 BCE, liberating it from the Persians and advancing his ultimate goal of conquering the...
Marie Bracquemond, Mary Cassatt, Eva Gonzalès, Berthe...
Meet Lady Death – the Ukrainian sniper, Lyudmila...
Greece is one in a constellation of ancient cultures... | <urn:uuid:bc4e7f5c-f025-4eb6-afbe-9f39e03ecb6a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.magellantv.com/articles/heads-will-roll-the-life-and-death-of-mary-queen-of-scots | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.987136 | 1,799 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
-0.26601576805114746,
0.0673256367444992,
0.3975856304168701,
-0.2717043161392212,
0.0038465948309749365,
-0.02710818499326706,
-0.17965757846832275,
0.07126303017139435,
0.6656472086906433,
0.22579215466976166,
-0.4083667993545532,
-0.3521025776863098,
0.012527471408247948,
-0.05566801875... | 1 | Mary Queen of Scots (born Mary Stuart) was among the most controversial monarchal figures in European history. From Queen to disgrace, Mary had seats both on the throne and in prison. A powerful symbol in the conflict between Protestants and Catholics, she was a threat to more than one kingdom. She lived a short but turbulent life until she was beheaded for treason. But what path led her to that end, and why did she have to die?
Mary Queen of Scots was 45 when she died.
She was betrayed by her country. She wasn’t adored. And, in the end, she was extinguished.
She did attempt to kill a queen, after all. What was she to expect?
It wasn’t just her treasonous plot to assassinate Britain’s legendary Queen Elizabeth I that put Mary Queen of Scots on the wrong end of justice. Mary had just arrived in the world when her father, King James V, unexpectedly died and she assumed the Scottish throne at the rather underprepared age of only six days. And that was just the first of the tragedies she endured.
Mary was shrouded in death her whole life. She was first married in 1558, at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. She was only 15 but had already lived at the French court for a decade. The young bride’s husband Francis was the French Dauphin (or eldest son of the King). When Francis's father, Henry II, passed away in 1559, Mary became Queen of France. She didn’t have much time in the throne, though, as King Francis died within the year. Grief-stricken Mary had lost her husband and her royal title – and her home in France.
Mary, now a very young widow, returned to Scotland – but it wasn’t the homecoming she expected. You see, Mary was Catholic, and by the time she arrived back in Scotland, it had “reformed” into a Protestant country. So, she did what any other newly-single queen would have done: She held her ground and found a new husband. In 1565, she married Henry, Lord Darnley, but their marriage wasn’t exactly built to last: He wanted the crown, and she wasn’t about to give it to him.
Scotland faced many issues in regards to the debate between Catholics and Protestants, and the kingdom was torn in two. The fight between the two religions sent Scotland into a six-year civil war. During this conflict, Mary fled from her home country into exile in England.
She never did agree to make Darnley the Crown Matrimonial (meaning if Mary died, he would be reigning King), but that didn’t matter much anyway. Darnley was mysteriously murdered two years into their marriage. But who would have killed Darnley? Most fingers point at the Earl of Bothwell, whom Mary married after Husband Number Two was, shall we say, removed from the picture.
Crazy, right? But don’t lose your head over it … that’s Mary’s job, and we’re not quite there yet.
Let’s first take a look at why Mary was such a danger to the established order.
Mary Queen of Scots was a devout Catholic – which was pretty risky in a time when Protestantism had planted deep roots on the island of Great Britain. Because of her faith, many viewed her with suspicion. She represented the old ways of the Catholic Church, and those ways no longer worked for much of the population. So, when Mary returned to Scotland, she not only returned as Queen but also as a threat to the Protestant cause – and to the British Crown.
The Protestant Kirk, or Church, of Scotland was established as part of the Scottish Reformation of 1560.
But Mary had allies in England, which her cousin, Queen Elizabeth I, was not particularly thrilled about. You see, Elizabeth had been heir to the English throne by way of her father’s second marriage – her dear old dad, King Henry VIII, had divorced his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, in defiance of the Catholic Church. He then married Elizabeth’s mother, Anne Boleyn (who later lost her own head). And, as long as he was in a defiant mood, Henry thought it would also be a great time to found his own church – the Church of England – and to install himself as its sole leader.
Because the Catholic Church had not cooperated in the annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine – and most emphatically rejected Henry’s establishment of a competing Protestant church – it argued that Elizabeth was an illegitimate monarch and that Mary Queen of Scots was the rightful heir to the throne, as she was the granddaughter of Margaret Tudor, Henry VIII’s very Catholic sister. So, the Catholic population of England wanted Mary to move in, thus forcing the Protestant Queen Elizabeth out. After all, the throne supports only one monarch at a time, and, no doubt, Elizabeth didn’t love the idea of Mary stealing her seat.
Did Mary’s nefarious new husband, the Earl of Bothwell, kill Husband Number Two, a.k.a. Lord Darnley? And was Mary complicit in the murder? Well, we don’t have a clear answer to those questions. Regardless of proof, however, Mary was imprisoned for the dastardly deed in Scotland’s Lochleven Castle.
But imprisonment wasn’t the whole problem for Mary – she was also forced to relinquish the throne to her son, who instantly became King James VI. Ironically, James, just like his mother, was an infant when he received his regal title.
After being imprisoned for over a year, Mary managed to escape and flee to England, in 1568. Once there, she sought refuge with her less-than-loving cousin, Queen Elizabeth. Unfortunately for Mary, things didn’t go according to plan. And why would they? Elizabeth feared that Mary would conspire to have her eliminated in order to claim the throne, and so she did the only reasonable thing: She had Mary thrown into an English prison and devised a plan to take her out. This was Elizabethan England, after all, and, as we’ve learned from Shakespeare, it was often kill or be killed.
During her time of confinement, several plots to assassinate Queen Elizabeth were exposed – and they all had one motive in common: to install Mary on the English throne. Mary surely didn’t need the suspicions the plots inevitably provoked, but it was hard for her to control events from a prison cell. Things took a turn for the worse when Sir Anthony Babington, a Catholic nobleman and supposed friend to Mary, appeared on the scene.
The evidence against Mary included several documents, called the "Casket Letters," supposedly written by her hand, but historians differ as to their authenticity.
Babington joined the cause to depose Elizabeth by force, and Mary made the literally fatal mistake of trusting him. When Babington attempted to assassinate the Queen (and failed), Mary was exposed as an accomplice – a revelation that Queen Elizabeth and her spies were able to orchestrate (and perhaps embellish). Was Mary actually an active conspirator, or were the charges against her trumped up?
Regardless of the legitimacy of the charges, Mary’s future certainly wasn’t looking too bright. She now faced trial for conspiracy and treason, and such charges in those days did not bode well for the accused. Her fate was sealed.
Mary was sentenced to death at Fotheringhay Castle in England.
She was beheaded on February 8, 1587.
Though she stayed steadfast and true to her faith and her cause, she was extinguished.
It all makes for quite a good story, and who doesn’t love a great rivalry? The power struggle between Queen Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots is beautifully presented in the historical series, Queens: The Virgin and the Martyr.
Catherine the Great’s rise to power was marked by intrigue, betrayals, and other court chicanery. But from these...
Women in the Bible play many roles, and while few actually make it into the spotlight, the ones who do leave their...
Alexander entered Egypt in 332 BCE, liberating it from the Persians and advancing his ultimate goal of conquering the...
Marie Bracquemond, Mary Cassatt, Eva Gonzalès, Berthe...
Meet Lady Death – the Ukrainian sniper, Lyudmila...
Greece is one in a constellation of ancient cultures... | 1,734 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who were the mysterious Samurai warriors of Japan, how numerous were they and what legacy did they leave behind?
In 663 CE following defeat at the Battle of Hakusukinoe against the Tang Chinese dynasty, Japan was forced to retreat from Korea. They underwent massive reform and the Japanese aristocracy adopted the political structure, culture, philosophy and religion of the Tang dynasty. From 702 CE Japan began a regular census and a law was introduced conscripting 1 in 4 adult males into the national military and formed an army called the Gundan-Sei. These soldiers supplied their own weapons, but were exempt from other duties and tax. Imperial bureaucrats at this time were split into 12 ranks. Those of the 6th rank were the original Samurai and dealt with day to day affairs, like today’s public Civil Servants. The Japanese government was overthrown during the Heiji rebellion in 1160 and the victor, Taira no Kiyomori, became the first warrior to become Imperial advisor. He eventually seized control and established the first Samurai controlled government.
In Japan, Samurai were also referred to as bushi, which means “to wait upon” in reference to the accompanying persons of nobility. They eventually became so numerous that at their height they made up nearly 10% of the Japanese population. They were associated with a clan and its lord, achieving fame for their superior military tactics, their skills in martial arts and their weaponry, especially the katana sword. Swordsmanship is believed by many to be the ultimate martial art. The Samurai tales and legendary use of the katana are unsurpassed. Judo and Aikido, popular as self-defense techniques today, were developed from the ancient martial art of Ju-Jitsu, practiced by ancient Samurai masters. Even Ju-Jitsu is still widely practiced, maintaining the legacy these skilled ancient warriors left behind.
Comments will be approved before showing up. | <urn:uuid:f3869048-fa27-45e6-8396-5622111d6d78> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ancientreasures.com/blogs/ancient-treasures/009-feudal-japan-rise-of-the-samurai | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00449.warc.gz | en | 0.984946 | 390 | 3.625 | 4 | [
-0.6442713141441345,
0.515421986579895,
0.03439736366271973,
-0.21249601244926453,
-0.2571435570716858,
0.1465788334608078,
0.35030487179756165,
0.0637684017419815,
0.1542837768793106,
0.09214776754379272,
0.08038729429244995,
-0.10508114844560623,
0.4213833808898926,
0.5454065799713135,
... | 10 | Who were the mysterious Samurai warriors of Japan, how numerous were they and what legacy did they leave behind?
In 663 CE following defeat at the Battle of Hakusukinoe against the Tang Chinese dynasty, Japan was forced to retreat from Korea. They underwent massive reform and the Japanese aristocracy adopted the political structure, culture, philosophy and religion of the Tang dynasty. From 702 CE Japan began a regular census and a law was introduced conscripting 1 in 4 adult males into the national military and formed an army called the Gundan-Sei. These soldiers supplied their own weapons, but were exempt from other duties and tax. Imperial bureaucrats at this time were split into 12 ranks. Those of the 6th rank were the original Samurai and dealt with day to day affairs, like today’s public Civil Servants. The Japanese government was overthrown during the Heiji rebellion in 1160 and the victor, Taira no Kiyomori, became the first warrior to become Imperial advisor. He eventually seized control and established the first Samurai controlled government.
In Japan, Samurai were also referred to as bushi, which means “to wait upon” in reference to the accompanying persons of nobility. They eventually became so numerous that at their height they made up nearly 10% of the Japanese population. They were associated with a clan and its lord, achieving fame for their superior military tactics, their skills in martial arts and their weaponry, especially the katana sword. Swordsmanship is believed by many to be the ultimate martial art. The Samurai tales and legendary use of the katana are unsurpassed. Judo and Aikido, popular as self-defense techniques today, were developed from the ancient martial art of Ju-Jitsu, practiced by ancient Samurai masters. Even Ju-Jitsu is still widely practiced, maintaining the legacy these skilled ancient warriors left behind.
Comments will be approved before showing up. | 395 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Royal Navy began with the formal establishment of
the Royal Navy as the national naval force of the Kingdom
of England in 1660, following the Restoration of
King Charles II to the throne. However, for more than a
thousand years before that there had been English naval
forces varying in type and organization. In 1707 it became
the naval force of the Kingdom of Great Britain after the
Union between England and Scotland which merged the
English navy with the much smaller Royal Scots Navy,
although the two had begun operating together from the
time of the Union of the Crowns in 1603.
Before the creation of the Royal Navy, the English navy had no defined moment of formation; it started out as a motley assortment of "King's ships" during the Middle Ages assembled only as needed and then dispersed, began to take shape as a standing navy during the 16th century, and became a regular establishment during the tumults of the 17th century. The Navy grew considerably during the global struggle with France that started in 1690 and culminated in the Napoleonic Wars, a time when the practice of fighting under sail was developed to its highest point.
The ensuing century of general peace saw considerable technological development, with sail yielding to steam and cannon supplanted by large shell-firing guns, and ending with the race to construct bigger and better battleships. That race, however, was ultimately a dead end, as aircraft carriers and submarines came to the fore and, after the successes of World War II, the Royal Navy yielded its formerly preeminent place to the United States Navy. The Royal Navy has remained one of the world's most capable navies, however, and currently operates a fleet of modern ships.
The British Infantry traditionally has been divided into two parts - the Foot Guards and the Infantry of the Line.
The oldest Regiment of the Line is the The Royal Scots Borderers (1st Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland) which was formed in 1633 when King Charles I warranted Sir John Hepburn to raise a Scottish Regiment for service in France.
The Foot Guards have traditionally provided protection to the Monarch and trace themselves back to Bruges in 1656, when the Royal Regiment of Guards was raised by the exiled King Charles II. This Regiment went on to become the Grenadier Guards.
Thereafter Regiments were raised by prominent members of society, often in response to calls from the monarch for support to meet a particular threat. Originally most Regiments were known by their royal or distinctive title, or by the name of their Colonel.
In the twentieth century, the Infantry expanded and contracted significantly on a number of occasions. There were massive increases for Kitchener's volunteer Army and the later conscript Army of the First World War.
Large reductions followed the end of the War, only for the whole procedure to be repeated for the Second World War. After the end of National Service there were further reductions throughout the 50s, 60s and 70s.
The RAF was founded in April 1918. It has always been known as the 'junior service' because it was the last to be formed of the three services.
The RAF fought in every major theatre of the Second World War. Its most famous campaign was the Battle of Britain, when between July and September 1940, the RAF fought off a hugely superior German air force, denying the Luftwaffe air supremacy over southern England and therefore preventing the German invasion of Britain.
During the Second World War, the RAF reached a total strength of 1,208,000 men and women, of whom 185,000 were aircrew. About 70,000 RAF personnel were killed.
Today the Royal Air Force maintains an operational fleet of various types of aircraft. Although the RAF is the principal British air power arm, the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm and the British Army's Army Air Corps also deliver air power. | <urn:uuid:56368cc8-3b8e-49e2-93ba-e25ce04807f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.ancresommeassociation.co.uk/history/4580920121 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.980309 | 792 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
-0.0574239045381546,
0.3672686815261841,
0.49664008617401123,
-0.5556309223175049,
-0.027538830414414406,
-0.2879413366317749,
-0.2233237773180008,
0.03422343730926514,
0.22490662336349487,
-0.22354842722415924,
0.32444387674331665,
-0.41996580362319946,
0.23358118534088135,
0.251170277595... | 3 | The Royal Navy began with the formal establishment of
the Royal Navy as the national naval force of the Kingdom
of England in 1660, following the Restoration of
King Charles II to the throne. However, for more than a
thousand years before that there had been English naval
forces varying in type and organization. In 1707 it became
the naval force of the Kingdom of Great Britain after the
Union between England and Scotland which merged the
English navy with the much smaller Royal Scots Navy,
although the two had begun operating together from the
time of the Union of the Crowns in 1603.
Before the creation of the Royal Navy, the English navy had no defined moment of formation; it started out as a motley assortment of "King's ships" during the Middle Ages assembled only as needed and then dispersed, began to take shape as a standing navy during the 16th century, and became a regular establishment during the tumults of the 17th century. The Navy grew considerably during the global struggle with France that started in 1690 and culminated in the Napoleonic Wars, a time when the practice of fighting under sail was developed to its highest point.
The ensuing century of general peace saw considerable technological development, with sail yielding to steam and cannon supplanted by large shell-firing guns, and ending with the race to construct bigger and better battleships. That race, however, was ultimately a dead end, as aircraft carriers and submarines came to the fore and, after the successes of World War II, the Royal Navy yielded its formerly preeminent place to the United States Navy. The Royal Navy has remained one of the world's most capable navies, however, and currently operates a fleet of modern ships.
The British Infantry traditionally has been divided into two parts - the Foot Guards and the Infantry of the Line.
The oldest Regiment of the Line is the The Royal Scots Borderers (1st Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland) which was formed in 1633 when King Charles I warranted Sir John Hepburn to raise a Scottish Regiment for service in France.
The Foot Guards have traditionally provided protection to the Monarch and trace themselves back to Bruges in 1656, when the Royal Regiment of Guards was raised by the exiled King Charles II. This Regiment went on to become the Grenadier Guards.
Thereafter Regiments were raised by prominent members of society, often in response to calls from the monarch for support to meet a particular threat. Originally most Regiments were known by their royal or distinctive title, or by the name of their Colonel.
In the twentieth century, the Infantry expanded and contracted significantly on a number of occasions. There were massive increases for Kitchener's volunteer Army and the later conscript Army of the First World War.
Large reductions followed the end of the War, only for the whole procedure to be repeated for the Second World War. After the end of National Service there were further reductions throughout the 50s, 60s and 70s.
The RAF was founded in April 1918. It has always been known as the 'junior service' because it was the last to be formed of the three services.
The RAF fought in every major theatre of the Second World War. Its most famous campaign was the Battle of Britain, when between July and September 1940, the RAF fought off a hugely superior German air force, denying the Luftwaffe air supremacy over southern England and therefore preventing the German invasion of Britain.
During the Second World War, the RAF reached a total strength of 1,208,000 men and women, of whom 185,000 were aircrew. About 70,000 RAF personnel were killed.
Today the Royal Air Force maintains an operational fleet of various types of aircraft. Although the RAF is the principal British air power arm, the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm and the British Army's Army Air Corps also deliver air power. | 830 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ernest Rutherford was born in New Zealand in 1871 as one of 12 children. It was Rutherford who first “split” an atom and who discovered the atomic “nucleus”, a name that he invented. For this he is regarded as the greatest experimental physicist of his time.
Rutherford was one of the first and most important researchers in nuclear physics. Soon after the discovery of radioactivity in 1986 by the French physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel, Rutherford discovered the three different types of radiation. By covering his Uranium with thin foils of aluminum, gradually increasing the number of foils. For the first three layers of foil the radiation escaping from the uranium decreased progressively, suggesting an ordinary law of absorption. More thickness of aluminum, however, had little further effect in reducing the radiation at first, but eventually the intensity of the radiation began to diminish again as even more foils were added. These experiments showed that there were at least two distinct types of radiation- one that is very readily absorbed, which he called the alpha – radiation, and the other more penetrative character which he called the beta – radiation. He also had believed that he had found a third more penetrating radiation. The Frenchman, Paul Villard, officially gave this third radiation. He named it, after Rutherford’s first two radiation discoveries, the gamma- radiation. It was these discoveries in radiation that opened the door to the rest of Rutherford’ discoveries.
Using this alpha radiation, Rutherford started to experiment putting it through other materials to get the effects. It was in one of these experiments with gold that he was able to figure out what an atom looks like. He found that a countable number of alpha particles actually bounced back from a thin sheet of gold foil. Of course the majority of the particles went straight through the gold and were only slightly scattered. Rutherford said that this was the most surprising result he had known. He said that this discovery of the alpha particles actually bouncing off the gold was as surprising to him as firing a fifteen inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and having it bounce back and hit you. From this statement we can see how immersed Rutherford actually was in his studies. By this experiment it seemed clear to Rutherford that the alpha particle occasionally encountered such an intense field in the atom that it was turned back in its path as the result of a collision. When considering the mass and energy of an alpha particle this was an astonishing observation. Rutherford said that in order to produce such a large deflection of the alpha particle, the atom must contain a massive charged center of very minute dimensions. From this arose the concept of the well known “nucleus” (a name which Rutherford coined), where the atom consists of a minute positively charged nucleus containing most of the mass of an atom, surrounded at relatively great distances by electrons. He also discovered that the alpha particle was repelled according to the ordinary laws of electricity so that it should travel in a hyperbola. From this he discovered the law of scattering, that is to say the number of particles that should be found at any angle of deflection. Rutherford was confident that we would get more information from scattering about the nature of the atom than any other method.
Rutherford became very excited about an idea that Darwin had given him about the interesting results that might occur when an alpha particle met a nucleus lighter than itself, such as the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. Rutherford went to work right away. In 1919 Rutherford performed a pioneer experiment in nuclear physics when he bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and obtained atoms of an oxygen isotope and protons. This process of changing nitrogen into oxygen was the first artificially induced nuclear reaction. It also made great headway in the following decades of intensive research on the other nuclear transformation sand on the nature and properties of radiation. Today, with the threat of nuclear weapons and the promise of nuclear power it must appear that the splitting of the atom was Rutherford’s most significant achievement.
Rutherford was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1903 and served as president of that institution from 1925 to 1930. He was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in chemistry, was knighted in 1914, and was created a baron in 1931. He died in London on October 19, 1937, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. | <urn:uuid:6fda57cb-9ce6-4a17-b4ac-fb49c8eaaf07> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essay.ua-referat.com/Rutherford | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00471.warc.gz | en | 0.981137 | 877 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
-0.20902568101882935,
0.5195351839065552,
0.09873872995376587,
-0.020857706665992737,
-0.01635248027741909,
-0.20689962804317474,
0.22779308259487152,
0.02952134609222412,
-0.26137906312942505,
0.13949398696422577,
0.5149471759796143,
-0.47143110632896423,
0.1188977062702179,
0.42464205622... | 4 | Ernest Rutherford was born in New Zealand in 1871 as one of 12 children. It was Rutherford who first “split” an atom and who discovered the atomic “nucleus”, a name that he invented. For this he is regarded as the greatest experimental physicist of his time.
Rutherford was one of the first and most important researchers in nuclear physics. Soon after the discovery of radioactivity in 1986 by the French physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel, Rutherford discovered the three different types of radiation. By covering his Uranium with thin foils of aluminum, gradually increasing the number of foils. For the first three layers of foil the radiation escaping from the uranium decreased progressively, suggesting an ordinary law of absorption. More thickness of aluminum, however, had little further effect in reducing the radiation at first, but eventually the intensity of the radiation began to diminish again as even more foils were added. These experiments showed that there were at least two distinct types of radiation- one that is very readily absorbed, which he called the alpha – radiation, and the other more penetrative character which he called the beta – radiation. He also had believed that he had found a third more penetrating radiation. The Frenchman, Paul Villard, officially gave this third radiation. He named it, after Rutherford’s first two radiation discoveries, the gamma- radiation. It was these discoveries in radiation that opened the door to the rest of Rutherford’ discoveries.
Using this alpha radiation, Rutherford started to experiment putting it through other materials to get the effects. It was in one of these experiments with gold that he was able to figure out what an atom looks like. He found that a countable number of alpha particles actually bounced back from a thin sheet of gold foil. Of course the majority of the particles went straight through the gold and were only slightly scattered. Rutherford said that this was the most surprising result he had known. He said that this discovery of the alpha particles actually bouncing off the gold was as surprising to him as firing a fifteen inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and having it bounce back and hit you. From this statement we can see how immersed Rutherford actually was in his studies. By this experiment it seemed clear to Rutherford that the alpha particle occasionally encountered such an intense field in the atom that it was turned back in its path as the result of a collision. When considering the mass and energy of an alpha particle this was an astonishing observation. Rutherford said that in order to produce such a large deflection of the alpha particle, the atom must contain a massive charged center of very minute dimensions. From this arose the concept of the well known “nucleus” (a name which Rutherford coined), where the atom consists of a minute positively charged nucleus containing most of the mass of an atom, surrounded at relatively great distances by electrons. He also discovered that the alpha particle was repelled according to the ordinary laws of electricity so that it should travel in a hyperbola. From this he discovered the law of scattering, that is to say the number of particles that should be found at any angle of deflection. Rutherford was confident that we would get more information from scattering about the nature of the atom than any other method.
Rutherford became very excited about an idea that Darwin had given him about the interesting results that might occur when an alpha particle met a nucleus lighter than itself, such as the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. Rutherford went to work right away. In 1919 Rutherford performed a pioneer experiment in nuclear physics when he bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and obtained atoms of an oxygen isotope and protons. This process of changing nitrogen into oxygen was the first artificially induced nuclear reaction. It also made great headway in the following decades of intensive research on the other nuclear transformation sand on the nature and properties of radiation. Today, with the threat of nuclear weapons and the promise of nuclear power it must appear that the splitting of the atom was Rutherford’s most significant achievement.
Rutherford was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1903 and served as president of that institution from 1925 to 1930. He was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in chemistry, was knighted in 1914, and was created a baron in 1931. He died in London on October 19, 1937, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. | 917 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A favela is a slum in Brazil, most often within urban areas. The first favelas appeared in the late 19th century and were built by soldiers who had nowhere to live. Some of the first settlements were called bairros africanos (African neighborhoods). They were the places where former slaves with no land ownership and no options for work lived. Over the years, many former black slaves moved in. Even before the first favela came into being, poor citizens were pushed away from the city and forced to live in the far suburbs. However, most modern favelas appeared in the 1970s due to rural exodus, when many people left rural areas of Brazil and moved to cities. Unable to find places to live in town, many people ended up in favelas.
Census data released in December 2011 by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) showed that in 2010, about 6 % of the Brazilian population lived in slums. This means that 11.4 million of the 190 million people that lived in the country resided in favelas.
The name of the favela chosen by In Cultural Veritas to carry out its humanitarian and educational missions is Rocinha. Located in Rio de Janeiro, Rocinha, widely considered as the largest favela in South America, is the most densely populated and urbanized slums in Rio de Janeiro. There are roughly 21 neighborhoods within Rocinha representing a population estimated at anywhere between 100 and 200.000 inhabitants, who live crammed into a steep and rugged landscape of only 0,332 square miles. Within this highly dense community the majority of residents subsist in conditions of abject or near abject poverty, residing in small shanties stacked one on top of another, sometimes as many as tall as even 11 stories tall. Most houses in Rocinha have basic sanitation, plumbing, and electricity.
Located between two of Brazil’s wealthiest neighborhoods, São Conrado and Gávea, the educational status of Rocinha’s residents is very low. Residents have an average of only 4 years of formal education, with less than 1% of Rocinha’s adult population having earned a degree above a high school diploma.
Facing this huge shortage of education, In Cultura Veritas decided to invest itself in this favela with the partnership and support of on-site local NGOs. | <urn:uuid:2b1dd9e3-2e5f-4981-a5b6-c623b72d6ef6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.in-cultura-veritas.org/single-post/2015/05/23/What-is-a-favela | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.980125 | 497 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
0.29218003153800964,
-0.13523346185684204,
0.3611951768398285,
0.02320990525186062,
-0.03775092214345932,
0.33718281984329224,
-0.2745594382286072,
0.06830986589193344,
0.08414029330015182,
-0.07944606244564056,
0.31128638982772827,
-0.6243391633033752,
-0.48913827538490295,
0.339903265237... | 3 | A favela is a slum in Brazil, most often within urban areas. The first favelas appeared in the late 19th century and were built by soldiers who had nowhere to live. Some of the first settlements were called bairros africanos (African neighborhoods). They were the places where former slaves with no land ownership and no options for work lived. Over the years, many former black slaves moved in. Even before the first favela came into being, poor citizens were pushed away from the city and forced to live in the far suburbs. However, most modern favelas appeared in the 1970s due to rural exodus, when many people left rural areas of Brazil and moved to cities. Unable to find places to live in town, many people ended up in favelas.
Census data released in December 2011 by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) showed that in 2010, about 6 % of the Brazilian population lived in slums. This means that 11.4 million of the 190 million people that lived in the country resided in favelas.
The name of the favela chosen by In Cultural Veritas to carry out its humanitarian and educational missions is Rocinha. Located in Rio de Janeiro, Rocinha, widely considered as the largest favela in South America, is the most densely populated and urbanized slums in Rio de Janeiro. There are roughly 21 neighborhoods within Rocinha representing a population estimated at anywhere between 100 and 200.000 inhabitants, who live crammed into a steep and rugged landscape of only 0,332 square miles. Within this highly dense community the majority of residents subsist in conditions of abject or near abject poverty, residing in small shanties stacked one on top of another, sometimes as many as tall as even 11 stories tall. Most houses in Rocinha have basic sanitation, plumbing, and electricity.
Located between two of Brazil’s wealthiest neighborhoods, São Conrado and Gávea, the educational status of Rocinha’s residents is very low. Residents have an average of only 4 years of formal education, with less than 1% of Rocinha’s adult population having earned a degree above a high school diploma.
Facing this huge shortage of education, In Cultura Veritas decided to invest itself in this favela with the partnership and support of on-site local NGOs. | 516 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Operation Olympic was just one-part of Operation Downfall – the planned occupation of Japan. Operation Olympic was chronologically the first part of the plan – Operation Coronet would come second. Olympic was supported by the likes of Douglas MacArthur who favoured a massive amphibious landing on Japan as opposed to a blockade/bombing strategy favoured by the navy.
Operation Olympic was the code-name for a planned landing in Kyushu – the furthest main island in the south. This island was one of the few places in the whole of Japan that could sustain an amphibious landing. The actual invasion was planned to start on November 1st, 1945, with three landings at three different beaches. The three targeted beaches were at Miyazaki, Ariake and Kushikino. The Japanese had realised that Kyushu would be a prime landing point for any invasion and had set up strong defences at Ariake as it had a good harbour there. Once an amphibious landing had occurred, the Americans planned to move inland but only for about one-third of the island. Airbases would then be set-up to support Operation Coronet.
For Coronet to be successful, Olympic would have to be. Therefore, some military figures were quite prepared to contemplate the use of poisonous gas against the Japanese on the beaches of Kyushu – especially if the defenders moved into the caves near the beaches – a tactic America had experienced before. All the evidence suggests that the Japanese planned to repel the invading force and drive it back into the sea. The Homeland Defence Force had the potential to run into many thousands in the area and the kamikazes had shown the Allies that the Japanese were quite willing to die for the emperor and Japan. For this reason, the Americans predicted large losses at Kyushu before one-third of the island had been captured. The Chiefs-of-Staff estimated that a 90-day campaign in Kyushu could cost as many as 450,000 casualties, including over 100,000 dead.
As it was, the attack never took place as President Truman authorised the use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6th and 9th respectively. Japan formally surrendered on September 2nd 1945. | <urn:uuid:17565bd4-ed78-45e8-a276-d31cb1374139> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/the-pacific-war-1941-to-1945/operation-olympic/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00317.warc.gz | en | 0.984408 | 450 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
-0.03257441520690918,
-0.04383086413145065,
0.24136503040790558,
-0.1909293234348297,
-0.0014873371692374349,
0.39238202571868896,
0.12967157363891602,
0.132972851395607,
-0.009212709963321686,
0.03066631592810154,
0.04224591702222824,
-0.32551109790802,
0.3500087857246399,
1.0306046009063... | 8 | Operation Olympic was just one-part of Operation Downfall – the planned occupation of Japan. Operation Olympic was chronologically the first part of the plan – Operation Coronet would come second. Olympic was supported by the likes of Douglas MacArthur who favoured a massive amphibious landing on Japan as opposed to a blockade/bombing strategy favoured by the navy.
Operation Olympic was the code-name for a planned landing in Kyushu – the furthest main island in the south. This island was one of the few places in the whole of Japan that could sustain an amphibious landing. The actual invasion was planned to start on November 1st, 1945, with three landings at three different beaches. The three targeted beaches were at Miyazaki, Ariake and Kushikino. The Japanese had realised that Kyushu would be a prime landing point for any invasion and had set up strong defences at Ariake as it had a good harbour there. Once an amphibious landing had occurred, the Americans planned to move inland but only for about one-third of the island. Airbases would then be set-up to support Operation Coronet.
For Coronet to be successful, Olympic would have to be. Therefore, some military figures were quite prepared to contemplate the use of poisonous gas against the Japanese on the beaches of Kyushu – especially if the defenders moved into the caves near the beaches – a tactic America had experienced before. All the evidence suggests that the Japanese planned to repel the invading force and drive it back into the sea. The Homeland Defence Force had the potential to run into many thousands in the area and the kamikazes had shown the Allies that the Japanese were quite willing to die for the emperor and Japan. For this reason, the Americans predicted large losses at Kyushu before one-third of the island had been captured. The Chiefs-of-Staff estimated that a 90-day campaign in Kyushu could cost as many as 450,000 casualties, including over 100,000 dead.
As it was, the attack never took place as President Truman authorised the use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6th and 9th respectively. Japan formally surrendered on September 2nd 1945. | 466 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945, also known as Il Duce ("The Leader"), was the founder of Italian Fascism and ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943.
In 1912, Mussolini had been a leading member of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), but was expelled from the PSI for advocating military intervention in World War I, in opposition to the party's stance on neutrality. Mussolini served in the Royal Italian Army during the war, until he was wounded and discharged in 1917. Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering more on nationalism than on socialism. He founded the Partito Nazionale Fascista. Following the March on Rome in October 1922, Mussolini became Prime Minister. An authoritarian regime was soon implemented.
Italy conquered Albania and Ethiopia and briefly gained many additional territories during WWII. From 1936 through 1939, Mussolini provided large amounts of military aid to the Nationalist side during the Spanish Civil War.
On 10 June 1940, Italy officially entered WWII on the side of Germany, On 9 July 1943, the Allies invaded Italy. On 25 July 1943, Mussolini was removed from power. On 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued from captivity by German forces. Mussolini was put in charge of a German-dependent regime in northern Italy, the Italian Social Republic.
In late April 1945, Mussolini is stated to have been captured by Italian Communist partisans and summarily executed on 28 April 1945. Various other theories regarding what happened have been proposed.
- Why do Italians still have a soft spot for Mussolini
- Mussolini: A New Life
- Force and Consensus - By Benito Mussolini | <urn:uuid:6e55ff73-6ec0-4ae1-a9fd-da08fe43c573> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.metapedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.98035 | 345 | 3.75 | 4 | [
-0.34420663118362427,
0.46148937940597534,
-0.025272835046052933,
-0.16534624993801117,
-0.29217228293418884,
0.01895052194595337,
0.4183911681175232,
0.06280910968780518,
-0.0555136613547802,
-0.10248597711324692,
0.35849136114120483,
-0.32642826437950134,
0.4467511773109436,
0.7462820410... | 5 | Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945, also known as Il Duce ("The Leader"), was the founder of Italian Fascism and ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943.
In 1912, Mussolini had been a leading member of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), but was expelled from the PSI for advocating military intervention in World War I, in opposition to the party's stance on neutrality. Mussolini served in the Royal Italian Army during the war, until he was wounded and discharged in 1917. Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering more on nationalism than on socialism. He founded the Partito Nazionale Fascista. Following the March on Rome in October 1922, Mussolini became Prime Minister. An authoritarian regime was soon implemented.
Italy conquered Albania and Ethiopia and briefly gained many additional territories during WWII. From 1936 through 1939, Mussolini provided large amounts of military aid to the Nationalist side during the Spanish Civil War.
On 10 June 1940, Italy officially entered WWII on the side of Germany, On 9 July 1943, the Allies invaded Italy. On 25 July 1943, Mussolini was removed from power. On 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued from captivity by German forces. Mussolini was put in charge of a German-dependent regime in northern Italy, the Italian Social Republic.
In late April 1945, Mussolini is stated to have been captured by Italian Communist partisans and summarily executed on 28 April 1945. Various other theories regarding what happened have been proposed.
- Why do Italians still have a soft spot for Mussolini
- Mussolini: A New Life
- Force and Consensus - By Benito Mussolini | 408 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nikita Khrushchev Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Childhood And Early Years
Russian leader and politician Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev was born on the 15 April 1894 in Kalinovka, Russia. His parents were Sergei and Ksenia Khrushchev and were Russian peasants of modest means. He had one sibling, a sister Irina. His mother worked as a teacher in their local village, and his father traveled around finding work in mining, the railroad, and other industries. Originally the family lived in the village of Kalinovka but later moved to the city of Donetsk where it was easier to find work in the industrial areas.
Nikita Khrushchev was educated locally and left school at the age of fifteen. Some reports claim he had only four formal years of schooling. After moving to Donetsk as a young man, did an apprenticeship and worked in a factory as well as on mine.
Rise to Stardom
In 1918 Nikita Khrushchev joined the Communist Bolshevik Party. He fought in the Red Army during the Russian Revolution. He became a member of the Communist Party’s Central Committee in 1934, then the second secretary of the Moscow Regional Committee in 1933. He was elected to the Politburo in 1939. During this time he backed Stalin policies and was involved in political purges.
World War II
Nikita Khrushchev was a lieutenant general in the Soviet Army during World War II and a political adviser. In 1949 he returned to Moscow where he became head of the Moscow Regional Committee as well as being secretary of the Central Committee.
Post-Stalin - 1953-1964
After Stalin had died in March 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the first secretary of the party. At the same time, he was dealing with political foes he felt would threaten to destabilize his rise to the top job. Six months after Stalin’s death, the deputy prime minister and KGB chief was arrested and subsequently executed in December 1953.
In 1954 Nikita Khrushchev was involved in the Virgin Lands campaign which focused on agriculture. He was also involved in a jostle with Georgii Malenkov for the political supremacy. He consolidated his power in 1955 when Malenkov was ousted as chairman of the Council of Ministers.
Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin’s atrocities in a famous speech on the 24 February 1956. His political enemies attempted to oust him in 1957, but the Central Committee overturned their findings. He subsequently became premier of the Soviet of Ministers as well as party leader in 1958. He seemed keen to improve relations with the US and September 1959; he became the first Soviet leader to visit the United States.
The shooting down of a U-2 spy plane in 1960, resulted in relations between the two countries becoming strained. He visited the United Nations General Assembly in New York in October 1960, and this resulted in the shoe-pounding incident when he protested a speech given by the Philippine delegate
In June 1962 Nikita Khrushchev ordered the shooting of striking workers at Novocherkassk. The same year the Cuban missile crisis in October 1962 led to a flashpoint in US-Soviet relations. By 1963 the relationship Soviet-US had thawed, and a hotline was established between the two countries which led to the signing of the Nuclear test-ban treaty.
After being a leading political figure on the world stage during the Cold War Nikita Khrushchev was ousted by Leonid Brezhnev in October 1964.
Nikita Khrushchev married Yefrosinia Pisareva in 1914. They had two children together with a daughter Yulia (b.1915) and a son Leonid (b.1917). His second wife was Marusia, and he later had a long-term partnership with Nina Petrovna Kukharchuk whom he officially married in 1965. They had two daughters and a son: Rada (b.1929), Sergei (b.1935) and Elene (b.1937).
Nikita Khrushchev died on the 11 September 1971.
More People From Russia
Elizabeth of Russia
Nikolai Rimsky korsakov | <urn:uuid:92f0040d-b745-47c2-8be0-58429aafe188> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/nikita-khrushchev/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.985733 | 874 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
-0.4859240651130676,
0.15683138370513916,
0.3161054253578186,
0.17992709577083588,
0.2362464964389801,
0.17645353078842163,
0.4168107509613037,
0.10180630534887314,
-0.2585877478122711,
0.20778298377990723,
0.2167908400297165,
0.15346361696720123,
0.6255807876586914,
0.41131308674812317,
... | 1 | Nikita Khrushchev Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Childhood And Early Years
Russian leader and politician Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev was born on the 15 April 1894 in Kalinovka, Russia. His parents were Sergei and Ksenia Khrushchev and were Russian peasants of modest means. He had one sibling, a sister Irina. His mother worked as a teacher in their local village, and his father traveled around finding work in mining, the railroad, and other industries. Originally the family lived in the village of Kalinovka but later moved to the city of Donetsk where it was easier to find work in the industrial areas.
Nikita Khrushchev was educated locally and left school at the age of fifteen. Some reports claim he had only four formal years of schooling. After moving to Donetsk as a young man, did an apprenticeship and worked in a factory as well as on mine.
Rise to Stardom
In 1918 Nikita Khrushchev joined the Communist Bolshevik Party. He fought in the Red Army during the Russian Revolution. He became a member of the Communist Party’s Central Committee in 1934, then the second secretary of the Moscow Regional Committee in 1933. He was elected to the Politburo in 1939. During this time he backed Stalin policies and was involved in political purges.
World War II
Nikita Khrushchev was a lieutenant general in the Soviet Army during World War II and a political adviser. In 1949 he returned to Moscow where he became head of the Moscow Regional Committee as well as being secretary of the Central Committee.
Post-Stalin - 1953-1964
After Stalin had died in March 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the first secretary of the party. At the same time, he was dealing with political foes he felt would threaten to destabilize his rise to the top job. Six months after Stalin’s death, the deputy prime minister and KGB chief was arrested and subsequently executed in December 1953.
In 1954 Nikita Khrushchev was involved in the Virgin Lands campaign which focused on agriculture. He was also involved in a jostle with Georgii Malenkov for the political supremacy. He consolidated his power in 1955 when Malenkov was ousted as chairman of the Council of Ministers.
Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin’s atrocities in a famous speech on the 24 February 1956. His political enemies attempted to oust him in 1957, but the Central Committee overturned their findings. He subsequently became premier of the Soviet of Ministers as well as party leader in 1958. He seemed keen to improve relations with the US and September 1959; he became the first Soviet leader to visit the United States.
The shooting down of a U-2 spy plane in 1960, resulted in relations between the two countries becoming strained. He visited the United Nations General Assembly in New York in October 1960, and this resulted in the shoe-pounding incident when he protested a speech given by the Philippine delegate
In June 1962 Nikita Khrushchev ordered the shooting of striking workers at Novocherkassk. The same year the Cuban missile crisis in October 1962 led to a flashpoint in US-Soviet relations. By 1963 the relationship Soviet-US had thawed, and a hotline was established between the two countries which led to the signing of the Nuclear test-ban treaty.
After being a leading political figure on the world stage during the Cold War Nikita Khrushchev was ousted by Leonid Brezhnev in October 1964.
Nikita Khrushchev married Yefrosinia Pisareva in 1914. They had two children together with a daughter Yulia (b.1915) and a son Leonid (b.1917). His second wife was Marusia, and he later had a long-term partnership with Nina Petrovna Kukharchuk whom he officially married in 1965. They had two daughters and a son: Rada (b.1929), Sergei (b.1935) and Elene (b.1937).
Nikita Khrushchev died on the 11 September 1971.
More People From Russia
Elizabeth of Russia
Nikolai Rimsky korsakov | 996 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Booker T. And W.E.B. Two great leaders of the African American community in the late 19th and early 20th century were W.E.B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington. However they disagreed on strategies for African American social and economical progress. Their opposing philosophies can be found in much of today s discussion over how to end class and racial injustice, what is the role of African American leadership, and what do the haves owe the have-nots in the African American community. Booker T. Washington, educator, reformer and the most influential African American leader of his time preached a philosophy of self-help, racial solidarity and accommodation. Booker T. Washington urged African Americans to accept the discrimination from whites for the time being and to concentrate on working their way up through hard work and material prosperity. Booker T. Washington believed in education in the crafts, industrial and farming skills, the great importance of patience, enterprise, and thrift. He said this would win the respect of whites and lead to African Americans being fully accepted as citizens and integrated into all parts of society. W.E.B. Du Bois, a tall African American intellectual, scholar, and political thinker, said that Booker T. Washington s strategy would serve only to perpetuate white oppression. W.E.B. Du Bios advocated political action and a civil rights agenda. His view was that social change could be accomplished by developing a small group of college-educated African Americans. He called this small group “the Talented Tenth”"The Negro Race, like all races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men. The problem of education then, among Negroes, must first of all deal with the “Talented Tenth.” It is the problem of developing the best of this race that they may guide the Mass away from the contamination and death of the worst.” W.E.B. Du Bios, Quoted from Frontline Online: The Two Nations of Black America: Booker T. & W.E.B. Booker T. Washington recalled his childhood in his autobiography, Up From Slavery. He was born in 1856 on the Burroughs tobacco farm, which was an extremely small “plantation.” His mother was a cook in the main house, his father a white man from a nearby farm. He wrote “The early years of my life which were spent in the little cabin, were not very different from those f other slaves.”
Booker T. Washington went to school in Franklin County, but not as a student he carried books for one of Master James Burroughs s daughters. At that time it was illegal to educate slaves. “I had the feeling that to get into a schoolhouse and study would be about the same as getting into paradise, ” he wrote. In April 1865 the Emancipation Proclamation was read to joyful slaves in front of the Burroughs home. Booker T. Washington s family left to join his stepfather in Malden, West Virginia. As a young boy he took a job in a salt mine that began work at 4 a.m. so that he could attend school later in the day. A few years went later he was taken in as a house boy by a wealthy towns-woman who further encouraged his longing to learn. At age 16 Booker T. Washington walked the good part of 500 miles to Virginia to enroll in a new school for African American students. He knew even poor he could get an education at Hampton Institute, paying his way by working hard. The head teacher was suspicious of his country ways and ragged clothes. She only admitted him after he had cleaned a room to her satisfaction. Born on February 23, 1896 to Mary Silvina and Alfred Du Bois. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was raised in a small but long established African American community in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. An avid student willing to do anything to further his education, he began publishing the community s newspaper by the age of fourteen. He graduated from high school early and enrolled at Fisk University. When he received his baccalaureate degree, and then accepted a scholarship at the University of Berlin, where he studied for two years. After this, he went to Harvard, where he was the first African American to receive his doctoral degree. | <urn:uuid:1b574fcd-6245-4948-9d52-01e3c8639478> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essay.ua-referat.com/WEB_Dubois_And_Booker_T | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.984861 | 895 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
-0.42209041118621826,
0.3671633005142212,
-0.11347086727619171,
-0.09361111372709274,
-0.20295700430870056,
0.196501225233078,
-0.2368999719619751,
0.08619891852140427,
-0.2904655933380127,
0.1436845064163208,
0.22825802862644196,
-0.07746190577745438,
-0.10388869047164917,
0.1181206256151... | 2 | Booker T. And W.E.B. Two great leaders of the African American community in the late 19th and early 20th century were W.E.B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington. However they disagreed on strategies for African American social and economical progress. Their opposing philosophies can be found in much of today s discussion over how to end class and racial injustice, what is the role of African American leadership, and what do the haves owe the have-nots in the African American community. Booker T. Washington, educator, reformer and the most influential African American leader of his time preached a philosophy of self-help, racial solidarity and accommodation. Booker T. Washington urged African Americans to accept the discrimination from whites for the time being and to concentrate on working their way up through hard work and material prosperity. Booker T. Washington believed in education in the crafts, industrial and farming skills, the great importance of patience, enterprise, and thrift. He said this would win the respect of whites and lead to African Americans being fully accepted as citizens and integrated into all parts of society. W.E.B. Du Bois, a tall African American intellectual, scholar, and political thinker, said that Booker T. Washington s strategy would serve only to perpetuate white oppression. W.E.B. Du Bios advocated political action and a civil rights agenda. His view was that social change could be accomplished by developing a small group of college-educated African Americans. He called this small group “the Talented Tenth”"The Negro Race, like all races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men. The problem of education then, among Negroes, must first of all deal with the “Talented Tenth.” It is the problem of developing the best of this race that they may guide the Mass away from the contamination and death of the worst.” W.E.B. Du Bios, Quoted from Frontline Online: The Two Nations of Black America: Booker T. & W.E.B. Booker T. Washington recalled his childhood in his autobiography, Up From Slavery. He was born in 1856 on the Burroughs tobacco farm, which was an extremely small “plantation.” His mother was a cook in the main house, his father a white man from a nearby farm. He wrote “The early years of my life which were spent in the little cabin, were not very different from those f other slaves.”
Booker T. Washington went to school in Franklin County, but not as a student he carried books for one of Master James Burroughs s daughters. At that time it was illegal to educate slaves. “I had the feeling that to get into a schoolhouse and study would be about the same as getting into paradise, ” he wrote. In April 1865 the Emancipation Proclamation was read to joyful slaves in front of the Burroughs home. Booker T. Washington s family left to join his stepfather in Malden, West Virginia. As a young boy he took a job in a salt mine that began work at 4 a.m. so that he could attend school later in the day. A few years went later he was taken in as a house boy by a wealthy towns-woman who further encouraged his longing to learn. At age 16 Booker T. Washington walked the good part of 500 miles to Virginia to enroll in a new school for African American students. He knew even poor he could get an education at Hampton Institute, paying his way by working hard. The head teacher was suspicious of his country ways and ragged clothes. She only admitted him after he had cleaned a room to her satisfaction. Born on February 23, 1896 to Mary Silvina and Alfred Du Bois. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was raised in a small but long established African American community in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. An avid student willing to do anything to further his education, he began publishing the community s newspaper by the age of fourteen. He graduated from high school early and enrolled at Fisk University. When he received his baccalaureate degree, and then accepted a scholarship at the University of Berlin, where he studied for two years. After this, he went to Harvard, where he was the first African American to receive his doctoral degree. | 888 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From Chapter 5, you know that some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. During this period, Buddha and Mahavira attained enlightenment and spread their knowledge and learning about the real meaning of life to common people.
The story of Buddha
About 2500 years ago, Siddhartha the founder of Buddhism was born. He was also known as Gautama Buddha. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to
Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara.
The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. Even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied and want even more. The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next.
Upanishad means ‘approaching and sitting near’. The texts contained in the Upanishad were the conversations between teachers and students.
- Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas.
- There is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning and participated in debates held in royal courts.
- Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.
The last and 24th Tirthankara of the Jainas was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji sangha. At the age of 30, he left
home and went to live in a forest. For 12 years he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment.
He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings.
Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas, had to lead very simple lives. They had to be absolutely honest and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. The teachings of
Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries.
Sangha was an association of those people who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer – beggar) and bhikkhunis. Those who joined the sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves.
Both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. The permanent shelters which monasteries were built were known as viharas. The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves, especially in western India. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. You will learn more about this in Chapter 9 of History.
We hope you have found CBSE Notes Class 6 History Chapter 6 helpful for your exam preparation. Keep learning and stay tuned for more updates on CBSE and NCERT. | <urn:uuid:4d1f1b27-5b2b-4067-820b-2c282fcb68fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://byjus.com/cbse-notes/class-6-social-science-history-chapter-6-new-questions-and-ideas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00116.warc.gz | en | 0.990297 | 991 | 3.375 | 3 | [
0.019552644342184067,
0.1913086473941803,
-0.06172558292746544,
-0.15062862634658813,
-0.2863389849662781,
0.08602914214134216,
0.8962728977203369,
-0.25288569927215576,
0.08407925069332123,
0.29582130908966064,
-0.06233617290854454,
-0.2604418992996216,
0.08064089715480804,
0.403868973255... | 2 | From Chapter 5, you know that some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. During this period, Buddha and Mahavira attained enlightenment and spread their knowledge and learning about the real meaning of life to common people.
The story of Buddha
About 2500 years ago, Siddhartha the founder of Buddhism was born. He was also known as Gautama Buddha. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to
Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara.
The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. Even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied and want even more. The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next.
Upanishad means ‘approaching and sitting near’. The texts contained in the Upanishad were the conversations between teachers and students.
- Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas.
- There is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning and participated in debates held in royal courts.
- Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya.
The last and 24th Tirthankara of the Jainas was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji sangha. At the age of 30, he left
home and went to live in a forest. For 12 years he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment.
He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings.
Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas, had to lead very simple lives. They had to be absolutely honest and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. The teachings of
Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries.
Sangha was an association of those people who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer – beggar) and bhikkhunis. Those who joined the sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves.
Both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. The permanent shelters which monasteries were built were known as viharas. The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves, especially in western India. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. You will learn more about this in Chapter 9 of History.
We hope you have found CBSE Notes Class 6 History Chapter 6 helpful for your exam preparation. Keep learning and stay tuned for more updates on CBSE and NCERT. | 986 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paul Laurence Dunbar
B. 1872 D. 1906
Come when the year?s first blossom blows, come when the summer gleams and glows, come with the winter?s drifting snows, and you are welcome, welcome.
About Paul Laurence Dunbar
Dunbar was one of the first African-American poets to be widely known and admired in America. His parents were freed slaves and Dunbar used some of their tales of plantation life in his work.
After a successful reading at the World’s Fair in Chicago, Dunbar’s poems were picked up by national newspapers and magazines. His second collection, Majors and Minors, appeared in 1895, with the ‘majors’ representing poems written in standard English and the ‘minors’ referring to his very successful dialect poems.
Dunbar’s fame spread, and he travelled to England to give readings. On returning to America, he worked at the Library of Congress in Washington DC and married the writer Alice Ruth Moore. However, his health began to deteriorate and, although he continued to be a prolific writer, producing several novels, song lyrics and further collections of poems, he died of tuberculosis in 1906, at the age of thirty?three. | <urn:uuid:e0fc9799-8fd9-4761-ba59-d719f311562c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://poetryarchive.org/poet/paul-laurence-dunbar/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.982362 | 262 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.5001049041748047,
0.02795986272394657,
0.512641966342926,
0.00902953464537859,
-0.23842546343803406,
0.17238861322402954,
0.2095518857240677,
0.06086687743663788,
-0.24919819831848145,
-0.04542616009712219,
0.511925995349884,
0.22748646140098572,
-0.14069272577762604,
-0.076285712420940... | 3 | Paul Laurence Dunbar
B. 1872 D. 1906
Come when the year?s first blossom blows, come when the summer gleams and glows, come with the winter?s drifting snows, and you are welcome, welcome.
About Paul Laurence Dunbar
Dunbar was one of the first African-American poets to be widely known and admired in America. His parents were freed slaves and Dunbar used some of their tales of plantation life in his work.
After a successful reading at the World’s Fair in Chicago, Dunbar’s poems were picked up by national newspapers and magazines. His second collection, Majors and Minors, appeared in 1895, with the ‘majors’ representing poems written in standard English and the ‘minors’ referring to his very successful dialect poems.
Dunbar’s fame spread, and he travelled to England to give readings. On returning to America, he worked at the Library of Congress in Washington DC and married the writer Alice Ruth Moore. However, his health began to deteriorate and, although he continued to be a prolific writer, producing several novels, song lyrics and further collections of poems, he died of tuberculosis in 1906, at the age of thirty?three. | 261 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The legend of Santa Claus can be recited by kids and adults throughout the world: A jolly, round, bearded man dressed in red and white flies around the world in a magical sleigh pulled by eight reindeer (nine on foggy nights) to deliver toys to all the well-behaved children. Who wouldn’t love such a story? While it may seem magical and completely made up, there is some factual basis to the lovable tale. Here’s a brief history of everyone’s favorite gift giver.
While Santa is called by many names, one of them has more of a basis in fact. Saint Nicholas was a Christian bishop who lived around 280 CE. He was known as a generous man and earned a solid reputation throughout his life for giving to the needy.
One story involves a poor father who didn’t have enough money to provide a dowry for his three daughters. He had come under hard times and thought about selling them into servitude because he could no longer afford to feed and house them. Hearing about their predicament, St. Nicholas sneaked into their house on three separate occasions and put out bags of money so the daughters could get married.
He spent his life giving to the less fortunate. Upon his death on December 6, 343, he had earned a reputation as the protector of children and became known for his gift giving. Extraordinary stories of his generosity and miracles led to him being declared a saint by the Catholic Church. St. Nicholas became a prominent figure throughout Europe for centuries.
Around the 1500s, there was a large push away from the Catholic Church, widely known as the Protestant Reformation or simply The Reformation. During this time, the praise of saints became less practiced throughout much of Europe, and St. Nicholas had largely fallen out of the spotlight.
Although much of Europe stopped honoring saints, St. Nicholas and his legacy continued to be popular in Holland. They declared December 6 the feast day of Saint Nicholas. The children would leave their shoes out at night so that when St. Nicholas visited, he would have somewhere to leave gifts. The next day, the children would receive their presents, and there would be a feast in St. Nicholas’s honor.
St. Nicholas Day is still observed on December 6 in many central European countries.
Move to America
In the late 1700s, many Dutch immigrants moved to America, specifically New Amsterdam (aka New York City). When December 6 rolled around, the Dutch families celebrated their annual holiday and gathered some attention from the local newspapers who spread the ideas throughout the city. The name “Santa Claus” is an Americanized version of the Dutch name for St. Nicholas: Sinter Klauss.
St. Nicholas had gained popularity in America, but the legend started to lose much of its historical background. In 1804, a member of the New York Historical Society distributed woodcuts of St. Nicholas depicting items that are now associated with Santa Claus like stockings filled with toys hanging above a fireplace. Popularity grew so much that in 1809, Washington Irving called St. Nicholas the patron saint of New York.
Modern Santa Claus
The legend of St. Nicholas continued to gain speed in America. In 1823, a poem entitled “A Visit from St. Nicholas” was written by Clement C. Moore. Most people today know it as “Twas the Night Before Christmas.” This poem is the inspiration for the legend of Santa Claus as we know it today. It mentioned his flying sleigh, the eight reindeer, and how he delivered presents by coming down the chimney.
Forty years later, Moore’s poem served as an inspiration for cartoonist Thomas Nast to draw Santa Claus for the popular magazine “Harper’s Weekly.” Nast’s version of Santa Claus showed him with a white beard, red suit, a round belly and carrying a sack full of toys. Sound familiar? In 1931, Coca-Cola used Nast’s character in a marketing campaign, further solidifying the modern image of Santa Claus and spreading it nationwide.
At the same time that the modern image of Santa Claus was being solidified by Nast, Arctic explorations had just begun. Not much was known about the area, so it was just as mythical as the Santa himself. Since St. Nicholas Day and Christmas were celebrated in winter, Santa had already been associated with cold and snow, so why couldn’t he be hiding in the unexplored arctic? The idea stuck, and Santa Claus found his forever home in the icy lands of the North Pole. | <urn:uuid:7435a2b6-dcb3-4c43-902d-77af99cefc69> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.triviagenius.com/a-brief-history-of-santa-claus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00492.warc.gz | en | 0.981206 | 954 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
0.5073097944259644,
0.38956543803215027,
0.35950106382369995,
-0.37237125635147095,
-0.04175814241170883,
-0.2903408408164978,
0.2758479714393616,
0.10348967462778091,
0.04788603261113167,
0.14353422820568085,
-0.035837940871715546,
0.6525180339813232,
-0.1523461639881134,
0.24189467728137... | 7 | The legend of Santa Claus can be recited by kids and adults throughout the world: A jolly, round, bearded man dressed in red and white flies around the world in a magical sleigh pulled by eight reindeer (nine on foggy nights) to deliver toys to all the well-behaved children. Who wouldn’t love such a story? While it may seem magical and completely made up, there is some factual basis to the lovable tale. Here’s a brief history of everyone’s favorite gift giver.
While Santa is called by many names, one of them has more of a basis in fact. Saint Nicholas was a Christian bishop who lived around 280 CE. He was known as a generous man and earned a solid reputation throughout his life for giving to the needy.
One story involves a poor father who didn’t have enough money to provide a dowry for his three daughters. He had come under hard times and thought about selling them into servitude because he could no longer afford to feed and house them. Hearing about their predicament, St. Nicholas sneaked into their house on three separate occasions and put out bags of money so the daughters could get married.
He spent his life giving to the less fortunate. Upon his death on December 6, 343, he had earned a reputation as the protector of children and became known for his gift giving. Extraordinary stories of his generosity and miracles led to him being declared a saint by the Catholic Church. St. Nicholas became a prominent figure throughout Europe for centuries.
Around the 1500s, there was a large push away from the Catholic Church, widely known as the Protestant Reformation or simply The Reformation. During this time, the praise of saints became less practiced throughout much of Europe, and St. Nicholas had largely fallen out of the spotlight.
Although much of Europe stopped honoring saints, St. Nicholas and his legacy continued to be popular in Holland. They declared December 6 the feast day of Saint Nicholas. The children would leave their shoes out at night so that when St. Nicholas visited, he would have somewhere to leave gifts. The next day, the children would receive their presents, and there would be a feast in St. Nicholas’s honor.
St. Nicholas Day is still observed on December 6 in many central European countries.
Move to America
In the late 1700s, many Dutch immigrants moved to America, specifically New Amsterdam (aka New York City). When December 6 rolled around, the Dutch families celebrated their annual holiday and gathered some attention from the local newspapers who spread the ideas throughout the city. The name “Santa Claus” is an Americanized version of the Dutch name for St. Nicholas: Sinter Klauss.
St. Nicholas had gained popularity in America, but the legend started to lose much of its historical background. In 1804, a member of the New York Historical Society distributed woodcuts of St. Nicholas depicting items that are now associated with Santa Claus like stockings filled with toys hanging above a fireplace. Popularity grew so much that in 1809, Washington Irving called St. Nicholas the patron saint of New York.
Modern Santa Claus
The legend of St. Nicholas continued to gain speed in America. In 1823, a poem entitled “A Visit from St. Nicholas” was written by Clement C. Moore. Most people today know it as “Twas the Night Before Christmas.” This poem is the inspiration for the legend of Santa Claus as we know it today. It mentioned his flying sleigh, the eight reindeer, and how he delivered presents by coming down the chimney.
Forty years later, Moore’s poem served as an inspiration for cartoonist Thomas Nast to draw Santa Claus for the popular magazine “Harper’s Weekly.” Nast’s version of Santa Claus showed him with a white beard, red suit, a round belly and carrying a sack full of toys. Sound familiar? In 1931, Coca-Cola used Nast’s character in a marketing campaign, further solidifying the modern image of Santa Claus and spreading it nationwide.
At the same time that the modern image of Santa Claus was being solidified by Nast, Arctic explorations had just begun. Not much was known about the area, so it was just as mythical as the Santa himself. Since St. Nicholas Day and Christmas were celebrated in winter, Santa had already been associated with cold and snow, so why couldn’t he be hiding in the unexplored arctic? The idea stuck, and Santa Claus found his forever home in the icy lands of the North Pole. | 941 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Description of God of Cohoba
The God of Cohoba was the main deity in the Taino religion. During religious ceremonies such as the Rite of Cohoba, the plate on its head was used to move the hallucinogen-inducing dust during such ceremonies and rites. The cohoba was an important and sacred substance that was used by shamans to communicate with ancestors and gods.
General Taino description
The Taino Indians were an ancient civilization originating from what is now Puerto Rico. Ancient inhabitants of the region, the Taino Indians left behind narratives and tales in the form of these symbols. The Taino mainly lived off of what they could find on land and were also fishermen. Unfortunately, disease, war, and starvation left the Taino destroyed after merely two decades - leaving behind only their symbols. These symbols have been left behind on caves and walls across the region. Although carbon dating is not possible on the rocks and caves where these images have been found, the best estimate is that these were created somewhere between 5000 BC to 1700 AD. There is also conjecture that these symbols may not have been created by the Taino at all, but a precursor society that lived there before the Taino arrived. Because there is little evidence to prove any of these claims as true, the common acceptance is that these symbols were left behind by the Taino themselves. While some of the symbols relate to deities and nature, others are about depicting their daily life. With no written language as such, these symbols become their primary way of communication. Some theories state that these petroglyphs were created by shamans. Others believe that these symbols were created as a warning to other tribes, both in terms of territory and to inform others of natural disasters and other events. While some of the symbols and their meanings remain under debate, there are clues and hints that can be used to decipher what they actually mean. | <urn:uuid:f1bb5fd4-7796-46e4-a0f3-e4714d279586> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://symbolikon.com/downloads/god-of-cohoba-taino/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00127.warc.gz | en | 0.985145 | 391 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
-0.17513078451156616,
0.28315722942352295,
-0.09081272035837173,
0.029832465574145317,
-0.34819668531417847,
0.031039312481880188,
0.7180456519126892,
-0.6283724308013916,
-0.10140206664800644,
-0.1838458776473999,
0.13421736657619476,
-0.5702218413352966,
0.3083095848560333,
0.19085901975... | 1 | Description of God of Cohoba
The God of Cohoba was the main deity in the Taino religion. During religious ceremonies such as the Rite of Cohoba, the plate on its head was used to move the hallucinogen-inducing dust during such ceremonies and rites. The cohoba was an important and sacred substance that was used by shamans to communicate with ancestors and gods.
General Taino description
The Taino Indians were an ancient civilization originating from what is now Puerto Rico. Ancient inhabitants of the region, the Taino Indians left behind narratives and tales in the form of these symbols. The Taino mainly lived off of what they could find on land and were also fishermen. Unfortunately, disease, war, and starvation left the Taino destroyed after merely two decades - leaving behind only their symbols. These symbols have been left behind on caves and walls across the region. Although carbon dating is not possible on the rocks and caves where these images have been found, the best estimate is that these were created somewhere between 5000 BC to 1700 AD. There is also conjecture that these symbols may not have been created by the Taino at all, but a precursor society that lived there before the Taino arrived. Because there is little evidence to prove any of these claims as true, the common acceptance is that these symbols were left behind by the Taino themselves. While some of the symbols relate to deities and nature, others are about depicting their daily life. With no written language as such, these symbols become their primary way of communication. Some theories state that these petroglyphs were created by shamans. Others believe that these symbols were created as a warning to other tribes, both in terms of territory and to inform others of natural disasters and other events. While some of the symbols and their meanings remain under debate, there are clues and hints that can be used to decipher what they actually mean. | 400 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Victor confronts his creation in the Alps, the first thought is to destroy his creation. Victors isolation is created by himself by retreating from humanity to please the creature.
This theme is so important because everything the monster does or feels directly relates to his poignant seclusion. Victor sees his friendship to him as a compensation for the deficiency in his relationship to his brothers Based on the working definition of isolation for this research paper, the development of isolation will be outlined by identifying inducing incidents and processes.
He wakes up from his trance and suddenly is aware of the misery he has put himself in through his occupation and hopes to be free soon.
Will this overthinking hurt him in the end? Hearing about the family fleeing the village because of his presence leads to isolation building into anger.
I was Crockford 4 required to exchange chimeras of boundless grandeur for realities of little worth. Throughout this, Frankenstein weakens his relationships, such as his relationship with Elizabeth and Henry. After committing the first sin he secludes "from the Garden of Eden to work the ground from which he had been taken" Teen Study Bible, Gen.
The one difference that really sets Victor and the Creature apart is the fact that Victor still believed that the Creature was evil in the end, but the creature realized that the crimes he had committed were wrong. Research shows that the use of pets can help with signs of depression, loneliness, and other forms of anxiety.
This novel does well in pointing out a few morals and characteristics that humans possess and never really reflect upon. The negative effects that Victor faces are becoming obsessed with building a monster and becoming sick. | <urn:uuid:41bc16c0-bb4f-453e-987b-1b3e1e7234a9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hojuwirucypetam.dellrichards.com/frankenstein-and-solitude-essay430273800ad.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.986387 | 332 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.2998064458370209,
0.1438731849193573,
0.05115172266960144,
0.251078724861145,
-0.4673473536968231,
-0.28793883323669434,
0.4891517758369446,
-0.15707096457481384,
0.23224589228630066,
-0.02626287005841732,
-0.045470576733350754,
-0.17895008623600006,
0.7921512126922607,
0.13482806086540... | 1 | When Victor confronts his creation in the Alps, the first thought is to destroy his creation. Victors isolation is created by himself by retreating from humanity to please the creature.
This theme is so important because everything the monster does or feels directly relates to his poignant seclusion. Victor sees his friendship to him as a compensation for the deficiency in his relationship to his brothers Based on the working definition of isolation for this research paper, the development of isolation will be outlined by identifying inducing incidents and processes.
He wakes up from his trance and suddenly is aware of the misery he has put himself in through his occupation and hopes to be free soon.
Will this overthinking hurt him in the end? Hearing about the family fleeing the village because of his presence leads to isolation building into anger.
I was Crockford 4 required to exchange chimeras of boundless grandeur for realities of little worth. Throughout this, Frankenstein weakens his relationships, such as his relationship with Elizabeth and Henry. After committing the first sin he secludes "from the Garden of Eden to work the ground from which he had been taken" Teen Study Bible, Gen.
The one difference that really sets Victor and the Creature apart is the fact that Victor still believed that the Creature was evil in the end, but the creature realized that the crimes he had committed were wrong. Research shows that the use of pets can help with signs of depression, loneliness, and other forms of anxiety.
This novel does well in pointing out a few morals and characteristics that humans possess and never really reflect upon. The negative effects that Victor faces are becoming obsessed with building a monster and becoming sick. | 330 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A horse-shaped earthenware object, the largest of its kind in the country’s history, has been excavated at the Geumryeongchong Tomb site in Gyeongju, North Gyeongsang Province. The presence and location of the objects excavated within and around the tumuli suggest that the tomb belonged to a king, not a young member of a royal family as presumed before.
“We’ve recently excavated some 30 earthenware pots used for ancestral rites near the tomb, which had been unearthed during the Japanese colonial era,” the Gyeongju National Museum announced, saying it turns out that the tomb is likely to have been built above the ground, not from underground as previously known.
The Silla Dynasty’s tomb, presumed to date back to the late 5th century or the early 6th century, is where a pair of the pottery in the shape of a warrior on horseback, the National Treasure No. 91, had been excavated. The horse-shaped pottery discovered during the latest investigation is 56 centimeters high, and has delicately formed face, jaw, neck, and hooves. Along with it, earthenware for memorial services also turned up. Given that parts of it were neatly cut off, the pottery seems to have been intentionally broken and dedicated to the tomb.
It is also noteworthy that over 30 jars filled with offerings such as oysters and clams were found out, located with a consistent space between them. The Gold Bell Tomb turned out to be 28 meters in diameter, eight meters larger than previously known, but is still not one of the largest tombs in the country. Yet, the tomb had more jars for rituals even than Seobongchong, a bigger tomb located nearby. Inside and outside the earthenware, some bones of animals such as a horse and a cow, a plate with a cover, bells, and glass beads were also excavated. Shin Gwang-cheol, a curator at the museum, explained that the floor where the earthenware was found out indicates the process of building the tomb and holding grand memorial services several times.
Some suggest that Geumryeongchong was a royal tomb. A gold crown of the Silla Kingdom (Treasure No. 338), gold bells, belts, jade bracelets, and a large sword had been discovered near the tomb, but since most accessories were small, experts presumed that the tomb belonged to a young member of a royal family, not a king. However, Park Kwang-choon, a professor at the Department of Archaeology and Art History at Dong-A University, said that the discovery of a prop, which had been found only near royal tombs, as well as the scale of rituals hint at a possibility that it is a royal tomb of a king.
An excavation study into Geumryeongchong was conducted in 1924, but the soil and stones that covered and surrounded the burial mound were not investigated back then. This is why the tomb was incorrectly known for being an underground grave, unlike other kingdom sites built during the Silla Dynasty. The Gyeongju National Museum is set to excavate the mound again by next year.
Jong-Yeob JO email@example.com | <urn:uuid:2b12b67d-fc60-494f-9537-739fa330fd73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20191001/1862230/1/Horse-shaped-pottery-excavated-at-Geumryeongchong-in-Gyeongju | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00336.warc.gz | en | 0.985861 | 687 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.030784044414758682,
0.3827890157699585,
0.8796143531799316,
-0.16815653443336487,
-0.0635683536529541,
-0.0907960832118988,
0.07745403796434402,
-0.051951274275779724,
-0.23917949199676514,
0.019854627549648285,
-0.003979690372943878,
-0.2025580108165741,
0.3462483882904053,
0.792543530... | 1 | A horse-shaped earthenware object, the largest of its kind in the country’s history, has been excavated at the Geumryeongchong Tomb site in Gyeongju, North Gyeongsang Province. The presence and location of the objects excavated within and around the tumuli suggest that the tomb belonged to a king, not a young member of a royal family as presumed before.
“We’ve recently excavated some 30 earthenware pots used for ancestral rites near the tomb, which had been unearthed during the Japanese colonial era,” the Gyeongju National Museum announced, saying it turns out that the tomb is likely to have been built above the ground, not from underground as previously known.
The Silla Dynasty’s tomb, presumed to date back to the late 5th century or the early 6th century, is where a pair of the pottery in the shape of a warrior on horseback, the National Treasure No. 91, had been excavated. The horse-shaped pottery discovered during the latest investigation is 56 centimeters high, and has delicately formed face, jaw, neck, and hooves. Along with it, earthenware for memorial services also turned up. Given that parts of it were neatly cut off, the pottery seems to have been intentionally broken and dedicated to the tomb.
It is also noteworthy that over 30 jars filled with offerings such as oysters and clams were found out, located with a consistent space between them. The Gold Bell Tomb turned out to be 28 meters in diameter, eight meters larger than previously known, but is still not one of the largest tombs in the country. Yet, the tomb had more jars for rituals even than Seobongchong, a bigger tomb located nearby. Inside and outside the earthenware, some bones of animals such as a horse and a cow, a plate with a cover, bells, and glass beads were also excavated. Shin Gwang-cheol, a curator at the museum, explained that the floor where the earthenware was found out indicates the process of building the tomb and holding grand memorial services several times.
Some suggest that Geumryeongchong was a royal tomb. A gold crown of the Silla Kingdom (Treasure No. 338), gold bells, belts, jade bracelets, and a large sword had been discovered near the tomb, but since most accessories were small, experts presumed that the tomb belonged to a young member of a royal family, not a king. However, Park Kwang-choon, a professor at the Department of Archaeology and Art History at Dong-A University, said that the discovery of a prop, which had been found only near royal tombs, as well as the scale of rituals hint at a possibility that it is a royal tomb of a king.
An excavation study into Geumryeongchong was conducted in 1924, but the soil and stones that covered and surrounded the burial mound were not investigated back then. This is why the tomb was incorrectly known for being an underground grave, unlike other kingdom sites built during the Silla Dynasty. The Gyeongju National Museum is set to excavate the mound again by next year.
Jong-Yeob JO email@example.com | 674 | ENGLISH | 1 |
April 5 marked the 132nd birthday of Hedwig Kohn, the German-born physicist whose birth, life, and work were honored with a Google Doodle on Friday.
Kohn, a Jewish woman who escaped from Germany during World War II, led a remarkable life that took her from her hometown of Breslau (modern-day Wrocław, Poland), through Europe, and to multiple university positions in the United States.
Her harrowing two-month journey out of Nazi Germany, via the Soviet Union, led her to North Carolina. Once she reached the US, Kohn became a preeminent physics researcher whose work influenced the modern understanding of radiometry and spectroscopy.
In addition to a lifetime dedicated to expanding knowledge, here are three of her most noteworthy legacies she left behind:
She Was a Trailblazing Female Physicist
Kohn began attending university before she was technically even allowed to be a student. As a woman, Kohn was barred from matriculating in Germany, but in 1907, she began auditing classes at Breslau University. She enrolled the next year, when women were finally allowed to enroll. Receiving her doctorate in physics In 1913, she began working under the physicist Otto Lummer, taking on a large portion of advising and teaching duties during World War I. During this time, their work focused on flame spectroscopy and other radiation properties, including those that led to the formulation of Planck’s radiation law.
One of Kohn’s most noteworthy achievements was receiving her habilitation, a certification roughly equivalent to current-day post-doctoral research. Common among European countries, it allows an academic to teach university courses, but at the time it was not common for a woman to earn such qualifications. In 1930, 17 years after she received her doctorate, she finally received the accreditation, becoming one of only three women to receive a habilitation in Germany before World War II.
But in 1933, under Nazi laws that removed Jewish people from positions of authority, she lost her position at the university.
She Was a Prolific Academic Adviser
During her time at the Breslau University, Kohn advised doctoral students, even while she was a very junior faculty member. Eight of her advisees received their doctorates by 1940, despite the fact that Kohn had lost her position.
When she escaped to the US in 1941, Kohn took positions at several women’s colleges, including the Women’s College of the University of North Carolina in Greensboro, as well as Wellesley College in Massachusetts. She remained at Wellesley until 1952, when she retired from teaching. But Kohn didn’t stop working at that point.
Until her death in 1964, Kohn continued her research in a flame spectroscopy laboratory she had set up at Duke University, where she advised two Ph.D. students and two post-doctoral researchers.
Her Work Formed the Foundation of Radiometry
Kohn’s research on radiometry — the measure of electromagnetic radiation, including that on the visible light spectrum — resulted in 20 peer-reviewed publications in academic journals as well as one patent. These publications formed the basis for physics textbooks that introduced students to radiometry, starting in the 1960s, so her work was in front of almost every student of physics.
Kohn worked as a research associate at Duke, where she continued to mentor students until shortly before her death, on March 26, 1964. | <urn:uuid:d6ea686d-4dd6-4364-8f58-b9f8ead180c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inverse.com/article/54655-hedwig-kohn-left-a-lasting-mark-on-physics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00284.warc.gz | en | 0.980618 | 721 | 3.375 | 3 | [
-0.4831634759902954,
0.44940274953842163,
0.008852430619299412,
0.46125486493110657,
-0.18093045055866241,
0.07612651586532593,
0.2776795029640198,
0.29680001735687256,
-0.3289964199066162,
-0.03509489446878433,
0.3219538927078247,
-0.24462531507015228,
-0.03503204137086868,
0.357293188571... | 9 | April 5 marked the 132nd birthday of Hedwig Kohn, the German-born physicist whose birth, life, and work were honored with a Google Doodle on Friday.
Kohn, a Jewish woman who escaped from Germany during World War II, led a remarkable life that took her from her hometown of Breslau (modern-day Wrocław, Poland), through Europe, and to multiple university positions in the United States.
Her harrowing two-month journey out of Nazi Germany, via the Soviet Union, led her to North Carolina. Once she reached the US, Kohn became a preeminent physics researcher whose work influenced the modern understanding of radiometry and spectroscopy.
In addition to a lifetime dedicated to expanding knowledge, here are three of her most noteworthy legacies she left behind:
She Was a Trailblazing Female Physicist
Kohn began attending university before she was technically even allowed to be a student. As a woman, Kohn was barred from matriculating in Germany, but in 1907, she began auditing classes at Breslau University. She enrolled the next year, when women were finally allowed to enroll. Receiving her doctorate in physics In 1913, she began working under the physicist Otto Lummer, taking on a large portion of advising and teaching duties during World War I. During this time, their work focused on flame spectroscopy and other radiation properties, including those that led to the formulation of Planck’s radiation law.
One of Kohn’s most noteworthy achievements was receiving her habilitation, a certification roughly equivalent to current-day post-doctoral research. Common among European countries, it allows an academic to teach university courses, but at the time it was not common for a woman to earn such qualifications. In 1930, 17 years after she received her doctorate, she finally received the accreditation, becoming one of only three women to receive a habilitation in Germany before World War II.
But in 1933, under Nazi laws that removed Jewish people from positions of authority, she lost her position at the university.
She Was a Prolific Academic Adviser
During her time at the Breslau University, Kohn advised doctoral students, even while she was a very junior faculty member. Eight of her advisees received their doctorates by 1940, despite the fact that Kohn had lost her position.
When she escaped to the US in 1941, Kohn took positions at several women’s colleges, including the Women’s College of the University of North Carolina in Greensboro, as well as Wellesley College in Massachusetts. She remained at Wellesley until 1952, when she retired from teaching. But Kohn didn’t stop working at that point.
Until her death in 1964, Kohn continued her research in a flame spectroscopy laboratory she had set up at Duke University, where she advised two Ph.D. students and two post-doctoral researchers.
Her Work Formed the Foundation of Radiometry
Kohn’s research on radiometry — the measure of electromagnetic radiation, including that on the visible light spectrum — resulted in 20 peer-reviewed publications in academic journals as well as one patent. These publications formed the basis for physics textbooks that introduced students to radiometry, starting in the 1960s, so her work was in front of almost every student of physics.
Kohn worked as a research associate at Duke, where she continued to mentor students until shortly before her death, on March 26, 1964. | 740 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hawaiki: The Original Home of the Maori; with a Sketch of Polynesian History
The Rarotongan Account of the Maori Migration
The Rarotongan Account of the Maori Migration.
But any doubt as to whether this island is that known in Maori History will be set at rest by what follows. It is now several years ago since Mr. J. T. Large, who had been page 205 page 206on a visit to Rarotonga, informed me that the names of the fleet of canoes which came to New Zealand in about 1350 were known to the Rarotongans. At that time I was under the belief that these names might have been learned from some Maori visitor to Rarotonga, of which the earliest on record is that of a few men who had been taken by the notorious Goodenough from New Zealand in the year 1820 or 1821. This Goodenough, who was well known on the northern coasts of New Zealand about that time as an unscrupulous trader, of which there were so many in those times, made a voyage to the Pacific, and there discovered the lovely island of Rarotonga; but his conduct is said to have been so atrocious in his dealings with the people that he kept his discovery a secret, and thereby lost the honour of being recognised as its discoverer. It was the Rev. J. Williams who first made known the existence of Rarotonga, where he arrived from Ra'iatea in a small schooner in April or May, 1823. Williams brought back to Rarotonga from Aitutaki a woman named Tapairu, who was a relative of the Makea family. She had been taken away by Good-enough (or Kurunaki as the Rarotongans called him; his Maori name was Kurunape) and she helped materially in the introduction of the Gospel.
But the visit of Kurunaki was not the first occasion on which the Rarotongans became acquainted with the white man. Pa-ariki told me that many years before Kurunaki appeared, a large ship was seen in the offing, and one man was daring enough to go on board amongst the atua, or gods, as they supposed the crew to be. On his return he described the many wonders he had seen, and amongst other things he said they had groves of breadfruit trees growing there, and streams of running water. The captain's name was Makore. There can be little doubt as to what ship this was. It will be remembered that the page 207unfortunate Bligh in the "Bounty" had been sent to Tahiti to convey the breadfruit tree to the West Indies, and no doubt it was the "Bounty" that first discovered Rarotonga. The name of the captain, Makore, which no doubt is intended for McCoy, one of the ringleaders in the mutiny, points to the fact that the vessel sighted Rarotonga after the mutiny itself, or in May, 1788.
To return to the New Zealand canoes. Mr. Large states that "the migration of Naea came from Avaiki to Iva (supposed to be Nukahiva, in the Marquesas) and from Iva to Tahiti, and thence to Rarotonga. This was before the time of Tangiia and Karika." This latter statement is however, I think, a mistake, for the migration of Naea arrived in Rarotonga late in the life of Tangiia—it confuses the two men of the name of Naea, the first of whom did visit— perhaps live for a time, in Iva. Mr. Large adds: "The following are the names of the canoes of Naea and his tere:— Tainui, Turoa was captain; Tokomaru, Te Arava, Kura-aupo, Mata-tua, Takitumu, Okotura, Muri-enua, Arorangi, Rangiatea, Ngaio, Tumu-enua, and Mata-o-te-toa; Tamarua being captain of Tumu-enua, and Te Aia captain of Mata-o-te-toa.
"The two last named were called the fighting canoes, and the first eight went on to New Zealand, the remainder staying at Rarotonga."
* According to Maori tradition, Hotu-roa was captain of the Tainui, his brother Hotu-nui, was the priest.
"A man named Ava formerly came to this country; he landed at Poko-inu (west of Avarua). He came from Iva. It was he who brought the kokopu (a fresh-water fish) here first, hence the name Vai-kokopu near" here, of which the old name was Avana-nui, a name given to it by Ată. The migrations to this land occurred in this order: Tangaroa, Aio, Tangiia—Ava came after Tangiia.*
* There is a Maori tradition that Awa-morehurehu went from New Zealand to Hawaiki. He lived two generations before the fleet arrived here in 1350. Little is known of the story of this Awa, however. It was in answer to my question as to this Awa that the old man replied as above. The date agrees well with that of Awa-morehurehu.
"I do not know the name of Kupe, nor of Aotea canoe, nor of Turi, as forming part of the fleet. Aotea-roa is the name, I know, for New Zealand. I heard of the doings of some of the people who went to New Zealand. Te Arava canoe arrived there first and Tainui second, and the crew of the latter on their arrival found the crew of Te Arava asleep, so they took their anchor and passed the cable underneath that of Te Arava. When the crew of Te Arava woke up next morning and on seeing the cable of Tainui underneath theirs, they were annoyed and claimed that they had arrived first. "No"—said the people of Tainui, "see the position of our anchor." I don't know how they settled the dispute. This is the same kind of discussion as occurred when Toutika and Tonga-iti arrived at this island. Taki-tumu canoe came back to this island after going to New Zealand, and did not return. Perhaps it was through her crew that our ancestors learnt of the dispute between Te Arava and Tainui crews.
"There was a canoe named Papaka-tere that came here in ancient times from Mata-kura; she went away no one knows where.
"Yes, I know the name Mamari as that of a canoe which left these shores long, long ago. She went to some place in the direction of Tuanaki, and did not come back, so far as I ever heard. I know nothing more about her.
* The New Zealand greenstone is always said to be a fish.
Such is the substance of what I learned from old Tamarua Orometua. It was pleasant to see the bright intelligent look that came over his face when he heard the questions asked—they seemed to awake old memories of things long forgotten, and he would then give without hesitation a lot of detail which I could not take down. Every now and then he was at a loss for a name, but, after looking down with serious furrowed brow for a time, he would glance quickly up, with a bright look of triumph on his face, as if pleased at his success in recalling the name. Had he not been so very deaf, much more information could doubtless have been got from him. I was most particular in getting his age; and it will be seen that, if he was twelve years old when he attended the first takurua, and that he was at ten of them before 1823, he would be about ninety-six when we visited him, and therefore a full-grown man, hearing and learning the ancient lore of his ancestors, before the disturbing influences of the Gospel obliterated them. He is a scion of one of the most ancient families of Polynesia, as may be seen in the history of the Tamarua family, a name they have borne continuously for some thirty generations—one of his ancestors was captain of the Tumu-enua canoe, referred to in Mr. Large's account a few pages back.
With reference to the island called Tuanaki, I learnt that this was supposed to be due south of Rarotonga, and in page 212former times the Rarotongans used to visit it. It took them two days and a night to reach there in their canoes. There is no such island at the present time, but the Haymet Shoal exists in latitude 27° 30', which is about 360 miles south of Rarotonga, a distance their canoes would sail over in about the time mentioned.* The toka-matie puzzled us all at first, for the translation is "grass-stone," but it soon dawned on me, and was confirmed by Tamarua, that they used the word matie to describe the green colour of the stone brought back by Ngaue. The expression is therefore an exact translation of our word "greenstone," or the pounamu† of the Maori. When I asked the old man if he had ever seen the greenstone, he said he had not, and, on my showing him a piece I had with me, he exclaimed, "Ah! It is true then what our ancestors told us of the toka-matie—there is such a stone." He was very pleased at this but his pleasure scarcely equalled mine in finding that the Rarotongans had a traditional knowledge of the greenstone, and the fact of their giving it a different name showed that they did not derive their knowledge from the Maoris.
* Judge Wilson told me that a trading vessel from Auckland used, at one time in the early forties, to visit an island, the exact position of which was kept secret. But on a subsequent visit the island had disappeared. Col. Gudgeon, in answer to my request that he would make enquiries as to any further information the Rarotongans might have about Mr. Wilson's story, says, "Certainly there is a remembrance of the Tuanaki people and island, and old John Mana-a-rangi had seen some of the people. I do not think the island disappeared more than 70 years ago."
† Namu is an old Tahitian word meaning "green."
* I have the evidence of this, but it is too long to quote.
As to where the New Zealand fleet came from prior to its stay in Rarotonga, I much regret that the excitement caused by finding such a complete knowledge of New Zealand history in Rarotonga, caused me to forget to ask Tamarua's opinion on the matter; but from the information obtained by Mr. Large, and what was told me by the late Te Pou-o-te-rangi, of Rarotonga, they came from Tahiti, though perhaps not from the Marquesas, as Mr. Large learnt. Whilst there can be no reasonable doubt that in those days, the Maoris and Earotongans were perfectly familiar with the Marquesas (Iva, or in Maori Hiwa), we cannot neglect the important statement of the Maoris themselves that they came from Tawhiti, or Tahiti, especially when taken in conjunction with the Tahitian names of the west coast of that island, preserved by the Ngati-Awa people of the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand. That Tahiti and the neighbouring islands was the home of the Maoris some generations before their migration has been proved by the identity of ancestors.
As to the time of departure of the fleet from Rarotonga to New Zealand, the information obtained by Mr. Large shows that the canoes arrived in Rarotonga with those of Naea. If this is so, then the Maoris must have stayed in Earotonga for at least three generations, for Naea arrived there in the latter days of Tangiia, This is unlikely, however, because there is nothing in Maori history to confirm it, and, moreover, had there been such a prolonged stay, the names of Maori ancestors immediately preceding the heke, or migration, would certainly be shown on some of the numerous genealogical tables obtained by me in Rarotonga.
But there are no such names. The only Maori ancestors in those tables (of this period) are the four last shown in the margin.page 215
According to Maori History, Uenuku and Ruatapu lived in the generation that the fleet left Hawaiki; and it was not long before the departure that the incident known as "Te huri-pure-i-ata" occurred, when a number of young chiefs were drowned through the action of Ruatapu, his brother Paikea alone escaping, to become afterwards a famous ancestor of the Maoris.* It will be remembered that Euatapu's parting words to Paikea were, that in the eighth month he would visit his father's people, and that they were all to flee to Hikurangi to save themselves from the inundation which Euatapu promised. This flood in Maori History is known as "Te tai o Ruatapu;" in Raro-tonga it is known as "Te tai o Uenuku;" and local tradition says the people saved themselves by fleeing to Mount Ikurangi, a graceful mountain just behind Avarua, Earotonga. Whether the scene of this inundation is really connected with Earotongan Ikurangi, or some other (according to Rarotonga story this mountain was called after another of the same name in Tahiti), is doubtful. As to the nature of the inundation, it was probably an earthquake wave. I myself saw the effect of the wave of 1868, where, after traversing the whole breadth of the Pacific, from South America, it struck the Chatham Islands with such force as to leave whaleboats thirty feet above tide level.
* Col. Gudgeon is strongly of opinion that Paikea was an aboriginal of New Zealand, not one of this family. But he admits that Kahutia-te-rangi, which was, according to most accounts, another name for Paikea, did migrate here.
We will now see how the genealogical accounts of Maori and Rarotongan agree as to the period of Ruatapu. On the particular line from which the fragment in the margin has been taken, Ruatapu is the eighteenth back from Queen Makea now living. But, if we take the mean of a considerable number of lines to fix the date of Tangiia we shall find he lived twenty-four generations ago. Counting down from him, we shall find that Ruatapu flourished twenty generations ago. The mean of a large number of Maori genealogies back from 1850 to the date of migration to New Zealand is twenty generations, and it is known that Uenuku and Ruatapu lived in the generation that the heke left Hawaiki. Hence we see the records of the two people agree remarkably well. They are in fact history not myth.
Motoro, mentioned in the marginal genealogy, was sent by his father Tangiia to become high priest of the god Rongo at Mangaia, as mentioned by Dr. Wyatt Gill in "Myths and Songs," and he is mentioned as a Maori ancestor also.
It was about this period of Rarotongan history, that flourished two priests named Paoa-uri and Paoa-tea who voyaged to Ra'iatea to present a big drum called Tangi-moana to the god Oro, at Opoa, where they were both killed, the full story of which is known to Tahitians.
The above is perhaps as accordant an account of events in Polynesian History as will ever be obtained. As this book will be read by many who are not familiar with Maori History, it is necessary to say that the migration to New Zealand herein described is by no means the earliest one of which we have records, on the contrary, it was the page 217last of several, but at the same time by far the most important.
It seems probable, that between the date of Tangiia's settlement on Rarotonga in 1250, and the arrival of the fleet in New Zealand in 1350, occurred a number of solitary voyages to New Zealand under Tu-moana, Paoa, Kupe, Ngahue, and several others, the exact dates of which are very difficult to fix. Many of these people returned to Eastern Polynesia, leaving some portion of their crews in New Zealand. After 1350 we have the record of only one voyage back to Hawaiki, and that was in the same generation that the fleet arrived. Since that time down to the arrival of Capt. Cook in 1769, the Maoris, like the Hawaiians, remained isolated from the rest of the world.
It seems then from what has been said above, and from other evidence that might be adduced, that the Maori migration which came to New Zealand, circa 1350, in the canoes Tainui, Te Arawa, Mata-atua, Toko-maru, Taki-tumu, and Kura-haupo, came from the west side of Tahiti, and that they called in at Rarotonga on the way. On their further course to the S.W. they met with bad weather, the remembrance of which is retained in the Arawa Traditions, where the descent of the canoe to Te Waha-o-te-Parata is no doubt the description of a tempest given in the allegorical form so common to all Polynesian legends. The Taki-tumu account of the starvation they experienced, shows what straits they were put to. Their canoes all make the land in the neighbourhood of the East Cape, and from there coasted along to the places their crews finally settled in—Mata-atua, at Whakatane, Te Arawa at Maketu (both places in the Bay of Plenty) Tainui was hauled over the isthmus at Otahuhu, near Auckland, and then proceeded by the west coast to Kawhia where they settled; Toko-maru probably went round the North Cape, landing her page 218crew at Mohakatino, or its neighbourhood, north of Taranaki; Taki-tumu went on to the South Island, and was finally wrecked off Moeraki in Otago; whilst Kura-haupo, after its wreck at Rangi-tahua, appears to have made the land near the North Cape, where some of its crew remained, whilst others settled in Cook's Straits, near Mana-watu. It is said that she was finally wrecked on the west coast of the South Island.
The Aotea canoe, sailing from Ra'iatea, did not call at Rarotonga, but came on to Rangi-tahua (or Sunday Island), and had apparently fallen in with the Kura-haupo on the way, or—as some evidence seems to indicate—this island may have been appointed a rendezvous for the whole fleet. Here Kura-haupo was wrecked and many of her crew came on in the Mata-atua to New Zealand but the probability is, that the canoe itself was subsequently repaired, and finally reached New Zealand, as has just been stated above.
The above is the only instance recorded of a fleet arriving in New Zealand, but there are numerous references to other canoes which came previously—such as Mamari, the canoe of the northern tribe of Nga-Puhi; the Mahuhu, the canoe of the Ngati-Whatua tribe of Kaipara, which probably arrived in the times of Toi, or about the year 1150; the Horouta, Paoa's canoe, which came to the east coast, somewhere about 1200, besides many others.
Many of the Maori genealogies go back to long before the date of any of the above canoes, and some of them appear to refer to ancestors who have never lived outside New Zealand, but there are now no means of checking them, and therefore it is impossible to say when New Zealand was first peopled. From these tables, it may be inferred that one Ti-wakawaka was living in the Bay of Plenty, when he received a visit from a Polynesian navigator named Maku, who however, did not remain in the country, not page 219liking it. Doubtless, the contrast, in the matter of food, with his own prolific isles, was not to his taste. The probable date of Ti-wakawaka is the year a.d. 850. It is quite likely it was first colonised in the times of Ui-te-rangi-ora, who flourished in Fiji, circa a.d. 650, and in whose time the Pacific was nearly all explored by him, his contemporaries, and immediate descendants.
It is from the chiefs of the canoes that formed the fleet of 1350 that Maori aristocracy loves to trace descent; the descent from the old tangata-whenua, or previous migrations, is with many tribes ignored or made little of. There is plenty of evidence that this last migration was composed of people more advanced in ideas and of far greater warlike powers than the original inhabitants; and it is clear that within a few generations they had practically conquered and absorbed the others, often enslaving them; for it is stated in Hamiora Pio's Mss. that the tangata-whenua were a peaceful people, not like the ferocious cannibals of the fleet. Indeed, it is probable that these latter people brought cannibalism with them. In the mountainous country of the Urewera, tribes are to be seen the purest descendants of the older inhabitants, who, although very much mixed with the later migration, still show some difference in appearance that approximates them more to the Morioris of the Chatham Islands, who are no doubt the same people.
These ancient people were, however, the same Polynesian. race; there is no sign of any previous Papuan or Melanesian people ever having inhabited New Zealand, or indeed any part of the Pacific now occupied by the Polynesians. The few slight indications that some writers have fancied indicated a previous race are all referable to contact of the Polynesians with Papuans or Melanesians in their migrations to the Fiji and other Melanesian Islands.page 220
If what has been said about the connection between Maori and Rarotongan ancestors is true, it follows that the Moriori people of the Chatham Islands formed part of the same branch of the race, together with the Hawaiians. The Morioris have a good many words in common with the Rarotongans, which the Maoris have not retained in their dialect. The Hawaiians and Morioris are the only two branches of the race—so far as I am aware—that use the causitive form of the verb in hoko (Hawaiian ho'o). Of the principal dialects of Polynesia, the following are the most alike, in the order given:—Maori (and Moriori), Rarotongan, Tahitian, and Hawaiian.
The Moriori traditions are very precise in many respects. They say that they arrived at the Chatham Islands (Re-kohu) from Hawaiki; but as they have retained the common name of New Zealand, Aotea-roa, in their traditions, besides another old name of the North Island, Huku-rangi, and moreover knew the old name of the north end of the South Island, Aropaoa, there seems little doubt that they went to the Chathams from New Zealand, the more so, as we now know that this country was also called Hawaiki, i.e., Hawaiki-tautau. They are acquainted also traditionally with the names of several New Zealand trees not known elsewhere. The two lines of genealogies we have of this people, show that the migration to the Chatham Islands took place, by one line twenty-seven, by the other twenty-nine, or a mean of twenty-eight generations ago.*
The Moriori traditions mention more than one incident in Polynesian History before this date, but only one, I think, that is supposed to have occurred since, and this is very doubtful. I refer to the story of Manaia, who, by one Maori account was captain of the Tokomaru canoe that came here in 1350. Many old Maoris whose ancestors, are supposed to have come in the Tokomaru canoe, do not know this ancestor at all, and will not allow that he came in that canoe. This seems to indicate that it is an old Polynesian story, that has in process of time been accredited to the voyage of the Tokomaru canoe, but in reality the incident took place long before. I would add, that if the period of Toi be taken from the table published in the Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. vii., p. 40, then if the time of Rauru be taken as that at which the Morioris left New Zealand, the number of generations will be twenty-nine back from 1850, or one more than I have shown above.page 222
For the use of Polynesian scholars, I add a table of events and dates, derived from these Rarotongan and other sources. They are of course only approximate, but will serve the purpose of a summary of the history of the people, on which others may build. | <urn:uuid:4f3c4397-eaa2-4bc5-8302-b17157f6b597> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-SmiHawa-t1-body-d7-d13.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00095.warc.gz | en | 0.981056 | 5,545 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
-0.248551145195961,
0.15769240260124207,
-0.11535292863845825,
-0.030830444768071175,
-0.38980257511138916,
-0.04911429062485695,
0.26314157247543335,
0.11988016963005066,
-0.2639101445674896,
0.24765443801879883,
0.3577340841293335,
-0.676671028137207,
0.021929966285824776,
0.440250903367... | 4 | Hawaiki: The Original Home of the Maori; with a Sketch of Polynesian History
The Rarotongan Account of the Maori Migration
The Rarotongan Account of the Maori Migration.
But any doubt as to whether this island is that known in Maori History will be set at rest by what follows. It is now several years ago since Mr. J. T. Large, who had been page 205 page 206on a visit to Rarotonga, informed me that the names of the fleet of canoes which came to New Zealand in about 1350 were known to the Rarotongans. At that time I was under the belief that these names might have been learned from some Maori visitor to Rarotonga, of which the earliest on record is that of a few men who had been taken by the notorious Goodenough from New Zealand in the year 1820 or 1821. This Goodenough, who was well known on the northern coasts of New Zealand about that time as an unscrupulous trader, of which there were so many in those times, made a voyage to the Pacific, and there discovered the lovely island of Rarotonga; but his conduct is said to have been so atrocious in his dealings with the people that he kept his discovery a secret, and thereby lost the honour of being recognised as its discoverer. It was the Rev. J. Williams who first made known the existence of Rarotonga, where he arrived from Ra'iatea in a small schooner in April or May, 1823. Williams brought back to Rarotonga from Aitutaki a woman named Tapairu, who was a relative of the Makea family. She had been taken away by Good-enough (or Kurunaki as the Rarotongans called him; his Maori name was Kurunape) and she helped materially in the introduction of the Gospel.
But the visit of Kurunaki was not the first occasion on which the Rarotongans became acquainted with the white man. Pa-ariki told me that many years before Kurunaki appeared, a large ship was seen in the offing, and one man was daring enough to go on board amongst the atua, or gods, as they supposed the crew to be. On his return he described the many wonders he had seen, and amongst other things he said they had groves of breadfruit trees growing there, and streams of running water. The captain's name was Makore. There can be little doubt as to what ship this was. It will be remembered that the page 207unfortunate Bligh in the "Bounty" had been sent to Tahiti to convey the breadfruit tree to the West Indies, and no doubt it was the "Bounty" that first discovered Rarotonga. The name of the captain, Makore, which no doubt is intended for McCoy, one of the ringleaders in the mutiny, points to the fact that the vessel sighted Rarotonga after the mutiny itself, or in May, 1788.
To return to the New Zealand canoes. Mr. Large states that "the migration of Naea came from Avaiki to Iva (supposed to be Nukahiva, in the Marquesas) and from Iva to Tahiti, and thence to Rarotonga. This was before the time of Tangiia and Karika." This latter statement is however, I think, a mistake, for the migration of Naea arrived in Rarotonga late in the life of Tangiia—it confuses the two men of the name of Naea, the first of whom did visit— perhaps live for a time, in Iva. Mr. Large adds: "The following are the names of the canoes of Naea and his tere:— Tainui, Turoa was captain; Tokomaru, Te Arava, Kura-aupo, Mata-tua, Takitumu, Okotura, Muri-enua, Arorangi, Rangiatea, Ngaio, Tumu-enua, and Mata-o-te-toa; Tamarua being captain of Tumu-enua, and Te Aia captain of Mata-o-te-toa.
"The two last named were called the fighting canoes, and the first eight went on to New Zealand, the remainder staying at Rarotonga."
* According to Maori tradition, Hotu-roa was captain of the Tainui, his brother Hotu-nui, was the priest.
"A man named Ava formerly came to this country; he landed at Poko-inu (west of Avarua). He came from Iva. It was he who brought the kokopu (a fresh-water fish) here first, hence the name Vai-kokopu near" here, of which the old name was Avana-nui, a name given to it by Ată. The migrations to this land occurred in this order: Tangaroa, Aio, Tangiia—Ava came after Tangiia.*
* There is a Maori tradition that Awa-morehurehu went from New Zealand to Hawaiki. He lived two generations before the fleet arrived here in 1350. Little is known of the story of this Awa, however. It was in answer to my question as to this Awa that the old man replied as above. The date agrees well with that of Awa-morehurehu.
"I do not know the name of Kupe, nor of Aotea canoe, nor of Turi, as forming part of the fleet. Aotea-roa is the name, I know, for New Zealand. I heard of the doings of some of the people who went to New Zealand. Te Arava canoe arrived there first and Tainui second, and the crew of the latter on their arrival found the crew of Te Arava asleep, so they took their anchor and passed the cable underneath that of Te Arava. When the crew of Te Arava woke up next morning and on seeing the cable of Tainui underneath theirs, they were annoyed and claimed that they had arrived first. "No"—said the people of Tainui, "see the position of our anchor." I don't know how they settled the dispute. This is the same kind of discussion as occurred when Toutika and Tonga-iti arrived at this island. Taki-tumu canoe came back to this island after going to New Zealand, and did not return. Perhaps it was through her crew that our ancestors learnt of the dispute between Te Arava and Tainui crews.
"There was a canoe named Papaka-tere that came here in ancient times from Mata-kura; she went away no one knows where.
"Yes, I know the name Mamari as that of a canoe which left these shores long, long ago. She went to some place in the direction of Tuanaki, and did not come back, so far as I ever heard. I know nothing more about her.
* The New Zealand greenstone is always said to be a fish.
Such is the substance of what I learned from old Tamarua Orometua. It was pleasant to see the bright intelligent look that came over his face when he heard the questions asked—they seemed to awake old memories of things long forgotten, and he would then give without hesitation a lot of detail which I could not take down. Every now and then he was at a loss for a name, but, after looking down with serious furrowed brow for a time, he would glance quickly up, with a bright look of triumph on his face, as if pleased at his success in recalling the name. Had he not been so very deaf, much more information could doubtless have been got from him. I was most particular in getting his age; and it will be seen that, if he was twelve years old when he attended the first takurua, and that he was at ten of them before 1823, he would be about ninety-six when we visited him, and therefore a full-grown man, hearing and learning the ancient lore of his ancestors, before the disturbing influences of the Gospel obliterated them. He is a scion of one of the most ancient families of Polynesia, as may be seen in the history of the Tamarua family, a name they have borne continuously for some thirty generations—one of his ancestors was captain of the Tumu-enua canoe, referred to in Mr. Large's account a few pages back.
With reference to the island called Tuanaki, I learnt that this was supposed to be due south of Rarotonga, and in page 212former times the Rarotongans used to visit it. It took them two days and a night to reach there in their canoes. There is no such island at the present time, but the Haymet Shoal exists in latitude 27° 30', which is about 360 miles south of Rarotonga, a distance their canoes would sail over in about the time mentioned.* The toka-matie puzzled us all at first, for the translation is "grass-stone," but it soon dawned on me, and was confirmed by Tamarua, that they used the word matie to describe the green colour of the stone brought back by Ngaue. The expression is therefore an exact translation of our word "greenstone," or the pounamu† of the Maori. When I asked the old man if he had ever seen the greenstone, he said he had not, and, on my showing him a piece I had with me, he exclaimed, "Ah! It is true then what our ancestors told us of the toka-matie—there is such a stone." He was very pleased at this but his pleasure scarcely equalled mine in finding that the Rarotongans had a traditional knowledge of the greenstone, and the fact of their giving it a different name showed that they did not derive their knowledge from the Maoris.
* Judge Wilson told me that a trading vessel from Auckland used, at one time in the early forties, to visit an island, the exact position of which was kept secret. But on a subsequent visit the island had disappeared. Col. Gudgeon, in answer to my request that he would make enquiries as to any further information the Rarotongans might have about Mr. Wilson's story, says, "Certainly there is a remembrance of the Tuanaki people and island, and old John Mana-a-rangi had seen some of the people. I do not think the island disappeared more than 70 years ago."
† Namu is an old Tahitian word meaning "green."
* I have the evidence of this, but it is too long to quote.
As to where the New Zealand fleet came from prior to its stay in Rarotonga, I much regret that the excitement caused by finding such a complete knowledge of New Zealand history in Rarotonga, caused me to forget to ask Tamarua's opinion on the matter; but from the information obtained by Mr. Large, and what was told me by the late Te Pou-o-te-rangi, of Rarotonga, they came from Tahiti, though perhaps not from the Marquesas, as Mr. Large learnt. Whilst there can be no reasonable doubt that in those days, the Maoris and Earotongans were perfectly familiar with the Marquesas (Iva, or in Maori Hiwa), we cannot neglect the important statement of the Maoris themselves that they came from Tawhiti, or Tahiti, especially when taken in conjunction with the Tahitian names of the west coast of that island, preserved by the Ngati-Awa people of the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand. That Tahiti and the neighbouring islands was the home of the Maoris some generations before their migration has been proved by the identity of ancestors.
As to the time of departure of the fleet from Rarotonga to New Zealand, the information obtained by Mr. Large shows that the canoes arrived in Rarotonga with those of Naea. If this is so, then the Maoris must have stayed in Earotonga for at least three generations, for Naea arrived there in the latter days of Tangiia, This is unlikely, however, because there is nothing in Maori history to confirm it, and, moreover, had there been such a prolonged stay, the names of Maori ancestors immediately preceding the heke, or migration, would certainly be shown on some of the numerous genealogical tables obtained by me in Rarotonga.
But there are no such names. The only Maori ancestors in those tables (of this period) are the four last shown in the margin.page 215
According to Maori History, Uenuku and Ruatapu lived in the generation that the fleet left Hawaiki; and it was not long before the departure that the incident known as "Te huri-pure-i-ata" occurred, when a number of young chiefs were drowned through the action of Ruatapu, his brother Paikea alone escaping, to become afterwards a famous ancestor of the Maoris.* It will be remembered that Euatapu's parting words to Paikea were, that in the eighth month he would visit his father's people, and that they were all to flee to Hikurangi to save themselves from the inundation which Euatapu promised. This flood in Maori History is known as "Te tai o Ruatapu;" in Raro-tonga it is known as "Te tai o Uenuku;" and local tradition says the people saved themselves by fleeing to Mount Ikurangi, a graceful mountain just behind Avarua, Earotonga. Whether the scene of this inundation is really connected with Earotongan Ikurangi, or some other (according to Rarotonga story this mountain was called after another of the same name in Tahiti), is doubtful. As to the nature of the inundation, it was probably an earthquake wave. I myself saw the effect of the wave of 1868, where, after traversing the whole breadth of the Pacific, from South America, it struck the Chatham Islands with such force as to leave whaleboats thirty feet above tide level.
* Col. Gudgeon is strongly of opinion that Paikea was an aboriginal of New Zealand, not one of this family. But he admits that Kahutia-te-rangi, which was, according to most accounts, another name for Paikea, did migrate here.
We will now see how the genealogical accounts of Maori and Rarotongan agree as to the period of Ruatapu. On the particular line from which the fragment in the margin has been taken, Ruatapu is the eighteenth back from Queen Makea now living. But, if we take the mean of a considerable number of lines to fix the date of Tangiia we shall find he lived twenty-four generations ago. Counting down from him, we shall find that Ruatapu flourished twenty generations ago. The mean of a large number of Maori genealogies back from 1850 to the date of migration to New Zealand is twenty generations, and it is known that Uenuku and Ruatapu lived in the generation that the heke left Hawaiki. Hence we see the records of the two people agree remarkably well. They are in fact history not myth.
Motoro, mentioned in the marginal genealogy, was sent by his father Tangiia to become high priest of the god Rongo at Mangaia, as mentioned by Dr. Wyatt Gill in "Myths and Songs," and he is mentioned as a Maori ancestor also.
It was about this period of Rarotongan history, that flourished two priests named Paoa-uri and Paoa-tea who voyaged to Ra'iatea to present a big drum called Tangi-moana to the god Oro, at Opoa, where they were both killed, the full story of which is known to Tahitians.
The above is perhaps as accordant an account of events in Polynesian History as will ever be obtained. As this book will be read by many who are not familiar with Maori History, it is necessary to say that the migration to New Zealand herein described is by no means the earliest one of which we have records, on the contrary, it was the page 217last of several, but at the same time by far the most important.
It seems probable, that between the date of Tangiia's settlement on Rarotonga in 1250, and the arrival of the fleet in New Zealand in 1350, occurred a number of solitary voyages to New Zealand under Tu-moana, Paoa, Kupe, Ngahue, and several others, the exact dates of which are very difficult to fix. Many of these people returned to Eastern Polynesia, leaving some portion of their crews in New Zealand. After 1350 we have the record of only one voyage back to Hawaiki, and that was in the same generation that the fleet arrived. Since that time down to the arrival of Capt. Cook in 1769, the Maoris, like the Hawaiians, remained isolated from the rest of the world.
It seems then from what has been said above, and from other evidence that might be adduced, that the Maori migration which came to New Zealand, circa 1350, in the canoes Tainui, Te Arawa, Mata-atua, Toko-maru, Taki-tumu, and Kura-haupo, came from the west side of Tahiti, and that they called in at Rarotonga on the way. On their further course to the S.W. they met with bad weather, the remembrance of which is retained in the Arawa Traditions, where the descent of the canoe to Te Waha-o-te-Parata is no doubt the description of a tempest given in the allegorical form so common to all Polynesian legends. The Taki-tumu account of the starvation they experienced, shows what straits they were put to. Their canoes all make the land in the neighbourhood of the East Cape, and from there coasted along to the places their crews finally settled in—Mata-atua, at Whakatane, Te Arawa at Maketu (both places in the Bay of Plenty) Tainui was hauled over the isthmus at Otahuhu, near Auckland, and then proceeded by the west coast to Kawhia where they settled; Toko-maru probably went round the North Cape, landing her page 218crew at Mohakatino, or its neighbourhood, north of Taranaki; Taki-tumu went on to the South Island, and was finally wrecked off Moeraki in Otago; whilst Kura-haupo, after its wreck at Rangi-tahua, appears to have made the land near the North Cape, where some of its crew remained, whilst others settled in Cook's Straits, near Mana-watu. It is said that she was finally wrecked on the west coast of the South Island.
The Aotea canoe, sailing from Ra'iatea, did not call at Rarotonga, but came on to Rangi-tahua (or Sunday Island), and had apparently fallen in with the Kura-haupo on the way, or—as some evidence seems to indicate—this island may have been appointed a rendezvous for the whole fleet. Here Kura-haupo was wrecked and many of her crew came on in the Mata-atua to New Zealand but the probability is, that the canoe itself was subsequently repaired, and finally reached New Zealand, as has just been stated above.
The above is the only instance recorded of a fleet arriving in New Zealand, but there are numerous references to other canoes which came previously—such as Mamari, the canoe of the northern tribe of Nga-Puhi; the Mahuhu, the canoe of the Ngati-Whatua tribe of Kaipara, which probably arrived in the times of Toi, or about the year 1150; the Horouta, Paoa's canoe, which came to the east coast, somewhere about 1200, besides many others.
Many of the Maori genealogies go back to long before the date of any of the above canoes, and some of them appear to refer to ancestors who have never lived outside New Zealand, but there are now no means of checking them, and therefore it is impossible to say when New Zealand was first peopled. From these tables, it may be inferred that one Ti-wakawaka was living in the Bay of Plenty, when he received a visit from a Polynesian navigator named Maku, who however, did not remain in the country, not page 219liking it. Doubtless, the contrast, in the matter of food, with his own prolific isles, was not to his taste. The probable date of Ti-wakawaka is the year a.d. 850. It is quite likely it was first colonised in the times of Ui-te-rangi-ora, who flourished in Fiji, circa a.d. 650, and in whose time the Pacific was nearly all explored by him, his contemporaries, and immediate descendants.
It is from the chiefs of the canoes that formed the fleet of 1350 that Maori aristocracy loves to trace descent; the descent from the old tangata-whenua, or previous migrations, is with many tribes ignored or made little of. There is plenty of evidence that this last migration was composed of people more advanced in ideas and of far greater warlike powers than the original inhabitants; and it is clear that within a few generations they had practically conquered and absorbed the others, often enslaving them; for it is stated in Hamiora Pio's Mss. that the tangata-whenua were a peaceful people, not like the ferocious cannibals of the fleet. Indeed, it is probable that these latter people brought cannibalism with them. In the mountainous country of the Urewera, tribes are to be seen the purest descendants of the older inhabitants, who, although very much mixed with the later migration, still show some difference in appearance that approximates them more to the Morioris of the Chatham Islands, who are no doubt the same people.
These ancient people were, however, the same Polynesian. race; there is no sign of any previous Papuan or Melanesian people ever having inhabited New Zealand, or indeed any part of the Pacific now occupied by the Polynesians. The few slight indications that some writers have fancied indicated a previous race are all referable to contact of the Polynesians with Papuans or Melanesians in their migrations to the Fiji and other Melanesian Islands.page 220
If what has been said about the connection between Maori and Rarotongan ancestors is true, it follows that the Moriori people of the Chatham Islands formed part of the same branch of the race, together with the Hawaiians. The Morioris have a good many words in common with the Rarotongans, which the Maoris have not retained in their dialect. The Hawaiians and Morioris are the only two branches of the race—so far as I am aware—that use the causitive form of the verb in hoko (Hawaiian ho'o). Of the principal dialects of Polynesia, the following are the most alike, in the order given:—Maori (and Moriori), Rarotongan, Tahitian, and Hawaiian.
The Moriori traditions are very precise in many respects. They say that they arrived at the Chatham Islands (Re-kohu) from Hawaiki; but as they have retained the common name of New Zealand, Aotea-roa, in their traditions, besides another old name of the North Island, Huku-rangi, and moreover knew the old name of the north end of the South Island, Aropaoa, there seems little doubt that they went to the Chathams from New Zealand, the more so, as we now know that this country was also called Hawaiki, i.e., Hawaiki-tautau. They are acquainted also traditionally with the names of several New Zealand trees not known elsewhere. The two lines of genealogies we have of this people, show that the migration to the Chatham Islands took place, by one line twenty-seven, by the other twenty-nine, or a mean of twenty-eight generations ago.*
The Moriori traditions mention more than one incident in Polynesian History before this date, but only one, I think, that is supposed to have occurred since, and this is very doubtful. I refer to the story of Manaia, who, by one Maori account was captain of the Tokomaru canoe that came here in 1350. Many old Maoris whose ancestors, are supposed to have come in the Tokomaru canoe, do not know this ancestor at all, and will not allow that he came in that canoe. This seems to indicate that it is an old Polynesian story, that has in process of time been accredited to the voyage of the Tokomaru canoe, but in reality the incident took place long before. I would add, that if the period of Toi be taken from the table published in the Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol. vii., p. 40, then if the time of Rauru be taken as that at which the Morioris left New Zealand, the number of generations will be twenty-nine back from 1850, or one more than I have shown above.page 222
For the use of Polynesian scholars, I add a table of events and dates, derived from these Rarotongan and other sources. They are of course only approximate, but will serve the purpose of a summary of the history of the people, on which others may build. | 5,507 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This student needed help structuring a paper about riots from the 1960's from a sociological and psychological standpoint. I've given a step by step explanation about how to write such a paper, with examples and ideas to help you get started.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 10, 2019, 12:41 am ad1c9bdddf
I will explain how to organize and write your paper. I'll also give you lots of examples. Do not, however, use any of my wording; that would be plagarism. I've also included a list of possible sources at the bottom of this page.
1. First, you'll need to have a paragraph (or two) with a general explanation of your topic. For example, you might say, "The 1960s was a time of great changes in society. African Americans particularly struggled with these changes, as they strived to achieve greater equality in the areas of employment, education, housing, and social status. Sometimes, especially in northern cities, riots would break out when African Americans felt that they weren't being treated fairly. The inequalities became too much, and the crowd psychology took over. . . . (Include a few sentences about how these race riots had both many causes, and that they didn't occur much in the southern states.)
2. Then you'll need 2 paragraphs about what constitutes a riot and what kinds of triggers exist for riots in general. Since you're only writing 900 words, I think a paragraph would be enough. You might say that, "A riot is an uprising that occurs when a crowd (sometimes called a mob) becomes angry and violent over a real or perceived slight. The race riots of the 1960s were particularly serious because of their buildup: years and years of unfair treatment many African Americans faced. Often these riots were triggered by police brutality or blatantly racist language used by police or others in authority. Some argue that these riots were more a factor of the mob mentality (racial collective action, in this case), whereas others see these riots as an effect of years of being put down by authorities." Answer these ...
I've written out directions on how to get started with a paper about riots in the 1960s. I haven't written the paper; rather, I've given all the directions to guide a student who is stuck. | <urn:uuid:bedcaa31-e739-42f1-b7b9-5922bec3d03e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brainmass.com/history/write-paper-1960s-riots-302314 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00175.warc.gz | en | 0.98248 | 475 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
-0.5010761022567749,
-0.08153696358203888,
0.020525842905044556,
-0.28040793538093567,
-0.11611472070217133,
0.4752117395401001,
0.010747027583420277,
0.3001044988632202,
-0.08862477540969849,
-0.13171496987342834,
0.3482666611671448,
0.37816551327705383,
-0.324709415435791,
-0.01597893238... | 1 | This student needed help structuring a paper about riots from the 1960's from a sociological and psychological standpoint. I've given a step by step explanation about how to write such a paper, with examples and ideas to help you get started.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 10, 2019, 12:41 am ad1c9bdddf
I will explain how to organize and write your paper. I'll also give you lots of examples. Do not, however, use any of my wording; that would be plagarism. I've also included a list of possible sources at the bottom of this page.
1. First, you'll need to have a paragraph (or two) with a general explanation of your topic. For example, you might say, "The 1960s was a time of great changes in society. African Americans particularly struggled with these changes, as they strived to achieve greater equality in the areas of employment, education, housing, and social status. Sometimes, especially in northern cities, riots would break out when African Americans felt that they weren't being treated fairly. The inequalities became too much, and the crowd psychology took over. . . . (Include a few sentences about how these race riots had both many causes, and that they didn't occur much in the southern states.)
2. Then you'll need 2 paragraphs about what constitutes a riot and what kinds of triggers exist for riots in general. Since you're only writing 900 words, I think a paragraph would be enough. You might say that, "A riot is an uprising that occurs when a crowd (sometimes called a mob) becomes angry and violent over a real or perceived slight. The race riots of the 1960s were particularly serious because of their buildup: years and years of unfair treatment many African Americans faced. Often these riots were triggered by police brutality or blatantly racist language used by police or others in authority. Some argue that these riots were more a factor of the mob mentality (racial collective action, in this case), whereas others see these riots as an effect of years of being put down by authorities." Answer these ...
I've written out directions on how to get started with a paper about riots in the 1960s. I haven't written the paper; rather, I've given all the directions to guide a student who is stuck. | 498 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Easter Sunday is a major Christian holiday, and it celebrates the resurrection of Jesus Christ three days after his death. As with many other Christian celebrations, it is considered to be a Moveable Feast, and its date always falls on the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon, which happens between March 21 and April 25. Easter Sunday is not a public holiday, therefore most stores are open, as they follow Sunday business hours.
When is Easter?
Easter marks the end of the Passion of Christ period, which begins with the 40 days of lent, symbolizing the days that Jesus spent in the desert being tempted by the Devil, and culminates in the Holy Week, with the Holy Thursday when Jesus had his Last Supper, the Good Friday when Jesus was crucified and finally Easter Sunday, marking the day of his resurrection.
Where does the word Easter come from?
Although there is some debate, most agree that Easter derives from Eostre or Eostrae, which was a goddess whom spring fertility pagan festivals honored. These festivals took place during the spring equinox, and it is believed that Christians took the name and celebrations from these festivals.
Why do we celebrate Easter?
Easter Sunday is regarded as the foundation of Christian faith, as it marks the day of Jesus Christ’s resurrection after his crucifixion.
In around 30 A.D, Roman Emperor Pontius Pilate sentenced Jesus Christ to death, after having him arrested by his troops for alleging to be the “Son of God”. After his death, he was buried in a tomb that was closed off with a big rock. It is said that three days after his burial, Jesus’ followers found the tomb open upon visiting it, and Jesus’ body was missing. During this period, Jesus Christ appeared to many of his followers, before ascending to heaven to be with his father and live an eternal life.
In the Bible, it is written that believers who celebrate this day and have faith in Jesus’ resurrection will also have eternal life. Thus why Easter Sunday became a popular celebration with the Christian religion.
When did Easter celebrations start?
Initially, Easter’s date was determined by the day of the Jewish Passover, as Jesus had his Passover feast the day before his crucifixion, putting his death’s date on the day of Passover. As such, Christians originally waited for the Jewish to determine their date of the Passover, and would hold Easter celebrations three days after that.
However, as it is believed that Jesus arose on a Sunday, this brought problems, as the date would not always fall on a Sunday. Thus, gentile Christians took to celebrating Easter on the nearest Sunday to Passover.
As the two religions strayed further apart, Christians became unwilling to let their holiday be determined by the Jewish calendar. So, it was decided in the Council of Nicaea that Easter should be celebrated on the Sunday after the first full moon of the Spring Equinox.
The meaning of some Easter traditions
While Easter is a Christian holiday, some of its most well-known traditions have no connection with religion, but rather go back to pagan practices. Nowadays, even non-religious people participate in the activities of the Easter weekend and take part in these traditions.
Easter eggs, real or chocolate, and their decorating symbolize fertility and birth, and some argue that it became a symbol of Easter as Jesus Christ was also reborn.
During this time, people also organize Easter Egg hunts for children.
This tradition is thought to have been brought to America by Germans in the 1700s. Much like the eggs, the use of bunnies on this holiday is meant to be symbolic of birth and renewal in spring.
Most people celebrate Easter by eating Lamb. This tradition derives from ancient Jewish practices, where Lambs were sacrificed during religious rituals. It is also why Jesus Christ is often called the “Lamb of God”, as he too was sacrificed for people’s sins. | <urn:uuid:e2a80ab6-04bd-450a-8617-3478399c0441> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.calendarr.com/united-states/easter-sunday/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.982751 | 826 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
0.1452748030424118,
0.20859727263450623,
0.06339354813098907,
0.19050702452659607,
-0.015816736966371536,
0.2134125530719757,
-0.08918094635009766,
0.08179928362369537,
0.11221624910831451,
0.24631895124912262,
-0.10359245538711548,
0.4740126132965088,
0.05487530678510666,
0.25734764337539... | 8 | Easter Sunday is a major Christian holiday, and it celebrates the resurrection of Jesus Christ three days after his death. As with many other Christian celebrations, it is considered to be a Moveable Feast, and its date always falls on the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon, which happens between March 21 and April 25. Easter Sunday is not a public holiday, therefore most stores are open, as they follow Sunday business hours.
When is Easter?
Easter marks the end of the Passion of Christ period, which begins with the 40 days of lent, symbolizing the days that Jesus spent in the desert being tempted by the Devil, and culminates in the Holy Week, with the Holy Thursday when Jesus had his Last Supper, the Good Friday when Jesus was crucified and finally Easter Sunday, marking the day of his resurrection.
Where does the word Easter come from?
Although there is some debate, most agree that Easter derives from Eostre or Eostrae, which was a goddess whom spring fertility pagan festivals honored. These festivals took place during the spring equinox, and it is believed that Christians took the name and celebrations from these festivals.
Why do we celebrate Easter?
Easter Sunday is regarded as the foundation of Christian faith, as it marks the day of Jesus Christ’s resurrection after his crucifixion.
In around 30 A.D, Roman Emperor Pontius Pilate sentenced Jesus Christ to death, after having him arrested by his troops for alleging to be the “Son of God”. After his death, he was buried in a tomb that was closed off with a big rock. It is said that three days after his burial, Jesus’ followers found the tomb open upon visiting it, and Jesus’ body was missing. During this period, Jesus Christ appeared to many of his followers, before ascending to heaven to be with his father and live an eternal life.
In the Bible, it is written that believers who celebrate this day and have faith in Jesus’ resurrection will also have eternal life. Thus why Easter Sunday became a popular celebration with the Christian religion.
When did Easter celebrations start?
Initially, Easter’s date was determined by the day of the Jewish Passover, as Jesus had his Passover feast the day before his crucifixion, putting his death’s date on the day of Passover. As such, Christians originally waited for the Jewish to determine their date of the Passover, and would hold Easter celebrations three days after that.
However, as it is believed that Jesus arose on a Sunday, this brought problems, as the date would not always fall on a Sunday. Thus, gentile Christians took to celebrating Easter on the nearest Sunday to Passover.
As the two religions strayed further apart, Christians became unwilling to let their holiday be determined by the Jewish calendar. So, it was decided in the Council of Nicaea that Easter should be celebrated on the Sunday after the first full moon of the Spring Equinox.
The meaning of some Easter traditions
While Easter is a Christian holiday, some of its most well-known traditions have no connection with religion, but rather go back to pagan practices. Nowadays, even non-religious people participate in the activities of the Easter weekend and take part in these traditions.
Easter eggs, real or chocolate, and their decorating symbolize fertility and birth, and some argue that it became a symbol of Easter as Jesus Christ was also reborn.
During this time, people also organize Easter Egg hunts for children.
This tradition is thought to have been brought to America by Germans in the 1700s. Much like the eggs, the use of bunnies on this holiday is meant to be symbolic of birth and renewal in spring.
Most people celebrate Easter by eating Lamb. This tradition derives from ancient Jewish practices, where Lambs were sacrificed during religious rituals. It is also why Jesus Christ is often called the “Lamb of God”, as he too was sacrificed for people’s sins. | 805 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Look at the given picture carefully
and complete the paragraph by
choosing the most appropriate
This is the picture of a classroom. There is a chair _____?______ a table for the teacher. A student is cleaning the table ______, the other is cleaning the blackboard All the four students are working, _______, there is no teacher in the room. Their classroom looks good ________ they clean it daily. The principal ________ the teacher are happy with the students.
Choose the correct words to fill the blanks in given pair of sentences.
Write is to Pen as drive is to ___________.
CHOOSE THE CORRECT WORD/PHRASE TO COMPLETE EACH SENTENCE.
Potato chips are ______.
(A) creamy (B) silky √(C)
√(C)crunchy (D) fleshy
The local train was full. My family and I couldn't get ________.
Both b and d seem correct
READ THE PASSAGE AND ANSWER THE QUESTIONS THAT FOLLOW.
One night, a saint had a dream of what he would be in his next life. So he called his reliable pupil and asked him what he would do for his teacher in return for all he had received. The pupil said he would do whatever his teacher asked him to do. Having received this promise, the saint said, Then this is what Id like you to do for me. Ive dreamed that when I die, which will be very soon, Im going to be reborn as a cat. Do you see that cat drinking milk there in the yard? Im going to be reborn as the second kitten of its next litter. Youll recognise me by a mark on my forehead. When that cat has littered, find the second kitten with a mark on its forehead and, with one stroke of your knife, slaughter it. Ill then be released from a cats life. Will you do this for me? The pupil was sad to hear all this, but he agreed to do as he had promised. Soon after this conversation, the guru did die. And the cat did have a litter of four little kittens. One day, the disciple sharpened his knife and picked out the second little kitten, which did indeed have a mark on its forehead. Just as he was about to bring down his knife to slit its throat, the little kitten suddenly spoke, Stop! Dont kill me. It screamed. Before the pupil could recover from the shock of hearing the little kitten speak in his teachers voice, it said, Dont kill me. I want to live on as a cat. When I asked you to kill me, I didnt know what a cats life would be like. Its great! Just let me go. I am happy as a kitten.
Who was the first person to know about saints dream?
AHis reliable pupil
it is straight away written in the passage "reliable pupil". | <urn:uuid:d2f25dbd-fdf4-4b51-ae13-ec20b44790b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sofolympiadtrainer.com/forum/ieo/0/240 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.981652 | 607 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
0.07056810706853867,
-0.27407822012901306,
0.3388150930404663,
0.19826772809028625,
-0.3259965479373932,
-0.27251136302948,
0.5919517278671265,
0.7316215634346008,
0.2453494668006897,
0.22679626941680908,
-0.11461986601352692,
-0.39595407247543335,
0.1422160416841507,
0.26603931188583374,
... | 1 | Look at the given picture carefully
and complete the paragraph by
choosing the most appropriate
This is the picture of a classroom. There is a chair _____?______ a table for the teacher. A student is cleaning the table ______, the other is cleaning the blackboard All the four students are working, _______, there is no teacher in the room. Their classroom looks good ________ they clean it daily. The principal ________ the teacher are happy with the students.
Choose the correct words to fill the blanks in given pair of sentences.
Write is to Pen as drive is to ___________.
CHOOSE THE CORRECT WORD/PHRASE TO COMPLETE EACH SENTENCE.
Potato chips are ______.
(A) creamy (B) silky √(C)
√(C)crunchy (D) fleshy
The local train was full. My family and I couldn't get ________.
Both b and d seem correct
READ THE PASSAGE AND ANSWER THE QUESTIONS THAT FOLLOW.
One night, a saint had a dream of what he would be in his next life. So he called his reliable pupil and asked him what he would do for his teacher in return for all he had received. The pupil said he would do whatever his teacher asked him to do. Having received this promise, the saint said, Then this is what Id like you to do for me. Ive dreamed that when I die, which will be very soon, Im going to be reborn as a cat. Do you see that cat drinking milk there in the yard? Im going to be reborn as the second kitten of its next litter. Youll recognise me by a mark on my forehead. When that cat has littered, find the second kitten with a mark on its forehead and, with one stroke of your knife, slaughter it. Ill then be released from a cats life. Will you do this for me? The pupil was sad to hear all this, but he agreed to do as he had promised. Soon after this conversation, the guru did die. And the cat did have a litter of four little kittens. One day, the disciple sharpened his knife and picked out the second little kitten, which did indeed have a mark on its forehead. Just as he was about to bring down his knife to slit its throat, the little kitten suddenly spoke, Stop! Dont kill me. It screamed. Before the pupil could recover from the shock of hearing the little kitten speak in his teachers voice, it said, Dont kill me. I want to live on as a cat. When I asked you to kill me, I didnt know what a cats life would be like. Its great! Just let me go. I am happy as a kitten.
Who was the first person to know about saints dream?
AHis reliable pupil
it is straight away written in the passage "reliable pupil". | 584 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Moated sites are as the name suggests – wide ditches full of water that would have surrounded an island which would have had a domestic or religious building on it. They were mostly build during the medieval period around central and eastern England, often to show wealth and status in the countryside. The Howbury moated site is well preserved with some significant surviving architectural details remaining from a 16th or 17th century country house including chimney breasts and a four-centred arch fireplace in the upper storey. The house is thought to have been built on a much earlier manor house, possibly dating as far back as 1000 A.D. It was used for farming in the early 1900’s and was left derelict following bomb damage from the Second World War. | <urn:uuid:f5c1246e-8ff1-4de1-be20-269bab8059a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.beyondthepoint.co.uk/property/howbury-moated-site/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.988371 | 154 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
0.4573161005973816,
0.1480361670255661,
0.4098514914512634,
-0.08627822995185852,
0.19513431191444397,
-0.07662336528301239,
-0.2541457712650299,
0.09182693064212799,
0.011197404004633427,
0.21237215399742126,
-0.36345091462135315,
-0.5715448260307312,
0.2913818955421448,
0.306245535612106... | 6 | Moated sites are as the name suggests – wide ditches full of water that would have surrounded an island which would have had a domestic or religious building on it. They were mostly build during the medieval period around central and eastern England, often to show wealth and status in the countryside. The Howbury moated site is well preserved with some significant surviving architectural details remaining from a 16th or 17th century country house including chimney breasts and a four-centred arch fireplace in the upper storey. The house is thought to have been built on a much earlier manor house, possibly dating as far back as 1000 A.D. It was used for farming in the early 1900’s and was left derelict following bomb damage from the Second World War. | 162 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,287 pages of information and 220,285 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
The Portsmouth Block Mills form part of the Portsmouth Dockyard at Portsmouth, and were built during the Napoleonic Wars to supply the British Royal Navy with pulley blocks. They started the age of mass-production using all-metal machine tools and are regarded as one of the seminal buildings of the British Industrial Revolution. They are also the site of the first stationary steam engines used by the Admiralty.
The Royal Navy had evolved by the middle of the eighteenth century into what has been described as the greatest industrial power in the western world. The Admiralty and Navy Board began a programme of modernisation of dockyards at Portsmouth and Plymouth, and by the start of the war with Revolutionary France possessed the most up-to-date fleet facilities in Europe.
The Dock system at Portsmouth has its origins in the work of Edmund Dummer in the 1690s. He constructed a series of basins, and wet and dry docks. Alterations were made to these in the course of the eighteenth century. One of the basins had become redundant by 1770, and it was proposed to use this as a sump into which all the water from the other facilities could drain. The water was pumped out by a series of horse-operated chain pumps.
In 1795, Brigadier-General Sir Samuel Bentham was appointed by the Admiralty, the first and only Inspector General of Naval Works with the task of continuing this modernisation, and in particular the introduction of steam power and mechanising the production processes in the dockyard. His office employed several specialists as his assistants - Mechanist (engineer), Draughtsmen, Architect, Chemist, Clerks, etc. The Inspector General's office was responsible for the introduction at Portsmouth of plant for the rolling of copper plates for sheathing ships, and for forging-mills for the production of metal parts used in the construction of vessels. They also introduced similar modernisation at the other Naval dockyards.
By 1797 work had started on building additional dry docks and on deepening the basins, and Bentham realised that the existing drainage system would not cope with the increased demand. He installed a steam engine designed by a member of his staff, James Sadler, in 1798 which, as well as working the chain pumps, drove woodworking machinery and a pump to take water from a well round the dockyard for fire-fighting purposes. This well was some 400 ft away, and the pumps operated by a horizontal reciprocating wooden spear housed in a tunnel running from the engine house to the top of the well. The Sadler engine was a house-built table-engine and installed in a single storey engine house with integral boiler; it replaced one of the horse-drives to the chain pumps. This engine was replaced in 1807 in the same house by another more powerful table engine made by Fenton, Murray and Wood of Leeds, and in turn in 1830 by a Maudslay Beam Engine.
In 1800 a Boulton and Watt beam-engine was ordered as back-up and was housed in a three-storey engine house in line with the Sadler engine house. This engine was replaced in 1837 by another engine made by James Watt and Co.
Space was very tight and expansion of manufacturing facilities was not possible, so by 1802 the drainage basin was filled with two tiers of brick vaults - the lower layer to act as the reservoir, the upper layer as storage, and the roof of the latter being level with the surrounding land, so creating more space. This allowed the construction of two parallel ranges of three-storey wood mills, the southern to incorporate both engine houses and their chimney stacks, the chain pumps and some wood working machinery. The northern range was directly over the vaults and was to house more woodworking machinery. The buildings were designed by Samuel Bunce, the architect of Bentham's staff.
While the vaults were under construction Bentham was ordering woodworking machinery of his own design, mostly up-and-down saws and circular saws. These were fitted-up in both ranges, the power to drive them being transmitted from the engines to the north range by under-drives through the upper layer of vaults, and then by vertical shafts to the upper floors of the buildings. The final drives to the machines was by flat belts running on pulleys.
This machinery was planned to cut timber for the numerous smaller parts used in ship-building, especially joinery, which had previously been cut by hand, such as components for tables and benches, as well as small turned goods like belaying pins. There is evidence that he had developed a rotary wood-planing machine, but details of this are obscure. There is also evidence that the complex housed a pipe boring machine, whereby straight elm trees were bored out for pump dales. These could be up to 40 ft long and were fitted through the decks of a vessel to pump seawater to the deck. There was a machine for making treenails - long wooden dowels used for fixing wooden parts of a ship together.
The Navy used large numbers of blocks, which were all hand-made by contractors. Their quality was not consistent, the supply problematic and they were expensive. A typical ship of the line needed about 1000 blocks of different sizes, and in the course of the year the Navy required over 100,000. Bentham had devised some machines for making blocks, but did not develop them and details of how they worked are now obscure. In 1802 Marc Isambard Brunel proposed to the Admiralty a system of making blocks using machinery he had patented. Bentham appreciated the superiority of Brunel's system and in August 1802 he was authorised by the Admiralty to proceed.
There were three series of block-making machines, each designed to make a range of block sizes. They were laid out to allow a production line, so each stage of the work progressed to the next in a natural flow. The yard between the two wood mill buildings was walled-off and roofed to form a new workshop to house the block-making machines.
The first set, for medium blocks, was installed in January 1803, the second set for smaller blocks in May 1803, and the third set for large blocks in March 1805. There were numerous changes of layout and some modification of the plant until in September 1807 the plant was felt able to fulfil all the needs of the Navy: In 1808 130,000 blocks were produced.
Brunel's patent specification shows wooden framed machines, which, while they show many of the principles of the machines actually installed bear little resemblance to the final designs. Once the contract with the Admiralty had been placed he engaged Henry Maudslay to make them, and it is clear the final designs had considerable input from Bentham, Maudslay, Simon Goodrich, (mechanician to the Navy board) as well as Brunel himself.
These machines were almost entirely hand made, the only machine tools used being lathes to machine circular parts, and drilling machines for boring small holes. At that time there were no milling, planing or shaping machines, and all flat surfaces were made by hand chipping, filing and scraping. There is evidence that the grinding of flats was also done to get near-precision finishes. The materials used were cast and wrought iron, brass and gun metal. The use of metal throughout their construction greatly improved their rigidity and accuracy which became the standard for later machine tool manufacture.
A representative selection of the machine tools are on display in the London Science Museum. Several other machines remain in situ at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard, but accessibility is unclear.
The significance of the concept - the early use of special-purpose machines for mass-producing standard items - cannot be overstated. The machines themselves are noteworthy in being early examples of large-scale all-metal industrial machine tools. Also worthy of attention is the detail design, durability, and the superb workmanship of these machines. The photographs are intended to highlight some admirable aspects of the design and workmanship. Note: The black-painted machines in the photos are at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard, while those painted green are at the London Science Museum.
See here for a detailed examination of the machines (this is a long thread in the Practical Machinist forum, containing numerous illustrations and descriptions). | <urn:uuid:0ee81873-49a3-46a0-b00d-cb1bff0c131b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gracesguide.co.uk/Portsmouth_Block_Mills | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00479.warc.gz | en | 0.980129 | 1,766 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
0.057994794100522995,
-0.02837829850614071,
0.5638251304626465,
-0.3197886049747467,
0.23236209154129028,
-0.20021669566631317,
-0.344369113445282,
-0.02530869096517563,
-0.28933095932006836,
-0.24544407427310944,
-0.10783842206001282,
-0.5301259756088257,
-0.20310842990875244,
0.109955497... | 1 | Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,287 pages of information and 220,285 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
The Portsmouth Block Mills form part of the Portsmouth Dockyard at Portsmouth, and were built during the Napoleonic Wars to supply the British Royal Navy with pulley blocks. They started the age of mass-production using all-metal machine tools and are regarded as one of the seminal buildings of the British Industrial Revolution. They are also the site of the first stationary steam engines used by the Admiralty.
The Royal Navy had evolved by the middle of the eighteenth century into what has been described as the greatest industrial power in the western world. The Admiralty and Navy Board began a programme of modernisation of dockyards at Portsmouth and Plymouth, and by the start of the war with Revolutionary France possessed the most up-to-date fleet facilities in Europe.
The Dock system at Portsmouth has its origins in the work of Edmund Dummer in the 1690s. He constructed a series of basins, and wet and dry docks. Alterations were made to these in the course of the eighteenth century. One of the basins had become redundant by 1770, and it was proposed to use this as a sump into which all the water from the other facilities could drain. The water was pumped out by a series of horse-operated chain pumps.
In 1795, Brigadier-General Sir Samuel Bentham was appointed by the Admiralty, the first and only Inspector General of Naval Works with the task of continuing this modernisation, and in particular the introduction of steam power and mechanising the production processes in the dockyard. His office employed several specialists as his assistants - Mechanist (engineer), Draughtsmen, Architect, Chemist, Clerks, etc. The Inspector General's office was responsible for the introduction at Portsmouth of plant for the rolling of copper plates for sheathing ships, and for forging-mills for the production of metal parts used in the construction of vessels. They also introduced similar modernisation at the other Naval dockyards.
By 1797 work had started on building additional dry docks and on deepening the basins, and Bentham realised that the existing drainage system would not cope with the increased demand. He installed a steam engine designed by a member of his staff, James Sadler, in 1798 which, as well as working the chain pumps, drove woodworking machinery and a pump to take water from a well round the dockyard for fire-fighting purposes. This well was some 400 ft away, and the pumps operated by a horizontal reciprocating wooden spear housed in a tunnel running from the engine house to the top of the well. The Sadler engine was a house-built table-engine and installed in a single storey engine house with integral boiler; it replaced one of the horse-drives to the chain pumps. This engine was replaced in 1807 in the same house by another more powerful table engine made by Fenton, Murray and Wood of Leeds, and in turn in 1830 by a Maudslay Beam Engine.
In 1800 a Boulton and Watt beam-engine was ordered as back-up and was housed in a three-storey engine house in line with the Sadler engine house. This engine was replaced in 1837 by another engine made by James Watt and Co.
Space was very tight and expansion of manufacturing facilities was not possible, so by 1802 the drainage basin was filled with two tiers of brick vaults - the lower layer to act as the reservoir, the upper layer as storage, and the roof of the latter being level with the surrounding land, so creating more space. This allowed the construction of two parallel ranges of three-storey wood mills, the southern to incorporate both engine houses and their chimney stacks, the chain pumps and some wood working machinery. The northern range was directly over the vaults and was to house more woodworking machinery. The buildings were designed by Samuel Bunce, the architect of Bentham's staff.
While the vaults were under construction Bentham was ordering woodworking machinery of his own design, mostly up-and-down saws and circular saws. These were fitted-up in both ranges, the power to drive them being transmitted from the engines to the north range by under-drives through the upper layer of vaults, and then by vertical shafts to the upper floors of the buildings. The final drives to the machines was by flat belts running on pulleys.
This machinery was planned to cut timber for the numerous smaller parts used in ship-building, especially joinery, which had previously been cut by hand, such as components for tables and benches, as well as small turned goods like belaying pins. There is evidence that he had developed a rotary wood-planing machine, but details of this are obscure. There is also evidence that the complex housed a pipe boring machine, whereby straight elm trees were bored out for pump dales. These could be up to 40 ft long and were fitted through the decks of a vessel to pump seawater to the deck. There was a machine for making treenails - long wooden dowels used for fixing wooden parts of a ship together.
The Navy used large numbers of blocks, which were all hand-made by contractors. Their quality was not consistent, the supply problematic and they were expensive. A typical ship of the line needed about 1000 blocks of different sizes, and in the course of the year the Navy required over 100,000. Bentham had devised some machines for making blocks, but did not develop them and details of how they worked are now obscure. In 1802 Marc Isambard Brunel proposed to the Admiralty a system of making blocks using machinery he had patented. Bentham appreciated the superiority of Brunel's system and in August 1802 he was authorised by the Admiralty to proceed.
There were three series of block-making machines, each designed to make a range of block sizes. They were laid out to allow a production line, so each stage of the work progressed to the next in a natural flow. The yard between the two wood mill buildings was walled-off and roofed to form a new workshop to house the block-making machines.
The first set, for medium blocks, was installed in January 1803, the second set for smaller blocks in May 1803, and the third set for large blocks in March 1805. There were numerous changes of layout and some modification of the plant until in September 1807 the plant was felt able to fulfil all the needs of the Navy: In 1808 130,000 blocks were produced.
Brunel's patent specification shows wooden framed machines, which, while they show many of the principles of the machines actually installed bear little resemblance to the final designs. Once the contract with the Admiralty had been placed he engaged Henry Maudslay to make them, and it is clear the final designs had considerable input from Bentham, Maudslay, Simon Goodrich, (mechanician to the Navy board) as well as Brunel himself.
These machines were almost entirely hand made, the only machine tools used being lathes to machine circular parts, and drilling machines for boring small holes. At that time there were no milling, planing or shaping machines, and all flat surfaces were made by hand chipping, filing and scraping. There is evidence that the grinding of flats was also done to get near-precision finishes. The materials used were cast and wrought iron, brass and gun metal. The use of metal throughout their construction greatly improved their rigidity and accuracy which became the standard for later machine tool manufacture.
A representative selection of the machine tools are on display in the London Science Museum. Several other machines remain in situ at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard, but accessibility is unclear.
The significance of the concept - the early use of special-purpose machines for mass-producing standard items - cannot be overstated. The machines themselves are noteworthy in being early examples of large-scale all-metal industrial machine tools. Also worthy of attention is the detail design, durability, and the superb workmanship of these machines. The photographs are intended to highlight some admirable aspects of the design and workmanship. Note: The black-painted machines in the photos are at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard, while those painted green are at the London Science Museum.
See here for a detailed examination of the machines (this is a long thread in the Practical Machinist forum, containing numerous illustrations and descriptions). | 1,797 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Johnson vetoed the bill, and though Congress successfully overrode his veto and made it into law in April —the first time in history that Congress overrode a presidential veto of a major bill—even some Republicans thought another amendment was necessary to provide firm constitutional grounds for the new legislation.
Westminster brought an end to segregation in O. School officials, however, told her aunt that her children, who were half-Mexican but had light skin and a French surname, could register at the "white" elementary school, but the Mendez kids, who were dark skinned and had a Mexican last name, were not allowed; they had to enroll at the "Mexican" school 10 blocks away.
Mendez's parents were appalled and sued the school district in what turned out to be a ground-breaking civil rights case that helped outlaw almost years of segregation in California and was a precedent seven years later for Brown v.
Segregation was standard practice in s California Asian and Native American children also attended separate schoolsbut it wasn't always the case. When California Constitution was drafted inSpanish and English were the state's official languages.
Previous toMexican children attended Anglo schools. Inthe state legislature said school boards could not use public funds to educate non-white students.
Innon-white students were educated in segregated schools. Until the Mendez case, the logic of "separate but equal" facilities, which was established by the U. Supreme Court in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, was the law of the land. When Gonzalo was told his children were barred from the 17th Street School, he talked with the superintendent and then went to the Orange County School District.
They rejected his requests that his children be allowed to enroll. But Marcus made a bigger case, and on March 2,filed Mendez v. Westminster, a class-action lawsuit against four Orange County school districts Westminster, Santa Ana, Garden Grove and El Modena, now Eastern Orange seeking an injunction that would order the schools to integrate.
Sylvia says she wasn't surprised by her father's actions. He was going to right a wrong. Federal District Court in Los Angeles. Marcus argued that the Mexican children were not treated equally by attending inferior schools with substandard books. Marcus also argued that the Mexican children were not given adequate language testing before inclusion in the "Mexican" schools, and that segregation based on nationality violated the equal protection clause under the 14th Amendment of the U.
The school districts' lawyer, on the other hand, said education was a state matter and the federal courts had no jurisdiction. He also argued that students were segregated so Mexican students could receive English lessons that would ready them for immersion with the already fluent English students.
McCormick ruled that the "segregation prevalent in the defendant school districts foster antagonisms in the children and suggest inferiority among them where none exists" and that the equal protection clause had been violated. Shortly thereafter California Gov. Earl Warren pushed the state legislature into repealing laws that segregated Asians and Native American school children.
Westminster also paved the way for another historic civil rights trial. Westminster, used the decision as precedent when he argued Brown v.
Board of Education in front of the U. InWarren, then Chief Justice of the U.
Supreme Court, wrote the opinion in Brown v. Board of Education that declared school segregation unconstitutional.
MYTHS: TRUTHS: Brown v. Board of Education was the first legal challenge to racially segregated schools in the United States.: African American parents began to challenge racial segregation in public education as early as in the case of Roberts benjaminpohle.com of Boston, Massachusetts. In the Kansas case, Brown v. Board of Education, the plaintiffs are Negro children of elementary school age residing in Topeka. They brought this action in the United States District Court for the District of Kansas to enjoin enforcement of a Kansas statute which permits, but does not require, cities of more than 15, population to maintain. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was a landmark Supreme Court case in which the justices ruled unanimously that racial segregation of children in public schools was unconstitutional.
Into mark the Mendez trial's 60th anniversary, the U. Postal Service will issue a special stamp.The board game Monopoly has its origins in the early 20th century.
The earliest known version of Monopoly, known as The Landlord's Game, was designed by an American, Elizabeth Magie, and first patented in but existed as early as Magie, a follower of Henry George, originally intended The Landlord's Game to illustrate the economic consequences of Ricardo's Law of Economic rent and the.
CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF In creating the Civil Rights Act of , Congress was using the authority given it to enforce the newly ratified 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery, and protect. The Plessy Decision Although the Declaration of Independence stated that "All men are created equal," due to the institution of slavery, this statement was not to be grounded in law in the United States until after the Civil War (and, arguably, not completely fulfilled for many years thereafter).
Board of Education Re-enactment Honor the important figures involved in Brown v. Board of Education with a re-enactment using a readers theater presentation that gives voice to those involved in this historic case. Brown v. Board of Education (, ) The case that came to be known as Brown v.
Board of Education was actually the name given to five separate cases that were heard by the U.S. Supreme Court concerning the issue of segregation in public schools. These cases were Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Briggs v.
Elliot, Davis v. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, U.S. (), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. The decision effectively overturned the Plessy benjaminpohle.comon decision of , which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. | <urn:uuid:6eb6d9ce-914d-4ddd-a7d5-e88b938d99db> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fasegyxyryqimypu.benjaminpohle.com/a-history-of-the-brown-vs-the-board-of-education-case-35832yu.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00033.warc.gz | en | 0.980323 | 1,252 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
-0.27102774381637573,
-0.3502228558063507,
0.3555164337158203,
-0.2903074622154236,
-0.45489585399627686,
0.015296566300094128,
-0.048965875059366226,
-0.10270322859287262,
0.09047503024339676,
0.011148976162075996,
0.0786101371049881,
0.11388066411018372,
-0.025479495525360107,
0.22184598... | 3 | Johnson vetoed the bill, and though Congress successfully overrode his veto and made it into law in April —the first time in history that Congress overrode a presidential veto of a major bill—even some Republicans thought another amendment was necessary to provide firm constitutional grounds for the new legislation.
Westminster brought an end to segregation in O. School officials, however, told her aunt that her children, who were half-Mexican but had light skin and a French surname, could register at the "white" elementary school, but the Mendez kids, who were dark skinned and had a Mexican last name, were not allowed; they had to enroll at the "Mexican" school 10 blocks away.
Mendez's parents were appalled and sued the school district in what turned out to be a ground-breaking civil rights case that helped outlaw almost years of segregation in California and was a precedent seven years later for Brown v.
Segregation was standard practice in s California Asian and Native American children also attended separate schoolsbut it wasn't always the case. When California Constitution was drafted inSpanish and English were the state's official languages.
Previous toMexican children attended Anglo schools. Inthe state legislature said school boards could not use public funds to educate non-white students.
Innon-white students were educated in segregated schools. Until the Mendez case, the logic of "separate but equal" facilities, which was established by the U. Supreme Court in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, was the law of the land. When Gonzalo was told his children were barred from the 17th Street School, he talked with the superintendent and then went to the Orange County School District.
They rejected his requests that his children be allowed to enroll. But Marcus made a bigger case, and on March 2,filed Mendez v. Westminster, a class-action lawsuit against four Orange County school districts Westminster, Santa Ana, Garden Grove and El Modena, now Eastern Orange seeking an injunction that would order the schools to integrate.
Sylvia says she wasn't surprised by her father's actions. He was going to right a wrong. Federal District Court in Los Angeles. Marcus argued that the Mexican children were not treated equally by attending inferior schools with substandard books. Marcus also argued that the Mexican children were not given adequate language testing before inclusion in the "Mexican" schools, and that segregation based on nationality violated the equal protection clause under the 14th Amendment of the U.
The school districts' lawyer, on the other hand, said education was a state matter and the federal courts had no jurisdiction. He also argued that students were segregated so Mexican students could receive English lessons that would ready them for immersion with the already fluent English students.
McCormick ruled that the "segregation prevalent in the defendant school districts foster antagonisms in the children and suggest inferiority among them where none exists" and that the equal protection clause had been violated. Shortly thereafter California Gov. Earl Warren pushed the state legislature into repealing laws that segregated Asians and Native American school children.
Westminster also paved the way for another historic civil rights trial. Westminster, used the decision as precedent when he argued Brown v.
Board of Education in front of the U. InWarren, then Chief Justice of the U.
Supreme Court, wrote the opinion in Brown v. Board of Education that declared school segregation unconstitutional.
MYTHS: TRUTHS: Brown v. Board of Education was the first legal challenge to racially segregated schools in the United States.: African American parents began to challenge racial segregation in public education as early as in the case of Roberts benjaminpohle.com of Boston, Massachusetts. In the Kansas case, Brown v. Board of Education, the plaintiffs are Negro children of elementary school age residing in Topeka. They brought this action in the United States District Court for the District of Kansas to enjoin enforcement of a Kansas statute which permits, but does not require, cities of more than 15, population to maintain. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was a landmark Supreme Court case in which the justices ruled unanimously that racial segregation of children in public schools was unconstitutional.
Into mark the Mendez trial's 60th anniversary, the U. Postal Service will issue a special stamp.The board game Monopoly has its origins in the early 20th century.
The earliest known version of Monopoly, known as The Landlord's Game, was designed by an American, Elizabeth Magie, and first patented in but existed as early as Magie, a follower of Henry George, originally intended The Landlord's Game to illustrate the economic consequences of Ricardo's Law of Economic rent and the.
CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF In creating the Civil Rights Act of , Congress was using the authority given it to enforce the newly ratified 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery, and protect. The Plessy Decision Although the Declaration of Independence stated that "All men are created equal," due to the institution of slavery, this statement was not to be grounded in law in the United States until after the Civil War (and, arguably, not completely fulfilled for many years thereafter).
Board of Education Re-enactment Honor the important figures involved in Brown v. Board of Education with a re-enactment using a readers theater presentation that gives voice to those involved in this historic case. Brown v. Board of Education (, ) The case that came to be known as Brown v.
Board of Education was actually the name given to five separate cases that were heard by the U.S. Supreme Court concerning the issue of segregation in public schools. These cases were Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Briggs v.
Elliot, Davis v. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, U.S. (), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. The decision effectively overturned the Plessy benjaminpohle.comon decision of , which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. | 1,241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Tecumseh Sherman was a Union general during the Civil War, playing a crucial role in the victory over the Confederate States and becoming one of the most famous military leaders in U.S. history. The logistical brilliance on fiery display during Sherman’s March to the Sea from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia, then north into the Carolinas, helped end the bloody war.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Relationship between Abraham Lincoln and William Tecumseh Sherman" essay for youCreate order
But the devastation wrought by Sherman’s March remains controversial, with Sherman still loathed by many Southerners today. Sherman remained in the U.S. Army after the war. When Grant became president in 1869, Sherman assumed command of all U.S. forces. He was criticized for the role he played in America’s war on Native Americans in the West, but he himself was critical of U.S. mistreatment of the native population.
War is cruelty. There is no use trying to reform it. The crueler it is, the sooner it will be over.
Abraham Lincoln, a self-taught lawyer, legislator and vocal opponent of slavery, was elected 16th president of the United States in November 1860, shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War. Lincoln proved to be a shrewd military strategist and a savvy leader. His Emancipation Proclamation paved the way for slavery’s abolition, while his Gettysburg Address stands as one of the most famous pieces of oratory in American history. In April 1865, with the Union on the brink of victory, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. His untimely death made him a martyr to the cause of liberty, and he is widely regarded as one of the greatest presidents in U.S. history.
Character is like a tree and reputation like a shadow. The shadow is what we think of it; the tree is the real thing.
In 1865, President Abraham Lincoln meets with Union generals Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman at City Point, to plot the last stages of the Civil War. as part of the trip, Lincoln went to the Petersburg. Once he sat down with Grant and Sherman , Lincoln expressed concerns that Lee might escape Petersburg and flee to North Carolina, where he could join forces with Joseph Johnston to forge a new Confederate army that could continue the war for months. In march 1861, Sherman went with his younger brother John to visit Mr. Lincoln. (Sherman is speaking)
He walked into the room where the secretary to the President now sits, we found the room full of people, and Mr. Lincoln sat at the end of the table, talking with three of four gentleman, whos soon left. John walked up, shook hands and took the chear near him,…. John then turned to me, and said, ?Mr. President, this is my brother, Colonel Sherman, who is just up from Louisiana, he may give you some information you want.’ ?Ah!’ said Mr. Lincoln, ?how are they getting along down there?’ I said, ?They think they are getting along swimminglythey are preparing for war.’ ?Oh well!’ said he, ?I guess we’ll manage to keep house.’ I was silenced, said no more to him, and we soon left.
Sherman’s attitude toward President Lincoln varied throughout the war. General William T. Sherman had Mr. Lincoln respect-but not his friendship as we can see in the quote. They met briefly once in the spring of 1861 before Sherman returned to the Union Army and once again that summer. For the next four years, however, they did not cross paths, until shortly before the end of the war. In their first meeting, Sherman was disgusted by the President’s naive attitude toward the South’s secession. Although the Union army was defeated during the battle, President Abraham Lincoln was impressed by Sherman’s performance and he was promoted brigadier general August t, 1861, ranking seventh among other officers at that grade. So Sherman really start liking Mr. Lincoln, because in May 1864 Sherman wrote to his brother
I think Mr. Lincoln is a pure minded, honest and good man. I have all faith in him. In Congress & the cabinet there is too much of old politics, too much of old issues and too little realization. I think it is a great mistake to stop enlistments. There may be enough on paper, but not enough in fact.
As commander of the West, Sherman led the march to Atlanta which culminated in its siege and capture on September 1864, literally saving President Lincoln’s re-election. When he captured Savannah, Sherman telegraphed President Lincoln: I beg to present you, as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah In his reply, Mr Lincoln expressed many, many thanks for you Christmas gift and admitted he had been anxious, if not fearful of Sherman’s success. So on December 21, 1864 Sherman wired Lincoln to offer him an early Christmas present: the city of Savannah with the message,
I beg to present you as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah, with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition, and also about twenty-five thousand bales of cotton .
I think that was really nice and generous of Sherman and on the other hand he was trying to make Lincoln like him even more, because he wanted his friendship not just respect and at that point he was on the good way to get that. Sherman met with President Lincoln outside Richmond a few weeks before his assassination but never again. After the city point conference in late March 1865, Sherman wrote to his wife:
…Grant is the same enthusiastic friend. Mr Lincoln at City Point was lavish in his good wishes and since Mr. Stanton visited me at Savannah he too has become the warmest possible friend.
Lincoln had been murdered April 14. The Johnson administration immediately rejected Sherman’s terms and sent Grant to relieve Sherman of command, though on arrival Grant opted simply to inform Sherman his terms had been rejected. So what was wrong with Sherman’s initial terms? Firstable, they were silent on slavery, second, they opened the way for legal challenges to loyal governments, like those in Louisiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee, not to mention the new state of West Virginia and third, they left open the possibility of paying the Confederate war debt.
All pretty bad right? How had Sherman, the terrible swift sword himself, come to offer such light terms? Sherman would later claim that he had offered only what Lincoln told him to offer.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | <urn:uuid:6d4f4847-7610-4224-9d40-89be9526cd02> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydriver.com/relationship-between-abraham-lincoln-and-william-tecumseh-sherman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.980315 | 1,413 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
-0.11860163509845734,
0.44586724042892456,
0.30631542205810547,
0.1778104603290558,
-0.2808132767677307,
-0.1396217942237854,
0.2185712605714798,
-0.05809667333960533,
-0.30500781536102295,
-0.03319154679775238,
-0.07358761131763458,
-0.12985694408416748,
0.08670340478420258,
0.52253115177... | 1 | William Tecumseh Sherman was a Union general during the Civil War, playing a crucial role in the victory over the Confederate States and becoming one of the most famous military leaders in U.S. history. The logistical brilliance on fiery display during Sherman’s March to the Sea from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia, then north into the Carolinas, helped end the bloody war.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Relationship between Abraham Lincoln and William Tecumseh Sherman" essay for youCreate order
But the devastation wrought by Sherman’s March remains controversial, with Sherman still loathed by many Southerners today. Sherman remained in the U.S. Army after the war. When Grant became president in 1869, Sherman assumed command of all U.S. forces. He was criticized for the role he played in America’s war on Native Americans in the West, but he himself was critical of U.S. mistreatment of the native population.
War is cruelty. There is no use trying to reform it. The crueler it is, the sooner it will be over.
Abraham Lincoln, a self-taught lawyer, legislator and vocal opponent of slavery, was elected 16th president of the United States in November 1860, shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War. Lincoln proved to be a shrewd military strategist and a savvy leader. His Emancipation Proclamation paved the way for slavery’s abolition, while his Gettysburg Address stands as one of the most famous pieces of oratory in American history. In April 1865, with the Union on the brink of victory, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. His untimely death made him a martyr to the cause of liberty, and he is widely regarded as one of the greatest presidents in U.S. history.
Character is like a tree and reputation like a shadow. The shadow is what we think of it; the tree is the real thing.
In 1865, President Abraham Lincoln meets with Union generals Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman at City Point, to plot the last stages of the Civil War. as part of the trip, Lincoln went to the Petersburg. Once he sat down with Grant and Sherman , Lincoln expressed concerns that Lee might escape Petersburg and flee to North Carolina, where he could join forces with Joseph Johnston to forge a new Confederate army that could continue the war for months. In march 1861, Sherman went with his younger brother John to visit Mr. Lincoln. (Sherman is speaking)
He walked into the room where the secretary to the President now sits, we found the room full of people, and Mr. Lincoln sat at the end of the table, talking with three of four gentleman, whos soon left. John walked up, shook hands and took the chear near him,…. John then turned to me, and said, ?Mr. President, this is my brother, Colonel Sherman, who is just up from Louisiana, he may give you some information you want.’ ?Ah!’ said Mr. Lincoln, ?how are they getting along down there?’ I said, ?They think they are getting along swimminglythey are preparing for war.’ ?Oh well!’ said he, ?I guess we’ll manage to keep house.’ I was silenced, said no more to him, and we soon left.
Sherman’s attitude toward President Lincoln varied throughout the war. General William T. Sherman had Mr. Lincoln respect-but not his friendship as we can see in the quote. They met briefly once in the spring of 1861 before Sherman returned to the Union Army and once again that summer. For the next four years, however, they did not cross paths, until shortly before the end of the war. In their first meeting, Sherman was disgusted by the President’s naive attitude toward the South’s secession. Although the Union army was defeated during the battle, President Abraham Lincoln was impressed by Sherman’s performance and he was promoted brigadier general August t, 1861, ranking seventh among other officers at that grade. So Sherman really start liking Mr. Lincoln, because in May 1864 Sherman wrote to his brother
I think Mr. Lincoln is a pure minded, honest and good man. I have all faith in him. In Congress & the cabinet there is too much of old politics, too much of old issues and too little realization. I think it is a great mistake to stop enlistments. There may be enough on paper, but not enough in fact.
As commander of the West, Sherman led the march to Atlanta which culminated in its siege and capture on September 1864, literally saving President Lincoln’s re-election. When he captured Savannah, Sherman telegraphed President Lincoln: I beg to present you, as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah In his reply, Mr Lincoln expressed many, many thanks for you Christmas gift and admitted he had been anxious, if not fearful of Sherman’s success. So on December 21, 1864 Sherman wired Lincoln to offer him an early Christmas present: the city of Savannah with the message,
I beg to present you as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah, with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition, and also about twenty-five thousand bales of cotton .
I think that was really nice and generous of Sherman and on the other hand he was trying to make Lincoln like him even more, because he wanted his friendship not just respect and at that point he was on the good way to get that. Sherman met with President Lincoln outside Richmond a few weeks before his assassination but never again. After the city point conference in late March 1865, Sherman wrote to his wife:
…Grant is the same enthusiastic friend. Mr Lincoln at City Point was lavish in his good wishes and since Mr. Stanton visited me at Savannah he too has become the warmest possible friend.
Lincoln had been murdered April 14. The Johnson administration immediately rejected Sherman’s terms and sent Grant to relieve Sherman of command, though on arrival Grant opted simply to inform Sherman his terms had been rejected. So what was wrong with Sherman’s initial terms? Firstable, they were silent on slavery, second, they opened the way for legal challenges to loyal governments, like those in Louisiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee, not to mention the new state of West Virginia and third, they left open the possibility of paying the Confederate war debt.
All pretty bad right? How had Sherman, the terrible swift sword himself, come to offer such light terms? Sherman would later claim that he had offered only what Lincoln told him to offer.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | 1,402 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Naomi how Okonkwo first came to know that
Naomi PhillipsMr. McNultyEnglish 2HP25 January 2018 According to Merriam Webster Dictionary, the definition of “culture” is “the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group,” as well as, “the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution or organization.” Throughout the world, there is a variety of cultures, and these cultures are a significant part of people’s lives. The Igbo culture of pre-colonized Nigeria, which is displayed in all its glory in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, has its own core values, language, religion, food habits, social norms, music, and arts the way any culture does. Much of the traditional Igbo life presented in this novel revolves around structured gender roles. In fact, essentially all of Igbo life is gendered, from the crops that men and women grow to the characterization of crimes. In Igbo culture, women are the weaker sex and are thus subject to discrimination, objectification, and even domestic violence. This treatment of women violates fundamental human rights that transcend time and culture and is unacceptable. There are many instances of blatant sexism throughout the Igbo culture, even going as far as domestic violence. In many occasions in the novel, it’s apparent that the word “woman” or behaving like a woman is considered an insult. This first becomes apparent at the beginning of the novel when Okonkwo’s father Unoka is introduced. Unoka lived much of his life in debt and deviated far from the Igbo people’s idea of a strong, successful man, and so he was insulted: “Even as a little boy Okonkwo had resented his father’s failure and weakness, and even now he still remembered how he had suffered when a playmate had told him that his father was agbala. That was how Okonkwo first came to know that agbala was not only another name for a woman, it could also mean a man who had taken no title” (Achebe 13). In Igbo culture, women have the same status of a failure of a man. Another case of this is later when during a kindred meeting Okonkwo disparages a man with no titles by calling him a woman: “Only a week ago a man had contradicted him at a kindred meeting which they held to discuss the next ancestral feast. Without looking at the man Okonkwo had said. ‘This meeting is for men.’ The man who had contradicted him had no titles. That was why he had called him a woman. Okonkwo knew how to kill a man’s spirit” (Achebe 26). Again, women are considered weaker than the men and thus being called a woman, or behaving like a woman, is an insult.In Igbo culture, the role of women was purely domestic; they were expected only to marry, birth and raise children, and take care of the home. As this was a woman’s sole purpose, if they failed to complete it, they weren’t worth much. A model of this is when Nneka converted to Christianity: “Nneka had had four previous pregnancies and childbirths. But each time she had borne twins, and they had been immediately thrown away. Her husband and his family were already becoming highly critical of such a woman and were not unduly perturbed when they found she had fled to join the Christians. It was a good riddance” (Achebe 151). Every other time one of their own had joined the ranks of the Christians, the Igbo had been distraught. But now that a woman had, and a woman such as Nneka, there was a positive reaction! A woman who couldn’t bear children was worthless, and so they were grateful that Nneka was no longer their problem! Additionally, women were essentially treated as servants, which is apparent when Okonkwo tells Nwoye’s mother that Ikemefuna will be staying with the family in her hut: “‘He belongs to the clan,” he told her Okonkwo’s eldest wife. “So look after him.’ ‘Is he staying long with us?’ she asked. ‘Do what you are told, woman,’ Okonkwo thundered, and stammered. “When did you become one of the ndichie of Umuofia?’ And so Nwoye’s mother took Ikemefuna to her hut and asked no more questions” (Achebe 14).As women had solely domestic roles in society and were seen as immaterial, they could be objectified and even physically abused. Women were treated like pieces of property, worth a set sum of money, which can be exchanged from man to man. In Igbo culture, a man paid a bride price for a wife, as if she was some good to be purchased. Also, a good wife, in Igbo society, is characterized by her appearance and shy manner. This is apparent when Obierika’s daughter Akueke is being “surveyed” by her suitors: “As he was speaking the boy Maduka, Obierika’s son returned, followed by Akueke, his half-sister, carrying a wooden dish with three kola nuts and alligator pepper. She gave the dish to her father’s eldest brother and then shook hands, very shyly, with her suitor and his relatives. She was about sixteen and just ripe for marriage. Her suitor and his relatives surveyed her young body with expert eyes as if to assure themselves that she was beautiful and ripe. She wore a coiffure which was done up into a crest in the middle of the head. Camwood was rubbed lightly into her skin, and all over her body were black patterns drawn with uli. She wore a black necklace which hung down in three coils just above her full, succulent breasts. On her arms were red and yellow bangles and on her waist four or five rows of jigida, or waist beads” (Achebe 71). The decision of if Akueke was “suitable for marriage” was based solely upon on her shy behavior, “succulent breasts,” and her dress. Women are more than just their bodies, but in Igbo culture that doesn’t seem to matter! Additionally, in Igbo culture, it’s socially acceptable for men to beat and abuse their wives for even the slightest offense. This can even go so far as to when Okonkwo nearly shot his second wife Ekwefi for the offense of killing a banana tree, of which she was entirely innocent: “As a matter of fact the tree was very much alive. Okonkwo’s second wife had merely cut a few leaves off it to wrap some food, and she said so. Without further argument, Okonkwo gave her a sound beating and left her and her daughter weeping” (Achebe 38-9). Okonkwo was purely, irrationally angry, and took it out on Ekwefi, beating her even though he didn’t really care about the banana tree. Part of what drove his extremely violent outburst was that Ekwefi stood up to him, insisting she didn’t kill the tree. Okonkwo, and the men in Igbo society aren’t used to women standing up for themselves, as the ideal Igbo woman is utterly submissive. He beat her soundly, and then when Ekwefi went even further and muttered about what a terrible shot he was, he pulled a gun on her and nearly killed her! It was acceptable in Igbo culture for Okonkwo to nearly kill her! Admittedly, one could argue that women did have important roles in society. The dominant role for women is first, to make a pure bride for an honorable man, second, to be a submissive wife, and third, to bear many children. But they also had other roles as well, such as painting the houses of the egwugwu (Achebe 84). Furthermore, the first wife of a man in the Ibo society is paid some respect. This deference is illustrated by the palm wine ceremony at Nwakibie’s obi. Anasi, Nwakibie’s first wife, had not yet arrived and “the others other wives could not drink before her” (Achebe 22). The importance of woman’s role appears when Okonkwo is exiled to his motherland. His uncle, Uchendu, noticing Okonkwo’s distress, eloquently explains how Okonkwo should view his exile: “A man belongs to his fatherland when things are good and life is sweet. But when there is sorrow and bitterness he finds refuge in his motherland.” A man has both joy and sorrow in his life and when the bad times come his “mother” is always there to comfort him. Thus comes the saying “Mother is Supreme.” It’s true, women may be considered the weaker sex in Igbo culture, but they are also endowed with qualities and roles that are significant. However, gender inequality doesn’t mean that one sex has all the power and the other has none, it means there is an imbalance of power. Women do have some power in society, but men have far more and can oppress and physically abuse them.The treatment of women illustrated in the novel violates fundamental human rights. In fact, these rights have been agreed upon by people of all different cultures and countries across the world, and are present in a document that ubiquitously protects them: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The document states that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights,” and we should treat each other as such. This can be seen specifically in Articles II and V, which declare respectively that: “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as… sex…,” and, “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.” The sexism and domestic abuse that is violently present in the Ibo culture violates these fundamental human rights, and so it is unacceptable. As to be expected, there are parts of other cultures that are different from our own. But despite these differences, what remains the same is the people within them. We are all human. Everyone deserves fundamental human rights, such as those that have been laid out and agreed upon by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. If a culture denies anyone these rights, the way the Igbo culture did to women, it is necessary to, as humans, recognize this. The acts of discrimination, objectification, and even domestic violence that the Igbo women face were unacceptable. In the wise words of Mahatma Gandhi: “Of all the evils for which man has made himself responsible, none is so degrading, so shocking or so brutal as his abuse of the better half of humanity; the female sex.”Works Cited”Cultural Genocide.” Facing History and Ourselves, www.facinghistory.org/stolen-lives-indigenous-peoples-canada-and-indian-residential-schools/chapter-7/cultural-genocide.”Culture.” Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture.”Destroying Cultural Heritage: More than Just Material Damage.” Destroying Cultural Heritage: More than Just Material Damage | British Council, www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/destroying-cultural-heritage-more-just-material-damage.”Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/.Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. New York: Anchor Books, 1994. Print. | <urn:uuid:bac21489-e818-47a4-b1c9-608a495b6ff9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://farmersfeastmanitoba.com/naomi-how-okonkwo-first-came-to-know-that/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.982878 | 2,608 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
0.44977396726608276,
0.34549272060394287,
0.16782718896865845,
-0.31848421692848206,
-0.0026287639047950506,
0.3825990855693817,
0.35513755679130554,
0.060678571462631226,
0.13873203098773956,
0.0991482362151146,
0.08392058312892914,
-0.3106808066368103,
0.30220091342926025,
-0.00021850457... | 1 | Naomi how Okonkwo first came to know that
Naomi PhillipsMr. McNultyEnglish 2HP25 January 2018 According to Merriam Webster Dictionary, the definition of “culture” is “the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group,” as well as, “the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution or organization.” Throughout the world, there is a variety of cultures, and these cultures are a significant part of people’s lives. The Igbo culture of pre-colonized Nigeria, which is displayed in all its glory in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, has its own core values, language, religion, food habits, social norms, music, and arts the way any culture does. Much of the traditional Igbo life presented in this novel revolves around structured gender roles. In fact, essentially all of Igbo life is gendered, from the crops that men and women grow to the characterization of crimes. In Igbo culture, women are the weaker sex and are thus subject to discrimination, objectification, and even domestic violence. This treatment of women violates fundamental human rights that transcend time and culture and is unacceptable. There are many instances of blatant sexism throughout the Igbo culture, even going as far as domestic violence. In many occasions in the novel, it’s apparent that the word “woman” or behaving like a woman is considered an insult. This first becomes apparent at the beginning of the novel when Okonkwo’s father Unoka is introduced. Unoka lived much of his life in debt and deviated far from the Igbo people’s idea of a strong, successful man, and so he was insulted: “Even as a little boy Okonkwo had resented his father’s failure and weakness, and even now he still remembered how he had suffered when a playmate had told him that his father was agbala. That was how Okonkwo first came to know that agbala was not only another name for a woman, it could also mean a man who had taken no title” (Achebe 13). In Igbo culture, women have the same status of a failure of a man. Another case of this is later when during a kindred meeting Okonkwo disparages a man with no titles by calling him a woman: “Only a week ago a man had contradicted him at a kindred meeting which they held to discuss the next ancestral feast. Without looking at the man Okonkwo had said. ‘This meeting is for men.’ The man who had contradicted him had no titles. That was why he had called him a woman. Okonkwo knew how to kill a man’s spirit” (Achebe 26). Again, women are considered weaker than the men and thus being called a woman, or behaving like a woman, is an insult.In Igbo culture, the role of women was purely domestic; they were expected only to marry, birth and raise children, and take care of the home. As this was a woman’s sole purpose, if they failed to complete it, they weren’t worth much. A model of this is when Nneka converted to Christianity: “Nneka had had four previous pregnancies and childbirths. But each time she had borne twins, and they had been immediately thrown away. Her husband and his family were already becoming highly critical of such a woman and were not unduly perturbed when they found she had fled to join the Christians. It was a good riddance” (Achebe 151). Every other time one of their own had joined the ranks of the Christians, the Igbo had been distraught. But now that a woman had, and a woman such as Nneka, there was a positive reaction! A woman who couldn’t bear children was worthless, and so they were grateful that Nneka was no longer their problem! Additionally, women were essentially treated as servants, which is apparent when Okonkwo tells Nwoye’s mother that Ikemefuna will be staying with the family in her hut: “‘He belongs to the clan,” he told her Okonkwo’s eldest wife. “So look after him.’ ‘Is he staying long with us?’ she asked. ‘Do what you are told, woman,’ Okonkwo thundered, and stammered. “When did you become one of the ndichie of Umuofia?’ And so Nwoye’s mother took Ikemefuna to her hut and asked no more questions” (Achebe 14).As women had solely domestic roles in society and were seen as immaterial, they could be objectified and even physically abused. Women were treated like pieces of property, worth a set sum of money, which can be exchanged from man to man. In Igbo culture, a man paid a bride price for a wife, as if she was some good to be purchased. Also, a good wife, in Igbo society, is characterized by her appearance and shy manner. This is apparent when Obierika’s daughter Akueke is being “surveyed” by her suitors: “As he was speaking the boy Maduka, Obierika’s son returned, followed by Akueke, his half-sister, carrying a wooden dish with three kola nuts and alligator pepper. She gave the dish to her father’s eldest brother and then shook hands, very shyly, with her suitor and his relatives. She was about sixteen and just ripe for marriage. Her suitor and his relatives surveyed her young body with expert eyes as if to assure themselves that she was beautiful and ripe. She wore a coiffure which was done up into a crest in the middle of the head. Camwood was rubbed lightly into her skin, and all over her body were black patterns drawn with uli. She wore a black necklace which hung down in three coils just above her full, succulent breasts. On her arms were red and yellow bangles and on her waist four or five rows of jigida, or waist beads” (Achebe 71). The decision of if Akueke was “suitable for marriage” was based solely upon on her shy behavior, “succulent breasts,” and her dress. Women are more than just their bodies, but in Igbo culture that doesn’t seem to matter! Additionally, in Igbo culture, it’s socially acceptable for men to beat and abuse their wives for even the slightest offense. This can even go so far as to when Okonkwo nearly shot his second wife Ekwefi for the offense of killing a banana tree, of which she was entirely innocent: “As a matter of fact the tree was very much alive. Okonkwo’s second wife had merely cut a few leaves off it to wrap some food, and she said so. Without further argument, Okonkwo gave her a sound beating and left her and her daughter weeping” (Achebe 38-9). Okonkwo was purely, irrationally angry, and took it out on Ekwefi, beating her even though he didn’t really care about the banana tree. Part of what drove his extremely violent outburst was that Ekwefi stood up to him, insisting she didn’t kill the tree. Okonkwo, and the men in Igbo society aren’t used to women standing up for themselves, as the ideal Igbo woman is utterly submissive. He beat her soundly, and then when Ekwefi went even further and muttered about what a terrible shot he was, he pulled a gun on her and nearly killed her! It was acceptable in Igbo culture for Okonkwo to nearly kill her! Admittedly, one could argue that women did have important roles in society. The dominant role for women is first, to make a pure bride for an honorable man, second, to be a submissive wife, and third, to bear many children. But they also had other roles as well, such as painting the houses of the egwugwu (Achebe 84). Furthermore, the first wife of a man in the Ibo society is paid some respect. This deference is illustrated by the palm wine ceremony at Nwakibie’s obi. Anasi, Nwakibie’s first wife, had not yet arrived and “the others other wives could not drink before her” (Achebe 22). The importance of woman’s role appears when Okonkwo is exiled to his motherland. His uncle, Uchendu, noticing Okonkwo’s distress, eloquently explains how Okonkwo should view his exile: “A man belongs to his fatherland when things are good and life is sweet. But when there is sorrow and bitterness he finds refuge in his motherland.” A man has both joy and sorrow in his life and when the bad times come his “mother” is always there to comfort him. Thus comes the saying “Mother is Supreme.” It’s true, women may be considered the weaker sex in Igbo culture, but they are also endowed with qualities and roles that are significant. However, gender inequality doesn’t mean that one sex has all the power and the other has none, it means there is an imbalance of power. Women do have some power in society, but men have far more and can oppress and physically abuse them.The treatment of women illustrated in the novel violates fundamental human rights. In fact, these rights have been agreed upon by people of all different cultures and countries across the world, and are present in a document that ubiquitously protects them: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The document states that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights,” and we should treat each other as such. This can be seen specifically in Articles II and V, which declare respectively that: “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as… sex…,” and, “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.” The sexism and domestic abuse that is violently present in the Ibo culture violates these fundamental human rights, and so it is unacceptable. As to be expected, there are parts of other cultures that are different from our own. But despite these differences, what remains the same is the people within them. We are all human. Everyone deserves fundamental human rights, such as those that have been laid out and agreed upon by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. If a culture denies anyone these rights, the way the Igbo culture did to women, it is necessary to, as humans, recognize this. The acts of discrimination, objectification, and even domestic violence that the Igbo women face were unacceptable. In the wise words of Mahatma Gandhi: “Of all the evils for which man has made himself responsible, none is so degrading, so shocking or so brutal as his abuse of the better half of humanity; the female sex.”Works Cited”Cultural Genocide.” Facing History and Ourselves, www.facinghistory.org/stolen-lives-indigenous-peoples-canada-and-indian-residential-schools/chapter-7/cultural-genocide.”Culture.” Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture.”Destroying Cultural Heritage: More than Just Material Damage.” Destroying Cultural Heritage: More than Just Material Damage | British Council, www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/destroying-cultural-heritage-more-just-material-damage.”Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/.Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. New York: Anchor Books, 1994. Print. | 2,472 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A modest proposal
These two texts are very different in many aspects. Not only in form, style and structure, but also in content. They show obvious differences with reference to family relationships. ‘Hamlet’ focuses on a single family with severe problems needing research into psychoanalysis to make these truly clear, whereas a ‘A Modest Proposal’ shows the problems of families in an Irish Society in the 18th Century, namely those of the poorer classes. The similarity between them is singularly that the families portrayed are unhappy and certainly not stereotypical.
Swift’s society is portrayed as miserable and in need of political help, Shakespeare’s protagonist family, and indeed other more minor ones are crying out for help which they never get, and may have been far beyond. It is the way in which they are presented by the writers which needs further analysis. Swift’s satirical taint on ‘A Modest Proposal’ makes it difficult to take much of the contents too seriously. However, his acute observations on society as a whole, and the way that we treat each other are both profound and sensible. He shows us a society which is impoverished and in dire need of help from it’s government.
He is trying to make clear the full horror of Ireland’s economic situation at the time through satirical attack. As a whole it would be implausible to view it as a literal argument, but its representation of families at this time may hold more truth. He seems to be urging families not to allow the brutality of their circumstance to influence their treatment of one another, and specifically calls upon parents to protect their children. In the first 11 lines Swift has already addressed the idea that parents are perhaps not being the disciplining, guiding figures they should.
The narrator states with no qualms that their “helpless infants” shall certainly “either turn thieves for want of work, or leave their dear Native Country to fight for the Pretender in Spain, or sell themselves to the Barbadeous. ” Not a promising prediction for the generation of the future. He goes on to comment that these children are “a very great additional grievance. ” However this is almost a contradiction, as their parents are obviously devoted enough to them to beg on the streets to obtain food to feed them.
Although parents may certainly view their children as an irritation at time, surely parental love would prevent them from being reduced to merely another grievance. Another worrying point he makes in line 18 is that he sees necessary to make these children “sound useful members of the commonwealth”. Although he does not specify when exactly he hopes this to happen, he does comment in line 67 that children above the age of six can often make themselves useful by earning a living by stealing. This then raises the question why can children not just be children?
They should by all rights be allowed to be helpless and supported without being thought of as a burden, rather than be expected to be providers themselves. In this case, the blame lies not solely on the family. Circumstances were such that any means of extra income was greedily received. This dire poverty-stricken situation made only worse by the inadequacy of lame proposals made by superficial governments. However the preservation of a child’s innocence must rest on its parents and supporting family.
Perhaps more disturbingly still is the narrators argument in the paragraph form lines 41-47 which deals with the “voluntary abortions” which mothers were having in order to preserve their own well-being. He indicates that the reasoning behind these abortions was for money rather than to avoid shame, although this may be a slight fabrication on his part to support his argument. What this would imply in terms of family relationships is that the structure of the family was simply not strong enough, nor supportive enough.
He seems to miss the crucial point that arguably the most important way to provide for a child is through love and nurturing rather than the provision of material things. Also his mention that these aborted children are “bastards” is an insinuation that they are the products of unmarried parents and possibly of unloving sexual relations. This would then tie into the later point that he later makes, that his proposal “would be a great inducement to marriage which all wise nations have either encouraged by rewards or enforced by laws and penalties” (lines 229-331). | <urn:uuid:10c109f3-790d-44a5-a05f-3cc05eaba83d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://farmersfeastmanitoba.com/a-modest-proposal/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00432.warc.gz | en | 0.981619 | 903 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.11884328722953796,
0.06111196428537369,
0.19704684615135193,
-0.35141414403915405,
-0.1286722719669342,
0.07636028528213501,
-0.24824264645576477,
0.0900668203830719,
-0.08208796381950378,
-0.35892659425735474,
0.07696635276079178,
-0.17728787660598755,
0.04426420107483864,
0.1561073958... | 1 | A modest proposal
These two texts are very different in many aspects. Not only in form, style and structure, but also in content. They show obvious differences with reference to family relationships. ‘Hamlet’ focuses on a single family with severe problems needing research into psychoanalysis to make these truly clear, whereas a ‘A Modest Proposal’ shows the problems of families in an Irish Society in the 18th Century, namely those of the poorer classes. The similarity between them is singularly that the families portrayed are unhappy and certainly not stereotypical.
Swift’s society is portrayed as miserable and in need of political help, Shakespeare’s protagonist family, and indeed other more minor ones are crying out for help which they never get, and may have been far beyond. It is the way in which they are presented by the writers which needs further analysis. Swift’s satirical taint on ‘A Modest Proposal’ makes it difficult to take much of the contents too seriously. However, his acute observations on society as a whole, and the way that we treat each other are both profound and sensible. He shows us a society which is impoverished and in dire need of help from it’s government.
He is trying to make clear the full horror of Ireland’s economic situation at the time through satirical attack. As a whole it would be implausible to view it as a literal argument, but its representation of families at this time may hold more truth. He seems to be urging families not to allow the brutality of their circumstance to influence their treatment of one another, and specifically calls upon parents to protect their children. In the first 11 lines Swift has already addressed the idea that parents are perhaps not being the disciplining, guiding figures they should.
The narrator states with no qualms that their “helpless infants” shall certainly “either turn thieves for want of work, or leave their dear Native Country to fight for the Pretender in Spain, or sell themselves to the Barbadeous. ” Not a promising prediction for the generation of the future. He goes on to comment that these children are “a very great additional grievance. ” However this is almost a contradiction, as their parents are obviously devoted enough to them to beg on the streets to obtain food to feed them.
Although parents may certainly view their children as an irritation at time, surely parental love would prevent them from being reduced to merely another grievance. Another worrying point he makes in line 18 is that he sees necessary to make these children “sound useful members of the commonwealth”. Although he does not specify when exactly he hopes this to happen, he does comment in line 67 that children above the age of six can often make themselves useful by earning a living by stealing. This then raises the question why can children not just be children?
They should by all rights be allowed to be helpless and supported without being thought of as a burden, rather than be expected to be providers themselves. In this case, the blame lies not solely on the family. Circumstances were such that any means of extra income was greedily received. This dire poverty-stricken situation made only worse by the inadequacy of lame proposals made by superficial governments. However the preservation of a child’s innocence must rest on its parents and supporting family.
Perhaps more disturbingly still is the narrators argument in the paragraph form lines 41-47 which deals with the “voluntary abortions” which mothers were having in order to preserve their own well-being. He indicates that the reasoning behind these abortions was for money rather than to avoid shame, although this may be a slight fabrication on his part to support his argument. What this would imply in terms of family relationships is that the structure of the family was simply not strong enough, nor supportive enough.
He seems to miss the crucial point that arguably the most important way to provide for a child is through love and nurturing rather than the provision of material things. Also his mention that these aborted children are “bastards” is an insinuation that they are the products of unmarried parents and possibly of unloving sexual relations. This would then tie into the later point that he later makes, that his proposal “would be a great inducement to marriage which all wise nations have either encouraged by rewards or enforced by laws and penalties” (lines 229-331). | 883 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Period 6 WHAP
Ch 34 5 & 6 5. Superpower control began to fade when president
Gaulle of France doubted US's leadership . He felt that his country was too submissive and followed along too much behind the US, so much that they had their own nuclear program which successfully made a bomb in
Marshal Tito, the president of Yugoslavia
, was starting to turn against Soviet control by trying to keep his country from their control and in 1948 gained its freedom from the USSR.
A few years after Stalin’s death
Nikita Khrushchev started the DeStalinization process.
This was to fix all of the horrors that Stalin had created and to create a coexistence between all other nations through the revising of Russia’s foreign policy. The biggest change in this power was the
. This was the name for hungarians that stood up for democracy and wanted to break ties to Moscow. The started building an army to go to war with the Soviets if they disagreed with them, however they agreed that Hungary should be their own country. Later several countries held the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) which was the limitation on arms as to prevent a future arms race that downgrades living standards. This resulted in the US pulling out of South Vietnam which led to North and South
Vietnam joining as one country. 6. Ronald Reagan became president of the US in 1981 and wished to continue cold war hostility by wiping the USSR… | <urn:uuid:4c7bdcbb-7f21-4f6d-bb8c-5c45e2f042e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Whap-Ch-34-5-6-599512.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00551.warc.gz | en | 0.986433 | 302 | 3.5 | 4 | [
-0.5325944423675537,
0.2999861538410187,
0.1613328903913498,
-0.15744464099407196,
0.11581374704837799,
0.21935132145881653,
0.36419713497161865,
0.1650058925151825,
-0.052923765033483505,
0.1526608169078827,
0.5651172995567322,
0.2079375982284546,
0.31348884105682373,
0.46674129366874695,... | 1 | Period 6 WHAP
Ch 34 5 & 6 5. Superpower control began to fade when president
Gaulle of France doubted US's leadership . He felt that his country was too submissive and followed along too much behind the US, so much that they had their own nuclear program which successfully made a bomb in
Marshal Tito, the president of Yugoslavia
, was starting to turn against Soviet control by trying to keep his country from their control and in 1948 gained its freedom from the USSR.
A few years after Stalin’s death
Nikita Khrushchev started the DeStalinization process.
This was to fix all of the horrors that Stalin had created and to create a coexistence between all other nations through the revising of Russia’s foreign policy. The biggest change in this power was the
. This was the name for hungarians that stood up for democracy and wanted to break ties to Moscow. The started building an army to go to war with the Soviets if they disagreed with them, however they agreed that Hungary should be their own country. Later several countries held the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) which was the limitation on arms as to prevent a future arms race that downgrades living standards. This resulted in the US pulling out of South Vietnam which led to North and South
Vietnam joining as one country. 6. Ronald Reagan became president of the US in 1981 and wished to continue cold war hostility by wiping the USSR… | 310 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the most famous figures of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci fused artistic and scientific visions. He was the illegitimate son of a public notary, and a woman of whom little is known except her name, Caterina. He worked throughout Italy, including Florence, Venice and Milan. In his lifetime, da Vinci was known as a painter, sculptor, architect, musician, engineer and cartographer. His most famous works include the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. His observations, experiments and inventions were pulled together in almost 2500 drawings recording his ideas.
In his lifetime, da Vinci's anatomical work was less celebrated than his art. This is probably only because his anatomical notebooks were not published during his lifetime. What is known about his research today is contained in drawings and notes found in the library at Windsor Castle.
Da Vinci seems to have had an ongoing interest in anatomy. Following the Renaissance tradition, he was encouraged by his teacher Andrea del Verrocchio to learn anatomy as part of his artistic training. He performed over 30 dissections himself, which probably accounts for the high level of anatomical accuracy found in his drawings. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated with a doctor, Marcantonio della Torre, on a theoretical work on anatomy for which he made more than 200 drawings. | <urn:uuid:15b239b5-da30-4210-addc-eb4cf913c60c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/people/cp82966 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00284.warc.gz | en | 0.993559 | 267 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
0.01880921609699726,
0.2800074815750122,
0.3486364185810089,
-0.005552169866859913,
-0.6868337392807007,
0.0065055000595748425,
0.20102013647556305,
0.46407219767570496,
0.09409894049167633,
0.1808367371559143,
0.13644707202911377,
-0.5984318852424622,
-0.06281149387359619,
0.4637975990772... | 6 | One of the most famous figures of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci fused artistic and scientific visions. He was the illegitimate son of a public notary, and a woman of whom little is known except her name, Caterina. He worked throughout Italy, including Florence, Venice and Milan. In his lifetime, da Vinci was known as a painter, sculptor, architect, musician, engineer and cartographer. His most famous works include the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. His observations, experiments and inventions were pulled together in almost 2500 drawings recording his ideas.
In his lifetime, da Vinci's anatomical work was less celebrated than his art. This is probably only because his anatomical notebooks were not published during his lifetime. What is known about his research today is contained in drawings and notes found in the library at Windsor Castle.
Da Vinci seems to have had an ongoing interest in anatomy. Following the Renaissance tradition, he was encouraged by his teacher Andrea del Verrocchio to learn anatomy as part of his artistic training. He performed over 30 dissections himself, which probably accounts for the high level of anatomical accuracy found in his drawings. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated with a doctor, Marcantonio della Torre, on a theoretical work on anatomy for which he made more than 200 drawings. | 278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Qu Yuan (c. 340–278 BC) was a Chinese poet and minister who lived during the Warring States period of ancient China.
During King Qingxiang’s reign, Prime Minister Zilan slandered Qu Yuan.This caused Qu Yuan’s exile to the regions south of the Yangtze River. It is said that Qu Yuan returned first to his home town. In his exile, he spent much of this time collecting legends and rearranging folk odes while traveling the countryside. Furthermore, he wrote some of the greatest poetry in Chinese literature and expressed deep concerns about his state.
Qu Yuan is regarded as the first author of verse in China to have his name associated to his work, since prior to that time, poetic works were not attributed to any specific authors. He is considered to have initiated the so-called sao style of verse, which is named after his work Li Sao, in which he abandoned the classic four-character verses used in poems of Shi Jing and adopted verses with varying lengths. This resulted in poems with more rhythm and latitude in expression. Qu Yuan is also regarded as one of the most prominent figures of Romanticism in Chinese classical literature, and his masterpieces influenced some of the greatest Romanticist poets in Tang Dynasty such as Li Bai. During the Han Dynasty, Qu Yuan became established as a heroic example of how a scholar and official who was denied public recognition suitable to their worth should behave.
In China, Qu Yuan came to be regarded as a prime example of patriotism. His social idealism and unbending patriotism have served as the model for Chinese intellectuals to this day, particularly following the establishment of new China in 1949. For example, in the 1950s China issued a postage stamp bearing an image of Qu Yuan.
Dragon Boat Festival
Popular legend has it that villagers carried their dumplings and boats to the middle of the river and desperately tried to save Qu Yuan after he immersed himself in the Miluo but were too late to do so. However, in order to keep fish and evil spirits away from his body, they beat drums and splashed the water with their paddles, and they also threw rice into the water both as a food offering to Qu Yuan’s spirit and also to distract the fish away from his body. However, the legend continues, that late one night, the spirit of Qu Yuan appeared before his friends and told them that he died because he had taken himself under the river. Then, he asked his friends to wrap their rice into three-cornered silk packages to ward off the dragon.
These packages became a traditional food known as zongzi, although the lumps of rice are now wrapped in leaves instead of silk. The act of racing to search for his body in boats gradually became the cultural tradition of dragon boat racing, held on the anniversary of his death every year. Today, people still eat zongzi and participate in dragon boat races to commemorate Qu Yuan’s sacrifice on the fifth day of the fifth month of the traditional lunisolar Chinese calendar. The countries around China, such as Vietnam and Korea, also celebrate variations of this Dragon Boat Festival as part of their shared cultural heritage. | <urn:uuid:02a28265-36e1-4bf1-90f9-dd796b5a38b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://culture.followcn.com/2017/01/10/romantic-poet-qu-yuan-and-his-cultural-legacies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00473.warc.gz | en | 0.986884 | 650 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
-0.39743486046791077,
0.41335639357566833,
-0.10010896623134613,
-0.05031712353229523,
-0.053264908492565155,
-0.08832967281341553,
0.3064660131931305,
-0.09108617901802063,
-0.1619381308555603,
-0.2984062433242798,
0.2579534947872162,
-0.45066261291503906,
0.28498661518096924,
0.192615389... | 3 | Qu Yuan (c. 340–278 BC) was a Chinese poet and minister who lived during the Warring States period of ancient China.
During King Qingxiang’s reign, Prime Minister Zilan slandered Qu Yuan.This caused Qu Yuan’s exile to the regions south of the Yangtze River. It is said that Qu Yuan returned first to his home town. In his exile, he spent much of this time collecting legends and rearranging folk odes while traveling the countryside. Furthermore, he wrote some of the greatest poetry in Chinese literature and expressed deep concerns about his state.
Qu Yuan is regarded as the first author of verse in China to have his name associated to his work, since prior to that time, poetic works were not attributed to any specific authors. He is considered to have initiated the so-called sao style of verse, which is named after his work Li Sao, in which he abandoned the classic four-character verses used in poems of Shi Jing and adopted verses with varying lengths. This resulted in poems with more rhythm and latitude in expression. Qu Yuan is also regarded as one of the most prominent figures of Romanticism in Chinese classical literature, and his masterpieces influenced some of the greatest Romanticist poets in Tang Dynasty such as Li Bai. During the Han Dynasty, Qu Yuan became established as a heroic example of how a scholar and official who was denied public recognition suitable to their worth should behave.
In China, Qu Yuan came to be regarded as a prime example of patriotism. His social idealism and unbending patriotism have served as the model for Chinese intellectuals to this day, particularly following the establishment of new China in 1949. For example, in the 1950s China issued a postage stamp bearing an image of Qu Yuan.
Dragon Boat Festival
Popular legend has it that villagers carried their dumplings and boats to the middle of the river and desperately tried to save Qu Yuan after he immersed himself in the Miluo but were too late to do so. However, in order to keep fish and evil spirits away from his body, they beat drums and splashed the water with their paddles, and they also threw rice into the water both as a food offering to Qu Yuan’s spirit and also to distract the fish away from his body. However, the legend continues, that late one night, the spirit of Qu Yuan appeared before his friends and told them that he died because he had taken himself under the river. Then, he asked his friends to wrap their rice into three-cornered silk packages to ward off the dragon.
These packages became a traditional food known as zongzi, although the lumps of rice are now wrapped in leaves instead of silk. The act of racing to search for his body in boats gradually became the cultural tradition of dragon boat racing, held on the anniversary of his death every year. Today, people still eat zongzi and participate in dragon boat races to commemorate Qu Yuan’s sacrifice on the fifth day of the fifth month of the traditional lunisolar Chinese calendar. The countries around China, such as Vietnam and Korea, also celebrate variations of this Dragon Boat Festival as part of their shared cultural heritage. | 642 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Translated by Frederic Poulin
When the president of the Montreal Royals Hector Racine announced a press conference on October 23rd, 1945, he said he had an announcement “that would revolutionize the baseball world”. Many Montrealers believed the city would receive a major league baseball franchise, but the announcement was of a different nature. The Royals would become the first baseball team of the twentieth century affiliated with the major leagues to dress a black player: Jack Roosevelt “Jackie” Robinson.
For over half a century, the baseball tycoons were following an unwritten rule: They were not offering contracts to African-Americans. Major leagues were reserved for white players while black players were playing in different leagues that were grouped under the “Negro leagues” name. That all changed when Branch Rickey, president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, decided to integrate its organization. And it is within his Montreal farm team that what was dubbed “The great experiment” would begin.
Robinson had signed his first contact with organized baseball during training camp in Florida, a state where racial segregation was common. This camp was real ordeal. He was driven out of the city that hosted the preliminary training camp. His presence caused the cancellation of seven exhibition games. Jackie even had to be removed from a game after two innings; the local police chief having threatened to stop the game if black players continued to play.
Despite not being impressive during training camp, Robinson was sensational in the first game of the season. In his second at-bat in the International League, he hit a three-run homer. He finished the game with 4 hits in 5 at-bats, 4 RBIs, 4 runs scored and 2 steals. The table was set for what would follow.
As if playing into one of the strongest baseball leagues in the world was not enough, Robinson faced an absolutely extraordinary pressure throughout the season. He knew that in case of failure, the integration of baseball might be delayed by several years. He had to excel in the field. And he had to do it despite the hostility of some fans (especially in Baltimore) and although many players of opposing teams (especially those of the Syracuse Chiefs) used the racial slur in an attempt to disturb him. All this pressure almost overcame Jackie, who was pushed to the brink of a nervous breakdown.
Fortunately, he could count on the continued support of Montreal fans who cheered him wildly every time they had the opportunity and jeered opponents who mistreated him on the field. He was also very well received by the residents of the Villeray neighborhood where he lived with his wife and ally of every instant Rachel.
In the end, Robinson had a remarkable season: He won the batting title (,349), led the league in on-base percentage (,468), runs scored (113) and was elected to the All-star team.
It would be wrong to see the 1946 edition of the Royals as Jackie Robinson’s team. He was surrounded by players who, failing to have great careers in the majors, were solid Triple-A players. The club won 100 games, a franchise-record, winning the regular season’s championship by eighteen and a half games.
In the playoffs, the Montrealers first eliminated the Newark Bears in the semifinals before getting rid of the Syracuse Chiefs in the finals of the International league. In doing so, the Royals earned the right to participate in the Little World Series against the Louisville Colonels, in Kentucky, champions of the American Association, to crown the best team in the minor leagues.
In Louisville, Jackie met another crowd openly hostile to the integration of baseball. Subjected to a torrent of racial insults, he only got one hit in ten official at-bats during the three games played in Kentucky. The Royals returned to Montreal behind 2-1 in the series.
Montrealers did not appreciate how Robinson was treated in Louisville and got their message across by booing loudly the Louisville players when the series moved to the metropolis. Jackie regained his composure, batting in the winning run in Game 4 and scoring the winning run in Game 5. The Royals won the first Little Word Series of their history in six games.
After the end of the series, Jackie, tears in his eyes, was carried in triumph around the field by the fans. Since he had a plane to catch, he had to leave as quickly as possible. But this was without taking into account the affection Montrealers had for him. Robinson finally left the stadium running out, chased by a mob of fans. That made journalist Sam Maltin say that “It was probably the only day in history that a black man ran from a white mob with love instead of lynching on its mind”
Later, Jackie related his departure from Montreal as follows: “As the plane roared skyward and the lights of Montreal twinkled and winked in the distance, I took one last look at this great city where I had found so much happiness. ‘I don’t care if I ever get to the majors, I told myself. This is the city for me. This is paradise’”. | <urn:uuid:e1a8cac2-fb49-49eb-869b-7fb428890b30> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exposnation.com/en/jackie-robinson-in-montreal-the-1946-season-in-a-few-words/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00104.warc.gz | en | 0.987941 | 1,058 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
-0.16413292288780212,
0.48339521884918213,
0.06006599962711334,
-0.3036133646965027,
0.16568289697170258,
0.13268131017684937,
0.15656733512878418,
0.15984797477722168,
0.25557154417037964,
0.16820259392261505,
0.36223042011260986,
0.11096467077732086,
-0.08535344898700714,
0.0122462641447... | 3 | Translated by Frederic Poulin
When the president of the Montreal Royals Hector Racine announced a press conference on October 23rd, 1945, he said he had an announcement “that would revolutionize the baseball world”. Many Montrealers believed the city would receive a major league baseball franchise, but the announcement was of a different nature. The Royals would become the first baseball team of the twentieth century affiliated with the major leagues to dress a black player: Jack Roosevelt “Jackie” Robinson.
For over half a century, the baseball tycoons were following an unwritten rule: They were not offering contracts to African-Americans. Major leagues were reserved for white players while black players were playing in different leagues that were grouped under the “Negro leagues” name. That all changed when Branch Rickey, president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, decided to integrate its organization. And it is within his Montreal farm team that what was dubbed “The great experiment” would begin.
Robinson had signed his first contact with organized baseball during training camp in Florida, a state where racial segregation was common. This camp was real ordeal. He was driven out of the city that hosted the preliminary training camp. His presence caused the cancellation of seven exhibition games. Jackie even had to be removed from a game after two innings; the local police chief having threatened to stop the game if black players continued to play.
Despite not being impressive during training camp, Robinson was sensational in the first game of the season. In his second at-bat in the International League, he hit a three-run homer. He finished the game with 4 hits in 5 at-bats, 4 RBIs, 4 runs scored and 2 steals. The table was set for what would follow.
As if playing into one of the strongest baseball leagues in the world was not enough, Robinson faced an absolutely extraordinary pressure throughout the season. He knew that in case of failure, the integration of baseball might be delayed by several years. He had to excel in the field. And he had to do it despite the hostility of some fans (especially in Baltimore) and although many players of opposing teams (especially those of the Syracuse Chiefs) used the racial slur in an attempt to disturb him. All this pressure almost overcame Jackie, who was pushed to the brink of a nervous breakdown.
Fortunately, he could count on the continued support of Montreal fans who cheered him wildly every time they had the opportunity and jeered opponents who mistreated him on the field. He was also very well received by the residents of the Villeray neighborhood where he lived with his wife and ally of every instant Rachel.
In the end, Robinson had a remarkable season: He won the batting title (,349), led the league in on-base percentage (,468), runs scored (113) and was elected to the All-star team.
It would be wrong to see the 1946 edition of the Royals as Jackie Robinson’s team. He was surrounded by players who, failing to have great careers in the majors, were solid Triple-A players. The club won 100 games, a franchise-record, winning the regular season’s championship by eighteen and a half games.
In the playoffs, the Montrealers first eliminated the Newark Bears in the semifinals before getting rid of the Syracuse Chiefs in the finals of the International league. In doing so, the Royals earned the right to participate in the Little World Series against the Louisville Colonels, in Kentucky, champions of the American Association, to crown the best team in the minor leagues.
In Louisville, Jackie met another crowd openly hostile to the integration of baseball. Subjected to a torrent of racial insults, he only got one hit in ten official at-bats during the three games played in Kentucky. The Royals returned to Montreal behind 2-1 in the series.
Montrealers did not appreciate how Robinson was treated in Louisville and got their message across by booing loudly the Louisville players when the series moved to the metropolis. Jackie regained his composure, batting in the winning run in Game 4 and scoring the winning run in Game 5. The Royals won the first Little Word Series of their history in six games.
After the end of the series, Jackie, tears in his eyes, was carried in triumph around the field by the fans. Since he had a plane to catch, he had to leave as quickly as possible. But this was without taking into account the affection Montrealers had for him. Robinson finally left the stadium running out, chased by a mob of fans. That made journalist Sam Maltin say that “It was probably the only day in history that a black man ran from a white mob with love instead of lynching on its mind”
Later, Jackie related his departure from Montreal as follows: “As the plane roared skyward and the lights of Montreal twinkled and winked in the distance, I took one last look at this great city where I had found so much happiness. ‘I don’t care if I ever get to the majors, I told myself. This is the city for me. This is paradise’”. | 1,047 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History Of Candies:
Candy has its origins mainly in Ancient India. Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the people in India and their “reeds that produce honey without bees”. They adopted and then spread sugar and sugarcane agriculture. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, while the word sugar is derived from the Sanskrit word “Sharkara“. Pieces of sugar were produced by boiling sugarcane juice in ancient India and consumed as “Khanda“, dubbed as the original candy and the etymology of the word.
Before sugar was readily available, candy was based on Honey. Honey was used in Ancient China, Middle East, Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire to coat fruits and flowers to preserve them or to create forms of candy. Candy is still served in this form today, though now it is more typically seen as a type of Garnish.
Before the Industrial Revolution, candy was often considered a form of medicine, either used to calm the digestive system or cool a sore throat. In the Middle Ages candy appeared on the tables of only the most wealthy at first. At that time, it began as a combination of spices and sugar that was used as an aid to digestive problems. Digestive problems were very common during this time due to the constant consumption of food that was neither fresh nor well balanced. Banquet hosts would typically serve these types of ‘candies’ at banquets for their guests. One of these candies, sometimes called chamber spice, was made with cloves, ginger, aniseed, juniper berries, almonds and pine kernels dipped in melted sugar.
The Middle English word candy began to be used in the late 13th century.
The first candy came to America in the early 18th century from Britain and France. Only a few of the early colonists were proficient in sugar work and sugary treats were generally only enjoyed by the very wealthy. Even the simplest form of candy – Rock Candy, made from crystallized sugar – was considered a luxury. | <urn:uuid:1a71cd44-4cbc-46ee-9c3a-6d144aa76b7e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.poppins.tech/candy-at-its-best/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.98426 | 433 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.02297203801572323,
0.09993643313646317,
0.21260252594947815,
0.05096273496747017,
-0.477647989988327,
0.030732475221157074,
0.4560920298099518,
0.2509787380695343,
-0.18773192167282104,
0.11305849999189377,
0.05479227751493454,
-0.23983530700206757,
0.09200131148099899,
0.17308643460273... | 2 | History Of Candies:
Candy has its origins mainly in Ancient India. Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the people in India and their “reeds that produce honey without bees”. They adopted and then spread sugar and sugarcane agriculture. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, while the word sugar is derived from the Sanskrit word “Sharkara“. Pieces of sugar were produced by boiling sugarcane juice in ancient India and consumed as “Khanda“, dubbed as the original candy and the etymology of the word.
Before sugar was readily available, candy was based on Honey. Honey was used in Ancient China, Middle East, Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire to coat fruits and flowers to preserve them or to create forms of candy. Candy is still served in this form today, though now it is more typically seen as a type of Garnish.
Before the Industrial Revolution, candy was often considered a form of medicine, either used to calm the digestive system or cool a sore throat. In the Middle Ages candy appeared on the tables of only the most wealthy at first. At that time, it began as a combination of spices and sugar that was used as an aid to digestive problems. Digestive problems were very common during this time due to the constant consumption of food that was neither fresh nor well balanced. Banquet hosts would typically serve these types of ‘candies’ at banquets for their guests. One of these candies, sometimes called chamber spice, was made with cloves, ginger, aniseed, juniper berries, almonds and pine kernels dipped in melted sugar.
The Middle English word candy began to be used in the late 13th century.
The first candy came to America in the early 18th century from Britain and France. Only a few of the early colonists were proficient in sugar work and sugary treats were generally only enjoyed by the very wealthy. Even the simplest form of candy – Rock Candy, made from crystallized sugar – was considered a luxury. | 423 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to email@example.com.
How was maths discovered? Who made up the numbers and rules? – Bianca, age 12, Strathfield, Sydney.
We are all born with a brain that understands maths. So are animals, to some extent, but perhaps algebra would be a bit difficult for a giraffe – that is a long stretch.
Throughout history, different cultures have discovered the maths needed for tasks like understanding groups and relationships, sharing food, looking at astronomical and seasonal patterns, and more. There are probably forms of mathematics that were understood by people we don’t even know existed.
Many indigenous cultures worked with different time, measurement, and number ideas suited to their needs and had amazing ways of expressing these ideas. But there are some things that are very common, like counting.
There was an explosion of discovery of mathematics in different cultures at different points in time.
The Greeks didn’t really use algebra the way we do now, but they were amazing with geometry. I am sure you have heard of Pythagoras, but do you know of the woman mathematician Hypatia? She was an amazing teacher and writer skilled at making difficult concepts easy to understand.
Unfortunately, she was killed for her ideas.
Not everyone had the number zero
The Romans were great engineers but they had a terrible number system. It didn’t even have zero.
The number system used in ancient India had zero, but it was known by other very old cultures like the Mayans in Central America and the Babylonians (from ancient Iraq). And ancient Arab mathematicians not only knew about zero but also really spread the idea of algebra after the 9th century (the word comes from a text by a famous mathematician called al-Khwarizmi).
People in the Middle Ages in Europe thought fractions were the hardest maths EVER! One 11th century monk reportedly said:
After spending months working hard and studying, I finally grasped this thing called fractions!
And in the 16th century, people thought negative numbers were pretty evil. They had other names for these numbers, like “absurd” or “defective”.
Curious Kids: Why do we count to 10?
Numbers and patterns have always been there, waiting to be discovered
There are so many number systems! The ones you know were developed over centuries and we are still making up more now. But much of our maths is based on one system called “base 10”, which works on patterns of one to ten (that probably has its roots in the fact that humans have 10 fingers to count on). It’s also called the decimal system.
But there are lots of other systems, like base 2 (also called the binary system), or base 16 (also called the hexadecimal system).
It sounds complicated but they’re just different ways of organising numbers. Numbers have always been there, waiting to be discovered and so were different ways of organising them.
And over time humans in various cultures have noticed patterns that emerge in numbers, and developed mathematical systems around them.
Breaking the rules
There are plenty of other rules in mathematics, but they are based on recognising patterns and wondering if something works that way all the time. Let’s look at these two equations:
3 x 2 = 6
2 x 3 = 6
You’ve probably learned that it doesn’t matter if you multiply three by two or two by three – you always get six, right? That’s a mathematical “rule” called the “commutative law for multiplication” (“commute” means to move around).
But what if there were some maths worlds where that didn’t happen? Well, there is a certain type of maths, called “matrices”, that was discovered in the 19th century, where you get a different answer, depending on which way you multiply.
Why would anyone want to do that? It turns out that this type of maths is really useful in many different areas, including airline travel and engineering.
You may even end up being a famous mathematician that discovers more maths, creates more rules, or makes up some more names.
About 100 years ago, a mathematician called Edward Kasner was trying to think up a name for a huge number: 1 with one hundred zeros after it. He asked his nine-year-old nephew, Milton Sirotta, who suggested “googol”.
So, Bianca, why not think of a name for a new number? Or look around at some shapes and ask yourself what you might name it?
Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:aed93784-e1e8-4a32-b6be-b2ba646ed4fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://themath.net/curious-kids-how-was-maths-discovered-who-made-up-the-numbers-and-rules-the-conversation-au | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00108.warc.gz | en | 0.98081 | 1,027 | 3.625 | 4 | [
-0.6701920032501221,
0.02777148224413395,
-0.06064091995358467,
-0.14762572944164276,
-0.7856674194335938,
0.07454928755760193,
0.24887406826019287,
0.28957653045654297,
0.18255041539669037,
0.21714845299720764,
0.17192932963371277,
-0.18874222040176392,
0.024235939607024193,
0.18519337475... | 1 | If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to email@example.com.
How was maths discovered? Who made up the numbers and rules? – Bianca, age 12, Strathfield, Sydney.
We are all born with a brain that understands maths. So are animals, to some extent, but perhaps algebra would be a bit difficult for a giraffe – that is a long stretch.
Throughout history, different cultures have discovered the maths needed for tasks like understanding groups and relationships, sharing food, looking at astronomical and seasonal patterns, and more. There are probably forms of mathematics that were understood by people we don’t even know existed.
Many indigenous cultures worked with different time, measurement, and number ideas suited to their needs and had amazing ways of expressing these ideas. But there are some things that are very common, like counting.
There was an explosion of discovery of mathematics in different cultures at different points in time.
The Greeks didn’t really use algebra the way we do now, but they were amazing with geometry. I am sure you have heard of Pythagoras, but do you know of the woman mathematician Hypatia? She was an amazing teacher and writer skilled at making difficult concepts easy to understand.
Unfortunately, she was killed for her ideas.
Not everyone had the number zero
The Romans were great engineers but they had a terrible number system. It didn’t even have zero.
The number system used in ancient India had zero, but it was known by other very old cultures like the Mayans in Central America and the Babylonians (from ancient Iraq). And ancient Arab mathematicians not only knew about zero but also really spread the idea of algebra after the 9th century (the word comes from a text by a famous mathematician called al-Khwarizmi).
People in the Middle Ages in Europe thought fractions were the hardest maths EVER! One 11th century monk reportedly said:
After spending months working hard and studying, I finally grasped this thing called fractions!
And in the 16th century, people thought negative numbers were pretty evil. They had other names for these numbers, like “absurd” or “defective”.
Curious Kids: Why do we count to 10?
Numbers and patterns have always been there, waiting to be discovered
There are so many number systems! The ones you know were developed over centuries and we are still making up more now. But much of our maths is based on one system called “base 10”, which works on patterns of one to ten (that probably has its roots in the fact that humans have 10 fingers to count on). It’s also called the decimal system.
But there are lots of other systems, like base 2 (also called the binary system), or base 16 (also called the hexadecimal system).
It sounds complicated but they’re just different ways of organising numbers. Numbers have always been there, waiting to be discovered and so were different ways of organising them.
And over time humans in various cultures have noticed patterns that emerge in numbers, and developed mathematical systems around them.
Breaking the rules
There are plenty of other rules in mathematics, but they are based on recognising patterns and wondering if something works that way all the time. Let’s look at these two equations:
3 x 2 = 6
2 x 3 = 6
You’ve probably learned that it doesn’t matter if you multiply three by two or two by three – you always get six, right? That’s a mathematical “rule” called the “commutative law for multiplication” (“commute” means to move around).
But what if there were some maths worlds where that didn’t happen? Well, there is a certain type of maths, called “matrices”, that was discovered in the 19th century, where you get a different answer, depending on which way you multiply.
Why would anyone want to do that? It turns out that this type of maths is really useful in many different areas, including airline travel and engineering.
You may even end up being a famous mathematician that discovers more maths, creates more rules, or makes up some more names.
About 100 years ago, a mathematician called Edward Kasner was trying to think up a name for a huge number: 1 with one hundred zeros after it. He asked his nine-year-old nephew, Milton Sirotta, who suggested “googol”.
So, Bianca, why not think of a name for a new number? Or look around at some shapes and ask yourself what you might name it?
Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to firstname.lastname@example.org | 968 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the Second World War, most black Americans in America experienced a lot of racial segregation. They had little or no freedom in the American society where power was exercised and exclusively controlled by the whites. However as time went by, most of them began to realize that it was time they began talking for themselves. They had had enough of people misrepresenting them. They came to realize that before any group can enter the open society, it must first close ranks.
This meant that the group had to have some well established solidarity which could serve as a source of strength in a pluralistic society. Matusow, Allen J. (1986). They were determined to get into the mainstream liberalism. However this was met by strong resistance as other conservative movements who opposed them were formed. These conservative movements were formed by whites only. The black Americans were not struggling to have political and economical freedom as an individual group but rather they wanted to be represented equally like other races in the political and the economy of America.
This groups that were formed, their main purpose was to ensure that the American government responded to the problems of the blacks. This group was to provide the blacks in the segregated neighborhoods with help and uplift those in dire need and poverty. The program was designed to meet this objective an in the end make the Blacks realize the greatness that lies in solidarity. This gave birth to the civil movements that were to defend these rights. Matusow, Allen J. (1986).
Even with the abolishment of the Jim Crow rules and the set up of the civil rights act and the voting rights act, Stokeley Carmichael and Hamilton believed that there needed to be greater solidarity in dealing with the problem of extreme poverty and racism towards blacks. They defined racism as “the predication of decisions and policies on considerations of race for the purpose of subordinating a racial group and maintaining control over that group. The increased solidarity among the blacks led to the beginning of conservative movements among the whites.
This groups which include the infamous Ku Klux Klan (KKK) did some extreme and inhuman acts of racism towards the blacks in a bid to attack their solidarity. Some of these acts were meant to meet one objective; making blacks to submit to the whites. This acts included destruction of property, murder, physical injury (bodily harm) and other blunt forms of terrorism like burning one to death in full view of their families and even hanging them. Some of them were through the education system like children of blacks were intimidated by the white teachers at school and looked down upon.
This led to so many deaths and increased illiteracy levels among the blacks. Institutional racism also made the majority of the blacks shy away from institutions and as a result there was increased poverty. So many blacks filled the American jails as the justice system was bent in favor of the whites. There was increased crime among the blacks who were determined to live despite lacking a source of income. This institutional racism made children to believe that they were nobody right from the institutions and even to the work places. Matusow, Allen J. (1986).
These conservative groups did these acts through hidden operations and this was through respected and established people in the society like the law makers, judges and even the police themselves who could supervise such inhuman acts and do nothing. As overt racism decreased, institutional racism increased by the day. It was a form of neocolonialism. Most blacks felt that they were serving a master and the freedom era was a very big lie. Matusow, Allen J. (1986). The justice system was meant to prosecute the blacks only. The white who committed the overt acts of terrorism against blacks were often set free.
Most Africans decided to live together so that they could watch each others back. Since most institutions were being used to exercise racism, this made blacks to form black churches. This was a place where they could meet for solidarity, talk and encourage each other. The churches led to a rise of spiritual leaders whose main purpose was to conjugate the blacks and reinforce their determination. The leaders of this group evolved to become spiritual leaders. Spiritual leaders preached love, peace and tolerance and determination. Farber, David (1996) | <urn:uuid:5fe5f4d9-e105-4ed2-b93a-287bc11a271b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://custom-essays-writings.com/strategies-towards-mainstream-liberalism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.987699 | 848 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
-0.12245135009288788,
0.049084294587373734,
-0.22816649079322815,
0.06371705234050751,
-0.0837739109992981,
0.4492139220237732,
-0.32487237453460693,
-0.07045511901378632,
0.004783994518220425,
-0.04906342178583145,
0.4723106324672699,
0.08359639346599579,
-0.11659654974937439,
0.005620735... | 7 | After the Second World War, most black Americans in America experienced a lot of racial segregation. They had little or no freedom in the American society where power was exercised and exclusively controlled by the whites. However as time went by, most of them began to realize that it was time they began talking for themselves. They had had enough of people misrepresenting them. They came to realize that before any group can enter the open society, it must first close ranks.
This meant that the group had to have some well established solidarity which could serve as a source of strength in a pluralistic society. Matusow, Allen J. (1986). They were determined to get into the mainstream liberalism. However this was met by strong resistance as other conservative movements who opposed them were formed. These conservative movements were formed by whites only. The black Americans were not struggling to have political and economical freedom as an individual group but rather they wanted to be represented equally like other races in the political and the economy of America.
This groups that were formed, their main purpose was to ensure that the American government responded to the problems of the blacks. This group was to provide the blacks in the segregated neighborhoods with help and uplift those in dire need and poverty. The program was designed to meet this objective an in the end make the Blacks realize the greatness that lies in solidarity. This gave birth to the civil movements that were to defend these rights. Matusow, Allen J. (1986).
Even with the abolishment of the Jim Crow rules and the set up of the civil rights act and the voting rights act, Stokeley Carmichael and Hamilton believed that there needed to be greater solidarity in dealing with the problem of extreme poverty and racism towards blacks. They defined racism as “the predication of decisions and policies on considerations of race for the purpose of subordinating a racial group and maintaining control over that group. The increased solidarity among the blacks led to the beginning of conservative movements among the whites.
This groups which include the infamous Ku Klux Klan (KKK) did some extreme and inhuman acts of racism towards the blacks in a bid to attack their solidarity. Some of these acts were meant to meet one objective; making blacks to submit to the whites. This acts included destruction of property, murder, physical injury (bodily harm) and other blunt forms of terrorism like burning one to death in full view of their families and even hanging them. Some of them were through the education system like children of blacks were intimidated by the white teachers at school and looked down upon.
This led to so many deaths and increased illiteracy levels among the blacks. Institutional racism also made the majority of the blacks shy away from institutions and as a result there was increased poverty. So many blacks filled the American jails as the justice system was bent in favor of the whites. There was increased crime among the blacks who were determined to live despite lacking a source of income. This institutional racism made children to believe that they were nobody right from the institutions and even to the work places. Matusow, Allen J. (1986).
These conservative groups did these acts through hidden operations and this was through respected and established people in the society like the law makers, judges and even the police themselves who could supervise such inhuman acts and do nothing. As overt racism decreased, institutional racism increased by the day. It was a form of neocolonialism. Most blacks felt that they were serving a master and the freedom era was a very big lie. Matusow, Allen J. (1986). The justice system was meant to prosecute the blacks only. The white who committed the overt acts of terrorism against blacks were often set free.
Most Africans decided to live together so that they could watch each others back. Since most institutions were being used to exercise racism, this made blacks to form black churches. This was a place where they could meet for solidarity, talk and encourage each other. The churches led to a rise of spiritual leaders whose main purpose was to conjugate the blacks and reinforce their determination. The leaders of this group evolved to become spiritual leaders. Spiritual leaders preached love, peace and tolerance and determination. Farber, David (1996) | 858 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Dolores Lehr
Charles Dickens has always been popular in Philadelphia. The city has its statue of this famous Victorian author where the Friends of Clark Park gather each February to celebrate his birthday. The "Dickens Village" at Macy's, moved from its former location in Strawbridge's, attracts large crowds of visitors every year during the Christmas holidays. The Philadelphia Free Library is concluding its yearlong celebration of the Dickens' Bicentenary (1812-2012), which has included monthly discussions of Dickens' works, displays of his letters and artifacts, and other festive events.
Yet, while this popular author has always had a special appeal for Philadelphians, few probably realize that his visit to their city might have played a role in the writing of his most famous Christmas story.
Dickens visited Philadelphia twice - in 1842 and 1868. During his first visit, he, like so many other European visitors of his time, was eager to see Eastern State Penitentiary, opened in 1829 and designed to keep prisoners isolated so that they would not be further corrupted from association with each other - and eventually be reformed. When prisoners entered this penitentiary, hoods were placed over their heads and they were never to see anyone again until their release.
When Dickens visited this penitentiary in 1842, he was horrified by what he perceived as an extremely inhumane system. When he returned to England, he wrote about this visit in a chapter of his travel book American Notes, entitled "Philadelphia and Its Solitary Prison." His reflections show what he thought would be the state of anyone subject to the "torture and agony, which this dreadful punishment, prolonged for years, inflicts upon the sufferers."
With this extreme isolation, Dickens pictured what a prisoner might have experienced, including the appearance of a ghost at night in his cell, where "always at the same hour, a voice calls to him by name ... a hideous figure watching him till daybreak." Such reflections on these prisoners, which Dickens wrote about so poignantly in 1842, might well have inspired his creation of Ebenezer Scrooge in "A Christmas Carol" the following year. Dickens depicted Scrooge, not as a prisoner, but as an individual isolated from society almost as much as the prisoners he had met and observed the year before.
In the beginning of "A Christmas Carol," Scrooge is shown as almost totally cut off from others - Bob Cratchit, his clerk, shivering without coals for heat in the counting house; his nephew Fred, coming by to invite him to Christmas dinner; and the two portly gentlemen soliciting a donation for the poor. Scrooge in his self-imposed isolation is unable to relate to any of these people or their concerns.
When Scrooge retires for the night, he begins to see ghosts - just as Dickens imagined prisoners in Eastern State would. When Scrooge sees the ghost of Jacob Marley, the ghost says, "It is required of every man ... that the spirit within him should walk abroad among his fellow-men." Marley admits "My spirit never walked beyond our counting house" - and so he suffers now from his own self-confinement.
As the other ghosts later appear to Scrooge, they show him scenes of people from all walks of life and locales with families and friends - all experiencing the holidays together. The Cratchit family, for instance, is described as not handsome or well-dressed, but nevertheless "pleased with one another." Scrooge, on the other hand, is described in his office alone, "Quite alone in the world."
Dickens was a writer, not a politician, so when he returned to England from his trip to America he didn't try to change the system he had witnessed and abhorred at Eastern State Penitentiary. Instead, he denounced it in his chapter on Philadelphia in American Notes, writing in his conclusion that "nothing wholesome or good has ever had its growth in such unnatural solitude." The following year, 1843, he showed the effects of this unnatural solitude and dramatized his powerful argument for change in "A Christmas Carol." | <urn:uuid:76e1338a-46df-4449-8716-88e3b4d43e7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inquirer.com/philly/opinion/inquirer/20121225_Scrooge_born_in_Philly_.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.985282 | 857 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
0.027394363656640053,
0.11026795208454132,
0.31944018602371216,
0.0610676035284996,
-0.011964608915150166,
-0.5228704810142517,
0.2849370241165161,
0.36558717489242554,
-0.24472583830356598,
0.012389175593852997,
0.3236083388328552,
0.40842145681381226,
-0.19123105704784393,
0.390472471714... | 4 | By Dolores Lehr
Charles Dickens has always been popular in Philadelphia. The city has its statue of this famous Victorian author where the Friends of Clark Park gather each February to celebrate his birthday. The "Dickens Village" at Macy's, moved from its former location in Strawbridge's, attracts large crowds of visitors every year during the Christmas holidays. The Philadelphia Free Library is concluding its yearlong celebration of the Dickens' Bicentenary (1812-2012), which has included monthly discussions of Dickens' works, displays of his letters and artifacts, and other festive events.
Yet, while this popular author has always had a special appeal for Philadelphians, few probably realize that his visit to their city might have played a role in the writing of his most famous Christmas story.
Dickens visited Philadelphia twice - in 1842 and 1868. During his first visit, he, like so many other European visitors of his time, was eager to see Eastern State Penitentiary, opened in 1829 and designed to keep prisoners isolated so that they would not be further corrupted from association with each other - and eventually be reformed. When prisoners entered this penitentiary, hoods were placed over their heads and they were never to see anyone again until their release.
When Dickens visited this penitentiary in 1842, he was horrified by what he perceived as an extremely inhumane system. When he returned to England, he wrote about this visit in a chapter of his travel book American Notes, entitled "Philadelphia and Its Solitary Prison." His reflections show what he thought would be the state of anyone subject to the "torture and agony, which this dreadful punishment, prolonged for years, inflicts upon the sufferers."
With this extreme isolation, Dickens pictured what a prisoner might have experienced, including the appearance of a ghost at night in his cell, where "always at the same hour, a voice calls to him by name ... a hideous figure watching him till daybreak." Such reflections on these prisoners, which Dickens wrote about so poignantly in 1842, might well have inspired his creation of Ebenezer Scrooge in "A Christmas Carol" the following year. Dickens depicted Scrooge, not as a prisoner, but as an individual isolated from society almost as much as the prisoners he had met and observed the year before.
In the beginning of "A Christmas Carol," Scrooge is shown as almost totally cut off from others - Bob Cratchit, his clerk, shivering without coals for heat in the counting house; his nephew Fred, coming by to invite him to Christmas dinner; and the two portly gentlemen soliciting a donation for the poor. Scrooge in his self-imposed isolation is unable to relate to any of these people or their concerns.
When Scrooge retires for the night, he begins to see ghosts - just as Dickens imagined prisoners in Eastern State would. When Scrooge sees the ghost of Jacob Marley, the ghost says, "It is required of every man ... that the spirit within him should walk abroad among his fellow-men." Marley admits "My spirit never walked beyond our counting house" - and so he suffers now from his own self-confinement.
As the other ghosts later appear to Scrooge, they show him scenes of people from all walks of life and locales with families and friends - all experiencing the holidays together. The Cratchit family, for instance, is described as not handsome or well-dressed, but nevertheless "pleased with one another." Scrooge, on the other hand, is described in his office alone, "Quite alone in the world."
Dickens was a writer, not a politician, so when he returned to England from his trip to America he didn't try to change the system he had witnessed and abhorred at Eastern State Penitentiary. Instead, he denounced it in his chapter on Philadelphia in American Notes, writing in his conclusion that "nothing wholesome or good has ever had its growth in such unnatural solitude." The following year, 1843, he showed the effects of this unnatural solitude and dramatized his powerful argument for change in "A Christmas Carol." | 875 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is The Reformation and what is a Reformer?
The term Reformer is used to describe those men who desired to reach back to the foundations of the Word of God and the true Gospel of Jesus Christ in light of human traditions and ecclesiastical corruption. A reformer’s intention, when applied in this way to church history, was particularly seen in the reformation of the corrupted Roman Catholic Church.
The phrase The Reformation refers to that great restoration of the Biblical gospel and the resulting schism with the Roman Catholic Church that was initiated by Martin Luther on 31 October 1517, when he nailed his 95 theses of contention with the Roman Catholic Church.
2. The Reformation Genesis
2.1 Papal infighting
Although the start of the Reformation is seen as 31 October 1517 with Martin Luther, there were many that preceded Luther in their search for truth. In fact, the seeds for the Reformation were planted more than 100 years before Luther was born.
Pope Gregory XI (1370-1378) returned to Rome from Avignon to reinstate Rome as the papal city on 17 January 1377. However, his death in 1378 left an opening for the next pope. Since the pope is elected by the cardinals and the majority of the cardinals were French, the Italian people would not stand for the election of a Frenchman who might want to return the papacy to Avignon in France. At this, an Italian mob invaded the building in Rome where the election was to take place and ensured that no cardinal could escape. After deliberation the cardinals elected an Italian who took the name Urban VI, who subsequently was crowned the next pope on easter Sunday, 1378.
Urban VI was not a wise man and neither was he cautious. He preached against the ostentatiousness of the cardinals and other abuses. In order to remove the power of the French, he decided to appoint a majority of Italian cardinals. Unfortunately, he announced this plan to the French before actually doing this.
At this point many thought he had gone crazy. More and more of his cardinals joined his opposition. Upon these events, he appointed 26 new cardinals from his own supporters. However, by now, the defectors have declared Urban VI a false pope and as a result his cardinals were also false. The defectors then elected a new pope who called himself Clement VII.
After Clement VII’s election he sent his forces to Rome against Urban VI. However, he was sent back by Urban VI’s troops. Clement VII then took up residence in Avignon. This became known as the Great Schism. As a result the Roman Catholic Church had two popes! This meant that Europe was divided between the two popes. Several popes followed in each line.
Finally, the two cardinals’ councils got to meet together. They finally decided to depose the two rival popes and elected one new pope who called himself Alexander V. However, the two rival popes refused to accept the councils decision, and henceforth there were three popes! Alexander V died and John XXIII was elected in his place. Neither of these two popes was able to end the schism. The Roman Catholic Church today accepts only the line of popes following Urban VI. The rival popes of Avignon and the Pisan popes (Alexander V and John XXIII) are considered to be antipopes.
Finally, after great political manoeuvres and fugitive popes, Martin V (1417-1431) was elected as the sole pope. The end of the Great Schism finally came in 1423.
2.2 First Reformers
The first reformer to be noticed is John Wycliffe. He is known as the morning star of the Reformation; a star rising upon a new day. Wycliffe was born in 1330 AD and died in 1384. He attended Oxford University, receiving his doctorate in 1372. Most of his life was spent teaching at Oxford, and studying God's Word in Oxford’s extensive library. He was a brilliant scholar who mastered the late medieval scholastic tradition, and was recognized by John of Guant (The Duke of Lancaster) as one who was extraordinarily gifted in theology and preaching. Not only was he an able clergyman, but he was also involved in state affairs. Wycliffe performed diplomatic duties for the crown, and wrote extensively on supporting civil government.
Wycliffe was well respected and had a wide influence with his teaching and preaching. He wrote against the Roman Catholic church on many doctrinal points. He did not believe in the clerical ownership of land and property, as well as papal jurisdiction in secular affairs. He also believed that those clergy who lived in open immorality, as many of the corrupt "popes, bishops, and priests of the time," should relinquish their positions the moment they came upon unrepentant open sin. This would have included much of the political corruption found in the Catholic church, and if Wycliffe’s biblical teachings were heeded, many of the priests, bishops, cardinals and popes would have stepped down rather quickly.
In reaction to Wycliffe's open "defiance" of the Roman Catholic church and the Pope’s authority, a Papal bull was issued against Oxford to impede him from teaching. It also noted that Wycliffe was to appear before a "hearing" which, unsurprisingly, charged him with heresy against the mother church. He did attend that hearing and was formally charged with heresy. The Catholic church was adamantly opposed to his teachings, especially when he attacked the Mass. He also rejected all ceremony and organization not mentioned in the Bible (which would have excluded almost everything the Romans Catholic church performed), as well as the heretical doctrines of transubstantiation and the clerical "power" of the priesthood. His views on doctrines were more and more closely matched with that of Augustine. Nevertheless, as a result of his political connections, Wycliffe was not arrested at this hearing.
Wycliffe's best known work was that of the translation he accomplished from the Latin Vulgate to English. Though he did not translate the Bible from the original languages (the Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek) he still placed the first English Bible into the hands of the people. The translation was made available to the English people through the hands of the Lollards (or “poor preachers”) These Lollards were Wycliffe’s trained lay preachers who took up the task of spreading the Gospel even in light of the anathema of the Roman Catholic Church. They traveled with their Bible, and the clothes on their back, gaining sustenance by those who would take them in.
Wycliffe died in 1384 from two strokes. The Roman Catholic church never caught him to burn him at the stake. In spite of this, 40 years after his death, they dug up his bones and burned them to ashes, scattering them in a river, and formally excommunicated him from the Roman Catholic church.
The next great figure of Reformation thought (which at this time was simply an adherence to the truths of the Bible) was a Bohemian monk named John Hus (Jan Hus). He lived from 1372-1415. He studied at the university of Prague, and later became a professor there. He took priestly vows, and served the Catholic church for a time, until his conversion through the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
In 1402 Hus was appointed rector and preacher of Prague's Bethlehem chapel, the center of the Czech reformed movement. During these years, many of Wycliffe's expositions of the Word of God moved the true Church closer and closer to biblical thinking. By 1407, adopting many of the same biblical insights, Hus was clearly identified with this kind of reforming thought by the Roman Catholic church.
Hus wrote and preached against papal indulgences, clerical abuses of power, immorality of high living within the Catholic clergy, and the veneration of the Pope. He wrote to promote piety and godliness, rather than riotous living and excess which the Roman Catholic church allowed.
In 1414, Hus was summoned by the Archbishop of Prague to stand before a official hearing on his doctrines--the Roman Catholic church believing Hus was a heretic and yearned that his preaching be stopped. Since Hus refused this charge, and continued to preach the Gospel, the Roman Catholic church summoned him, under pretense of "safety", to appear and present his case before the Catholic tribunal. Instead of allowing him a fair trial, they arrested Hus and imprisoned him; Hus' case was never really heard. He did stand “trial” and was convicted of being a heretic. He was burned at the stake by the Catholic church on July 6, 1415. Hus sang hymns while he died.
You may have heard the phrase, "your goose is cooked". This was first coined from the martyrdom of this reformer. Hus' name in German sounded like "goose". Thus, as he was burned, they coined the term "Hus is cooked (or, “your goose is cooked)" in German. Yet, Hus said to the Archbishop during his trial, that though he--the goose--be burned at the stake, another will come--a swan--to teach and preach the doctrines of the Bible; to finish the work of reformation which had begun. This swan would be no other than Martin Luther in the early 1500’s.
After John Hus, the next noteworthy reformer is William Tyndale. He was born in 1493 AD, and died a martyr in 1536. He was educated at Oxford, and became a prominent Greek Scholar. He had obtained a copy of Erasmas' Greek New Testament and vowed before the Lord that "nothing" would stop him from learning the Greek language. He was prominently skilled as a Greek
scholar and attempted a translation of the Bible (the NT) from original Greek to English. He sought to publish this translation but was turned down at every corner for the rights to publish; especially since he appealed to the Roman Catholic Church. They did not want the laity to gain hold of a copy of the Bible in their own tongue lest they misinterpret it; the Romans church believed that only the mother church is able to rightly interpret the Bible.
Tyndale secretly finished the translation with the help of colleagues, and smuggled the new translation into English hands. During a dinner meeting among priests and bishops where Tyndale was present, he said that he "defied the Pope and all his laws" and vowed that "a plough-boy would know more of the Scriptures than they" so help him God. That English Bible did find its way into the hands of the plough-boys, yet, through Roman Catholic influence, King Henry VIII set his indignation against Tyndale and required the translation to be burned. Henry did this because Tyndale, among others, would not consent to the marriage of the King to Anne Bolin, subsequent to his divorce of Catherine of Argon. Tyndale had written a treatise on Christian growth which King Henry VIII read. In it the king saw that Tyndale was "sympathetic" towards "monarchs" because if priests abused their power, kings had the right of judgment and justice against them. Henry VIII favored this since the Pope had refused to annul his marriage with Catherine. King Henry ultimately set himself as the Defender of the Faith, above the Pope. So Henry VIII was partial towards Tyndale at first, and desired to meet him, though ultimately the King found out that Tyndale, because of Scriptural warrant, could not condone the King's divorce, and in his writings has stated that divorce was sin. Henry allowed the Roman Catholic church to arrest Tyndale. Tyndale was caught, arrested, tried, and sentenced to death. While he was being tied at the stake, Tyndale prayed that the "eyes of the King would be opened." In 1536, he was strangled to death and then burned. After his death, the circulation of the English Bible providentially found its way into the hands of King Henry VIII. In seeing the masterful work done, Henry issued an edict that every church was to have one of these Bibles on display in their chapel. Henry did make one adjustment to the Bible, and that was the insertion of the header which pronounced him Defender of the Faith on the title page. Although posthumously, Tyndale's prayer was heard.
3. The Reformation Exodus
3.1 Martin Luther
Just after Tyndale came upon the reformation scene, another young monk named Martin Luther commenced a great stir in Germany. Luther was an Augustinian monk who, after much study, was persuaded by one of the later Reformation standards, "Sola Fide" (Faith alone), early in his walk with Christ. It was during his study of Paul’s epistle to the Romans where he was consumed by the divine and supernatural light of conversion. The text read, "The just shall live by faith" (Romans 1:17 quoting Habakkuk 2:4.) Luther was a monk who felt the full weight of the Law of God resting upon his shoulders--that Law he was unable to keep, and thus, he, being a sinful man, was under the wrath of a holy God who condemned him for his sin. Not until Luther's conversion was this weight lifted. He had previously attempted to "work" for his salvation through the vain prayer of the rosary, priestly confession, contrition, penance and the like. He would often spend upwards of 6 hours in the confessional trying to account for the days' sins, but the moment he left the booth, he would remember one more, and fall under great guilt and sorrow. Only the atoning blood of Christ had the ability to wash the stains of those sins away.
Luther, after his conversion, posted his 95 theses to the door of a chapel in Wittemberg on October 31, 1517. This instigated a great controversy since he attacked the indulgences of the Roman Catholic church which were the bread and butter of the papacy. He was branded as a heretic, and was labeled as a conspirator among the "Hussites", the followers of John Hus--the goose. Luther was the swan which Hus "prophesied" about. Luther ultimately was forced to defy the pope, and the papacy, though in the beginning he desired to reform the church, not break away from it. However, he found no medium of compromise.
Luther was not invited to Strasbourg to debate with Dr. John Eck. Actually, Luther's colleague, Dr. Carlstadt, was invited as a representative of these “novel” reformation teachings. The meeting was to be structured as a debate. Luther was not invited because if he had left the Wittemberg area, he would not be under the protection of the German Prince Elector Duke George of Saxony, who was favorable to Luther. But because the invitation gave Carlstadt and "any whom he may invite" safe conduct, Luther decided to attend, as well as Phillip Melancthon. Here Luther had his famous debate with Dr. John Eck. Luther defied Eck and astounded him with his extensive learning. Though Eck tried to stand his ground, he was taken back by the reformer's biblical stance and prowess. Those adhering to biblical truth knew Luther stood firm. He brought forth the truth of God and stated "The plough-boy with scripture is mightier than the greatest Pope without." He was obviously charged with heresy. But was not arrested at that time.
Luther was summoned by King Charles and the Bishopric to stand trial for his work. They beckoned him a summons to appear in the city of Worms before the king while under the crown’s safe conduct. Luther was under the impression that he was attending a formal debate to present his views but this was not the case. Luther was to attend the meeting, called the Diet of Worms, and defend himself. The King and Roman clergy had his books strewn upon a table in plain view. Luther was beckoned to come forward, and was asked two questions, 1) Are these your writings? Luther conceded they were. Secondly, 2) Will you retract them? Luther's response was "Most gracious emperor! Gracious princes and Lords. His majesty asked me two questions. As to the first, I acknowledge as mine the books that have been just named: I cannot deny them. As to the second, seeing that it is a question that concerns faith and the salvation of souls, and in which the Word of God, the greatest and most precious treasure either in heaven or earth, is interested, I should act imprudently were I to reply without reflection. I might affirm less than the circumstance demands, or more than truth requires, and so sin against this saying of Christ:--whosoever shall deny me before men, him will I also deny before my Father in heaven. For this reason I entreat your imperial majesty, with all humility, to allow me time, that I may answer without offending against the Word of God." Luther was given one day to reflect on these things. That night he prayed this prayer:
O Almighty and Everlasting God! How terrible is this world! Behold, it openeth its mouth to swallow me up and I have so little trust in Thee! How weak is the flesh and how power is Satan! If it is in the strength of this world only that I must put my trust, all is over! My last hour is come, my condemnation has been pronounced! O God! O God! O God! Do thou help me against all the wisdom of the world! Do this; Thou shouldest do this Thou alone for this is not my work, but Thine. I have nothing to do here, nothing to contend for with these great ones of the world! I should desire to see my days flow on peaceful and happy. But the cause is Thine and it is a righteous and eternal cause. O Lord! Help me! faithful and unchangeable God! In no man do I place my trust. It would be vain! All that is of man is uncertain; all that cometh of man fails O God! My God, hearest Thou me not? My God, art thou dead? No! Thou canst not die! Thou hidest thyself only! Thou hast chosen me for this work. I know it well! Act, then, O God stand at my side, for the sake of they well beloved Jesus Christ, who is my defense, my shield, and my strong tower." After a moment of silent struggle, he thus continues: "Lord! Where stayest Thou? O my God! Where art Thou? Come! Come! I am ready! I am ready to lay down my life for Thy truth patient as a lamb. For it is the cause of justice-it is Thine! I will never separate myself from Thee, neither now nor through eternity! And though the world should be filled with devils,-though my body, which is till the work of Thy hands, should be slain, be stretched upon the pavement, be cut in pieces, reduced to ashes, my soul is Thine! Yes! I have the assurance of Thy Word. My soul belongs to Thee! It shall abide forever with Thee! Amen! O God! Help me! Amen!
The reason I included this at length, is because it is characteristic of the spirit behind the Reformation. Wycliffe, Hus, Luther, Calvin, Beza, and all the Puritans had a disposition which trusted in the power of Jesus Christ and the Lord God alone. They were very aware of their inherent weakness and their sinfulness.
Luther appeared before the Diet once more the next day. He gave a long speech in defense of his works. And in conclusion replied in this way to the question of recantation:
When he had ceased speaking, the Chancellor of Traves, the orator of the Diet, said indignantly: "You have not answered the question put to you. You were not summoned hither to call in question the decision of councils. You are required to give a clear and precise answer. Will you or will you not, retract?" Upon this Luther replied without hesitation: "Since your most serene majesty and your high mightinesses require from me a clear, simple, and precise answer, I will give you one, and it is this: I cannot submit my faith either to the Pope or to the councils, because it is clear as the day that they have frequently erred and contradicted each other. Unless I am convinced by the testimony of Scripture, or by the clearest reasoning,- unless I am persuaded by means of the passages I have quoted,-and unless they thus render my conscience bound by the Word of God, I cannot and will not retract, for it is unsafe for a Christian to speak against his conscience." And then looking round on this assembly before which he stood, and which held his life in its hands, he said: "Here I stand, I can do no other; may God help me! Amen!"
Luther spent a great time in hiding after that meeting. As a matter of fact, his colleagues (friends of Duke George) kidnapped him that night in fear of his life, threw a sack over him and "stole" him away. This was unknown to Luther, yet, it most assuredly saved his life. He then spent a great deal of time in hiding. He took this time to teach, catechize, preach, and translate the Scriptures into the German tongue. One of the greatest Reformational works was written by Luther is called The Bondage of the Will. Luther believed this was his greatest work. It is still available to buy today and deals with a refutation of Erasmus’ denial of total depravity and a setting forth of the biblical picture of man’s total inability to save himself. Luther died in 1546.
3.2 Ulrich Zwingli
While the Reformation was commencing in Germany under the guidance of Luther, Switzerland was beginning in an extensive Reformation as well. Two priests converted to Christianity were taking the country by storm. The first was named Ulrich Zwingli. He is the third most prominent Reformer of the time. He was born in 1484, in Wildhaus, St. Gall, Switzerland and showed early promise in education. His genius can readily be seen in his music and the ability to play 8 instruments. He studied at the University of Basel where he was captivated by humanistic studies. Zwingli was ordained a Catholic priest and served in parishes in Glarus for ten years (1506-1516), and Einsiedeln two years (1516-1518) until he was called to be the people's priest as the Great Minister in Zurich.
After a long struggle with the moral problem of sensuality, he had a breakthrough much like Luther's, which cast him upon the waters of the Scriptures. The Scriptures produced in him a hostility to the medieval acetic practices of the priesthood, of which he wrote vehemently against.
Zwingli took Zurich to spiritual Reformation, by the grace of God. He preached straight through the Gospel of Matthew, which in those days was very rare to preach exegetically and continually through one book. It transformed the people to embrace the heart of the Reformation. Zwingli was killed during a war at that time in which he ministered to the soldiers. He died on the battlefield.
3.3 John Calvin
The greatest magisterial reformer to rival the eminence of Martin Luther during this time is John Calvin. Not only was Calvin an astounding man of his time, but his theology, resting upon Augustine, and upon the Apostles and Jesus Christ, shaped the theology of the Puritans.
Calvin was extraordinarily gifted by God. He was born in 1509 in Noyon, Picardie. His father was a notary who served the bishop of Noyon, and as a result of this connection Calvin, while at the age of 12, received 2 chaplainries which in turn paid for his education. Although he commenced training for the priesthood at the University of Paris, his father, because of a controversy with the Bishop and clergy of the Noyon cathedral, now decided his son should become a lawyer. (Luther also studied law and left it to become a priest as well). Later he studied at Bourges where he became converted, and joined the reformation cause against the Roman Catholic heresy.
After his father died, Calvin returned to Paris where he joined friends there and wrote his Institutes of the Christian Religion. It was published when he was only 27. This work is one of the best products the Reformation produced. It has marked Calvin forever as a father of Reformed Thought.
While Calvin was pastor of the Eglise St. Pierre and spent much of his time preaching, his greatest influence came from his writings. Both his Latin and his French were clear and his reasoning lucid. He wrote commentaries on almost every book of the Bible, all of the New testament except The Revelation of the Apostle John. He produced a great number of pamphlets, of which is notable The Necessity of Reforming the Church. It is a short work which should be read by every pastor today. But most important of all, his Institutes were rewritten a number of times and published through 5 editions. They began as a small book of 6 chapters, and were finished in the much larger work of 79 chapters.
Calvin's influence through the Reformation was specifically seen in his work in Geneva, Switzerland. Though he was not happy to take up this work as chancellor over the entire city, still, if God desired to use him there, he would no doubt stay. A maxim which he vigorously lived by, even to his detriment, was, "Eat little, sleep less, and study more." Calvin’s work in Geneva resulted in the creation of a religious paradise where the Scriptures ruled the hearts of men from the rich to the poor. When John Knox visited Geneva, he said that it was as if “visiting heaven on earth.” The Lord used Calvin to convert the "city" into a religious city-state and a central hub of learning during the time of the Reformation.
4. Justification by faith alone
The secret of Luther's power and influence lies in his heroic faith. It delivered him from the chaos and torment of ascetic self-mortification and self-condemnation, gave him rest and peace, and made him a lordly freeman in Christ, and yet an obedient servant of Christ. This faith breathes through all his writings, dominated his acts, sustained him in his conflicts and remained his shield and anchor till the hour of death. This faith was born in the convent at Erfurt, called into public action at Wittenberg, and made him a Reformer of the Church.
By the aid of Staupitz and the old monk, but especially by the continued study of Paul's Epistles, be was gradually brought to the conviction that the sinner is justified by faith alone, without works of law. He experienced this truth in his heart long before he understood it in all its bearings. He found in it that peace of conscience which he had sought in vain by his monkish exercises. He pondered day and night over the meaning of "the righteousness of God "(Rom. 1:17), and thought that it is the righteous punishment of sinners; but toward the close of his convent life he came to the conclusion that it is the righteousness which God freely gives in Christ to those who believe in him. Righteousness is not to be acquired by man through his own exertions and merits; it is complete and perfect in Christ, and all the sinner has to do is to accept it from Him as a free gift. Justification is that judicial act of God whereby he acquits the sinner of guilt and clothes him with the righteousness of Christ on the sole condition of personal faith which apprehends and appropriates Christ and shows its life and power by good works, as a good tree bringing forth good fruits. For faith in Luther's system is far more than a mere assent of the mind to the authority of the church: it is a hearty trust and full surrender of the whole man to Christ; it lives and moves in Christ as its element, and is constantly obeying his will and following his example. It is only in connection with this deeper conception of faith that his doctrine of justification can be appreciated. Disconnected from it, it is a pernicious error.
The Pauline doctrine of justification as set forth in the Epistles to the Romans and Galatians, had never before been clearly and fully understood, not even by Augustin and Bernard, who confound justification with sanctification. Herein lies the difference between the Catholic and the Protestant conception. In the Catholic system justification is a gradual process conditioned by faith and good works; in the Protestant system it is a single act of God, followed by sanctification. It is based upon the merits of Christ, conditioned by faith, and manifested by good works.
This experience acted like a new revelation on Luther. It shed light upon the whole Bible and made it to him a book of life and comfort. He felt relieved of the terrible load of guilt by an act of free grace. He was led out of the dark prison house of self-inflicted penance into the daylight and fresh air of God's redeeming love. Justification broke the fetters of legalistic slavery, and filled him with the joy and peace of the state of adoption; it opened to him the very gates of heaven.
Henceforth the doctrine of justification by faith alone was for him to the end of life the sum and substance of the gospel, the heart of theology, the central truth of Christianity, the article of the standing or falling church. By this standard he measured every other doctrine and the value of every book of the Bible. Hence his enthusiasm for Paul, and his dislike of James, whom he could not reconcile with his favorite apostle. He gave disproportion to solifidianism and presented it sometimes in most unguarded language, which seemed to justify antinomian conclusions; but he corrected himself, he expressly condemned antinomianism, and insisted on good works and a holy life as a necessary manifestation of faith. And it must not be forgotten that the same charge of favoring antinomianism was made against Paul, who rejects it with pious horror: "Let it never be!"
Thus the monastic and ascetic life of Luther was a preparatory school for his evangelical faith. It served the office of the Mosaic law which, by bringing the knowledge of sin and guilt, leads as a tutor to Christ (Rom. 3:20; Gal. 3:24). The law convicted, condemned, and killed him; the gospel comforted, justified, and made him alive. The law enslaved him, the gospel set him free. He had trembled like a slave; now he rejoiced as a son in his father's house. Through the discipline of the law he died to the law, that he might live unto God (Gal. 2:19).
In one word, Luther passed through the experience of Paul. He understood him better than any mediaeval schoolman or ancient father. His commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians is still one of the best, for its sympathetic grasp of the contrast between law and gospel, between spiritual slavery and spiritual freedom.
Luther held this conviction without dreaming that it conflicted with the traditional creed and piety of the church. He was brought to it step by step. The old views and practices ran along side with it, and for several years he continued to be a sincere and devout Catholic. It was only the war with Tetzel and its consequences that forced him into the position of a Reformer and emancipated him from his old connections.
The Reformation under men like Wycliffe, Hus, Zwingli, Tyndale, Luther and Calvin, solidified the Biblical doctrines of the faith, recapturing the true faith from the Roman Catholic church's counterfeit faith. The content of this victorious reaffirmation of biblical doctrine can be summed up in the five slogan terms of the Reformation. Here is a brief summary of their content:
Sola Christus: Christ alone. That only through the work of Jesus Christ alone may a man be saved. It is not by foreseen faith, or by good deeds, or by human merit that a man may obtain faith – these are all works stemming from a wicked and depraved heart which all men possess. Rather, it is solely on the merit of Christ’s atoning death on the cross. Man’s salvation is exclusively accomplished by God's work through his Son.
Sola Scriptura: Scripture alone. That Scripture is final authority for salvation and sanctification for the Christian. It is not by papal edicts, or priestly verdicts which have authority over the consciences of men. A man’s conscience may never be bound by human inventions or traditions, but only by the Word of God alone. Where the church and the word of God differ on doctrine, the Word of God takes supreme prominence.
Sola Gratia: Grace alone. Works that are accomplished by human effort have no place in the salvation of the soul. Men are miserable wretches in the sight of God. They are unworthy and worthless. Men are only saved by the electing grace of God in Christ. God is never obliged to save anyone. He acts completely by mercy and grace on those who are undeserving.
Sola Fide: Faith alone. That a person may, upon one act of believing, be justified in the sight of God for all eternity. It is a belief by faith alone, but not by a faith that is alone. It is one act to be justified by faith, then the remainder of the Christian life is a glorifying of God through holiness and obedience of a purified life. One cannot mix works and faith for salvation. Faith alone, as a gift given by Christ, and applied by the work of the Holy Spirit, is the efficient cause of justification.
Soli Deo Gloria: Glory to God alone. All things live and move and have their being to glorify God. God will be glorified in everything. He is glorified by those in heaven under His mercy, and is glorified by those in hell who glorify His justice. God shall be glorified by the saint and the sinner. Men shall reflect back to Him the radiance of His worth. All that men do will ultimately be for His glory, and for none other. | <urn:uuid:498b7434-c9d4-49d3-8cf8-b2eabae03b4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://sovereigntruth.com/studies/reformation.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.985595 | 7,226 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
-0.10555693507194519,
-0.1432310938835144,
-0.08861122280359268,
0.15898549556732178,
-0.2483590692281723,
-0.18780511617660522,
-0.26983076333999634,
0.2778207063674927,
0.13331204652786255,
0.5950611233711243,
-0.15550550818443298,
-0.2054571509361267,
0.0062852720730006695,
-0.244055211... | 2 | What is The Reformation and what is a Reformer?
The term Reformer is used to describe those men who desired to reach back to the foundations of the Word of God and the true Gospel of Jesus Christ in light of human traditions and ecclesiastical corruption. A reformer’s intention, when applied in this way to church history, was particularly seen in the reformation of the corrupted Roman Catholic Church.
The phrase The Reformation refers to that great restoration of the Biblical gospel and the resulting schism with the Roman Catholic Church that was initiated by Martin Luther on 31 October 1517, when he nailed his 95 theses of contention with the Roman Catholic Church.
2. The Reformation Genesis
2.1 Papal infighting
Although the start of the Reformation is seen as 31 October 1517 with Martin Luther, there were many that preceded Luther in their search for truth. In fact, the seeds for the Reformation were planted more than 100 years before Luther was born.
Pope Gregory XI (1370-1378) returned to Rome from Avignon to reinstate Rome as the papal city on 17 January 1377. However, his death in 1378 left an opening for the next pope. Since the pope is elected by the cardinals and the majority of the cardinals were French, the Italian people would not stand for the election of a Frenchman who might want to return the papacy to Avignon in France. At this, an Italian mob invaded the building in Rome where the election was to take place and ensured that no cardinal could escape. After deliberation the cardinals elected an Italian who took the name Urban VI, who subsequently was crowned the next pope on easter Sunday, 1378.
Urban VI was not a wise man and neither was he cautious. He preached against the ostentatiousness of the cardinals and other abuses. In order to remove the power of the French, he decided to appoint a majority of Italian cardinals. Unfortunately, he announced this plan to the French before actually doing this.
At this point many thought he had gone crazy. More and more of his cardinals joined his opposition. Upon these events, he appointed 26 new cardinals from his own supporters. However, by now, the defectors have declared Urban VI a false pope and as a result his cardinals were also false. The defectors then elected a new pope who called himself Clement VII.
After Clement VII’s election he sent his forces to Rome against Urban VI. However, he was sent back by Urban VI’s troops. Clement VII then took up residence in Avignon. This became known as the Great Schism. As a result the Roman Catholic Church had two popes! This meant that Europe was divided between the two popes. Several popes followed in each line.
Finally, the two cardinals’ councils got to meet together. They finally decided to depose the two rival popes and elected one new pope who called himself Alexander V. However, the two rival popes refused to accept the councils decision, and henceforth there were three popes! Alexander V died and John XXIII was elected in his place. Neither of these two popes was able to end the schism. The Roman Catholic Church today accepts only the line of popes following Urban VI. The rival popes of Avignon and the Pisan popes (Alexander V and John XXIII) are considered to be antipopes.
Finally, after great political manoeuvres and fugitive popes, Martin V (1417-1431) was elected as the sole pope. The end of the Great Schism finally came in 1423.
2.2 First Reformers
The first reformer to be noticed is John Wycliffe. He is known as the morning star of the Reformation; a star rising upon a new day. Wycliffe was born in 1330 AD and died in 1384. He attended Oxford University, receiving his doctorate in 1372. Most of his life was spent teaching at Oxford, and studying God's Word in Oxford’s extensive library. He was a brilliant scholar who mastered the late medieval scholastic tradition, and was recognized by John of Guant (The Duke of Lancaster) as one who was extraordinarily gifted in theology and preaching. Not only was he an able clergyman, but he was also involved in state affairs. Wycliffe performed diplomatic duties for the crown, and wrote extensively on supporting civil government.
Wycliffe was well respected and had a wide influence with his teaching and preaching. He wrote against the Roman Catholic church on many doctrinal points. He did not believe in the clerical ownership of land and property, as well as papal jurisdiction in secular affairs. He also believed that those clergy who lived in open immorality, as many of the corrupt "popes, bishops, and priests of the time," should relinquish their positions the moment they came upon unrepentant open sin. This would have included much of the political corruption found in the Catholic church, and if Wycliffe’s biblical teachings were heeded, many of the priests, bishops, cardinals and popes would have stepped down rather quickly.
In reaction to Wycliffe's open "defiance" of the Roman Catholic church and the Pope’s authority, a Papal bull was issued against Oxford to impede him from teaching. It also noted that Wycliffe was to appear before a "hearing" which, unsurprisingly, charged him with heresy against the mother church. He did attend that hearing and was formally charged with heresy. The Catholic church was adamantly opposed to his teachings, especially when he attacked the Mass. He also rejected all ceremony and organization not mentioned in the Bible (which would have excluded almost everything the Romans Catholic church performed), as well as the heretical doctrines of transubstantiation and the clerical "power" of the priesthood. His views on doctrines were more and more closely matched with that of Augustine. Nevertheless, as a result of his political connections, Wycliffe was not arrested at this hearing.
Wycliffe's best known work was that of the translation he accomplished from the Latin Vulgate to English. Though he did not translate the Bible from the original languages (the Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek) he still placed the first English Bible into the hands of the people. The translation was made available to the English people through the hands of the Lollards (or “poor preachers”) These Lollards were Wycliffe’s trained lay preachers who took up the task of spreading the Gospel even in light of the anathema of the Roman Catholic Church. They traveled with their Bible, and the clothes on their back, gaining sustenance by those who would take them in.
Wycliffe died in 1384 from two strokes. The Roman Catholic church never caught him to burn him at the stake. In spite of this, 40 years after his death, they dug up his bones and burned them to ashes, scattering them in a river, and formally excommunicated him from the Roman Catholic church.
The next great figure of Reformation thought (which at this time was simply an adherence to the truths of the Bible) was a Bohemian monk named John Hus (Jan Hus). He lived from 1372-1415. He studied at the university of Prague, and later became a professor there. He took priestly vows, and served the Catholic church for a time, until his conversion through the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
In 1402 Hus was appointed rector and preacher of Prague's Bethlehem chapel, the center of the Czech reformed movement. During these years, many of Wycliffe's expositions of the Word of God moved the true Church closer and closer to biblical thinking. By 1407, adopting many of the same biblical insights, Hus was clearly identified with this kind of reforming thought by the Roman Catholic church.
Hus wrote and preached against papal indulgences, clerical abuses of power, immorality of high living within the Catholic clergy, and the veneration of the Pope. He wrote to promote piety and godliness, rather than riotous living and excess which the Roman Catholic church allowed.
In 1414, Hus was summoned by the Archbishop of Prague to stand before a official hearing on his doctrines--the Roman Catholic church believing Hus was a heretic and yearned that his preaching be stopped. Since Hus refused this charge, and continued to preach the Gospel, the Roman Catholic church summoned him, under pretense of "safety", to appear and present his case before the Catholic tribunal. Instead of allowing him a fair trial, they arrested Hus and imprisoned him; Hus' case was never really heard. He did stand “trial” and was convicted of being a heretic. He was burned at the stake by the Catholic church on July 6, 1415. Hus sang hymns while he died.
You may have heard the phrase, "your goose is cooked". This was first coined from the martyrdom of this reformer. Hus' name in German sounded like "goose". Thus, as he was burned, they coined the term "Hus is cooked (or, “your goose is cooked)" in German. Yet, Hus said to the Archbishop during his trial, that though he--the goose--be burned at the stake, another will come--a swan--to teach and preach the doctrines of the Bible; to finish the work of reformation which had begun. This swan would be no other than Martin Luther in the early 1500’s.
After John Hus, the next noteworthy reformer is William Tyndale. He was born in 1493 AD, and died a martyr in 1536. He was educated at Oxford, and became a prominent Greek Scholar. He had obtained a copy of Erasmas' Greek New Testament and vowed before the Lord that "nothing" would stop him from learning the Greek language. He was prominently skilled as a Greek
scholar and attempted a translation of the Bible (the NT) from original Greek to English. He sought to publish this translation but was turned down at every corner for the rights to publish; especially since he appealed to the Roman Catholic Church. They did not want the laity to gain hold of a copy of the Bible in their own tongue lest they misinterpret it; the Romans church believed that only the mother church is able to rightly interpret the Bible.
Tyndale secretly finished the translation with the help of colleagues, and smuggled the new translation into English hands. During a dinner meeting among priests and bishops where Tyndale was present, he said that he "defied the Pope and all his laws" and vowed that "a plough-boy would know more of the Scriptures than they" so help him God. That English Bible did find its way into the hands of the plough-boys, yet, through Roman Catholic influence, King Henry VIII set his indignation against Tyndale and required the translation to be burned. Henry did this because Tyndale, among others, would not consent to the marriage of the King to Anne Bolin, subsequent to his divorce of Catherine of Argon. Tyndale had written a treatise on Christian growth which King Henry VIII read. In it the king saw that Tyndale was "sympathetic" towards "monarchs" because if priests abused their power, kings had the right of judgment and justice against them. Henry VIII favored this since the Pope had refused to annul his marriage with Catherine. King Henry ultimately set himself as the Defender of the Faith, above the Pope. So Henry VIII was partial towards Tyndale at first, and desired to meet him, though ultimately the King found out that Tyndale, because of Scriptural warrant, could not condone the King's divorce, and in his writings has stated that divorce was sin. Henry allowed the Roman Catholic church to arrest Tyndale. Tyndale was caught, arrested, tried, and sentenced to death. While he was being tied at the stake, Tyndale prayed that the "eyes of the King would be opened." In 1536, he was strangled to death and then burned. After his death, the circulation of the English Bible providentially found its way into the hands of King Henry VIII. In seeing the masterful work done, Henry issued an edict that every church was to have one of these Bibles on display in their chapel. Henry did make one adjustment to the Bible, and that was the insertion of the header which pronounced him Defender of the Faith on the title page. Although posthumously, Tyndale's prayer was heard.
3. The Reformation Exodus
3.1 Martin Luther
Just after Tyndale came upon the reformation scene, another young monk named Martin Luther commenced a great stir in Germany. Luther was an Augustinian monk who, after much study, was persuaded by one of the later Reformation standards, "Sola Fide" (Faith alone), early in his walk with Christ. It was during his study of Paul’s epistle to the Romans where he was consumed by the divine and supernatural light of conversion. The text read, "The just shall live by faith" (Romans 1:17 quoting Habakkuk 2:4.) Luther was a monk who felt the full weight of the Law of God resting upon his shoulders--that Law he was unable to keep, and thus, he, being a sinful man, was under the wrath of a holy God who condemned him for his sin. Not until Luther's conversion was this weight lifted. He had previously attempted to "work" for his salvation through the vain prayer of the rosary, priestly confession, contrition, penance and the like. He would often spend upwards of 6 hours in the confessional trying to account for the days' sins, but the moment he left the booth, he would remember one more, and fall under great guilt and sorrow. Only the atoning blood of Christ had the ability to wash the stains of those sins away.
Luther, after his conversion, posted his 95 theses to the door of a chapel in Wittemberg on October 31, 1517. This instigated a great controversy since he attacked the indulgences of the Roman Catholic church which were the bread and butter of the papacy. He was branded as a heretic, and was labeled as a conspirator among the "Hussites", the followers of John Hus--the goose. Luther was the swan which Hus "prophesied" about. Luther ultimately was forced to defy the pope, and the papacy, though in the beginning he desired to reform the church, not break away from it. However, he found no medium of compromise.
Luther was not invited to Strasbourg to debate with Dr. John Eck. Actually, Luther's colleague, Dr. Carlstadt, was invited as a representative of these “novel” reformation teachings. The meeting was to be structured as a debate. Luther was not invited because if he had left the Wittemberg area, he would not be under the protection of the German Prince Elector Duke George of Saxony, who was favorable to Luther. But because the invitation gave Carlstadt and "any whom he may invite" safe conduct, Luther decided to attend, as well as Phillip Melancthon. Here Luther had his famous debate with Dr. John Eck. Luther defied Eck and astounded him with his extensive learning. Though Eck tried to stand his ground, he was taken back by the reformer's biblical stance and prowess. Those adhering to biblical truth knew Luther stood firm. He brought forth the truth of God and stated "The plough-boy with scripture is mightier than the greatest Pope without." He was obviously charged with heresy. But was not arrested at that time.
Luther was summoned by King Charles and the Bishopric to stand trial for his work. They beckoned him a summons to appear in the city of Worms before the king while under the crown’s safe conduct. Luther was under the impression that he was attending a formal debate to present his views but this was not the case. Luther was to attend the meeting, called the Diet of Worms, and defend himself. The King and Roman clergy had his books strewn upon a table in plain view. Luther was beckoned to come forward, and was asked two questions, 1) Are these your writings? Luther conceded they were. Secondly, 2) Will you retract them? Luther's response was "Most gracious emperor! Gracious princes and Lords. His majesty asked me two questions. As to the first, I acknowledge as mine the books that have been just named: I cannot deny them. As to the second, seeing that it is a question that concerns faith and the salvation of souls, and in which the Word of God, the greatest and most precious treasure either in heaven or earth, is interested, I should act imprudently were I to reply without reflection. I might affirm less than the circumstance demands, or more than truth requires, and so sin against this saying of Christ:--whosoever shall deny me before men, him will I also deny before my Father in heaven. For this reason I entreat your imperial majesty, with all humility, to allow me time, that I may answer without offending against the Word of God." Luther was given one day to reflect on these things. That night he prayed this prayer:
O Almighty and Everlasting God! How terrible is this world! Behold, it openeth its mouth to swallow me up and I have so little trust in Thee! How weak is the flesh and how power is Satan! If it is in the strength of this world only that I must put my trust, all is over! My last hour is come, my condemnation has been pronounced! O God! O God! O God! Do thou help me against all the wisdom of the world! Do this; Thou shouldest do this Thou alone for this is not my work, but Thine. I have nothing to do here, nothing to contend for with these great ones of the world! I should desire to see my days flow on peaceful and happy. But the cause is Thine and it is a righteous and eternal cause. O Lord! Help me! faithful and unchangeable God! In no man do I place my trust. It would be vain! All that is of man is uncertain; all that cometh of man fails O God! My God, hearest Thou me not? My God, art thou dead? No! Thou canst not die! Thou hidest thyself only! Thou hast chosen me for this work. I know it well! Act, then, O God stand at my side, for the sake of they well beloved Jesus Christ, who is my defense, my shield, and my strong tower." After a moment of silent struggle, he thus continues: "Lord! Where stayest Thou? O my God! Where art Thou? Come! Come! I am ready! I am ready to lay down my life for Thy truth patient as a lamb. For it is the cause of justice-it is Thine! I will never separate myself from Thee, neither now nor through eternity! And though the world should be filled with devils,-though my body, which is till the work of Thy hands, should be slain, be stretched upon the pavement, be cut in pieces, reduced to ashes, my soul is Thine! Yes! I have the assurance of Thy Word. My soul belongs to Thee! It shall abide forever with Thee! Amen! O God! Help me! Amen!
The reason I included this at length, is because it is characteristic of the spirit behind the Reformation. Wycliffe, Hus, Luther, Calvin, Beza, and all the Puritans had a disposition which trusted in the power of Jesus Christ and the Lord God alone. They were very aware of their inherent weakness and their sinfulness.
Luther appeared before the Diet once more the next day. He gave a long speech in defense of his works. And in conclusion replied in this way to the question of recantation:
When he had ceased speaking, the Chancellor of Traves, the orator of the Diet, said indignantly: "You have not answered the question put to you. You were not summoned hither to call in question the decision of councils. You are required to give a clear and precise answer. Will you or will you not, retract?" Upon this Luther replied without hesitation: "Since your most serene majesty and your high mightinesses require from me a clear, simple, and precise answer, I will give you one, and it is this: I cannot submit my faith either to the Pope or to the councils, because it is clear as the day that they have frequently erred and contradicted each other. Unless I am convinced by the testimony of Scripture, or by the clearest reasoning,- unless I am persuaded by means of the passages I have quoted,-and unless they thus render my conscience bound by the Word of God, I cannot and will not retract, for it is unsafe for a Christian to speak against his conscience." And then looking round on this assembly before which he stood, and which held his life in its hands, he said: "Here I stand, I can do no other; may God help me! Amen!"
Luther spent a great time in hiding after that meeting. As a matter of fact, his colleagues (friends of Duke George) kidnapped him that night in fear of his life, threw a sack over him and "stole" him away. This was unknown to Luther, yet, it most assuredly saved his life. He then spent a great deal of time in hiding. He took this time to teach, catechize, preach, and translate the Scriptures into the German tongue. One of the greatest Reformational works was written by Luther is called The Bondage of the Will. Luther believed this was his greatest work. It is still available to buy today and deals with a refutation of Erasmus’ denial of total depravity and a setting forth of the biblical picture of man’s total inability to save himself. Luther died in 1546.
3.2 Ulrich Zwingli
While the Reformation was commencing in Germany under the guidance of Luther, Switzerland was beginning in an extensive Reformation as well. Two priests converted to Christianity were taking the country by storm. The first was named Ulrich Zwingli. He is the third most prominent Reformer of the time. He was born in 1484, in Wildhaus, St. Gall, Switzerland and showed early promise in education. His genius can readily be seen in his music and the ability to play 8 instruments. He studied at the University of Basel where he was captivated by humanistic studies. Zwingli was ordained a Catholic priest and served in parishes in Glarus for ten years (1506-1516), and Einsiedeln two years (1516-1518) until he was called to be the people's priest as the Great Minister in Zurich.
After a long struggle with the moral problem of sensuality, he had a breakthrough much like Luther's, which cast him upon the waters of the Scriptures. The Scriptures produced in him a hostility to the medieval acetic practices of the priesthood, of which he wrote vehemently against.
Zwingli took Zurich to spiritual Reformation, by the grace of God. He preached straight through the Gospel of Matthew, which in those days was very rare to preach exegetically and continually through one book. It transformed the people to embrace the heart of the Reformation. Zwingli was killed during a war at that time in which he ministered to the soldiers. He died on the battlefield.
3.3 John Calvin
The greatest magisterial reformer to rival the eminence of Martin Luther during this time is John Calvin. Not only was Calvin an astounding man of his time, but his theology, resting upon Augustine, and upon the Apostles and Jesus Christ, shaped the theology of the Puritans.
Calvin was extraordinarily gifted by God. He was born in 1509 in Noyon, Picardie. His father was a notary who served the bishop of Noyon, and as a result of this connection Calvin, while at the age of 12, received 2 chaplainries which in turn paid for his education. Although he commenced training for the priesthood at the University of Paris, his father, because of a controversy with the Bishop and clergy of the Noyon cathedral, now decided his son should become a lawyer. (Luther also studied law and left it to become a priest as well). Later he studied at Bourges where he became converted, and joined the reformation cause against the Roman Catholic heresy.
After his father died, Calvin returned to Paris where he joined friends there and wrote his Institutes of the Christian Religion. It was published when he was only 27. This work is one of the best products the Reformation produced. It has marked Calvin forever as a father of Reformed Thought.
While Calvin was pastor of the Eglise St. Pierre and spent much of his time preaching, his greatest influence came from his writings. Both his Latin and his French were clear and his reasoning lucid. He wrote commentaries on almost every book of the Bible, all of the New testament except The Revelation of the Apostle John. He produced a great number of pamphlets, of which is notable The Necessity of Reforming the Church. It is a short work which should be read by every pastor today. But most important of all, his Institutes were rewritten a number of times and published through 5 editions. They began as a small book of 6 chapters, and were finished in the much larger work of 79 chapters.
Calvin's influence through the Reformation was specifically seen in his work in Geneva, Switzerland. Though he was not happy to take up this work as chancellor over the entire city, still, if God desired to use him there, he would no doubt stay. A maxim which he vigorously lived by, even to his detriment, was, "Eat little, sleep less, and study more." Calvin’s work in Geneva resulted in the creation of a religious paradise where the Scriptures ruled the hearts of men from the rich to the poor. When John Knox visited Geneva, he said that it was as if “visiting heaven on earth.” The Lord used Calvin to convert the "city" into a religious city-state and a central hub of learning during the time of the Reformation.
4. Justification by faith alone
The secret of Luther's power and influence lies in his heroic faith. It delivered him from the chaos and torment of ascetic self-mortification and self-condemnation, gave him rest and peace, and made him a lordly freeman in Christ, and yet an obedient servant of Christ. This faith breathes through all his writings, dominated his acts, sustained him in his conflicts and remained his shield and anchor till the hour of death. This faith was born in the convent at Erfurt, called into public action at Wittenberg, and made him a Reformer of the Church.
By the aid of Staupitz and the old monk, but especially by the continued study of Paul's Epistles, be was gradually brought to the conviction that the sinner is justified by faith alone, without works of law. He experienced this truth in his heart long before he understood it in all its bearings. He found in it that peace of conscience which he had sought in vain by his monkish exercises. He pondered day and night over the meaning of "the righteousness of God "(Rom. 1:17), and thought that it is the righteous punishment of sinners; but toward the close of his convent life he came to the conclusion that it is the righteousness which God freely gives in Christ to those who believe in him. Righteousness is not to be acquired by man through his own exertions and merits; it is complete and perfect in Christ, and all the sinner has to do is to accept it from Him as a free gift. Justification is that judicial act of God whereby he acquits the sinner of guilt and clothes him with the righteousness of Christ on the sole condition of personal faith which apprehends and appropriates Christ and shows its life and power by good works, as a good tree bringing forth good fruits. For faith in Luther's system is far more than a mere assent of the mind to the authority of the church: it is a hearty trust and full surrender of the whole man to Christ; it lives and moves in Christ as its element, and is constantly obeying his will and following his example. It is only in connection with this deeper conception of faith that his doctrine of justification can be appreciated. Disconnected from it, it is a pernicious error.
The Pauline doctrine of justification as set forth in the Epistles to the Romans and Galatians, had never before been clearly and fully understood, not even by Augustin and Bernard, who confound justification with sanctification. Herein lies the difference between the Catholic and the Protestant conception. In the Catholic system justification is a gradual process conditioned by faith and good works; in the Protestant system it is a single act of God, followed by sanctification. It is based upon the merits of Christ, conditioned by faith, and manifested by good works.
This experience acted like a new revelation on Luther. It shed light upon the whole Bible and made it to him a book of life and comfort. He felt relieved of the terrible load of guilt by an act of free grace. He was led out of the dark prison house of self-inflicted penance into the daylight and fresh air of God's redeeming love. Justification broke the fetters of legalistic slavery, and filled him with the joy and peace of the state of adoption; it opened to him the very gates of heaven.
Henceforth the doctrine of justification by faith alone was for him to the end of life the sum and substance of the gospel, the heart of theology, the central truth of Christianity, the article of the standing or falling church. By this standard he measured every other doctrine and the value of every book of the Bible. Hence his enthusiasm for Paul, and his dislike of James, whom he could not reconcile with his favorite apostle. He gave disproportion to solifidianism and presented it sometimes in most unguarded language, which seemed to justify antinomian conclusions; but he corrected himself, he expressly condemned antinomianism, and insisted on good works and a holy life as a necessary manifestation of faith. And it must not be forgotten that the same charge of favoring antinomianism was made against Paul, who rejects it with pious horror: "Let it never be!"
Thus the monastic and ascetic life of Luther was a preparatory school for his evangelical faith. It served the office of the Mosaic law which, by bringing the knowledge of sin and guilt, leads as a tutor to Christ (Rom. 3:20; Gal. 3:24). The law convicted, condemned, and killed him; the gospel comforted, justified, and made him alive. The law enslaved him, the gospel set him free. He had trembled like a slave; now he rejoiced as a son in his father's house. Through the discipline of the law he died to the law, that he might live unto God (Gal. 2:19).
In one word, Luther passed through the experience of Paul. He understood him better than any mediaeval schoolman or ancient father. His commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians is still one of the best, for its sympathetic grasp of the contrast between law and gospel, between spiritual slavery and spiritual freedom.
Luther held this conviction without dreaming that it conflicted with the traditional creed and piety of the church. He was brought to it step by step. The old views and practices ran along side with it, and for several years he continued to be a sincere and devout Catholic. It was only the war with Tetzel and its consequences that forced him into the position of a Reformer and emancipated him from his old connections.
The Reformation under men like Wycliffe, Hus, Zwingli, Tyndale, Luther and Calvin, solidified the Biblical doctrines of the faith, recapturing the true faith from the Roman Catholic church's counterfeit faith. The content of this victorious reaffirmation of biblical doctrine can be summed up in the five slogan terms of the Reformation. Here is a brief summary of their content:
Sola Christus: Christ alone. That only through the work of Jesus Christ alone may a man be saved. It is not by foreseen faith, or by good deeds, or by human merit that a man may obtain faith – these are all works stemming from a wicked and depraved heart which all men possess. Rather, it is solely on the merit of Christ’s atoning death on the cross. Man’s salvation is exclusively accomplished by God's work through his Son.
Sola Scriptura: Scripture alone. That Scripture is final authority for salvation and sanctification for the Christian. It is not by papal edicts, or priestly verdicts which have authority over the consciences of men. A man’s conscience may never be bound by human inventions or traditions, but only by the Word of God alone. Where the church and the word of God differ on doctrine, the Word of God takes supreme prominence.
Sola Gratia: Grace alone. Works that are accomplished by human effort have no place in the salvation of the soul. Men are miserable wretches in the sight of God. They are unworthy and worthless. Men are only saved by the electing grace of God in Christ. God is never obliged to save anyone. He acts completely by mercy and grace on those who are undeserving.
Sola Fide: Faith alone. That a person may, upon one act of believing, be justified in the sight of God for all eternity. It is a belief by faith alone, but not by a faith that is alone. It is one act to be justified by faith, then the remainder of the Christian life is a glorifying of God through holiness and obedience of a purified life. One cannot mix works and faith for salvation. Faith alone, as a gift given by Christ, and applied by the work of the Holy Spirit, is the efficient cause of justification.
Soli Deo Gloria: Glory to God alone. All things live and move and have their being to glorify God. God will be glorified in everything. He is glorified by those in heaven under His mercy, and is glorified by those in hell who glorify His justice. God shall be glorified by the saint and the sinner. Men shall reflect back to Him the radiance of His worth. All that men do will ultimately be for His glory, and for none other. | 7,303 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Stony Monday Riot
In 1849 the peregrinating Canadian Parliament was located at Montreal. The Rebellion Losses Bill passed in the House of Assembly by 47 to 18; there was a majority not only amongst the British members of Lower Canada but also in Upper Canada. In spite of all protests, Lord Elgin, then Governor-General had signed the bill, compensating Lower Canadians for losses suffered during the Rebellions of 1837-38 in April 1849.
The bill was unpopular with Loyalists, known as Tories because it compensated those who had participated in the rebellion unless they had been convicted of treason. In the riots that ensued in Montreal, then the capital of Canada, Lord Elgin was assaulted and the Parliament Buildings were burned.
Lord Elgin let it be known that he was considering relocating the nation's capital and scheduled a visit to Bytown. Tory supporters, including the mayor Robert Hervey, opposed organizing a reception for Lord Elgin. At a meeting to plan for the visit organized by Reformists in the North Ward Market, now the Byward Market area, the two opposing sides clashed, first with sticks and stones, but later with firearms. 30 people were wounded and one man, David Borthwick, was shot and died. | <urn:uuid:c06c9fac-38d4-45a0-aead-6a3678f904c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stony_Monday_Riot | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00046.warc.gz | en | 0.988089 | 258 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
-0.1889326572418213,
0.07948167622089386,
0.24424147605895996,
-0.38483697175979614,
-0.1480976641178131,
0.18252679705619812,
0.14613693952560425,
0.33623018860816956,
-0.07817988842725754,
0.21565565466880798,
0.1645209789276123,
-0.15001168847084045,
0.1488303244113922,
0.18377844989299... | 1 | Stony Monday Riot
In 1849 the peregrinating Canadian Parliament was located at Montreal. The Rebellion Losses Bill passed in the House of Assembly by 47 to 18; there was a majority not only amongst the British members of Lower Canada but also in Upper Canada. In spite of all protests, Lord Elgin, then Governor-General had signed the bill, compensating Lower Canadians for losses suffered during the Rebellions of 1837-38 in April 1849.
The bill was unpopular with Loyalists, known as Tories because it compensated those who had participated in the rebellion unless they had been convicted of treason. In the riots that ensued in Montreal, then the capital of Canada, Lord Elgin was assaulted and the Parliament Buildings were burned.
Lord Elgin let it be known that he was considering relocating the nation's capital and scheduled a visit to Bytown. Tory supporters, including the mayor Robert Hervey, opposed organizing a reception for Lord Elgin. At a meeting to plan for the visit organized by Reformists in the North Ward Market, now the Byward Market area, the two opposing sides clashed, first with sticks and stones, but later with firearms. 30 people were wounded and one man, David Borthwick, was shot and died. | 272 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What kind of a person does Kipling encourage his listener to seek out in "If—"? What does he say about such a person? What would he like his listener to do upon meeting such a person?
The poem "If" is structured in hypothetical situations, so there isn't a place in the poem where the speaker is directly telling his listener to seek out a particular type of person. Instead, his advice prepares his "son" in how to deal with various types of people he will surely encounter in life. Most of this is in the last stanza.
First, the speaker says that when his son "walks with crowds," he should be sure to "keep his virtue." The implication is that following the crowd is often not the most moral decision; the group consensus is often the easy path instead of the virtuous...
(The entire section contains 324 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:e580e6f6-11d0-4db2-82d9-752d8e161c6b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-kind-of-a-person-does-kipling-encourage-his-1918036 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00192.warc.gz | en | 0.983609 | 186 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
-0.10648035258054733,
0.014584461227059364,
0.07056679576635361,
-0.09489114582538605,
-0.13776350021362305,
0.1569589376449585,
0.9644777774810791,
0.10058827698230743,
-0.18188512325286865,
-0.000861756328959018,
0.2476041465997696,
0.14214059710502625,
-0.012898185290396214,
0.384609997... | 1 | What kind of a person does Kipling encourage his listener to seek out in "If—"? What does he say about such a person? What would he like his listener to do upon meeting such a person?
The poem "If" is structured in hypothetical situations, so there isn't a place in the poem where the speaker is directly telling his listener to seek out a particular type of person. Instead, his advice prepares his "son" in how to deal with various types of people he will surely encounter in life. Most of this is in the last stanza.
First, the speaker says that when his son "walks with crowds," he should be sure to "keep his virtue." The implication is that following the crowd is often not the most moral decision; the group consensus is often the easy path instead of the virtuous...
(The entire section contains 324 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 184 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Different political systems in different countries allow for varying lengths of terms of political leaders such as presidents. However, some leaders are not so fortunate as to see through their terms for one reason or another. Some of them are assassinated, such as John F. Kennedy of the United States, while others pass away before their political terms end. One such president was President Pedro José Domingo de la Calzada Manuel María Lascuráin Paredes of Mexico whose term lasted for less than an hour.
Early Life and Career
President Lascuráin was born in the year 1856 in Mexico City to Ana Paredes Cortés and Francisco Lascuráin Icaza. In 1880, he earned his law degree from the Escuela Nacional de Jurisprudencia (meaning National School of Jurisprudence) situated in Mexico City. In 1910, the president became the mayor of Mexico City where he became a supporter of Francisco I. Madero. Later on, after Madero became the president of Mexico, Lascuráin served two spells as the foreign minister in Madero’s cabinet. One term was between April 10, 1912 and December 4, 1912, while the other was between January 15, 1913 and February 19, 1913. In between his periods as the foreign minister, he became Mexico City’s mayor again.
Shortest Presidency in the World
Unlike other presidents who don’t see their terms primarily because of death or diseases, Lascuráin’s was different. Mexico had a coup on February 19, 1913, which was led by General Victoriano Huerta. While being held prisoner by the general at the National Palace, Lascuráin was among several people who helped to convince Madero to give up the presidency. The alternative was death for President Madero.
Every constitution has an outline of those in line to assume the presidency in case anything occurs. Under the Mexican constitution of that time, the vice president, the foreign secretary, the attorney general, and the interior secretary were all in line. However, the general had to also take care of the vice president and the attorney general thus making Lascuráin the next in line for the presidency.
The general wanted to make the coup appear as a completely legal process. To accomplish this, he had Lascuráin become the 34th president of Mexico and then have him appoint the general as the interior secretary. Effectively, that appointment made the general the legal person who would be next in line for the presidency. After the appointment, Lascuráin resigned his post thus paving the way for General Huerta to become President Huerta.
The exact period of President Lascuráin’s presidency is unknown, but it is known for a fact that it was less than one hour. Some sources estimate that it lasted between 15 and 56 minutes. Despite his resignation, Huerta had Madero and the vice president put to death. Those dark days came to be known as "La decena trágica" which translates to ten days of tragedy.
Late Life and Death
Huerta offered Lascuráin a cabinet post which he declined. Upon his retirement from politics, he started practicing law again until his demise at the age of 96 on July 21, 1952.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:e97e9823-e7d7-4d1a-a3d3-8556d4e5a7a2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-world-s-shortest-serving-president.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00022.warc.gz | en | 0.980786 | 763 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
-0.07660043239593506,
0.31973347067832947,
0.4619079530239105,
-0.045084983110427856,
-0.017519211396574974,
0.37403997778892517,
0.2774588465690613,
-0.053556449711322784,
0.2919512689113617,
-0.12127558141946793,
-0.07644452154636383,
0.5024987459182739,
0.0028251158073544502,
0.31805545... | 2 | Different political systems in different countries allow for varying lengths of terms of political leaders such as presidents. However, some leaders are not so fortunate as to see through their terms for one reason or another. Some of them are assassinated, such as John F. Kennedy of the United States, while others pass away before their political terms end. One such president was President Pedro José Domingo de la Calzada Manuel María Lascuráin Paredes of Mexico whose term lasted for less than an hour.
Early Life and Career
President Lascuráin was born in the year 1856 in Mexico City to Ana Paredes Cortés and Francisco Lascuráin Icaza. In 1880, he earned his law degree from the Escuela Nacional de Jurisprudencia (meaning National School of Jurisprudence) situated in Mexico City. In 1910, the president became the mayor of Mexico City where he became a supporter of Francisco I. Madero. Later on, after Madero became the president of Mexico, Lascuráin served two spells as the foreign minister in Madero’s cabinet. One term was between April 10, 1912 and December 4, 1912, while the other was between January 15, 1913 and February 19, 1913. In between his periods as the foreign minister, he became Mexico City’s mayor again.
Shortest Presidency in the World
Unlike other presidents who don’t see their terms primarily because of death or diseases, Lascuráin’s was different. Mexico had a coup on February 19, 1913, which was led by General Victoriano Huerta. While being held prisoner by the general at the National Palace, Lascuráin was among several people who helped to convince Madero to give up the presidency. The alternative was death for President Madero.
Every constitution has an outline of those in line to assume the presidency in case anything occurs. Under the Mexican constitution of that time, the vice president, the foreign secretary, the attorney general, and the interior secretary were all in line. However, the general had to also take care of the vice president and the attorney general thus making Lascuráin the next in line for the presidency.
The general wanted to make the coup appear as a completely legal process. To accomplish this, he had Lascuráin become the 34th president of Mexico and then have him appoint the general as the interior secretary. Effectively, that appointment made the general the legal person who would be next in line for the presidency. After the appointment, Lascuráin resigned his post thus paving the way for General Huerta to become President Huerta.
The exact period of President Lascuráin’s presidency is unknown, but it is known for a fact that it was less than one hour. Some sources estimate that it lasted between 15 and 56 minutes. Despite his resignation, Huerta had Madero and the vice president put to death. Those dark days came to be known as "La decena trágica" which translates to ten days of tragedy.
Late Life and Death
Huerta offered Lascuráin a cabinet post which he declined. Upon his retirement from politics, he started practicing law again until his demise at the age of 96 on July 21, 1952.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 782 | ENGLISH | 1 |
David Tee - AncientPages.com - It was Herodotus who provided most of the information we have today about King Leonidas. According to the first Greek historian, King Leonidas descended from Hercules, the half god half man of Greek mythology.
What seemed like an unfortunate birth order, Leonidas was the third son of Anaxandrides. His father was a king who was forced to take a second wife in order to produce an heir. Leonidas finally was able to ascend the throne in 488 BC after the deaths of his father and two older brothers.
But the birth order may have been fortuitous as this mean that Leonidas was to attend the rigorous public school all non-first born sons were to attend. In this school he received superior military training which prepared him unknowingly for future events.
Left: The Spartan army was an infantry-based army that fought using the phalanx formation. Credit: Public Domain - Right: Statue of King Leonidas. Credit: Public Domain
At the time of his succession, Leonidas was married to the daughter of his half-brother King Cleomenes. Plutarch records the following exchange to demonstrate the character Leonidas held:
"When someone said to him: 'Except for being king you are not at all superior to us,' Leonidas son of Anaxandridas II and brother of Cleomenes replied: 'But were I not better than you, I should not be king.'’
The State Of Sparta
Many people may think that Sparta was a legendary empire but that would be far from fact. Greece was not a totally united country in the time of Leonidas. Each major city was called a city state and ruled their own lands and citizens.
There was a general co-operation between the different cities who would come together in times of war. But, they also quarreled and fought with each other as the Peloponnesian war attests. Sparta is well known for being focused on military might and was known to keep slaves, which freed their natural citizens up for military duty.
The practice was that when a boy reached 7 years of age, he was taken from his home and placed in a military barracks. This new home provided them with a very rough up bringing in order to make them tough soldiers. It lasted for about 13 years or when the child reached the age of 20.
Jean-Pierre Saint-Ours, The Selection of Children in Sparta, 1785. A Neoclassical imaging of what Plutarch describes. Credit: Public Domain
One of the harshest facts to come out about this way of living was that the older citizens of Sparta would kill those boys who could not be trained due to a disability. The boys were thrown into a pit by the elders who judged the physical ability of each boy in question. Not all were condemned to death, just the weakest ones.
Girls had it a lot easier and were not under the threat of death or removal of their homes. But they were expected to train, be athletic and compete in some competitions. Some even competed in the ancient Olympic Games’ chariot races.
Sparta And King Leonidas Go To War
It is estimated that Leonidas was about 60 at the time the Persian King Xerxes I invaded what is now known as Greece. The numbers involved in his army have been greatly exaggerated by different historians. Herodotus recorded the figure at 1 million while other estimates put the size between 80,000 and 150,000 Persian troops.
An exact estimate cannot be known today. The much smaller Greek army, numbering around 8,000 men from the different Grecian cities, did not let this disparity discourage or weaken them.
Before King Leonidas went to gather more troops and confront Xerxes, he went to theOracle at Delphi. Here he was given a prophecy concerning the war. The Oracle claimed that either Sparta would fall, or the Spartan king would be killed.
When the two armies finally met, the Greeks took their position at Thermopylae, a very strategic mountainous area. Xerxes was hoping to spare a lot of bloodshed decided to wait four days before engaging the Greek army.
He also hoped that the size of his army would dishearten the Greek soldiers and they would flee. Neither happened and so Xerxes was forced to go to battle.
The Battle Of Thermopylae
Undaunted, the Greeks held their ground. Even after losing 2,500 men. But before they fell, the Greeks were able to kill roughly 20,000 Persians. Exact numbers may not be found.
As the story goes, it was a traitor to the Greeks that led the Persians through a mountain pass which took the Persians behind the Greek lines. Unable to defend two battle fronts King Leonidas dismissed most of his troops except for the 300 of legend and 700 hundred Thespians.
A map indicating the location and military positions taken in the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE between the Persian invading forces of Xerxes I against a small Greek force led by Spartan king Leonidas. Defending the pass for three days, the Greek force was ultimately defeated. Credit: Public Domain
With this number King Leonidas stood his ground. Records show that this was not a forced choice, but one made out of the character Leonidas possessed. He decided to lose his life so that the rest of Sparta could live.
We all know the ending of that story as King Leonidas and his 1,000 men died heroically defending the land that they loved.
Sparta Gets Revenge But Things Go Wrong
Sparta was not lost and on the death of Leonidas, his son Pleistarchus became King. Unfortunately, he was not old enough to rule on his own and Pausanius was appointed his regent.
A year later, these two were able to get revenge for the devasting loss at Thermopylae by winning two key victories against the Persians at Salamis and Plataea. Because of their eventual victory we are able to read about King Leonidas and his heroic men.
Although Sparta helped protect Greece from the Persian threat, things did not go well for Sparta after the war. Since Greek was still divided up into city states, there were a lot of conflicts and disagreements between the different cities.
These disagreements led to more battles and wars over the next 150 years or so. At one point Sparta made a financial alliance with their once enemy, the Persians. This helped Sparta defeat Athens but eventually the city state turned on their Persian backers and successfully attacked them.
Successive battles took Sparta from a great military power to a lesser city state who could not compete with the likes of Alexander the Great and the Roman legions.
Written by – David Tee AncientPages.com Staff Writer | <urn:uuid:19882448-ace2-4cbd-a457-ded54c7d90a8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.ancientpages.com/2018/07/18/sparta-and-legendary-king-leonidas-the-heroes-of-thermopylae/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.983438 | 1,409 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
-0.28779125213623047,
0.6670316457748413,
0.548535943031311,
-0.32351648807525635,
-0.3733961582183838,
-0.410276859998703,
-0.08616483956575394,
0.5073928833007812,
-0.1888226866722107,
0.09186916053295135,
-0.03136998787522316,
-0.21534784138202667,
0.023510992527008057,
0.53794968128204... | 2 | David Tee - AncientPages.com - It was Herodotus who provided most of the information we have today about King Leonidas. According to the first Greek historian, King Leonidas descended from Hercules, the half god half man of Greek mythology.
What seemed like an unfortunate birth order, Leonidas was the third son of Anaxandrides. His father was a king who was forced to take a second wife in order to produce an heir. Leonidas finally was able to ascend the throne in 488 BC after the deaths of his father and two older brothers.
But the birth order may have been fortuitous as this mean that Leonidas was to attend the rigorous public school all non-first born sons were to attend. In this school he received superior military training which prepared him unknowingly for future events.
Left: The Spartan army was an infantry-based army that fought using the phalanx formation. Credit: Public Domain - Right: Statue of King Leonidas. Credit: Public Domain
At the time of his succession, Leonidas was married to the daughter of his half-brother King Cleomenes. Plutarch records the following exchange to demonstrate the character Leonidas held:
"When someone said to him: 'Except for being king you are not at all superior to us,' Leonidas son of Anaxandridas II and brother of Cleomenes replied: 'But were I not better than you, I should not be king.'’
The State Of Sparta
Many people may think that Sparta was a legendary empire but that would be far from fact. Greece was not a totally united country in the time of Leonidas. Each major city was called a city state and ruled their own lands and citizens.
There was a general co-operation between the different cities who would come together in times of war. But, they also quarreled and fought with each other as the Peloponnesian war attests. Sparta is well known for being focused on military might and was known to keep slaves, which freed their natural citizens up for military duty.
The practice was that when a boy reached 7 years of age, he was taken from his home and placed in a military barracks. This new home provided them with a very rough up bringing in order to make them tough soldiers. It lasted for about 13 years or when the child reached the age of 20.
Jean-Pierre Saint-Ours, The Selection of Children in Sparta, 1785. A Neoclassical imaging of what Plutarch describes. Credit: Public Domain
One of the harshest facts to come out about this way of living was that the older citizens of Sparta would kill those boys who could not be trained due to a disability. The boys were thrown into a pit by the elders who judged the physical ability of each boy in question. Not all were condemned to death, just the weakest ones.
Girls had it a lot easier and were not under the threat of death or removal of their homes. But they were expected to train, be athletic and compete in some competitions. Some even competed in the ancient Olympic Games’ chariot races.
Sparta And King Leonidas Go To War
It is estimated that Leonidas was about 60 at the time the Persian King Xerxes I invaded what is now known as Greece. The numbers involved in his army have been greatly exaggerated by different historians. Herodotus recorded the figure at 1 million while other estimates put the size between 80,000 and 150,000 Persian troops.
An exact estimate cannot be known today. The much smaller Greek army, numbering around 8,000 men from the different Grecian cities, did not let this disparity discourage or weaken them.
Before King Leonidas went to gather more troops and confront Xerxes, he went to theOracle at Delphi. Here he was given a prophecy concerning the war. The Oracle claimed that either Sparta would fall, or the Spartan king would be killed.
When the two armies finally met, the Greeks took their position at Thermopylae, a very strategic mountainous area. Xerxes was hoping to spare a lot of bloodshed decided to wait four days before engaging the Greek army.
He also hoped that the size of his army would dishearten the Greek soldiers and they would flee. Neither happened and so Xerxes was forced to go to battle.
The Battle Of Thermopylae
Undaunted, the Greeks held their ground. Even after losing 2,500 men. But before they fell, the Greeks were able to kill roughly 20,000 Persians. Exact numbers may not be found.
As the story goes, it was a traitor to the Greeks that led the Persians through a mountain pass which took the Persians behind the Greek lines. Unable to defend two battle fronts King Leonidas dismissed most of his troops except for the 300 of legend and 700 hundred Thespians.
A map indicating the location and military positions taken in the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE between the Persian invading forces of Xerxes I against a small Greek force led by Spartan king Leonidas. Defending the pass for three days, the Greek force was ultimately defeated. Credit: Public Domain
With this number King Leonidas stood his ground. Records show that this was not a forced choice, but one made out of the character Leonidas possessed. He decided to lose his life so that the rest of Sparta could live.
We all know the ending of that story as King Leonidas and his 1,000 men died heroically defending the land that they loved.
Sparta Gets Revenge But Things Go Wrong
Sparta was not lost and on the death of Leonidas, his son Pleistarchus became King. Unfortunately, he was not old enough to rule on his own and Pausanius was appointed his regent.
A year later, these two were able to get revenge for the devasting loss at Thermopylae by winning two key victories against the Persians at Salamis and Plataea. Because of their eventual victory we are able to read about King Leonidas and his heroic men.
Although Sparta helped protect Greece from the Persian threat, things did not go well for Sparta after the war. Since Greek was still divided up into city states, there were a lot of conflicts and disagreements between the different cities.
These disagreements led to more battles and wars over the next 150 years or so. At one point Sparta made a financial alliance with their once enemy, the Persians. This helped Sparta defeat Athens but eventually the city state turned on their Persian backers and successfully attacked them.
Successive battles took Sparta from a great military power to a lesser city state who could not compete with the likes of Alexander the Great and the Roman legions.
Written by – David Tee AncientPages.com Staff Writer | 1,440 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Progressive Era through the Great Depression
HIS-105 Contemporary US History
November 10, 2012
The Spanish American War began in February of 1895. This war was brought on by the Cubans struggle for independence from Spain. The US got involved when US newspapers brought the brutality home. The US intervened and in the end they gained Guam and Puerto Rico. The US also gained power and with that power they would gain a place in international politics. (Spanish American War, 2012)
The Great Depression followed a period that was called the roaring twenties. The roaring twenties was a time when people had more money to spend and spend they did. ...view middle of the document...
I think the mentality that the Southerners had before the Civil war began was still in place and the Eastern states even though they went along with change refused to see women as equals.
As the roaring twenties went out the Great Depression came in on a day called Black Thursday the stock market crashed with a record of 12.9 million shares being traded. A few days later 16 million were traded and that day was known as Black Tuesday. (The Great Depression, 2012). With the fall of the stock market it had horrendous effects on trade and no one was really safe from the depression. (Great Depression, 2006)
Investing and spending had dropped and unemployment rates were on the rise. Houses were being foreclosed on because people were unemployed and could not afford their mortgages and they fell deep into debt. Much like you see today soup kitchens and homeless people were very common in American cities. (The Great Depression, 2012) President Hoover said the depression would run its course however times continued to get worse and worse. So much so that banks were closing their doors and farmers were struggling so much so that they couldn’t harvest their crops so they were forced to leave them to rot in the fields.
In 1933 Franklin Roosevelt took office and took action to correct the economy this in my opinion was huge turning point for America. His first order of business was to have the banks close for a four-day bank holiday. He passed the Emergency Banking Act and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation was formed to insure deposits up to $5000. This reestablished American’s faith in banks which brought American’s to reopen accounts and deposit their money in the bank. Also during his first 100 days of office he stabilized the industrial and agricultural production; created jobs, and the Securities and Exchange Commission. (The Great Depression, 2012)
FDR also created the Civil Works Administration which gave many of the unemployed jobs. This was a confidence boost to many American’s who at the time were struggling. (Franklin D. Roosevelt A New Deal, 2007) He also implemented (in my opinion one of the best Acts) the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. This act banned child labor and set a standard minimum wage. Many companies had child labor because it was free but with this act they were now forced to pay many unemployed Americans a standard wage for their work. This also helped many American’s get back on their feet. (Franklin D. Roosevelt A New Deal, 2007)
Another act that was passed was the Social Security Act. The Social Security Act provided funds for old age workers, survivor benefits for victims of industrial accidents, unemployment insurance, and funds for those that were disabled. (Franklin D. Roosevelt A New Deal, 2007)
Today many American’s are out of work and struggling to survive. As of October 2012, the total of nonfarm payroll employment increased by 171,000 but the unemployment rate remained unchanged and... | <urn:uuid:8148adae-0675-466f-a0ea-ea27358a00be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.avsabonline.org/papers/progressive-era-through-the-great-depression-6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.98824 | 735 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
-0.07559652626514435,
0.2106412798166275,
0.13292564451694489,
0.17761504650115967,
0.04385994374752045,
0.16461138427257538,
-0.2906472980976105,
0.1413867473602295,
-0.02722804620862007,
-0.11168869584798813,
0.40904223918914795,
0.5065985321998596,
-0.32238706946372986,
0.41256529092788... | 1 | Progressive Era through the Great Depression
HIS-105 Contemporary US History
November 10, 2012
The Spanish American War began in February of 1895. This war was brought on by the Cubans struggle for independence from Spain. The US got involved when US newspapers brought the brutality home. The US intervened and in the end they gained Guam and Puerto Rico. The US also gained power and with that power they would gain a place in international politics. (Spanish American War, 2012)
The Great Depression followed a period that was called the roaring twenties. The roaring twenties was a time when people had more money to spend and spend they did. ...view middle of the document...
I think the mentality that the Southerners had before the Civil war began was still in place and the Eastern states even though they went along with change refused to see women as equals.
As the roaring twenties went out the Great Depression came in on a day called Black Thursday the stock market crashed with a record of 12.9 million shares being traded. A few days later 16 million were traded and that day was known as Black Tuesday. (The Great Depression, 2012). With the fall of the stock market it had horrendous effects on trade and no one was really safe from the depression. (Great Depression, 2006)
Investing and spending had dropped and unemployment rates were on the rise. Houses were being foreclosed on because people were unemployed and could not afford their mortgages and they fell deep into debt. Much like you see today soup kitchens and homeless people were very common in American cities. (The Great Depression, 2012) President Hoover said the depression would run its course however times continued to get worse and worse. So much so that banks were closing their doors and farmers were struggling so much so that they couldn’t harvest their crops so they were forced to leave them to rot in the fields.
In 1933 Franklin Roosevelt took office and took action to correct the economy this in my opinion was huge turning point for America. His first order of business was to have the banks close for a four-day bank holiday. He passed the Emergency Banking Act and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation was formed to insure deposits up to $5000. This reestablished American’s faith in banks which brought American’s to reopen accounts and deposit their money in the bank. Also during his first 100 days of office he stabilized the industrial and agricultural production; created jobs, and the Securities and Exchange Commission. (The Great Depression, 2012)
FDR also created the Civil Works Administration which gave many of the unemployed jobs. This was a confidence boost to many American’s who at the time were struggling. (Franklin D. Roosevelt A New Deal, 2007) He also implemented (in my opinion one of the best Acts) the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. This act banned child labor and set a standard minimum wage. Many companies had child labor because it was free but with this act they were now forced to pay many unemployed Americans a standard wage for their work. This also helped many American’s get back on their feet. (Franklin D. Roosevelt A New Deal, 2007)
Another act that was passed was the Social Security Act. The Social Security Act provided funds for old age workers, survivor benefits for victims of industrial accidents, unemployment insurance, and funds for those that were disabled. (Franklin D. Roosevelt A New Deal, 2007)
Today many American’s are out of work and struggling to survive. As of October 2012, the total of nonfarm payroll employment increased by 171,000 but the unemployment rate remained unchanged and... | 787 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Usury is the practice of making unethical or immoral monetary loans that unfairly enrich the lender. A loan may be considered usurious because of excessive or abusive interest rates or other factors. However, according to some sources, simply charging any interest at all would be considered usury.
Jews and usury
During the Middle Ages Christians were forbidden from charging an interest on loans. Jews were forbidden by Jewish scriptures to charge an interst on loans to other Jews, however they were permitted to charge interest on loans to non-Jews.
Kevin MacDonald has argued that this contributed to Jewish moneylending being seen as an hostile act against a non-Jewish outgroup that caused the transfer of resources from Jews to non-Jews. Also, interest rates rates could be very high and profits for moneylenders very high compared to occupations open for non-Jews in artisanry or agriculture. Jewish moneylending was sometimes seen as resulting in a Jewish “grip” on the Christian economy. It was also associated with, for example, religious institutions going bankrupt and being closed down as a result of debts owed to Jews. Another argued reason for dislike of Jewish economic activities during this time period is that Jews were involved in unpopular tax collection for the nobility/royality (tax farming).
He has also written that:
Historically, Jews were often concentrated in ethnic niches such as moneylending, tax farming, and estate management—occupations that were exploitative. In traditional societies these activities were not part of a market economy but an aspect of exploitation by elites. For example, Rubin treats moneylending as a service to debtors benefiting the society as a whole—on the model of buying a house in the suburbs or starting a business with a predictable economic surplus and at rates of 5–10% interest over a number of years. However, in the Middle Ages and down to the twentieth century in much of Eastern Europe, the great majority of loans were made to people living at or near subsistence, and they were made at exorbitant rates. There was often no free market in moneylending; typically, moneylenders obtained the right to engage in these activities as a result of being granted a franchise by a nobleman or a city which received a portion of the profits. The moneylenders then charged whatever they thought they could obtain from their customers, with the exception that interest rates were sometimes capped because of complaints by ruined debtors.
Loans made at interest rates common in the Middle Ages (oftentimes 33%–65%) are simply exploitative, and there is little wonder that they caused hatred on the part of ruined debtors and deep concern on the part of the Church. Moneylending under these circumstances did indeed benefit moneylenders and their aristocratic backers, but, as with loan-sharking today, it simply resulted in destitution for the vast majority of the customers—especially the poorer classes—rather than economic growth for the society as a whole. Loans were made to the desperate, the unintelligent, and the profligate rather to people with good economic prospects who would invest their money to create economic growth; they were made “not to the prosperous farmer...but the farmer who could not make ends meet; not the successful squire, but the waster; the peasant, not when his crops were good, but when the failed; the artisan, not when he sold his wares, but when he could not find a market. Not unnaturally, a century of such a system was more than any community could stand, and the story of Jewish usury is a continuous alternation of invitation, protection, protestation and condemnation.”
- (1998). Separation and Its Discontents: Toward an Evolutionary Theory of Anti-Semitism. Praeger.
- On the Rationality of Ethnic Conflict http://www.kevinmacdonald.net/RubinRev.htm | <urn:uuid:62874306-47e5-43cb-a9cb-c730bce6cb74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.metapedia.org/wiki/Usury | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.981416 | 798 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
0.14225682616233826,
-0.036695223301649094,
-0.46205681562423706,
-0.08185853064060211,
0.3199666738510132,
-0.26555460691452026,
-0.05276856571435928,
0.23080182075500488,
0.1621384620666504,
0.27155014872550964,
0.23609134554862976,
0.1816093921661377,
-0.24928641319274902,
0.22056692838... | 2 | Usury is the practice of making unethical or immoral monetary loans that unfairly enrich the lender. A loan may be considered usurious because of excessive or abusive interest rates or other factors. However, according to some sources, simply charging any interest at all would be considered usury.
Jews and usury
During the Middle Ages Christians were forbidden from charging an interest on loans. Jews were forbidden by Jewish scriptures to charge an interst on loans to other Jews, however they were permitted to charge interest on loans to non-Jews.
Kevin MacDonald has argued that this contributed to Jewish moneylending being seen as an hostile act against a non-Jewish outgroup that caused the transfer of resources from Jews to non-Jews. Also, interest rates rates could be very high and profits for moneylenders very high compared to occupations open for non-Jews in artisanry or agriculture. Jewish moneylending was sometimes seen as resulting in a Jewish “grip” on the Christian economy. It was also associated with, for example, religious institutions going bankrupt and being closed down as a result of debts owed to Jews. Another argued reason for dislike of Jewish economic activities during this time period is that Jews were involved in unpopular tax collection for the nobility/royality (tax farming).
He has also written that:
Historically, Jews were often concentrated in ethnic niches such as moneylending, tax farming, and estate management—occupations that were exploitative. In traditional societies these activities were not part of a market economy but an aspect of exploitation by elites. For example, Rubin treats moneylending as a service to debtors benefiting the society as a whole—on the model of buying a house in the suburbs or starting a business with a predictable economic surplus and at rates of 5–10% interest over a number of years. However, in the Middle Ages and down to the twentieth century in much of Eastern Europe, the great majority of loans were made to people living at or near subsistence, and they were made at exorbitant rates. There was often no free market in moneylending; typically, moneylenders obtained the right to engage in these activities as a result of being granted a franchise by a nobleman or a city which received a portion of the profits. The moneylenders then charged whatever they thought they could obtain from their customers, with the exception that interest rates were sometimes capped because of complaints by ruined debtors.
Loans made at interest rates common in the Middle Ages (oftentimes 33%–65%) are simply exploitative, and there is little wonder that they caused hatred on the part of ruined debtors and deep concern on the part of the Church. Moneylending under these circumstances did indeed benefit moneylenders and their aristocratic backers, but, as with loan-sharking today, it simply resulted in destitution for the vast majority of the customers—especially the poorer classes—rather than economic growth for the society as a whole. Loans were made to the desperate, the unintelligent, and the profligate rather to people with good economic prospects who would invest their money to create economic growth; they were made “not to the prosperous farmer...but the farmer who could not make ends meet; not the successful squire, but the waster; the peasant, not when his crops were good, but when the failed; the artisan, not when he sold his wares, but when he could not find a market. Not unnaturally, a century of such a system was more than any community could stand, and the story of Jewish usury is a continuous alternation of invitation, protection, protestation and condemnation.”
- (1998). Separation and Its Discontents: Toward an Evolutionary Theory of Anti-Semitism. Praeger.
- On the Rationality of Ethnic Conflict http://www.kevinmacdonald.net/RubinRev.htm | 791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edward Lear was an Engish painter, writer, poet, musician, and illustrator. As an artist, he was primarily known for his striking landscapes, such as The Pyramids of Gizeh, also The Cedars of Lebanon.
He was also a writer and illustrator. His most known works were The Owl and the Pussycat, as well as A Book of Nonsense.
Edward Lear was born in 1812 in the city of Holloway, England. He was born into a middle-class family, the penultimate of 21 children, and the youngest to survive. Due to economic misfortune following the Napoleonic Wars, when Lear was four years old, he was required to leave the family home. He moves along with 21 older sister Ann, who raised him as her son and continued to act as such until her death when Lear was almost 50 years old.
Since his youth, Lear suffered from health afflictions that would follow him throughout his life. From age six was afflicted by frequent episodes of Asthma, bronchitis, and epileptic seizures, the latter being especially traumatizing to him. His first episode was during a fair with his father, resulting in an embarrassing and scaring occasion for him; his medical condition was a lifelong source of guilt and shame for Lear. With only seven years old young Lear began to show signs of depression, probably due to an unstable childhood. Lear suffered from phases of severe melancholia, which he called “the Morbids”.
At age 16, Lear was already drawing for some payment and soon developed into a keen ornithological drafter and was even employed by the Zoological Society. Lear’s first publication was when he was only 19 years old, called Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae, or Parrots; Lear was the first significant artist to create his drawings based on real live birds, instead of their skins. The Earl of Derby employed Lear from 1832 to 1836.
Edward Lear is one of the best ornithological artists of his era and was recognized as such. He was compared to the naturalist John James Audubon favorably. He was Elizabeth Gould’s teacher at the same time he would contribute to John Gould’s artwork.
His vision deteriorated, which made it impossible for him to keep working on such a precise medium. Thus he turned to travel and landscape painting. Among other places, Lear visited Egypt, India, and a brief period in Ceylon. In these travels, he would produce several colored wash drawings that later became fully realized watercolors or oil paintings. His landscape style is very distinctive, often depicting strong sunlight, with intense color contrasts. | <urn:uuid:0a33fd37-76f2-4198-81fd-9e59629dc238> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.1st-art-gallery.com/Edward-Lear/Views-In-Rome-And-Its-Environs.-London-T.-Mlean-1841.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00029.warc.gz | en | 0.992281 | 550 | 3.5 | 4 | [
0.2741662263870239,
-0.4033033847808838,
0.5857731699943542,
0.5299417972564697,
-0.35591718554496765,
-0.04861859977245331,
0.3854601979255676,
0.03289608657360077,
-0.22339923679828644,
0.03268316760659218,
-0.02601827308535576,
-0.4351350963115692,
0.004629448056221008,
0.30098903179168... | 1 | Edward Lear was an Engish painter, writer, poet, musician, and illustrator. As an artist, he was primarily known for his striking landscapes, such as The Pyramids of Gizeh, also The Cedars of Lebanon.
He was also a writer and illustrator. His most known works were The Owl and the Pussycat, as well as A Book of Nonsense.
Edward Lear was born in 1812 in the city of Holloway, England. He was born into a middle-class family, the penultimate of 21 children, and the youngest to survive. Due to economic misfortune following the Napoleonic Wars, when Lear was four years old, he was required to leave the family home. He moves along with 21 older sister Ann, who raised him as her son and continued to act as such until her death when Lear was almost 50 years old.
Since his youth, Lear suffered from health afflictions that would follow him throughout his life. From age six was afflicted by frequent episodes of Asthma, bronchitis, and epileptic seizures, the latter being especially traumatizing to him. His first episode was during a fair with his father, resulting in an embarrassing and scaring occasion for him; his medical condition was a lifelong source of guilt and shame for Lear. With only seven years old young Lear began to show signs of depression, probably due to an unstable childhood. Lear suffered from phases of severe melancholia, which he called “the Morbids”.
At age 16, Lear was already drawing for some payment and soon developed into a keen ornithological drafter and was even employed by the Zoological Society. Lear’s first publication was when he was only 19 years old, called Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae, or Parrots; Lear was the first significant artist to create his drawings based on real live birds, instead of their skins. The Earl of Derby employed Lear from 1832 to 1836.
Edward Lear is one of the best ornithological artists of his era and was recognized as such. He was compared to the naturalist John James Audubon favorably. He was Elizabeth Gould’s teacher at the same time he would contribute to John Gould’s artwork.
His vision deteriorated, which made it impossible for him to keep working on such a precise medium. Thus he turned to travel and landscape painting. Among other places, Lear visited Egypt, India, and a brief period in Ceylon. In these travels, he would produce several colored wash drawings that later became fully realized watercolors or oil paintings. His landscape style is very distinctive, often depicting strong sunlight, with intense color contrasts. | 556 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Franklin as Colonial Printer
Arriving in Philadelphia empty-handed, Benjamin Franklin found work with printer Samuel Keimer. After several false starts with businesses and a near-fatal bout with pleurisy, he traveled to London in 1724 to carry out business that never transpired. Unable to afford a return trip on his own, Franklin spent the next year and a half working as a printer. As it had for William Bradford, training in the English craft of printing bolstered his skills and design aesthetic. By the time Franklin retired in 1748, he had established the largest printing business in colonial America and was considered its most accomplished printer.
For many, Franklin’s fame as a writer and printer rests on Poor Richard’s Almanack, which is recognized for Franklin’s homespun wit and wisdom, under the pseudonym Richard Saunders. But Franklin’s accomplishments as a printer were far greater. He built his business on the profitable formats of printing at the time—job printing, government forms and currency, almanacs, pamphlets, and newspapers. He rescued a Philadelphia newspaper from bankruptcy and in 1729 rebuilt it as the Pennsylvania Gazette (later published as the Saturday Evening Post), the most successful colonial American newspaper. He was the first printer to propose a monthly magazine.
Although Franklin would go on to distinguish himself as a scientist, diplomat, politician, and writer, his success was built on the foundation of his work as a printer. It brought him wealth as well as a public platform. | <urn:uuid:3e671b4a-c5ed-4dbd-98d2-4b2a92398a9f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bguthriephotos.com/graphlib.nsf/popIdentShow?OpenForm&FileName=LOCBAY_150819_068.JPG&FileLink=/Graphlib/GraphData15.nsf/Images/2015_DC_LOC_Bay_Psalm_0640/$File/LOCBAY_150819_068.JPG | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00541.warc.gz | en | 0.982837 | 309 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
-0.3274911940097809,
0.24359090626239777,
0.04638606682419777,
-0.015380119904875755,
-0.2823554277420044,
0.1647888720035553,
0.18431851267814636,
0.9098398089408875,
-0.5513129830360413,
-0.16337448358535767,
0.37172752618789673,
0.12730342149734497,
-0.48400360345840454,
0.3901996314525... | 2 | Franklin as Colonial Printer
Arriving in Philadelphia empty-handed, Benjamin Franklin found work with printer Samuel Keimer. After several false starts with businesses and a near-fatal bout with pleurisy, he traveled to London in 1724 to carry out business that never transpired. Unable to afford a return trip on his own, Franklin spent the next year and a half working as a printer. As it had for William Bradford, training in the English craft of printing bolstered his skills and design aesthetic. By the time Franklin retired in 1748, he had established the largest printing business in colonial America and was considered its most accomplished printer.
For many, Franklin’s fame as a writer and printer rests on Poor Richard’s Almanack, which is recognized for Franklin’s homespun wit and wisdom, under the pseudonym Richard Saunders. But Franklin’s accomplishments as a printer were far greater. He built his business on the profitable formats of printing at the time—job printing, government forms and currency, almanacs, pamphlets, and newspapers. He rescued a Philadelphia newspaper from bankruptcy and in 1729 rebuilt it as the Pennsylvania Gazette (later published as the Saturday Evening Post), the most successful colonial American newspaper. He was the first printer to propose a monthly magazine.
Although Franklin would go on to distinguish himself as a scientist, diplomat, politician, and writer, his success was built on the foundation of his work as a printer. It brought him wealth as well as a public platform. | 307 | ENGLISH | 1 |
More than 5700 years ago, a girl spat out a wad of chewing gum at what is now an archaeological site in Denmark. Today, researchers report in Nature Communications that they have sequenced a full genome from that gum, the first time they have extracted so much information from anything other than ancient bones or teeth. Although no human remains have been found at the site of Syltholm, archaeologists found a wad of gum from birch pitch. The DNA in the gum was so well preserved that researchers were able to offer a glimpse of the girl who had chewed it and a snapshot of her life.
The child (artist’s depiction above) had black hair, blue eyes, and dark skin, and was more closely related to hunter-gatherers from Western Europe than to farmers who had more recently settled in the region. She left traces of her most recent meal in the gum—she had been chewing hazelnuts and duck. But her oral microbiome also revealed that life could be hard—she had the Epstein-Barr virus and probably had suffered from mononucleosis in her life. Last year, researchers got some genetic sequences from even older gum from Scandinavia. As predicted, such wads now are becoming a useful resource for researchers.
Source: Science Mag | <urn:uuid:41f37230-2a87-46fe-a4a7-a185636657ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.primetimes.in/technology/401688/nearly-6000-year-old-chewing-gum-reveals-life-of-ancient-girl/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00540.warc.gz | en | 0.983396 | 263 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
-0.5103667378425598,
0.12827228009700775,
0.39685750007629395,
0.02615170367062092,
0.03813813626766205,
0.08830132335424423,
-0.03732593357563019,
0.15974768996238708,
-0.19541235268115997,
0.09155384451150894,
0.12749384343624115,
-0.6474568247795105,
0.4404355585575104,
0.22810067236423... | 3 | More than 5700 years ago, a girl spat out a wad of chewing gum at what is now an archaeological site in Denmark. Today, researchers report in Nature Communications that they have sequenced a full genome from that gum, the first time they have extracted so much information from anything other than ancient bones or teeth. Although no human remains have been found at the site of Syltholm, archaeologists found a wad of gum from birch pitch. The DNA in the gum was so well preserved that researchers were able to offer a glimpse of the girl who had chewed it and a snapshot of her life.
The child (artist’s depiction above) had black hair, blue eyes, and dark skin, and was more closely related to hunter-gatherers from Western Europe than to farmers who had more recently settled in the region. She left traces of her most recent meal in the gum—she had been chewing hazelnuts and duck. But her oral microbiome also revealed that life could be hard—she had the Epstein-Barr virus and probably had suffered from mononucleosis in her life. Last year, researchers got some genetic sequences from even older gum from Scandinavia. As predicted, such wads now are becoming a useful resource for researchers.
Source: Science Mag | 263 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Race, class, and gender are the three main things that separate and hold people back in today’s society. I’d like to be able to say that things have progressively gotten better as time continues to pass, and to an extent they have, but in reality we still live in an extremely ignorant and subjective society. The fact is, people everyday are being turned down for jobs and opportunities not because of what they are or aren’t capable of or what they do or don’t know, but because of what they are and where they came from. People are involuntarily classified as soon as they are born based on their race, class, and gender. These three things combine together to form a social status. People spend their entire lives trying to boost this status in a positive direction. Others are content with where they have been placed and live life in a lethargic manner. How people go about moving up and down the social ladder is up to them and how quickly they learn from their experiences dictates where it is they end up when all is said and done. Why all this is I could try and explain but it would take more than my knowledge and understanding to really even break the seal. One of the main issues in today’s society stems from race, and that issue is segregation. There are two types of segregation, De jure segregation, which is when laws require racial separation or allow segregation, and De facto segregation, which occurs when people are segregated based on race due to their economic situation or their social status. The United States has come a long way in ending De jure segregation in the 1960s but De facto segregation still plays a huge role in our society today. Two of the main areas in which segregation occurs are in neighborhoods, and in turn, school systems. Studies have shown that racial discrimination occurs in the real estate market (Newman 286). One case study in particular, involved a rental agent lying to a black family, saying that the unit was unavailable for fear that she would be out of work in that particular suburb had she rented to a black family (Newman 286). To think that our country fought so hard to get where it is today, yet people are still being discriminated against based on the color of their skin. In my opinion, discriminating against minorities in the housing market is the root of segregation and it is because of this that enables segregation to occur. Segregation restricts access to jobs and to quality schools by concentrating African Americans and Hispanics in central cities, when job growth and better schools are found in the suburbs (Newman 287). So if you can control where a group of people reside, you can then control almost every aspect of that group. By funneling minorities through the lesser school systems they are already off to a slow start than their Caucasian counterparts. Due to the inferior educational opportunities available to African Americans and Hispanics, it then becomes harder for them to compete in the job market forcing many of them to settle for low-end jobs consisting of minimal pay. These people are just more victims of the system we have put in place. This system ensures that, for the most part, society doesn’t change too drastically so everyone can stay comfortable and not have to worry about adapting to the community. There are plenty of stereotypes for all races, classes, and genders and they have a multitude of different effects on people’s lives. The first one I will examine is the stereotypes I have to deal with myself. Being an upper class white male, I can’t say I have it too tough. I have been classified as a pretty boy, a rich boy, and someone who’s afraid to get his hands “dirty.” I’d be lying if I said that any of these things affect me in a negative way or have much of an impact on society at all. I would say I was born with much more opportunity than 95% of all minorities in the United States just because of the fact that I am white and my family has enough money to where my education is free, for me at least. Now does that make it impossible for minorities in the United States to grow up and be successful? No. It just means that if you are a minority and you are born into a poverty stricken/lower class family, you have much less room for error. Some poor Hispanic twelve year-old boy is debating whether or not he wants to deal with school for the next ten years of his life and attempt to receive a college degree, or be with his friends and get involved with drugs, all the while I’m getting excited to be entering middle school and the thought of quitting school has simply never come across my mind because it is the same path all my friends are taking and it has been imbedded in my mind that school is where I belong. Now I will explore some of the stereotypes black males are inclined to deal with. Blacks are thrown in the baskets of being lazy, dumb, poor, stingy, thievish, and athletic. There are plenty more but these are the ones that came to mind. All of these listed would be considered negative except of course the athleticism usually associated with the race. These stereotypes conjoin to make it extremely difficult for black males in our society to reach the top of the mountain so to speak. It’s not that there aren’t people who have no problem looking past a person’s skin; it’s just that there are mass amounts of people who have set up a barrier against minorities and they just simply won’t let anyone through. Now say you have two men apply for a job both equally qualified, one black one white (assuming the interview is white and has all say). There are a number of different outcomes that can result from this situation. First, you have the man who takes a look at skin tone and picks the white man by default; some would label this man as a racist. You then have the man who, to make a statement or rather he just feels sympathetic for what all the man has to deal with, accepts the black applicant. Then there is the man who feels for the black applicant but thinks about things such as; Do I want to be put in the situation of being friends and socializing with a black man?—Do I want my children to be friends with his children?—I don’t know what to expect from this man, do I really want to take a chance? This man accepts the white applicant not because he is discriminating against the black applicant but because he’s afraid to flow against the grain of society. Lastly, there is the pure man who sees no color, who carefully weighs each candidate, who throws all meaningless variables out the window and picks the most qualified person. This last man is a rarity in today’s society and it is for this reason that society will forever drift in, for the most part, the same direction. Now we shall tweak our equation in a way that you have a black female and a white male applying for a job in which the black female is, without any shade of doubt, more qualified then the white male. We’ll also throw in a little bit of a variable, the white male hit it off with the interviewer; made a great first impression, had great things to say, and really the two just connected on a personal level. Whereas the black female, although over-qualified, did not seem to mesh very well with the interviewer. How often a situation like this comes along I could not say with any amount of certainty, but I were to give my best guess I would say 85% of the time the white male would be hired. To most people this statistic leaves a sick feeling in their stomachs, almost like the feeling you get if someone is killed on death row and you later find out they were innocent, except not quite as drastic. I would be hard pressed to say if I were in a similar situation that I would do the right thing. The thing that scares me about this situation is the fact that I feel like it would be a difficult decision for myself, coming from someone who considers themselves indifferent towards minorities and females in the workforce and in general. Now the debate of whether or not this situation affects our society in a positive or negative way begins. It can be argued that not hiring the more qualified worker will hinder the overall production of our economy’s workforce and advancements. But then there is the question of whether or not the more cohesive workforce is more productive than the less cohesive, more skilled workforce. If my opinion counted for anything, I would presume the more skilled workforce to be the more productive crew. Assuming this, and assuming there are in fact people out there who hire based on appearance and social performance, our society is in turn tighter knit but less productive. Now, to be fair, and in no way am I saying that this is any sort of reparation for what has gone on. But what would happen if we were to tweak it so that two equally skilled men, one black one white, were competing for a spot on a football or basketball roster? The funny thing is, I was literally just fixing to talk about how the black person would make the team over the white person in this sentence based on his skin color. When I think about it though, I would say if the two men really did possess equal talent, the team would probably give the spot to the white man just because he might be considered less of a liability to the organization, although the outcomes of these situations will always vary. Race also plays a huge role in the area of marriage. The majority of people in today’s society are reluctant to involve themselves in a serious relationship with someone of another race. Some people are reluctant because they are afraid of what others might think, mainly their friends and family. Others because they feel they are breaking an unwritten rule of society. Interracial marriages in the United States have nearly tripled over the last twenty years, yet fewer than 2% of all marriages consist of people of different races (Burns 149). This small percentage makes it so that race is still very much a part of society. It makes it so that we still live in a multi-cultural society. Now say we flip the percentages of interracial marriages. You now have a society in which race is hardly an issue. It now becomes much harder for people to be stratified and everyone is unique, to a certain extent. The only way for this to happen is if society as a whole becomes oblivious to people’s shell. If this does in fact happen, you will be able to observe a society that rarely has to deal with internal problems, one that truly bases its priorities on the will of the people, and a society that can act as role model for others to follow. Unfortunately, this society will probably never arise because people are too content with their individual lives, and also because people are made in a way such that they are attracted to people of same or similar values and characteristics One of the main things going on in our country at this point in time is the presidential election. This year was a breakout year for people all over the world. Not only did a woman try and run for office, but also a dark skinned man, one who is actually between the two main candidates and is representing the Democratic Party, Barack Obama. It seems as though Barack’s plan of attack is to target the lower and middle classes, as well as fresh voters. I only watch presidential news every now and then and don’t consider myself really deep into politics, but from what I have seen from Barack have been nothing but great things. He is a great public speaker although I’m not 100% sure how that translates into being a good president. I really think he’s swayed the likes of many of the lower and middle class voters towards his side but the fact that he is dark-skinned makes for an interesting situation. There are plenty of people down in the Deep South who don’t take kindly to Barack or what he stands for, simply because of the color of his skin. Now because of this, there are going to people who will straight up refuse to vote for him no matter what. Whether or not this group of artificial voters will affect the result of the election probably won’t ever be determined, but the fact that our society might possibly let something like that happen says wonders about the country we call “The Land of the Free, and the Home of the Brave.” Let’s say for instance the outcome of the election was in fact altered because of Senator Obama’s color. This would cause our society to change in a way that the will of the people was actually not being fulfilled. Class is another wall that is put up to impede the rise of today’s youth. Typically, the higher the class of a child’s family, the higher the education that child is bound to receive. Kids whose parents can afford to send them to fancy private college prep schools receive a much more prodigious education than that of the inner city schools. These inner city schools are predominantly black and Hispanic and have some of the lowest graduation rates of any other types of schools, which really shouldn’t come as a huge shock. To understand this we must explore what is going on and why it is happening. First of all, we must understand that growing up in the lower class, survival is the first priority, not education. Where I come from, survival wasn’t really as much of an issue. Food was always provided, my family was always intact, and I was always welcomed and loved in my home. So kids, who weren’t born into the same luxuries that I was fortunate to have, end up getting involved with the wrong group, dropping school, and committing crimes usually until they are caught and thrown in jail. It is this constant cycle that helps societies to formulate the labels that it has, and to place people into the groups in which they belong. Of course, not all people affiliated with these groups deserve their label, and by no means did they ask for it, but society as a whole couldn’t care less to be quite honest. Society can be the harshest enemy for a person to have sometimes simply because there is just no reasoning with it, if you don’t like it, it doesn’t care, and if you do care, it still remains somewhat indifferent. The sooner one moves on from the fact that he or she should not be sitting around trying to change the way they act in an attempt to befriend as many people as possible, the sooner we will all understand what it takes to be in a state of worry-free simplicity. The more people there are who can be worry free, then the more and more potential there is for a happier society. Unfortunately, it is many people’s nature to worry; worry about their family, worry about their job, worry about themselves, worry about the world, worry about everything. It just seems like class is pre-determined for people based on where they came from and what circumstances they were born into. In “From: Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work” Jean Anyon describes how she believes curriculum is geared towards maintaining class in America and that the event of a rise or fall in social status is rare. It is clear that she feels class directly corresponds to the type of education a child is to receive. She investigated five different schools and organizes them into four different categories, each with its own distinct set of objectives. She describes the curriculum of working class schools as being very procedural and mechanical (Anyon 42-43). I agree with the fact there are indeed schools that follow this standard of operation and I think the children who attend these schools are being cheated out of a solid education. I think everyone deserves an equal opportunity to grow and develop his or her minds. I feel that when kids are manipulated into thinking in a way that holds them back in any way, their minds are being wasted. Children educated in this way are meant to maintain their place in the low-end of society and not to ask questions. Anyon also discusses a middle-class type of education in which students are taught to find answers but not to delve too deep into each area of study (Anyon 46). I agree with the fact that there are schools that go about teaching their students in this way because I think the schools that I attended were these types of schools. I feel my biggest weakness is my ability to think critically and looking back on my early years, I don’t recall ever having to do this. I feel like I was put into place at someone else’s discretion. The last two types of education Anyon explores are intended for kids who are derived from the upper class. These children are given all the proper tools in order for them to be successful. They are taught in a way that gets them to be creative, apply ideas, and to think critically (Anyon 48, 51-52). Although I can’t be certain, I do think there are indeed schools out there that develop their children in this way. These kids are given everything they need in order to reach their maximum potential and get a head start on the rest of the pack. Everyone else either has to catch up on their own, or is permanently left in the dust. Gregory Mantsios inquires that the reason people are unaware as to how severely stratified our society is, is because of the media. Mantsios argues that the forty million poor people in our country are practically ignored by the media (Newman 243). Maybe the media doesn’t find the poor interesting, or maybe they are trying to appeal to a bigger audience with stories of more uplifting and joyful nature, because most stories about the poor just leave you with feelings of guilt and sadness. Mantsios says that when the media does indeed cover the poor, they portray them in a way that is ambiguous and misleading (Newman 243). Mantsios later states that he feels this happens because those who own and direct the mass media are from the upper class and they are just trying to maintain the status quo (Newman 248). From this point of view everything makes perfect sense. I completely agree with Mantsios in the fact that the upper class tries to shield the lower class from the middle class. Why they would want to do this could be because it keeps them at the top for one. Also it makes it so that they don’t have to deal with a problem that could be potentially unsolvable. The problem that arises from this, however, is that the rich are going to continue to grow richer, and the poor are going to continue to grow poorer. The rich are on a seemingly never-ending power trip and the United States will always be divided into three separate and unequal groups. This impacts our society in that some people will always have pre-determined stigmas towards others. ‘Poor man A’ might see ‘rich man A’ and instinctively become bitter towards him regardless of the fact that they have never met because of his social and economic hardships and the fact that ‘rich man A’ leads a seemingly easy life. For the most part, people of the same class befriend those of similar social status. The reason for this is simply because people do what they like to do. If ‘rich man A’ likes sports and likes to go on spontaneous trips, he is not going to be as likely to be friends with someone who cannot afford to split season tickets or cannot afford to vacation when he pleases. More often than not, ‘rich man A’ will find someone who is willing and can afford to do these things. Likewise, you have ‘poor man A’ who works hard to support his family and has little time for leisure. Most likely he will find someone is a similar situation as himself, someone who he can talk to. Perhaps someone he meets at a bar one night after work. Someone who he can have a beer with and discuss what it is he is going through. Now this sounds somewhat depressing, and to a certain extent it sort of is, but this is sometimes the case. Of course there are plenty of poor people in this country who are grateful for what they have and don’t stop for a second to think about what they do or don’t have. Then you have ‘middle-class man A’ who plays golf on Sundays and watches football on television every Sunday is most likely going to become friends with ‘middle-class man B’ who plays golf at the same country club and also enjoys watching football on Sundays. People of the middle class are diverse in that they are able to associate with all three classes without a great deal of trouble. Although they might have an easier time interacting with someone of similar social status, they are capable of dipping down or jumping up a level depending on who it is they are trying to associate with. Class is always going to be something that separates people, and because most people prefer not to stand alone, they conjoin with each other in order to possess a sense of meaning and power. Often times we are led to believe that class doesn’t exist when in reality, class actually dictates virtually every aspect of our lives. Gender is the last idea in the top tier of social structure. As we go further and further back in time, examining the role of women, we find that, compared to what they are today, women hardly used to be individuals. It used to be understood that a woman was by no means equal to the dominant male. Women were to take care of the family and prepare simple day-to-day tasks. Women were not the decision makers and had very little say if any at all in the family affairs. However, women gained more and more rights as time went on and we see that nowadays women have more say than ever and are willing and capable of doing whatever it is they so desire. Even though men dominate a majority of the workforce, there is now at least space available for women to occupy if they prove to have what it takes. The roles of women in a family nowadays vary more than ever. Most men have too much pride to take a step back and let their wife be the sole provider for the family. Personally, I would never want to be in a situation where my wife did the legwork for the family while I stepped to the side and I don’t really find that abnormal at all. Society has imbedded the fact that the male should provide for his family into our heads and for some reason this thought just seems standardized to me. This is the way I was socialized in this matter and while others may have a problem with this point of view, in no way do I feel in the wrong for having this belief. Gender plays a big part in the work force. The workforce is the group in which almost all men are required to enter. It is also a group in which females are able, but not usually required, to enter. As of right now, women are more prevalent in the workforce than ever before. However, many areas of work are still somewhat off-limits to women, whereas few areas of work are considered off-limits to men. Men have the upper hand in almost all aspects of work. In fact, studies show that men out earn women in teaching, librarianship, and social work (Newman 306). Given that these three job fields are typically women’s professions, and considering the fact that men out earn women in their own field begs the question of whether or not women are given an equal chance to succeed. I would say that women are probably not given an equal chance to succeed in the workforce simply because they are not considered to be the primary providers in today’s society. As with every other area of stratification, society has a status ranking system for gender in the workforce and since males are ranked above females they receive higher pay. Researchers have reported that many women encounter invisible barriers to promotion in their careers, caused mainly by the sexist attitudes of men in the highest positions (Newman 307). What is and isn’t considered sexist in this situation is always going to be debatable. Often times people will use the term sexist much too loosely. For example, if a man is deciding to give a promotion to a man or a woman, and he gives it to the man because he knows that the man is the sole provider for his family, some people could consider that being sexist. Really at this point it is just a matter of personal opinion and unless someone is looking to go to court, there really isn’t anything that can be done to change this matter. Stratification helps our society to be competitive and progressive. If people are not separated into different ranks and statuses, then there is no incentive for people to excel. Even though the top three areas of stratification are all different in their own ways, they all fall under the same category of uncontrollable variables. How people vary in ways they have no control over, serve as the guidelines as to who they are and who they may become. What type of impact they have on today’s society is based mainly on the overall representation of the social structure in which they fall under and how it is viewed by their society.
Anyon, Jean. “From: Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work.” Rereading America: Cultural Contexts for Critical Thinking and Writing. New York: Bedford/ St. Martin’s Press, 1992. 40-56. | <urn:uuid:f94cedce-3325-4f5e-9635-799c89d96d5c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Race-Class-Gender-63634207.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.980137 | 5,252 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
0.19072508811950684,
-0.07320614159107208,
0.08554794639348984,
0.00206618825905025,
-0.04152889549732208,
0.445141464471817,
0.24864742159843445,
-0.06521482020616531,
0.11405511945486069,
0.11714229732751846,
0.27348193526268005,
0.02695445343852043,
0.02632766216993332,
-0.0847900509834... | 1 | Race, class, and gender are the three main things that separate and hold people back in today’s society. I’d like to be able to say that things have progressively gotten better as time continues to pass, and to an extent they have, but in reality we still live in an extremely ignorant and subjective society. The fact is, people everyday are being turned down for jobs and opportunities not because of what they are or aren’t capable of or what they do or don’t know, but because of what they are and where they came from. People are involuntarily classified as soon as they are born based on their race, class, and gender. These three things combine together to form a social status. People spend their entire lives trying to boost this status in a positive direction. Others are content with where they have been placed and live life in a lethargic manner. How people go about moving up and down the social ladder is up to them and how quickly they learn from their experiences dictates where it is they end up when all is said and done. Why all this is I could try and explain but it would take more than my knowledge and understanding to really even break the seal. One of the main issues in today’s society stems from race, and that issue is segregation. There are two types of segregation, De jure segregation, which is when laws require racial separation or allow segregation, and De facto segregation, which occurs when people are segregated based on race due to their economic situation or their social status. The United States has come a long way in ending De jure segregation in the 1960s but De facto segregation still plays a huge role in our society today. Two of the main areas in which segregation occurs are in neighborhoods, and in turn, school systems. Studies have shown that racial discrimination occurs in the real estate market (Newman 286). One case study in particular, involved a rental agent lying to a black family, saying that the unit was unavailable for fear that she would be out of work in that particular suburb had she rented to a black family (Newman 286). To think that our country fought so hard to get where it is today, yet people are still being discriminated against based on the color of their skin. In my opinion, discriminating against minorities in the housing market is the root of segregation and it is because of this that enables segregation to occur. Segregation restricts access to jobs and to quality schools by concentrating African Americans and Hispanics in central cities, when job growth and better schools are found in the suburbs (Newman 287). So if you can control where a group of people reside, you can then control almost every aspect of that group. By funneling minorities through the lesser school systems they are already off to a slow start than their Caucasian counterparts. Due to the inferior educational opportunities available to African Americans and Hispanics, it then becomes harder for them to compete in the job market forcing many of them to settle for low-end jobs consisting of minimal pay. These people are just more victims of the system we have put in place. This system ensures that, for the most part, society doesn’t change too drastically so everyone can stay comfortable and not have to worry about adapting to the community. There are plenty of stereotypes for all races, classes, and genders and they have a multitude of different effects on people’s lives. The first one I will examine is the stereotypes I have to deal with myself. Being an upper class white male, I can’t say I have it too tough. I have been classified as a pretty boy, a rich boy, and someone who’s afraid to get his hands “dirty.” I’d be lying if I said that any of these things affect me in a negative way or have much of an impact on society at all. I would say I was born with much more opportunity than 95% of all minorities in the United States just because of the fact that I am white and my family has enough money to where my education is free, for me at least. Now does that make it impossible for minorities in the United States to grow up and be successful? No. It just means that if you are a minority and you are born into a poverty stricken/lower class family, you have much less room for error. Some poor Hispanic twelve year-old boy is debating whether or not he wants to deal with school for the next ten years of his life and attempt to receive a college degree, or be with his friends and get involved with drugs, all the while I’m getting excited to be entering middle school and the thought of quitting school has simply never come across my mind because it is the same path all my friends are taking and it has been imbedded in my mind that school is where I belong. Now I will explore some of the stereotypes black males are inclined to deal with. Blacks are thrown in the baskets of being lazy, dumb, poor, stingy, thievish, and athletic. There are plenty more but these are the ones that came to mind. All of these listed would be considered negative except of course the athleticism usually associated with the race. These stereotypes conjoin to make it extremely difficult for black males in our society to reach the top of the mountain so to speak. It’s not that there aren’t people who have no problem looking past a person’s skin; it’s just that there are mass amounts of people who have set up a barrier against minorities and they just simply won’t let anyone through. Now say you have two men apply for a job both equally qualified, one black one white (assuming the interview is white and has all say). There are a number of different outcomes that can result from this situation. First, you have the man who takes a look at skin tone and picks the white man by default; some would label this man as a racist. You then have the man who, to make a statement or rather he just feels sympathetic for what all the man has to deal with, accepts the black applicant. Then there is the man who feels for the black applicant but thinks about things such as; Do I want to be put in the situation of being friends and socializing with a black man?—Do I want my children to be friends with his children?—I don’t know what to expect from this man, do I really want to take a chance? This man accepts the white applicant not because he is discriminating against the black applicant but because he’s afraid to flow against the grain of society. Lastly, there is the pure man who sees no color, who carefully weighs each candidate, who throws all meaningless variables out the window and picks the most qualified person. This last man is a rarity in today’s society and it is for this reason that society will forever drift in, for the most part, the same direction. Now we shall tweak our equation in a way that you have a black female and a white male applying for a job in which the black female is, without any shade of doubt, more qualified then the white male. We’ll also throw in a little bit of a variable, the white male hit it off with the interviewer; made a great first impression, had great things to say, and really the two just connected on a personal level. Whereas the black female, although over-qualified, did not seem to mesh very well with the interviewer. How often a situation like this comes along I could not say with any amount of certainty, but I were to give my best guess I would say 85% of the time the white male would be hired. To most people this statistic leaves a sick feeling in their stomachs, almost like the feeling you get if someone is killed on death row and you later find out they were innocent, except not quite as drastic. I would be hard pressed to say if I were in a similar situation that I would do the right thing. The thing that scares me about this situation is the fact that I feel like it would be a difficult decision for myself, coming from someone who considers themselves indifferent towards minorities and females in the workforce and in general. Now the debate of whether or not this situation affects our society in a positive or negative way begins. It can be argued that not hiring the more qualified worker will hinder the overall production of our economy’s workforce and advancements. But then there is the question of whether or not the more cohesive workforce is more productive than the less cohesive, more skilled workforce. If my opinion counted for anything, I would presume the more skilled workforce to be the more productive crew. Assuming this, and assuming there are in fact people out there who hire based on appearance and social performance, our society is in turn tighter knit but less productive. Now, to be fair, and in no way am I saying that this is any sort of reparation for what has gone on. But what would happen if we were to tweak it so that two equally skilled men, one black one white, were competing for a spot on a football or basketball roster? The funny thing is, I was literally just fixing to talk about how the black person would make the team over the white person in this sentence based on his skin color. When I think about it though, I would say if the two men really did possess equal talent, the team would probably give the spot to the white man just because he might be considered less of a liability to the organization, although the outcomes of these situations will always vary. Race also plays a huge role in the area of marriage. The majority of people in today’s society are reluctant to involve themselves in a serious relationship with someone of another race. Some people are reluctant because they are afraid of what others might think, mainly their friends and family. Others because they feel they are breaking an unwritten rule of society. Interracial marriages in the United States have nearly tripled over the last twenty years, yet fewer than 2% of all marriages consist of people of different races (Burns 149). This small percentage makes it so that race is still very much a part of society. It makes it so that we still live in a multi-cultural society. Now say we flip the percentages of interracial marriages. You now have a society in which race is hardly an issue. It now becomes much harder for people to be stratified and everyone is unique, to a certain extent. The only way for this to happen is if society as a whole becomes oblivious to people’s shell. If this does in fact happen, you will be able to observe a society that rarely has to deal with internal problems, one that truly bases its priorities on the will of the people, and a society that can act as role model for others to follow. Unfortunately, this society will probably never arise because people are too content with their individual lives, and also because people are made in a way such that they are attracted to people of same or similar values and characteristics One of the main things going on in our country at this point in time is the presidential election. This year was a breakout year for people all over the world. Not only did a woman try and run for office, but also a dark skinned man, one who is actually between the two main candidates and is representing the Democratic Party, Barack Obama. It seems as though Barack’s plan of attack is to target the lower and middle classes, as well as fresh voters. I only watch presidential news every now and then and don’t consider myself really deep into politics, but from what I have seen from Barack have been nothing but great things. He is a great public speaker although I’m not 100% sure how that translates into being a good president. I really think he’s swayed the likes of many of the lower and middle class voters towards his side but the fact that he is dark-skinned makes for an interesting situation. There are plenty of people down in the Deep South who don’t take kindly to Barack or what he stands for, simply because of the color of his skin. Now because of this, there are going to people who will straight up refuse to vote for him no matter what. Whether or not this group of artificial voters will affect the result of the election probably won’t ever be determined, but the fact that our society might possibly let something like that happen says wonders about the country we call “The Land of the Free, and the Home of the Brave.” Let’s say for instance the outcome of the election was in fact altered because of Senator Obama’s color. This would cause our society to change in a way that the will of the people was actually not being fulfilled. Class is another wall that is put up to impede the rise of today’s youth. Typically, the higher the class of a child’s family, the higher the education that child is bound to receive. Kids whose parents can afford to send them to fancy private college prep schools receive a much more prodigious education than that of the inner city schools. These inner city schools are predominantly black and Hispanic and have some of the lowest graduation rates of any other types of schools, which really shouldn’t come as a huge shock. To understand this we must explore what is going on and why it is happening. First of all, we must understand that growing up in the lower class, survival is the first priority, not education. Where I come from, survival wasn’t really as much of an issue. Food was always provided, my family was always intact, and I was always welcomed and loved in my home. So kids, who weren’t born into the same luxuries that I was fortunate to have, end up getting involved with the wrong group, dropping school, and committing crimes usually until they are caught and thrown in jail. It is this constant cycle that helps societies to formulate the labels that it has, and to place people into the groups in which they belong. Of course, not all people affiliated with these groups deserve their label, and by no means did they ask for it, but society as a whole couldn’t care less to be quite honest. Society can be the harshest enemy for a person to have sometimes simply because there is just no reasoning with it, if you don’t like it, it doesn’t care, and if you do care, it still remains somewhat indifferent. The sooner one moves on from the fact that he or she should not be sitting around trying to change the way they act in an attempt to befriend as many people as possible, the sooner we will all understand what it takes to be in a state of worry-free simplicity. The more people there are who can be worry free, then the more and more potential there is for a happier society. Unfortunately, it is many people’s nature to worry; worry about their family, worry about their job, worry about themselves, worry about the world, worry about everything. It just seems like class is pre-determined for people based on where they came from and what circumstances they were born into. In “From: Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work” Jean Anyon describes how she believes curriculum is geared towards maintaining class in America and that the event of a rise or fall in social status is rare. It is clear that she feels class directly corresponds to the type of education a child is to receive. She investigated five different schools and organizes them into four different categories, each with its own distinct set of objectives. She describes the curriculum of working class schools as being very procedural and mechanical (Anyon 42-43). I agree with the fact there are indeed schools that follow this standard of operation and I think the children who attend these schools are being cheated out of a solid education. I think everyone deserves an equal opportunity to grow and develop his or her minds. I feel that when kids are manipulated into thinking in a way that holds them back in any way, their minds are being wasted. Children educated in this way are meant to maintain their place in the low-end of society and not to ask questions. Anyon also discusses a middle-class type of education in which students are taught to find answers but not to delve too deep into each area of study (Anyon 46). I agree with the fact that there are schools that go about teaching their students in this way because I think the schools that I attended were these types of schools. I feel my biggest weakness is my ability to think critically and looking back on my early years, I don’t recall ever having to do this. I feel like I was put into place at someone else’s discretion. The last two types of education Anyon explores are intended for kids who are derived from the upper class. These children are given all the proper tools in order for them to be successful. They are taught in a way that gets them to be creative, apply ideas, and to think critically (Anyon 48, 51-52). Although I can’t be certain, I do think there are indeed schools out there that develop their children in this way. These kids are given everything they need in order to reach their maximum potential and get a head start on the rest of the pack. Everyone else either has to catch up on their own, or is permanently left in the dust. Gregory Mantsios inquires that the reason people are unaware as to how severely stratified our society is, is because of the media. Mantsios argues that the forty million poor people in our country are practically ignored by the media (Newman 243). Maybe the media doesn’t find the poor interesting, or maybe they are trying to appeal to a bigger audience with stories of more uplifting and joyful nature, because most stories about the poor just leave you with feelings of guilt and sadness. Mantsios says that when the media does indeed cover the poor, they portray them in a way that is ambiguous and misleading (Newman 243). Mantsios later states that he feels this happens because those who own and direct the mass media are from the upper class and they are just trying to maintain the status quo (Newman 248). From this point of view everything makes perfect sense. I completely agree with Mantsios in the fact that the upper class tries to shield the lower class from the middle class. Why they would want to do this could be because it keeps them at the top for one. Also it makes it so that they don’t have to deal with a problem that could be potentially unsolvable. The problem that arises from this, however, is that the rich are going to continue to grow richer, and the poor are going to continue to grow poorer. The rich are on a seemingly never-ending power trip and the United States will always be divided into three separate and unequal groups. This impacts our society in that some people will always have pre-determined stigmas towards others. ‘Poor man A’ might see ‘rich man A’ and instinctively become bitter towards him regardless of the fact that they have never met because of his social and economic hardships and the fact that ‘rich man A’ leads a seemingly easy life. For the most part, people of the same class befriend those of similar social status. The reason for this is simply because people do what they like to do. If ‘rich man A’ likes sports and likes to go on spontaneous trips, he is not going to be as likely to be friends with someone who cannot afford to split season tickets or cannot afford to vacation when he pleases. More often than not, ‘rich man A’ will find someone who is willing and can afford to do these things. Likewise, you have ‘poor man A’ who works hard to support his family and has little time for leisure. Most likely he will find someone is a similar situation as himself, someone who he can talk to. Perhaps someone he meets at a bar one night after work. Someone who he can have a beer with and discuss what it is he is going through. Now this sounds somewhat depressing, and to a certain extent it sort of is, but this is sometimes the case. Of course there are plenty of poor people in this country who are grateful for what they have and don’t stop for a second to think about what they do or don’t have. Then you have ‘middle-class man A’ who plays golf on Sundays and watches football on television every Sunday is most likely going to become friends with ‘middle-class man B’ who plays golf at the same country club and also enjoys watching football on Sundays. People of the middle class are diverse in that they are able to associate with all three classes without a great deal of trouble. Although they might have an easier time interacting with someone of similar social status, they are capable of dipping down or jumping up a level depending on who it is they are trying to associate with. Class is always going to be something that separates people, and because most people prefer not to stand alone, they conjoin with each other in order to possess a sense of meaning and power. Often times we are led to believe that class doesn’t exist when in reality, class actually dictates virtually every aspect of our lives. Gender is the last idea in the top tier of social structure. As we go further and further back in time, examining the role of women, we find that, compared to what they are today, women hardly used to be individuals. It used to be understood that a woman was by no means equal to the dominant male. Women were to take care of the family and prepare simple day-to-day tasks. Women were not the decision makers and had very little say if any at all in the family affairs. However, women gained more and more rights as time went on and we see that nowadays women have more say than ever and are willing and capable of doing whatever it is they so desire. Even though men dominate a majority of the workforce, there is now at least space available for women to occupy if they prove to have what it takes. The roles of women in a family nowadays vary more than ever. Most men have too much pride to take a step back and let their wife be the sole provider for the family. Personally, I would never want to be in a situation where my wife did the legwork for the family while I stepped to the side and I don’t really find that abnormal at all. Society has imbedded the fact that the male should provide for his family into our heads and for some reason this thought just seems standardized to me. This is the way I was socialized in this matter and while others may have a problem with this point of view, in no way do I feel in the wrong for having this belief. Gender plays a big part in the work force. The workforce is the group in which almost all men are required to enter. It is also a group in which females are able, but not usually required, to enter. As of right now, women are more prevalent in the workforce than ever before. However, many areas of work are still somewhat off-limits to women, whereas few areas of work are considered off-limits to men. Men have the upper hand in almost all aspects of work. In fact, studies show that men out earn women in teaching, librarianship, and social work (Newman 306). Given that these three job fields are typically women’s professions, and considering the fact that men out earn women in their own field begs the question of whether or not women are given an equal chance to succeed. I would say that women are probably not given an equal chance to succeed in the workforce simply because they are not considered to be the primary providers in today’s society. As with every other area of stratification, society has a status ranking system for gender in the workforce and since males are ranked above females they receive higher pay. Researchers have reported that many women encounter invisible barriers to promotion in their careers, caused mainly by the sexist attitudes of men in the highest positions (Newman 307). What is and isn’t considered sexist in this situation is always going to be debatable. Often times people will use the term sexist much too loosely. For example, if a man is deciding to give a promotion to a man or a woman, and he gives it to the man because he knows that the man is the sole provider for his family, some people could consider that being sexist. Really at this point it is just a matter of personal opinion and unless someone is looking to go to court, there really isn’t anything that can be done to change this matter. Stratification helps our society to be competitive and progressive. If people are not separated into different ranks and statuses, then there is no incentive for people to excel. Even though the top three areas of stratification are all different in their own ways, they all fall under the same category of uncontrollable variables. How people vary in ways they have no control over, serve as the guidelines as to who they are and who they may become. What type of impact they have on today’s society is based mainly on the overall representation of the social structure in which they fall under and how it is viewed by their society.
Anyon, Jean. “From: Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work.” Rereading America: Cultural Contexts for Critical Thinking and Writing. New York: Bedford/ St. Martin’s Press, 1992. 40-56. | 5,161 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On the Emancipation of Frederick Douglass by Means of Liberal Education
True wisdom has suggested that the only way to find one’s real self is, paradoxically, to get out of oneself, “to be beside oneself,” as philosopher Josef Pieper phrased it.
Our popular culture promotes the injurious fiction that the world is all about me, myself, and my ephemeral needs, a temptation that American culture has confronted for a long time. But a true liberal arts education can provide an escape from such alienation and loneliness—and boredom. A true liberal education is a way to discover that you are not alone.
As we share great texts and ideas and works of art, our vision and expectations can be enlarged. It does take work, and a peculiar type of courage to admit that there’s a world larger than the self while fear is all about us, but we are meant to be citizens of that larger world. The study of the liberal arts—the kind of study that means examination and not just memorization—can be a foundation or grounding for one’s work, one’s vocation, and really for one’s life in a larger world than oneself.
Take Frederick Douglass, for example. Douglass (1818—1895) escaped from slavery in Maryland in 1838. Seven years later he published the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Written by Himself, the first of several autobiographies.
Of the approximately 120 slave narratives we have, only 16 were actually written by ex-slaves themselves. It was illegal for slaves to learn to read and write in the ante-bellum South (and actually not much easier to learn to do so in the North), and Douglass did not receive anything like a formal education while in slavery, nor did he have the kind of mutually supportive community that is present on our college campuses. Yet he became liberally educated before his escape to the North.
How did he work this apparent educational miracle? He encountered the experiences of others and reflected upon those experiences. His personal experience illustrates that a liberal education, or a liberal arts education, is primarily found through the discovery and the articulation of larger human connections and relationships. He was able to make his way into a larger world, a larger world of discourse, than his own immediate and straitened personal world. He was offered the opportunity, which he seized, to become large-souled and a man of good moral character, and a fellow willing to share his new sense of a larger and more hopeful community.
Douglass’s world, at first, was an isolated rural plantation. He was not at ease, though, because something bothered him, although he could not give voice to what it was. When he was sent to a new owner in Baltimore, he encountered the unexpected kindness of a new mistress who discovered a small boy who was curious and unusually open to learning.
Very soon after I went to live with Mr. and Mrs. Auld, she very kindly commenced to teach me the A, B, C. After I had learned this, she assisted me in learning to spell words of three or four letters. Just at this point of my progress, Mr. Auld found out what was going on, and forbade Mrs. Auld to instruct me further, telling her, among other things, that it was unlawful, as well as unsafe, to teach a slave to read. To use his own words, further, he said, “If you give a nigger an inch, he will take an ell [45 inches]. A nigger should know nothing but to obey his master—to do as he is told to do. Learning would spoil the best nigger in the world. Now,” said he, “if you teach that nigger (speaking of myself) how to read, there would be no keeping him. It would forever unfit him to be a slave. He would at once become unmanageable, and of no value to his master. As to himself, it could do him no good, but a great deal of harm. It would make him discontented and unhappy.”
Douglass was instantly engaged. Mr. Auld’s words were as “a new and special revelation, explaining dark and mysterious things, with which my youthful understanding had struggled, but struggled in vain.” This enforced darkness was the secret to the white man’s power over his slave.
Douglass became all the more eager to learn, and given his comparative “freedom” in Baltimore as opposed to the strictness of the plantation regime, he was able to invent strategies (including providing food for white boys who would help him learn to read) that resulted in his literacy.
One of the books that came his way was Caleb Bingham’s The Columbian Orator: Containing a Variety of Original and Selected Pieces Together with Rules Calculated to Improve Youth and Others in the Ornamental and Useful Art of Eloquence (1797). Collected within its covers were speeches by Socrates, George Washington, Napoleon, and others. Douglass read of the Irish Catholic struggle for emancipation and enjoyed a dialogue between a slave and his master in which the former convinced the latter of his own natural claim to freedom.
What now occurred were the emancipation of Douglass’s moral imagination and the revelation of an enlarged, but hurtful, moral universe: He did not, by nature, have to be a slave! He became convinced that a “contented slave” must be “a thoughtless” slave. The slave owner must
darken his [slave’s] moral and mental vision, and, as far as possible . . . annihilate the power of reason . . . [the slave] must be able to detect no inconsistencies in slavery; he must be made to feel that slavery is right; and he can be brought to that only when he ceases to be a man.
There was more to Douglass’s liberal education, however. He described the sad decaying of Mrs. Auld’s character as she fell in line with her husband’s directive. Her kindness was replaced with the bitter fruits of slavery: “Under its influence, the tender heart became stone, and the lamblike disposition gave way to one of tiger-like fierceness.” Slavery hurt white as well as black.
But even this was not necessarily the end of the story. Douglass set up a “Sabbath school” in order to teach his fellow slaves. It was dangerous for all involved, but “they were great days to my soul.”
Why did these people risk “thirty-nine lashes”? “They came because they wished to learn. Their minds had been starved by their cruel master. They had been shut up in mental darkness.”
I like to tell my students when we work with the Douglass text that, in a very real way, Frederick Douglass was “free” before his actual escape from slavery in Maryland. What he discovered was that his immediate Maryland world was not normative, and that there was, in fact, a larger moral universe to which he was an heir as a human being.
Thanks to his learning to read and his encounter with this larger world, what had earlier bothered him could now be articulated. He had developed a new vocabulary that allowed him to judge the indecency of his, and his fellows’, situation. He had become . . . liberally educated! The point of such an education is to free oneself of the heavy burden of oneself, to recognize a larger human experience, to get out of oneself in order, again paradoxically, to find oneself.
Our personal worlds can often be far too small, even for ourselves. If, through a false sense of modesty, we cling to a small self, we be can fooled into a false understanding of humility, that great virtue which is actually a large-souled embrace of the needs of others and of the common good. The goal of a true liberal education is to enable students to begin to become complete human beings through engagement in conversations and books and poems and experiments.
It is God’s world—the “Creator’s,” as noted in the Declaration of Independence—but the world of a providential Creator, who has literally entered this world. In itself, such an extraordinary mystery emphasizes that most of what is here in this world is good and worthy of being studied and known. Grace has entered our world, and a daily thanksgiving is merely a matter of justice. This presence of grace itself remains an overwhelming model of charity.
Liberal education is a very large agenda, as is life itself, but Frederick Douglass’s achievement of a genuinely liberal education is at once a celebration of the true human—and graced—spirit and an example of what can happen when one embraces education “for nothing.” It is a true emancipation. •
From Salvo 9 (Summer 2009)
Subscribe to Salvo today!
If you enjoy Salvo, please consider giving an online donation! Thanks for your continued support.Thomas Jodziewicz This article originally appeared in Salvo, Issue #9, Summer 2009 Copyright © 2020 Salvo | www.salvomag.com https://salvomag.com/article/salvo9/sabbath-school | <urn:uuid:34d584e5-f242-4485-899f-26a15f26c7bd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://salvomag.com/article/salvo9/sabbath-school | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.982703 | 1,968 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
0.030639229342341423,
0.45335817337036133,
0.21596229076385498,
0.10107365250587463,
0.06038416922092438,
0.21937696635723114,
0.20603379607200623,
-0.054471664130687714,
0.17037397623062134,
-0.21093833446502686,
0.06753191351890564,
0.004858893807977438,
-0.1575520932674408,
0.1423267871... | 2 | On the Emancipation of Frederick Douglass by Means of Liberal Education
True wisdom has suggested that the only way to find one’s real self is, paradoxically, to get out of oneself, “to be beside oneself,” as philosopher Josef Pieper phrased it.
Our popular culture promotes the injurious fiction that the world is all about me, myself, and my ephemeral needs, a temptation that American culture has confronted for a long time. But a true liberal arts education can provide an escape from such alienation and loneliness—and boredom. A true liberal education is a way to discover that you are not alone.
As we share great texts and ideas and works of art, our vision and expectations can be enlarged. It does take work, and a peculiar type of courage to admit that there’s a world larger than the self while fear is all about us, but we are meant to be citizens of that larger world. The study of the liberal arts—the kind of study that means examination and not just memorization—can be a foundation or grounding for one’s work, one’s vocation, and really for one’s life in a larger world than oneself.
Take Frederick Douglass, for example. Douglass (1818—1895) escaped from slavery in Maryland in 1838. Seven years later he published the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Written by Himself, the first of several autobiographies.
Of the approximately 120 slave narratives we have, only 16 were actually written by ex-slaves themselves. It was illegal for slaves to learn to read and write in the ante-bellum South (and actually not much easier to learn to do so in the North), and Douglass did not receive anything like a formal education while in slavery, nor did he have the kind of mutually supportive community that is present on our college campuses. Yet he became liberally educated before his escape to the North.
How did he work this apparent educational miracle? He encountered the experiences of others and reflected upon those experiences. His personal experience illustrates that a liberal education, or a liberal arts education, is primarily found through the discovery and the articulation of larger human connections and relationships. He was able to make his way into a larger world, a larger world of discourse, than his own immediate and straitened personal world. He was offered the opportunity, which he seized, to become large-souled and a man of good moral character, and a fellow willing to share his new sense of a larger and more hopeful community.
Douglass’s world, at first, was an isolated rural plantation. He was not at ease, though, because something bothered him, although he could not give voice to what it was. When he was sent to a new owner in Baltimore, he encountered the unexpected kindness of a new mistress who discovered a small boy who was curious and unusually open to learning.
Very soon after I went to live with Mr. and Mrs. Auld, she very kindly commenced to teach me the A, B, C. After I had learned this, she assisted me in learning to spell words of three or four letters. Just at this point of my progress, Mr. Auld found out what was going on, and forbade Mrs. Auld to instruct me further, telling her, among other things, that it was unlawful, as well as unsafe, to teach a slave to read. To use his own words, further, he said, “If you give a nigger an inch, he will take an ell [45 inches]. A nigger should know nothing but to obey his master—to do as he is told to do. Learning would spoil the best nigger in the world. Now,” said he, “if you teach that nigger (speaking of myself) how to read, there would be no keeping him. It would forever unfit him to be a slave. He would at once become unmanageable, and of no value to his master. As to himself, it could do him no good, but a great deal of harm. It would make him discontented and unhappy.”
Douglass was instantly engaged. Mr. Auld’s words were as “a new and special revelation, explaining dark and mysterious things, with which my youthful understanding had struggled, but struggled in vain.” This enforced darkness was the secret to the white man’s power over his slave.
Douglass became all the more eager to learn, and given his comparative “freedom” in Baltimore as opposed to the strictness of the plantation regime, he was able to invent strategies (including providing food for white boys who would help him learn to read) that resulted in his literacy.
One of the books that came his way was Caleb Bingham’s The Columbian Orator: Containing a Variety of Original and Selected Pieces Together with Rules Calculated to Improve Youth and Others in the Ornamental and Useful Art of Eloquence (1797). Collected within its covers were speeches by Socrates, George Washington, Napoleon, and others. Douglass read of the Irish Catholic struggle for emancipation and enjoyed a dialogue between a slave and his master in which the former convinced the latter of his own natural claim to freedom.
What now occurred were the emancipation of Douglass’s moral imagination and the revelation of an enlarged, but hurtful, moral universe: He did not, by nature, have to be a slave! He became convinced that a “contented slave” must be “a thoughtless” slave. The slave owner must
darken his [slave’s] moral and mental vision, and, as far as possible . . . annihilate the power of reason . . . [the slave] must be able to detect no inconsistencies in slavery; he must be made to feel that slavery is right; and he can be brought to that only when he ceases to be a man.
There was more to Douglass’s liberal education, however. He described the sad decaying of Mrs. Auld’s character as she fell in line with her husband’s directive. Her kindness was replaced with the bitter fruits of slavery: “Under its influence, the tender heart became stone, and the lamblike disposition gave way to one of tiger-like fierceness.” Slavery hurt white as well as black.
But even this was not necessarily the end of the story. Douglass set up a “Sabbath school” in order to teach his fellow slaves. It was dangerous for all involved, but “they were great days to my soul.”
Why did these people risk “thirty-nine lashes”? “They came because they wished to learn. Their minds had been starved by their cruel master. They had been shut up in mental darkness.”
I like to tell my students when we work with the Douglass text that, in a very real way, Frederick Douglass was “free” before his actual escape from slavery in Maryland. What he discovered was that his immediate Maryland world was not normative, and that there was, in fact, a larger moral universe to which he was an heir as a human being.
Thanks to his learning to read and his encounter with this larger world, what had earlier bothered him could now be articulated. He had developed a new vocabulary that allowed him to judge the indecency of his, and his fellows’, situation. He had become . . . liberally educated! The point of such an education is to free oneself of the heavy burden of oneself, to recognize a larger human experience, to get out of oneself in order, again paradoxically, to find oneself.
Our personal worlds can often be far too small, even for ourselves. If, through a false sense of modesty, we cling to a small self, we be can fooled into a false understanding of humility, that great virtue which is actually a large-souled embrace of the needs of others and of the common good. The goal of a true liberal education is to enable students to begin to become complete human beings through engagement in conversations and books and poems and experiments.
It is God’s world—the “Creator’s,” as noted in the Declaration of Independence—but the world of a providential Creator, who has literally entered this world. In itself, such an extraordinary mystery emphasizes that most of what is here in this world is good and worthy of being studied and known. Grace has entered our world, and a daily thanksgiving is merely a matter of justice. This presence of grace itself remains an overwhelming model of charity.
Liberal education is a very large agenda, as is life itself, but Frederick Douglass’s achievement of a genuinely liberal education is at once a celebration of the true human—and graced—spirit and an example of what can happen when one embraces education “for nothing.” It is a true emancipation. •
From Salvo 9 (Summer 2009)
Subscribe to Salvo today!
If you enjoy Salvo, please consider giving an online donation! Thanks for your continued support.Thomas Jodziewicz This article originally appeared in Salvo, Issue #9, Summer 2009 Copyright © 2020 Salvo | www.salvomag.com https://salvomag.com/article/salvo9/sabbath-school | 1,890 | ENGLISH | 1 |
MIER EXPEDITION. The Mier expedition, the last of the raiding expeditions from Texas into the area south of the Nueces River during the days of the Republic of Texas, was the most disastrous of the expeditions from Texas into Mexico. It developed out of the Somervell expedition, which captured Laredo and Guerrero. On December 19, 1842, Alexander Somervell, recognizing that his expedition had been a failure and concluding that a longer stay upon the Rio Grande might prove disastrous, ordered his troops to prepare to return home by way of Gonzales. Many of the men had reached the conclusion that there was little possibility of accomplishing their objectives of engaging the Mexican Army and of seizing and plundering Mexican towns, but they were so dissatisfied with the order to return home that they determined to separate from the command, cross the river, and attack the Mexican settlements to secure cattle and horses. Only 189 men and officers obeyed the order to return; five captains and most of the men refused to do so. Constituting what is known as the Mier expedition, they moved down the Rio Grande to a convenient campsite and selected William S. Fisher as their commander. Some wanted revenge and retaliation; many sought adventure; the leaders were nearly all political opponents of Sam Houston.
The expedition set out on December 20. Forty men under Thomas J. Green floated downstream in four vessels captured near Guerrero. A small group of Texas Rangersqv serving as a spy company under Ben McCulloch operated along the west bank of the river; the main body of men under Fisher went down the east side. On December 22 the 308 Texans reached a point on the east bank of the Rio Grande opposite Mier, and McCulloch's spy company was sent to reconnoiter the town. They found that Mexican troops were assembling along the river, advised Fisher against crossing, and abandoned the expedition when their advice was not heeded. Thereupon, John R. Baker, sheriff of Refugio County, succeeded to the command of the spy company. Leaving a camp guard of forty-five men, Fisher and the remainder of his men crossed the river on December 23 and entered Mier without opposition. A requisition for supplies levied against the town was fulfilled by late afternoon, but there were no means for transporting the goods to the river, and the Texans had no desire to carry the goods on their backs. When the alcalde promised to have the supplies delivered the next day to the Texas camp, the Texans withdrew from Mier, taking the alcalde with them to guarantee delivery of the supplies. All day on December 24 the Texans waited in vain for delivery of the goods. During the morning A. S. Holderman, who had crossed the river to look for horses, was captured by a small detachment of Mexican cavalry. His journal revealed to the Mexicans the size, character, and organization of the Texan force. On December 25 Fisher learned from a captured Mexican that Gen. Pedro de Ampudia had arrived at Mier and prevented delivery of the supplies. The Texans decided to go after their rations. On the afternoon of December 25 a camp guard of forty-two men under Oliver Buckman was posted, and 261 Texans crossed the Rio Grande once more, attacked Mier, and fought until the afternoon of December 26, outnumbered almost ten to one. Mexican losses were 600 killed and 200 wounded as against thirty Texans killed and wounded; but the Texans were hungry and thirsty, their powder was almost exhausted, and their discipline had begun to crack. Ampudia adopted a suggestion of sending a white flag to the Texans and demanding their surrender; the ruse was successful.
The Texans later claimed they had surrendered as prisoners of war, but no terms of capitulation were signed until after their arms had been grounded and the terms then stated that they would be treated with "consideration." Later President Houston stated that the men had acted without authority of the government, leaving the impression that they were not entitled to treatment as prisoners of war unless the Mexican government wished to assume that obligation. Warned by two of their comrades who escaped from Mier after the battle, the Texan camp guard, with the exception of George W. Bonnell and a man named Hicks, avoided capture and retreated into the settled area of Texas. The captured Texans were sentenced to execution, but on December 27 Ampudia had the execution decree reversed. The able-bodied prisoners were marched through the river towns to Matamoros, where they were held until ordered to Mexico City. En route to the capital they planned their escape frequently. Finally, at Salado, on February 11, 1843, a successful break was carried out. For seven days the Texans headed towards the Rio Grande, but in trying to pursue a circuitous route through the mountains during the dry season they became separated and lost. After extreme suffering, they surrendered singly and in small groups to Mexican troops sent in pursuit; in the end only three members of the expedition made good their escape to Texas. The 176 recaptured Texans were returned to Salado. Upon learning of the escape, Antonio López de Santa Anna ordered that those who had fled be executed, but Governor Francisco Mexía of the state of Coahuila refused to obey the order, and the foreign ministers in Mexico were able to get the decree modified. The government then ordered that every tenth man be executed. The seventeen men who were selected for execution in what is known as the Black Bean Episode were blindfolded and shot. Ewen Cameron, leader of the break, failed to draw a black bean of death but was later executed by special order of Santa Anna. During the months of June, July, and August 1843, the Texans did road work near Mexico City. In September they were transferred to the Perote Prison where the San Antonio prisoners whom they had set out to liberate were being held. A few of the Mier men escaped while stationed in the vicinity of Mexico City, others tunnelled out of Perote and succeeded in reaching home. A few of the wounded who had been left at Mier recovered, bribed the guard, and effected their escape. Many of the men died in captivity from wounds, disease, and starvation. From time to time a few of the prisoners were released at the request of certain officials in the United States and others at the request of foreign governments. The last of the Mier men were released by Santa Anna on September 16, 1844.
Image Use Disclaimer
All copyrighted materials included within the Handbook of Texas Online are in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 related to Copyright and “Fair Use” for Non-Profit educational institutions, which permits the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), to utilize copyrighted materials to further scholarship, education, and inform the public. The TSHA makes every effort to conform to the principles of fair use and to comply with copyright law.
For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml
If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner.
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, Joseph Milton Nance, "MIER EXPEDITION," accessed January 20, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qym02.
Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | <urn:uuid:3e7e45fa-d8af-4182-adbc-833aebed0013> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qym02 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00440.warc.gz | en | 0.983696 | 1,553 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
-0.050203777849674225,
0.03786314278841019,
0.246760293841362,
0.11497195065021515,
0.0682072639465332,
-0.3102021813392639,
-0.3493475317955017,
0.0993066281080246,
-0.4292469322681427,
-0.42039379477500916,
0.5259353518486023,
-0.03803856670856476,
0.2756829261779785,
-0.1632451415061950... | 1 | MIER EXPEDITION. The Mier expedition, the last of the raiding expeditions from Texas into the area south of the Nueces River during the days of the Republic of Texas, was the most disastrous of the expeditions from Texas into Mexico. It developed out of the Somervell expedition, which captured Laredo and Guerrero. On December 19, 1842, Alexander Somervell, recognizing that his expedition had been a failure and concluding that a longer stay upon the Rio Grande might prove disastrous, ordered his troops to prepare to return home by way of Gonzales. Many of the men had reached the conclusion that there was little possibility of accomplishing their objectives of engaging the Mexican Army and of seizing and plundering Mexican towns, but they were so dissatisfied with the order to return home that they determined to separate from the command, cross the river, and attack the Mexican settlements to secure cattle and horses. Only 189 men and officers obeyed the order to return; five captains and most of the men refused to do so. Constituting what is known as the Mier expedition, they moved down the Rio Grande to a convenient campsite and selected William S. Fisher as their commander. Some wanted revenge and retaliation; many sought adventure; the leaders were nearly all political opponents of Sam Houston.
The expedition set out on December 20. Forty men under Thomas J. Green floated downstream in four vessels captured near Guerrero. A small group of Texas Rangersqv serving as a spy company under Ben McCulloch operated along the west bank of the river; the main body of men under Fisher went down the east side. On December 22 the 308 Texans reached a point on the east bank of the Rio Grande opposite Mier, and McCulloch's spy company was sent to reconnoiter the town. They found that Mexican troops were assembling along the river, advised Fisher against crossing, and abandoned the expedition when their advice was not heeded. Thereupon, John R. Baker, sheriff of Refugio County, succeeded to the command of the spy company. Leaving a camp guard of forty-five men, Fisher and the remainder of his men crossed the river on December 23 and entered Mier without opposition. A requisition for supplies levied against the town was fulfilled by late afternoon, but there were no means for transporting the goods to the river, and the Texans had no desire to carry the goods on their backs. When the alcalde promised to have the supplies delivered the next day to the Texas camp, the Texans withdrew from Mier, taking the alcalde with them to guarantee delivery of the supplies. All day on December 24 the Texans waited in vain for delivery of the goods. During the morning A. S. Holderman, who had crossed the river to look for horses, was captured by a small detachment of Mexican cavalry. His journal revealed to the Mexicans the size, character, and organization of the Texan force. On December 25 Fisher learned from a captured Mexican that Gen. Pedro de Ampudia had arrived at Mier and prevented delivery of the supplies. The Texans decided to go after their rations. On the afternoon of December 25 a camp guard of forty-two men under Oliver Buckman was posted, and 261 Texans crossed the Rio Grande once more, attacked Mier, and fought until the afternoon of December 26, outnumbered almost ten to one. Mexican losses were 600 killed and 200 wounded as against thirty Texans killed and wounded; but the Texans were hungry and thirsty, their powder was almost exhausted, and their discipline had begun to crack. Ampudia adopted a suggestion of sending a white flag to the Texans and demanding their surrender; the ruse was successful.
The Texans later claimed they had surrendered as prisoners of war, but no terms of capitulation were signed until after their arms had been grounded and the terms then stated that they would be treated with "consideration." Later President Houston stated that the men had acted without authority of the government, leaving the impression that they were not entitled to treatment as prisoners of war unless the Mexican government wished to assume that obligation. Warned by two of their comrades who escaped from Mier after the battle, the Texan camp guard, with the exception of George W. Bonnell and a man named Hicks, avoided capture and retreated into the settled area of Texas. The captured Texans were sentenced to execution, but on December 27 Ampudia had the execution decree reversed. The able-bodied prisoners were marched through the river towns to Matamoros, where they were held until ordered to Mexico City. En route to the capital they planned their escape frequently. Finally, at Salado, on February 11, 1843, a successful break was carried out. For seven days the Texans headed towards the Rio Grande, but in trying to pursue a circuitous route through the mountains during the dry season they became separated and lost. After extreme suffering, they surrendered singly and in small groups to Mexican troops sent in pursuit; in the end only three members of the expedition made good their escape to Texas. The 176 recaptured Texans were returned to Salado. Upon learning of the escape, Antonio López de Santa Anna ordered that those who had fled be executed, but Governor Francisco Mexía of the state of Coahuila refused to obey the order, and the foreign ministers in Mexico were able to get the decree modified. The government then ordered that every tenth man be executed. The seventeen men who were selected for execution in what is known as the Black Bean Episode were blindfolded and shot. Ewen Cameron, leader of the break, failed to draw a black bean of death but was later executed by special order of Santa Anna. During the months of June, July, and August 1843, the Texans did road work near Mexico City. In September they were transferred to the Perote Prison where the San Antonio prisoners whom they had set out to liberate were being held. A few of the Mier men escaped while stationed in the vicinity of Mexico City, others tunnelled out of Perote and succeeded in reaching home. A few of the wounded who had been left at Mier recovered, bribed the guard, and effected their escape. Many of the men died in captivity from wounds, disease, and starvation. From time to time a few of the prisoners were released at the request of certain officials in the United States and others at the request of foreign governments. The last of the Mier men were released by Santa Anna on September 16, 1844.
Image Use Disclaimer
All copyrighted materials included within the Handbook of Texas Online are in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 related to Copyright and “Fair Use” for Non-Profit educational institutions, which permits the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), to utilize copyrighted materials to further scholarship, education, and inform the public. The TSHA makes every effort to conform to the principles of fair use and to comply with copyright law.
For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml
If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner.
The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, Joseph Milton Nance, "MIER EXPEDITION," accessed January 20, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qym02.
Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | 1,606 | ENGLISH | 1 |
His marriage to Mary of Burgundy brought Maximilian not only a rich inheritance but also a partner with whom he enjoyed a close and loving union. His second marriage to Bianca Maria Sforza also involved large amounts of money, but their relationship proved extremely unhappy.
Mary (1457–1482) was the only child of Duke Charles the Bold and Isabella of Bourbon. She lost her mother when she was eight and was subsequently brought up by her step-mother Margaret of York, with whom she enjoyed a cordial relationship. In 1477, immediately after her father’s death, the planned marriage to Maximilian took place. Concluded for reasons of political expediency, the union became a solid partnership.
The five years of marriage resulted in three children:
The eldest son Philip (1478–1506), known as the Fair, had an illustrious future ahead of him as the heir to Burgundy and husband of the Spanish heiress Joan (the Mad) which was however to end abruptly with his early death at the age of only twenty-eight. He was the link between the two complexes of dominions in Burgundy and Spain that were to have such significance for the history of the Habsburg dynasty.
Their daughter Margaret (1480–1530) was originally also part of her father’s matrimonial policy. At the tender age of three she was promised to the French crown prince. However, the marriage never took place. After two marriages, both of which were of brief duration due to the early deaths of her husbands, she was appointed governor of the Netherlands, which gave her an important political voice within the dynasty.
Mary’s youngest child was a son named Franz, who died only a few months after his birth in 1481.
After Mary’s death at the early age of twenty-five as a consequence of a riding accident in 1482, Maximilian started to negotiate a marriage to Anne, heiress to the Duchy of Brittany. The marriage took place by proxy in 1490, but was annulled in 1492 before it had been consummated, as the French king Charles VIII was now set on marrying Anne himself. This was doubly embarrassing for the Habsburg dynasty in that Maximilian’s daughter Margaret had been betrothed to King Charles for some time. Margaret, who had lived in France since her earliest childhood and been brought up and educated for her future position as queen, was now sent back to her father. This was a humiliating defeat for Maximilian, and Charles was to become his life-long adversary.
The emperor was more successful in his efforts to secure the hand of Bianca Maria Sforza (1472-1510), and the couple were married in 1493. Orphaned at an early age, the young girl was offered to Maximilian by one of her relatives, Ludovico ‘il Moro’, who was keen to obtain a connection with the emperor in order to legitimize his rule over Milan which had come about in dubious circumstances. Maximilian’s motives lay once again in the bride’s substantial dowry. The first meeting between the couple did not take place until a full year after the wedding, at which Maximilian had been represented by a liegeman. Bianca was neglected by Maximilian and sometimes even treated in a degrading manner. Her husband also kept a tight rein on her finances and she found it difficult to provide for her retinue. She died in 1510, having lived the last years of her life in seclusion and political isolation. The marriage remained without issue.
In addition to his children from his first marriage Maximilian had a number of illegitimate offspring. Two sons named Georg and Cornelius are documented, although it is not known for certain who their mother was. Some sources speak of a middle-class woman from Salzburg, others of a Dutch noblewoman. Both sons were intended for the Church. The elder son Georg (c. 1505–1557) was even briefly considered as a candidate for the archiepiscopal throne in Salzburg but made a career as a diplomat and died while bishop of Liège. Little is known about the life of the younger son Cornelius (born c. 1507); even his date of death is unknown. | <urn:uuid:a1f2b6fc-0352-480d-b912-51678b1ea353> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/maximilian-i-marriage-and-offspring | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00507.warc.gz | en | 0.993039 | 902 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
-0.3301941156387329,
0.5371323823928833,
0.09851841628551483,
-0.4737679362297058,
-0.2179110199213028,
-0.028078485280275345,
-0.40384262800216675,
0.024882405996322632,
0.586503267288208,
0.004148386884480715,
-0.016086408868432045,
-0.30014872550964355,
0.034820593893527985,
0.193377912... | 1 | His marriage to Mary of Burgundy brought Maximilian not only a rich inheritance but also a partner with whom he enjoyed a close and loving union. His second marriage to Bianca Maria Sforza also involved large amounts of money, but their relationship proved extremely unhappy.
Mary (1457–1482) was the only child of Duke Charles the Bold and Isabella of Bourbon. She lost her mother when she was eight and was subsequently brought up by her step-mother Margaret of York, with whom she enjoyed a cordial relationship. In 1477, immediately after her father’s death, the planned marriage to Maximilian took place. Concluded for reasons of political expediency, the union became a solid partnership.
The five years of marriage resulted in three children:
The eldest son Philip (1478–1506), known as the Fair, had an illustrious future ahead of him as the heir to Burgundy and husband of the Spanish heiress Joan (the Mad) which was however to end abruptly with his early death at the age of only twenty-eight. He was the link between the two complexes of dominions in Burgundy and Spain that were to have such significance for the history of the Habsburg dynasty.
Their daughter Margaret (1480–1530) was originally also part of her father’s matrimonial policy. At the tender age of three she was promised to the French crown prince. However, the marriage never took place. After two marriages, both of which were of brief duration due to the early deaths of her husbands, she was appointed governor of the Netherlands, which gave her an important political voice within the dynasty.
Mary’s youngest child was a son named Franz, who died only a few months after his birth in 1481.
After Mary’s death at the early age of twenty-five as a consequence of a riding accident in 1482, Maximilian started to negotiate a marriage to Anne, heiress to the Duchy of Brittany. The marriage took place by proxy in 1490, but was annulled in 1492 before it had been consummated, as the French king Charles VIII was now set on marrying Anne himself. This was doubly embarrassing for the Habsburg dynasty in that Maximilian’s daughter Margaret had been betrothed to King Charles for some time. Margaret, who had lived in France since her earliest childhood and been brought up and educated for her future position as queen, was now sent back to her father. This was a humiliating defeat for Maximilian, and Charles was to become his life-long adversary.
The emperor was more successful in his efforts to secure the hand of Bianca Maria Sforza (1472-1510), and the couple were married in 1493. Orphaned at an early age, the young girl was offered to Maximilian by one of her relatives, Ludovico ‘il Moro’, who was keen to obtain a connection with the emperor in order to legitimize his rule over Milan which had come about in dubious circumstances. Maximilian’s motives lay once again in the bride’s substantial dowry. The first meeting between the couple did not take place until a full year after the wedding, at which Maximilian had been represented by a liegeman. Bianca was neglected by Maximilian and sometimes even treated in a degrading manner. Her husband also kept a tight rein on her finances and she found it difficult to provide for her retinue. She died in 1510, having lived the last years of her life in seclusion and political isolation. The marriage remained without issue.
In addition to his children from his first marriage Maximilian had a number of illegitimate offspring. Two sons named Georg and Cornelius are documented, although it is not known for certain who their mother was. Some sources speak of a middle-class woman from Salzburg, others of a Dutch noblewoman. Both sons were intended for the Church. The elder son Georg (c. 1505–1557) was even briefly considered as a candidate for the archiepiscopal throne in Salzburg but made a career as a diplomat and died while bishop of Liège. Little is known about the life of the younger son Cornelius (born c. 1507); even his date of death is unknown. | 902 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Published: Dec 06 2018
For centuries people have been taking to the sea for food, for a living, and for the sheer love of exploration, and so sailors and mariners have long been a distinct class of people. Over the years, a significant body of lore has built up, some knowledge of which is important to anyone who truly wants to understand their experiences they have on the water and how they have arrived at that point.
Sailors’ lore covered many areas of life aboard the ship and at sea, and the amount of it that exists is almost beyond counting. What has been chosen for inclusion in this article covers specific actions that a sailor should or should not do, depending on the custom. Below are some of these unwritten rules that sailors were expected to follow, with some background information so green hands (the term for a new sailor) can understand where they come from and what they really mean.
Like many other peoples across time, the “left” side of anything had sinister associations. Stepping on your boat with your left foot first was thought to bring bad luck to a voyage.
In many cultures, cats have an association with bad luck. Not so with sailors. Having cats on board a ship was a sign of good luck, most likely because they were excellent pets and also helped to keep pests on the boat to a minimum. Even Shackleton, the Artic explorer, took a cat with him all the way to the Pole, and though his voyage may have failed, all of his men survived.
You have no doubt seen pictures of pirates with gold earrings in their ears — this is not merely an invention of illustrators or fanciful writers. Pirates (and sailors) believed that if you pierced an ear, your sight in the opposite eye would improve. Many sailors had their ears pierced to improve their ability to keep watch and to spot whales or other ships and even today some sailors will have their ears pierced for this very reason.
The fate of the ancient mariner in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is one of condemnation after killing an albatross. The reason that he was condemned for this act was because many mariners believed that the spirits of dead sailors lived on in the birds, so to harm them was to hurt a sailor. If you see land-dwelling birds such as pigeons at sea, however, this is a sign of bad luck to come.
If you ever find yourself becalmed at sea, try tossing a coin into the water. According to sailors’ lore, the wind could be bought in times of need by paying the ocean for it. In addition, whistling was thought to be able to bring the wind. Be careful with whistling, however. It may be able to bring up the wind, but it has also been known to call up storms, according to legend.
You may have heard the rhyme, “Red sky at night, sailor’s delight / Red sky at morning, sailors take warning.” This is one of many warnings or rhymes that have to do with predicting weather, one of the most important aspects of any mariner’s life — past or present.
After the disappearance of many trading ships with a cargo of bananas back in the eighteenth century, bananas became a sign of bad luck. This may also be because ships carrying bananas had to travel very quickly to keep them from rotting, which placed a heavy inconvenience on the sailors and prevented them from fishing or having much leisure time.
Naturally, this is something that you should be doing all of the time, but there is a particular importance if you are going to be sailing. Debtors, because of their unfinished business, were thought to bring storms down on the boat, and were therefore blamed for bad weather.
There are also some beliefs and customs that, though interesting, are truly outmoded and sometimes dangerous:
This may seem strange, even cruel, at first. But sailors believed that if someone was saved from drowning, the ocean — sometimes embodied as Neptune or another god of the sea — would seek that person out until it swallowed them. If the sea came after a crewmate of theirs that had been purposefully saved from drowning, it could sink a whole ship, killing all aboard.
Or really anyone with any sort of physical difference. People with these qualities were seen as bad luck, someone marked out for pursuit by the ever-vengeful ocean. Sometimes people like these were referred to as “Jonahs,” like the mariner in the Biblical tale who brought bad weather to his ship because he refused to obey God’s commands.
Sailors may have loved women when they were at port, but many of them did not appreciate the presence of women when they were out at sea (especially, if they were virgins, barefoot, or carrying an empty pail). This one probably has its base in practicality, though many captains’ wives and other women sailed and traveled on boats.
Though many of these beliefs or superstitions may seem silly or ridiculous to our modern eyes, some people — especially those who still work on the sea for a living — still adhere to many of these customs, or at least hold them in partial belief. In addition, many of them have roots in practical issues, combined with folk and religious beliefs. They are an important part of learning the history and context of sailing and boating, and though you may never use them or believe in them, they will give your excursions and voyages more meaning. | <urn:uuid:b3dc3d15-92ea-45fe-aa22-1944b28caf47> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.getmyboat.ie/journal/lifestyle/superstitions-and-lore-on-boats/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00198.warc.gz | en | 0.986694 | 1,143 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
0.2191292643547058,
-0.004925080109387636,
0.2793102264404297,
-0.34251782298088074,
-0.17820590734481812,
-0.1873948574066162,
0.42253658175468445,
0.3358426094055176,
-0.23960573971271515,
-0.15097525715827942,
0.3314734399318695,
-0.21967974305152893,
-0.12592537701129913,
0.26739466190... | 7 | Published: Dec 06 2018
For centuries people have been taking to the sea for food, for a living, and for the sheer love of exploration, and so sailors and mariners have long been a distinct class of people. Over the years, a significant body of lore has built up, some knowledge of which is important to anyone who truly wants to understand their experiences they have on the water and how they have arrived at that point.
Sailors’ lore covered many areas of life aboard the ship and at sea, and the amount of it that exists is almost beyond counting. What has been chosen for inclusion in this article covers specific actions that a sailor should or should not do, depending on the custom. Below are some of these unwritten rules that sailors were expected to follow, with some background information so green hands (the term for a new sailor) can understand where they come from and what they really mean.
Like many other peoples across time, the “left” side of anything had sinister associations. Stepping on your boat with your left foot first was thought to bring bad luck to a voyage.
In many cultures, cats have an association with bad luck. Not so with sailors. Having cats on board a ship was a sign of good luck, most likely because they were excellent pets and also helped to keep pests on the boat to a minimum. Even Shackleton, the Artic explorer, took a cat with him all the way to the Pole, and though his voyage may have failed, all of his men survived.
You have no doubt seen pictures of pirates with gold earrings in their ears — this is not merely an invention of illustrators or fanciful writers. Pirates (and sailors) believed that if you pierced an ear, your sight in the opposite eye would improve. Many sailors had their ears pierced to improve their ability to keep watch and to spot whales or other ships and even today some sailors will have their ears pierced for this very reason.
The fate of the ancient mariner in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is one of condemnation after killing an albatross. The reason that he was condemned for this act was because many mariners believed that the spirits of dead sailors lived on in the birds, so to harm them was to hurt a sailor. If you see land-dwelling birds such as pigeons at sea, however, this is a sign of bad luck to come.
If you ever find yourself becalmed at sea, try tossing a coin into the water. According to sailors’ lore, the wind could be bought in times of need by paying the ocean for it. In addition, whistling was thought to be able to bring the wind. Be careful with whistling, however. It may be able to bring up the wind, but it has also been known to call up storms, according to legend.
You may have heard the rhyme, “Red sky at night, sailor’s delight / Red sky at morning, sailors take warning.” This is one of many warnings or rhymes that have to do with predicting weather, one of the most important aspects of any mariner’s life — past or present.
After the disappearance of many trading ships with a cargo of bananas back in the eighteenth century, bananas became a sign of bad luck. This may also be because ships carrying bananas had to travel very quickly to keep them from rotting, which placed a heavy inconvenience on the sailors and prevented them from fishing or having much leisure time.
Naturally, this is something that you should be doing all of the time, but there is a particular importance if you are going to be sailing. Debtors, because of their unfinished business, were thought to bring storms down on the boat, and were therefore blamed for bad weather.
There are also some beliefs and customs that, though interesting, are truly outmoded and sometimes dangerous:
This may seem strange, even cruel, at first. But sailors believed that if someone was saved from drowning, the ocean — sometimes embodied as Neptune or another god of the sea — would seek that person out until it swallowed them. If the sea came after a crewmate of theirs that had been purposefully saved from drowning, it could sink a whole ship, killing all aboard.
Or really anyone with any sort of physical difference. People with these qualities were seen as bad luck, someone marked out for pursuit by the ever-vengeful ocean. Sometimes people like these were referred to as “Jonahs,” like the mariner in the Biblical tale who brought bad weather to his ship because he refused to obey God’s commands.
Sailors may have loved women when they were at port, but many of them did not appreciate the presence of women when they were out at sea (especially, if they were virgins, barefoot, or carrying an empty pail). This one probably has its base in practicality, though many captains’ wives and other women sailed and traveled on boats.
Though many of these beliefs or superstitions may seem silly or ridiculous to our modern eyes, some people — especially those who still work on the sea for a living — still adhere to many of these customs, or at least hold them in partial belief. In addition, many of them have roots in practical issues, combined with folk and religious beliefs. They are an important part of learning the history and context of sailing and boating, and though you may never use them or believe in them, they will give your excursions and voyages more meaning. | 1,121 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Jul 12, 2015
The Horse in the Civil War
Return to: Jul '00 Newsletter - Articles Main Page - Home Page
Written by Deborah Grace
Although few people realize it, the horse was the backbone of the Civil War. Horses moved guns and ambulances, carried generals and messages, and usually gave all they had. An instruction from Major General William T. Sherman to his troops shows the value of the horse to the army:
"Every opportunity at a halt during a march should be taken advantage of to cut grass, wheat, or oats and extraordinary care be taken of the horses upon which everything depends."
The total number of horses and mules killed in the Civil War mounts up to more than one million. In the beginning of the war, more horses were being killed than men. The number killed at the Battle of Gettysburg totaled around 1,500. The Union lost 881 horses and mules, and the Confederacy lost 619.
It is the great misfortune of horses that they can be saddle-broken and tamed. If the horse was more like an ox, not suited for riding, the war would have been drastically different. But no matter what the horses were put through, they soldiered on. Whether plodding through choking dust, struggling through mud, rushing up to a position at a gallop, or creeping backward in a fighting withdrawal, the horses always did what they had to do. They served their masters.
THE CAVALRY TROOPS
At the start of the war, the Northern states held approximately 3.4 million horses, while there were 1.7 million in the Confederate states. The border states of Missouri and Kentucky had an extra 800,000 horses. In addition, there were 100,000 mules in the North, 800,000 in the seceding states and 200,000 in Kentucky and Missouri. During the war, the Union used over 825,000 horses. The average price of a horse was $150.00 a head. Occasionally, high-class horses were found, but the reverse was commonly true.
The South furnished - involuntarily - many horses to the North.
Most of the fighting was done on Southern soil, and the local horses were easily seized by Northern troops. While Confederates had opportunities to take Northern horses during Robert E. Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania and upon the occasional raids into Northern territory, the number taken was small compared to the thousands commandeered by Union troops, who occupied large areas of the South for several years.
The Northerners were not the only ones to make off with horses. Both the North and the South soon began to take horses that belonged to enemy allies. This was often done not out of necessity but simply to deprive the enemy of horses.
Early in the war, the Confederate cavalry was superior. The theory was that in the South the lack of good roads had forced Southerners to travel by horseback from boyhood, while in the North a generation had been riding in carriages and other wheeled vehicles. Although this may have been true, rural young men in the North were also horsemen by necessity, but unlike many of the Southern boys, they had to bear the tedious burden of caring for their animals after plowing behind them all day. Young Northerners who knew horses seemed to have little desire to assume the responsibility of taking them to war, and instead joined the infantry.
In the South, long before the war, young men organized themselves into mounted militia companies, often with passionate names. Although these may have been more social than military, the men learned how to drill, ride daringly, and charge with the saber.
Southern cavalry horses were also superior to Northern horses, largely because of the Southern penchant for racing. Nearly every Southern town had a track, and the sport developed a superior stock of pure-blooded, fleet-footed animals. In the North, the stocky, strong draft horses were preferred because of their ability and willingness to work long hours.
It is difficult to determine the dominance of any breed in the war. It is probable that breeds native to and developed in the South - the Tennessee Walker, the American Saddlebred - were most widely used because their gaits were smooth and comfortable to ride and they had tremendous endurance. The horses used by the North were most likely ordinary carriage and riding horses, since no particular breed has ever originated from the North. Morgans may have been widely used on both sides. They were small and compact, and good endurance resulted from these qualities. Pictures portray horses that look much like Morgans and Arabians. Arabians may have been scattered here and there, but they were not yet prominent in the U. S. The small Arabian is noted for being fiery, courageous, and having remarkable stamina; perhaps they might have served to slightly change the battle and march patterns of the Civil War.
ON THE BATTLEFIELD
Needless to say, the horses selected for military service needed to fit the requirements for artillery horses and were highly scrutinized for as close to the desired qualities as they could possibly come. The qualities most valued in a horse intended for artillery were described in John Gibbon's diary:
"The horse for artillery service should be from fifteen to sixteen hands high ... should stand erect on his legs, be strongly built, but free in his movements; his shoulders should be large enough to give support to the collar but not too heavy; his body full, but not too long; the sides well rounded; the limbs solid with rather strong shanks, and the feet in good condition. To these qualities he should unite, as much as possible, the qualities of the saddle horse; should trot and gallop easily, have even gaits and not be skittish."
Horses that were between the ages of five and seven years old were usually selected. John Gibbon carefully portrayed what was wanted, but horses with these qualities were not always available. Horses became scarce and stayed in short supply in areas of continuing conflict.
Regardless of the shortage, the horses still had to prove they were fit for battle. Supposedly, the horses went to what would now be called a boot camp where they were taught to react to various commands and cues from the rider. They were also taught how to react appropriately to certain situations they might encounter on the battlefield. One training exercise included incoming machine gun fire at body level. At a physical and verbal command from the rider, the horse was supposed to lie down and stay down, thereby eluding bullets and creating a breastwork for its rider.
At the conclusion of the training, the horses had to pass one final test that determined if they would become army horses. On a signal, the riders dismounted and directed their horses to lie down. Machine gunners at the other end of the field would open fire, scattering bullets over the prone men and animals. The horses that panicked and jumped up were killed promptly and released from duty.
Artillery and saddle horses had to endure ample danger in battle. An effective tactic used when attacking a battery was to shoot the horses harnessed to it. If the horses were killed or disabled, moving the guns was impossible. Unfortunately for the horses, they could take much punishment. They were difficult to bring down and keep down, even with the impact of large-caliber Minie bullets.
An example of this tactic was brutally shown at Ream's Station in August 1864. The Tenth Massachusetts Battery was fighting from behind a makeshift barricade with the horses fully exposed. There were six guns, and five soon came under fire. In minutes, only two of the thirty horses were still standing; both animals bore wounds. One horse was shot seven times before it went down. Others were hit, went down, and struggled back up only to be hit again. The average number of wounds each horse suffered was five.
Despite the thousands of horses killed or wounded in battle, the highest number were lost to disease or exhaustion. The Tenth Massachusetts Battery lost 157 horses between October 18, 1862, and April 9, 1865. Out of these horses, 112 died from disease. Forty-five of these succumbed to glanders. Glanders, a highly contagious disease that affects the skin, nasal passages, and respiratory tracts of a horse, was most widespread. Another forty-five horses from the same battery were lost to fatigue; they simply became too exhausted to work and were put to death.
The capacity of a healthy horse to pull a load was affected by a number of factors. Chief among these was the nature of the surface over which the load was being hauled. A single horse could pull 3,000 pounds 20 to 23 miles a day over a hard-paved road. The weight dropped to 1,900 pounds over a macadamized road, and went down to 1,100 pounds over rough ground. The pulling ability was further reduced by one-half if a horse carried a rider on its back. Finally, as the number of horses in a team increased, the pulling capacity of each horse was further reduced. A horse in a team of six had only seven-ninths the pulling capacity it would have had in a team of two. The goal was that each horse's share of the load should be no more than 700 pounds. This was less than what a healthy horse, even carrying a rider and hitched into a team of six, could pull, but it furnished a safety factor that allowed for fatigue and losses.
Mules were commonly used in the Civil War to pull the guns outside of battle, but when the time came for the guns to go into action, horses were usually substituted for mules. The danger of using mules in battle is vividly depicted in Confederate Brigadier General John D. Imboden's account of his seriocomic experience at the Battle of Port Republic in June 1862. In that engagement, the aforementioned colonel commanded a band of cavalry with a battery of mountain howitzers carried on mules. At Port Republic, General "Stonewall" Jackson ordered Imboden to place his battery in a sheltered area and be ready, upon the enemy's withdrawal, to advance to a point where his guns would have a clear field of fire. Imboden took his men and the mules, carrying the guns and ammunition, into a shallow ravine about 100 yards behind Captain William Poague's Virginia battery, which was hotly engaged.
Within a few minutes, Union artillery shells were shrieking across the ravine well above the sheltered men and mules. Imboden's account of the action recalls the following:
"The mules became frantic. They kicked, plunged and squealed. It was impossible to quiet them, and it took three or four men to hold one mule from breaking away. Each mule had about three hundred pounds weight on him, so securely fastened that the load could not be dislodged by any of his capers. Several of them lay down and tried to wallow their loads off. The men held these down and that suggested the idea of throwing them all to the ground and holding them there. The ravine sheltered us so we were in no danger from shot or shell which passed over us."
The use of mules to carry mountain howitzers was a choice based on their fitness for the task, not due to any shortage of horses. The Manual for Mountain Artillery, adopted by the U.S. Army in 1851, stated that the mountain howitzer was "generally transported by mules." The superiority of mules in rough country outweighed their notorious contrariness under fire.
Although mules were usually a nuisance under fire, there was one recorded occasion when mules actually helped win a battle. In a battle at Chattanooga, a Union general's teamsters became scared and deserted their mule teams. The mules stampeded at the sound of battle and broke from their wagons. They started toward the enemy with trace-chains rattling and wiffletrees snapping over tree stumps as they bolted pell-mell toward the bewildered Confederates. The enemy believed it to be an impetuous cavalry charge; the line broke and fled.
In most cases, generals rode horses and didn't walk. This was partly because they were considered better than the ordinary soldier and deserved better treatment. Additionally, the horse gave them added height, enabling them to see their men on the battlefield easier. Because of their height, their voices could carry over battlefield noise, helping them to be heard better, thus letting them command their troops as well as possible. Obviously, the men could see their general without the confusion of having to find him on the ground. The sight of their commander majestically poised on his horse may have strengthened them. However, there was a definite drawback to the height and superiority: not only was the general more visible to his men, but the other troops could fix him as a target with ease.
An artillery horse's prescribed ration was 14 pounds of hay and 12 pounds of grain, usually oats, corn or barley. The amount of grain and hay needed by any particular battery depended on the number of horses that battery had at the time. It varied almost from day to day, but it was always enormous. All horses in the battery had to be fed daily, even if the battery stayed in one spot. Throughout the war, an artillery battery might sit in the same place for weeks at a time, and yet consume thousands of pounds of hay and grain each day.
Artillery horses represented only a small number of the animals that had to be fed by the military. In addition to the horses with the artillery, cavalry, and horses and mules used to pull supply wagons and ambulances, there were thousands of saddle horses carrying officers and couriers. A brigadier general reported that 800,000 pounds of forage and grain were needed daily to feed the horses and mules. Since a wagon ordinarily carried 1 ton, the animals' daily food allowance required 400 wagon loads each day.
The customary rations were not always available. Sometimes, especially as the war went on and areas were picked clean by the opposing armies, severe shortages of grain and hay developed. At other times, there was available grain and hay but they could not be delivered to the batteries needing them. In May 1864, the artillery horses of the Union V corps existed on a daily ration of five pounds of grain. The meager rations were the result of a shortage of wagons, not a lack of grain. After the wagons had delivered the grain and hay to the batteries, the infantry units had seized them to use as ambulances.
Pasturage was sometimes available, but green grass and field plants were not efficient foods. Eighty pounds of pasturage was needed to match the nutritional value of 26 pounds of dry hay and grain, the prescribed daily ration. In addition, green pasturage increased the likelihood that a horse might founder, a disease that causes lameness. Nevertheless, pasturage was used widely, either as a supplement to the regular ration or as the primary source of nutrition for short periods, if hay and grain were not available.
Water for the horses was a dilemma that required a plentiful solution every day. While in camp, a battery would set out to discover the nearest creek or pond and routinely water the horses there. On the march, water needed to be located at the end of each day. If the water was any distance from camp, as it often was, the timing of the watering was critical. Without the horses, the guns were immobile. Half of the horses were usually sent to water at one time. This meant that in an emergency some movement might be achieved, but with only half the horses present, the battery was at a definite disadvantage.
THE McCLELLAN SADDLE
Six years before the start of the Civil War, Captain George B. McClellan sailed to Europe as part of a military commission to study the latest developments in European tactics, weaponry, and logistics, basically looking at the form of engineer troops and cavalry. After the tour, which lasted a year and included observing battles of the Crimean War, McClellan returned with almost 100 books and manuals. Before writing his report that concluded with his suggested manual for American cavalry troops, he read all 100 manuals and books. The manual was adapted from Russian cavalry regulations.
The cavalry saddle he designed was an adaptation of a Hungarian model.
In 1859, the U.S. War Department adopted the McClellan saddle. It continued to be standard issue for the cavalry horse's remaining history. It is interesting that the saddle, which became standard issue, and the cavalry manual were developed by a man who never served a day in the cavalry. The saddle was cheaper than existing saddles, light enough not to burden the horse, yet sturdy enough to support the rider and his gear. It upheld a rawhide-covered open seat, a thick leather skirt, wooden stirrups, and a girth strap constructed of woolen yarn. Additional accessories often included a nose bag for feeding, a curry comb to groom the horse, a lariat and picket pin to secure the horse while grazing, saddlebags, and a "thimble" that held the muzzle of the cavalryman's carbine. The McClellan saddle was set on top of a shabrack, saddlecloth, or saddle blanket. It is estimated that half a million McClellan saddles were produced between 1861 and 1865.
In the South, many cavalrymen joined with their own horses and regular saddles. Eventually, the Confederacy issued the Jenifer saddle. However, when Southerners' horses grew thin because of the inadequate food supply, the Jenifer saddle grew painful on the horses' bony withers. The McClellan was issued in 1863. Due to the shortage of leather in the South during the war, many of the McClellan saddles had skirts of painted canvas.
FAMED CIVIL WAR MOUNTS
The horse Thomas Jackson bought in the spring of 1861 was intended for his wife. However, it was Jackson instead of his wife who was soon riding the gelding. The sorrel was rather thin and unimpressive. Although "Stonewall" Jackson was only a mediocre rider, the small horse suited him well. The horse was renamed Little Sorrel, and Jackson came to depend upon him. Little Sorrel was strong and almost tireless. He was not easily spooked - an important trait in a battle mount. General Jackson rode Little Sorrel throughout the war. He was riding him when he was mortally injured by fire in May of 1863. After the war, Little Sorrel was returned to Mrs. Jackson until she was no longer able to care for him. Ultimately, the horse wound up at the Virginia Military Institute, where General Jackson had been a professor of artillery tactics and philosophy. The horse was sent to VMI by train and many veterans stood along side the tracks to salute the horse as the train passed. Little Sorrel was sort of a mascot to the cadets at VMI until his death in 1886. The renowned horse had lived to the ripe old age of thirty-six. Little Sorrel's hide is on display at the VMI museum, but his bones are buried at VMI near a statue of General Jackson.
Rienzi, another famous horse of the Civil War, was given to General Philip Sheridan shortly before he raided Rienzi, Mississippi; hence the horse's name. Rienzi was black except for three white ankles, and was strong and fast. His speed would be key in the fate of his master's troops. In October of 1864, General Sheridan was in Washington for a staff meeting when Confederate forces launched a surprise attack on his troops at Cedar Creek, Virginia. On the way back to his men, Sheridan learned of the attack - twelve miles from his location in Winchester, Virginia. Rienzi was able to get the general to his troops in time to lead them to victory. From then on, Rienzi was known as Winchester. He and General Sheridan were together for the rest of the war. Winchester died in 1878 at the age of twenty. Winchester is on display at the National Museum of History in Washington.
Although General Ulysses S. Grant had many horses, the most famous was probably Cincinnati. When the general was visiting his ill son in St. Louis, he received the horse from a man named S. S. Grant. This man was very ill himself, and no longer able to ride the horse. He thought the general would give his cherished horse a good home and wanted Grant to accept the horse as a gift. There was one stipulation: General Grant must promise that neither he nor anyone else would ever mistreat the horse. General Grant accepted the offer and named the horse Cincinnati.
Grant stated that Cincinnati was "the finest horse that I have ever seen." Cincinnati was eighteen hands high and descended from Lexington, a record-breaking Thoroughbred. Supposedly, Grant once was offered $10,000 in gold for the horse. The offer was declined. The number of people Grant allowed to ride Cincinnati was small, but an exception was made for President Lincoln, who reportedly enjoyed riding the horse very much. Cincinnati went to the White House with Grant after he was elected president.
The most famous horse of the Civil War belonged to the most famous general. This horse was Traveller, ridden by General Robert E. Lee. The general had several other horses, but Traveller was his favorite. The well-known horse was a gray sixteen-hand Saddlebred gelding with black points. He was strong and quick, not unusual horse in looks or stature, but exceptional in endurance. His name came from his ability to travel.
Traveller was born in Virginia in 1857. General Lee purchased him for $200 in 1861; they were together from that point on. General Lee greatly respected animals, and he forged a strong bond with Traveller. The two completely trusted one another. Of Traveller, General Lee wrote:
"Such a picture could inspire a poet, whose genius could then depict his worth and describe his endurance of toil, hunger, thirst, heat and cold, and the dangers and sufferings through which he has passed. He could dilate upon his sagacity and affection and his invariable response to every wish of his rider. He might even imagine his thoughts through the long night?marches and days of battle through which he has passed."
After the war, Traveller accompanied Lee to his post at Washington College. The horse lost many hairs from his tail to admirers who wanted a souvenir of the famous horse and his general. When General Lee died in 1870, Traveller marched in his funeral with reversed boots in his stirrups. The faithful horse did not outlive his master by long. In 1871, Traveller stepped on a nail and developed lockjaw, a condition also known as tetanus that causes muscle spasms of the head, making it difficult to take food into the mouth and chew. The veteran was euthanized to end his suffering. His bones were displayed at Washington College until the 1970's when Traveller's remains were buried at the college, not far from General Lee's final resting place.
1. Botkin, B. A. A Civil War Treasury Of Tales, Legends, And Folklore. New York: Random House, 1960.
2. Coggins, Jack. Arms And Equipment Of The Civil War. North Carolina: Broadfoot Publishing Co., 1987.
3. Cotner, James R. "Horsepower Moves the Guns." March 1996. Online. Internet. Available: http://www.thehistorynet.com/AmericasCivilWar/articles/03963_text.htm. Accessed 21 April 2000.
4. Eckert, Edward K., and Amato, Nicholas J. Ten Years In The Saddle. London: Presidio Press, 1978.
5. Eisert, Kevin. "The War for State's Rights." 1999. Online. Internet. Available: http://www.civilwar.bluegrass.net/FlagsUniformsAndInsignia/mcclellansaddles.html. Accessed 15 April 2000.
6. Humble, Richard. The Illustrated History of the Civil War. Pennsylvania: Courage Books, 1991.
7. MacDonald, Charles B. "Cavalry." Encyclopedia Americana. 1994 ed.
8. McAdoo, Sean. Nice Boom: The American Civil War Reenactor's Handbook. New York: Random House, 1996.
9. McGowen, Stanley S. Horse Sweat and Powder Smoke. Texas: A&M University Press, 1999.
10. Kushlan, Jim. "Hail to the Horses." December 1997. Online. Internet. Available: http://www.thehistorynet.com/CivilWarTimes/editorials/1997/1297.html. Accessed 17 April 2000.
11. Porter, Christine. "Horses of the Civil War." 1999. Online. Internet. Available: http://www.civilwarweb.com/magazine/horses.htm. Accessed 24 April 2000.
12. Utley, Robert M. "Cavalry." World Book. 1996 ed.
13. Ward, Geoffry C., Burns, Ric, and Burns, Ken. The Civil War. New York: Random House, Inc., 1990.
50.4 KB Views: 816 | <urn:uuid:22bd0e57-1934-4ade-96c9-0833dc1cb4c7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://civilwartalk.com/threads/the-civil-war-horse.130231/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00192.warc.gz | en | 0.98452 | 5,253 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
-0.4279804825782776,
-0.0662844106554985,
0.4414794445037842,
0.4227856993675232,
-0.24614520370960236,
0.06761620193719864,
-0.09727872908115387,
0.3930658996105194,
0.1651865392923355,
0.3004494905471802,
0.05866170674562454,
0.011726549826562405,
0.10668310523033142,
0.38572096824645996... | 1 | - Jul 12, 2015
The Horse in the Civil War
Return to: Jul '00 Newsletter - Articles Main Page - Home Page
Written by Deborah Grace
Although few people realize it, the horse was the backbone of the Civil War. Horses moved guns and ambulances, carried generals and messages, and usually gave all they had. An instruction from Major General William T. Sherman to his troops shows the value of the horse to the army:
"Every opportunity at a halt during a march should be taken advantage of to cut grass, wheat, or oats and extraordinary care be taken of the horses upon which everything depends."
The total number of horses and mules killed in the Civil War mounts up to more than one million. In the beginning of the war, more horses were being killed than men. The number killed at the Battle of Gettysburg totaled around 1,500. The Union lost 881 horses and mules, and the Confederacy lost 619.
It is the great misfortune of horses that they can be saddle-broken and tamed. If the horse was more like an ox, not suited for riding, the war would have been drastically different. But no matter what the horses were put through, they soldiered on. Whether plodding through choking dust, struggling through mud, rushing up to a position at a gallop, or creeping backward in a fighting withdrawal, the horses always did what they had to do. They served their masters.
THE CAVALRY TROOPS
At the start of the war, the Northern states held approximately 3.4 million horses, while there were 1.7 million in the Confederate states. The border states of Missouri and Kentucky had an extra 800,000 horses. In addition, there were 100,000 mules in the North, 800,000 in the seceding states and 200,000 in Kentucky and Missouri. During the war, the Union used over 825,000 horses. The average price of a horse was $150.00 a head. Occasionally, high-class horses were found, but the reverse was commonly true.
The South furnished - involuntarily - many horses to the North.
Most of the fighting was done on Southern soil, and the local horses were easily seized by Northern troops. While Confederates had opportunities to take Northern horses during Robert E. Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania and upon the occasional raids into Northern territory, the number taken was small compared to the thousands commandeered by Union troops, who occupied large areas of the South for several years.
The Northerners were not the only ones to make off with horses. Both the North and the South soon began to take horses that belonged to enemy allies. This was often done not out of necessity but simply to deprive the enemy of horses.
Early in the war, the Confederate cavalry was superior. The theory was that in the South the lack of good roads had forced Southerners to travel by horseback from boyhood, while in the North a generation had been riding in carriages and other wheeled vehicles. Although this may have been true, rural young men in the North were also horsemen by necessity, but unlike many of the Southern boys, they had to bear the tedious burden of caring for their animals after plowing behind them all day. Young Northerners who knew horses seemed to have little desire to assume the responsibility of taking them to war, and instead joined the infantry.
In the South, long before the war, young men organized themselves into mounted militia companies, often with passionate names. Although these may have been more social than military, the men learned how to drill, ride daringly, and charge with the saber.
Southern cavalry horses were also superior to Northern horses, largely because of the Southern penchant for racing. Nearly every Southern town had a track, and the sport developed a superior stock of pure-blooded, fleet-footed animals. In the North, the stocky, strong draft horses were preferred because of their ability and willingness to work long hours.
It is difficult to determine the dominance of any breed in the war. It is probable that breeds native to and developed in the South - the Tennessee Walker, the American Saddlebred - were most widely used because their gaits were smooth and comfortable to ride and they had tremendous endurance. The horses used by the North were most likely ordinary carriage and riding horses, since no particular breed has ever originated from the North. Morgans may have been widely used on both sides. They were small and compact, and good endurance resulted from these qualities. Pictures portray horses that look much like Morgans and Arabians. Arabians may have been scattered here and there, but they were not yet prominent in the U. S. The small Arabian is noted for being fiery, courageous, and having remarkable stamina; perhaps they might have served to slightly change the battle and march patterns of the Civil War.
ON THE BATTLEFIELD
Needless to say, the horses selected for military service needed to fit the requirements for artillery horses and were highly scrutinized for as close to the desired qualities as they could possibly come. The qualities most valued in a horse intended for artillery were described in John Gibbon's diary:
"The horse for artillery service should be from fifteen to sixteen hands high ... should stand erect on his legs, be strongly built, but free in his movements; his shoulders should be large enough to give support to the collar but not too heavy; his body full, but not too long; the sides well rounded; the limbs solid with rather strong shanks, and the feet in good condition. To these qualities he should unite, as much as possible, the qualities of the saddle horse; should trot and gallop easily, have even gaits and not be skittish."
Horses that were between the ages of five and seven years old were usually selected. John Gibbon carefully portrayed what was wanted, but horses with these qualities were not always available. Horses became scarce and stayed in short supply in areas of continuing conflict.
Regardless of the shortage, the horses still had to prove they were fit for battle. Supposedly, the horses went to what would now be called a boot camp where they were taught to react to various commands and cues from the rider. They were also taught how to react appropriately to certain situations they might encounter on the battlefield. One training exercise included incoming machine gun fire at body level. At a physical and verbal command from the rider, the horse was supposed to lie down and stay down, thereby eluding bullets and creating a breastwork for its rider.
At the conclusion of the training, the horses had to pass one final test that determined if they would become army horses. On a signal, the riders dismounted and directed their horses to lie down. Machine gunners at the other end of the field would open fire, scattering bullets over the prone men and animals. The horses that panicked and jumped up were killed promptly and released from duty.
Artillery and saddle horses had to endure ample danger in battle. An effective tactic used when attacking a battery was to shoot the horses harnessed to it. If the horses were killed or disabled, moving the guns was impossible. Unfortunately for the horses, they could take much punishment. They were difficult to bring down and keep down, even with the impact of large-caliber Minie bullets.
An example of this tactic was brutally shown at Ream's Station in August 1864. The Tenth Massachusetts Battery was fighting from behind a makeshift barricade with the horses fully exposed. There were six guns, and five soon came under fire. In minutes, only two of the thirty horses were still standing; both animals bore wounds. One horse was shot seven times before it went down. Others were hit, went down, and struggled back up only to be hit again. The average number of wounds each horse suffered was five.
Despite the thousands of horses killed or wounded in battle, the highest number were lost to disease or exhaustion. The Tenth Massachusetts Battery lost 157 horses between October 18, 1862, and April 9, 1865. Out of these horses, 112 died from disease. Forty-five of these succumbed to glanders. Glanders, a highly contagious disease that affects the skin, nasal passages, and respiratory tracts of a horse, was most widespread. Another forty-five horses from the same battery were lost to fatigue; they simply became too exhausted to work and were put to death.
The capacity of a healthy horse to pull a load was affected by a number of factors. Chief among these was the nature of the surface over which the load was being hauled. A single horse could pull 3,000 pounds 20 to 23 miles a day over a hard-paved road. The weight dropped to 1,900 pounds over a macadamized road, and went down to 1,100 pounds over rough ground. The pulling ability was further reduced by one-half if a horse carried a rider on its back. Finally, as the number of horses in a team increased, the pulling capacity of each horse was further reduced. A horse in a team of six had only seven-ninths the pulling capacity it would have had in a team of two. The goal was that each horse's share of the load should be no more than 700 pounds. This was less than what a healthy horse, even carrying a rider and hitched into a team of six, could pull, but it furnished a safety factor that allowed for fatigue and losses.
Mules were commonly used in the Civil War to pull the guns outside of battle, but when the time came for the guns to go into action, horses were usually substituted for mules. The danger of using mules in battle is vividly depicted in Confederate Brigadier General John D. Imboden's account of his seriocomic experience at the Battle of Port Republic in June 1862. In that engagement, the aforementioned colonel commanded a band of cavalry with a battery of mountain howitzers carried on mules. At Port Republic, General "Stonewall" Jackson ordered Imboden to place his battery in a sheltered area and be ready, upon the enemy's withdrawal, to advance to a point where his guns would have a clear field of fire. Imboden took his men and the mules, carrying the guns and ammunition, into a shallow ravine about 100 yards behind Captain William Poague's Virginia battery, which was hotly engaged.
Within a few minutes, Union artillery shells were shrieking across the ravine well above the sheltered men and mules. Imboden's account of the action recalls the following:
"The mules became frantic. They kicked, plunged and squealed. It was impossible to quiet them, and it took three or four men to hold one mule from breaking away. Each mule had about three hundred pounds weight on him, so securely fastened that the load could not be dislodged by any of his capers. Several of them lay down and tried to wallow their loads off. The men held these down and that suggested the idea of throwing them all to the ground and holding them there. The ravine sheltered us so we were in no danger from shot or shell which passed over us."
The use of mules to carry mountain howitzers was a choice based on their fitness for the task, not due to any shortage of horses. The Manual for Mountain Artillery, adopted by the U.S. Army in 1851, stated that the mountain howitzer was "generally transported by mules." The superiority of mules in rough country outweighed their notorious contrariness under fire.
Although mules were usually a nuisance under fire, there was one recorded occasion when mules actually helped win a battle. In a battle at Chattanooga, a Union general's teamsters became scared and deserted their mule teams. The mules stampeded at the sound of battle and broke from their wagons. They started toward the enemy with trace-chains rattling and wiffletrees snapping over tree stumps as they bolted pell-mell toward the bewildered Confederates. The enemy believed it to be an impetuous cavalry charge; the line broke and fled.
In most cases, generals rode horses and didn't walk. This was partly because they were considered better than the ordinary soldier and deserved better treatment. Additionally, the horse gave them added height, enabling them to see their men on the battlefield easier. Because of their height, their voices could carry over battlefield noise, helping them to be heard better, thus letting them command their troops as well as possible. Obviously, the men could see their general without the confusion of having to find him on the ground. The sight of their commander majestically poised on his horse may have strengthened them. However, there was a definite drawback to the height and superiority: not only was the general more visible to his men, but the other troops could fix him as a target with ease.
An artillery horse's prescribed ration was 14 pounds of hay and 12 pounds of grain, usually oats, corn or barley. The amount of grain and hay needed by any particular battery depended on the number of horses that battery had at the time. It varied almost from day to day, but it was always enormous. All horses in the battery had to be fed daily, even if the battery stayed in one spot. Throughout the war, an artillery battery might sit in the same place for weeks at a time, and yet consume thousands of pounds of hay and grain each day.
Artillery horses represented only a small number of the animals that had to be fed by the military. In addition to the horses with the artillery, cavalry, and horses and mules used to pull supply wagons and ambulances, there were thousands of saddle horses carrying officers and couriers. A brigadier general reported that 800,000 pounds of forage and grain were needed daily to feed the horses and mules. Since a wagon ordinarily carried 1 ton, the animals' daily food allowance required 400 wagon loads each day.
The customary rations were not always available. Sometimes, especially as the war went on and areas were picked clean by the opposing armies, severe shortages of grain and hay developed. At other times, there was available grain and hay but they could not be delivered to the batteries needing them. In May 1864, the artillery horses of the Union V corps existed on a daily ration of five pounds of grain. The meager rations were the result of a shortage of wagons, not a lack of grain. After the wagons had delivered the grain and hay to the batteries, the infantry units had seized them to use as ambulances.
Pasturage was sometimes available, but green grass and field plants were not efficient foods. Eighty pounds of pasturage was needed to match the nutritional value of 26 pounds of dry hay and grain, the prescribed daily ration. In addition, green pasturage increased the likelihood that a horse might founder, a disease that causes lameness. Nevertheless, pasturage was used widely, either as a supplement to the regular ration or as the primary source of nutrition for short periods, if hay and grain were not available.
Water for the horses was a dilemma that required a plentiful solution every day. While in camp, a battery would set out to discover the nearest creek or pond and routinely water the horses there. On the march, water needed to be located at the end of each day. If the water was any distance from camp, as it often was, the timing of the watering was critical. Without the horses, the guns were immobile. Half of the horses were usually sent to water at one time. This meant that in an emergency some movement might be achieved, but with only half the horses present, the battery was at a definite disadvantage.
THE McCLELLAN SADDLE
Six years before the start of the Civil War, Captain George B. McClellan sailed to Europe as part of a military commission to study the latest developments in European tactics, weaponry, and logistics, basically looking at the form of engineer troops and cavalry. After the tour, which lasted a year and included observing battles of the Crimean War, McClellan returned with almost 100 books and manuals. Before writing his report that concluded with his suggested manual for American cavalry troops, he read all 100 manuals and books. The manual was adapted from Russian cavalry regulations.
The cavalry saddle he designed was an adaptation of a Hungarian model.
In 1859, the U.S. War Department adopted the McClellan saddle. It continued to be standard issue for the cavalry horse's remaining history. It is interesting that the saddle, which became standard issue, and the cavalry manual were developed by a man who never served a day in the cavalry. The saddle was cheaper than existing saddles, light enough not to burden the horse, yet sturdy enough to support the rider and his gear. It upheld a rawhide-covered open seat, a thick leather skirt, wooden stirrups, and a girth strap constructed of woolen yarn. Additional accessories often included a nose bag for feeding, a curry comb to groom the horse, a lariat and picket pin to secure the horse while grazing, saddlebags, and a "thimble" that held the muzzle of the cavalryman's carbine. The McClellan saddle was set on top of a shabrack, saddlecloth, or saddle blanket. It is estimated that half a million McClellan saddles were produced between 1861 and 1865.
In the South, many cavalrymen joined with their own horses and regular saddles. Eventually, the Confederacy issued the Jenifer saddle. However, when Southerners' horses grew thin because of the inadequate food supply, the Jenifer saddle grew painful on the horses' bony withers. The McClellan was issued in 1863. Due to the shortage of leather in the South during the war, many of the McClellan saddles had skirts of painted canvas.
FAMED CIVIL WAR MOUNTS
The horse Thomas Jackson bought in the spring of 1861 was intended for his wife. However, it was Jackson instead of his wife who was soon riding the gelding. The sorrel was rather thin and unimpressive. Although "Stonewall" Jackson was only a mediocre rider, the small horse suited him well. The horse was renamed Little Sorrel, and Jackson came to depend upon him. Little Sorrel was strong and almost tireless. He was not easily spooked - an important trait in a battle mount. General Jackson rode Little Sorrel throughout the war. He was riding him when he was mortally injured by fire in May of 1863. After the war, Little Sorrel was returned to Mrs. Jackson until she was no longer able to care for him. Ultimately, the horse wound up at the Virginia Military Institute, where General Jackson had been a professor of artillery tactics and philosophy. The horse was sent to VMI by train and many veterans stood along side the tracks to salute the horse as the train passed. Little Sorrel was sort of a mascot to the cadets at VMI until his death in 1886. The renowned horse had lived to the ripe old age of thirty-six. Little Sorrel's hide is on display at the VMI museum, but his bones are buried at VMI near a statue of General Jackson.
Rienzi, another famous horse of the Civil War, was given to General Philip Sheridan shortly before he raided Rienzi, Mississippi; hence the horse's name. Rienzi was black except for three white ankles, and was strong and fast. His speed would be key in the fate of his master's troops. In October of 1864, General Sheridan was in Washington for a staff meeting when Confederate forces launched a surprise attack on his troops at Cedar Creek, Virginia. On the way back to his men, Sheridan learned of the attack - twelve miles from his location in Winchester, Virginia. Rienzi was able to get the general to his troops in time to lead them to victory. From then on, Rienzi was known as Winchester. He and General Sheridan were together for the rest of the war. Winchester died in 1878 at the age of twenty. Winchester is on display at the National Museum of History in Washington.
Although General Ulysses S. Grant had many horses, the most famous was probably Cincinnati. When the general was visiting his ill son in St. Louis, he received the horse from a man named S. S. Grant. This man was very ill himself, and no longer able to ride the horse. He thought the general would give his cherished horse a good home and wanted Grant to accept the horse as a gift. There was one stipulation: General Grant must promise that neither he nor anyone else would ever mistreat the horse. General Grant accepted the offer and named the horse Cincinnati.
Grant stated that Cincinnati was "the finest horse that I have ever seen." Cincinnati was eighteen hands high and descended from Lexington, a record-breaking Thoroughbred. Supposedly, Grant once was offered $10,000 in gold for the horse. The offer was declined. The number of people Grant allowed to ride Cincinnati was small, but an exception was made for President Lincoln, who reportedly enjoyed riding the horse very much. Cincinnati went to the White House with Grant after he was elected president.
The most famous horse of the Civil War belonged to the most famous general. This horse was Traveller, ridden by General Robert E. Lee. The general had several other horses, but Traveller was his favorite. The well-known horse was a gray sixteen-hand Saddlebred gelding with black points. He was strong and quick, not unusual horse in looks or stature, but exceptional in endurance. His name came from his ability to travel.
Traveller was born in Virginia in 1857. General Lee purchased him for $200 in 1861; they were together from that point on. General Lee greatly respected animals, and he forged a strong bond with Traveller. The two completely trusted one another. Of Traveller, General Lee wrote:
"Such a picture could inspire a poet, whose genius could then depict his worth and describe his endurance of toil, hunger, thirst, heat and cold, and the dangers and sufferings through which he has passed. He could dilate upon his sagacity and affection and his invariable response to every wish of his rider. He might even imagine his thoughts through the long night?marches and days of battle through which he has passed."
After the war, Traveller accompanied Lee to his post at Washington College. The horse lost many hairs from his tail to admirers who wanted a souvenir of the famous horse and his general. When General Lee died in 1870, Traveller marched in his funeral with reversed boots in his stirrups. The faithful horse did not outlive his master by long. In 1871, Traveller stepped on a nail and developed lockjaw, a condition also known as tetanus that causes muscle spasms of the head, making it difficult to take food into the mouth and chew. The veteran was euthanized to end his suffering. His bones were displayed at Washington College until the 1970's when Traveller's remains were buried at the college, not far from General Lee's final resting place.
1. Botkin, B. A. A Civil War Treasury Of Tales, Legends, And Folklore. New York: Random House, 1960.
2. Coggins, Jack. Arms And Equipment Of The Civil War. North Carolina: Broadfoot Publishing Co., 1987.
3. Cotner, James R. "Horsepower Moves the Guns." March 1996. Online. Internet. Available: http://www.thehistorynet.com/AmericasCivilWar/articles/03963_text.htm. Accessed 21 April 2000.
4. Eckert, Edward K., and Amato, Nicholas J. Ten Years In The Saddle. London: Presidio Press, 1978.
5. Eisert, Kevin. "The War for State's Rights." 1999. Online. Internet. Available: http://www.civilwar.bluegrass.net/FlagsUniformsAndInsignia/mcclellansaddles.html. Accessed 15 April 2000.
6. Humble, Richard. The Illustrated History of the Civil War. Pennsylvania: Courage Books, 1991.
7. MacDonald, Charles B. "Cavalry." Encyclopedia Americana. 1994 ed.
8. McAdoo, Sean. Nice Boom: The American Civil War Reenactor's Handbook. New York: Random House, 1996.
9. McGowen, Stanley S. Horse Sweat and Powder Smoke. Texas: A&M University Press, 1999.
10. Kushlan, Jim. "Hail to the Horses." December 1997. Online. Internet. Available: http://www.thehistorynet.com/CivilWarTimes/editorials/1997/1297.html. Accessed 17 April 2000.
11. Porter, Christine. "Horses of the Civil War." 1999. Online. Internet. Available: http://www.civilwarweb.com/magazine/horses.htm. Accessed 24 April 2000.
12. Utley, Robert M. "Cavalry." World Book. 1996 ed.
13. Ward, Geoffry C., Burns, Ric, and Burns, Ken. The Civil War. New York: Random House, Inc., 1990.
50.4 KB Views: 816 | 5,441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English Chapter 5 - July 1944
English is a widely used language across the world. To improve your English communication skills, the CBSE Class 10 syllabus focuses on English Grammar, English Comprehension and English Composition. There are several reading and writing exercises on TopperLearning to study the topics present in the CBSE Class 10 English syllabus.
We make it easy for you to understand English grammar concepts such as parts of speech, idioms, prepositions, determiners, etc. If you are visual learner, you can watch CBSE Class 10 English videos to understand the concepts. Also, you can score more by solving the CBSE Class 10 English Sample papers or learning from our CBSE Class 10 English notes.
Answering the questions in the CBSE Board Class 10 exams can be challenging for you. To support you in your studies, we provide step-by-step explanations for CBSE Class 10 English textbook questions. Our CBSE Class 10 English solutions are prepared by qualified academic experts. So, get started without stress and remember, we are there to help you score more marks.
TopperLearning provides study materials for CBSE Class 10 English which will help you to score more marks in the examination. Students can find study resources like highly interactive video lessons, important question banks, sample papers, past year question papers and many more fun learning sessions which will help them crack the examination with ease.
Our study materials for CBSE Class 10 English are created by subject experts and teachers of English. Our video lessons will help you to clear all your concepts. Apart from all these resources, we provide free NCERT textbook solutions to our CBSE Class 10 students. For revision and practise, you can refer to our sample papers. At TopperLearning, we believe in making study materials fun and compelling, so that students get a strong grip on their studies.
Chapter 5 - July 1944 Exercise 15 July
Anne writes that the author of the book blindly criticised all youth for being superficial and not caring about anything good beyond themselves. Anne felt that the author was directly attacking her and so she thought that she needed to defend herself. She writes that she was the best judge of her character. People like the author of the book only judged youth by seeing their outer appearance. They did not really understand the talents and struggles which were within youth. Anne explains this by giving an example of herself. She writes that she knew herself better than anyone else in the world, even her family. She had a strong sense of self-consciousness which kept her on the right path and corrected her whenever she made a mistake. Taking her father's advice, she had decided to look after her own upbringing and had learned a lot on her own over the years. She writes that she knew she had courage and strength and could bear a lot of blows. She also writes that she felt free and young from within. She knew that she would never give up on these feelings and bow down before any difficulties which she faced.
Anne writes that she pondered over her relation with Peter much more than the growing distance between her and her father. Her clarity of thought is seen through her clear description of the relation she shared with Peter. In doing so, she also paints Peter's character as being naïve and weak. She says that it was she that conquered him instead of it being the other way round. She writes that she was in need of a friend, and since Peter was the only option she had, she took it. Although she could see his weaknesses, she overlooked them and imagined his personality the way she wanted it to be. She knew that they were not balanced in their thinking and abilities, but she still drew him closer. All she wanted was a listening ear and when she found it in Peter she ignored all other logical thought. Here she realises that she had made a mistake by letting their friendship grow into an intimacy which she was not ready to explore further with him. She had made him dependent on her. He began to cling on to her and she was unsuccessful in achieving her goal of making him broad-minded and self-sufficient.
Anne writes that when a person is in his youth, he begins to make choices and learn from his mistakes. This is the age when learning is tested and opinions are formed.
After these opinions are formed (through observation and experiment), they become the basis or foundation of his choices throughout life. Anne writes that adults do not need to worry or feel conflicted over any matter. They have already formed their opinions on every matter and now have to just live with them. However, for youth who are growing into adulthood, this is not a simple matter. Especially during the war where everything which was good was being destroyed and people were bringing out their worst, selfish sides. At such times, peoples' faith in themselves and their God was tested. Anne gives her own example and says that she can see confusion, misery and death all around. The civilised world was turning into a wilderness. Millions of people were suffering every day, and yet she says that when she looked up towards the heavens, she saw hope and believed that all this would pass and peace would return.
Chapter 5 - July 1944 Exercise 21 July
In this entry, Anne describes an attempt made at assassinating Hitler. She calls it a divine providence which saved him. He escaped with just a few bruises and scratches while a few of his officials and generals were killed in the attempt. Anne calls this really hopeful and superior news. She explains that the attempt was made by one of Hitler's own men, a young proud German general. This showed that even men from the German army were tired of the war and a divide was forming among them. Anne makes satirical comments on this matter as the consequences of Hitler's inhuman ways were beginning to lead him to his doom. Anne was not disheartened that the attempt on Hitler's life had failed. On the contrary, she joked about it saying that maybe it was best that he did not die. His inhuman ways led his own people to revolt against him. If this continued, then the time would not be far when the German army would be fighting among themselves and destroying each other. This would save the efforts of the Allies and give them a good show. Anne notes that all this actually happened and would continue to happen and the end she anticipated was sure to come.
Following the attack on his life, Hitler put all military control directly in the hands of the Gestapo. Although this move was logical, as Hitler trusted his secret force immensely, the instructions which followed were at odds with it and reflected a crack in Hitler's focus. Hitler had given his army the liberty to shoot any of their superiors on the spot if they have any indication that the superior was involved in a plot to kill him. Anne analysed this instruction and wrote that this gave the military men an excuse to take out their frustration with their superiors using false pretexts. Anne said that now the men did not need to worry about proving someone's guilt. All they had to do was blame someone and then shoot them. This threatened the lives of higher officials. They could no longer be stern with their men; this meant a total chaos among the otherwise orderly controlled troops.
Chapter 5 - July 1944 Exercise 6 July
Anne observes that both Peter and Margot looked down on themselves. They believed that they were weak and could not achieve anything great in life. Anne was more concerned about Peter because she had known him on a personal level and knew that there was no one in his life who could guide him towards the right path. Peter had never known what it felt like to make someone happy. Here, Anne wonders if it was a good quality that she was not easily influenced by others. She realised that Peter had begun to 'lean on her' a little and if she was not careful, his thinking could influence her and this would be very harmful to her own growth for she was a person who believed in hardwork and loved to learn new things. Her studies and her work kept her spirits high and encouraged her to hope for a better future. Peter did not have this benefit. Moreover, he did not even believe in God. This hurt and disturbed Anne greatly. She could not understand how a lazy deceitful life could be of any good and hoped that she should never begin thinking like Peter.
Anne could not understand how a person could see the weakness within himself and still bear to live with it. For her, the next step would be to fight against that weakness and train her body and character back to the path of hardwork. She knew it was a difficult task. However, she believed it was worth the trouble as it prevented a person from falling into the bottomless depths of life. A place where there would be no friends, no comfort and no beauty. Anne saw clearly the end of such thinking. She therefore wanted to help Peter. She wanted to make Peter believe in himself and fight the limitations within him. The word 'easy' and 'money' did not hold any meaning to her and she wanted to explain this to Peter too. According to her, happiness and self-fulfilment were the goals of any person's life. This could not be achieved without a little bit of hardwork. She wanted Peter to understand this too. So, she was looking for an argument against the word 'easy'.
Anne writes that Peter lacked both self-confidence and religion. For Anne, a family was where a person's qualities were nurtured and given a chance to grow. Equated to this was the importance of religion in a person's life. Anne calls Peter 'poor' because he did not have both these foundation stones in his life. She noted that Peter neither believed in himself nor in any religion; this was his biggest problem. She believed that when a person followed a religion, the teachings of that religion kept the person focused on the right path. She explains that believing in a religion did not mean just being fearful of punishment and the afterlife. The basic teaching of any religion encouraged a person to uphold his own honour and conscience. Anne explains this through a radical example. She says that the solution to it all was to weigh one's conscience and try to improve one's mistakes each day. Anne concludes with the line 'A quiet conscience makes one strong'.
Chapter 5 - July 1944 Exercise 8 July
Mr B., a business representative, got strawberries at an auction sale in Beverwijk. There were twenty trays in all. When these arrived at the annex, they were dusty and covered in sand. The strawberries needed to be preserved, so everyone in the annex set to work, and by the evening of the very same day, they had managed to bottle six jars and make eight bottles of jam. The excitement over getting such fresh fruits after long made everyone laugh and chat freely, ignoring the fear of being heard from the outside. People were bustling in and out of the kitchen talking and making noises carelessly. There were strawberries all around. They had strawberries for breakfast and for every other meal. Everyone helped in sorting and stalk-picking the strawberries into buckets. Anne notes here that people were adding less to the buckets and more to their own stomachs. Although the strawberries were covered with a little mud, they could not be washed as the accountant was seated in the office below, and the rule was not to go to the tap for water whenever someone was in the office for fear of being heard. Nevertheless, everyone was content with their present situation.
After the arrival of the strawberries came the peas. The family had received nineteen pounds of green peas from their greengrocer. On their arrival, Anne's mother instructed that everyone would have to help in shelling the peas on Saturday morning. Anne here came up with the idea of skinning the pea pods instead of shelling them all together and just consuming the peas within. She noted that the pods were really soft and tasty once their inner skin was removed. Also, it tripled the quantity of the vegetable. Although the idea was a good one, Anne observes that it needed a lot of attention and effort. She was not one of those people who could devote such time to mundane household chores. She therefore stuck to shelling the peas and decided that she never wanted to be only a housewife like her mother and Mrs van Daan. Everyone helped in shelling the peas on Saturday for half-past nine in the morning till a quarter past one in the afternoon. Anne writes that she was almost seasick by the time they stopped and slept till four to recover.
Why choose TopperLearning’s CBSE Class 10 study materials?
We provide CBSE Class 10 Chapter-wise English lesson explanation as per the latest CBSE syllabus. For each subject, we have 2000+ questions (with answers) and 10+ sample papers to support you with your exam preparations.
Also, we respond to doubts posted in our forum within 24 hours. Our MIQs and revision notes are perfect for last-minute revisions. With our support, you can feel at ease and work successfully towards your goal of becoming a CBSE topper.
Kindly Sign up for a personalised experience
- Ask Study Doubts
- Sample Papers
- Past Year Papers
- Textbook Solutions
Verify mobile number
Enter the OTP sent to your number | <urn:uuid:82ab82a9-2fb9-4199-8d15-658959bd9a27> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.topperlearning.com/ncert-solutions/cbse-class-10-english/english-diary-of-a-young-girl/july-1944 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.990029 | 2,716 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
-0.5279557108879089,
0.04616599902510643,
0.060295283794403076,
-0.5911256074905396,
-0.2865574359893799,
0.04720594733953476,
0.15873795747756958,
0.3579443395137787,
0.11293883621692657,
-0.3513270914554596,
0.003225318156182766,
-0.11009719222784042,
-0.01100470032542944,
0.219100281596... | 1 | NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English Chapter 5 - July 1944
English is a widely used language across the world. To improve your English communication skills, the CBSE Class 10 syllabus focuses on English Grammar, English Comprehension and English Composition. There are several reading and writing exercises on TopperLearning to study the topics present in the CBSE Class 10 English syllabus.
We make it easy for you to understand English grammar concepts such as parts of speech, idioms, prepositions, determiners, etc. If you are visual learner, you can watch CBSE Class 10 English videos to understand the concepts. Also, you can score more by solving the CBSE Class 10 English Sample papers or learning from our CBSE Class 10 English notes.
Answering the questions in the CBSE Board Class 10 exams can be challenging for you. To support you in your studies, we provide step-by-step explanations for CBSE Class 10 English textbook questions. Our CBSE Class 10 English solutions are prepared by qualified academic experts. So, get started without stress and remember, we are there to help you score more marks.
TopperLearning provides study materials for CBSE Class 10 English which will help you to score more marks in the examination. Students can find study resources like highly interactive video lessons, important question banks, sample papers, past year question papers and many more fun learning sessions which will help them crack the examination with ease.
Our study materials for CBSE Class 10 English are created by subject experts and teachers of English. Our video lessons will help you to clear all your concepts. Apart from all these resources, we provide free NCERT textbook solutions to our CBSE Class 10 students. For revision and practise, you can refer to our sample papers. At TopperLearning, we believe in making study materials fun and compelling, so that students get a strong grip on their studies.
Chapter 5 - July 1944 Exercise 15 July
Anne writes that the author of the book blindly criticised all youth for being superficial and not caring about anything good beyond themselves. Anne felt that the author was directly attacking her and so she thought that she needed to defend herself. She writes that she was the best judge of her character. People like the author of the book only judged youth by seeing their outer appearance. They did not really understand the talents and struggles which were within youth. Anne explains this by giving an example of herself. She writes that she knew herself better than anyone else in the world, even her family. She had a strong sense of self-consciousness which kept her on the right path and corrected her whenever she made a mistake. Taking her father's advice, she had decided to look after her own upbringing and had learned a lot on her own over the years. She writes that she knew she had courage and strength and could bear a lot of blows. She also writes that she felt free and young from within. She knew that she would never give up on these feelings and bow down before any difficulties which she faced.
Anne writes that she pondered over her relation with Peter much more than the growing distance between her and her father. Her clarity of thought is seen through her clear description of the relation she shared with Peter. In doing so, she also paints Peter's character as being naïve and weak. She says that it was she that conquered him instead of it being the other way round. She writes that she was in need of a friend, and since Peter was the only option she had, she took it. Although she could see his weaknesses, she overlooked them and imagined his personality the way she wanted it to be. She knew that they were not balanced in their thinking and abilities, but she still drew him closer. All she wanted was a listening ear and when she found it in Peter she ignored all other logical thought. Here she realises that she had made a mistake by letting their friendship grow into an intimacy which she was not ready to explore further with him. She had made him dependent on her. He began to cling on to her and she was unsuccessful in achieving her goal of making him broad-minded and self-sufficient.
Anne writes that when a person is in his youth, he begins to make choices and learn from his mistakes. This is the age when learning is tested and opinions are formed.
After these opinions are formed (through observation and experiment), they become the basis or foundation of his choices throughout life. Anne writes that adults do not need to worry or feel conflicted over any matter. They have already formed their opinions on every matter and now have to just live with them. However, for youth who are growing into adulthood, this is not a simple matter. Especially during the war where everything which was good was being destroyed and people were bringing out their worst, selfish sides. At such times, peoples' faith in themselves and their God was tested. Anne gives her own example and says that she can see confusion, misery and death all around. The civilised world was turning into a wilderness. Millions of people were suffering every day, and yet she says that when she looked up towards the heavens, she saw hope and believed that all this would pass and peace would return.
Chapter 5 - July 1944 Exercise 21 July
In this entry, Anne describes an attempt made at assassinating Hitler. She calls it a divine providence which saved him. He escaped with just a few bruises and scratches while a few of his officials and generals were killed in the attempt. Anne calls this really hopeful and superior news. She explains that the attempt was made by one of Hitler's own men, a young proud German general. This showed that even men from the German army were tired of the war and a divide was forming among them. Anne makes satirical comments on this matter as the consequences of Hitler's inhuman ways were beginning to lead him to his doom. Anne was not disheartened that the attempt on Hitler's life had failed. On the contrary, she joked about it saying that maybe it was best that he did not die. His inhuman ways led his own people to revolt against him. If this continued, then the time would not be far when the German army would be fighting among themselves and destroying each other. This would save the efforts of the Allies and give them a good show. Anne notes that all this actually happened and would continue to happen and the end she anticipated was sure to come.
Following the attack on his life, Hitler put all military control directly in the hands of the Gestapo. Although this move was logical, as Hitler trusted his secret force immensely, the instructions which followed were at odds with it and reflected a crack in Hitler's focus. Hitler had given his army the liberty to shoot any of their superiors on the spot if they have any indication that the superior was involved in a plot to kill him. Anne analysed this instruction and wrote that this gave the military men an excuse to take out their frustration with their superiors using false pretexts. Anne said that now the men did not need to worry about proving someone's guilt. All they had to do was blame someone and then shoot them. This threatened the lives of higher officials. They could no longer be stern with their men; this meant a total chaos among the otherwise orderly controlled troops.
Chapter 5 - July 1944 Exercise 6 July
Anne observes that both Peter and Margot looked down on themselves. They believed that they were weak and could not achieve anything great in life. Anne was more concerned about Peter because she had known him on a personal level and knew that there was no one in his life who could guide him towards the right path. Peter had never known what it felt like to make someone happy. Here, Anne wonders if it was a good quality that she was not easily influenced by others. She realised that Peter had begun to 'lean on her' a little and if she was not careful, his thinking could influence her and this would be very harmful to her own growth for she was a person who believed in hardwork and loved to learn new things. Her studies and her work kept her spirits high and encouraged her to hope for a better future. Peter did not have this benefit. Moreover, he did not even believe in God. This hurt and disturbed Anne greatly. She could not understand how a lazy deceitful life could be of any good and hoped that she should never begin thinking like Peter.
Anne could not understand how a person could see the weakness within himself and still bear to live with it. For her, the next step would be to fight against that weakness and train her body and character back to the path of hardwork. She knew it was a difficult task. However, she believed it was worth the trouble as it prevented a person from falling into the bottomless depths of life. A place where there would be no friends, no comfort and no beauty. Anne saw clearly the end of such thinking. She therefore wanted to help Peter. She wanted to make Peter believe in himself and fight the limitations within him. The word 'easy' and 'money' did not hold any meaning to her and she wanted to explain this to Peter too. According to her, happiness and self-fulfilment were the goals of any person's life. This could not be achieved without a little bit of hardwork. She wanted Peter to understand this too. So, she was looking for an argument against the word 'easy'.
Anne writes that Peter lacked both self-confidence and religion. For Anne, a family was where a person's qualities were nurtured and given a chance to grow. Equated to this was the importance of religion in a person's life. Anne calls Peter 'poor' because he did not have both these foundation stones in his life. She noted that Peter neither believed in himself nor in any religion; this was his biggest problem. She believed that when a person followed a religion, the teachings of that religion kept the person focused on the right path. She explains that believing in a religion did not mean just being fearful of punishment and the afterlife. The basic teaching of any religion encouraged a person to uphold his own honour and conscience. Anne explains this through a radical example. She says that the solution to it all was to weigh one's conscience and try to improve one's mistakes each day. Anne concludes with the line 'A quiet conscience makes one strong'.
Chapter 5 - July 1944 Exercise 8 July
Mr B., a business representative, got strawberries at an auction sale in Beverwijk. There were twenty trays in all. When these arrived at the annex, they were dusty and covered in sand. The strawberries needed to be preserved, so everyone in the annex set to work, and by the evening of the very same day, they had managed to bottle six jars and make eight bottles of jam. The excitement over getting such fresh fruits after long made everyone laugh and chat freely, ignoring the fear of being heard from the outside. People were bustling in and out of the kitchen talking and making noises carelessly. There were strawberries all around. They had strawberries for breakfast and for every other meal. Everyone helped in sorting and stalk-picking the strawberries into buckets. Anne notes here that people were adding less to the buckets and more to their own stomachs. Although the strawberries were covered with a little mud, they could not be washed as the accountant was seated in the office below, and the rule was not to go to the tap for water whenever someone was in the office for fear of being heard. Nevertheless, everyone was content with their present situation.
After the arrival of the strawberries came the peas. The family had received nineteen pounds of green peas from their greengrocer. On their arrival, Anne's mother instructed that everyone would have to help in shelling the peas on Saturday morning. Anne here came up with the idea of skinning the pea pods instead of shelling them all together and just consuming the peas within. She noted that the pods were really soft and tasty once their inner skin was removed. Also, it tripled the quantity of the vegetable. Although the idea was a good one, Anne observes that it needed a lot of attention and effort. She was not one of those people who could devote such time to mundane household chores. She therefore stuck to shelling the peas and decided that she never wanted to be only a housewife like her mother and Mrs van Daan. Everyone helped in shelling the peas on Saturday for half-past nine in the morning till a quarter past one in the afternoon. Anne writes that she was almost seasick by the time they stopped and slept till four to recover.
Why choose TopperLearning’s CBSE Class 10 study materials?
We provide CBSE Class 10 Chapter-wise English lesson explanation as per the latest CBSE syllabus. For each subject, we have 2000+ questions (with answers) and 10+ sample papers to support you with your exam preparations.
Also, we respond to doubts posted in our forum within 24 hours. Our MIQs and revision notes are perfect for last-minute revisions. With our support, you can feel at ease and work successfully towards your goal of becoming a CBSE topper.
Kindly Sign up for a personalised experience
- Ask Study Doubts
- Sample Papers
- Past Year Papers
- Textbook Solutions
Verify mobile number
Enter the OTP sent to your number | 2,759 | ENGLISH | 1 |
4 KIDZ SPORTS
Playing sports is fun. It gives your child something to do and a group to belong to. They have a group of friends that have the same goals and interests.
Research has found that kids who play sports, especially girls, are more likely to have a positive body image and higher self-esteem. They also are less likely to be overweight.
Kids involved in sports are less likely to take drugs or smoke because they realize the impact that these destructive activities can have upon their performance. Girls who play sports are also less likely to become pregnant.
Physical activities are a good way to relieve stress and reduce depression.
Sports help kids develop discipline. They learn to set goals and then work to achieve those goals. They learn that by working hard they can accomplish the things that they want to in their lives.
Kids who play sports quickly learn that sometimes you win and sometimes you lose. They learn to be a good sport in both situations. It also helps them learn to deal with disappointment and go on.
Statistics show that kids who are involved in sports while in high school are more likely to experience academic success and graduate from high school.
Sports help develop teamwork and leadership skills. Kids quickly learn that they have to work together as a team to win the game.
Motor skills, strategic thinking, and even math skills are learned by playing sports. Students develop strategic thinking as they figure out plays and the best way to get around a player or score a goal. Math skills are used as they calculate scores and stats.
Regular exercise increases quality of life. Children who exercise are more likely to continue the practice into adulthood. | <urn:uuid:040c6493-5e28-4d12-867c-c9bfc0fffda4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.4kidzsports.org/about/additional-benefits/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.982959 | 334 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
0.1403329074382782,
-0.04584662616252899,
0.191912442445755,
-0.5603927969932556,
-0.24218519032001495,
0.5060343742370605,
0.35033461451530457,
0.1386333853006363,
0.05437321215867996,
0.2089833915233612,
0.0573083721101284,
-0.28675535321235657,
0.3342444598674774,
0.15548379719257355,
... | 5 | 4 KIDZ SPORTS
Playing sports is fun. It gives your child something to do and a group to belong to. They have a group of friends that have the same goals and interests.
Research has found that kids who play sports, especially girls, are more likely to have a positive body image and higher self-esteem. They also are less likely to be overweight.
Kids involved in sports are less likely to take drugs or smoke because they realize the impact that these destructive activities can have upon their performance. Girls who play sports are also less likely to become pregnant.
Physical activities are a good way to relieve stress and reduce depression.
Sports help kids develop discipline. They learn to set goals and then work to achieve those goals. They learn that by working hard they can accomplish the things that they want to in their lives.
Kids who play sports quickly learn that sometimes you win and sometimes you lose. They learn to be a good sport in both situations. It also helps them learn to deal with disappointment and go on.
Statistics show that kids who are involved in sports while in high school are more likely to experience academic success and graduate from high school.
Sports help develop teamwork and leadership skills. Kids quickly learn that they have to work together as a team to win the game.
Motor skills, strategic thinking, and even math skills are learned by playing sports. Students develop strategic thinking as they figure out plays and the best way to get around a player or score a goal. Math skills are used as they calculate scores and stats.
Regular exercise increases quality of life. Children who exercise are more likely to continue the practice into adulthood. | 325 | ENGLISH | 1 |
written task 2 heart of darkness
Hannah Ferry IB Language Arts Period 6 Written Task Two The Heart of Darkness is a novella written by Joseph Conrad. In this book the main character, Marlow, ventures up the Nile River to find a man named Kurtz. As he continues his journey up river he experiences a vast range of emotions and situations that are putting him to the test to see if he can keep his sanity. One of the situations he encounters are the natives of the Congo. At first they are seen as the primitive savage-like people that live in the darkness of Congo. Their way of life seems so out of the norm that there is no way that Marlow could ever understand or feel equal ith them. As his journey continues to find Kurtz, he starts to understand their way of life and figure out the meanings of darkness. In the heart of darkness, Joseph Conrad uses the narrator, Marlow, to portray the evolution of mind on how the idea of darkness is a misconception, and by the end of the novella, the once “primitive savages” are in reality Marlow’s equals. In the beginning of the voyage up the river Marlow’s mindset on the natives is more of, they live an uncivilized life, killing their own people. Marlow thinks his way of life is more civilized. Eating with forks, wearing hoes. But what Marlow doesn’t see is the point of view of the natives. He doesn’t take into consideration of their definition of norm, their definition of civilized. Marlow thinks that his way is the only right way. The natives are civilized in their own way. The way they were brought up and the way they live. Later on in the journey Marlow’s traditional views of imperialists starts to fade, the people that don’t see the conquered natives as humans. “It was unearthly, and the men were-No, they were not inhuman. Well, you know, that was the worst of it-this suspicion of their not being nhuman. It would come slowly to one. They howled, and leaped, and spun, and made horrid faces; but what thrilled you was just the thought of their humanity-like yours- the thought of your remote kinship with this wild and passionate uproar. Ugly. Yes, it was ugly enough; but if you were man enough you would admit to yourself that there was in you just the faintest trace of a response to the terrible frankness of that noise, a dim suspicion of there being a meaning in it which you-you so remote from the night of fist ages-could comprehend” He starts to develop a tiny kinship with the natives.
He starts to understand their screams. Marlow develops a place in his mind that understands where they are coming from and that everyone has some barbarian inside them. Its natural and it is normal. At the end of the journey Marlow doesn’t consider the natives his equal. He views them more as animals or pets. That you can teach them but and they can learn the meaning but not the significance. Essentially it’s like a parent trying to get their kid to stay in bed by telling them there is a monster under it. They will learn commands but they will not reach the full level of sophistication that he has. | <urn:uuid:57d880ea-8c9e-496b-8e3b-4d6240035b37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/est1-task-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00001.warc.gz | en | 0.981108 | 696 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
-0.45413297414779663,
0.5614264011383057,
-0.08531378954648972,
0.1469169557094574,
-0.6019484996795654,
0.11353028565645218,
0.23408852517604828,
0.11918248236179352,
-0.03712548315525055,
-0.11822596937417984,
0.10420802980661392,
-0.3629339933395386,
-0.0924576073884964,
-0.074871242046... | 2 | written task 2 heart of darkness
Hannah Ferry IB Language Arts Period 6 Written Task Two The Heart of Darkness is a novella written by Joseph Conrad. In this book the main character, Marlow, ventures up the Nile River to find a man named Kurtz. As he continues his journey up river he experiences a vast range of emotions and situations that are putting him to the test to see if he can keep his sanity. One of the situations he encounters are the natives of the Congo. At first they are seen as the primitive savage-like people that live in the darkness of Congo. Their way of life seems so out of the norm that there is no way that Marlow could ever understand or feel equal ith them. As his journey continues to find Kurtz, he starts to understand their way of life and figure out the meanings of darkness. In the heart of darkness, Joseph Conrad uses the narrator, Marlow, to portray the evolution of mind on how the idea of darkness is a misconception, and by the end of the novella, the once “primitive savages” are in reality Marlow’s equals. In the beginning of the voyage up the river Marlow’s mindset on the natives is more of, they live an uncivilized life, killing their own people. Marlow thinks his way of life is more civilized. Eating with forks, wearing hoes. But what Marlow doesn’t see is the point of view of the natives. He doesn’t take into consideration of their definition of norm, their definition of civilized. Marlow thinks that his way is the only right way. The natives are civilized in their own way. The way they were brought up and the way they live. Later on in the journey Marlow’s traditional views of imperialists starts to fade, the people that don’t see the conquered natives as humans. “It was unearthly, and the men were-No, they were not inhuman. Well, you know, that was the worst of it-this suspicion of their not being nhuman. It would come slowly to one. They howled, and leaped, and spun, and made horrid faces; but what thrilled you was just the thought of their humanity-like yours- the thought of your remote kinship with this wild and passionate uproar. Ugly. Yes, it was ugly enough; but if you were man enough you would admit to yourself that there was in you just the faintest trace of a response to the terrible frankness of that noise, a dim suspicion of there being a meaning in it which you-you so remote from the night of fist ages-could comprehend” He starts to develop a tiny kinship with the natives.
He starts to understand their screams. Marlow develops a place in his mind that understands where they are coming from and that everyone has some barbarian inside them. Its natural and it is normal. At the end of the journey Marlow doesn’t consider the natives his equal. He views them more as animals or pets. That you can teach them but and they can learn the meaning but not the significance. Essentially it’s like a parent trying to get their kid to stay in bed by telling them there is a monster under it. They will learn commands but they will not reach the full level of sophistication that he has. | 669 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander Kerensky led, for part of its short life, the Provisional Government. Kerensky belonged to the Socialist Revolutionaries, the Petrograd Soviet and was a member of the Duma. He was therefore seen as a solid representative of the working class and in July 1917 became the Prime Minister of the Provisional Government.
Kerensky was born in 1881 in Simbirsk. Like so many of the people associated with the Russian Revolution, he had a comfortable upbringing. His father was a head teacher and one of the star young pupils at his school was Vladimir Ulyanov – later to be better known as Lenin. Kerensky studied law at St Petersburg University. At this moment in history, university students were considered to be a radical body, probably because they could see the ills in Russia’s society – and they certainly could not defend them. From 1912 to 1917, Kerensky was a member of the Duma where he stood as a democratic socialist.
He was also voted in as the deputy chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, therefore, despite his middle class background, Kerensky did develop a positive relationship with the working class of St Petersburg.
After the abdication of Nicholas II in March 1917, Kerensky was made Minister of Justice in the Provisional Government. In May, he was promoted to Minister of War and in July he became Prime Minister. His rise to power was swift but Kerensky had developed a reputation for effective leadership in whatever area of government he worked in.
However, as Prime Minister he made two major errors. He ensured that Russia stayed in a war that was detested in the country itself. The overwhelming bulk of the population wanted Russia to withdraw from the war. There must have been few families, especially among the poor, who had not experienced personal tragedy between 1914 and 1917. His second mistake was not to offer the peasants land. Lenin did just this and immediately got the support he and the Bolsheviks needed at the expense of Kerensky.
To undermine the support of the Bolsheviks, Kerensky ordered that elections should take place for a constituent assembly. The elections were to be held in January 1918. Lenin had called for such elections earlier in 1917, so he could not object to this. As Kerensky argued, it was simply an extension of the democratic process denied to the people by the Romanovs. However, all the evidence indicated that the Bolsheviks would have done less well than other groups – including the Mensheviks.
Spurred into action by the near certainty of defeat in the January elections, Lenin ordered a coup d’état on November 7th, 1917. Brilliantly successful, the November Revolution ended the Provisional Government and the power of Kerensky. He fled to France, moved to Australia and then spent 24 years living in America.
Alexander Kerensky died in 1970.
- The Provisional Government The Provisional Government came into being on March 14th 1917. Based in the capital, Petrograd, the Provisional Government was first led by…
- The Provisional Government The Provisional Government is the name given to the government that led Russia from March 1917 to November 1917. Throughout its existence,… | <urn:uuid:0f39a929-0678-4a80-a8a2-f43ceec28bd9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/russia-1900-to-1939/alexander-kerensky/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00250.warc.gz | en | 0.989823 | 675 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
-0.3981887996196747,
0.1863618642091751,
0.31644126772880554,
0.14679016172885895,
0.05609958618879318,
-0.040580861270427704,
0.1709183007478714,
0.3167596459388733,
-0.3061739206314087,
0.189186692237854,
0.14194761216640472,
-0.1775280088186264,
-0.047644853591918945,
0.2048813402652740... | 1 | Alexander Kerensky led, for part of its short life, the Provisional Government. Kerensky belonged to the Socialist Revolutionaries, the Petrograd Soviet and was a member of the Duma. He was therefore seen as a solid representative of the working class and in July 1917 became the Prime Minister of the Provisional Government.
Kerensky was born in 1881 in Simbirsk. Like so many of the people associated with the Russian Revolution, he had a comfortable upbringing. His father was a head teacher and one of the star young pupils at his school was Vladimir Ulyanov – later to be better known as Lenin. Kerensky studied law at St Petersburg University. At this moment in history, university students were considered to be a radical body, probably because they could see the ills in Russia’s society – and they certainly could not defend them. From 1912 to 1917, Kerensky was a member of the Duma where he stood as a democratic socialist.
He was also voted in as the deputy chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, therefore, despite his middle class background, Kerensky did develop a positive relationship with the working class of St Petersburg.
After the abdication of Nicholas II in March 1917, Kerensky was made Minister of Justice in the Provisional Government. In May, he was promoted to Minister of War and in July he became Prime Minister. His rise to power was swift but Kerensky had developed a reputation for effective leadership in whatever area of government he worked in.
However, as Prime Minister he made two major errors. He ensured that Russia stayed in a war that was detested in the country itself. The overwhelming bulk of the population wanted Russia to withdraw from the war. There must have been few families, especially among the poor, who had not experienced personal tragedy between 1914 and 1917. His second mistake was not to offer the peasants land. Lenin did just this and immediately got the support he and the Bolsheviks needed at the expense of Kerensky.
To undermine the support of the Bolsheviks, Kerensky ordered that elections should take place for a constituent assembly. The elections were to be held in January 1918. Lenin had called for such elections earlier in 1917, so he could not object to this. As Kerensky argued, it was simply an extension of the democratic process denied to the people by the Romanovs. However, all the evidence indicated that the Bolsheviks would have done less well than other groups – including the Mensheviks.
Spurred into action by the near certainty of defeat in the January elections, Lenin ordered a coup d’état on November 7th, 1917. Brilliantly successful, the November Revolution ended the Provisional Government and the power of Kerensky. He fled to France, moved to Australia and then spent 24 years living in America.
Alexander Kerensky died in 1970.
- The Provisional Government The Provisional Government came into being on March 14th 1917. Based in the capital, Petrograd, the Provisional Government was first led by…
- The Provisional Government The Provisional Government is the name given to the government that led Russia from March 1917 to November 1917. Throughout its existence,… | 708 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Governors at work and leisure
A bit of history
Under the French regime, the governor was generally chosen from the ranks of the military nobility. In contrast, through the 18th century the intendant became more of a career bureaucrat. Quebec's founder, Samuel de Champlain, was never officially governor. Charles Huault de Montmagny became the first. Most governors lived in the Saint-Louis Châteaux from 1648 to 1834.
The centre of executive power, the Saint-Louis forts and châteaux were also largely the colony's seat of administrative, political and military power.
In the 17th century, the governor commanded the troops; the fort accommodated his secretary and a small garrison. Several bureaucrats also occupied the offices.
However, since the château was also the governor's residence, it was an important living environment and cultural centre. There were many receptions, under both the French and English regimes.
The governor's personnel
© Library and Archives Canada, C-002833.
It was common for governors to arrive in Quebec with their own personnel. They consisted above all of secretaries, who were in some cases given permanent appointments (first, second, undersecretary), especially under the French regime. The vast majority of secretaries of French governors would establish themselves in Quebec City after completing their internship in the offices of the governor. Their internships generally lasted the length of their protector's mandate. This was usually a short period, except in the case of Jean de L'Estage, who remained in the service of governor Vaudreuil senior for over 20 years, and of Jacques Lafontaine de Belcour, who remained in the service of governor Beauharnois for the same length of time. Under British rule, the château accommodated the colony's military secretary as well as several officers, in addition to the governor and his personal secretary.
The governor's household
For the most part, governors arrived in the colony with a full household: servants, butler, chef, cooks and bakers, and wine waiters. Frontenac even enjoyed the service of a confectioner, and when he received Amerindian emissaries at the château he would have his confectioner impress them with ice creams of various colours.
A governor's household would generally include five to 10 people. Both French and British governors were proud to call on the service of French chefs. When governor Murray asked his sister to find him a chef, for example, she replied that he could easily find one in Quebec City!
The governor's receptions
The Château Saint-Louis was a place of cultural activity that included balls and sumptuous meals. Observers from the era were especially struck by the châteaux' receptions.
© Library and Archives Canada, C-000040.
Under British rule, various activities would bring together as many as 400 guests, mainly for balls such as the one given at New Year's in 1826. On the queen's birthday in 1787, the colony's principal leaders and guests of honor gathered at around 11 p.m. before an “artistically arranged” table, which included abundant pyramids of fruit.
Celebrations around the birth of the future Louis XV also apparently left unforgettable memories in the minds of guests:
Once the city was illuminated, and the Governor General was at the Château with the intendant and all the officers, he gave the signal to shoot the fireworks which were prepared on the other side of the river; they were facing the Château. From the centre appeared an arrow from which numerous rockets of different styles shot out with a sun rising from bottom upward and others at all the corners; at the sides there was a Vive le Roi formed by artificial lights that could be distinguished from a half league [2 kilometres].
An arc de triomphe was on the Château's large door, forming three arches held by columns; on the two closest to the middle arch, to the right religion was represented, justice to the left, under the arch on the religion side was a cupid presenting him with a crown and under the arch on the justice side was a cupid showing a sceptre to the divinity to demonstrate that they themselves would learn from the prince so that each would always be crowned, sustained and strengthened. […]
The Governor General had invited all the ladies and persons of distinction to this celebration. At 10 o'clock a magnificent supper was served; the chambers of the Château however grand could not contain the entire assembly; tables were set even on the gallery, which was so conveniently located as to give a panoramic view over six and seven leagues. There was sumptuousness and delicacy everywhere; we drank to the Health of their Majesties and to Monseigneur le Dauphin above the sound of all the artillery. The party ended with a ball that lasted all night. [Archives des colonies, C 11A, vol. 52, fol. 42-49 v, October 1730] | <urn:uuid:59ec9f26-0d6f-4bd3-b311-4bb139d06088> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pc.gc.ca/en/lhn-nhs/qc/saintlouisforts/culture/histoire-history/natcul5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00527.warc.gz | en | 0.98127 | 1,057 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
-0.1990075707435608,
0.6952254772186279,
0.6953821778297424,
-0.4131473898887634,
-0.3590153157711029,
-0.03438413888216019,
0.35842183232307434,
0.16057175397872925,
0.09773918986320496,
-0.12891995906829834,
-0.010502745397388935,
-0.12444618344306946,
0.051089685410261154,
0.32898184657... | 3 | The Governors at work and leisure
A bit of history
Under the French regime, the governor was generally chosen from the ranks of the military nobility. In contrast, through the 18th century the intendant became more of a career bureaucrat. Quebec's founder, Samuel de Champlain, was never officially governor. Charles Huault de Montmagny became the first. Most governors lived in the Saint-Louis Châteaux from 1648 to 1834.
The centre of executive power, the Saint-Louis forts and châteaux were also largely the colony's seat of administrative, political and military power.
In the 17th century, the governor commanded the troops; the fort accommodated his secretary and a small garrison. Several bureaucrats also occupied the offices.
However, since the château was also the governor's residence, it was an important living environment and cultural centre. There were many receptions, under both the French and English regimes.
The governor's personnel
© Library and Archives Canada, C-002833.
It was common for governors to arrive in Quebec with their own personnel. They consisted above all of secretaries, who were in some cases given permanent appointments (first, second, undersecretary), especially under the French regime. The vast majority of secretaries of French governors would establish themselves in Quebec City after completing their internship in the offices of the governor. Their internships generally lasted the length of their protector's mandate. This was usually a short period, except in the case of Jean de L'Estage, who remained in the service of governor Vaudreuil senior for over 20 years, and of Jacques Lafontaine de Belcour, who remained in the service of governor Beauharnois for the same length of time. Under British rule, the château accommodated the colony's military secretary as well as several officers, in addition to the governor and his personal secretary.
The governor's household
For the most part, governors arrived in the colony with a full household: servants, butler, chef, cooks and bakers, and wine waiters. Frontenac even enjoyed the service of a confectioner, and when he received Amerindian emissaries at the château he would have his confectioner impress them with ice creams of various colours.
A governor's household would generally include five to 10 people. Both French and British governors were proud to call on the service of French chefs. When governor Murray asked his sister to find him a chef, for example, she replied that he could easily find one in Quebec City!
The governor's receptions
The Château Saint-Louis was a place of cultural activity that included balls and sumptuous meals. Observers from the era were especially struck by the châteaux' receptions.
© Library and Archives Canada, C-000040.
Under British rule, various activities would bring together as many as 400 guests, mainly for balls such as the one given at New Year's in 1826. On the queen's birthday in 1787, the colony's principal leaders and guests of honor gathered at around 11 p.m. before an “artistically arranged” table, which included abundant pyramids of fruit.
Celebrations around the birth of the future Louis XV also apparently left unforgettable memories in the minds of guests:
Once the city was illuminated, and the Governor General was at the Château with the intendant and all the officers, he gave the signal to shoot the fireworks which were prepared on the other side of the river; they were facing the Château. From the centre appeared an arrow from which numerous rockets of different styles shot out with a sun rising from bottom upward and others at all the corners; at the sides there was a Vive le Roi formed by artificial lights that could be distinguished from a half league [2 kilometres].
An arc de triomphe was on the Château's large door, forming three arches held by columns; on the two closest to the middle arch, to the right religion was represented, justice to the left, under the arch on the religion side was a cupid presenting him with a crown and under the arch on the justice side was a cupid showing a sceptre to the divinity to demonstrate that they themselves would learn from the prince so that each would always be crowned, sustained and strengthened. […]
The Governor General had invited all the ladies and persons of distinction to this celebration. At 10 o'clock a magnificent supper was served; the chambers of the Château however grand could not contain the entire assembly; tables were set even on the gallery, which was so conveniently located as to give a panoramic view over six and seven leagues. There was sumptuousness and delicacy everywhere; we drank to the Health of their Majesties and to Monseigneur le Dauphin above the sound of all the artillery. The party ended with a ball that lasted all night. [Archives des colonies, C 11A, vol. 52, fol. 42-49 v, October 1730] | 1,067 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hannah IrwinEnglish llMs. Fischer January 12 2018During the holocaust physicians conducted painful and sometimes deadly experiments. These experiments were made on thousands of concentration camp prisoners. There were three main categories that these experiments were in. The first one is aimed at facilitating the survival of military, the second one is developing and testing treatments and medicine for illness and injuries, and the third was to advance the racial and ideological tenets of the Nazi worldview. Trauma experiments were undertaken by commission from the German military, and they usually tried to answer direct questions about the damage human beings were likely to suffer in combat. One experiment that was used on prisoners was for high altitude and low pressure that the body can handle. To test the effects of low pressure, they hung prisoners in parachute harnesses and sealed them inside a pressure chamber. Some victims were unconscious to stimulate a passed out pilot, and others were wide awake. Another experiment done on prisoners was the effects of drinking sea water. 90 gypsies were isolated in a room and were only given sea water. Within days many of them were dying from dehydration. Another experiment that was used on prisoners was to test survival gear. They did this by putting the prisoners in the survival gear and dropping them into freezing water. They then used various methods on how to reheat the body from these freezing temperatures. There were five main ways that they used to test the best way to bring the body temperature back up. The first one is a sun lamp. Victims were put under these lamps that were hot enough to burn the skin. The next way was internal irrigation, which is to put boiling water into the frozen persons stomach, bladder, and intestines. All victims placed in this experiment died right after. Next is the hot bath. The victim was placed in warm water and the temperature was slowly increased. This method proved to be the best. Many victims died do to shock if they were warmed up to quickly. Then there was warming by body heat. This included women lying on top of the frozen men and using body heat to warm them back up. There was also research for different drugs and experimental surgeries. Doctors at Ravensbruck tested the antibiotics by gashing the legs of prisoners and rubbing in wood shavings, ground glass, and infected matter. To simulate gangrene, blood vessels were tied off or cut, and wounds weren’t allowed to heal. After an inmate was all used up, the body would be autopsied for clues to see how effective the drugs had been. Other drugs and surgical procedures were tried out at many camps. At Sachsenhausen, prisoners were splashed with mustard gas and various remedies were applied to the chemical burns. Near the end of the experiments, inmates were shot with poisoned bullets to test their lethality. Between 1943 and 1944, prisoners at Buchenwald were exposed to burning phosphorus from bombs to test burn treatments and grafting techniques.From the survivors of the holocaust that were in these experiments there were many physiological effects that took place from these experiments. There tends to be five main psychological themes in survivors have been described. The first one is the death imprint, which is related to anxiety about death. The second one is death guilt. Death guilt is epitomized by the question “Why did I survive, while he, she, or they did not?” the third one is the survivor syndrome or psychic numbing which the diminished capacity to feel. Psychologists have recognized that psychic numbing as a necessary psychological defense against overwhelming images. This can easily out live its usefulness and develop into withdrawal, apathy, depression, and despair. The fourth has to do with survivor sensitivity or suspicion of counterfeit nurturance, so many people with this resent any help from people because they see it as a sign of weakness. The fifth and final is the survivor’s struggle for meaning. They tend to look for meaning on why all of this has happened to them. | <urn:uuid:c7f0366a-05f8-490e-85fb-8cb7d8a9c495> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://taxteaparty.com/hannah-experiment-that-was-used-on-prisoners-was/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00098.warc.gz | en | 0.986624 | 795 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
-0.3406338691711426,
0.6771316528320312,
0.34844255447387695,
0.19323886930942535,
0.26507046818733215,
0.16998110711574554,
0.4226592779159546,
0.2790132164955139,
-0.3381086587905884,
-0.6021454334259033,
0.20820754766464233,
-0.2830302119255066,
-0.0857514813542366,
0.45134007930755615,... | 1 | Hannah IrwinEnglish llMs. Fischer January 12 2018During the holocaust physicians conducted painful and sometimes deadly experiments. These experiments were made on thousands of concentration camp prisoners. There were three main categories that these experiments were in. The first one is aimed at facilitating the survival of military, the second one is developing and testing treatments and medicine for illness and injuries, and the third was to advance the racial and ideological tenets of the Nazi worldview. Trauma experiments were undertaken by commission from the German military, and they usually tried to answer direct questions about the damage human beings were likely to suffer in combat. One experiment that was used on prisoners was for high altitude and low pressure that the body can handle. To test the effects of low pressure, they hung prisoners in parachute harnesses and sealed them inside a pressure chamber. Some victims were unconscious to stimulate a passed out pilot, and others were wide awake. Another experiment done on prisoners was the effects of drinking sea water. 90 gypsies were isolated in a room and were only given sea water. Within days many of them were dying from dehydration. Another experiment that was used on prisoners was to test survival gear. They did this by putting the prisoners in the survival gear and dropping them into freezing water. They then used various methods on how to reheat the body from these freezing temperatures. There were five main ways that they used to test the best way to bring the body temperature back up. The first one is a sun lamp. Victims were put under these lamps that were hot enough to burn the skin. The next way was internal irrigation, which is to put boiling water into the frozen persons stomach, bladder, and intestines. All victims placed in this experiment died right after. Next is the hot bath. The victim was placed in warm water and the temperature was slowly increased. This method proved to be the best. Many victims died do to shock if they were warmed up to quickly. Then there was warming by body heat. This included women lying on top of the frozen men and using body heat to warm them back up. There was also research for different drugs and experimental surgeries. Doctors at Ravensbruck tested the antibiotics by gashing the legs of prisoners and rubbing in wood shavings, ground glass, and infected matter. To simulate gangrene, blood vessels were tied off or cut, and wounds weren’t allowed to heal. After an inmate was all used up, the body would be autopsied for clues to see how effective the drugs had been. Other drugs and surgical procedures were tried out at many camps. At Sachsenhausen, prisoners were splashed with mustard gas and various remedies were applied to the chemical burns. Near the end of the experiments, inmates were shot with poisoned bullets to test their lethality. Between 1943 and 1944, prisoners at Buchenwald were exposed to burning phosphorus from bombs to test burn treatments and grafting techniques.From the survivors of the holocaust that were in these experiments there were many physiological effects that took place from these experiments. There tends to be five main psychological themes in survivors have been described. The first one is the death imprint, which is related to anxiety about death. The second one is death guilt. Death guilt is epitomized by the question “Why did I survive, while he, she, or they did not?” the third one is the survivor syndrome or psychic numbing which the diminished capacity to feel. Psychologists have recognized that psychic numbing as a necessary psychological defense against overwhelming images. This can easily out live its usefulness and develop into withdrawal, apathy, depression, and despair. The fourth has to do with survivor sensitivity or suspicion of counterfeit nurturance, so many people with this resent any help from people because they see it as a sign of weakness. The fifth and final is the survivor’s struggle for meaning. They tend to look for meaning on why all of this has happened to them. | 804 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edfu was one of several temples built during the Ptolemaic period, including Dendera, Esna, Kom Ombo and Philae. Its size reflects the relative prosperity of the time and it remains one of the best preserved temples. The present temple, which was begun in 237 BCE, initially consisted of a pillared hall, two transverse halls, and a barque sanctuary surrounded by chapels built on the west side of the Nile. The building was started during the reign of Ptolemy III and completed in 57 BC under Ptolemy XII. It was built on the site of an earlier, smaller temple also dedicated to Horus, although the previous structure was oriented east-west rather than north-south as in the present site. A ruined pylon lies just to the east of the current temple; inscriptional evidence has been found indicating a building program under the New Kingdom rulers Ramesses I, Seti I and Ramesses II. We can also clearly see the mast grooves for the flags which would have fluttered at the entrance. The site of Edfu Tell was known as Wetjeset-hor (classical name Apollinopolis Magna), the place where the god Horus was worshipped and where the battle between Horus and his traditional enemy Seth in ancient mythology took place. Of all the temple remains in Egypt, the Temple of Horus at Edfu is the most completely preserved. Built from sandstone blocks, the huge Ptolemaic temple was constructed over the site of a smaller New Kingdom temple, oriented east to west, facing towards the river. | <urn:uuid:c58f1f0e-dad4-4562-9df9-844f81c48d1c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://traveltoeat.com/tag/ptolemy-xii-neo-dionysos/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00536.warc.gz | en | 0.982149 | 326 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
-0.1783331334590912,
0.7322524785995483,
0.24656638503074646,
0.21684867143630981,
-0.3321806788444519,
0.06390172988176346,
-0.01644469052553177,
0.1348007172346115,
0.09992589801549911,
0.4731309413909912,
-0.36820825934410095,
-1.0793856382369995,
-0.0025782438460737467,
0.1037388592958... | 6 | Edfu was one of several temples built during the Ptolemaic period, including Dendera, Esna, Kom Ombo and Philae. Its size reflects the relative prosperity of the time and it remains one of the best preserved temples. The present temple, which was begun in 237 BCE, initially consisted of a pillared hall, two transverse halls, and a barque sanctuary surrounded by chapels built on the west side of the Nile. The building was started during the reign of Ptolemy III and completed in 57 BC under Ptolemy XII. It was built on the site of an earlier, smaller temple also dedicated to Horus, although the previous structure was oriented east-west rather than north-south as in the present site. A ruined pylon lies just to the east of the current temple; inscriptional evidence has been found indicating a building program under the New Kingdom rulers Ramesses I, Seti I and Ramesses II. We can also clearly see the mast grooves for the flags which would have fluttered at the entrance. The site of Edfu Tell was known as Wetjeset-hor (classical name Apollinopolis Magna), the place where the god Horus was worshipped and where the battle between Horus and his traditional enemy Seth in ancient mythology took place. Of all the temple remains in Egypt, the Temple of Horus at Edfu is the most completely preserved. Built from sandstone blocks, the huge Ptolemaic temple was constructed over the site of a smaller New Kingdom temple, oriented east to west, facing towards the river. | 336 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We all know Alexander Graham Bell (known as AGB in the Deaf community) as the inventor of the telephone.
That makes him a good guy, right? Creating a way for man to effectively communicate across long distances? Not so much.
Bell was an innovator and educator. However, he was also an oppressor, and this side of him isn’t usually discussed.
His Helpful Side
Alexander Graham Bell’s “helpful side” is what is usually written in his biographies.
He was born in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1847. Ever since he was young, he always had an interest in hearing and speech.
Alexander Melville Bell, his father, was the creator of a series of symbols that that showed speech-the position and movement of the lips, throat, and tongue when making sounds. This was called “Visible Speech” and was used to teach deaf people how to speak.
Bell helped his father with public demonstrations of Visible Speech in 1862 until 1869 when he became his father’s partner.
Bell had been experimenting with acoustics and wanted to find a way to improve the telegraph so that it can transmit sounds. Many inventors before Bell had unsuccessfully attempted this.
In 1870, Bell’s brothers died of tuberculosis, and his family moved to Brantford, Ontario, Canada. In Boston, he opened a school for teachers of the deaf in 1872. During his work there, he became friends with attorney Gardiner Green Hubbard. Hubbard’s daughter, Mabel, had been struck with scarlet fever as a child and became deaf.
Bell began to write specifications to patent a device that could carry speech by wire. This was the telephone. He was issued the patent for the telephone on March 7, 1876. He transmitted speech successfully for the first time only three days later. He married Mabel Hubbard the same year.
Bell founded the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf in 1890. This is now known as the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf.
Bell died in 1922 at the age of seventy-five.
His Harmful Side
Alexander Graham Bell’s “harmful side” is very surprising, but is not usually discussed.
First, while Bell was the first to patent the telephone, he was not the first to come up with the idea for the telephone. There is a lot of controversy around who actually invented the first telephone. Some even say that Bell stole the idea from Elisha Gray, who was a professor at Oberlin College, and beat him to the patent office.
But even worse – Bell believed that deafness was a horrible curse to the person who suffered from it.
That is a pretty awful thing to think, and for someone with so much influence, a terrible thought to spread.
There are several reasons why Bell would have this thought about deafness. One is that he grew up with a value for speech, and as an educator of the deaf, he saw how difficult it is for a deaf child to acquire knowledge through spoken and written language. He also did not come in contact with those Deaf people who were part of the Deaf community and who had successfully found happiness within it. So, therefore, without this exposure, it’s not hard to see how Bell would have seen deafness as only a handicap.
However, Bell also saw deafness as a threat to the social order. He thought that deaf people weakened society. In the 1880s, when Bell was rather wealthy and had a lot of time on his hands, he became worried about the numbers of deaf people in America and how they were increasing. He thought this was weakening the country and was determined to find a way to stop it.
Because deafness seemed as though it were incurable, Bell wanted to find a way to prevent the birth of deaf children. He examined data from many American schools for the deaf and wrote a paper entitled Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race.
Bell read his paper at the American Academy of Sciences at New Haven, Connecticut in 1883. Then, in 1884, he read it to the Conference of Principals of American Schools for the Deaf.
Bell’s thought and conclusions were shocking. To justify his findings, he documented three significant facts about deaf Americans:
- The tendency of deaf people to marry other deaf people
- The numbers of deaf people marrying other deaf people increased during the nineteenth century
- This increase would continue into the future unless drastic steps are taken to stop it
Bell stated that this tendency of deaf people marrying deaf people would eventually lead to a creation of a deaf race and “would be a great calamity to the world.”
His reasons for the tendency of deaf people marrying other deaf people were as follows:
- Residential schools for the deaf
- deaf associations and organizations
- deaf newspapers
- education in sign language
- writing in sign language
- erroneous ideas about deaf people
- deaf people’s desire to create a deaf state
Numbers 5-7 were of no importance and made no sense. Sign language writing doesn’t really exist, his erroneous ideas were that deaf people could not be taught to speak well enough to carry a conversation, and a deaf state would never be established because of lack of support for the deaf community.
His first four reasons, though, were very valid and true. If he successfully eliminated these things, the American deaf community would be non-existent. And that is what he wanted to do. Without the cultural links and socializations of deaf people, they would be isolated and more integrated into the hearing society.
Bell had two ideas for keeping deaf people from marrying. One was to enact laws that would forbid the congenitally deaf people from intermarrying. This, however, Bell though, would lead to immoral actions and illegitimate children. It is also difficult to tell when a deaf person became deaf.
His second idea was to eliminate residential schools, prohibit sign language use in deaf education, and forbid deaf teachers from teaching deaf students. Bell thought these measures would encourage deaf people to use their oral skills and become more integrated into the hearing society. These measures could be “hidden” and seen as education reforms.
Bell’s thoughts and findings did not lead to the end of deaf marriage, but it did instill fear and anger in many deaf people and spark debates.
To gain support, Bell printed his Memoir and sent it to members of Congress, the principals of schools for the deaf, and other people involved in deaf education. They were not impressed. The truth came out. Those involved in deaf education knew that most of their students had hearing parents. Deaf children are rarely born to deaf parents.
Bell wanted to take away everything Deaf people had-their schools, their organizations, their newspapers, and even their language. Thankfully, he was unsuccessful. Deaf people are still people. There is nothing wrong with them, and they most definitely do not pose a threat to the human race.
This information may come as a shock to you, and it should. There are two sides to every story, and this is one side that most people do not know about-Bell and his fight for eugenics against the deaf.
Were Alexander Graham Bell’s contributions to society more helpful or harmful?
Alexander Graham Bell Papers Submitted by Students
Who is your favorite person from Deaf history?
Alexander Graham Bell
by Erika (Salt Lake City, Utah) | February 2, 2014
My favorite person from Deaf History is Alexander Graham Bell because he gave the deaf population something to fight for.
Every story needs a great villain and quite often the villain does not seem so villainous on the surface. Every great story where good triumphs over evil the villain makes the hero stand up and fight for something, anything.
While I will readily admit that Bell was most likely a villain out of ignorance he was still a villain nonetheless. The push he made to force oralism gave the deaf community a reason to remember how proud they were of a language they had created. Had Bell not pushed for oralism it is quite possible that ASL would never have seen the realization that it has today.
Now recognized as its own language and taught in most colleges, including hearing schools, ASL has become a force to be reckoned with. It is always nice to see a group stand together to defend something they are proud of.
Alexander Graham Bell
by Kathleen Sweeney | December 7, 2016
My favorite contributor to the deaf community is Alexander Graham Bell. Bell’s work was highly influenced by his wife and mother being deaf. He is most known for his invention of the telephone. Bell’s central interest lied in deaf education and teaching.
His father was a researcher of speech and he too took interest in the physiology of speech. Bell utilized his fathers method called “visible speech” to teach deaf students.
Bell also published a paper analyzing the culture of the deaf community. He expressed that deaf people often socialized together, within the community. He was an extreme supporter of oralism and believed the speech was the superior way for dead individuals to thrive.
Later on, Graham expressed the universal language for the deaf community was established and should be recognized. Later on the use of sign in the classroom became more prevalent and was known as the “natural language” for individuals who are deaf.
Alexander Graham Bell
by Audrey Jacobs | January 11, 2017
Alexander Graham Bell was an educator, a scientist and an inventor during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Born in Edinburgh Scotland, on March third, 1847, he did all his studies in Europe going to a private high school, Edinburgh Royal High School. His first portion of college was at Edinburgh University, later transferring to The University of London, where he completed his studies in visible speech. His father and grandfather both studied communication for the deaf, his mother was almost completely deaf, this rooted his inspiration to find forms of speech. Shortly after establishing a practice in London, his two brothers became sick with tuberculosis and the whole family moved to America to become healthier. Though he wasn’t happy about his transportation, he continued studying the human voice.
In 1871, he started working on telegraph transmissions for several messages using different frequencies on wires. He later gained support from people who found promises in his products to fund his experiments. Thomas Sanders was a wealthy businessman and also offered Bell a place to stay, and Gardiner Hubbard was an American lawyer, financier, and philanthropist. After many failed attempts in 1876, he succeeded and invents the first telephone. This wasn’t his first invention, from the time he was twelve, while working the the wheat factory he invented a way to use paddles to turn over the grains. When he was sixteen, he started working with his dad and sparked his interest in deaf communications.
After furthering his inventions he went back to his original passion of helping the deaf. He pushed towards Oralism, where the deaf learn to speak instead or Manualism, that supports the use of ASL. In 1890, where he established the American Association to promote the teaching of speech to the deaf. He believed that oral education would decrease deaf marriages, decreasing the possibility for deaf children. Increase the opportunity for the deaf community for education and employment.
My Least Favorite
by Dianna Hudson (Ohio) | March 8, 2013
I have to say the Alexander Graham Bell is my least favorite historical figure in the Deaf community. I saw details of his work in the documentary film, “Through Deaf Eyes”. It also stated that he didn’t feel deaf people should marry another deaf person, as this may produce a deaf child and he was against that. I don’t know how he could take this form of thought, I believe his mother and/or wife were deaf as well. I don’t agree with the oralism argument in educating the Deaf, and I think it hinders and is a waste of time more than it helps.
Abbe de ‘Epee is a favorite for taking the time to learn to communicate with the deaf to teach them.
Last but not least would have to be Heather Whitestone. I think I remember when she won the pageant, and I think that she made a positive influence in the history of the Deaf and the history of America as a whole.
William Stokoe is another one you have to love. I wonder if he had any idea what his dissertation would do for the Deaf community. I think ASL is a beautiful language. I’m so glad that it has successfully evolved for the Deaf culture, and I appreciate each and every person who has a positive influence in Deaf history, giving the Deaf something to be proud of. | <urn:uuid:75b3c71d-2b5a-4b62-806c-84f6216586e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.startasl.com/alexander-graham-bell/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00017.warc.gz | en | 0.988651 | 2,673 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
-0.24399667978286743,
0.06469009816646576,
0.3744141161441803,
-0.15145376324653625,
-0.9134213328361511,
-0.06931409239768982,
0.5654376149177551,
0.4331485629081726,
-0.4150905907154083,
-0.09091588854789734,
-0.11663739383220673,
-0.12127450108528137,
0.242043137550354,
-0.0958840921521... | 1 | We all know Alexander Graham Bell (known as AGB in the Deaf community) as the inventor of the telephone.
That makes him a good guy, right? Creating a way for man to effectively communicate across long distances? Not so much.
Bell was an innovator and educator. However, he was also an oppressor, and this side of him isn’t usually discussed.
His Helpful Side
Alexander Graham Bell’s “helpful side” is what is usually written in his biographies.
He was born in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1847. Ever since he was young, he always had an interest in hearing and speech.
Alexander Melville Bell, his father, was the creator of a series of symbols that that showed speech-the position and movement of the lips, throat, and tongue when making sounds. This was called “Visible Speech” and was used to teach deaf people how to speak.
Bell helped his father with public demonstrations of Visible Speech in 1862 until 1869 when he became his father’s partner.
Bell had been experimenting with acoustics and wanted to find a way to improve the telegraph so that it can transmit sounds. Many inventors before Bell had unsuccessfully attempted this.
In 1870, Bell’s brothers died of tuberculosis, and his family moved to Brantford, Ontario, Canada. In Boston, he opened a school for teachers of the deaf in 1872. During his work there, he became friends with attorney Gardiner Green Hubbard. Hubbard’s daughter, Mabel, had been struck with scarlet fever as a child and became deaf.
Bell began to write specifications to patent a device that could carry speech by wire. This was the telephone. He was issued the patent for the telephone on March 7, 1876. He transmitted speech successfully for the first time only three days later. He married Mabel Hubbard the same year.
Bell founded the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf in 1890. This is now known as the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf.
Bell died in 1922 at the age of seventy-five.
His Harmful Side
Alexander Graham Bell’s “harmful side” is very surprising, but is not usually discussed.
First, while Bell was the first to patent the telephone, he was not the first to come up with the idea for the telephone. There is a lot of controversy around who actually invented the first telephone. Some even say that Bell stole the idea from Elisha Gray, who was a professor at Oberlin College, and beat him to the patent office.
But even worse – Bell believed that deafness was a horrible curse to the person who suffered from it.
That is a pretty awful thing to think, and for someone with so much influence, a terrible thought to spread.
There are several reasons why Bell would have this thought about deafness. One is that he grew up with a value for speech, and as an educator of the deaf, he saw how difficult it is for a deaf child to acquire knowledge through spoken and written language. He also did not come in contact with those Deaf people who were part of the Deaf community and who had successfully found happiness within it. So, therefore, without this exposure, it’s not hard to see how Bell would have seen deafness as only a handicap.
However, Bell also saw deafness as a threat to the social order. He thought that deaf people weakened society. In the 1880s, when Bell was rather wealthy and had a lot of time on his hands, he became worried about the numbers of deaf people in America and how they were increasing. He thought this was weakening the country and was determined to find a way to stop it.
Because deafness seemed as though it were incurable, Bell wanted to find a way to prevent the birth of deaf children. He examined data from many American schools for the deaf and wrote a paper entitled Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race.
Bell read his paper at the American Academy of Sciences at New Haven, Connecticut in 1883. Then, in 1884, he read it to the Conference of Principals of American Schools for the Deaf.
Bell’s thought and conclusions were shocking. To justify his findings, he documented three significant facts about deaf Americans:
- The tendency of deaf people to marry other deaf people
- The numbers of deaf people marrying other deaf people increased during the nineteenth century
- This increase would continue into the future unless drastic steps are taken to stop it
Bell stated that this tendency of deaf people marrying deaf people would eventually lead to a creation of a deaf race and “would be a great calamity to the world.”
His reasons for the tendency of deaf people marrying other deaf people were as follows:
- Residential schools for the deaf
- deaf associations and organizations
- deaf newspapers
- education in sign language
- writing in sign language
- erroneous ideas about deaf people
- deaf people’s desire to create a deaf state
Numbers 5-7 were of no importance and made no sense. Sign language writing doesn’t really exist, his erroneous ideas were that deaf people could not be taught to speak well enough to carry a conversation, and a deaf state would never be established because of lack of support for the deaf community.
His first four reasons, though, were very valid and true. If he successfully eliminated these things, the American deaf community would be non-existent. And that is what he wanted to do. Without the cultural links and socializations of deaf people, they would be isolated and more integrated into the hearing society.
Bell had two ideas for keeping deaf people from marrying. One was to enact laws that would forbid the congenitally deaf people from intermarrying. This, however, Bell though, would lead to immoral actions and illegitimate children. It is also difficult to tell when a deaf person became deaf.
His second idea was to eliminate residential schools, prohibit sign language use in deaf education, and forbid deaf teachers from teaching deaf students. Bell thought these measures would encourage deaf people to use their oral skills and become more integrated into the hearing society. These measures could be “hidden” and seen as education reforms.
Bell’s thoughts and findings did not lead to the end of deaf marriage, but it did instill fear and anger in many deaf people and spark debates.
To gain support, Bell printed his Memoir and sent it to members of Congress, the principals of schools for the deaf, and other people involved in deaf education. They were not impressed. The truth came out. Those involved in deaf education knew that most of their students had hearing parents. Deaf children are rarely born to deaf parents.
Bell wanted to take away everything Deaf people had-their schools, their organizations, their newspapers, and even their language. Thankfully, he was unsuccessful. Deaf people are still people. There is nothing wrong with them, and they most definitely do not pose a threat to the human race.
This information may come as a shock to you, and it should. There are two sides to every story, and this is one side that most people do not know about-Bell and his fight for eugenics against the deaf.
Were Alexander Graham Bell’s contributions to society more helpful or harmful?
Alexander Graham Bell Papers Submitted by Students
Who is your favorite person from Deaf history?
Alexander Graham Bell
by Erika (Salt Lake City, Utah) | February 2, 2014
My favorite person from Deaf History is Alexander Graham Bell because he gave the deaf population something to fight for.
Every story needs a great villain and quite often the villain does not seem so villainous on the surface. Every great story where good triumphs over evil the villain makes the hero stand up and fight for something, anything.
While I will readily admit that Bell was most likely a villain out of ignorance he was still a villain nonetheless. The push he made to force oralism gave the deaf community a reason to remember how proud they were of a language they had created. Had Bell not pushed for oralism it is quite possible that ASL would never have seen the realization that it has today.
Now recognized as its own language and taught in most colleges, including hearing schools, ASL has become a force to be reckoned with. It is always nice to see a group stand together to defend something they are proud of.
Alexander Graham Bell
by Kathleen Sweeney | December 7, 2016
My favorite contributor to the deaf community is Alexander Graham Bell. Bell’s work was highly influenced by his wife and mother being deaf. He is most known for his invention of the telephone. Bell’s central interest lied in deaf education and teaching.
His father was a researcher of speech and he too took interest in the physiology of speech. Bell utilized his fathers method called “visible speech” to teach deaf students.
Bell also published a paper analyzing the culture of the deaf community. He expressed that deaf people often socialized together, within the community. He was an extreme supporter of oralism and believed the speech was the superior way for dead individuals to thrive.
Later on, Graham expressed the universal language for the deaf community was established and should be recognized. Later on the use of sign in the classroom became more prevalent and was known as the “natural language” for individuals who are deaf.
Alexander Graham Bell
by Audrey Jacobs | January 11, 2017
Alexander Graham Bell was an educator, a scientist and an inventor during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Born in Edinburgh Scotland, on March third, 1847, he did all his studies in Europe going to a private high school, Edinburgh Royal High School. His first portion of college was at Edinburgh University, later transferring to The University of London, where he completed his studies in visible speech. His father and grandfather both studied communication for the deaf, his mother was almost completely deaf, this rooted his inspiration to find forms of speech. Shortly after establishing a practice in London, his two brothers became sick with tuberculosis and the whole family moved to America to become healthier. Though he wasn’t happy about his transportation, he continued studying the human voice.
In 1871, he started working on telegraph transmissions for several messages using different frequencies on wires. He later gained support from people who found promises in his products to fund his experiments. Thomas Sanders was a wealthy businessman and also offered Bell a place to stay, and Gardiner Hubbard was an American lawyer, financier, and philanthropist. After many failed attempts in 1876, he succeeded and invents the first telephone. This wasn’t his first invention, from the time he was twelve, while working the the wheat factory he invented a way to use paddles to turn over the grains. When he was sixteen, he started working with his dad and sparked his interest in deaf communications.
After furthering his inventions he went back to his original passion of helping the deaf. He pushed towards Oralism, where the deaf learn to speak instead or Manualism, that supports the use of ASL. In 1890, where he established the American Association to promote the teaching of speech to the deaf. He believed that oral education would decrease deaf marriages, decreasing the possibility for deaf children. Increase the opportunity for the deaf community for education and employment.
My Least Favorite
by Dianna Hudson (Ohio) | March 8, 2013
I have to say the Alexander Graham Bell is my least favorite historical figure in the Deaf community. I saw details of his work in the documentary film, “Through Deaf Eyes”. It also stated that he didn’t feel deaf people should marry another deaf person, as this may produce a deaf child and he was against that. I don’t know how he could take this form of thought, I believe his mother and/or wife were deaf as well. I don’t agree with the oralism argument in educating the Deaf, and I think it hinders and is a waste of time more than it helps.
Abbe de ‘Epee is a favorite for taking the time to learn to communicate with the deaf to teach them.
Last but not least would have to be Heather Whitestone. I think I remember when she won the pageant, and I think that she made a positive influence in the history of the Deaf and the history of America as a whole.
William Stokoe is another one you have to love. I wonder if he had any idea what his dissertation would do for the Deaf community. I think ASL is a beautiful language. I’m so glad that it has successfully evolved for the Deaf culture, and I appreciate each and every person who has a positive influence in Deaf history, giving the Deaf something to be proud of. | 2,643 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of the March
On January 22, 1974 thousands of pro-lifers participated in the first March for Life to stand up for the unborn. An inspiring rally was held as Members of Congress announced pro-life legislation and expressed their support for the pro-life cause. The program concluded with a “Circle of Life” march around the Capitol, followed by participants lobbying their Members of Congress.
Soon after that first March in 1974, it became apparent that congressional protection for the unborn was not on the horizon. Instead of sitting on the sidelines, Nellie decided that the MARCH FOR LIFE, rather than the originally anticipated one-time event, would instead be held every year until Roe v. Wade was overturned. That year, the March for Life became incorporated as an action-oriented non-profit organization, and the “Life Principles” were developed as the underlying guideline of the organization.
With Nellie’s leadership, the March continued to grow and develop each year. Nellie was an ever-faithful voice for the most vulnerable in society, working to protect the preborn until her last hours of life. While each MARCH FOR LIFE has faced a unique challenge or obstacle, the numbers of participants have continued to grow. Below are some highlights of the dedication of pro-lifers over the past forty years:
On January 22, 1987, as pro-lifers began their annual pilgrimage to Washington D.C. for the MARCH FOR LIFE, many faced a terrible snow storm. While some had to turn back, thousands continued on to Washington D.C. to witness for the preborn. Nellie later commented “Our continuing to march that day was not stubbornness to defy the elements, but willingness to cope as best we could in our determined efforts to defend the unalienable and paramount right to life of our born and preborn brothers and sisters.” Police estimated that 10,000 people trod through the deep snow that day.
In 1990 it was apparent that the March was growing tremendously. For the first time, buses had to park at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial (RFK) stadium and pro-lifers took the Metro to the March. Unfortunately, there was an escalator collapse in which many pro-lifers were hurt; as a result, many others had to walk miles to the rally. But, they graciously walked the “extra mile” with joy for the sake of life!
In 1995 there were disruptions in the planning of the March because of shootings at an abortion facility. The press sought comment from the MARCH FOR LIFE Education and Defense Fund, and we reassured them that the March for Life is dedicated to protecting life through peaceful means.
In 1998, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Roe and Doe, the dedication of prolife Americans was proven again with an unprecedented number of Marchers. The rally featured three former pro-abortion activists who had become pro-life: Dr. Bernard Nathanson, founder of NARAL, Norma McCorvey, the plaintiff in Roe v. Wade, and Sandra Cano, the plaintiff in Doe v. Bolton.
In 2002 the MARCH FOR LIFE was held just months after the September 11th terrorist attacks on America. The march went on and thousands courageously made the journey to Washington, DC despite the uncertainty and fear that the attack brought upon the American people.
In 2005, on the stage, the family of Terri Schiavo, who were then battling to save her from starvation and dehydration, reminded the marchers that the right to life applies not only to the unborn, but all, including the disabled and terminally ill.
The year 2006 brought excitement to the March, as two Supreme Court seats opened up in 2005. Following the retirement of Justice Sandra Day O’Connor and the passing of Chief Justice Rehnquist, President Bush nominated Judge John G. Roberts and Judge Samuel Anthony Alito to the Supreme Court. The President also raised Justice Roberts to Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Pro-lifers had hope that Roe v. Wade/Doe v. Bolton cases would be corrected.
The March in 2009 was held two days after the Inauguration of President Barack Obama, who had expressed his support of abortion. Perhaps in response, the March for Life estimated that it was the largest March to date, with hundreds of thousands of participants.
In 2011, there was a sense of renewal as the 111th Congress was sworn in, bringing many new faces to Washington, including many who were elected on pro-life platforms. At the rally, a record fifty-three members of Congress spoke to voice their support for the unborn!
The 2013 March will be filled with sadness as pro-lifers mourn the 40-year legacy of Roe v. Wade, and the passing of Nellie Gray. At the same time, we are filled with a sense of gratitude as we look back on all the great work that she did in organizing and running the March for Life for the better part of a century. Nellie dedicated all of her energy to advocating for the most vulnerable in society. Under her leadership, the March grew from 30 concerned citizens gathering in a Washington D.C. home to the present day march that draws hundreds of thousands of people from all fifty states and countless countries! | <urn:uuid:71dbed1c-60e2-4a89-8365-6ad3044f3af4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://marchforlife.org/history-of-the-march-/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.981641 | 1,092 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
-0.22968915104866028,
0.21482858061790466,
-0.02373945713043213,
0.40387964248657227,
-0.19957420229911804,
0.7032104730606079,
-0.09390591084957123,
0.15905871987342834,
0.02222800813615322,
0.11824016273021698,
0.18451660871505737,
0.36782175302505493,
-0.06164932996034622,
-0.0477616414... | 18 | History of the March
On January 22, 1974 thousands of pro-lifers participated in the first March for Life to stand up for the unborn. An inspiring rally was held as Members of Congress announced pro-life legislation and expressed their support for the pro-life cause. The program concluded with a “Circle of Life” march around the Capitol, followed by participants lobbying their Members of Congress.
Soon after that first March in 1974, it became apparent that congressional protection for the unborn was not on the horizon. Instead of sitting on the sidelines, Nellie decided that the MARCH FOR LIFE, rather than the originally anticipated one-time event, would instead be held every year until Roe v. Wade was overturned. That year, the March for Life became incorporated as an action-oriented non-profit organization, and the “Life Principles” were developed as the underlying guideline of the organization.
With Nellie’s leadership, the March continued to grow and develop each year. Nellie was an ever-faithful voice for the most vulnerable in society, working to protect the preborn until her last hours of life. While each MARCH FOR LIFE has faced a unique challenge or obstacle, the numbers of participants have continued to grow. Below are some highlights of the dedication of pro-lifers over the past forty years:
On January 22, 1987, as pro-lifers began their annual pilgrimage to Washington D.C. for the MARCH FOR LIFE, many faced a terrible snow storm. While some had to turn back, thousands continued on to Washington D.C. to witness for the preborn. Nellie later commented “Our continuing to march that day was not stubbornness to defy the elements, but willingness to cope as best we could in our determined efforts to defend the unalienable and paramount right to life of our born and preborn brothers and sisters.” Police estimated that 10,000 people trod through the deep snow that day.
In 1990 it was apparent that the March was growing tremendously. For the first time, buses had to park at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial (RFK) stadium and pro-lifers took the Metro to the March. Unfortunately, there was an escalator collapse in which many pro-lifers were hurt; as a result, many others had to walk miles to the rally. But, they graciously walked the “extra mile” with joy for the sake of life!
In 1995 there were disruptions in the planning of the March because of shootings at an abortion facility. The press sought comment from the MARCH FOR LIFE Education and Defense Fund, and we reassured them that the March for Life is dedicated to protecting life through peaceful means.
In 1998, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Roe and Doe, the dedication of prolife Americans was proven again with an unprecedented number of Marchers. The rally featured three former pro-abortion activists who had become pro-life: Dr. Bernard Nathanson, founder of NARAL, Norma McCorvey, the plaintiff in Roe v. Wade, and Sandra Cano, the plaintiff in Doe v. Bolton.
In 2002 the MARCH FOR LIFE was held just months after the September 11th terrorist attacks on America. The march went on and thousands courageously made the journey to Washington, DC despite the uncertainty and fear that the attack brought upon the American people.
In 2005, on the stage, the family of Terri Schiavo, who were then battling to save her from starvation and dehydration, reminded the marchers that the right to life applies not only to the unborn, but all, including the disabled and terminally ill.
The year 2006 brought excitement to the March, as two Supreme Court seats opened up in 2005. Following the retirement of Justice Sandra Day O’Connor and the passing of Chief Justice Rehnquist, President Bush nominated Judge John G. Roberts and Judge Samuel Anthony Alito to the Supreme Court. The President also raised Justice Roberts to Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Pro-lifers had hope that Roe v. Wade/Doe v. Bolton cases would be corrected.
The March in 2009 was held two days after the Inauguration of President Barack Obama, who had expressed his support of abortion. Perhaps in response, the March for Life estimated that it was the largest March to date, with hundreds of thousands of participants.
In 2011, there was a sense of renewal as the 111th Congress was sworn in, bringing many new faces to Washington, including many who were elected on pro-life platforms. At the rally, a record fifty-three members of Congress spoke to voice their support for the unborn!
The 2013 March will be filled with sadness as pro-lifers mourn the 40-year legacy of Roe v. Wade, and the passing of Nellie Gray. At the same time, we are filled with a sense of gratitude as we look back on all the great work that she did in organizing and running the March for Life for the better part of a century. Nellie dedicated all of her energy to advocating for the most vulnerable in society. Under her leadership, the March grew from 30 concerned citizens gathering in a Washington D.C. home to the present day march that draws hundreds of thousands of people from all fifty states and countless countries! | 1,119 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St Andrew's Day, otherwise known as 'Là Naomh Anndrais' in Scottish Gaelic, is nearly here, with celebrations in honour of the patron saint of Scotland set to take place at the end of this week.
Celebrated annually on November 30, it's also an excuse for Scotland to enjoy a good old bank holiday, which will take place on Monday December 2, this year, due to the patron saint day falling on a Saturday.
But what is St Andrew's Day all about, and what did the figure do that was so saintly? From the history behind Scotland's patron saint day to the country's celebrations, here is everything you need to know about St Andrew's Day.
Who was St Andrew the Apostle?
St Andrew, according to Christianity's teachings, was a fisherman and one of Jesus Christ's apostles who was born in Bethsaida, in Galilee, now part of Israel (a long way from Scotland).
Like Jesus, Andrew died a martyr after being killed by the Romans and was crucified in Greece on an X-shaped cross in 60 AD, rather than the 'T' shape cross that Jesus was crucified on. He apparently felt that he wasn't worthy to die on the same shape of cross as Jesus. This type of cross is also known as a saltire - the symbol that makes up the Scottish flag.
His remains were moved 300 years after his death to Constantinople, now Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine.
We don't know too much more about him, but he was revered in Scotland from around 1,000 AD although he didn't become its official patron saint of Scotland until Scotland’s independence was declared with the signing of the Declaration of Arbroath in 1320.
How did he become linked with Scotland?
St Andrew's links with Scotland come from the Pictish King Oengus I, according to legend, who built a monastery in the Fife town of Kinrymont after the relics of the saint (said to include a tooth, kneecap, arm and finger bone) were brought to the town from Greece in the eighth century.
The town became a major centre of pilgrimage and was later re-named St Andrews, where the famous Scottish university now stands.
St Andrew was made the patron saint of Scotland after the king's descendant, Oengus II, prayed to St Andrew on the eve of a crucial battle against English warriors from Northumberland, around 20 miles east of Edinburgh.
Legend has it that, heavily outnumbered, Oengus II told St Andrew that he would become the patron saint of Scotland if he were granted victory. On the day of the battle, clouds are said to have formed a saltire in the sky, and Oengus's army of Picts and Scots were victorious.
The Saltire flag - a white cross on a blue background - is said to have come from this divine intervention and has been used to represent Scotland since 1385.
In 1870, the Archbishop of Amalfi sent an apparent piece of the saint's shoulder blade to Scotland, where it has since been stored in St Mary's Cathedral in Edinburgh. The other relics were destroyed in the Scottish Reformation.
How Scots celebrate St Andrew's Day
November 30, 60AD is supposedly the date that St Andrew was crucified, which is why the patron saint's day falls on this date each year, although the bank holiday is on the following Monday if it falls on a Saturday or Sunday.
However, it wasn't until the 18th century that celebrating St Andrew's Day became common in Scotland. And bizarrely the tradition didn't even start in Scotland, but in South Carolina in 1729 where a group of wealthy ex-pat Scots started the 'St Andrew’s Society of Charleston' because they were missing home.
The group became well known in the area for their charitable endeavours, helping the poor and needy and it was from here that St Andrew's societies began to spread around the world.
In 2006 St Andrew's Day was made a bank holiday in Scotland, and has traditionally been a day off for students of St Andrews University. While St Andrew's Day in Scotland and St Patrick's Day in Northern Ireland are bank holidays, St George's Day in England and St David's Day in Wales are not, which is usually a source of some frustration every year.
The day is usually marked by a celebration of Scottish culture, including dancing, food and music, and both the British Prime Minister and Scotland's First Minister give St Andrew's Day messages.
To celebrate St Andrew's Day this year, Savour St Andrews will be holding a range of food and drink events throughout November.
2019 also marks the 10th anniversary of The Saltire Festival, and at this year's event, attendees will be able to enjoy live music and history-themed experiences.
Where else is St Andrew the patron saint of?
St Andrew is also the patron saint of Greece, Russia, Romania, Amalfi in Italy and Barbados, where St Andrew's Day is celebrated as the national day of Independence on the Caribbean island.
As the patron saint of Barbados, St Andrew is celebrated in a number of Bajan symbols including the cross formation of the Barbadian Coat of Arms and the country's national honours system, which styles persons as Knights or Dames of St Andrew.
St Andrew is also the patron saint of the Order of the Thistle, one of the highest ranks of chivalry in the world and second only to the Order of the Garter.
He also keeps busy as the patron saint of fishmongers, fishermen, women wanting to be mothers, singers, spinsters, maidens, sore throats and gout.
November 30 also holds significance in other countries. In parts of eastern and central Europe, including Romania, Russia, Austria, Germany and Poland, the date is associated with single girls' future husbands.
In Romania, it is customary for young women to put 41 grains of wheat beneath their pillow before they go to sleep, and if they dream that someone is coming to steal their grains that means that they are going to get married next year.
Other traditions involve pouring wax through a keyhole into cold water, with the resulting shape determining a girl's future husband's profession. | <urn:uuid:bbc88421-55ed-41c5-a4f5-992cedcbe188> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/11/30/st-andrews-day-2019-history-facts-scotlands-patron-saint/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00377.warc.gz | en | 0.980064 | 1,291 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
0.03713258355855942,
0.13628223538398743,
0.329140841960907,
0.02769394777715206,
0.12374431639909744,
-0.545579195022583,
0.16415539383888245,
0.28473496437072754,
0.17968469858169556,
0.21049121022224426,
-0.16599491238594055,
-0.14338944852352142,
0.012192374095320702,
0.154590815305709... | 1 | St Andrew's Day, otherwise known as 'Là Naomh Anndrais' in Scottish Gaelic, is nearly here, with celebrations in honour of the patron saint of Scotland set to take place at the end of this week.
Celebrated annually on November 30, it's also an excuse for Scotland to enjoy a good old bank holiday, which will take place on Monday December 2, this year, due to the patron saint day falling on a Saturday.
But what is St Andrew's Day all about, and what did the figure do that was so saintly? From the history behind Scotland's patron saint day to the country's celebrations, here is everything you need to know about St Andrew's Day.
Who was St Andrew the Apostle?
St Andrew, according to Christianity's teachings, was a fisherman and one of Jesus Christ's apostles who was born in Bethsaida, in Galilee, now part of Israel (a long way from Scotland).
Like Jesus, Andrew died a martyr after being killed by the Romans and was crucified in Greece on an X-shaped cross in 60 AD, rather than the 'T' shape cross that Jesus was crucified on. He apparently felt that he wasn't worthy to die on the same shape of cross as Jesus. This type of cross is also known as a saltire - the symbol that makes up the Scottish flag.
His remains were moved 300 years after his death to Constantinople, now Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine.
We don't know too much more about him, but he was revered in Scotland from around 1,000 AD although he didn't become its official patron saint of Scotland until Scotland’s independence was declared with the signing of the Declaration of Arbroath in 1320.
How did he become linked with Scotland?
St Andrew's links with Scotland come from the Pictish King Oengus I, according to legend, who built a monastery in the Fife town of Kinrymont after the relics of the saint (said to include a tooth, kneecap, arm and finger bone) were brought to the town from Greece in the eighth century.
The town became a major centre of pilgrimage and was later re-named St Andrews, where the famous Scottish university now stands.
St Andrew was made the patron saint of Scotland after the king's descendant, Oengus II, prayed to St Andrew on the eve of a crucial battle against English warriors from Northumberland, around 20 miles east of Edinburgh.
Legend has it that, heavily outnumbered, Oengus II told St Andrew that he would become the patron saint of Scotland if he were granted victory. On the day of the battle, clouds are said to have formed a saltire in the sky, and Oengus's army of Picts and Scots were victorious.
The Saltire flag - a white cross on a blue background - is said to have come from this divine intervention and has been used to represent Scotland since 1385.
In 1870, the Archbishop of Amalfi sent an apparent piece of the saint's shoulder blade to Scotland, where it has since been stored in St Mary's Cathedral in Edinburgh. The other relics were destroyed in the Scottish Reformation.
How Scots celebrate St Andrew's Day
November 30, 60AD is supposedly the date that St Andrew was crucified, which is why the patron saint's day falls on this date each year, although the bank holiday is on the following Monday if it falls on a Saturday or Sunday.
However, it wasn't until the 18th century that celebrating St Andrew's Day became common in Scotland. And bizarrely the tradition didn't even start in Scotland, but in South Carolina in 1729 where a group of wealthy ex-pat Scots started the 'St Andrew’s Society of Charleston' because they were missing home.
The group became well known in the area for their charitable endeavours, helping the poor and needy and it was from here that St Andrew's societies began to spread around the world.
In 2006 St Andrew's Day was made a bank holiday in Scotland, and has traditionally been a day off for students of St Andrews University. While St Andrew's Day in Scotland and St Patrick's Day in Northern Ireland are bank holidays, St George's Day in England and St David's Day in Wales are not, which is usually a source of some frustration every year.
The day is usually marked by a celebration of Scottish culture, including dancing, food and music, and both the British Prime Minister and Scotland's First Minister give St Andrew's Day messages.
To celebrate St Andrew's Day this year, Savour St Andrews will be holding a range of food and drink events throughout November.
2019 also marks the 10th anniversary of The Saltire Festival, and at this year's event, attendees will be able to enjoy live music and history-themed experiences.
Where else is St Andrew the patron saint of?
St Andrew is also the patron saint of Greece, Russia, Romania, Amalfi in Italy and Barbados, where St Andrew's Day is celebrated as the national day of Independence on the Caribbean island.
As the patron saint of Barbados, St Andrew is celebrated in a number of Bajan symbols including the cross formation of the Barbadian Coat of Arms and the country's national honours system, which styles persons as Knights or Dames of St Andrew.
St Andrew is also the patron saint of the Order of the Thistle, one of the highest ranks of chivalry in the world and second only to the Order of the Garter.
He also keeps busy as the patron saint of fishmongers, fishermen, women wanting to be mothers, singers, spinsters, maidens, sore throats and gout.
November 30 also holds significance in other countries. In parts of eastern and central Europe, including Romania, Russia, Austria, Germany and Poland, the date is associated with single girls' future husbands.
In Romania, it is customary for young women to put 41 grains of wheat beneath their pillow before they go to sleep, and if they dream that someone is coming to steal their grains that means that they are going to get married next year.
Other traditions involve pouring wax through a keyhole into cold water, with the resulting shape determining a girl's future husband's profession. | 1,307 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 1978 Spanish Constitution bans capital punishment in Spain. Spain completely abolished capital punishment for all offenses, including during wartime conditions, in October 1995.
The last executions were carried out on September 27, 1975 when five members of ETA and Revolutionary Antifascist Patriotic Front (FRAP) were executed by firing squad for murder following a much-publicised trial in which a number of the convicted (including a pregnant woman) were given clemency by General Francisco Franco, and the sentences of the remaining five, due to the unavailability of executioners versed in the use of the garrote, were carried out by shooting. The garotte had been portrayed as a draconian act by the publicity after its last use in 1974, when Salvador Puig Antich was executed in Barcelona and Heinz Chez in Tarragona.
Capital punishment in Spain Wikipedia
Capital punishment was common in the Spanish kingdom, and methods used included decapitation (especially for nobility). In 1820 Ferdinand VII replaced all other methods with the garrote, which was used mainly since then, including for the liberal freedom fighter Mariana de Pineda Muñoz and the assassin of six-time Prime Minister of Spain Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. According to a pamphlet published anonymously by Crown Prince Oscar Bernadotte, Spain was the most frequent executioner of the Western world in the early 1800s, followed by his native Sweden. The penalty was abolished by the Second Spanish Republic in 1932 but restored two years later in the midst of social and political turmoil for a few major offences, not including murder.
Capital punishment in Francoist Spain was restored fully on decree in 1938. From 1940 to 1975, 165 judicial executions are reported to have been carried out, although precise numbers from the years following the Spanish Civil War are vague. Among the most relevant executed from this period there is Lluís Companys, President of the Generalitat of Catalonia.
As Franco's regime was consolidated, use of the death penalty became more scarce; between 1950 and 1959 some 58 Spaniards (including two women) were executed by garrote and nine by firing squad. In the 1960s, the total number of executions dropped to six; two in 1960, two in 1963 and two in 1966 (less than in neighbouring France, although several of the convictions were considered political). Due to criticism, a six-year stay followed, broken when Pedro Martínez Exposito was shot in 1972 for homicide and robbery. The next executions, of Salvador Puig Antich and Heinz Chez in 1974, were allegedly held on the same day to deliberately confuse public sentiments and equalize the execution of a political opponent - both were convicted of killing Guardia Civil members - with that of a common murderer. The last five death sentences were carried out simultaneously in Madrid, Barcelona and Burgos on September 27, 1975, prompting Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme - amongst other harsh condemnations - to denounce the regime as "devilish murderers" the following day.
The imposition of the death penalty for terrorism followed its own logic during Franco's dictatorship. Sometimes it was not swiftly carried out, such as in the case of Andrés Ruiz Márquez (Coronel Montenegro), a member of a Spanish National Liberation Front (FELN) commando who had set up a string of small bombs in Madrid. He was arrested by the Spanish police in 1964 and condemned to death but saw his sentence commuted to life in prison. | <urn:uuid:7bf25cfb-33d4-4e6d-a2ef-4d5bf114fbf6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Capital-punishment-in-Spain | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00492.warc.gz | en | 0.981604 | 711 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
-0.1613294631242752,
0.30458319187164307,
0.13205671310424805,
-0.026216721162199974,
0.10800746083259583,
0.10816431045532227,
0.4865577816963196,
0.13251107931137085,
0.36126112937927246,
-0.037903446704149246,
0.20393896102905273,
0.06393930315971375,
-0.23283031582832336,
0.36216038465... | 1 | The 1978 Spanish Constitution bans capital punishment in Spain. Spain completely abolished capital punishment for all offenses, including during wartime conditions, in October 1995.
The last executions were carried out on September 27, 1975 when five members of ETA and Revolutionary Antifascist Patriotic Front (FRAP) were executed by firing squad for murder following a much-publicised trial in which a number of the convicted (including a pregnant woman) were given clemency by General Francisco Franco, and the sentences of the remaining five, due to the unavailability of executioners versed in the use of the garrote, were carried out by shooting. The garotte had been portrayed as a draconian act by the publicity after its last use in 1974, when Salvador Puig Antich was executed in Barcelona and Heinz Chez in Tarragona.
Capital punishment in Spain Wikipedia
Capital punishment was common in the Spanish kingdom, and methods used included decapitation (especially for nobility). In 1820 Ferdinand VII replaced all other methods with the garrote, which was used mainly since then, including for the liberal freedom fighter Mariana de Pineda Muñoz and the assassin of six-time Prime Minister of Spain Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. According to a pamphlet published anonymously by Crown Prince Oscar Bernadotte, Spain was the most frequent executioner of the Western world in the early 1800s, followed by his native Sweden. The penalty was abolished by the Second Spanish Republic in 1932 but restored two years later in the midst of social and political turmoil for a few major offences, not including murder.
Capital punishment in Francoist Spain was restored fully on decree in 1938. From 1940 to 1975, 165 judicial executions are reported to have been carried out, although precise numbers from the years following the Spanish Civil War are vague. Among the most relevant executed from this period there is Lluís Companys, President of the Generalitat of Catalonia.
As Franco's regime was consolidated, use of the death penalty became more scarce; between 1950 and 1959 some 58 Spaniards (including two women) were executed by garrote and nine by firing squad. In the 1960s, the total number of executions dropped to six; two in 1960, two in 1963 and two in 1966 (less than in neighbouring France, although several of the convictions were considered political). Due to criticism, a six-year stay followed, broken when Pedro Martínez Exposito was shot in 1972 for homicide and robbery. The next executions, of Salvador Puig Antich and Heinz Chez in 1974, were allegedly held on the same day to deliberately confuse public sentiments and equalize the execution of a political opponent - both were convicted of killing Guardia Civil members - with that of a common murderer. The last five death sentences were carried out simultaneously in Madrid, Barcelona and Burgos on September 27, 1975, prompting Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme - amongst other harsh condemnations - to denounce the regime as "devilish murderers" the following day.
The imposition of the death penalty for terrorism followed its own logic during Franco's dictatorship. Sometimes it was not swiftly carried out, such as in the case of Andrés Ruiz Márquez (Coronel Montenegro), a member of a Spanish National Liberation Front (FELN) commando who had set up a string of small bombs in Madrid. He was arrested by the Spanish police in 1964 and condemned to death but saw his sentence commuted to life in prison. | 792 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who was Saint Francis of Assisi?
Question: "Who was Saint Francis of Assisi?"
Answer: Though never officially ordained to the priesthood, Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone, known today as Saint Francis, is one of the most famous religious figures in history. Nicknamed “Francesco” by his father, Francis was a Catholic friar and preacher who lived from 1181 to 1226 near the town of Assisi, Italy. While fighting as a soldier for Assisi, he had a vision that caused him to change his life and take orders as a Catholic monk. On a trip to Rome, Francis experienced the sufferings of the poor and as a result made the decision to live in poverty. In 1224, Francis is purported to have received the stigmata after having a vision of an angel.
Francis founded three religious orders: the Friars Minor, the Order of Poor Ladies (or Clares), and the Order of Brothers and Sisters of Penance. Those who followed the Rule of Saint Francis were called Franciscans. Those in the first order (Friars Minor) took vows of obedience, chastity, and strict poverty. They could receive no money, wear no shoes, and ride no horses; they also had to observe several extended fasts every year. Several non-Catholic orders based on the Franciscan Rule exist today in the Anglican, Episcopal, and Lutheran Churches.
Francis is known today as the patron saint of animals. Depictions of Francis in art often show him surrounded by wildlife, and his statue is often found in gardens and nature parks. He is also considered the patron saint of Catholic Action, ecology, and Italy.
Francis is often praised for his humility and service to others. A well-known prayer, sometimes called the “Peace Prayer,” is often attributed to Saint Francis, although its true origin is much more recent. It begins this way: “Lord, make me an instrument of Thy peace; / Where there is hatred, let me sow love.” Other writings attributed to Saint Francis include prayers in praise of Mary, prayers to be recited before the crucifix, and a celebration of all creation.
As with anyone elevated to sainthood, there is some degree of idealization about the life and character of Saint Francis of Assisi. Despite that, it is clear Francis was committed to living his life the way he thought Christ would have lived. His kindness and compassion to the poor and downtrodden flowed out of a humility that saw all people, and indeed all living things, as his brothers and sisters under God. There is no doubt that Francis had a dynamic, likable personality, and his peaceful nature impressed all who came into contact with him.
Francis performed many good works, and his humility and aid of the poor and sick are certainly worthy of emulation. However, Francis was Catholic, and many of his teachings depart from biblical truth. His veneration of Mary, his staunch allegiance to the pope, and his extreme asceticism should all be causes of concern to New Testament believers. The New Testament never commands fasting and, in fact, warns believers of those who “forbid people to marry and order them to abstain from certain foods” (1 Timothy 4:3). Also, the Bible does not condone the elevation of men to “sainthood”—everyone who is in Christ is a saint (Romans 1:7)—or even the naming of ministers as “teacher” or “father” (Matthew 23:8) because we are all brothers. As with any man-made system, we should examine the Franciscan Rule in light of Scripture. Then, “hate what is evil; cling to what is good” (Romans 12:9) and follow Christ (John 21:22).
Recommended Resource: The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation by Justo Gonzalez
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Who was Saint Thomas Aquinas?
Who was Philo of Alexandria?
Who was Polycarp?
Who was Clement of Rome?
Who was Tertullian?
Questions about Church History
Who was Saint Francis of Assisi? | <urn:uuid:9f7d35c4-ba33-4f73-860f-8f88ac7e85e6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gotquestions.org/Saint-Francis-of-Assisi.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.981746 | 887 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
0.2526307702064514,
0.03819635137915611,
0.20445516705513,
-0.29635703563690186,
0.07683947682380676,
0.08174581825733185,
0.43162670731544495,
0.04372385889291763,
0.686396598815918,
-0.1628744751214981,
-0.2256387174129486,
-0.44012558460235596,
0.06090359762310982,
0.16959451138973236,
... | 1 | Who was Saint Francis of Assisi?
Question: "Who was Saint Francis of Assisi?"
Answer: Though never officially ordained to the priesthood, Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone, known today as Saint Francis, is one of the most famous religious figures in history. Nicknamed “Francesco” by his father, Francis was a Catholic friar and preacher who lived from 1181 to 1226 near the town of Assisi, Italy. While fighting as a soldier for Assisi, he had a vision that caused him to change his life and take orders as a Catholic monk. On a trip to Rome, Francis experienced the sufferings of the poor and as a result made the decision to live in poverty. In 1224, Francis is purported to have received the stigmata after having a vision of an angel.
Francis founded three religious orders: the Friars Minor, the Order of Poor Ladies (or Clares), and the Order of Brothers and Sisters of Penance. Those who followed the Rule of Saint Francis were called Franciscans. Those in the first order (Friars Minor) took vows of obedience, chastity, and strict poverty. They could receive no money, wear no shoes, and ride no horses; they also had to observe several extended fasts every year. Several non-Catholic orders based on the Franciscan Rule exist today in the Anglican, Episcopal, and Lutheran Churches.
Francis is known today as the patron saint of animals. Depictions of Francis in art often show him surrounded by wildlife, and his statue is often found in gardens and nature parks. He is also considered the patron saint of Catholic Action, ecology, and Italy.
Francis is often praised for his humility and service to others. A well-known prayer, sometimes called the “Peace Prayer,” is often attributed to Saint Francis, although its true origin is much more recent. It begins this way: “Lord, make me an instrument of Thy peace; / Where there is hatred, let me sow love.” Other writings attributed to Saint Francis include prayers in praise of Mary, prayers to be recited before the crucifix, and a celebration of all creation.
As with anyone elevated to sainthood, there is some degree of idealization about the life and character of Saint Francis of Assisi. Despite that, it is clear Francis was committed to living his life the way he thought Christ would have lived. His kindness and compassion to the poor and downtrodden flowed out of a humility that saw all people, and indeed all living things, as his brothers and sisters under God. There is no doubt that Francis had a dynamic, likable personality, and his peaceful nature impressed all who came into contact with him.
Francis performed many good works, and his humility and aid of the poor and sick are certainly worthy of emulation. However, Francis was Catholic, and many of his teachings depart from biblical truth. His veneration of Mary, his staunch allegiance to the pope, and his extreme asceticism should all be causes of concern to New Testament believers. The New Testament never commands fasting and, in fact, warns believers of those who “forbid people to marry and order them to abstain from certain foods” (1 Timothy 4:3). Also, the Bible does not condone the elevation of men to “sainthood”—everyone who is in Christ is a saint (Romans 1:7)—or even the naming of ministers as “teacher” or “father” (Matthew 23:8) because we are all brothers. As with any man-made system, we should examine the Franciscan Rule in light of Scripture. Then, “hate what is evil; cling to what is good” (Romans 12:9) and follow Christ (John 21:22).
Recommended Resource: The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation by Justo Gonzalez
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Who was Saint Thomas Aquinas?
Who was Philo of Alexandria?
Who was Polycarp?
Who was Clement of Rome?
Who was Tertullian?
Questions about Church History
Who was Saint Francis of Assisi? | 872 | ENGLISH | 1 |
These were wars meant to liberate Africans from colonialism and oppression.
Angola is found in the South Western region of Africa. It was colonized by the Portuguese whose rule was characterized by exploitation and oppression.
By 1960 the Angolans had started agitating for their independence from the Portuguese.
The liberation war in Angola was championed by 3 major liberation movements namely;
- National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA)
- National Union for the total Independence of Angola (UNITA)
- People`s movement for the Liberation of Angola. (M.P.L.A)
REASONS FOR THE WAR
- The Angolans were discontented with the way the Portuguese were grabbing their land and giving it to the white settlers.
- Portuguese also pursued the policy of economic exploitation by which mineral resources were exploited for the benefit of Portugal while Angola remained poor.
- The Angolans were also subjected to forced labour under the contract system where by the contract labourers were given low wages yet subjected to hard work.
- The heavy taxation imposed by the Portuguese to the Africans led to the war. The benefits resulting from taxation were not used for the development of Angola.
- The war also broke out because of the brutal administrative system of the Portuguese. Many Angolans were publically flogged and humiliated because of minor offences.
- Angolans were also discontented because they were denied education except for the few “assimillados” who were colonial agents.
- Angolans wanted to get their freedom i.e. they wanted to regain their political independence.
- Despite the systematic exploitation of the Angolan economy the Portuguese did nothing to develop Angola. They didn’t even invest in Angola.
- In many instances, the Portuguese administrators rapped the African women and molested their husbands. This was a source of discontent which provoked the war.
- The role of the intellectuals can’t be ignored. They inspired the peasants by making them aware of their problems and inciting them go against the Portuguese.
- The Africans were also provoked by the Portuguese policy of imprisonment without trial. Many Africans who were a potential problem were arrested and detained under horrible conditions in the Portuguese cells.
- Many Angolans were also killed innocently by the Portuguese in 1961 about 20,000 Angolans were killed in the Bakongo region by the Portuguese bombs following an uprising there.
- The farmers in Angola were discontented by the low prices for their crops i.e. the Malange uprising (Maria`s war of 1961) was due to the poor prices for coffee.
- The war was also brought about because the Portuguese had failed to setup social infrastructure like schools, hospitals, recreation centers etc.
EFFECTS OF THE WAR.
- The Angolan war of 1967-1974 had a lot of effects on the people of Angola.
- Angola got her independence from the Portuguese after a long struggle in 1975.
- The prolonged war led to loss of lives because the Portuguese resorted to the scotched earth policy which claimed lives to many Africans.
- The same policy led to the destruction of property i.e. villages, houses, crops were destroyed.
- The people who were detained under the Portuguese administration were unconditionally released.
- The M.P.L.A thereafter embarked on the economic recovery programmes leading to general economic development.
- Social infrastructure like roads and other social amenities like hospitals and schools were set up and children were encouraged to go to school.
- The heavy taxes which were formerly imposed by Portuguese were scrapped and Angolans were given only taxes which they would afford to pay.
- Land which was grabbed by the Portuguese was redistributed to the Angolans.
- The overthrow of the colonial administration led to the departure of many Portuguese who choose to go back home to Portugal.
- Farmers were encouraged to increase production as they were given fair prices for their crops.
- Because of the assistance the MPLA got from the socialist countries the government in Angola adopted the socialist ideology.
- There was however no total peace in Angola because UNITA rebels under Jonas Savimbi continued to fight until 1995 when it agreed to join MPLA to form a government of National Unity.
- Anew government was set up in Angola under the leadership of Jose Edwardo Dos Santos.
THIS VIDEO SHOWS ANGOLAN WAR OF LIBERATION
Guinea Bissau is a West African country which was colonized by the Portuguese. Just like Angola the Portuguese inflicted much suffering to the people of Guinea Bissau.
The liberation struggle in Guinea Bissau was led by African independence party of Guinea (P.A.I.G).
P.A.I.G was founded by Amilcar Cabral in 1954. The major reasons for the outbreak of the war were;
The Portuguese were hated by Africans because the exploited the African farmers through the system of price mechanism. The Africans were given very low prices for their Agricultural produce.
The Guineans wanted to do away with the foreigners. They wanted to free themselves from the Portuguese colonial admin and regain their independence.
It also broke up because the people of Guinea Bissau wanted to restore their lost dignity, to regain the lost human rights and freedom.
The war also broke out because the Guineans were disgusted by the activities of the Portuguese secret police. They harassed and tortured innocent people without cause.
The Portuguese were also brutal and harsh. They in discriminately killed many Guineans for example in 1958 when the African dock workers went on strike, very many of them were killed at Pijiguiti.
The people of Guinea also rebelled against the imprisonment without trial which was very common.
The Portuguese also pursued the policy of forced labour where by the Guineans were forced to provide labour in their plantations and public works.
There was also too much insecurity in Guinea caused by constant wars. There was need to put an end to this.
The Portuguese ignored the development of health and educational facilities, many of them were illiterate and the Portuguese took no steps to fight them.
The high taxes levied on the people of Guinea led to the war. The benefits were not used for the development of guinea yet the methods of collection were harsh.
Portuguese also grabbed a lot of land from the people and gave it to the Portuguese settlers. The people of Guinea thus wanted to get back their land.
There was massive and general exploitation of Guinea`s mineral resources by the Portuguese.
EFFECTS OF THE LIBERATION WAR
- The war led to an end to the longtime rule of the Portuguese in Guinea Bissau.
- The war led to destruction of property like houses, crops, villages etc.
- The military option pursued by PAIG and the scorched earth policy later adopted by the Portuguese led to loss of many lives.
- When Guinea Bissau got her independence in 1973, the Africans enjoyed their natural rights and freedom.
- The new government also set up infrastructure like roads etc. Social services like hospitals and schools were also set up.
- Land which was grabbed by Portuguese was returned to the Africans.
- Political detainees who had been arrested and detained by the Portuguese agents were unconditionally released.
- Success of the P.A.I.G government ushered in a new era of peace and stability to many parts of Guinea.
- The harsh and heavy taxes imposed on the Africans by the Portuguese were completely scrapped.
- Farmers were encouraged to increase agricultural output and therefore better prices for their products.
- Many Portuguese choose to return back to Portugal after the fall of their government in Guinea.
- The economic development programmes later pursued by new government led to general economic prosperity.
- The new government of P.A.I.G later followed the socialist ideology.
A VIDEO ABOUT GUINEA BISSAU LIBERATION WAR
THE UGANDAN LIBERATION WAR OF 1979
The 1979 Ugandan liberation war was led by spearheaded by the UNLF and its armed wing UNLA. It was aimed at toppling the government of Idi Amin Dada.
The UNLF was a coalition of about 22 groups formed in exile during the Moshi conference of March 1978. The major reasons for the war were the following.
The UNLF wanted to put an end to the fascist role of Idi Amin.
It took place because Amin was killing innocent Ugandans. By 1979 over 500,000 people had already been killed by Amin.
Amin was a tribalist. He used divisive politics by favouring his tribesmen at the expense of the other tribes.
The military agencies like Public Safety Unit (PSU) and the state research bureau were known for torturing innocent people using state organs.
Economically, the living standards of Ugandans had fallen drastically; there was terrible shortage of essentials which prompted the growth of black market as a result of the expulsion of Asians in 1972.
There was high rate of inflation and it had become so difficult for people to buy what they wanted because of the continuous increase in prices.
During Amin`s regime industries collapsed because of the unskilled businessmen who were allowed to run industries after the expulsion of Asians.
The liberation also aimed at protecting the rights of the farmers who could not be paid for the agricultural products like coffee, cotton etc.
The war was prompted by the fact that Amin had destroyed infrastructure due to poor management.
There was lack of security for property and lives.
The UNLF also waged war against Amin because of his poor foreign policies, his regime was hostile to the neighbours claiming territories in Kenya and Tanzania.
Ugandans who had gone into exile wanted to come back to their mother land.
The UNLF fought because they wanted to restore political freedom human rights and the rule of law.
The military personnel often interfered with the duty of ordinary courts; at times civilians would be arrested and tried by military tribunals.
There was no freedom of speech, association, expression and press. In addition he had declared himself life president. This left no chance for any person to rule apart from using force.
Imperialist countries supported the liberation cause. Amin had expelled foreigners some of whom had Ugandan citizenship.
Amin had denounced imperialism and working with their enemies especially Libya and Cuba.
EFFECTS OF THE LIBERATION
- Amin`s fascist rule was overthrown amidst wild jubilations and celebrations in Kampala.
- After the fall of Kampala, the UNLF war resulted into the formation of the UNLF government and its military wind the UNLA.
- The first UNLF government was sworn in under the Presidency of Professor Yusuf Kironde Lule.
- After only 68 days in power Prof. Lule was removed and replaced by Godfrey Lukongwa Binaisa prominent Lawyer and former Attorney General.
- The war brought to an end the 9yrs of Amin`s dictatorial regime.
- Many lost their lives during the struggle.
- A lot of property were also destroyed i.e. Masaka was almost raged to the ground.
- The T.P.D.F stayed in Uganda for a period of 2yrs to restore sanity. During their stay however they were accused of violating human rights in Uganda.
- Democracy was restored in Uganda and elections held on 10th Dec 1980 where Milton Obote came back after the removal of Binaisa and was Involved in massive rigging of elections which forced Yoweri Museveni to the bush on 6th Feb 1981.
- Security was restored in many parts of the country apart from Luwero triangle where there was a Guerilla war.
- Press freedom was restored compared to what happened during the regime of Idi Amin.
- Major industries and factories were rehabilitated leading to economic growth.
- External trade increased and more items were imported into the country.
- The war didn’t solve the problems of Uganda because after the 1980 general elections the UPM leaders went to the bush claiming unfairness in the elections.
- On 27th Jan 1986, Museveni and NRM took over full control of the country and he was sworn in as the new president of Uganda.
- Many people who were in exile returned back home.
A VIDEO ABOUT UGANDAN LIBERATION WAR
Upto the time of the coup in Lisborn in 1974, Mozambique was ruled with an iron fist. In 1964 however war broke out against the Portuguese in Mozambique.
The war was led by FRELIMO (Fronte de liberate cad de Mozambiq) under the leadership of Edwardo Chivambi Mondlane. The liberation struggle was mainly prompted by the following factors;
The Portuguese economic policy of exploitation had transferred the Africans into a reserve for cheap labour especially for South African mines and plantations in Angola and Mozambique.
The Portuguese labourers worked under harsh conditions especially in the Highlands of Saotone which was greatly infested with mosquitoes.
Africans were exploited through the tax system where they were heavily taxed yet they were paid very low wages.
Africans in Mozambique were denied education and this was greatly rejected by the masses.
When the Portuguese took over Mozambique, Africans lost their political independence and the right to administer their own affairs. The Africans thus wanted to regain their independence.
More so, the Africans didn’t have the rights to criticize the Portuguese system of admin or point out the evil and unfair treatment of the Africans.
There was no press freedom the freedom of press was suppressed by the colonialists.
During the colonial era, the Portuguese rule was brutal in human and oppressive. They used their police system to persecute innocent civilians.
The Portuguese also on many occasions used excessive force in crushing strikes and demonstrations often leading to unnecessary death of Africans.
The war was also inspired by the fact that Africans had no right to political association nor to form trade unions thus greatly sidelined the Africans.
The Portuguese also created “rehabilitation centers” and “labour Camps” where many Mozambiquans languished and were tortured as punishment for minor offences.
The worst crime committed by the Portuguese and which prompted the war was that they were greatly exploiting the African resources without developing the country.
The Africans also wagged the war because the Portuguese as a dumping ground for their cotton textiles, refined sugar, wines and spirits.
Many Africans in Mozambique had also lost land to the Portuguese who had come to settle in Mozambique in big numbers.
Africans also rejected the Portuguese policy of forceful production of cash crops, they forced Africans to grow crops which they needed to feed their industries back home.
The Portuguese rule was also full of corruption.
On top of the poor administrative policy of the Portuguese, there was also much detention without trials, torture and suffering in their cells was the order of the day.
The Africans were opposed to the construction of Cabora Bossa dam which was meant to facilitate transportation of African goods to Europe.
EFFECTS OF THE WAR
- The war brought to an end to the many centuries of the Portuguese exploitative rule in Mozambique. She got her independence in 1975 with Samora Machel as President.
- FRELIMO ushered in a new era of democracy in Mozambique.
- The heavy and numerous taxes formerly levied by the Portuguese were scrapped.
- Land which had been grabbed by the Portuguese was redistributed. Land reform policy was put in place to allow the locals access to land.
- FRELIMO admin set up a new pro people admin which invited the participation of the people in the government.
- There was a series of post war reforms like the setting up of infrastructure for the development of the country.
- Hospitals, dispensaries and health centers were set up to render medical services to the people.
- FRELIMO government opened up schools, adult literacy was carried out as a way of inculcating socialist values.
- Political prisoners were released from jail.
- The war was also destructive in the sense that many people lost their lives.
- Destruction of property worth billions of dollars as the Portuguese adopted the scorch earth policy.
- Many areas of Mozambique enjoyed relative peace and stability.
- However the war didn’t usher in total peace because RENAMO again went to the bush to fight the government of FRELIMO.
- Many Portuguese left Mozambique to go back to their home land Portugal.
- People of Mozambique adopted the socialist ideology.
- Agriculture was encouraged through co-operatives, people were free to produce basic food crops and collective farming was emphasized.
- FRELIMO fell into a crisis of skilled labour to run factories, hospitals, H.E plants etc. that the whites left.
A VIDEO ABOUT MOZAMBIQUE LIBERATION WAR
Korea is found in North Eastern parts of Asia close to Japan and China. It was occupied by the Japanese in 1910 and for over 35yrs it existed under the alien rule. There were various movements for the liberation of Korea i.e.
The Samil independence movement formed in 1919.
The Heungsaden formed in 1913.
The Tonjiwhoe formed in 1914.
Bumindan formed in 1912.
Despite their good intentions they however did not succeed and it was until 1945 that the allied forces of Britain, USA, Russia and France forced the Japanese out of Korea.
CAUSES OF THE LIBERATION WAR
- The Koreans wanted to regain their lost independence which they lost as a result of the imposition of colonial rule.
- The Koreans felt that there was need to fight in order to preserve and restore their national pride and dignity.
- The administration of Japanese was harsh and militaristic. The Koreans wanted to put an end to this.
- The Japanese also committed a lot of atrocities against the people of Korea i.e. in 1919 about 7,500 Koreans were massacred during the anti-Japanese demonstration.
- The Koreans also fought because the Japanese deliberately wanted to extinct Korean cultures. This was evident by the fact that many Koreans religious and cultural leader were either exiled or killed.
- The war was also inspired by the heavy taxes which were imposed on the Koreans , even the method of collecting there was brutal.
- There was also a high cost of living with ever increasing inflation.
- The Koreans were also deliberately made poor by the Japanese administration. There was mass poverty and malnutrition, rice which used to be the staple food was excessively exported to Japan.
- The Japanese grabbed all the fertile lands from the Koreans. They needed land to set up their plantations.
- The Koreans also rejected the Japanese forceful policy of assimilation. They were forced to abandon their language and were replaced by the Japanese language.
- There was also forced constriction into the army. The situation even worsened during the World War II when Japan was fighting the allied forces of France, Britain, Russia and USA.
- Many Koreans were also forced to provide labour on the Japanese plantations, admin, buildings etc.
- The Koreans were also denied education in their own land. The Japanese therefore did nothing to set up schools.
- They were also against the lack of social services and social infrastructure in Korea.
EFFECTS OF THE LIBERATION WAR
- The Koreans gained their liberty from the Japanese colonialism i.e. Korea became independent in 1945 after World War II.
- The struggle led to loss of lives of the people.
- Property worth millions was destroyed during the war
- After the defeat of the Japanese by the allied forces in 1945, Korea was split into 2 i.e. North and South Korea.
- The division of the country into 2 eventually led to animosity between the two Koreans.
- North Korea followed communism/ socialism while South Korea followed Capitalism.
- The division led to increased influence of the superpowers in Korea for example Russian influence increased in North Korea, while American influence increased in South Korea.
- The war also brought increased development in the 2 Koreans i.e. hospitals were built, schools were set up and roads and railways constructed.
- There was also agricultural reform leading to increased agricultural production and famine which was a problem ended.
- When Korea became independent, many political prisoners were released.
- There was improved security as law and order was restored.
- Increased development also led to a reduction in the rate of inflation.
- Having organized elections in North Korea in 1948, which left Kim-il-Sung in central. Russia left North Korea.
- In the same year Americans left after organisation elections in South Korea with Syngman Rhee elected president.
A VIDEO ABOUT KOREAN LIBERATION WAR
VIETNAM WAR OF LIBERATION
Before independence Vietnam was ruled by the Japanese and later French. It used to be referred to Indo-China.
The French occupied Vietnam in the 19th century and it denied the Vietnamese political participation in the affairs of its nation.
After World War II (1945) the Vietnamese organized themselves under the leadership of Ho-Chi-Minh and they started fighting the French imperialism.
This found the French men to retreat southwards where they formed a puppet government under the leadership of NGO-DIN-DIEM and this constituted Southern Vietnam.
When the French were defeated, Vietnam was divided into North and South Vietnam by the Geneva agreement of 1954.
North Vietnam was ruled by Ho-Chi-Minh while South Vietnam was ruled by Ngo-Din-Diem.
It was spear headed by an opposition group called the National Liberation Front and a guerilla force called Vetiong under the leadership of Ho-Chi-Minh.
The war took place because the Vietnamese rejected American Imperialism.
The Vietnamese also rejected Ngo-Din-Diem`s corrupt government in the South.
The people in the North wanted to extend communism to the South yet those in the South were under a strong influence of capitalism and America.
The Vietnamese were also encouraged by the defeat of the Japanese and the French in the previous years.
The 1964 direct attack on North Vietnam by the Americans using air craft led to the war.
The resolution by Ho-CHI-MINH was therefore the removal from Vietnam soil of American parasites.
The Vietnam War was aimed at creating national unity between the North and the South.
The people of Vietnam were encouraged and supported by Russia and China to fight Americans.
The war was also caused by the desire of Vietong to be recognized as a genuine representative of the people of Vietnam.
EFFECTS OF THE VIETNAM WAR
- The war led to loss of lives i.e. over 60,000 Americans died in the jungles of South East Asia and about 2 million Vietnam died.
- Many people i.e. approximately ½ a million Vietnamese were wounded and disabled.
- The war led to an extensive environmental damage with 18yrs of various fighting with the use of sophiscated weapons.
- Communist ideas infiltrated rapidly into South in Vietnam.
- The liberation war led to the rise of Vietiong guerilla in the South.
- Vietnam got rid of Japanese French and American domination i.e. they got independence.
- The war led to displacement of many people i.e. there was a steady flow of refugees from Vietnam to neighbouring countries like Singapore, Mali, Indonesia, Hong Kong etc.
- The US spent billions of dollars in the war.
- Americans and their allies lost credit in world affairs, it was the first foreign war in which americans were defeated and they remained with bitter memories.
- There was destruction of property as the 18yrs of war.
- The government of London Baines Johnson of the president of America became very unpopular to the blink of collapse.
- The war led to economic crisis like inflation, unemployment, poverty etc. in Vietnam
- The war further strengthened the cold war between USA and Russia.
- The war led to the unification of Vietnam in april 1975. It was headed by a communist leader by the names of Ho-Chi-Minh.
A VIDEO ABOUT VIETNAM LIBERATION WAR | <urn:uuid:479779e6-6fb5-44ee-8579-360528d990f2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.yaaka.cc/unit/liberation-wars/?id=4506 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.9819 | 5,042 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
-0.5356827974319458,
0.6944310665130615,
0.32005906105041504,
0.16592274606227875,
0.32786834239959717,
-0.22625839710235596,
0.04247472435235977,
-0.3071015179157257,
-0.20086190104484558,
0.22918623685836792,
0.4111756980419159,
-0.2766566872596741,
-0.13124513626098633,
0.47329020500183... | 1 | These were wars meant to liberate Africans from colonialism and oppression.
Angola is found in the South Western region of Africa. It was colonized by the Portuguese whose rule was characterized by exploitation and oppression.
By 1960 the Angolans had started agitating for their independence from the Portuguese.
The liberation war in Angola was championed by 3 major liberation movements namely;
- National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA)
- National Union for the total Independence of Angola (UNITA)
- People`s movement for the Liberation of Angola. (M.P.L.A)
REASONS FOR THE WAR
- The Angolans were discontented with the way the Portuguese were grabbing their land and giving it to the white settlers.
- Portuguese also pursued the policy of economic exploitation by which mineral resources were exploited for the benefit of Portugal while Angola remained poor.
- The Angolans were also subjected to forced labour under the contract system where by the contract labourers were given low wages yet subjected to hard work.
- The heavy taxation imposed by the Portuguese to the Africans led to the war. The benefits resulting from taxation were not used for the development of Angola.
- The war also broke out because of the brutal administrative system of the Portuguese. Many Angolans were publically flogged and humiliated because of minor offences.
- Angolans were also discontented because they were denied education except for the few “assimillados” who were colonial agents.
- Angolans wanted to get their freedom i.e. they wanted to regain their political independence.
- Despite the systematic exploitation of the Angolan economy the Portuguese did nothing to develop Angola. They didn’t even invest in Angola.
- In many instances, the Portuguese administrators rapped the African women and molested their husbands. This was a source of discontent which provoked the war.
- The role of the intellectuals can’t be ignored. They inspired the peasants by making them aware of their problems and inciting them go against the Portuguese.
- The Africans were also provoked by the Portuguese policy of imprisonment without trial. Many Africans who were a potential problem were arrested and detained under horrible conditions in the Portuguese cells.
- Many Angolans were also killed innocently by the Portuguese in 1961 about 20,000 Angolans were killed in the Bakongo region by the Portuguese bombs following an uprising there.
- The farmers in Angola were discontented by the low prices for their crops i.e. the Malange uprising (Maria`s war of 1961) was due to the poor prices for coffee.
- The war was also brought about because the Portuguese had failed to setup social infrastructure like schools, hospitals, recreation centers etc.
EFFECTS OF THE WAR.
- The Angolan war of 1967-1974 had a lot of effects on the people of Angola.
- Angola got her independence from the Portuguese after a long struggle in 1975.
- The prolonged war led to loss of lives because the Portuguese resorted to the scotched earth policy which claimed lives to many Africans.
- The same policy led to the destruction of property i.e. villages, houses, crops were destroyed.
- The people who were detained under the Portuguese administration were unconditionally released.
- The M.P.L.A thereafter embarked on the economic recovery programmes leading to general economic development.
- Social infrastructure like roads and other social amenities like hospitals and schools were set up and children were encouraged to go to school.
- The heavy taxes which were formerly imposed by Portuguese were scrapped and Angolans were given only taxes which they would afford to pay.
- Land which was grabbed by the Portuguese was redistributed to the Angolans.
- The overthrow of the colonial administration led to the departure of many Portuguese who choose to go back home to Portugal.
- Farmers were encouraged to increase production as they were given fair prices for their crops.
- Because of the assistance the MPLA got from the socialist countries the government in Angola adopted the socialist ideology.
- There was however no total peace in Angola because UNITA rebels under Jonas Savimbi continued to fight until 1995 when it agreed to join MPLA to form a government of National Unity.
- Anew government was set up in Angola under the leadership of Jose Edwardo Dos Santos.
THIS VIDEO SHOWS ANGOLAN WAR OF LIBERATION
Guinea Bissau is a West African country which was colonized by the Portuguese. Just like Angola the Portuguese inflicted much suffering to the people of Guinea Bissau.
The liberation struggle in Guinea Bissau was led by African independence party of Guinea (P.A.I.G).
P.A.I.G was founded by Amilcar Cabral in 1954. The major reasons for the outbreak of the war were;
The Portuguese were hated by Africans because the exploited the African farmers through the system of price mechanism. The Africans were given very low prices for their Agricultural produce.
The Guineans wanted to do away with the foreigners. They wanted to free themselves from the Portuguese colonial admin and regain their independence.
It also broke up because the people of Guinea Bissau wanted to restore their lost dignity, to regain the lost human rights and freedom.
The war also broke out because the Guineans were disgusted by the activities of the Portuguese secret police. They harassed and tortured innocent people without cause.
The Portuguese were also brutal and harsh. They in discriminately killed many Guineans for example in 1958 when the African dock workers went on strike, very many of them were killed at Pijiguiti.
The people of Guinea also rebelled against the imprisonment without trial which was very common.
The Portuguese also pursued the policy of forced labour where by the Guineans were forced to provide labour in their plantations and public works.
There was also too much insecurity in Guinea caused by constant wars. There was need to put an end to this.
The Portuguese ignored the development of health and educational facilities, many of them were illiterate and the Portuguese took no steps to fight them.
The high taxes levied on the people of Guinea led to the war. The benefits were not used for the development of guinea yet the methods of collection were harsh.
Portuguese also grabbed a lot of land from the people and gave it to the Portuguese settlers. The people of Guinea thus wanted to get back their land.
There was massive and general exploitation of Guinea`s mineral resources by the Portuguese.
EFFECTS OF THE LIBERATION WAR
- The war led to an end to the longtime rule of the Portuguese in Guinea Bissau.
- The war led to destruction of property like houses, crops, villages etc.
- The military option pursued by PAIG and the scorched earth policy later adopted by the Portuguese led to loss of many lives.
- When Guinea Bissau got her independence in 1973, the Africans enjoyed their natural rights and freedom.
- The new government also set up infrastructure like roads etc. Social services like hospitals and schools were also set up.
- Land which was grabbed by Portuguese was returned to the Africans.
- Political detainees who had been arrested and detained by the Portuguese agents were unconditionally released.
- Success of the P.A.I.G government ushered in a new era of peace and stability to many parts of Guinea.
- The harsh and heavy taxes imposed on the Africans by the Portuguese were completely scrapped.
- Farmers were encouraged to increase agricultural output and therefore better prices for their products.
- Many Portuguese choose to return back to Portugal after the fall of their government in Guinea.
- The economic development programmes later pursued by new government led to general economic prosperity.
- The new government of P.A.I.G later followed the socialist ideology.
A VIDEO ABOUT GUINEA BISSAU LIBERATION WAR
THE UGANDAN LIBERATION WAR OF 1979
The 1979 Ugandan liberation war was led by spearheaded by the UNLF and its armed wing UNLA. It was aimed at toppling the government of Idi Amin Dada.
The UNLF was a coalition of about 22 groups formed in exile during the Moshi conference of March 1978. The major reasons for the war were the following.
The UNLF wanted to put an end to the fascist role of Idi Amin.
It took place because Amin was killing innocent Ugandans. By 1979 over 500,000 people had already been killed by Amin.
Amin was a tribalist. He used divisive politics by favouring his tribesmen at the expense of the other tribes.
The military agencies like Public Safety Unit (PSU) and the state research bureau were known for torturing innocent people using state organs.
Economically, the living standards of Ugandans had fallen drastically; there was terrible shortage of essentials which prompted the growth of black market as a result of the expulsion of Asians in 1972.
There was high rate of inflation and it had become so difficult for people to buy what they wanted because of the continuous increase in prices.
During Amin`s regime industries collapsed because of the unskilled businessmen who were allowed to run industries after the expulsion of Asians.
The liberation also aimed at protecting the rights of the farmers who could not be paid for the agricultural products like coffee, cotton etc.
The war was prompted by the fact that Amin had destroyed infrastructure due to poor management.
There was lack of security for property and lives.
The UNLF also waged war against Amin because of his poor foreign policies, his regime was hostile to the neighbours claiming territories in Kenya and Tanzania.
Ugandans who had gone into exile wanted to come back to their mother land.
The UNLF fought because they wanted to restore political freedom human rights and the rule of law.
The military personnel often interfered with the duty of ordinary courts; at times civilians would be arrested and tried by military tribunals.
There was no freedom of speech, association, expression and press. In addition he had declared himself life president. This left no chance for any person to rule apart from using force.
Imperialist countries supported the liberation cause. Amin had expelled foreigners some of whom had Ugandan citizenship.
Amin had denounced imperialism and working with their enemies especially Libya and Cuba.
EFFECTS OF THE LIBERATION
- Amin`s fascist rule was overthrown amidst wild jubilations and celebrations in Kampala.
- After the fall of Kampala, the UNLF war resulted into the formation of the UNLF government and its military wind the UNLA.
- The first UNLF government was sworn in under the Presidency of Professor Yusuf Kironde Lule.
- After only 68 days in power Prof. Lule was removed and replaced by Godfrey Lukongwa Binaisa prominent Lawyer and former Attorney General.
- The war brought to an end the 9yrs of Amin`s dictatorial regime.
- Many lost their lives during the struggle.
- A lot of property were also destroyed i.e. Masaka was almost raged to the ground.
- The T.P.D.F stayed in Uganda for a period of 2yrs to restore sanity. During their stay however they were accused of violating human rights in Uganda.
- Democracy was restored in Uganda and elections held on 10th Dec 1980 where Milton Obote came back after the removal of Binaisa and was Involved in massive rigging of elections which forced Yoweri Museveni to the bush on 6th Feb 1981.
- Security was restored in many parts of the country apart from Luwero triangle where there was a Guerilla war.
- Press freedom was restored compared to what happened during the regime of Idi Amin.
- Major industries and factories were rehabilitated leading to economic growth.
- External trade increased and more items were imported into the country.
- The war didn’t solve the problems of Uganda because after the 1980 general elections the UPM leaders went to the bush claiming unfairness in the elections.
- On 27th Jan 1986, Museveni and NRM took over full control of the country and he was sworn in as the new president of Uganda.
- Many people who were in exile returned back home.
A VIDEO ABOUT UGANDAN LIBERATION WAR
Upto the time of the coup in Lisborn in 1974, Mozambique was ruled with an iron fist. In 1964 however war broke out against the Portuguese in Mozambique.
The war was led by FRELIMO (Fronte de liberate cad de Mozambiq) under the leadership of Edwardo Chivambi Mondlane. The liberation struggle was mainly prompted by the following factors;
The Portuguese economic policy of exploitation had transferred the Africans into a reserve for cheap labour especially for South African mines and plantations in Angola and Mozambique.
The Portuguese labourers worked under harsh conditions especially in the Highlands of Saotone which was greatly infested with mosquitoes.
Africans were exploited through the tax system where they were heavily taxed yet they were paid very low wages.
Africans in Mozambique were denied education and this was greatly rejected by the masses.
When the Portuguese took over Mozambique, Africans lost their political independence and the right to administer their own affairs. The Africans thus wanted to regain their independence.
More so, the Africans didn’t have the rights to criticize the Portuguese system of admin or point out the evil and unfair treatment of the Africans.
There was no press freedom the freedom of press was suppressed by the colonialists.
During the colonial era, the Portuguese rule was brutal in human and oppressive. They used their police system to persecute innocent civilians.
The Portuguese also on many occasions used excessive force in crushing strikes and demonstrations often leading to unnecessary death of Africans.
The war was also inspired by the fact that Africans had no right to political association nor to form trade unions thus greatly sidelined the Africans.
The Portuguese also created “rehabilitation centers” and “labour Camps” where many Mozambiquans languished and were tortured as punishment for minor offences.
The worst crime committed by the Portuguese and which prompted the war was that they were greatly exploiting the African resources without developing the country.
The Africans also wagged the war because the Portuguese as a dumping ground for their cotton textiles, refined sugar, wines and spirits.
Many Africans in Mozambique had also lost land to the Portuguese who had come to settle in Mozambique in big numbers.
Africans also rejected the Portuguese policy of forceful production of cash crops, they forced Africans to grow crops which they needed to feed their industries back home.
The Portuguese rule was also full of corruption.
On top of the poor administrative policy of the Portuguese, there was also much detention without trials, torture and suffering in their cells was the order of the day.
The Africans were opposed to the construction of Cabora Bossa dam which was meant to facilitate transportation of African goods to Europe.
EFFECTS OF THE WAR
- The war brought to an end to the many centuries of the Portuguese exploitative rule in Mozambique. She got her independence in 1975 with Samora Machel as President.
- FRELIMO ushered in a new era of democracy in Mozambique.
- The heavy and numerous taxes formerly levied by the Portuguese were scrapped.
- Land which had been grabbed by the Portuguese was redistributed. Land reform policy was put in place to allow the locals access to land.
- FRELIMO admin set up a new pro people admin which invited the participation of the people in the government.
- There was a series of post war reforms like the setting up of infrastructure for the development of the country.
- Hospitals, dispensaries and health centers were set up to render medical services to the people.
- FRELIMO government opened up schools, adult literacy was carried out as a way of inculcating socialist values.
- Political prisoners were released from jail.
- The war was also destructive in the sense that many people lost their lives.
- Destruction of property worth billions of dollars as the Portuguese adopted the scorch earth policy.
- Many areas of Mozambique enjoyed relative peace and stability.
- However the war didn’t usher in total peace because RENAMO again went to the bush to fight the government of FRELIMO.
- Many Portuguese left Mozambique to go back to their home land Portugal.
- People of Mozambique adopted the socialist ideology.
- Agriculture was encouraged through co-operatives, people were free to produce basic food crops and collective farming was emphasized.
- FRELIMO fell into a crisis of skilled labour to run factories, hospitals, H.E plants etc. that the whites left.
A VIDEO ABOUT MOZAMBIQUE LIBERATION WAR
Korea is found in North Eastern parts of Asia close to Japan and China. It was occupied by the Japanese in 1910 and for over 35yrs it existed under the alien rule. There were various movements for the liberation of Korea i.e.
The Samil independence movement formed in 1919.
The Heungsaden formed in 1913.
The Tonjiwhoe formed in 1914.
Bumindan formed in 1912.
Despite their good intentions they however did not succeed and it was until 1945 that the allied forces of Britain, USA, Russia and France forced the Japanese out of Korea.
CAUSES OF THE LIBERATION WAR
- The Koreans wanted to regain their lost independence which they lost as a result of the imposition of colonial rule.
- The Koreans felt that there was need to fight in order to preserve and restore their national pride and dignity.
- The administration of Japanese was harsh and militaristic. The Koreans wanted to put an end to this.
- The Japanese also committed a lot of atrocities against the people of Korea i.e. in 1919 about 7,500 Koreans were massacred during the anti-Japanese demonstration.
- The Koreans also fought because the Japanese deliberately wanted to extinct Korean cultures. This was evident by the fact that many Koreans religious and cultural leader were either exiled or killed.
- The war was also inspired by the heavy taxes which were imposed on the Koreans , even the method of collecting there was brutal.
- There was also a high cost of living with ever increasing inflation.
- The Koreans were also deliberately made poor by the Japanese administration. There was mass poverty and malnutrition, rice which used to be the staple food was excessively exported to Japan.
- The Japanese grabbed all the fertile lands from the Koreans. They needed land to set up their plantations.
- The Koreans also rejected the Japanese forceful policy of assimilation. They were forced to abandon their language and were replaced by the Japanese language.
- There was also forced constriction into the army. The situation even worsened during the World War II when Japan was fighting the allied forces of France, Britain, Russia and USA.
- Many Koreans were also forced to provide labour on the Japanese plantations, admin, buildings etc.
- The Koreans were also denied education in their own land. The Japanese therefore did nothing to set up schools.
- They were also against the lack of social services and social infrastructure in Korea.
EFFECTS OF THE LIBERATION WAR
- The Koreans gained their liberty from the Japanese colonialism i.e. Korea became independent in 1945 after World War II.
- The struggle led to loss of lives of the people.
- Property worth millions was destroyed during the war
- After the defeat of the Japanese by the allied forces in 1945, Korea was split into 2 i.e. North and South Korea.
- The division of the country into 2 eventually led to animosity between the two Koreans.
- North Korea followed communism/ socialism while South Korea followed Capitalism.
- The division led to increased influence of the superpowers in Korea for example Russian influence increased in North Korea, while American influence increased in South Korea.
- The war also brought increased development in the 2 Koreans i.e. hospitals were built, schools were set up and roads and railways constructed.
- There was also agricultural reform leading to increased agricultural production and famine which was a problem ended.
- When Korea became independent, many political prisoners were released.
- There was improved security as law and order was restored.
- Increased development also led to a reduction in the rate of inflation.
- Having organized elections in North Korea in 1948, which left Kim-il-Sung in central. Russia left North Korea.
- In the same year Americans left after organisation elections in South Korea with Syngman Rhee elected president.
A VIDEO ABOUT KOREAN LIBERATION WAR
VIETNAM WAR OF LIBERATION
Before independence Vietnam was ruled by the Japanese and later French. It used to be referred to Indo-China.
The French occupied Vietnam in the 19th century and it denied the Vietnamese political participation in the affairs of its nation.
After World War II (1945) the Vietnamese organized themselves under the leadership of Ho-Chi-Minh and they started fighting the French imperialism.
This found the French men to retreat southwards where they formed a puppet government under the leadership of NGO-DIN-DIEM and this constituted Southern Vietnam.
When the French were defeated, Vietnam was divided into North and South Vietnam by the Geneva agreement of 1954.
North Vietnam was ruled by Ho-Chi-Minh while South Vietnam was ruled by Ngo-Din-Diem.
It was spear headed by an opposition group called the National Liberation Front and a guerilla force called Vetiong under the leadership of Ho-Chi-Minh.
The war took place because the Vietnamese rejected American Imperialism.
The Vietnamese also rejected Ngo-Din-Diem`s corrupt government in the South.
The people in the North wanted to extend communism to the South yet those in the South were under a strong influence of capitalism and America.
The Vietnamese were also encouraged by the defeat of the Japanese and the French in the previous years.
The 1964 direct attack on North Vietnam by the Americans using air craft led to the war.
The resolution by Ho-CHI-MINH was therefore the removal from Vietnam soil of American parasites.
The Vietnam War was aimed at creating national unity between the North and the South.
The people of Vietnam were encouraged and supported by Russia and China to fight Americans.
The war was also caused by the desire of Vietong to be recognized as a genuine representative of the people of Vietnam.
EFFECTS OF THE VIETNAM WAR
- The war led to loss of lives i.e. over 60,000 Americans died in the jungles of South East Asia and about 2 million Vietnam died.
- Many people i.e. approximately ½ a million Vietnamese were wounded and disabled.
- The war led to an extensive environmental damage with 18yrs of various fighting with the use of sophiscated weapons.
- Communist ideas infiltrated rapidly into South in Vietnam.
- The liberation war led to the rise of Vietiong guerilla in the South.
- Vietnam got rid of Japanese French and American domination i.e. they got independence.
- The war led to displacement of many people i.e. there was a steady flow of refugees from Vietnam to neighbouring countries like Singapore, Mali, Indonesia, Hong Kong etc.
- The US spent billions of dollars in the war.
- Americans and their allies lost credit in world affairs, it was the first foreign war in which americans were defeated and they remained with bitter memories.
- There was destruction of property as the 18yrs of war.
- The government of London Baines Johnson of the president of America became very unpopular to the blink of collapse.
- The war led to economic crisis like inflation, unemployment, poverty etc. in Vietnam
- The war further strengthened the cold war between USA and Russia.
- The war led to the unification of Vietnam in april 1975. It was headed by a communist leader by the names of Ho-Chi-Minh.
A VIDEO ABOUT VIETNAM LIBERATION WAR | 4,958 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the end of the 18th century Glasgow's population was around 60,000. In the city itself and in the surrounding areas weaving was the main occupation.
The weavers faced difficulties however. New industrial processes threatened their traditional craft based work practices. The American War of Independence had reduced the supply of cotton from plantations of the American South. Plus employers were frantically trying to reduce costs.
Weavers in and around Glasgow heard in June 1787 that payments for weaving muslin were to be cut. This would be the second such reduction in just eight months. A decision was therefore made to strike. This was the first recorded strike in Glasgow's history.
Mass protests by the weavers soon followed. Often they met on Glasgow Green. On Monday 3rd September however the authorities heard that a large number of Calton Weavers had gathered near the Gallowgate. The Lord Provost and Magistrates went to tell them to disperse. However they were stoned by the crowd. News then spread that the weavers were going to march to Glasgow Cathedral.
The 39th Regiment of Foot were sent in under the command of Colonel Kellett. The army and the weavers clashed near Drygate Bridge and soldiers were ordered to open fire. Three weavers were killed instantly and three more mortally wounded. Thousands attended the subsequent funerals.
A strike leader, James Grainger, was also put on trial accused of "forming illegal combinations." He would later be found guilty and flogged.
The strike itself dragged on until October of the same year. Although not ultimately successful it was a sign of struggles to come. The weavers would be at the forefront of further revolts and would strike again in 1812. | <urn:uuid:47994220-0df3-439b-8557-26b086f63557> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.srsm.scot/forum-1/untitled-category/the-case-of-the-calton-weavers-glasgow-s-first-strike | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00496.warc.gz | en | 0.991918 | 348 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
-0.3416496515274048,
-0.20816823840141296,
0.5133064985275269,
0.22733165323734283,
0.09575556218624115,
0.09077814221382141,
-0.1760653853416443,
0.07794323563575745,
-0.15717719495296478,
0.15601876378059387,
0.18729586899280548,
-0.13660936057567596,
-0.2779708504676819,
0.1583407223224... | 5 | At the end of the 18th century Glasgow's population was around 60,000. In the city itself and in the surrounding areas weaving was the main occupation.
The weavers faced difficulties however. New industrial processes threatened their traditional craft based work practices. The American War of Independence had reduced the supply of cotton from plantations of the American South. Plus employers were frantically trying to reduce costs.
Weavers in and around Glasgow heard in June 1787 that payments for weaving muslin were to be cut. This would be the second such reduction in just eight months. A decision was therefore made to strike. This was the first recorded strike in Glasgow's history.
Mass protests by the weavers soon followed. Often they met on Glasgow Green. On Monday 3rd September however the authorities heard that a large number of Calton Weavers had gathered near the Gallowgate. The Lord Provost and Magistrates went to tell them to disperse. However they were stoned by the crowd. News then spread that the weavers were going to march to Glasgow Cathedral.
The 39th Regiment of Foot were sent in under the command of Colonel Kellett. The army and the weavers clashed near Drygate Bridge and soldiers were ordered to open fire. Three weavers were killed instantly and three more mortally wounded. Thousands attended the subsequent funerals.
A strike leader, James Grainger, was also put on trial accused of "forming illegal combinations." He would later be found guilty and flogged.
The strike itself dragged on until October of the same year. Although not ultimately successful it was a sign of struggles to come. The weavers would be at the forefront of further revolts and would strike again in 1812. | 360 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It's a lot different from the original Greek democracy.
This consisted of three bodies, the Ekklesia, the Boule, and the Dikasteria.
The Ekklesia met about 40 times a year on a hillside outside Athens and consisted of male Athenian citizens older than 18. (Only people, whose parents were citizens, were citizens.) Around the 4th century Athens had a population of about 260,000, of which about 100,000 were citizens (150,000 were slaves and about 10,000 were foreign residents), of which 40,000 were elligible to participate in the legal process, and only about 5,000 men did, as the rest were in the army or the navy or working to support their families.
At the meetings, the Ekklesia made decisions about war and foreign policy, wrote and revised laws and approved or condemned the conduct of public officials.
The Boule consisted of 500 men, 50 from each tribe, who served for a year and were chosen by lottery, not election. They met every day and did most of the hands-on work, but its main job was to to decide, which matters should go before the Ekklesia, so in fact they dictated, how the democracy worked.
The Dikasteria was the courts. Every day, more than 500 jurors were chosen by lot from a pool of male citizens older than 30, and here you could argue any kind of case.
So you see, the original Greek democracy had no election at all. | <urn:uuid:899894d6-6d71-467c-b72e-b34df5d57715> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://forum.designcad.com/index.php?topic=6500.0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00403.warc.gz | en | 0.990915 | 316 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
-0.2938162386417389,
0.24419641494750977,
0.08753640949726105,
-0.43620961904525757,
-0.36297014355659485,
-0.149494931101799,
0.039376966655254364,
0.3340650200843811,
-0.1397826075553894,
0.3178871273994446,
-0.2597973346710205,
0.1366114765405655,
-0.524946928024292,
-0.0301683470606803... | 4 | It's a lot different from the original Greek democracy.
This consisted of three bodies, the Ekklesia, the Boule, and the Dikasteria.
The Ekklesia met about 40 times a year on a hillside outside Athens and consisted of male Athenian citizens older than 18. (Only people, whose parents were citizens, were citizens.) Around the 4th century Athens had a population of about 260,000, of which about 100,000 were citizens (150,000 were slaves and about 10,000 were foreign residents), of which 40,000 were elligible to participate in the legal process, and only about 5,000 men did, as the rest were in the army or the navy or working to support their families.
At the meetings, the Ekklesia made decisions about war and foreign policy, wrote and revised laws and approved or condemned the conduct of public officials.
The Boule consisted of 500 men, 50 from each tribe, who served for a year and were chosen by lottery, not election. They met every day and did most of the hands-on work, but its main job was to to decide, which matters should go before the Ekklesia, so in fact they dictated, how the democracy worked.
The Dikasteria was the courts. Every day, more than 500 jurors were chosen by lot from a pool of male citizens older than 30, and here you could argue any kind of case.
So you see, the original Greek democracy had no election at all. | 346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
53 On September 18th Trajan was born, that who would have become a Roman Emperor. His father was a Roman citizen also called Trajan. His mother’s name, who seems to be a native of Spain, is not known. Trajan was not born in Rome, but in city of Italica in Baetica province, in the South of Iberian Peninsula. So, Trajan was the first Roman emperor that was not born in Italian Peninsula.
His father, a protégé of the famous philosopher Seneca, was a governor of Baetica, took part in Jerusalem’s siege, he became a consul and then a governor of Syria. His son had proved since he was young to be a brave soldier and participated with his father to the military campaigns in East. At the beginning of Domitian’s reign he came to Rome and then he got the control of a legion in Spain, where he would become a governor later. Then he was a consul and a governor of the Upper Germany Province.
96 After Domitian’s murder by the discontent senators, Marcus Cocceius Nerva, 70 years old, started Antonins Dynasty (96-193), took the throne and because he did not have any successor to the throne he adopted Trajan, advised by a former Spanish consul, Lucius Licinius Sura. After Nerva’s death, Trajan did not go fast to Rome but he remained near the Rhine, where Romans had problems with Germans. He travelled on the Rhine and Danube’s shores in order to see the situation of the Empire’s borders.
99 At the beginning of summer he came back to Rome and entered walking to Eternal City, to the delight of the common people.
In Rome he was concerned of the smooth running of the empire, reorganized financial domain, Rome’s supply and laws. Many of his laws were related to children’s fate.
Above all, Trajan was a soldier. His great campaign are those against Dacians, who he defeated after two bloody wars, in 101-102 and 105-106 and against Eastern parts, when he was killed after a series of victories.
117 He was old and sick, and the way back to Rome, a hurried one, made his end come earlier. He died on August 13th, in Selinus town in Cilicia, Minor Asia. Dying, he adopted Hadrianus because he did not have children, and this became the new emperor.
Trajan’s reign also meant a series of impressive buildings made in Rome. After Dacia’s conquest, Trajan wanted to give to Romans a new square to outstrip all the others (Forum Romanum, Caesar’s, Augustus’ or Vespasian’s forum). Inside this forum there are also Trajan’s column and the libraries. Then a commercial market and Trajan’s temple, made by his successors, Hadrianus, were added.
- Created on .
- Last updated on .
- Hits: 2017 | <urn:uuid:2e686ed3-6ba1-451a-a7db-d8a5930ccee2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.biography.name/leaders/50-italy/44-trajan-53-117 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00233.warc.gz | en | 0.986543 | 649 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
-0.2786223292350769,
0.46386799216270447,
0.4753560423851013,
-0.3250001072883606,
-0.6051250696182251,
-0.11509959399700165,
0.19221119582653046,
0.22460168600082397,
0.1171904057264328,
-0.4498167932033539,
-0.24294480681419373,
-0.5135375261306763,
-0.17263482511043549,
0.35235455632209... | 1 | 53 On September 18th Trajan was born, that who would have become a Roman Emperor. His father was a Roman citizen also called Trajan. His mother’s name, who seems to be a native of Spain, is not known. Trajan was not born in Rome, but in city of Italica in Baetica province, in the South of Iberian Peninsula. So, Trajan was the first Roman emperor that was not born in Italian Peninsula.
His father, a protégé of the famous philosopher Seneca, was a governor of Baetica, took part in Jerusalem’s siege, he became a consul and then a governor of Syria. His son had proved since he was young to be a brave soldier and participated with his father to the military campaigns in East. At the beginning of Domitian’s reign he came to Rome and then he got the control of a legion in Spain, where he would become a governor later. Then he was a consul and a governor of the Upper Germany Province.
96 After Domitian’s murder by the discontent senators, Marcus Cocceius Nerva, 70 years old, started Antonins Dynasty (96-193), took the throne and because he did not have any successor to the throne he adopted Trajan, advised by a former Spanish consul, Lucius Licinius Sura. After Nerva’s death, Trajan did not go fast to Rome but he remained near the Rhine, where Romans had problems with Germans. He travelled on the Rhine and Danube’s shores in order to see the situation of the Empire’s borders.
99 At the beginning of summer he came back to Rome and entered walking to Eternal City, to the delight of the common people.
In Rome he was concerned of the smooth running of the empire, reorganized financial domain, Rome’s supply and laws. Many of his laws were related to children’s fate.
Above all, Trajan was a soldier. His great campaign are those against Dacians, who he defeated after two bloody wars, in 101-102 and 105-106 and against Eastern parts, when he was killed after a series of victories.
117 He was old and sick, and the way back to Rome, a hurried one, made his end come earlier. He died on August 13th, in Selinus town in Cilicia, Minor Asia. Dying, he adopted Hadrianus because he did not have children, and this became the new emperor.
Trajan’s reign also meant a series of impressive buildings made in Rome. After Dacia’s conquest, Trajan wanted to give to Romans a new square to outstrip all the others (Forum Romanum, Caesar’s, Augustus’ or Vespasian’s forum). Inside this forum there are also Trajan’s column and the libraries. Then a commercial market and Trajan’s temple, made by his successors, Hadrianus, were added.
- Created on .
- Last updated on .
- Hits: 2017 | 632 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gumboot dance originates in the gold mines of South Africa where men were forced to work in hazardous conditions underground wading for hours in infected water. Instead of attempting to drain the mines the workers were given gumboots (wellington boots) for protection. The gold miners were forbidden from talking and as a result created a means of communication to keep morale high, send messages to each other and warn of elements of dangers like falling bricks close to your colleagues head! This ‘language’ was executed through a variety of welly slapping, thigh tapping, foot stomping and clapping. After the workers were freed, the steps they learnt in the mines became part of the new Gumboot dance form and were recognized nationally as a South African traditional dance and still celebrated today marking the end of slavery in the mines. | <urn:uuid:8c6c3b21-d8c6-48b9-984b-95ea31551c17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.eddbatemanmanagement.com/busi | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00406.warc.gz | en | 0.980829 | 166 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
-0.30378952622413635,
0.47756585478782654,
0.12891680002212524,
0.10015228390693665,
0.0866977870464325,
-0.17522865533828735,
0.09050529450178146,
-0.05296463891863823,
-0.30897796154022217,
0.24596576392650604,
0.18622040748596191,
-0.027957074344158173,
0.2627481520175934,
0.00433515105... | 1 | Gumboot dance originates in the gold mines of South Africa where men were forced to work in hazardous conditions underground wading for hours in infected water. Instead of attempting to drain the mines the workers were given gumboots (wellington boots) for protection. The gold miners were forbidden from talking and as a result created a means of communication to keep morale high, send messages to each other and warn of elements of dangers like falling bricks close to your colleagues head! This ‘language’ was executed through a variety of welly slapping, thigh tapping, foot stomping and clapping. After the workers were freed, the steps they learnt in the mines became part of the new Gumboot dance form and were recognized nationally as a South African traditional dance and still celebrated today marking the end of slavery in the mines. | 163 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Socrates was a great philosopher who lived in Athens from 469 B.C.E to 399 B.C.E. He would teach his philosophy of life to anyone who would listen and was the most influential thinker of his time. He thought that everyone is responsible for their own thoughts on what is right or what is wrong. Socrates went to trial for many charges that were brought against him. Socrates was charged with corrupting the young and not believing in the Gods that the rest of the city believed in. He stood up for what he believed in even though it cost him his life.
He is best known for his association with the Socratic method of question and answer. Socrates was a great teacher and the inspiration for many other philosophers after him, unlike other philosophers though Socrates never wrote anything down. Because he wrote nothing down it was more difficult to know his ideas and methods as a philosopher, what we do know comes from his peers and followers. Socrates objected the democracy that ran Athens because he believed that only a philosopher was suitable to govern others.
One famous quote from Socrates at his trial is “An unexamined life is not worth living”. What he meant by this quote is that knowing and understanding ourselves is the only way for our lives to have any meaning or value. Through this quote Socrates was telling us that we should carefully examine our actions and beliefs and learn from our mistakes in order for our lives to be more fulfilling.
Plato is another one of the world’s best known philosophers. He was the student of Socrates and lived from 427 to 347 B.C.E. in ancient Greece. Plato focused on a virtue-based concept of ethics, and he believed that the human soul is divided into three parts- reason, spirit, and appetite. He thought that this could be the only reason that we could have so many psychological conflicts. Plato did not make it very clear what the three parts really mean but one translation is that “reason” is our ability to use our thoughts to judge, “spirit” is our emotions and our ability to understand them, and our “appetite” is our desires. His whole point of this is that we will be happiest and healthiest when these three parts are balanced.
Plato thought that a perfect society was one were everyone lived in harmony and without violence. Like Socrates, Plato also very much disliked Democracy. For the most part Plato’s views on the perfect society are very similar to Socrates’s, for example they both thought that only the philosophers were wise enough to rule over the city. He wrote many dialogs featuring his teacher Socrates, so that may be why they seem to have similar thoughts and beliefs.
A famous quote from Plato is “Wise men talk because they have something to say; fools, because they have to say something”. What Plato means by this is that wise people speak only when the have the facts and they are also willing to listen and learn from others. Fools on the other hand don’t speak about their observations, what they hear when they listen to others, and what they think, instead they only speak only based on their own feelings and opinions. Wise people say talk only about things of great importance in that moment, while others talk no matter what the meaning is behind it.
Aristotle was Plato’s best student, and ended up becoming a very well paid tutor of Alexander the Great. He is one of the highest paid philosophers in history. Aristotle was what it known as a peripatetic philosopher, because he preferred to lecture to his students while on a walk. He thought that the true goal in life is to achieve happiness. This does not necessarily mean only that you feel happy or amused, but that your life is functioning well and you have what is essential. Aristotle was also the first to classify knowledge into categories like math or biology, and some of these are still used today.
He is known to be the father of the field of logic, and was the first to make a formal system of reasoning. He also made the observation that the effectiveness of an argument is determined by its structure not just its content. Aristotle also thought that the best way to aquire knowledge is through science or “natural philosophy”.
Aristotle made the claim that virtue can lead to happiness, and you can become more virtuous through education and habit. Habits make up who we are and teach us how we should be and act, for example, being friendly or brave. Also we can learn how to be virtuous by watching what someone who already is virtuous does and in a situation ask yourself what that person would do.
One of his famous quotes that I think really sums up his thoughts is “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit”. I think that by this statement Aristotle means that to be a virtuous person you must make a habit of constantly acting correctly. This maybe could work the opposite way to in that we sometimes have negative habits that could lead you in the opposite direction of virtue, but then are those habits or just issues? | <urn:uuid:250c21ed-a5c2-4329-bd4c-b6f544bc0fa3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://southlaketimes.com/socrates-know-comes-from-his-peers-and-followers-socrates/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00492.warc.gz | en | 0.989924 | 1,055 | 3.75 | 4 | [
-0.06618523597717285,
0.27433180809020996,
-0.03448011353611946,
-0.47514986991882324,
-0.6848735809326172,
-0.42924076318740845,
0.6916766166687012,
0.5345871448516846,
0.0011212341487407684,
-0.050194162875413895,
-0.10059721767902374,
-0.14150448143482208,
0.08381389081478119,
0.3614533... | 2 | Socrates was a great philosopher who lived in Athens from 469 B.C.E to 399 B.C.E. He would teach his philosophy of life to anyone who would listen and was the most influential thinker of his time. He thought that everyone is responsible for their own thoughts on what is right or what is wrong. Socrates went to trial for many charges that were brought against him. Socrates was charged with corrupting the young and not believing in the Gods that the rest of the city believed in. He stood up for what he believed in even though it cost him his life.
He is best known for his association with the Socratic method of question and answer. Socrates was a great teacher and the inspiration for many other philosophers after him, unlike other philosophers though Socrates never wrote anything down. Because he wrote nothing down it was more difficult to know his ideas and methods as a philosopher, what we do know comes from his peers and followers. Socrates objected the democracy that ran Athens because he believed that only a philosopher was suitable to govern others.
One famous quote from Socrates at his trial is “An unexamined life is not worth living”. What he meant by this quote is that knowing and understanding ourselves is the only way for our lives to have any meaning or value. Through this quote Socrates was telling us that we should carefully examine our actions and beliefs and learn from our mistakes in order for our lives to be more fulfilling.
Plato is another one of the world’s best known philosophers. He was the student of Socrates and lived from 427 to 347 B.C.E. in ancient Greece. Plato focused on a virtue-based concept of ethics, and he believed that the human soul is divided into three parts- reason, spirit, and appetite. He thought that this could be the only reason that we could have so many psychological conflicts. Plato did not make it very clear what the three parts really mean but one translation is that “reason” is our ability to use our thoughts to judge, “spirit” is our emotions and our ability to understand them, and our “appetite” is our desires. His whole point of this is that we will be happiest and healthiest when these three parts are balanced.
Plato thought that a perfect society was one were everyone lived in harmony and without violence. Like Socrates, Plato also very much disliked Democracy. For the most part Plato’s views on the perfect society are very similar to Socrates’s, for example they both thought that only the philosophers were wise enough to rule over the city. He wrote many dialogs featuring his teacher Socrates, so that may be why they seem to have similar thoughts and beliefs.
A famous quote from Plato is “Wise men talk because they have something to say; fools, because they have to say something”. What Plato means by this is that wise people speak only when the have the facts and they are also willing to listen and learn from others. Fools on the other hand don’t speak about their observations, what they hear when they listen to others, and what they think, instead they only speak only based on their own feelings and opinions. Wise people say talk only about things of great importance in that moment, while others talk no matter what the meaning is behind it.
Aristotle was Plato’s best student, and ended up becoming a very well paid tutor of Alexander the Great. He is one of the highest paid philosophers in history. Aristotle was what it known as a peripatetic philosopher, because he preferred to lecture to his students while on a walk. He thought that the true goal in life is to achieve happiness. This does not necessarily mean only that you feel happy or amused, but that your life is functioning well and you have what is essential. Aristotle was also the first to classify knowledge into categories like math or biology, and some of these are still used today.
He is known to be the father of the field of logic, and was the first to make a formal system of reasoning. He also made the observation that the effectiveness of an argument is determined by its structure not just its content. Aristotle also thought that the best way to aquire knowledge is through science or “natural philosophy”.
Aristotle made the claim that virtue can lead to happiness, and you can become more virtuous through education and habit. Habits make up who we are and teach us how we should be and act, for example, being friendly or brave. Also we can learn how to be virtuous by watching what someone who already is virtuous does and in a situation ask yourself what that person would do.
One of his famous quotes that I think really sums up his thoughts is “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit”. I think that by this statement Aristotle means that to be a virtuous person you must make a habit of constantly acting correctly. This maybe could work the opposite way to in that we sometimes have negative habits that could lead you in the opposite direction of virtue, but then are those habits or just issues? | 1,037 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Table of Contents
Shed floor relocation
Standing the floor upright
The shed floor was lifted on its edge and a rope was tied to the front.
The floor was going to be pulled through the gate by the rope and also pushed from behind.
Moving the floor
Everything went to plan: the shed floor slid easily on the A solid piece of lumber that fits under a building in place of a footings or foundation making the building able to be moved. and with heaps of people around to help, it was a case of many hands make light work.
The floor went through the gate with ease.
Positioning the floor
The floor was then positioned in place and packed level with blocks of Timber, lumber. The hard fibrous lignified substance under the bark of trees.
There was no fastening to the ground as the structure was to be only temporary. Anyway, by the time the tools were stowed inside, along with bags of this and bags of that, there was so much weight in the shed that it was never going to blow away.
The finished shed
Assembly instructions came with the shed. It was assembled on top of the joists around the floor boards, then fixed in place to the joists with screws going through the bottoms of the shed walls. | <urn:uuid:48f7cc2c-5a53-4ecd-a6b2-a9c637e588db> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.buildeazy.com/shed-floor/4/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00333.warc.gz | en | 0.988959 | 265 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.26150351762771606,
0.008898838423192501,
0.3757845163345337,
-0.06442028284072876,
-0.11932526528835297,
0.002277620602399111,
0.05594596639275551,
0.08369411528110504,
0.16394121944904327,
0.4248153269290924,
0.05182792618870735,
-0.25058087706565857,
0.016112541779875755,
0.1824634522... | 4 | Table of Contents
Shed floor relocation
Standing the floor upright
The shed floor was lifted on its edge and a rope was tied to the front.
The floor was going to be pulled through the gate by the rope and also pushed from behind.
Moving the floor
Everything went to plan: the shed floor slid easily on the A solid piece of lumber that fits under a building in place of a footings or foundation making the building able to be moved. and with heaps of people around to help, it was a case of many hands make light work.
The floor went through the gate with ease.
Positioning the floor
The floor was then positioned in place and packed level with blocks of Timber, lumber. The hard fibrous lignified substance under the bark of trees.
There was no fastening to the ground as the structure was to be only temporary. Anyway, by the time the tools were stowed inside, along with bags of this and bags of that, there was so much weight in the shed that it was never going to blow away.
The finished shed
Assembly instructions came with the shed. It was assembled on top of the joists around the floor boards, then fixed in place to the joists with screws going through the bottoms of the shed walls. | 256 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Simply they also acknowledged other important aspects like the social dimension and subjectivity involved in writing as they focused on formal features of texts. To be able to find out these aspects and also the good grounds for writing made the feeling more significant towards the participants and as a consequence encouraged them to be more engaged in writing.
A genre-based viewpoint to writing had been important to explore exactly exactly exactly what pupils did once they had written, and understanding writing as being a situated social training aided to uncover the way they felt . Pupils’ mindset ended up being a factor that is important influenced how they undertook writing. Analysis associated with genre features allowed the pupils to be conscious of textual features, which often helped them to be more self-reliant and develop a far more good attitude to undertake writing. “Pupils got involved with discovering the particularities of this genre, and also this seemingly have motivated them to improve their negative views of writing.”の続きを読む | <urn:uuid:4f40761b-a3fa-4440-bf97-1d81d16515e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.xn--vcktf7b.lrv.jp/category/college-essay-writing-services/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.982975 | 202 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
0.07943043857812881,
0.23580850660800934,
0.17998836934566498,
-0.20239658653736115,
0.028490973636507988,
0.33156418800354004,
0.28262338042259216,
0.19869162142276764,
0.05589388310909271,
-0.5409143567085266,
-0.09012360870838165,
0.1350313276052475,
0.1759326010942459,
0.24588364362716... | 5 | Simply they also acknowledged other important aspects like the social dimension and subjectivity involved in writing as they focused on formal features of texts. To be able to find out these aspects and also the good grounds for writing made the feeling more significant towards the participants and as a consequence encouraged them to be more engaged in writing.
A genre-based viewpoint to writing had been important to explore exactly exactly exactly what pupils did once they had written, and understanding writing as being a situated social training aided to uncover the way they felt . Pupils’ mindset ended up being a factor that is important influenced how they undertook writing. Analysis associated with genre features allowed the pupils to be conscious of textual features, which often helped them to be more self-reliant and develop a far more good attitude to undertake writing. “Pupils got involved with discovering the particularities of this genre, and also this seemingly have motivated them to improve their negative views of writing.”の続きを読む | 190 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Actions speak louder than words
What's the meaning of the phrase 'Actions speak louder than words'?
This proverb express the idea that a person's actions are a better indication of their character than what he or she says.
What's the origin of the phrase 'Actions speak louder than words'?
This proverb was first voiced, at the time of the English Civil War, by John Pym, the English parliamentarian.
It was recorded in 1628 in Hansard, the record of the proceedings of the UK parliament:
'A word spoken in season is like an Apple of Gold set in Pictures of Silver,' and actions are more precious than words.
The 'speak louder' wording that we now use was first used a little later. The first record that I can find of it in print is from Thomas Manton's Book of Sermons, 1693:
So they would give him Glory, praise him with their Lips, and honour him with their Lives. They would make that their Work and Scope, that this may be the real Language of their Hearts and Actions, which speak much louder than Words.
See also: the List of Proverbs. | <urn:uuid:48e54cb2-de26-40c1-85a0-b04c27819d00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/actions-speak-louder-than-words.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00014.warc.gz | en | 0.982774 | 241 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
-0.36556294560432434,
-0.22144094109535217,
0.31260615587234497,
-0.25161483883857727,
-0.44372570514678955,
0.08803834021091461,
1.024768352508545,
-0.14839209616184235,
0.4606531262397766,
-0.20595994591712952,
-0.046946458518505096,
-0.22905035316944122,
0.18019768595695496,
0.043410453... | 16 | Actions speak louder than words
What's the meaning of the phrase 'Actions speak louder than words'?
This proverb express the idea that a person's actions are a better indication of their character than what he or she says.
What's the origin of the phrase 'Actions speak louder than words'?
This proverb was first voiced, at the time of the English Civil War, by John Pym, the English parliamentarian.
It was recorded in 1628 in Hansard, the record of the proceedings of the UK parliament:
'A word spoken in season is like an Apple of Gold set in Pictures of Silver,' and actions are more precious than words.
The 'speak louder' wording that we now use was first used a little later. The first record that I can find of it in print is from Thomas Manton's Book of Sermons, 1693:
So they would give him Glory, praise him with their Lips, and honour him with their Lives. They would make that their Work and Scope, that this may be the real Language of their Hearts and Actions, which speak much louder than Words.
See also: the List of Proverbs. | 237 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dwayne is the author of several books on African and African Diaspora history. Haiti and Sam Sharpe: Why these events are of historical relevance to people of African descent is that they represent the struggle for freedom on the part of enslaved Africans.
Public domain The Haitian Revolution has often been described as the largest and most successful slave rebellion in the Western Hemisphere. It is certainly the only servile uprising that led to the creation of an independent nation, Haiti. Slaves initiated the rebellion in and by they had succeeded in ending not just slavery but French control over the colony.
The Haitian Revolution, however, was much more complex, consisting of several revolutions going on simultaneously. These revolutions were influenced by the French Revolution ofwhich would come to represent a new concept of human rights, universal citizenship, and participation in government.
In the 18th century, Saint Dominigue, as Haiti was then known, became France's wealthiest overseas colony, largely because of its production of sugar, coffee, indigo, and cotton generated by an enslaved labor force.
When the French Revolution broke out in there were five distinct sets of interest groups in the colony. There were white planters—who owned the plantations and the slaves—and petit blancs, who were artisans, shop keepers and teachers. Some of them also owned a few slaves.
Many of the whites on Saint Dominigue began to support an independence movement that began when France imposed steep tariffs on the items imported into the colony.
The planters were extremely disenchanted with France because they were forbidden to trade with any other nation. Furthermore, the white population of Saint-Dominique did not have any representation in France.
Despite their calls for independence, both the planters and petit blancs remained committed to the institution of slavery. The three remaining groups were of African descent: There were about 30, free black people in Half of them were mulatto and often they were wealthier than the petit blancs.
The slave population was close toThe runaway slaves were called maroons; they had retreated deep into the mountains of Saint Dominigue and lived off subsistence farming. Haiti had a history of slave rebellions; the slaves were never willing to submit to their status and with their strength in numbers 10 to 1 colonial officials and planters did all that was possible to control them.
Despite the harshness and cruelty of Saint Dominigue slavery, there were slave rebellions before One plot involved the poisoning of masters.
Inspired by events in France, a number of Haitian-born revolutionary movements emerged simultaneously. It was interpreted in Saint Dominigue as applying only to the planter class and thus excluded petit blancs from government.
Yet it allowed free citizens of color who were substantial property owners to participate. This legislation, promulgated in Paris to keep Saint Dominigue in the colonial empire, instead generated a three-sided civil war between the planters, free blacks and the petit blancs. However, all three groups would be challenged by the enslaved black majority which was also influenced and inspired by events in France.
By they controlled a third of the island. Despite reinforcements from France, the area of the colony held by the rebels grew as did the violence on both sides.
Before the fighting endedof theblacks and 24, of the 40, whites were killed. He abolished slavery in the Spanish-speaking colony and declared himself Governor-General for life over the entire island of Hispaniola.
At that moment the Haitian Revolution had outlasted the French Revolution which had been its inspiration. On January 1,Dessalines declared the nation independent and renamed it Haiti. France became the first nation to recognize its independence. Haiti thus emerged as the first black republic in the world, and the second nation in the western hemisphere after the United States to win its independence from a European power.
University of Tennessee, ; http:The Haitian revolution began back in when rich white colonists in Haiti felt that they needed power of free trade in their colonies.
However, this class was immediately tested by the lower working class that included white men and free men of color. The Haitian Revolution was a slave revolt that led to their permanent independence from Europe. Similar to the French Revolution, through its formulation, process, and legacy, the Haitian Revolution made an impact in the global community socially, economically, and politically.
Causes of the Haitian Revolution By , the slave population in the vast Caribbean island totaled to more than , Most of the slaves were of African descent.
The Haitian Revolution, however, was much more complex, consisting of several revolutions going on simultaneously. These revolutions were influenced by the French Revolution of , which would come to represent a new concept of human rights, universal citizenship, and participation in government.
The Haitian Revolution was a social and political upheaval in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (which shared the island of Hispaniola with the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo) during the period from to Why these events are of historical relevance to people of African descent is that they represent the struggle for freedom on the part of enslaved Africans.
The Haitian Revolution, which began. | <urn:uuid:81f3387f-211f-4c82-aec5-75632c93309a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rytulifovip.iridis-photo-restoration.com/an-analysis-of-the-haitian-revolution-and-the-first-person-of-african-descent-which-led-it-37560vk.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00479.warc.gz | en | 0.980955 | 1,050 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
-0.028700213879346848,
0.36012035608291626,
0.09308415651321411,
-0.23502737283706665,
-0.040533047169446945,
-0.012234869413077831,
-0.420427143573761,
0.2639240622520447,
-0.13337813317775726,
0.25332435965538025,
0.25676774978637695,
0.04751046001911163,
-0.2552229166030884,
0.225017040... | 1 | Dwayne is the author of several books on African and African Diaspora history. Haiti and Sam Sharpe: Why these events are of historical relevance to people of African descent is that they represent the struggle for freedom on the part of enslaved Africans.
Public domain The Haitian Revolution has often been described as the largest and most successful slave rebellion in the Western Hemisphere. It is certainly the only servile uprising that led to the creation of an independent nation, Haiti. Slaves initiated the rebellion in and by they had succeeded in ending not just slavery but French control over the colony.
The Haitian Revolution, however, was much more complex, consisting of several revolutions going on simultaneously. These revolutions were influenced by the French Revolution ofwhich would come to represent a new concept of human rights, universal citizenship, and participation in government.
In the 18th century, Saint Dominigue, as Haiti was then known, became France's wealthiest overseas colony, largely because of its production of sugar, coffee, indigo, and cotton generated by an enslaved labor force.
When the French Revolution broke out in there were five distinct sets of interest groups in the colony. There were white planters—who owned the plantations and the slaves—and petit blancs, who were artisans, shop keepers and teachers. Some of them also owned a few slaves.
Many of the whites on Saint Dominigue began to support an independence movement that began when France imposed steep tariffs on the items imported into the colony.
The planters were extremely disenchanted with France because they were forbidden to trade with any other nation. Furthermore, the white population of Saint-Dominique did not have any representation in France.
Despite their calls for independence, both the planters and petit blancs remained committed to the institution of slavery. The three remaining groups were of African descent: There were about 30, free black people in Half of them were mulatto and often they were wealthier than the petit blancs.
The slave population was close toThe runaway slaves were called maroons; they had retreated deep into the mountains of Saint Dominigue and lived off subsistence farming. Haiti had a history of slave rebellions; the slaves were never willing to submit to their status and with their strength in numbers 10 to 1 colonial officials and planters did all that was possible to control them.
Despite the harshness and cruelty of Saint Dominigue slavery, there were slave rebellions before One plot involved the poisoning of masters.
Inspired by events in France, a number of Haitian-born revolutionary movements emerged simultaneously. It was interpreted in Saint Dominigue as applying only to the planter class and thus excluded petit blancs from government.
Yet it allowed free citizens of color who were substantial property owners to participate. This legislation, promulgated in Paris to keep Saint Dominigue in the colonial empire, instead generated a three-sided civil war between the planters, free blacks and the petit blancs. However, all three groups would be challenged by the enslaved black majority which was also influenced and inspired by events in France.
By they controlled a third of the island. Despite reinforcements from France, the area of the colony held by the rebels grew as did the violence on both sides.
Before the fighting endedof theblacks and 24, of the 40, whites were killed. He abolished slavery in the Spanish-speaking colony and declared himself Governor-General for life over the entire island of Hispaniola.
At that moment the Haitian Revolution had outlasted the French Revolution which had been its inspiration. On January 1,Dessalines declared the nation independent and renamed it Haiti. France became the first nation to recognize its independence. Haiti thus emerged as the first black republic in the world, and the second nation in the western hemisphere after the United States to win its independence from a European power.
University of Tennessee, ; http:The Haitian revolution began back in when rich white colonists in Haiti felt that they needed power of free trade in their colonies.
However, this class was immediately tested by the lower working class that included white men and free men of color. The Haitian Revolution was a slave revolt that led to their permanent independence from Europe. Similar to the French Revolution, through its formulation, process, and legacy, the Haitian Revolution made an impact in the global community socially, economically, and politically.
Causes of the Haitian Revolution By , the slave population in the vast Caribbean island totaled to more than , Most of the slaves were of African descent.
The Haitian Revolution, however, was much more complex, consisting of several revolutions going on simultaneously. These revolutions were influenced by the French Revolution of , which would come to represent a new concept of human rights, universal citizenship, and participation in government.
The Haitian Revolution was a social and political upheaval in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (which shared the island of Hispaniola with the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo) during the period from to Why these events are of historical relevance to people of African descent is that they represent the struggle for freedom on the part of enslaved Africans.
The Haitian Revolution, which began. | 1,037 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Vashti: Midrash and Aggadah
The Rabbis state that Vashti was one of the four women who were enthroned, two of whom ruled over Israel (Jezebel and Athaliah) and two over other peoples (the heathen Semiramis and Vashti) (Esther Rabbah 3:2).
The A type of non-halakhic literary activitiy of the Rabbis for interpreting non-legal material according to special principles of interpretation (hermeneutical rules).midrash conveys that Vashti was the orphaned daughter of Belshazzar; God was her help and kept her alive and she was wed to the emperor of Persia and Media, even though she was a Chaldean ( = Babylonian) (Esth. Rabbah 3:5). In the midrashic account of these events, on the night that Belshazzar was killed, Cyrus the Persian and Darius the Mede were guests at his table. The candelabrum fell and dashed out Belshazzar’s brains. Darius was crowned in his stead and sat in Belshazzar’s customary place. The death of Belshazzar caused total pandemonium in the palace. Some killed, while others engaged in looting. Vashti, Belshazzar’s daughter, was a young girl. She saw the tumult in the castle and ran among the guests. Thinking that her father was still alive, she mistakenly sat in Darius’s lap, in the belief that he was her father. Darius took pity on her and married her to his son Ahasuerus. (Midrash Panim Aherim [ed. Buber], version B, para. 1).
According to another midrashic tradition, Vashti was a princess and Ahasuerus was her father’s steward, in charge of the royal stables. He acquired regal status by marrying her (Esth. Rabbah 3:14; BT Lit. "scroll." Designation of the five scrolls of the Bible (Ruth, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther). The Scroll of Esther is read on Purim from a parchment scroll.Megillah 12b). The difference in their stations was reflected in Ahasuerus’s behavior at the banquet, when he summoned Vashti to appear before the men at their revelry. Esth. 1:10 attests: “on the seventh day, when the king was merry with wine,” from which the Rabbis understood that the king was intoxicated. The midrash relates that Vashti sent a messenger to her husband with the message: You were Father’s steward. My father Belshazzar would drink wine in the measure of one thousand men and would not be inebriated, while you act the fool from the wine of a single man! She thereby hinted to him that she was the daughter of royalty, while he was a simple person who had reached his exalted status thanks to her (BT Megillah loc. cit.).
Vashti’s feast is portrayed as a “banquet for women,” which, the Rabbis explain, was different from the men’s revel. She gave them different types of drinks that women like, and served them different manner of sweets that are favored by women. Esth. 1:9 tells that this banquet was held “in the royal palace of King Ahasuerus.” One midrash explains that the festivities were conducted in decorated and adorned rooms that suited women’s tastes, while another tradition says that she hosted the women in spacious rooms, so that if they wished to use them for licentious behavior, one would not be ashamed in front of her fellow. Yet a third midrashic tradition tells that she hosted them in an inner chamber of the king’s, so that if the husband of any of these women wanted to rebel against the king, his wife would be a hostage in the hands of Ahasuerus and Vashti, thus forestalling any seditious activity by their spouses (Esth. Rabbah 3:10). According to another tradition, Vashti hosted them in the royal palace, since it is the way of women to want to know all. She brought them in to where the king sleeps, and told them: “This is where the king sits, this is where he eats, this is where he drinks, this is where he sleeps” (Midrash Panim Aherim, version B, para. 1).
VASHTI AS SEEN BY THE BABYLONIAN RABBIS
The Babylonian Rabbis tend to cast Vashti in an extremely negative light, as wicked, a Jew-hater and wanton. They comment on Esth. 1:9: “In addition, Queen Vashti gave a banquet for women, in the royal palace of King Ahasuerus” that Vashti held her banquet in the royal palace of King Ahasuerus, a place meant for men, and not in the natural venue for such an event, the harem. They learn from this that Vashti had licentious intent when she organized her banquet, just like her husband Ahasuerus (who later summoned her to appear before the men). The Rabbis cite the immoral intent of each as an example of the popular saying, “He with gourds and his wife with cucumbers,” in other words, the husband and the wife are alike, and both act in the same manner (BT Lit. "scroll." Designation of the five scrolls of the Bible (Ruth, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther). The Scroll of Esther is read on Purim from a parchment scroll.Megillah 12a–b).
Esth. 1:10 records: “On the seventh day, when the king was merry with wine,” on which the Rabbis observe that the seventh day of Ahasuerus’s banquet was also the seventh day of the week, that is, the Sabbath. When the Israelites eat and drink on the Sabbath, they utter words of Torah she-bi-khetav: Lit. "the written Torah." The Bible; the Pentateuch; Tanakh (the Pentateuch, Prophets and Hagiographia)Torah and praises to God. But when the non-Jewish peoples eat and drink on this day, they begin with indecent talk. And so it was at the banquet of Ahasuerus, where an argument erupted among the men. Some said: “The Median women are the fairest,” while others claimed: “Persian women are the fairest.” Ahasuerus replied to them: “The vessel that I use [that is, his wife] is neither Mede nor Persian, but Chaldean (= Babylonian)—do you want to see her?” They told him, “Yes, but only if she is naked.” This demand is derived from Esth. 1:11: “to bring Queen Vashti before the king wearing a royal diadem”—wearing only a royal diadem, without any other clothes on her body (BT Megillah 12b).
These Rabbis depict Vashti as a wanton adulteress, leading us to ask why, if this was the case, she refused to appear at the men’s feast. These Rabbis maintain that Vashti actually wanted to appear at Ahasuerus’ lewd party. Her plans were upset when leprosy erupted over her entire body, so that she could not make an appearance before all the guests. According to another tradition, the angel Gabriel came and fixed a tail to her (BT Megillah loc. cit.). God intervened in various ways in order to prevent Vashti from heeding Ahasuerus. Thus He directed matters so that Vashti would be deposed and Esther would reign in her stead.
In the view of the Babylonian Rabbis, Vashti’s punishment was merited (middah ke-neged middah: “measure for measure”): as she did to Jewish women, so it was decreed against her. The wicked Vashti would bring Jewish women, strip them naked and order them to perform work on the Sabbath. Consequently, she was punished by being commanded to appear in the nude at the banquet of Ahasuerus, on a Sabbath day (BT Megillah loc. cit.).
This collection of midrashim presents Vashti in a very negative light. The adverse attitude of the Rabbis in Babylonia to Vashti might possibly have resulted from the fact that Vashti was Babylonian, and for the Rabbis she represented the local Babylonian women, who were promiscuous and Jew-haters. Emphasizing their negative traits probably aided in erecting barriers between the Jews living in Babylonia and the local Gentile women.
VASHTI AS SEEN BY THE RABBIS OF EREZ ISRAEL
In contrast to the negative depiction of Vashti by the Babylonian Rabbis, their counterparts in The Land of IsraelErez Israel portrayed her in a positive manner. Vashti was a scion of a royal dynasty and deported herself with the proper honor and nobility. The A type of non-halakhic literary activitiy of the Rabbis for interpreting non-legal material according to special principles of interpretation (hermeneutical rules).midrash relates that when Ahasuerus sent his sarisim (i.e., important ministers, some of whom were eunuchs) to bring Vashti, she sent emissaries back to him three times, in an attempt to persuade him to withdraw his demand. She sent him messages to which he would be receptive. She told him: “If they see me and think me beautiful, they will want to lie with me, and they will kill you. And if they see me and think me ugly, you will be disgraced because of me.” She hinted to him, but he did not take the hint; she aimed her barb at him, but he was not stung. She sent a message to him: “You were my father’s steward, and you were accustomed to have naked harlots come before you. Now that you have become king, you have not mended your degraded ways!” She hinted to him, but he did not take the hint; she aimed her barb at him, but he was not stung. She sent a message to him: “You want me to come naked—even my father, when he judged litigants in a trial, would not judge them when they were naked” Esth. Rabbah 3:14). Vashti in this midrash is blessed with wisdom. She cleverly seeks different ways by which to persuade Ahasuerus to withdraw his request. First she appeals to logic by setting forth all the possible scenarios that might result from his demand, all of which are to his disadvantage. Then she addresses his sense of honor and self-respect, demanding that he act as is fitting for a king. Finally, she appeals to his compassion, and asks that he not insist upon her appearing naked before all his guests. By means of her messengers, Vashti hints to her husband that he does not consider the consequences of his actions and that he wields the scepter only because of his marriage to her; accordingly, it is not appropriate that he order her to do something against her will. The reader sees Ahasuerus, in contrast with Vashti, as a ruler who acts rashly and does not think even one single step ahead. The hints that his wife sends Ahasuerus merely bounce off the thick-skinned king. Even in his palace his behavior is inappropriate and he continues to act in a disgraceful manner, like a steward.
Despite the positive depiction of Vashti by the Erez Israel Rabbis, they find a flaw in her, for which she is punished by God and is deposed. They assert that Ahasuerus wanted to rebuild the Temple, but Vashti stayed his hand. She told him: “You wish to rebuild what my forefathers destroyed?” She was therefore punished by the loss of her crown (Esth. Rabbah loc. cit.; Midrash Panim Aherim [ed. Buber], version B, para. 1). For the Rabbis of Erez Israel, Vashti apparently represented the Babylonian rule that laid waste to the Temple. Her replacement by Esther symbolized the reversal that occurs in the Book of Esther and the hope that the ravagers of the Temple would receive their punishment and the people of Israel would return to its former glory.
As recorded in Esth. 1:12, Ahasuerus is enraged when he hears Vashti’s response: “The king was greatly incensed, and his fury burned within him.” In the Rabbinic account, God fanned the flames of Ahasuerus’s anger. He told the angel of fury: “Go and kindle a flame within him, breathe it into his body and throw sulphur into his oven.” His rage did not subside during all the years after Vashti’s banishment, until Esther’s appearance. According to one opinion, his anger was assuaged only when Haman was hanged, as is said in Esth. 7:10: “So they hung Haman on the gallows which he had put up for Mordecai, and the king’s fury abated.” In the Rabbinic interpretation, this monarch represents God, the King of kings, who was angered by Haman’s hatred of the Jews and who directed matters so that Haman would be hanged and his decree frustrated. Consequently, the hanging of Haman abated God’s fury (Esth. Rabbah 3:15).
Memucan, one of the seven eunuchs of King Ahasuerus, counseled the king to depose Vashti. The Rabbis observe that Memucan was precipitate in offering advice without being asked, from which they learn that “A commoner (hedyot, here: fool) leaps first.” Memucan had his own private interests when he advised the king to remove Vashti. There are three different views as to why Memucan wished to be revenged upon Vashti. According to one, Vashti would strike him back and forth on the face with her shoe. In consequence, Memucan says (Esth. 1:16): “Queen Vashti has committed an offense not only against Your Majesty,” that is, she acted unjustly towards him, as well, and because of this he wanted a severe punishment to be inflicted upon her. The second midrashic direction has Memucan wanting to be avenged because Vashti did not invite his wife to the women’s banquet. And so he says (Esth. 1:17): “For the queen’s behavior will make all wives despise their husbands.” He speaks in general language and not in a personal tone, because he did not include himself and his wife in this statement. According to the third position, Memucan had a daughter and wanted Vashti to be deposed so that his daughter could marry Ahasuerus. Therefore he says (Esth. 1:19): “And let Your Majesty bestow her royal state upon another who is more worthy than she,” hinting at his own daughter (Esth. Rabbah 4:6).
The Book of Esther is not explicit regarding Vashti’s fate. Esth. 2:1 relates: “Some time afterward, when the anger of King Ahasuerus subsided, he thought of Vashti and what she had done and what had been decreed against her,” but without specifying what had befallen her. Four verses earlier (1:19), Memucan suggests: “If it please Your Majesty, let a royal edict be issued by you, and let it be written into the laws of Persia and Media, so that it cannot be abrogated, that Vashti shall never enter the presence of King Ahasuerus. And let Your Majesty bestow her royal state upon another who is more worthy than she.” Memucan possibly proposed that the king depose her as queen and banish her from the palace. A recurring theme in the midrashim is that Vashti was not merely deposed, but executed.
Thus God fulfilled his prophecy in Isa. 14:22: “and I will wipe out from Babylon name and remnant, kith and kin” (A type of non-halakhic literary activitiy of the Rabbis for interpreting non-legal material according to special principles of interpretation (hermeneutical rules).Midrash Panim Aherim [ed. Buber], version B, para. 1). Memucan’s suggestion, as presented in the midrash, was to place Vashti’s head on a plate (i.e., to behead her), and Ahasuerus accepted his proposal (Esth. Rabbah 4:9, 12). Another midrash explains that the negative effect of wine is like a snakebite, separating life and death. Thus Ahasuerus’ excessive drinking led to the death of Vashti (Lev. Rabbah 12:1).
The midrash tells us that Ahasuerus acted improperly when he issued the decree (Esth. 1:22): “that every man should wield authority in his home.” This is not the way of the world: if a man wants to eat lentils, and his wife desires peas, he cannot force his will upon her. Rather, she acts as she wishes. Similarly, Ahasuerus acted inappropriately when he attempted to compel Vashti to obey him (Esth. Rabbah 4:12).
In the midrashic depiction, when Ahasuerus grew sober, he regretted what he had done. He recalled Vashti and her proper behavior, and he also remembered how he had improperly condemned her (Esth. Rabbah 5:2). Another tradition has Ahasuerus wanting his wife when the effects of his intoxication wore off. He was told: “You killed her!” He asked: “Why?” They replied: “You said for her to come before you naked and she did not come.” He admitted to them: “I did not act nicely. And who counseled me to kill her?” They told him: “The seven ministers of Persia and Media.” He immediately killed them. Consequently, the seven eunuchs are not mentioned again in the Book of Esther (Midrash Abba Gurion [ed. Buber], version B, beginning of chapter 2).
How to cite this page
Kadari, Tamar. "Vashti: Midrash and Aggadah." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 20 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on January 24, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/vashti-midrash-and-aggadah>. | <urn:uuid:c672c712-584a-4027-b754-8c52d6088f79> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qa.jwa.org/comment/5401 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00243.warc.gz | en | 0.981662 | 4,147 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
-0.32206252217292786,
0.4703587293624878,
-0.07721457630395889,
0.07818538695573807,
-0.37581390142440796,
0.1273181438446045,
0.28328949213027954,
0.17549775540828705,
0.10841082036495209,
-0.1439618468284607,
-0.17665359377861023,
-0.16960474848747253,
0.34038084745407104,
0.008987544104... | 1 | Vashti: Midrash and Aggadah
The Rabbis state that Vashti was one of the four women who were enthroned, two of whom ruled over Israel (Jezebel and Athaliah) and two over other peoples (the heathen Semiramis and Vashti) (Esther Rabbah 3:2).
The A type of non-halakhic literary activitiy of the Rabbis for interpreting non-legal material according to special principles of interpretation (hermeneutical rules).midrash conveys that Vashti was the orphaned daughter of Belshazzar; God was her help and kept her alive and she was wed to the emperor of Persia and Media, even though she was a Chaldean ( = Babylonian) (Esth. Rabbah 3:5). In the midrashic account of these events, on the night that Belshazzar was killed, Cyrus the Persian and Darius the Mede were guests at his table. The candelabrum fell and dashed out Belshazzar’s brains. Darius was crowned in his stead and sat in Belshazzar’s customary place. The death of Belshazzar caused total pandemonium in the palace. Some killed, while others engaged in looting. Vashti, Belshazzar’s daughter, was a young girl. She saw the tumult in the castle and ran among the guests. Thinking that her father was still alive, she mistakenly sat in Darius’s lap, in the belief that he was her father. Darius took pity on her and married her to his son Ahasuerus. (Midrash Panim Aherim [ed. Buber], version B, para. 1).
According to another midrashic tradition, Vashti was a princess and Ahasuerus was her father’s steward, in charge of the royal stables. He acquired regal status by marrying her (Esth. Rabbah 3:14; BT Lit. "scroll." Designation of the five scrolls of the Bible (Ruth, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther). The Scroll of Esther is read on Purim from a parchment scroll.Megillah 12b). The difference in their stations was reflected in Ahasuerus’s behavior at the banquet, when he summoned Vashti to appear before the men at their revelry. Esth. 1:10 attests: “on the seventh day, when the king was merry with wine,” from which the Rabbis understood that the king was intoxicated. The midrash relates that Vashti sent a messenger to her husband with the message: You were Father’s steward. My father Belshazzar would drink wine in the measure of one thousand men and would not be inebriated, while you act the fool from the wine of a single man! She thereby hinted to him that she was the daughter of royalty, while he was a simple person who had reached his exalted status thanks to her (BT Megillah loc. cit.).
Vashti’s feast is portrayed as a “banquet for women,” which, the Rabbis explain, was different from the men’s revel. She gave them different types of drinks that women like, and served them different manner of sweets that are favored by women. Esth. 1:9 tells that this banquet was held “in the royal palace of King Ahasuerus.” One midrash explains that the festivities were conducted in decorated and adorned rooms that suited women’s tastes, while another tradition says that she hosted the women in spacious rooms, so that if they wished to use them for licentious behavior, one would not be ashamed in front of her fellow. Yet a third midrashic tradition tells that she hosted them in an inner chamber of the king’s, so that if the husband of any of these women wanted to rebel against the king, his wife would be a hostage in the hands of Ahasuerus and Vashti, thus forestalling any seditious activity by their spouses (Esth. Rabbah 3:10). According to another tradition, Vashti hosted them in the royal palace, since it is the way of women to want to know all. She brought them in to where the king sleeps, and told them: “This is where the king sits, this is where he eats, this is where he drinks, this is where he sleeps” (Midrash Panim Aherim, version B, para. 1).
VASHTI AS SEEN BY THE BABYLONIAN RABBIS
The Babylonian Rabbis tend to cast Vashti in an extremely negative light, as wicked, a Jew-hater and wanton. They comment on Esth. 1:9: “In addition, Queen Vashti gave a banquet for women, in the royal palace of King Ahasuerus” that Vashti held her banquet in the royal palace of King Ahasuerus, a place meant for men, and not in the natural venue for such an event, the harem. They learn from this that Vashti had licentious intent when she organized her banquet, just like her husband Ahasuerus (who later summoned her to appear before the men). The Rabbis cite the immoral intent of each as an example of the popular saying, “He with gourds and his wife with cucumbers,” in other words, the husband and the wife are alike, and both act in the same manner (BT Lit. "scroll." Designation of the five scrolls of the Bible (Ruth, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther). The Scroll of Esther is read on Purim from a parchment scroll.Megillah 12a–b).
Esth. 1:10 records: “On the seventh day, when the king was merry with wine,” on which the Rabbis observe that the seventh day of Ahasuerus’s banquet was also the seventh day of the week, that is, the Sabbath. When the Israelites eat and drink on the Sabbath, they utter words of Torah she-bi-khetav: Lit. "the written Torah." The Bible; the Pentateuch; Tanakh (the Pentateuch, Prophets and Hagiographia)Torah and praises to God. But when the non-Jewish peoples eat and drink on this day, they begin with indecent talk. And so it was at the banquet of Ahasuerus, where an argument erupted among the men. Some said: “The Median women are the fairest,” while others claimed: “Persian women are the fairest.” Ahasuerus replied to them: “The vessel that I use [that is, his wife] is neither Mede nor Persian, but Chaldean (= Babylonian)—do you want to see her?” They told him, “Yes, but only if she is naked.” This demand is derived from Esth. 1:11: “to bring Queen Vashti before the king wearing a royal diadem”—wearing only a royal diadem, without any other clothes on her body (BT Megillah 12b).
These Rabbis depict Vashti as a wanton adulteress, leading us to ask why, if this was the case, she refused to appear at the men’s feast. These Rabbis maintain that Vashti actually wanted to appear at Ahasuerus’ lewd party. Her plans were upset when leprosy erupted over her entire body, so that she could not make an appearance before all the guests. According to another tradition, the angel Gabriel came and fixed a tail to her (BT Megillah loc. cit.). God intervened in various ways in order to prevent Vashti from heeding Ahasuerus. Thus He directed matters so that Vashti would be deposed and Esther would reign in her stead.
In the view of the Babylonian Rabbis, Vashti’s punishment was merited (middah ke-neged middah: “measure for measure”): as she did to Jewish women, so it was decreed against her. The wicked Vashti would bring Jewish women, strip them naked and order them to perform work on the Sabbath. Consequently, she was punished by being commanded to appear in the nude at the banquet of Ahasuerus, on a Sabbath day (BT Megillah loc. cit.).
This collection of midrashim presents Vashti in a very negative light. The adverse attitude of the Rabbis in Babylonia to Vashti might possibly have resulted from the fact that Vashti was Babylonian, and for the Rabbis she represented the local Babylonian women, who were promiscuous and Jew-haters. Emphasizing their negative traits probably aided in erecting barriers between the Jews living in Babylonia and the local Gentile women.
VASHTI AS SEEN BY THE RABBIS OF EREZ ISRAEL
In contrast to the negative depiction of Vashti by the Babylonian Rabbis, their counterparts in The Land of IsraelErez Israel portrayed her in a positive manner. Vashti was a scion of a royal dynasty and deported herself with the proper honor and nobility. The A type of non-halakhic literary activitiy of the Rabbis for interpreting non-legal material according to special principles of interpretation (hermeneutical rules).midrash relates that when Ahasuerus sent his sarisim (i.e., important ministers, some of whom were eunuchs) to bring Vashti, she sent emissaries back to him three times, in an attempt to persuade him to withdraw his demand. She sent him messages to which he would be receptive. She told him: “If they see me and think me beautiful, they will want to lie with me, and they will kill you. And if they see me and think me ugly, you will be disgraced because of me.” She hinted to him, but he did not take the hint; she aimed her barb at him, but he was not stung. She sent a message to him: “You were my father’s steward, and you were accustomed to have naked harlots come before you. Now that you have become king, you have not mended your degraded ways!” She hinted to him, but he did not take the hint; she aimed her barb at him, but he was not stung. She sent a message to him: “You want me to come naked—even my father, when he judged litigants in a trial, would not judge them when they were naked” Esth. Rabbah 3:14). Vashti in this midrash is blessed with wisdom. She cleverly seeks different ways by which to persuade Ahasuerus to withdraw his request. First she appeals to logic by setting forth all the possible scenarios that might result from his demand, all of which are to his disadvantage. Then she addresses his sense of honor and self-respect, demanding that he act as is fitting for a king. Finally, she appeals to his compassion, and asks that he not insist upon her appearing naked before all his guests. By means of her messengers, Vashti hints to her husband that he does not consider the consequences of his actions and that he wields the scepter only because of his marriage to her; accordingly, it is not appropriate that he order her to do something against her will. The reader sees Ahasuerus, in contrast with Vashti, as a ruler who acts rashly and does not think even one single step ahead. The hints that his wife sends Ahasuerus merely bounce off the thick-skinned king. Even in his palace his behavior is inappropriate and he continues to act in a disgraceful manner, like a steward.
Despite the positive depiction of Vashti by the Erez Israel Rabbis, they find a flaw in her, for which she is punished by God and is deposed. They assert that Ahasuerus wanted to rebuild the Temple, but Vashti stayed his hand. She told him: “You wish to rebuild what my forefathers destroyed?” She was therefore punished by the loss of her crown (Esth. Rabbah loc. cit.; Midrash Panim Aherim [ed. Buber], version B, para. 1). For the Rabbis of Erez Israel, Vashti apparently represented the Babylonian rule that laid waste to the Temple. Her replacement by Esther symbolized the reversal that occurs in the Book of Esther and the hope that the ravagers of the Temple would receive their punishment and the people of Israel would return to its former glory.
As recorded in Esth. 1:12, Ahasuerus is enraged when he hears Vashti’s response: “The king was greatly incensed, and his fury burned within him.” In the Rabbinic account, God fanned the flames of Ahasuerus’s anger. He told the angel of fury: “Go and kindle a flame within him, breathe it into his body and throw sulphur into his oven.” His rage did not subside during all the years after Vashti’s banishment, until Esther’s appearance. According to one opinion, his anger was assuaged only when Haman was hanged, as is said in Esth. 7:10: “So they hung Haman on the gallows which he had put up for Mordecai, and the king’s fury abated.” In the Rabbinic interpretation, this monarch represents God, the King of kings, who was angered by Haman’s hatred of the Jews and who directed matters so that Haman would be hanged and his decree frustrated. Consequently, the hanging of Haman abated God’s fury (Esth. Rabbah 3:15).
Memucan, one of the seven eunuchs of King Ahasuerus, counseled the king to depose Vashti. The Rabbis observe that Memucan was precipitate in offering advice without being asked, from which they learn that “A commoner (hedyot, here: fool) leaps first.” Memucan had his own private interests when he advised the king to remove Vashti. There are three different views as to why Memucan wished to be revenged upon Vashti. According to one, Vashti would strike him back and forth on the face with her shoe. In consequence, Memucan says (Esth. 1:16): “Queen Vashti has committed an offense not only against Your Majesty,” that is, she acted unjustly towards him, as well, and because of this he wanted a severe punishment to be inflicted upon her. The second midrashic direction has Memucan wanting to be avenged because Vashti did not invite his wife to the women’s banquet. And so he says (Esth. 1:17): “For the queen’s behavior will make all wives despise their husbands.” He speaks in general language and not in a personal tone, because he did not include himself and his wife in this statement. According to the third position, Memucan had a daughter and wanted Vashti to be deposed so that his daughter could marry Ahasuerus. Therefore he says (Esth. 1:19): “And let Your Majesty bestow her royal state upon another who is more worthy than she,” hinting at his own daughter (Esth. Rabbah 4:6).
The Book of Esther is not explicit regarding Vashti’s fate. Esth. 2:1 relates: “Some time afterward, when the anger of King Ahasuerus subsided, he thought of Vashti and what she had done and what had been decreed against her,” but without specifying what had befallen her. Four verses earlier (1:19), Memucan suggests: “If it please Your Majesty, let a royal edict be issued by you, and let it be written into the laws of Persia and Media, so that it cannot be abrogated, that Vashti shall never enter the presence of King Ahasuerus. And let Your Majesty bestow her royal state upon another who is more worthy than she.” Memucan possibly proposed that the king depose her as queen and banish her from the palace. A recurring theme in the midrashim is that Vashti was not merely deposed, but executed.
Thus God fulfilled his prophecy in Isa. 14:22: “and I will wipe out from Babylon name and remnant, kith and kin” (A type of non-halakhic literary activitiy of the Rabbis for interpreting non-legal material according to special principles of interpretation (hermeneutical rules).Midrash Panim Aherim [ed. Buber], version B, para. 1). Memucan’s suggestion, as presented in the midrash, was to place Vashti’s head on a plate (i.e., to behead her), and Ahasuerus accepted his proposal (Esth. Rabbah 4:9, 12). Another midrash explains that the negative effect of wine is like a snakebite, separating life and death. Thus Ahasuerus’ excessive drinking led to the death of Vashti (Lev. Rabbah 12:1).
The midrash tells us that Ahasuerus acted improperly when he issued the decree (Esth. 1:22): “that every man should wield authority in his home.” This is not the way of the world: if a man wants to eat lentils, and his wife desires peas, he cannot force his will upon her. Rather, she acts as she wishes. Similarly, Ahasuerus acted inappropriately when he attempted to compel Vashti to obey him (Esth. Rabbah 4:12).
In the midrashic depiction, when Ahasuerus grew sober, he regretted what he had done. He recalled Vashti and her proper behavior, and he also remembered how he had improperly condemned her (Esth. Rabbah 5:2). Another tradition has Ahasuerus wanting his wife when the effects of his intoxication wore off. He was told: “You killed her!” He asked: “Why?” They replied: “You said for her to come before you naked and she did not come.” He admitted to them: “I did not act nicely. And who counseled me to kill her?” They told him: “The seven ministers of Persia and Media.” He immediately killed them. Consequently, the seven eunuchs are not mentioned again in the Book of Esther (Midrash Abba Gurion [ed. Buber], version B, beginning of chapter 2).
How to cite this page
Kadari, Tamar. "Vashti: Midrash and Aggadah." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 20 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on January 24, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/vashti-midrash-and-aggadah>. | 4,039 | ENGLISH | 1 |
18 December 2019
FIRLE DURING WW2
By Christopher Arnander
During World War Two, Firle was vulnerable to enemy action; the German forces were barely 70 miles across the English Channel on the coast of France. At the start of the war, Germany was expected to invade England; such an invasion would rapidly engulf Firle and the towns, villages and farms of the South Downs. Wanting to come to terms with Britain, in July 1940, Hitler made his ‘Last Appeal to Reason’, but was rebuffed. People were braced for invasion and pored anxiously over an official pamphlet ‘If the INVADER comes’. There was paranoia about spies and traitors. It was an extremely worrying time. The Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, exhorted the people to ‘STAND FIRM’ and told them what to do in his message to the nation ‘Beating the INVADER’
The invasion was postponed because of German plans to invade the Soviet Union and the success of the Battle of Britain. However, German planes randomly dropped bombs over Sussex, if they still had bombs in their holds after blitzing London; people and livestock were killed in Firle. There were also frequent accidents, such as when an allied Spitfire hurtled into Firle’s old workhouse, the Stamford Buildings, and destroyed it.
The tide turned as Germany got bogged down in the Soviet Union and America entered the war after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The South of England changed from defensive to offensive posture. Firle, among other villages, became a huge gathering area for the invasion of occupied France. The downland above Firle had been cleared of gorse to increase farm productivity only to be converted into a firing range; the locals were regularly submitted to a terrible noise. Tony Monnington, one of those who farm the downland today, has found many shells in the soil; his farm, Black Cap, is riddled with small craters.
For the locals, life was no less worrisome than it had been earlier in the war. After the Normandy landings on D Day, 6 June 1944, Hitler launched his ‘vengeance weapon 1’ or the V1 flying bomb (‘doodlebug’). Intended to punish Londoners, they frequently veered off course and many came down before reaching London. In a two month period in 1944, no less than 814 fell in East Sussex.
Firle was luckier than the area round Bexhill and Hastings, which bore the brunt of the V1s. One that landed very near Firle blew out all the windows of Firle Place. It deafened the long-serving vicar, the Rev Andrew Gregor, who was sitting in a chalk pit, 100 yards below the point of impact; his bible was said to have been torn to shreds, but he survived the ordeal, retiring in 1946 after the war. The V1 had no capacity to find a target, but were weapons of terror rather than of targeted destruction, which blew up on landing.
The V1, and its successor, the V2 ballistic missile, continued to spread havoc in Southern England almost until victory was declared in Europe, on VE Day, 8 May 1945. Kate Lusted’s diary records the happy day: ‘Put out flags. Skinned rooks for pie. Went to Ram for a drink. Bonfire and torchlight procession.’ Meat was rationed; Firle’s abundant rook population was a valuable source of pie components, but preparing them was a lot of work. Many were needed for a decent helping and, apart from skinning them, the fleas had to be removed. Frances Partridge, in her diaries, records how Quentin Bell, of Charleston on the Firle Estate, celebrated by making a life-sized image of Hitler to burn on the top of Firle Beacon.
At the start of the war, Southover Manor School moved into Firle Place and the Gage family had to find somewhere else to live. However, by 1941, it was becoming apparent that Sussex would be the launch pad for the invasion of Europe; the school was displaced and the house taken over by Canadian forces; Firle was described by one resident as being ‘under siege’ by them. Men from the South Saskatchewan Regiment occupied Firle Place; others were under canvas in Firle Park. Preston House was occupied by Canadian troops. Firle Park became a key transit camp, from which locals were banned; thousands of Canadian and other allied troops passed through it in preparation for the Normandy landings.
The Canadians had arrived in Sussex in 1941; at first they were deployed in a static role, to defend the South of England. However, the Canadian General McNaughten requested that ‘the claims of the Canadian Forces to form the spearhead of any offensive would not be forgotten’. Tragically, the first such offensive came in the following year, when Canada supplied by far the largest contingent of troops in the disastrous Dieppe Raid; some 55% of the 6,000 troops involved were killed, wounded or captured. The disaster was keenly felt in Firle and in East Sussex generally, as many of them had been stationed there.
There were altercations between residents and Canadians, often fuelled by alcohol, which was more freely available than at home in Canada. Rainald, 6th Viscount Gage, recalled Canadian soldiers who ‘…broke into the cellar and drank all my wine. I remember I had several dozen excellent vintage White Burgundy, which I was told they drank laced with gin.’ Lord Gage’s daughter, Camilla, remembers a drunken Canadian mistaking her pet donkey, Peggy, for a ghost, after it had wandered into the churchyard. At their departure, the Canadians left Firle Place, in a terrible condition; it was several years after the war before the Gage family could resume residence.
After D Day in June 1944, Firle and its neighbouring villages gradually came back to normal. Despite the upheaval created by the Canadians, many Firle residents formed warm friendships with them. Kate Lusted and others set up a canteen in the village hall for them and, after the war, cordial correspondence was maintained for some years. The Canadians’ courage and sacrifice was universally recognised. Whatever inconvenience might have been caused by them, all was forgiven for the gallant Canadians, who had played such a major part if winning the war.
The Home Guard
In May 1940, soon after Winston Churchill became Prime Minister, volunteers, aged between 17 and 65, were invited to join what came to be known as the Home Guard. Its function was to defend the localities where they lived. They were unpaid part-timers, who wore military uniforms and were armed. The policy was hugely popular and, within three months, 1.5 million had enrolled.
Firle came under the wing of the 16th Sussex Battalion, based at Lewes. By the end of June, its enrolment had reached 2,200; they came from every walk of life, from a cowman to the chairman of Barclays Bank. Firle contributed 58 volunteers to the Lewes Battalion. The Firle platoon was commanded by Dennis Bush, agent of the Firle Estate and Mr Gribble a farmer on the Firle Estate. Some Firle Home Guard members are shown in the group, such as Tom Lusted (back row, with glasses) and John Hecks.
The Home Guard has been the subject of much satire over the years, notably through the TV series Dad’s Army, and it is true that its activities could appear comic or chaotic. Once an order was made to arrest all nuns, on the basis that they might be German troops in disguise; in fact, the Germans had used this ruse in France. There was an inevitable shortage of weapons, as the regular forces had to have priority; their ability to improvise weapons, such as pitchforks, pikes, spades and clubs provoked derision. Yet their role in defending the nation’s infrastructure and providing early information on damage to it was vital, as were many of its other activities. Had there been a German invasion, their role in delaying the German advance and providing intelligence would have been invaluable. Any of them captured by the Germans were likely to be shot and they knew it.
John Hecks, a local farmer, was a fairly typical Home Guard member. He did night duty twice a week, guarding the Lewes to Newhaven road and patrolling the railway track with an automatic rifle. A common Home Guard job was surveying the countryside for suspicious activities from a high vantage point, such as Mount Caburn or Firle Tower – where John’s fellow watchman, Horace Phillips, introduced him to the joys of drinking whiskey. Cables were placed across the Downs to stop German gliders from landing. Another task of John’s was disposing of dead cattle, often the victims of stray German bombs.
Particularly brave were the Auxiliary Units; they were small groups trained in telecommunications, sabotage, intelligence gathering and survival. They were to remain behind the lines overrun by the German forces in the event of an invasion. If they were captured by the Germans, they could expect no mercy. Among Auxiliary Unit members were William Owen, steward of the Firle Estate, and Bill Webber, a Firle market gardener.
The Auxiliaries were sworn to secrecy about their work and it could lead to difficulties. When John Hecks’s uncle, Eric Brickell, a local farmer, resigned from the ordinary Home Guard to undertake a role with the Auxiliaries, his family somehow knew not to ask any questions, but outsiders commented on what looked like unpatriotic behaviour in abandoning his Home Guard uniform. He was in a most unenviable position.
Relations between the regular forces and the Home Guard could be tricky. When Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery (‘Monty’) was appointed GOC South-Eastern Command in November 1941, he made a point of trying to foster ‘the feeling of mutual respect and comradeship’ between them. The largest contingent of troops was Canadian and their Army History refers to ‘intimate and friendly contacts with the Sussex Home Guard’. General Crerar praised the ‘kindness, sympathy and understanding of the Sussex people’ towards his Canadian troops. The Home Guard’s touching gesture in giving £676 to the Canadians recognised the help given by them.
By December 1944, there was no risk of a German invasion and the Home Guard was stood down. The Eastbourne Town Council passed in a resolution expressing its gratitude for the fortitude and cheerfulness of the Home Guard members ‘…without regard for their personal comfort and safety, maintaining ever the sense of duty, courage and tenacity which accord with the best traditions of our people and, on behalf of the townspeople of Eastbourne, do desire to convey to all ranks this expression of heartfelt thanks’. These sentiments could apply to Firle’s Home Guard platoon and 25,000 similar ones up and down the country.
Firle residents’ reminiscences
Despite German attacks from the air, the prevailing anxiety, the regulations and rationing, life carried on mostly as normal. Firle’s shop and post office remained open, as did Beales the butcher. There was a table tennis club in the village hall. Car usage was very restricted, but trains ran normally; George Hayton Baker commuted daily to the London Stock Exchange, leaving his son Lyn to manage Hall Court Farm, which was acquired by the Hecks family after the war.
Reginald Hecks had come from the West Country to New House Farm, Firle in 1912, to be closer to the London market for sales of milk. Throughout the Second World War, he and his son, John, farmed there. Reginald was held in high esteem by the authorities and was a member of the local War Agricultural Executive Committee; known as WAR AGs, they were intended to help farmers increase their production and they were graded accordingly.
John combined working on the farm with his Home Guard duties; there were normally about four men working on the farm as well as four land girls. Sometimes, German prisoners were brought in to do the very heavy work. Among those who worked on the farm were two conscientious objectors, David Garnett and Duncan Grant, members of the Bloomsbury Set, who lived at Charleston; Grant joined the Home Guard and squared his conscience by having an obsolete rifle for which no bullets were available. One of John’s men, George Hughes, participated in the allied invasion of Germany in 1945 and brought back a German bride…which was considered rather scary; emotions ran high in those days.
Land Girls on Firle Beacon
John Hecks at one time provided ponies for Lord Gage’s children, Sammy, Nicky and Camilla. John’s sister, Betty, ran a home school for them. Later, the Gages moved away from Firle. They were billeted on the Cadwallader family in Welshpool and later lived at Eton, whence Lord Gage commuted daily to London for his secret work in SOE, which involved spreading ‘fake news’ to disconcert the enemy. They thus avoided the doodlebug which deafened the vicar and tore his bible to shreds. Evacuation, particularly of children, was an official policy; the Lewes area, at the war’s start, received no less than 16,000 (of which 53 went to Firle).
Families had to endure the separation of parents and children, who were often billeted with grandparents or friends in safer parts of the country. Complete strangers generously took in evacuees, such as the Cadwalladers for the Gage children. John B Gage, a kinsman, mayor of Kansas City offered to host them in America for the duration of the war. The offer was not taken up; the Brickell farming family received a similar offer from Canada, which was also not accepted. Families preferred to stick together, come what may; those that stayed felt a bit superior to those that crossed the Atlantic for greater safety – which was by no means assured, given the risk of being sunk by a German submarine on the voyage.
People were ever on the move as the fortunes of war changed. While children were being evacuated, Firle residents were taking in lodgers. The Brickells welcomed Canadian Cameron Highlanders, who would help on the farm. Mrs Brickell was particularly fond of one, Bill French, and cheerfully said ‘see you soon’ as he left for the front, to which he replied ‘I shall never see you again’…within a few weeks, he was dead. None of the local farms or houses received a direct V1 hit, but the risk was constantly in mind, as was the risk of being poisoned by enemy gas.
The Lusteds, who lived at Scaynes in the village, used to host London firemen, who came to Firle to recover from the horrors of firefighting in London’s blitz; their presence enabled the Lusteds to have the luxury of a telephone (Jim Lusted still remembers the number, Glynde 217), so that the firefighters could be summoned at short notice to resume their dangerous work in London. It was a time when everyone cooperated and improvised for the common benefit. David, the son of farmer William Rowsell, used his experience of farm machines to repair army vehicles. Even schoolchildren helped on the farm; Richard Brickell’s diary is full of references to sorting sheep, loading straw or mixing ‘cow’s grub’, after doing his home work.
There was no television; people relied on newspapers and the BBC’s ‘wireless broadcasts’. Cinemas flourished; there were two in Lewes. In Firle, the Riding School was converted into a make-shift cinema. Lord Gage’s daughter, Camilla, recalls enjoying Popeye the Sailor cartoon films; her mother, Imogen, served tea to those present. The Ministry of Information sponsored films, which combined excellent entertainment with subtle propaganda. As a schoolboy, Richard Brickell greatly enjoyed such masterpieces as The Young Mr Pitt and The 49th Parallel – the latter intended to sway US public opinion towards Britain.
We wish to acknowledge with many thanks the pictures of the Land Girls supplied by Records of the East Sussex War Agricultural Executive Committee and the East Sussex Agricultural Executive Committee held at The Keep. | <urn:uuid:3cd4d3ec-7001-44c9-a348-3374bab17ebf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://firle.com/firle-during-ww2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00448.warc.gz | en | 0.984858 | 3,464 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
-0.09921354055404663,
0.23432613909244537,
-0.07263481616973877,
-0.4762206971645355,
0.2709748446941376,
0.02647792547941208,
-0.08592921495437622,
0.21440887451171875,
-0.06030108779668808,
-0.3196043074131012,
-0.15723617374897003,
-0.5606849193572998,
0.13232162594795227,
0.32504391670... | 13 | 18 December 2019
FIRLE DURING WW2
By Christopher Arnander
During World War Two, Firle was vulnerable to enemy action; the German forces were barely 70 miles across the English Channel on the coast of France. At the start of the war, Germany was expected to invade England; such an invasion would rapidly engulf Firle and the towns, villages and farms of the South Downs. Wanting to come to terms with Britain, in July 1940, Hitler made his ‘Last Appeal to Reason’, but was rebuffed. People were braced for invasion and pored anxiously over an official pamphlet ‘If the INVADER comes’. There was paranoia about spies and traitors. It was an extremely worrying time. The Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, exhorted the people to ‘STAND FIRM’ and told them what to do in his message to the nation ‘Beating the INVADER’
The invasion was postponed because of German plans to invade the Soviet Union and the success of the Battle of Britain. However, German planes randomly dropped bombs over Sussex, if they still had bombs in their holds after blitzing London; people and livestock were killed in Firle. There were also frequent accidents, such as when an allied Spitfire hurtled into Firle’s old workhouse, the Stamford Buildings, and destroyed it.
The tide turned as Germany got bogged down in the Soviet Union and America entered the war after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The South of England changed from defensive to offensive posture. Firle, among other villages, became a huge gathering area for the invasion of occupied France. The downland above Firle had been cleared of gorse to increase farm productivity only to be converted into a firing range; the locals were regularly submitted to a terrible noise. Tony Monnington, one of those who farm the downland today, has found many shells in the soil; his farm, Black Cap, is riddled with small craters.
For the locals, life was no less worrisome than it had been earlier in the war. After the Normandy landings on D Day, 6 June 1944, Hitler launched his ‘vengeance weapon 1’ or the V1 flying bomb (‘doodlebug’). Intended to punish Londoners, they frequently veered off course and many came down before reaching London. In a two month period in 1944, no less than 814 fell in East Sussex.
Firle was luckier than the area round Bexhill and Hastings, which bore the brunt of the V1s. One that landed very near Firle blew out all the windows of Firle Place. It deafened the long-serving vicar, the Rev Andrew Gregor, who was sitting in a chalk pit, 100 yards below the point of impact; his bible was said to have been torn to shreds, but he survived the ordeal, retiring in 1946 after the war. The V1 had no capacity to find a target, but were weapons of terror rather than of targeted destruction, which blew up on landing.
The V1, and its successor, the V2 ballistic missile, continued to spread havoc in Southern England almost until victory was declared in Europe, on VE Day, 8 May 1945. Kate Lusted’s diary records the happy day: ‘Put out flags. Skinned rooks for pie. Went to Ram for a drink. Bonfire and torchlight procession.’ Meat was rationed; Firle’s abundant rook population was a valuable source of pie components, but preparing them was a lot of work. Many were needed for a decent helping and, apart from skinning them, the fleas had to be removed. Frances Partridge, in her diaries, records how Quentin Bell, of Charleston on the Firle Estate, celebrated by making a life-sized image of Hitler to burn on the top of Firle Beacon.
At the start of the war, Southover Manor School moved into Firle Place and the Gage family had to find somewhere else to live. However, by 1941, it was becoming apparent that Sussex would be the launch pad for the invasion of Europe; the school was displaced and the house taken over by Canadian forces; Firle was described by one resident as being ‘under siege’ by them. Men from the South Saskatchewan Regiment occupied Firle Place; others were under canvas in Firle Park. Preston House was occupied by Canadian troops. Firle Park became a key transit camp, from which locals were banned; thousands of Canadian and other allied troops passed through it in preparation for the Normandy landings.
The Canadians had arrived in Sussex in 1941; at first they were deployed in a static role, to defend the South of England. However, the Canadian General McNaughten requested that ‘the claims of the Canadian Forces to form the spearhead of any offensive would not be forgotten’. Tragically, the first such offensive came in the following year, when Canada supplied by far the largest contingent of troops in the disastrous Dieppe Raid; some 55% of the 6,000 troops involved were killed, wounded or captured. The disaster was keenly felt in Firle and in East Sussex generally, as many of them had been stationed there.
There were altercations between residents and Canadians, often fuelled by alcohol, which was more freely available than at home in Canada. Rainald, 6th Viscount Gage, recalled Canadian soldiers who ‘…broke into the cellar and drank all my wine. I remember I had several dozen excellent vintage White Burgundy, which I was told they drank laced with gin.’ Lord Gage’s daughter, Camilla, remembers a drunken Canadian mistaking her pet donkey, Peggy, for a ghost, after it had wandered into the churchyard. At their departure, the Canadians left Firle Place, in a terrible condition; it was several years after the war before the Gage family could resume residence.
After D Day in June 1944, Firle and its neighbouring villages gradually came back to normal. Despite the upheaval created by the Canadians, many Firle residents formed warm friendships with them. Kate Lusted and others set up a canteen in the village hall for them and, after the war, cordial correspondence was maintained for some years. The Canadians’ courage and sacrifice was universally recognised. Whatever inconvenience might have been caused by them, all was forgiven for the gallant Canadians, who had played such a major part if winning the war.
The Home Guard
In May 1940, soon after Winston Churchill became Prime Minister, volunteers, aged between 17 and 65, were invited to join what came to be known as the Home Guard. Its function was to defend the localities where they lived. They were unpaid part-timers, who wore military uniforms and were armed. The policy was hugely popular and, within three months, 1.5 million had enrolled.
Firle came under the wing of the 16th Sussex Battalion, based at Lewes. By the end of June, its enrolment had reached 2,200; they came from every walk of life, from a cowman to the chairman of Barclays Bank. Firle contributed 58 volunteers to the Lewes Battalion. The Firle platoon was commanded by Dennis Bush, agent of the Firle Estate and Mr Gribble a farmer on the Firle Estate. Some Firle Home Guard members are shown in the group, such as Tom Lusted (back row, with glasses) and John Hecks.
The Home Guard has been the subject of much satire over the years, notably through the TV series Dad’s Army, and it is true that its activities could appear comic or chaotic. Once an order was made to arrest all nuns, on the basis that they might be German troops in disguise; in fact, the Germans had used this ruse in France. There was an inevitable shortage of weapons, as the regular forces had to have priority; their ability to improvise weapons, such as pitchforks, pikes, spades and clubs provoked derision. Yet their role in defending the nation’s infrastructure and providing early information on damage to it was vital, as were many of its other activities. Had there been a German invasion, their role in delaying the German advance and providing intelligence would have been invaluable. Any of them captured by the Germans were likely to be shot and they knew it.
John Hecks, a local farmer, was a fairly typical Home Guard member. He did night duty twice a week, guarding the Lewes to Newhaven road and patrolling the railway track with an automatic rifle. A common Home Guard job was surveying the countryside for suspicious activities from a high vantage point, such as Mount Caburn or Firle Tower – where John’s fellow watchman, Horace Phillips, introduced him to the joys of drinking whiskey. Cables were placed across the Downs to stop German gliders from landing. Another task of John’s was disposing of dead cattle, often the victims of stray German bombs.
Particularly brave were the Auxiliary Units; they were small groups trained in telecommunications, sabotage, intelligence gathering and survival. They were to remain behind the lines overrun by the German forces in the event of an invasion. If they were captured by the Germans, they could expect no mercy. Among Auxiliary Unit members were William Owen, steward of the Firle Estate, and Bill Webber, a Firle market gardener.
The Auxiliaries were sworn to secrecy about their work and it could lead to difficulties. When John Hecks’s uncle, Eric Brickell, a local farmer, resigned from the ordinary Home Guard to undertake a role with the Auxiliaries, his family somehow knew not to ask any questions, but outsiders commented on what looked like unpatriotic behaviour in abandoning his Home Guard uniform. He was in a most unenviable position.
Relations between the regular forces and the Home Guard could be tricky. When Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery (‘Monty’) was appointed GOC South-Eastern Command in November 1941, he made a point of trying to foster ‘the feeling of mutual respect and comradeship’ between them. The largest contingent of troops was Canadian and their Army History refers to ‘intimate and friendly contacts with the Sussex Home Guard’. General Crerar praised the ‘kindness, sympathy and understanding of the Sussex people’ towards his Canadian troops. The Home Guard’s touching gesture in giving £676 to the Canadians recognised the help given by them.
By December 1944, there was no risk of a German invasion and the Home Guard was stood down. The Eastbourne Town Council passed in a resolution expressing its gratitude for the fortitude and cheerfulness of the Home Guard members ‘…without regard for their personal comfort and safety, maintaining ever the sense of duty, courage and tenacity which accord with the best traditions of our people and, on behalf of the townspeople of Eastbourne, do desire to convey to all ranks this expression of heartfelt thanks’. These sentiments could apply to Firle’s Home Guard platoon and 25,000 similar ones up and down the country.
Firle residents’ reminiscences
Despite German attacks from the air, the prevailing anxiety, the regulations and rationing, life carried on mostly as normal. Firle’s shop and post office remained open, as did Beales the butcher. There was a table tennis club in the village hall. Car usage was very restricted, but trains ran normally; George Hayton Baker commuted daily to the London Stock Exchange, leaving his son Lyn to manage Hall Court Farm, which was acquired by the Hecks family after the war.
Reginald Hecks had come from the West Country to New House Farm, Firle in 1912, to be closer to the London market for sales of milk. Throughout the Second World War, he and his son, John, farmed there. Reginald was held in high esteem by the authorities and was a member of the local War Agricultural Executive Committee; known as WAR AGs, they were intended to help farmers increase their production and they were graded accordingly.
John combined working on the farm with his Home Guard duties; there were normally about four men working on the farm as well as four land girls. Sometimes, German prisoners were brought in to do the very heavy work. Among those who worked on the farm were two conscientious objectors, David Garnett and Duncan Grant, members of the Bloomsbury Set, who lived at Charleston; Grant joined the Home Guard and squared his conscience by having an obsolete rifle for which no bullets were available. One of John’s men, George Hughes, participated in the allied invasion of Germany in 1945 and brought back a German bride…which was considered rather scary; emotions ran high in those days.
Land Girls on Firle Beacon
John Hecks at one time provided ponies for Lord Gage’s children, Sammy, Nicky and Camilla. John’s sister, Betty, ran a home school for them. Later, the Gages moved away from Firle. They were billeted on the Cadwallader family in Welshpool and later lived at Eton, whence Lord Gage commuted daily to London for his secret work in SOE, which involved spreading ‘fake news’ to disconcert the enemy. They thus avoided the doodlebug which deafened the vicar and tore his bible to shreds. Evacuation, particularly of children, was an official policy; the Lewes area, at the war’s start, received no less than 16,000 (of which 53 went to Firle).
Families had to endure the separation of parents and children, who were often billeted with grandparents or friends in safer parts of the country. Complete strangers generously took in evacuees, such as the Cadwalladers for the Gage children. John B Gage, a kinsman, mayor of Kansas City offered to host them in America for the duration of the war. The offer was not taken up; the Brickell farming family received a similar offer from Canada, which was also not accepted. Families preferred to stick together, come what may; those that stayed felt a bit superior to those that crossed the Atlantic for greater safety – which was by no means assured, given the risk of being sunk by a German submarine on the voyage.
People were ever on the move as the fortunes of war changed. While children were being evacuated, Firle residents were taking in lodgers. The Brickells welcomed Canadian Cameron Highlanders, who would help on the farm. Mrs Brickell was particularly fond of one, Bill French, and cheerfully said ‘see you soon’ as he left for the front, to which he replied ‘I shall never see you again’…within a few weeks, he was dead. None of the local farms or houses received a direct V1 hit, but the risk was constantly in mind, as was the risk of being poisoned by enemy gas.
The Lusteds, who lived at Scaynes in the village, used to host London firemen, who came to Firle to recover from the horrors of firefighting in London’s blitz; their presence enabled the Lusteds to have the luxury of a telephone (Jim Lusted still remembers the number, Glynde 217), so that the firefighters could be summoned at short notice to resume their dangerous work in London. It was a time when everyone cooperated and improvised for the common benefit. David, the son of farmer William Rowsell, used his experience of farm machines to repair army vehicles. Even schoolchildren helped on the farm; Richard Brickell’s diary is full of references to sorting sheep, loading straw or mixing ‘cow’s grub’, after doing his home work.
There was no television; people relied on newspapers and the BBC’s ‘wireless broadcasts’. Cinemas flourished; there were two in Lewes. In Firle, the Riding School was converted into a make-shift cinema. Lord Gage’s daughter, Camilla, recalls enjoying Popeye the Sailor cartoon films; her mother, Imogen, served tea to those present. The Ministry of Information sponsored films, which combined excellent entertainment with subtle propaganda. As a schoolboy, Richard Brickell greatly enjoyed such masterpieces as The Young Mr Pitt and The 49th Parallel – the latter intended to sway US public opinion towards Britain.
We wish to acknowledge with many thanks the pictures of the Land Girls supplied by Records of the East Sussex War Agricultural Executive Committee and the East Sussex Agricultural Executive Committee held at The Keep. | 3,447 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Edward Whelan, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom
The Roman city of Pompeii was famously destroyed in 79 A.D by an eruption of the volcano Vesuvius, which buried it beneath feet of ash and pumice. However, while the volcano ruined Pompeii, it also, perhaps ironically, preserved it for posterity. Today the city is arguably one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world and is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
The early history of Pompeii
Pompeii was founded after a number of small Oscan villages were united to form the town in about the 8th century BC. It slowly grew until it came under the influence of Greek colonists and within the orbit of the Etruscan League of city-states. At this point, it was ringed by a double ring of tufa walls.
It appears that after the Greeks from Syracuse and Cumae defeated the Etruscans, Pompeii went into a period of decline. The Samnites later occupied the area and Pompeii once again flourished and become an important trading center.
After the Samnite Wars, Rome became the dominant power in the area and Pompeii became its ally (socii). It was to remain faithful to Rome even during the Second Punic War when Hannibal threatened the very existence of the Republic. In the years following the Carthaginians defeat the town prospered, due mainly to its rich agricultural land and its exports of wine.
During the Social War (91-88 BC), the Pompeii revolted against Rome and joined with an alliance of Italian tribes and cities that sought Roman citizenship rights. While the Roman general Sulla besieged Pompeii, he failed to take it after fierce resistance. Eventually, however, Pompeii surrendered, following the defeat of the Italians. After the Roman victory, Sulla settled many of his veterans in the area and this eventually led to the Romanization of Pompeii. By the 1st century AD, Latin had become the language of the city and its culture was Roman. In 62 AD the city was badly damaged by an earthquake.
The Eruption of 79 AD
By 79 A.D, Pompeii was a town or small city of 15 to 20,000 inhabitants and the nearby volcano, Mount Vesuvius, had been dormant for many years. However, one day in either August or November 79 AD, the volcano erupted and send lava and hot ash down upon the city. Volcanic ash and molten rock were shot miles up into the atmosphere. A pyroclastic surge, which consisted of hot mud and molten rock, flowed down the slopes of Vesuvius. It engulfed the settlement and buried it beneath several feet of mud and rock. Many Pompeiians were suffocated by the hot ash or were trapped and buried beneath the hot mud and molten lava. A great many victims were preserved, in their death throes, by the mud that killed them and they can still be seen to this day.
Pliny the Younger, who was an eyewitness, gives a graphic description of the terror of the people. They had the choice to stay in buildings that were collapsing or to go onto the street where red-hot pumice was falling down. Many tried to protect themselves from the volcanic debris by placing rags and pillows on their heads, but nothing could save them. Most of the buildings were destroyed but many were also buried, and largely left intact. Those who survived the eruption were evacuated by ships, but thousands never made it out. The poor, old and slaves found it hard to secure passage, unlike the wealthy.
The day after the disaster the cone of the volcano collapsed, causing a tsunami that engulfed what remained of the once flourishing city. Most of the city was buried under 9 feet (3 m) of ash and pumice. Pompeii was never rebuilt after the disaster and its name was forgotten to history.
The buried city of Pompeii
The town was re-discovered in the 16th century but little thought was given to it. Only in the late 18th century was the town excavated by one of the pioneers of archaeology, the Swiss Karl Weber. Since then the site has been excavated and it is still being investigated by archaeologists. Today Pompeii is an archaeology park and it is open to visitors and is very popular with tourists from all over the world.
Insight into Roman life
There have been a large number of remarkable archaeological finds in the Roman city. A great deal of graffiti has been found and these writings have offered researchers an insight into the preoccupations of ordinary people. There have been many amazing villas discovered, such as the Villa of the Mysteries. Some of the most important finds have been made at these palatial residences; great murals have been uncovered here, masterpieces of Roman art, as well as many beautiful mosaics. Among the buildings that have been found are a launderette, brothel, and baths. Numerous artifacts and organic remains have also been unearthed, providing a great deal of information about life in Ancient Rome.
Rowland, Ingrid D. (2014). From Pompeii: The Afterlife of a Roman Town. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press | <urn:uuid:970589d2-76e1-4ce9-a70e-459c4e62bf54> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://classicalwisdom.com/politics/places/the-history-of-pompeii-and-its-volcanic-eruption/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.984464 | 1,071 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
-0.2744758725166321,
0.40568822622299194,
0.6328297853469849,
0.12888149917125702,
-0.4162514805793762,
-0.09615685045719147,
-0.15533292293548584,
0.19701692461967468,
0.08856438100337982,
0.04726957157254219,
-0.16881291568279266,
-0.7760961055755615,
0.22213439643383026,
0.6368258595466... | 4 | By Edward Whelan, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom
The Roman city of Pompeii was famously destroyed in 79 A.D by an eruption of the volcano Vesuvius, which buried it beneath feet of ash and pumice. However, while the volcano ruined Pompeii, it also, perhaps ironically, preserved it for posterity. Today the city is arguably one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world and is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
The early history of Pompeii
Pompeii was founded after a number of small Oscan villages were united to form the town in about the 8th century BC. It slowly grew until it came under the influence of Greek colonists and within the orbit of the Etruscan League of city-states. At this point, it was ringed by a double ring of tufa walls.
It appears that after the Greeks from Syracuse and Cumae defeated the Etruscans, Pompeii went into a period of decline. The Samnites later occupied the area and Pompeii once again flourished and become an important trading center.
After the Samnite Wars, Rome became the dominant power in the area and Pompeii became its ally (socii). It was to remain faithful to Rome even during the Second Punic War when Hannibal threatened the very existence of the Republic. In the years following the Carthaginians defeat the town prospered, due mainly to its rich agricultural land and its exports of wine.
During the Social War (91-88 BC), the Pompeii revolted against Rome and joined with an alliance of Italian tribes and cities that sought Roman citizenship rights. While the Roman general Sulla besieged Pompeii, he failed to take it after fierce resistance. Eventually, however, Pompeii surrendered, following the defeat of the Italians. After the Roman victory, Sulla settled many of his veterans in the area and this eventually led to the Romanization of Pompeii. By the 1st century AD, Latin had become the language of the city and its culture was Roman. In 62 AD the city was badly damaged by an earthquake.
The Eruption of 79 AD
By 79 A.D, Pompeii was a town or small city of 15 to 20,000 inhabitants and the nearby volcano, Mount Vesuvius, had been dormant for many years. However, one day in either August or November 79 AD, the volcano erupted and send lava and hot ash down upon the city. Volcanic ash and molten rock were shot miles up into the atmosphere. A pyroclastic surge, which consisted of hot mud and molten rock, flowed down the slopes of Vesuvius. It engulfed the settlement and buried it beneath several feet of mud and rock. Many Pompeiians were suffocated by the hot ash or were trapped and buried beneath the hot mud and molten lava. A great many victims were preserved, in their death throes, by the mud that killed them and they can still be seen to this day.
Pliny the Younger, who was an eyewitness, gives a graphic description of the terror of the people. They had the choice to stay in buildings that were collapsing or to go onto the street where red-hot pumice was falling down. Many tried to protect themselves from the volcanic debris by placing rags and pillows on their heads, but nothing could save them. Most of the buildings were destroyed but many were also buried, and largely left intact. Those who survived the eruption were evacuated by ships, but thousands never made it out. The poor, old and slaves found it hard to secure passage, unlike the wealthy.
The day after the disaster the cone of the volcano collapsed, causing a tsunami that engulfed what remained of the once flourishing city. Most of the city was buried under 9 feet (3 m) of ash and pumice. Pompeii was never rebuilt after the disaster and its name was forgotten to history.
The buried city of Pompeii
The town was re-discovered in the 16th century but little thought was given to it. Only in the late 18th century was the town excavated by one of the pioneers of archaeology, the Swiss Karl Weber. Since then the site has been excavated and it is still being investigated by archaeologists. Today Pompeii is an archaeology park and it is open to visitors and is very popular with tourists from all over the world.
Insight into Roman life
There have been a large number of remarkable archaeological finds in the Roman city. A great deal of graffiti has been found and these writings have offered researchers an insight into the preoccupations of ordinary people. There have been many amazing villas discovered, such as the Villa of the Mysteries. Some of the most important finds have been made at these palatial residences; great murals have been uncovered here, masterpieces of Roman art, as well as many beautiful mosaics. Among the buildings that have been found are a launderette, brothel, and baths. Numerous artifacts and organic remains have also been unearthed, providing a great deal of information about life in Ancient Rome.
Rowland, Ingrid D. (2014). From Pompeii: The Afterlife of a Roman Town. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press | 1,094 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Women's Land Army, also known as the WLA, was originally established because of World War One, but was re-founded shortly before the outbreak of World War Two, in June 1939, to provide extra agricultural labour. The government knew if war broke out there would be food shortages. Many male farm workers were expected to join the armed forces, leaving a shortage of labour. The government was also keen to increase food production by reclaiming pasture and unused land for growing crops. Women were initially asked to volunteer for the WLA. However, in December 1941, the government passed the National Service Act, which allowed the conscription of women into the armed forces or for vital war work. At first single women between 20 & 30, and widows without children, were called up, but later the age limit was expanded to include women between 19 & 43. Women could choose whether to enter the armed forces or work in farming or industry. By 1943, more than 80,000 women were working in the WLA. The Land Girls, as they were commonly called, did a wide range of jobs, including milking cows, lambing, managing poultry, ploughing, gathering crops, digging ditches, catching rats, and carrying out farm maintenance work. There was minimal training and most women were expected to learn about agricultural work while on the job. The Land Girls lived either on the farms where they worked, or in hostels. They came from a wide variety of backgrounds, with more than one third from London and other large cities. Some were homesick, and many farmers were concerned about employing young women on their properties. Initially, Land Girls earned a mere £1.85 for a minimum of 50 hours work a week. In 1944, wages were increased to £2.85. However, as the wages were paid by the farmer, rather than directly by the state, it was difficult to ensure that all the girls were paid correctly. There was a WLA uniform of green jumpers, brown breeches or dungarees, brown felt hats and khaki overcoats. However, as the WLA was not a military force, uniforms were not compulsory. The WLA badge depicted a wheat sheaf as a symbol of their agricultural work. There was also a magazine called The Land Girl. The WLA was officially disbanded in 1950.
- Posts : 540
Join date : 2017-04-15
Location : Kent UK
Permissions in this forum:You cannot reply to topics in this forum | <urn:uuid:cb5c2859-2988-49a2-a052-0294e9a9ed45> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.acanterburytale.com/t91-land-girls | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00055.warc.gz | en | 0.990884 | 510 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
-0.19600316882133484,
0.06879445910453796,
0.32945454120635986,
0.12841561436653137,
0.12450516223907471,
0.5171213150024414,
-0.5588929653167725,
-0.07433993369340897,
-0.2630806565284729,
-0.08393039554357529,
0.00011069845641031861,
-0.5427762269973755,
0.1248689740896225,
0.22634096443... | 1 | The Women's Land Army, also known as the WLA, was originally established because of World War One, but was re-founded shortly before the outbreak of World War Two, in June 1939, to provide extra agricultural labour. The government knew if war broke out there would be food shortages. Many male farm workers were expected to join the armed forces, leaving a shortage of labour. The government was also keen to increase food production by reclaiming pasture and unused land for growing crops. Women were initially asked to volunteer for the WLA. However, in December 1941, the government passed the National Service Act, which allowed the conscription of women into the armed forces or for vital war work. At first single women between 20 & 30, and widows without children, were called up, but later the age limit was expanded to include women between 19 & 43. Women could choose whether to enter the armed forces or work in farming or industry. By 1943, more than 80,000 women were working in the WLA. The Land Girls, as they were commonly called, did a wide range of jobs, including milking cows, lambing, managing poultry, ploughing, gathering crops, digging ditches, catching rats, and carrying out farm maintenance work. There was minimal training and most women were expected to learn about agricultural work while on the job. The Land Girls lived either on the farms where they worked, or in hostels. They came from a wide variety of backgrounds, with more than one third from London and other large cities. Some were homesick, and many farmers were concerned about employing young women on their properties. Initially, Land Girls earned a mere £1.85 for a minimum of 50 hours work a week. In 1944, wages were increased to £2.85. However, as the wages were paid by the farmer, rather than directly by the state, it was difficult to ensure that all the girls were paid correctly. There was a WLA uniform of green jumpers, brown breeches or dungarees, brown felt hats and khaki overcoats. However, as the WLA was not a military force, uniforms were not compulsory. The WLA badge depicted a wheat sheaf as a symbol of their agricultural work. There was also a magazine called The Land Girl. The WLA was officially disbanded in 1950.
- Posts : 540
Join date : 2017-04-15
Location : Kent UK
Permissions in this forum:You cannot reply to topics in this forum | 552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One hundred and seventy five years ago, on March 6, 1836, Davy Crockett, Jim Bowie, Colonel W. B. Travis, and about 180 other brave men were killed trying to defend the Alamo. Their deaths have come to symbolize courage and sacrifice for the cause of liberty, and the call to “remember the Alamo” survives even today. There is, however, a great deal of history surrounding the Alamo that many have forgotten.
The Alamo compound was established in 1718 as a Catholic mission, one of 38 such compounds that Spanish Franciscans built across Texas in the 1700s in an effort to spread Christianity through the region. These missions were self-sufficient communities, with farms, cattle ranches, and homes for teachers, nurses, guards, and the Indian converts. There were also schools, hospitals, guard posts, and carpentry and textile shops.
Toward the end of the 18th century, Spain began cutting back on its support for the missions. In 1793, the Alamo was secularized and turned over to civil authorities. Ten years later, a company of Mexican soldiers took up garrison duty at the mission. These soldiers were from the pueblo of Santiago del Alamo, and that is how the mission/outpost got its name.
In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and it took over the governance of Texas. “Mexican Texas” liberalized its immigration policies, at least partially because it was thought that a larger population would help counter the frequent Indian attacks. New immigrants were required to practice Catholicism, learn Spanish, and have a craft or useful profession. In exchange, they were given a homestead.
This was an attractive offer, and the Texas population grew rapidly. In 1825, Texas had a population of about 3,500, most of them of Mexican descent. Nine years later, the total population was about 37,800, and only about 7,800 of them were of Mexican descent.
Native Mexicans did not like being outnumbered by white people. Moreover, many of the immigrants openly flouted Mexican law (including the requirement to practice Catholicism and the 1829 Mexican prohibition against slavery). Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit any further immigration from the United States. New laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties, and several new outposts were established to monitor immigration and customs practices. This angered both recent immigrants and the native Mexicans.
The colonists argued that Mexico had invited them to move to the country under one set of rules, and now those rules were being changed. In 1832, they held a convention to demand that U.S. citizens once again be allowed to immigrate. Another convention the following year proposed that Texas become a separate Mexican state. Although Mexico implemented certain measures to appease the colonists (for instance, English was recognized as a second language), they were not satisfied.
In 1829, Spanish troops had landed on the eastern coast of Mexico in an attempt to reclaim the country for Spain. When the Spanish troops were defeated, Mexican General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna was hailed as a hero. In 1833, he was elected the president of Mexico, and he appointed Valentín Gómez Farías as vice president.
At first, Santa Anna largely let Farias govern the nation. The new vice president implemented several unpopular reforms, many of them aimed against the Catholic Church. This included secularizing Mexican education, eliminating mandatory tithing, and seizing church property and finances. Succumbing to mounting pressure, Santa Anna eventually denounced Farias and took over management of the nation. Unfortunately for the citizens of Texas, his administration was not much of an improvement.
Santa Anna revoked the Mexican Constitution, dissolved the Congress, and transformed Mexico from its federalist origins. His regime became a centralized dictatorship backed by the military. Although Texas would be the only one to eventually win its independence, several Mexican states rebelled. Unrest erupted into armed conflict, and that turned into the Texas Revolution.
Santa Anna personally led an army to put down the revolt. In Zacatecas (the largest Mexican state), he killed more than 2,000 noncombatants and let his troops loot for 48 hours. This brutality motivated the Texan forces. They stormed San Antonio, took it over, and left a small garrison at the Alamo. That garrison was strengthened by a company of native Mexicans (Tejanos) under Captain Juan Seguin, Crockett and his followers from Tennessee, and a unit of Texans organized by Colonel Travis.
On February 23, 1836, advance troops from Santa Anna’s army reached the outskirts of San Antonio. They hoisted a red banner of “No Quarter” from the cathedral. This meant that the Texans could immediately surrender, but if they fought, the Mexicans would take no prisoners: All would be killed. The answer from inside the Alamo was a cannon shot.
The Alamo was large enough to hold about 1,000 soldiers, but fewer than 200 were inside as thousands of Mexican soldiers gathered outside. Day after day, Santa Anna fired upon the Alamo. Travis appealed for support from outside, but none was forthcoming. The Texans hunkered down and awaited the onslaught of a force ten times larger than their own.
The final assault came before daybreak on March 6, 1836. Cannon and small-arms fire from inside the Alamo beat back several advances, but the Mexicans eventually scaled the walls and rushed into the compound. Bloody hand-to-hand combat spread through the streets. Eventually, the remaining Texans retreated into the church building. The Mexicans used a captured canon to blast open the barricaded doors. The defenders were overwhelmed. Only a handful of women and children were permitted to live.
Santa Anna’s forces won the battle, but they suffered significant losses, estimated at about 600 men. The time it took to overcome the Alamo also gave other Texans time to marshal forces and prepare for later battles. The following month, soldiers under Sam Houston shouted “Remember the Alamo!” as they routed Mexican forces at the battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign a treaty guaranteeing the independence of Texas.
Crockett, Bowie, and Travis are the names most remembered from the Alamo, but honor also belongs to Catholic heroes. Charles Despallier was a Catholic Cajun from Louisiana; Andrew Duvalt and John Gavin were among the eleven Catholic men from Ireland; and there were the Catholic Tejanos who fought for Texas independence. One of the Tejanos, José María Esparza, literally fought against his brother at the Alamo. When the battle was over, José’s brother, Francisco Esparza, recovered his body and arranged for a Catholic burial. Santa Anna had the other bodies piled up and burned.
As Albert Nevins wrote in his classic work Our American Catholic Heritage (1972), “The Alamo is a sacred spot where Catholics and Protestants and men of no religious belief stood together against tyranny and where death made brothers of them all.” Remember the Alamo indeed. | <urn:uuid:7a0d8887-a8ca-4e36-ace6-a5c3a3bb1464> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.crisismagazine.com/2011/remembering-the-alamo | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00401.warc.gz | en | 0.980927 | 1,464 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
-0.29105111956596375,
0.06427890807390213,
0.2502157986164093,
0.04546418786048889,
-0.08209045976400375,
-0.0037799226120114326,
-0.13210812211036682,
-0.009935238398611546,
-0.19600093364715576,
-0.28982013463974,
0.36521387100219727,
0.27342677116394043,
0.12026798725128174,
-0.25042158... | 4 | One hundred and seventy five years ago, on March 6, 1836, Davy Crockett, Jim Bowie, Colonel W. B. Travis, and about 180 other brave men were killed trying to defend the Alamo. Their deaths have come to symbolize courage and sacrifice for the cause of liberty, and the call to “remember the Alamo” survives even today. There is, however, a great deal of history surrounding the Alamo that many have forgotten.
The Alamo compound was established in 1718 as a Catholic mission, one of 38 such compounds that Spanish Franciscans built across Texas in the 1700s in an effort to spread Christianity through the region. These missions were self-sufficient communities, with farms, cattle ranches, and homes for teachers, nurses, guards, and the Indian converts. There were also schools, hospitals, guard posts, and carpentry and textile shops.
Toward the end of the 18th century, Spain began cutting back on its support for the missions. In 1793, the Alamo was secularized and turned over to civil authorities. Ten years later, a company of Mexican soldiers took up garrison duty at the mission. These soldiers were from the pueblo of Santiago del Alamo, and that is how the mission/outpost got its name.
In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and it took over the governance of Texas. “Mexican Texas” liberalized its immigration policies, at least partially because it was thought that a larger population would help counter the frequent Indian attacks. New immigrants were required to practice Catholicism, learn Spanish, and have a craft or useful profession. In exchange, they were given a homestead.
This was an attractive offer, and the Texas population grew rapidly. In 1825, Texas had a population of about 3,500, most of them of Mexican descent. Nine years later, the total population was about 37,800, and only about 7,800 of them were of Mexican descent.
Native Mexicans did not like being outnumbered by white people. Moreover, many of the immigrants openly flouted Mexican law (including the requirement to practice Catholicism and the 1829 Mexican prohibition against slavery). Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit any further immigration from the United States. New laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties, and several new outposts were established to monitor immigration and customs practices. This angered both recent immigrants and the native Mexicans.
The colonists argued that Mexico had invited them to move to the country under one set of rules, and now those rules were being changed. In 1832, they held a convention to demand that U.S. citizens once again be allowed to immigrate. Another convention the following year proposed that Texas become a separate Mexican state. Although Mexico implemented certain measures to appease the colonists (for instance, English was recognized as a second language), they were not satisfied.
In 1829, Spanish troops had landed on the eastern coast of Mexico in an attempt to reclaim the country for Spain. When the Spanish troops were defeated, Mexican General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna was hailed as a hero. In 1833, he was elected the president of Mexico, and he appointed Valentín Gómez Farías as vice president.
At first, Santa Anna largely let Farias govern the nation. The new vice president implemented several unpopular reforms, many of them aimed against the Catholic Church. This included secularizing Mexican education, eliminating mandatory tithing, and seizing church property and finances. Succumbing to mounting pressure, Santa Anna eventually denounced Farias and took over management of the nation. Unfortunately for the citizens of Texas, his administration was not much of an improvement.
Santa Anna revoked the Mexican Constitution, dissolved the Congress, and transformed Mexico from its federalist origins. His regime became a centralized dictatorship backed by the military. Although Texas would be the only one to eventually win its independence, several Mexican states rebelled. Unrest erupted into armed conflict, and that turned into the Texas Revolution.
Santa Anna personally led an army to put down the revolt. In Zacatecas (the largest Mexican state), he killed more than 2,000 noncombatants and let his troops loot for 48 hours. This brutality motivated the Texan forces. They stormed San Antonio, took it over, and left a small garrison at the Alamo. That garrison was strengthened by a company of native Mexicans (Tejanos) under Captain Juan Seguin, Crockett and his followers from Tennessee, and a unit of Texans organized by Colonel Travis.
On February 23, 1836, advance troops from Santa Anna’s army reached the outskirts of San Antonio. They hoisted a red banner of “No Quarter” from the cathedral. This meant that the Texans could immediately surrender, but if they fought, the Mexicans would take no prisoners: All would be killed. The answer from inside the Alamo was a cannon shot.
The Alamo was large enough to hold about 1,000 soldiers, but fewer than 200 were inside as thousands of Mexican soldiers gathered outside. Day after day, Santa Anna fired upon the Alamo. Travis appealed for support from outside, but none was forthcoming. The Texans hunkered down and awaited the onslaught of a force ten times larger than their own.
The final assault came before daybreak on March 6, 1836. Cannon and small-arms fire from inside the Alamo beat back several advances, but the Mexicans eventually scaled the walls and rushed into the compound. Bloody hand-to-hand combat spread through the streets. Eventually, the remaining Texans retreated into the church building. The Mexicans used a captured canon to blast open the barricaded doors. The defenders were overwhelmed. Only a handful of women and children were permitted to live.
Santa Anna’s forces won the battle, but they suffered significant losses, estimated at about 600 men. The time it took to overcome the Alamo also gave other Texans time to marshal forces and prepare for later battles. The following month, soldiers under Sam Houston shouted “Remember the Alamo!” as they routed Mexican forces at the battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign a treaty guaranteeing the independence of Texas.
Crockett, Bowie, and Travis are the names most remembered from the Alamo, but honor also belongs to Catholic heroes. Charles Despallier was a Catholic Cajun from Louisiana; Andrew Duvalt and John Gavin were among the eleven Catholic men from Ireland; and there were the Catholic Tejanos who fought for Texas independence. One of the Tejanos, José María Esparza, literally fought against his brother at the Alamo. When the battle was over, José’s brother, Francisco Esparza, recovered his body and arranged for a Catholic burial. Santa Anna had the other bodies piled up and burned.
As Albert Nevins wrote in his classic work Our American Catholic Heritage (1972), “The Alamo is a sacred spot where Catholics and Protestants and men of no religious belief stood together against tyranny and where death made brothers of them all.” Remember the Alamo indeed. | 1,505 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The life of the person we call the Buddha is shrouded in legend and myth. Although most historians believe there was such a person, we know very little about him. The “standard” biography, given briefly below, appears to have evolved over time and was largely completed by the Buddhacarita, an epic poem written by Aśvaghoṣa in the 2nd century CE.
SIDDHARTHA GAUTAMA’S EARLY LIFE
The future Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, was born in the 5th or 6th century BCE in Lumbini, in what is now Nepal.
His father, King Suddhodana, was leader of a large clan called the Shakya. His mother, Queen Maya, died shortly after his birth.
Read More: The Birth of the Buddha
When Prince Siddhartha was a few days old, a holy man prophesied the Prince would be either a great military conqueror or a great spiritual teacher. King Suddhodana preferred the first outcome and prepared his son accordingly. He raised the boy in great luxury and shielded him from knowledge of religion and human suffering. The Prince reached the age of 29 with little experience of the world outside the walls of his opulent palaces.
Read More: Prince Siddhartha: The Prince Who Became the Buddha
THE FOUR PASSING SIGHTS
One day, overcome with curiosity, Prince Siddhartha asked a charioteer to take him on a series of rides through the countryside. On these journeys he was shocked by the sight of an aged man, then a sick man, and then a corpse.
The stark realities of old age, disease, and death seized and sickened the Prince.
Finally, he saw a wandering ascetic. The charioteer explained that the ascetic was one who had renounced the world and sought release from fear of death and suffering.
For a time the Prince returned to palace life, but he took no pleasure in it.
Even the news that his wife Yasodhara had given birth to a son did not please him. The child was called Rahula, which means “fetter.”
One night he wandered the palace alone. The luxuries that had once pleased him now seemed grotesque. Musicians and dancing girls had fallen asleep and were sprawled about, snoring and sputtering. Prince Siddhartha reflected on the old age, disease, and death that would overtake them all and turn their bodies to dust.
He realized then that he could no longer be content living the life of a prince. That very night he left the palace, shaved his head, and changed his prince’s clothes for a beggar’s robe. Then he began his quest for enlightenment.
Read More: Siddhartha’s Renunciation
Siddhartha began by seeking out renowned teachers, who taught him about the many religious philosophies of his day as well as how to meditate. But after he had learned all they had to teach, his doubts and questions remained. so he and five disciples left to find enlightenment by themselves.
The six companions attempted to find release from suffering through physical discipline–enduring pain, holding their breath, fasting nearly to starvation. Yet Siddhartha was still unsatisfied.
It occurred to him that in renouncing pleasure he had grasped pleasure’s opposite–pain and self-mortification. Now Siddhartha considered a Middle Way between those two extremes.
He remembered an experience from his childhood, when his mind had settled into a state of deep peace. The path of liberation was through discipline of mind. He realized that instead of starvation, he needed nourishment to build up his strength for the effort. But when he accepted a bowl of rice milk from a young girl, his companions assumed he had given up the quest and abandoned him.
THE ENLIGHTENMENT OF THE BUDDHA
Siddhartha sat beneath a sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), known ever after as the Bodhi Tree (bodhi means “awakened”), and settled into meditation.
The work of Siddhartha’s mind came to be mythologized as a great battle with Mara, a demon whose name means “destruction’ and who represents the passions that snare and delude us.
Mara brought vast armies of monsters to attack Siddhartha, who sat still and untouched. Mara’s most beautiful daughter tried to seduce Siddhartha, but this effort also failed.
Finally, Mara claimed the seat of enlightenment rightfully belonged to him. Mara’s spiritual accomplishments were greater than Siddhartha’s, the demon said. Mara’s monstrous soldiers cried out together, “I am his witness!” Mara challenged Siddhartha–who will speak for you?
Then Siddhartha reached out his right hand to touch the earth, and the earth itself roared, “I bear you witness!” Mara disappeared. And as the morning star rose in the sky, Siddhartha Gautama realized enlightenment and became a Buddha.
Read More: The Enlightenment of the Buddha.
At first, the Buddha was reluctant to teach, because what he had realized could not be communicated in words. Only through discipline and clarity of mind would delusions fall away and the Great Reality could be directly experienced. Listeners without that direct experience would be stuck in conceptualizations and would surely misunderstand everything he said. But compassion persuaded him to make the attempt.
After his enlightenment, he went to the Deer Park in Isipatana, located in what is now the province of Uttar Pradesh, India. There he found the five companions who had abandoned him, and to them he preached his first sermon. This sermon has been preserved as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and centers on the Four Noble Truths. Instead of teaching doctrines about enlightenment, the Buddha chose to prescribe a path of practice through which people can realize enlightenment for themselves.
Read More: The Buddha’s First Sermon
The Buddha devoted himself to teaching, attracting hundreds of followers. Eventually he became reconciled with his father, King Suddhodana. His wife, the devoted Yasodhara, became a nun and disciple. Rahula, his son, became a novice monk at the age of 7 and spent the rest of his life with his father.
The Buddha tirelessly traveled and taught until his death at age 80.
His last words to his followers:
“Behold, O monks, this is my last advice to you. All compounded things in the world are changeable. They are not lasting. Work hard to gain your own salvation.”
By Barbara O’Brien | <urn:uuid:d34e7ecc-a28b-4012-b91e-dec8768cbf04> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://chuadaibi.org/en/the-life-of-the-buddha/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.98178 | 1,403 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
-0.03423329442739487,
0.49589550495147705,
0.13217146694660187,
0.023344511166214943,
-0.5128485560417175,
0.3350520431995392,
0.7781709432601929,
-0.2843531668186188,
0.024338338524103165,
0.19645455479621887,
0.09840239584445953,
-0.11679838597774506,
0.2907598614692688,
0.39223521947860... | 4 | The life of the person we call the Buddha is shrouded in legend and myth. Although most historians believe there was such a person, we know very little about him. The “standard” biography, given briefly below, appears to have evolved over time and was largely completed by the Buddhacarita, an epic poem written by Aśvaghoṣa in the 2nd century CE.
SIDDHARTHA GAUTAMA’S EARLY LIFE
The future Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, was born in the 5th or 6th century BCE in Lumbini, in what is now Nepal.
His father, King Suddhodana, was leader of a large clan called the Shakya. His mother, Queen Maya, died shortly after his birth.
Read More: The Birth of the Buddha
When Prince Siddhartha was a few days old, a holy man prophesied the Prince would be either a great military conqueror or a great spiritual teacher. King Suddhodana preferred the first outcome and prepared his son accordingly. He raised the boy in great luxury and shielded him from knowledge of religion and human suffering. The Prince reached the age of 29 with little experience of the world outside the walls of his opulent palaces.
Read More: Prince Siddhartha: The Prince Who Became the Buddha
THE FOUR PASSING SIGHTS
One day, overcome with curiosity, Prince Siddhartha asked a charioteer to take him on a series of rides through the countryside. On these journeys he was shocked by the sight of an aged man, then a sick man, and then a corpse.
The stark realities of old age, disease, and death seized and sickened the Prince.
Finally, he saw a wandering ascetic. The charioteer explained that the ascetic was one who had renounced the world and sought release from fear of death and suffering.
For a time the Prince returned to palace life, but he took no pleasure in it.
Even the news that his wife Yasodhara had given birth to a son did not please him. The child was called Rahula, which means “fetter.”
One night he wandered the palace alone. The luxuries that had once pleased him now seemed grotesque. Musicians and dancing girls had fallen asleep and were sprawled about, snoring and sputtering. Prince Siddhartha reflected on the old age, disease, and death that would overtake them all and turn their bodies to dust.
He realized then that he could no longer be content living the life of a prince. That very night he left the palace, shaved his head, and changed his prince’s clothes for a beggar’s robe. Then he began his quest for enlightenment.
Read More: Siddhartha’s Renunciation
Siddhartha began by seeking out renowned teachers, who taught him about the many religious philosophies of his day as well as how to meditate. But after he had learned all they had to teach, his doubts and questions remained. so he and five disciples left to find enlightenment by themselves.
The six companions attempted to find release from suffering through physical discipline–enduring pain, holding their breath, fasting nearly to starvation. Yet Siddhartha was still unsatisfied.
It occurred to him that in renouncing pleasure he had grasped pleasure’s opposite–pain and self-mortification. Now Siddhartha considered a Middle Way between those two extremes.
He remembered an experience from his childhood, when his mind had settled into a state of deep peace. The path of liberation was through discipline of mind. He realized that instead of starvation, he needed nourishment to build up his strength for the effort. But when he accepted a bowl of rice milk from a young girl, his companions assumed he had given up the quest and abandoned him.
THE ENLIGHTENMENT OF THE BUDDHA
Siddhartha sat beneath a sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), known ever after as the Bodhi Tree (bodhi means “awakened”), and settled into meditation.
The work of Siddhartha’s mind came to be mythologized as a great battle with Mara, a demon whose name means “destruction’ and who represents the passions that snare and delude us.
Mara brought vast armies of monsters to attack Siddhartha, who sat still and untouched. Mara’s most beautiful daughter tried to seduce Siddhartha, but this effort also failed.
Finally, Mara claimed the seat of enlightenment rightfully belonged to him. Mara’s spiritual accomplishments were greater than Siddhartha’s, the demon said. Mara’s monstrous soldiers cried out together, “I am his witness!” Mara challenged Siddhartha–who will speak for you?
Then Siddhartha reached out his right hand to touch the earth, and the earth itself roared, “I bear you witness!” Mara disappeared. And as the morning star rose in the sky, Siddhartha Gautama realized enlightenment and became a Buddha.
Read More: The Enlightenment of the Buddha.
At first, the Buddha was reluctant to teach, because what he had realized could not be communicated in words. Only through discipline and clarity of mind would delusions fall away and the Great Reality could be directly experienced. Listeners without that direct experience would be stuck in conceptualizations and would surely misunderstand everything he said. But compassion persuaded him to make the attempt.
After his enlightenment, he went to the Deer Park in Isipatana, located in what is now the province of Uttar Pradesh, India. There he found the five companions who had abandoned him, and to them he preached his first sermon. This sermon has been preserved as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and centers on the Four Noble Truths. Instead of teaching doctrines about enlightenment, the Buddha chose to prescribe a path of practice through which people can realize enlightenment for themselves.
Read More: The Buddha’s First Sermon
The Buddha devoted himself to teaching, attracting hundreds of followers. Eventually he became reconciled with his father, King Suddhodana. His wife, the devoted Yasodhara, became a nun and disciple. Rahula, his son, became a novice monk at the age of 7 and spent the rest of his life with his father.
The Buddha tirelessly traveled and taught until his death at age 80.
His last words to his followers:
“Behold, O monks, this is my last advice to you. All compounded things in the world are changeable. They are not lasting. Work hard to gain your own salvation.”
By Barbara O’Brien | 1,347 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The origin of basketball dates back to one hundred and nine years ago (Tejada 14). The first game was played on December 21, 1891 (Tejada 14). Even back then basketball was a thrilling sport. Although it has changed very much since this date, the basic idea of the game is still the same. The first game was played in Springfield, Massachusetts during the winter season (Swallows). The game was invented in order to keep football players in shape during the off season when it was too cold to go outside (Swallows). It snows quite a bit in the north eastern part of the United States and there were not to many indoor games at this time for children to play. Basketball allowed these students to have something to play and keep themselves in shape.
The game of basketball was designed and founded by Dr. James Naismith (Davis). James Naismith was born on November 6, 1861 in Almonte, Ontario. Much later in life he became a teacher at the International YMCA Training School (“Basketball”). Dr. Naismith was assigned to discover a game that would keep the boys on the football team in shape during the off season (Leiser). Naismith borrowed ideas from the outdoor sports rugby and soccer in order to come up with basketball (Davis). These two sports involved much running and team work. Naismith decided that by combining the two he could come up with a great new game. James died On November 28, 1936 (“Basketball”). This was only three years after seeing the sport that he invented become part of the Olympic Games (Leiser). The pride he must have had in his accomplishments had to of been phenomenal. Just knowing that the training game he invented was placed into the Olympic Games would probably be the greatest achievement of his life.
The original game of basketball had many aspects that no longer exist in the modern day version.. The first game had only thirteen rules (Leiser). These rules were posted on his gym classes bulletin board for all of his students to read and memorize (Leiser). Although all of the original rules are not known today some of them were very odd. Players were not allowed to dribble the ball (Davis). Players had to stand stationary and pass the ball to each other. This must have given the game a slower pace than that of the modern day game. When dribbling was finally established it gave the players more freedom to move about and made the pace much faster. Dribbling also required the players to become more skilled so that they could handle the basketball as they played the game. At first Naismith was afraid if he let the kids dribble the ball that they would end up tackling each other which might result in many unwanted injuries (Tejada 17). The kids were so used to playing football that Naismith feared they would treat his game as if it were indoor football. He did not want to see any of his students injured so he did not allow his players to dribble. The first ball used in basketball games was actually a soccer ball (Tejada 17). This ball was used because it was small enough to handle with your hands and soft enough that it would not hurt the players if they were to get hit.
It is hard to picture playing basketball where the hoops were made from peach baskets. The basket has gone through its own evolution. Naismith had two peach baskets nailed to the balcony on both sides of the gym (Leiser). Naismith left the bottoms in the peach baskets and had janitor stand on the balconies to retrieve any made shots. As time progressed Naismith had the bottoms of the peach baskets removed so they did not have to rely on janitors to retrieve made shots ( Davis). Removing the bottoms of the baskets allowed the game to become much faster. There were no longer pauses… | <urn:uuid:997b4a77-bf11-47a1-9f87-e374e4173af4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Sports-James-Naismith-And-Players-577486.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00211.warc.gz | en | 0.99377 | 794 | 3.625 | 4 | [
-0.36341047286987305,
0.15807072818279266,
0.19294974207878113,
-0.37050867080688477,
-0.5511554479598999,
0.3424606919288635,
0.48197466135025024,
0.016628403216600418,
0.012431351467967033,
0.0777474045753479,
-0.16571646928787231,
-0.488872230052948,
0.23934677243232727,
0.1379953324794... | 1 | The origin of basketball dates back to one hundred and nine years ago (Tejada 14). The first game was played on December 21, 1891 (Tejada 14). Even back then basketball was a thrilling sport. Although it has changed very much since this date, the basic idea of the game is still the same. The first game was played in Springfield, Massachusetts during the winter season (Swallows). The game was invented in order to keep football players in shape during the off season when it was too cold to go outside (Swallows). It snows quite a bit in the north eastern part of the United States and there were not to many indoor games at this time for children to play. Basketball allowed these students to have something to play and keep themselves in shape.
The game of basketball was designed and founded by Dr. James Naismith (Davis). James Naismith was born on November 6, 1861 in Almonte, Ontario. Much later in life he became a teacher at the International YMCA Training School (“Basketball”). Dr. Naismith was assigned to discover a game that would keep the boys on the football team in shape during the off season (Leiser). Naismith borrowed ideas from the outdoor sports rugby and soccer in order to come up with basketball (Davis). These two sports involved much running and team work. Naismith decided that by combining the two he could come up with a great new game. James died On November 28, 1936 (“Basketball”). This was only three years after seeing the sport that he invented become part of the Olympic Games (Leiser). The pride he must have had in his accomplishments had to of been phenomenal. Just knowing that the training game he invented was placed into the Olympic Games would probably be the greatest achievement of his life.
The original game of basketball had many aspects that no longer exist in the modern day version.. The first game had only thirteen rules (Leiser). These rules were posted on his gym classes bulletin board for all of his students to read and memorize (Leiser). Although all of the original rules are not known today some of them were very odd. Players were not allowed to dribble the ball (Davis). Players had to stand stationary and pass the ball to each other. This must have given the game a slower pace than that of the modern day game. When dribbling was finally established it gave the players more freedom to move about and made the pace much faster. Dribbling also required the players to become more skilled so that they could handle the basketball as they played the game. At first Naismith was afraid if he let the kids dribble the ball that they would end up tackling each other which might result in many unwanted injuries (Tejada 17). The kids were so used to playing football that Naismith feared they would treat his game as if it were indoor football. He did not want to see any of his students injured so he did not allow his players to dribble. The first ball used in basketball games was actually a soccer ball (Tejada 17). This ball was used because it was small enough to handle with your hands and soft enough that it would not hurt the players if they were to get hit.
It is hard to picture playing basketball where the hoops were made from peach baskets. The basket has gone through its own evolution. Naismith had two peach baskets nailed to the balcony on both sides of the gym (Leiser). Naismith left the bottoms in the peach baskets and had janitor stand on the balconies to retrieve any made shots. As time progressed Naismith had the bottoms of the peach baskets removed so they did not have to rely on janitors to retrieve made shots ( Davis). Removing the bottoms of the baskets allowed the game to become much faster. There were no longer pauses… | 802 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today Ngāti Toarangatira's lands are largely in the south-western North Island, centred around Porirua and the Kāpiti Coast.
Tribal name and ancestors
Ngāti Toarangatira (also known as Ngāti Toa) trace their origins to the Tainui canoe, captained by Hoturoa. One of Hoturoa’s descendants was the chief Tūpāhau. On a famous occasion, Tūpāhau spared the life of an enemy he had defeated. After that, his people were named Toarangatira – the tribe of chivalrous and chiefly warriors. Tūpāhau’s grandson, a great warrior, was also named Toarangatira.
Ngāti Toa originally lived in the Kāwhia area on the North Island’s west coast. Because of conflicts with Waikato tribes, they decided to move south to the Kāpiti Coast in the early 1820s. Along the way a group of them, mainly women, met a war party. Te Rauparaha, Ngāti Toa's great leader, told them to dress as chiefs and stand beside several fires, to make the enemy think there were more of them. This part of their journey became known as Te Heke Tahutahuahi (the fire-lighting migration). When they reached Taranaki they rested for several months.
They were joined by Taranaki tribes on the next part of the migration. This journey was called Te Heke Tātaramoa (the bramble bush migration), because of the many obstacles they faced. The entire migration was called Te Heke Mai-i-raro (the migration from the north).
The rise and fall of Ngāti Toa
Between 1820 and the 1840s, with Te Rauparaha as their chief, Ngāti Toa became the dominant tribe on the Kāpiti Coast. They also conquered territory in the South Island, and controlled large areas on both sides of Cook Strait from their island fortress of Kāpiti. European settlers saw them as a threat. The government kidnapped Te Rauparaha and held him prisoner. Ngāti Toa were forced to sell most of their land.
The tribe today
The representative body of Ngāti Toa, Te Rūnanga o Toa Rangatira, looks after the land, resources and mana of the tribe. Redress for the unjust actions of the government in the past was agreed to in 2012. In 2013, almost 4,500 people claimed descent from Ngāti Toa. | <urn:uuid:24bd2f73-0ed6-469b-ae29-754cae373939> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://admin.teara.govt.nz/en/ngati-toarangatira | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.983614 | 560 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
-0.17177797853946686,
0.24923774600028992,
0.1886308491230011,
0.020555226132273674,
-0.20438021421432495,
-0.3032326400279999,
0.3148519694805145,
-0.2613789141178131,
-0.26400160789489746,
0.1104406863451004,
-0.14764603972434998,
-0.9179306030273438,
0.20901355147361755,
0.5790040493011... | 20 | Today Ngāti Toarangatira's lands are largely in the south-western North Island, centred around Porirua and the Kāpiti Coast.
Tribal name and ancestors
Ngāti Toarangatira (also known as Ngāti Toa) trace their origins to the Tainui canoe, captained by Hoturoa. One of Hoturoa’s descendants was the chief Tūpāhau. On a famous occasion, Tūpāhau spared the life of an enemy he had defeated. After that, his people were named Toarangatira – the tribe of chivalrous and chiefly warriors. Tūpāhau’s grandson, a great warrior, was also named Toarangatira.
Ngāti Toa originally lived in the Kāwhia area on the North Island’s west coast. Because of conflicts with Waikato tribes, they decided to move south to the Kāpiti Coast in the early 1820s. Along the way a group of them, mainly women, met a war party. Te Rauparaha, Ngāti Toa's great leader, told them to dress as chiefs and stand beside several fires, to make the enemy think there were more of them. This part of their journey became known as Te Heke Tahutahuahi (the fire-lighting migration). When they reached Taranaki they rested for several months.
They were joined by Taranaki tribes on the next part of the migration. This journey was called Te Heke Tātaramoa (the bramble bush migration), because of the many obstacles they faced. The entire migration was called Te Heke Mai-i-raro (the migration from the north).
The rise and fall of Ngāti Toa
Between 1820 and the 1840s, with Te Rauparaha as their chief, Ngāti Toa became the dominant tribe on the Kāpiti Coast. They also conquered territory in the South Island, and controlled large areas on both sides of Cook Strait from their island fortress of Kāpiti. European settlers saw them as a threat. The government kidnapped Te Rauparaha and held him prisoner. Ngāti Toa were forced to sell most of their land.
The tribe today
The representative body of Ngāti Toa, Te Rūnanga o Toa Rangatira, looks after the land, resources and mana of the tribe. Redress for the unjust actions of the government in the past was agreed to in 2012. In 2013, almost 4,500 people claimed descent from Ngāti Toa. | 565 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Authorities in the Japanese city of Hiroshima have planned to demolish two buildings that survived the 1945 atomic bomb, but some locals want them preserved as landmarks, it was reported on Monday (16 December).
The two buildings, built in 1913, were first used as a military clothing factory, and later as university student accommodation, reports the BBC.
They were also used as a makeshift hospital after the Second World War bombing.
The bombing on August 6, 1945 flattened most of the city, and as of last year only 85 buildings built before the bomb remained within 5 km of "ground zero".
The buildings survived because they were made from reinforced concrete with a red brick exterior. Some bomb damage to the metal windows and doors is still visible.
In 2017, authorities found the structures - now publicly-owned - were highly likely to collapse in a strong earthquake.
As the buildings are not in use and not open to the public, the local government decided they should be demolished by 2022.
A third building at the site will be preserved, and its walls and roof will be repaired and reinforced to protect it from earthquakes.
Iwao Nakanishi, 89, was in one of the buildings when the city was bombed. He is now the head of a local group demanding their preservation of the buildings.
"Considering the historical significance of telling the tragedy to the future generation, we can no way accept the demolition," the BBC quoted Nakanishi as saying to the Japanese Mainichi newspaper.
"We strongly oppose it."
Nakanishi said the buildings could be used to promoting "the abolition of nuclear weapons".
As a direct result of the bomb, around 80,000 people were killed and 35,000 others injured.
(This story has been published from a wire agency feed without modifications to the text. Only the headline has been changed.) | <urn:uuid:b7fe6451-7789-496e-a325-587d603ff247> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://swarajyamag.com/insta/hiroshima-japanese-authorities-plan-to-demolish-two-buildings-that-survived-atomic-bomb-in-1945 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00284.warc.gz | en | 0.982873 | 377 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
-0.1695345789194107,
0.2717703580856323,
0.04302537441253662,
-0.05819714814424515,
0.5904786586761475,
0.45472005009651184,
-0.12730489671230316,
0.1787540316581726,
-0.2273831069469452,
0.19287262856960297,
0.016556179150938988,
-0.09663834422826767,
0.43836432695388794,
0.67423659563064... | 1 | Authorities in the Japanese city of Hiroshima have planned to demolish two buildings that survived the 1945 atomic bomb, but some locals want them preserved as landmarks, it was reported on Monday (16 December).
The two buildings, built in 1913, were first used as a military clothing factory, and later as university student accommodation, reports the BBC.
They were also used as a makeshift hospital after the Second World War bombing.
The bombing on August 6, 1945 flattened most of the city, and as of last year only 85 buildings built before the bomb remained within 5 km of "ground zero".
The buildings survived because they were made from reinforced concrete with a red brick exterior. Some bomb damage to the metal windows and doors is still visible.
In 2017, authorities found the structures - now publicly-owned - were highly likely to collapse in a strong earthquake.
As the buildings are not in use and not open to the public, the local government decided they should be demolished by 2022.
A third building at the site will be preserved, and its walls and roof will be repaired and reinforced to protect it from earthquakes.
Iwao Nakanishi, 89, was in one of the buildings when the city was bombed. He is now the head of a local group demanding their preservation of the buildings.
"Considering the historical significance of telling the tragedy to the future generation, we can no way accept the demolition," the BBC quoted Nakanishi as saying to the Japanese Mainichi newspaper.
"We strongly oppose it."
Nakanishi said the buildings could be used to promoting "the abolition of nuclear weapons".
As a direct result of the bomb, around 80,000 people were killed and 35,000 others injured.
(This story has been published from a wire agency feed without modifications to the text. Only the headline has been changed.) | 396 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to tradition, following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, captured the English throne. As a result, Edgar the Atheling of England was unable to secure his rightful claim to the English crown and thus decided to return to Hungary, where he had lived previously with his exiled father. Joined by his sister, Margaret, Edward set sail from England for the continent. However, a storm forced their ship north to the rocky shores of Scotland. The king of Scotland, Malcolm III (d. 1093), extended hospitality to the English family and, in time, took Edward’s sister, Margaret, to be his wife. While Edgar continued his struggle for the English throne, Margaret dedicated herself to her husband and to the people of Scotland.
Queen Margaret of Scotland (c. 1045–1093) is barely mentioned in the annals of church history. Nevertheless, she was used of God mightily in eleventh-century Scotland. While the first crusade raged, while schism rent the church in the East, and while Anselm ministered in her homeland of England, Margaret was on her knees praying earnestly for her husband, the king of Scotland. Legend has it that as a new queen, Margaret would quietly slip out at night to a nearby cavern to pray for her husband’s conversion to Christ. At first, she was suspected of treason in plotting against her husband’s kingdom; however, she was vindicated in time as King Malcolm was converted and transformed, which, in turn, brought about transformation of his royal court and, ultimately, the nation of Scotland. Margaret was a pious woman whom God set forth as an example of Christian character, holiness, and worship. The ladies of her court and many ladies of Scotland esteemed her highly and imitated her example of humility, prayer, and service. Margaret was a woman of the Word who immersed herself in the Gospel accounts of Jesus Christ. (Incidentally, her book of the Gospels remains one of England’s great treasures to this day, as it stands on display at Oxford’s Bodleian Library.) In addition to her own eight children, she adopted and raised nine orphans. She had a passion for the church, as she personally sponsored the construction and ministries of countless new churches and the revitalization of dilapidated churches. By her own consistent pattern of Lord’s Day worship and rest, the king and court eventually followed suit, and Sunday once again became a day of worship, rest, and service. Margaret was a reformer before the Reformation and an example to us all as she lived justly, loved kindness, and walked humbly before the face of God.
Burk Parsons is editor of Tabletalk magazine and serves as copastor of Saint Andrew’s Chapel in
Sanford, Fla. Taken from Tabletalk Magazine 01 May 2011
© Tabletalk magazine. Used with permission. | <urn:uuid:a93f3f59-098b-4c5a-a19f-90a716065657> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.pallaraprc.org.au/blog/an-11th-century-reformer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.980817 | 603 | 3.5 | 4 | [
-0.149645134806633,
0.32772886753082275,
0.05456578731536865,
-0.28471603989601135,
-0.25285428762435913,
-0.24312010407447815,
-0.06911572068929672,
-0.1092434972524643,
0.3353281617164612,
-0.05128917843103409,
-0.11798842251300812,
-0.38634634017944336,
0.3059273958206177,
-0.3198396563... | 1 | According to tradition, following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, captured the English throne. As a result, Edgar the Atheling of England was unable to secure his rightful claim to the English crown and thus decided to return to Hungary, where he had lived previously with his exiled father. Joined by his sister, Margaret, Edward set sail from England for the continent. However, a storm forced their ship north to the rocky shores of Scotland. The king of Scotland, Malcolm III (d. 1093), extended hospitality to the English family and, in time, took Edward’s sister, Margaret, to be his wife. While Edgar continued his struggle for the English throne, Margaret dedicated herself to her husband and to the people of Scotland.
Queen Margaret of Scotland (c. 1045–1093) is barely mentioned in the annals of church history. Nevertheless, she was used of God mightily in eleventh-century Scotland. While the first crusade raged, while schism rent the church in the East, and while Anselm ministered in her homeland of England, Margaret was on her knees praying earnestly for her husband, the king of Scotland. Legend has it that as a new queen, Margaret would quietly slip out at night to a nearby cavern to pray for her husband’s conversion to Christ. At first, she was suspected of treason in plotting against her husband’s kingdom; however, she was vindicated in time as King Malcolm was converted and transformed, which, in turn, brought about transformation of his royal court and, ultimately, the nation of Scotland. Margaret was a pious woman whom God set forth as an example of Christian character, holiness, and worship. The ladies of her court and many ladies of Scotland esteemed her highly and imitated her example of humility, prayer, and service. Margaret was a woman of the Word who immersed herself in the Gospel accounts of Jesus Christ. (Incidentally, her book of the Gospels remains one of England’s great treasures to this day, as it stands on display at Oxford’s Bodleian Library.) In addition to her own eight children, she adopted and raised nine orphans. She had a passion for the church, as she personally sponsored the construction and ministries of countless new churches and the revitalization of dilapidated churches. By her own consistent pattern of Lord’s Day worship and rest, the king and court eventually followed suit, and Sunday once again became a day of worship, rest, and service. Margaret was a reformer before the Reformation and an example to us all as she lived justly, loved kindness, and walked humbly before the face of God.
Burk Parsons is editor of Tabletalk magazine and serves as copastor of Saint Andrew’s Chapel in
Sanford, Fla. Taken from Tabletalk Magazine 01 May 2011
© Tabletalk magazine. Used with permission. | 612 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History Of Buddhism
Buddhism is the fourth-largest religion to set its roots on this planet, as compared to other religions. The History Of Buddhism is very interesting. Hinduism is one of the oldest to have been established. It has many followers across the globe, and this religion is still growing in different parts of the world.
The founder of Buddhism was Lord Buddha. It was somewhere around the 6th and 4th centuries in 563 BCE, spreading through much of Asia. He had every luxury which one could have asked for in those days. However, he finally left all the comforts of his life, took the path of a normal man, and embraced asceticism lifestyle.
Early Life Of Buddha- History Of Buddhism
Buddha became enlightened on the 49th day of his meditation. He meditated consecutively for 49 days straight. Gautama told about his enlightenment. He became Buddha to people in the year 528 BCE and earned some disciples who were to follow his commandments and preaching in the days to come.
Moreover, Buddha, along with his disciples, traveled across mountains and plains of northern India. He taught people about the ways of life that he had learned from meditation and adoption of the path, but it was tough.
Buddha also gave directives and teachings to people who would come under him. Some of them are as follows.
Principles Of Buddha
Happiness and sadness is the responsibility of an individual. He gave four truths as his guiding principles of life.
The first principle is that there is suffering in human life. The second, the cause of suffering is desire. The third is, ending desire means ending the suffering, and the last being to follow a controlled and moderate life will end the desires.
To achieve the above-mentioned goals, he gave noble paths: the first is the right belief. The second is the right resolve. The third is the right speech. The forth is the right to conduct. The fifth is the right occupation. The sixth is the right effort. The seventh being the right mindfulness and the earth, and the last is Samadhi or meditation.
Furthermore, according to Buddha, if someone religiously follows these eightfold paths of life, he will be liberated from the samsara. This is the cycle of life, which is the cycle of rebirths and worldly sufferings.
Beliefs Of Buddha- History Of Buddhism
Monasticism is the practice of leading a simple life and leaving the worldly comforts and the pursuit of attaining happiness. Hence, his disciples spread across many countries the messages of Buddha among the people.
Buddha disregarded the caste system, which was very much prevalent in Indian society. Furthermore, he considered people to be equal and said that no one is above or below any person in this world. Also, he believed that every person has to pay for the deeds he has committed, whether right or wrong. This is the law of karma. No one is spared of the deeds they have done.
Followers Of Buddha Teachings
Finally, Emperor Asoka also followed the commandments of the Gautama Buddha and converted to Buddhism. He sent his children across the globe to publicize the teachings of Buddha and spread his teachings so that more and more people could benefit from them. | <urn:uuid:df77f325-094d-4ef1-bfa3-86b892526d5a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://beabuddhist.net/the-history-of-buddhism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00045.warc.gz | en | 0.983819 | 675 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
0.2004399299621582,
0.1363331526517868,
-0.012438934296369553,
-0.3126925230026245,
-0.4380439817905426,
0.4513651132583618,
0.39962756633758545,
-0.6056846380233765,
0.29426103830337524,
0.24112293124198914,
-0.05734312906861305,
-0.15131846070289612,
0.23645374178886414,
0.56163793802261... | 2 | The History Of Buddhism
Buddhism is the fourth-largest religion to set its roots on this planet, as compared to other religions. The History Of Buddhism is very interesting. Hinduism is one of the oldest to have been established. It has many followers across the globe, and this religion is still growing in different parts of the world.
The founder of Buddhism was Lord Buddha. It was somewhere around the 6th and 4th centuries in 563 BCE, spreading through much of Asia. He had every luxury which one could have asked for in those days. However, he finally left all the comforts of his life, took the path of a normal man, and embraced asceticism lifestyle.
Early Life Of Buddha- History Of Buddhism
Buddha became enlightened on the 49th day of his meditation. He meditated consecutively for 49 days straight. Gautama told about his enlightenment. He became Buddha to people in the year 528 BCE and earned some disciples who were to follow his commandments and preaching in the days to come.
Moreover, Buddha, along with his disciples, traveled across mountains and plains of northern India. He taught people about the ways of life that he had learned from meditation and adoption of the path, but it was tough.
Buddha also gave directives and teachings to people who would come under him. Some of them are as follows.
Principles Of Buddha
Happiness and sadness is the responsibility of an individual. He gave four truths as his guiding principles of life.
The first principle is that there is suffering in human life. The second, the cause of suffering is desire. The third is, ending desire means ending the suffering, and the last being to follow a controlled and moderate life will end the desires.
To achieve the above-mentioned goals, he gave noble paths: the first is the right belief. The second is the right resolve. The third is the right speech. The forth is the right to conduct. The fifth is the right occupation. The sixth is the right effort. The seventh being the right mindfulness and the earth, and the last is Samadhi or meditation.
Furthermore, according to Buddha, if someone religiously follows these eightfold paths of life, he will be liberated from the samsara. This is the cycle of life, which is the cycle of rebirths and worldly sufferings.
Beliefs Of Buddha- History Of Buddhism
Monasticism is the practice of leading a simple life and leaving the worldly comforts and the pursuit of attaining happiness. Hence, his disciples spread across many countries the messages of Buddha among the people.
Buddha disregarded the caste system, which was very much prevalent in Indian society. Furthermore, he considered people to be equal and said that no one is above or below any person in this world. Also, he believed that every person has to pay for the deeds he has committed, whether right or wrong. This is the law of karma. No one is spared of the deeds they have done.
Followers Of Buddha Teachings
Finally, Emperor Asoka also followed the commandments of the Gautama Buddha and converted to Buddhism. He sent his children across the globe to publicize the teachings of Buddha and spread his teachings so that more and more people could benefit from them. | 674 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the heart of Berlin’s Neukölln neighborhood is Rixdorf, an area that is also known as the Bohemian Village. The settlement originated in the first half of the 18th century, under the auspices of the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm I., who welcomed Bohemian Protestant refugees into his empire. In the Habsburg Empire, they had been banned from exercising their faith. We recently visited this fascinating area of Berlin and talked to Cordelia Polinna,, the director of the Bohemian Museum, which is devoted to the history of this neighborhood.
Few areas of Berlin are as heavily impacted by immigration as Neukölln, a neighborhood dominated by Turkish fast-food stands and Arabic grocery stores, with residents of this one Berlin district hailing from about 160 different countries. But immigration to this area is not just a recent phenomenon: In fact, it started some 275 years ago, when a group of Bohemian Protestants arrived here. They came to what was then just a small village outside of Berlin because they had been banned from exercising their faith in the Habsburg Empire. Today, the Bohemian Museum in Rixdorf traces the journey of these immigrants, as well as the heyday of the Bohemian Quarter. Its director is Cordelia Polinna, who explains how these religious refugees ended up in Prussia.
“After the 30-years-war, which ended in 1648, it was really important for the kings who were ruling at the time to repopulate the countryside, because it was depopulated, a lot of villages had ceased to exist and there was not a lot of trade, for example.
“So the kings conceived this idea to invite refugees from all over Europe, for example the Huguenots, the Salzburger, the Pfälzer, and among them also the Bohemians and the Moravians, to come to Berlin and the areas surrounding it in order to found new villages. They were given building materials to construct houses and a set of animals, two horses and two cows, and a set of farming tools, so that they would be able to start working on the soil and establishing a livelihood.”
Of course, the freedom of being able to exercise their Protestant faith was one of the main draws for these refugees to establish residence in Prussia. In addition, they were freed of certain taxes and did not have to serve in the military, an important factor for many devout believers who refused to go to war because of their faith.
Quickly, the Rixdorf area became a prosperous one. The Bohemians, who arrived here in 1737, worked as farmers and weavers. Most of them hailed from a small village in East Bohemia near Ustí nad Orlicí. Soon, the village started to grow and blossom. A church and a cemetery were built, and in 1753, a school opened its gates in the Bohemian quarter. However, the architecture did not resemble that of the refugees’ native region, a fact that puzzles historians to this day.
“That is very strange, we have been trying to research that and have not been able to clear that up. It is definitely not what the villages in Bohemia look like. Because those people who can trace their ancestors back to Bohemia, know the houses there and they are very different from the ones that have been built here in Berlin. The housing structure was quite elaborate and interesting. Nine houses were erected, split into two parts, so that two families could live in each house, side by side. The big walls faced each other to save energy and create courtyards. That was a very interesting and regular building structure, and it looks very much like a planned village.
“So nobody really knows how that came about. It may have been the same architect who was behind the expansion in Südliche Friedrichsstadt, a very Baroque expansion, who drew the plans for the village. We don’t think it was the Bohemians themselves, for that, it was too planned and too constructed. And we also are not sure how exactly this arrival happened. We know that they came here as a big group, around 350 refugees. And they must have camped somewhere in the meantime. Some of them were taken in by other families for some months while these buildings were erected. So the exact process of their arrival is hard to trace.”
Once the Bohemians had established their own village, the role of faith quickly became central to the community. Today, the Bohemian Museum displays a lot of religious costumes and pictures from the early days. Cordelia Pollina showed me around the exhibition room at my recent visit to the museum.
“The Bohemian Village here in Rixdorf back then was a center of Czech people in Prussia. This area really became an area important for book printing, in the Czech language. We have here some old bibles and hymn books, which were printed in Germany, in Czech, for Protestant churches in Bohemia and Moravia, because at that time, it was forbidden for Protestants to print their own bibles. And that is why some of these bibles are very small, they were designed that way so that it was easier to smuggle them back to Moravia and Bohemia. So we have a number of those historic books. Berlin at the time was a center of Czech printing at the time.”
That is fascinating. And I see here in this display case, you have some traditional costumes. Now who would have worn those?
“The Czech people who came to Berlin were heavily influenced by the Moravian Church, the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeinde, which was founded by Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf, a nobleman who had been brought up in the traditions of Pietism. And it was also one of the first places where they took a break from their escape and then later on, they moved on to Berlin. This church was a very pietistic one, almost comparable to the Calvinistic tradition. Zinzendorf believed that people should be dressed equal in front of God. That no one should wear fancy hats or clothes during the service. And so he created this traditional dress code.
“Long black dresses for the women, and special aprons or shoulder scarves for more festive occasions. Another special element is the headdress, the so-called Haube, a small kind of hat, that had ribbons in different colors which indicate whether the woman was married, a widow or still to be had.”
So religion was a key factor in this community?
“Definitely. Religion was very important, the Pietistic tradition was very important. It was forbidden to go to big dance parties, to gamble, to drink alcohol. Although Neukölln at the time was a center of leisure, a place for the working classes to go and enjoy themselves and drink beer, which was brewed in the many nearby breweries. There were a lot of brothels and prostitution but the Bohemian Village really distanced itself from that.”
While in those days, the Bohemian Village was an actual village outside of the big city, Berlin has expanded since, so that to visitors today, the rural-looking cobble streets of Rixdorf, with their expansive houses and barns, look quite odd considering the bustling city streets are just a stone’s throw away. Does the Czech heritage continue to play a role here?
“For some people, especially the descendants of the Bohemians, it is very important to keep the Czech heritage alive and remember it. We as a museum also do try to do that. We have the Comenius Garden next to the museum, a very nice little park that commemorates Jan Comenius, and Ustí nad Orlici is our twin city. So there are a lot of people that keep the tradition alive.
“We also have a Christmas market, and Czechs come here to sell crafts. So I think there is quite an intense exchange and we want to pass that on to the next generation, especially now that the Cold War is over and it is much easier to meet up. So we want to keep the Czech heritage alive even into the younger generations.”
For those interested in learning more about the Bohemian heritage of the German capital, a visit to the Bohemian Museum in Neukölln is highly recommended.
Czech IT specialists organize “hackathon” to give government online motorway vignette sales system for free
Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps
CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal
EU, Russia row over WWII, with Poles and Czechs on front lines
Three Czechs trapped in Wuhan due to coronavirus | <urn:uuid:12857aa1-34a0-4b94-9d65-c8e0bbebc7f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://m.radio.cz/en/section/spotlight/the-bohemian-quarter-a-chapter-of-czech-history-in-the-heart-of-berlin | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.982761 | 1,849 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
0.4539419412612915,
0.4819633960723877,
-0.02788485772907734,
-0.07499934732913971,
0.29488882422447205,
0.02445194311439991,
-0.0641041100025177,
0.2909342348575592,
-0.5164532661437988,
-0.28286194801330566,
-0.16933682560920715,
-0.058736883103847504,
0.18917055428028107,
-0.11652135848... | 1 | In the heart of Berlin’s Neukölln neighborhood is Rixdorf, an area that is also known as the Bohemian Village. The settlement originated in the first half of the 18th century, under the auspices of the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm I., who welcomed Bohemian Protestant refugees into his empire. In the Habsburg Empire, they had been banned from exercising their faith. We recently visited this fascinating area of Berlin and talked to Cordelia Polinna,, the director of the Bohemian Museum, which is devoted to the history of this neighborhood.
Few areas of Berlin are as heavily impacted by immigration as Neukölln, a neighborhood dominated by Turkish fast-food stands and Arabic grocery stores, with residents of this one Berlin district hailing from about 160 different countries. But immigration to this area is not just a recent phenomenon: In fact, it started some 275 years ago, when a group of Bohemian Protestants arrived here. They came to what was then just a small village outside of Berlin because they had been banned from exercising their faith in the Habsburg Empire. Today, the Bohemian Museum in Rixdorf traces the journey of these immigrants, as well as the heyday of the Bohemian Quarter. Its director is Cordelia Polinna, who explains how these religious refugees ended up in Prussia.
“After the 30-years-war, which ended in 1648, it was really important for the kings who were ruling at the time to repopulate the countryside, because it was depopulated, a lot of villages had ceased to exist and there was not a lot of trade, for example.
“So the kings conceived this idea to invite refugees from all over Europe, for example the Huguenots, the Salzburger, the Pfälzer, and among them also the Bohemians and the Moravians, to come to Berlin and the areas surrounding it in order to found new villages. They were given building materials to construct houses and a set of animals, two horses and two cows, and a set of farming tools, so that they would be able to start working on the soil and establishing a livelihood.”
Of course, the freedom of being able to exercise their Protestant faith was one of the main draws for these refugees to establish residence in Prussia. In addition, they were freed of certain taxes and did not have to serve in the military, an important factor for many devout believers who refused to go to war because of their faith.
Quickly, the Rixdorf area became a prosperous one. The Bohemians, who arrived here in 1737, worked as farmers and weavers. Most of them hailed from a small village in East Bohemia near Ustí nad Orlicí. Soon, the village started to grow and blossom. A church and a cemetery were built, and in 1753, a school opened its gates in the Bohemian quarter. However, the architecture did not resemble that of the refugees’ native region, a fact that puzzles historians to this day.
“That is very strange, we have been trying to research that and have not been able to clear that up. It is definitely not what the villages in Bohemia look like. Because those people who can trace their ancestors back to Bohemia, know the houses there and they are very different from the ones that have been built here in Berlin. The housing structure was quite elaborate and interesting. Nine houses were erected, split into two parts, so that two families could live in each house, side by side. The big walls faced each other to save energy and create courtyards. That was a very interesting and regular building structure, and it looks very much like a planned village.
“So nobody really knows how that came about. It may have been the same architect who was behind the expansion in Südliche Friedrichsstadt, a very Baroque expansion, who drew the plans for the village. We don’t think it was the Bohemians themselves, for that, it was too planned and too constructed. And we also are not sure how exactly this arrival happened. We know that they came here as a big group, around 350 refugees. And they must have camped somewhere in the meantime. Some of them were taken in by other families for some months while these buildings were erected. So the exact process of their arrival is hard to trace.”
Once the Bohemians had established their own village, the role of faith quickly became central to the community. Today, the Bohemian Museum displays a lot of religious costumes and pictures from the early days. Cordelia Pollina showed me around the exhibition room at my recent visit to the museum.
“The Bohemian Village here in Rixdorf back then was a center of Czech people in Prussia. This area really became an area important for book printing, in the Czech language. We have here some old bibles and hymn books, which were printed in Germany, in Czech, for Protestant churches in Bohemia and Moravia, because at that time, it was forbidden for Protestants to print their own bibles. And that is why some of these bibles are very small, they were designed that way so that it was easier to smuggle them back to Moravia and Bohemia. So we have a number of those historic books. Berlin at the time was a center of Czech printing at the time.”
That is fascinating. And I see here in this display case, you have some traditional costumes. Now who would have worn those?
“The Czech people who came to Berlin were heavily influenced by the Moravian Church, the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeinde, which was founded by Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf, a nobleman who had been brought up in the traditions of Pietism. And it was also one of the first places where they took a break from their escape and then later on, they moved on to Berlin. This church was a very pietistic one, almost comparable to the Calvinistic tradition. Zinzendorf believed that people should be dressed equal in front of God. That no one should wear fancy hats or clothes during the service. And so he created this traditional dress code.
“Long black dresses for the women, and special aprons or shoulder scarves for more festive occasions. Another special element is the headdress, the so-called Haube, a small kind of hat, that had ribbons in different colors which indicate whether the woman was married, a widow or still to be had.”
So religion was a key factor in this community?
“Definitely. Religion was very important, the Pietistic tradition was very important. It was forbidden to go to big dance parties, to gamble, to drink alcohol. Although Neukölln at the time was a center of leisure, a place for the working classes to go and enjoy themselves and drink beer, which was brewed in the many nearby breweries. There were a lot of brothels and prostitution but the Bohemian Village really distanced itself from that.”
While in those days, the Bohemian Village was an actual village outside of the big city, Berlin has expanded since, so that to visitors today, the rural-looking cobble streets of Rixdorf, with their expansive houses and barns, look quite odd considering the bustling city streets are just a stone’s throw away. Does the Czech heritage continue to play a role here?
“For some people, especially the descendants of the Bohemians, it is very important to keep the Czech heritage alive and remember it. We as a museum also do try to do that. We have the Comenius Garden next to the museum, a very nice little park that commemorates Jan Comenius, and Ustí nad Orlici is our twin city. So there are a lot of people that keep the tradition alive.
“We also have a Christmas market, and Czechs come here to sell crafts. So I think there is quite an intense exchange and we want to pass that on to the next generation, especially now that the Cold War is over and it is much easier to meet up. So we want to keep the Czech heritage alive even into the younger generations.”
For those interested in learning more about the Bohemian heritage of the German capital, a visit to the Bohemian Museum in Neukölln is highly recommended.
Czech IT specialists organize “hackathon” to give government online motorway vignette sales system for free
Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps
CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal
EU, Russia row over WWII, with Poles and Czechs on front lines
Three Czechs trapped in Wuhan due to coronavirus | 1,805 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How was Maria Mitchell important to the world?
What did Maria Mitchell do to be so important to the world?
- pongpresarioLv 41 decade agoFavorite Answer
Maria Mtchell. . . "born Aug. 1, 1818, Nantucket, Mass., U.S.
died June 28, 1889, Lynn, Mass."
"first professional woman astronomer in the United States."
"Mitchell was educated in schools on her native Nantucket, Massachusetts, including the one conducted by her father. Her interest in astronomy was stimulated by her father, who let her assist in his work of rating chronometers for the Nantucket whaling fleet and who encouraged her independent use of his telescope. From 1836 to 1856 she worked as a librarian in the Nantucket Atheneum during the day (often acting as an informal teacher) and became a regular observer of the skies at night."
"In October 1847 Mitchell succeeded in establishing the orbit of a new comet. The discovery gained her immediate recognition in scientific circles; the following year she became the first woman elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1849 she was appointed a computer for the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, and the next year she was elected to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. A gift of a large equatorial telescope was arranged by a group of prominent American women led by Elizabeth Peabody in 1858. Mitchell's accomplishments were subsequently kept in the public eye by feminists, and from 1857 to 1858 she traveled in Europe, meeting many leading scientists. In 1861 she moved with her widowed father to Lynn, Massachusetts."
"Reluctantly, but encouraged by her father, Mitchell accepted an appointment in 1865 to Vassar Female College, which opened that year in Poughkeepsie, New York. As director of the observatory and professor of astronomy there, she was, in those early days, the most prominent member of the faculty. Several of her students, who included Christine Ladd-Franklin and Ellen Swallow (Richards), later testified to the great influence she had as a teacher and as an example."
"Mitchell pioneered in the daily photography of sunspots; she was the first to find that they were whirling vertical cavities rather than clouds, as had been earlier believed. She also studied comets, nebulae, double stars, solar eclipses, and the satellites of Saturn and Jupiter. Elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1869, she helped found the Association for the Advancement of Women (1873) and served as its president (1875–76). Mitchell retired from Vassar in failing health in 1888 and died the next year."Source(s): britannica.com
- 1 decade ago
Maria Mitchell was America's first woman astronomer, and the first woman to join the American Academy of Arts and Science. She would be the only woman allowed to join for over a hundred years. This was extraordinary considering the roles women "played" during the time.
- LauralLv 44 years ago
If they want to remain anonymous, then why the hell would they tell Clazza and his buddies that it was them, especially if they are already being put under pressure by the McCanns? Clazza is there to boost the reputation of Kate and Gerry, and anything that makes them look remotely bad is either 'ludicrous', 'hurtful', or 'nonsense of the highest order'. You're right, the doubt is now there, and they won't know who's saying what. The story could very possible be untrue, but it's put enough wind up the McCanns for them to make a comment about it. | <urn:uuid:3675cf1e-133c-41b8-ae70-bd8a797f6eec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080604172709AAc5Lu9 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.984322 | 769 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
0.3378792405128479,
0.006095178425312042,
0.1511027216911316,
-0.21578583121299744,
-0.07875092327594757,
0.4763792157173157,
0.3179301619529724,
0.3845265507698059,
-0.2131522297859192,
-0.21062973141670227,
0.1646319031715393,
0.1735919862985611,
0.130735844373703,
0.4203432500362396,
... | 1 | How was Maria Mitchell important to the world?
What did Maria Mitchell do to be so important to the world?
- pongpresarioLv 41 decade agoFavorite Answer
Maria Mtchell. . . "born Aug. 1, 1818, Nantucket, Mass., U.S.
died June 28, 1889, Lynn, Mass."
"first professional woman astronomer in the United States."
"Mitchell was educated in schools on her native Nantucket, Massachusetts, including the one conducted by her father. Her interest in astronomy was stimulated by her father, who let her assist in his work of rating chronometers for the Nantucket whaling fleet and who encouraged her independent use of his telescope. From 1836 to 1856 she worked as a librarian in the Nantucket Atheneum during the day (often acting as an informal teacher) and became a regular observer of the skies at night."
"In October 1847 Mitchell succeeded in establishing the orbit of a new comet. The discovery gained her immediate recognition in scientific circles; the following year she became the first woman elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1849 she was appointed a computer for the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, and the next year she was elected to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. A gift of a large equatorial telescope was arranged by a group of prominent American women led by Elizabeth Peabody in 1858. Mitchell's accomplishments were subsequently kept in the public eye by feminists, and from 1857 to 1858 she traveled in Europe, meeting many leading scientists. In 1861 she moved with her widowed father to Lynn, Massachusetts."
"Reluctantly, but encouraged by her father, Mitchell accepted an appointment in 1865 to Vassar Female College, which opened that year in Poughkeepsie, New York. As director of the observatory and professor of astronomy there, she was, in those early days, the most prominent member of the faculty. Several of her students, who included Christine Ladd-Franklin and Ellen Swallow (Richards), later testified to the great influence she had as a teacher and as an example."
"Mitchell pioneered in the daily photography of sunspots; she was the first to find that they were whirling vertical cavities rather than clouds, as had been earlier believed. She also studied comets, nebulae, double stars, solar eclipses, and the satellites of Saturn and Jupiter. Elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1869, she helped found the Association for the Advancement of Women (1873) and served as its president (1875–76). Mitchell retired from Vassar in failing health in 1888 and died the next year."Source(s): britannica.com
- 1 decade ago
Maria Mitchell was America's first woman astronomer, and the first woman to join the American Academy of Arts and Science. She would be the only woman allowed to join for over a hundred years. This was extraordinary considering the roles women "played" during the time.
- LauralLv 44 years ago
If they want to remain anonymous, then why the hell would they tell Clazza and his buddies that it was them, especially if they are already being put under pressure by the McCanns? Clazza is there to boost the reputation of Kate and Gerry, and anything that makes them look remotely bad is either 'ludicrous', 'hurtful', or 'nonsense of the highest order'. You're right, the doubt is now there, and they won't know who's saying what. The story could very possible be untrue, but it's put enough wind up the McCanns for them to make a comment about it. | 817 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This book is an extraordinary collaboration between Americans who were morally firm and unwavering concerning the rights of man, and enslaved people who were seeking freedom. It was called the Underground Railroad, which became the first great civil rights movement in the United States. It was led by Frederick Douglass, born of an enslaved black mother and a white plantation overseer father. Douglass worked with the abolitionist community that was largely white to bring freedom to the enslaved black population. This book focuses on slavery in New York State and more specifically on Frederick Douglass and Underground Railroad activities in Rochester and Monroe County, New York. Douglass was a longtime resident of Rochester and is interred in Mount Hope Cemetery, famous for its many abolitionists and women’s rights advocates buried there. 93 pages. Written by Richard Reisem and photos by Frank Gillespie.
$18.80 cost includes sales tax and shipping cost for $10 book. | <urn:uuid:221b7163-ebc9-415c-9967-f09a2bebf2d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.landmarksociety.org/product/frederick-douglass-and-the-underground-railroad/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00342.warc.gz | en | 0.982249 | 186 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
-0.20147818326950073,
0.09263654053211212,
0.2812166213989258,
0.34093737602233887,
-0.10731413960456848,
0.23103117942810059,
-0.21274098753929138,
-0.1399368941783905,
-0.26637256145477295,
0.018439527601003647,
0.08765300363302231,
0.40507498383522034,
-0.43735796213150024,
0.3761613667... | 15 | This book is an extraordinary collaboration between Americans who were morally firm and unwavering concerning the rights of man, and enslaved people who were seeking freedom. It was called the Underground Railroad, which became the first great civil rights movement in the United States. It was led by Frederick Douglass, born of an enslaved black mother and a white plantation overseer father. Douglass worked with the abolitionist community that was largely white to bring freedom to the enslaved black population. This book focuses on slavery in New York State and more specifically on Frederick Douglass and Underground Railroad activities in Rochester and Monroe County, New York. Douglass was a longtime resident of Rochester and is interred in Mount Hope Cemetery, famous for its many abolitionists and women’s rights advocates buried there. 93 pages. Written by Richard Reisem and photos by Frank Gillespie.
$18.80 cost includes sales tax and shipping cost for $10 book. | 190 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays.
Leonardo da Vinci was born on April 15, 1452 in Anchiano, near Vinci in the Republic of Florence, which is now Italy. He died on May 2, 1519 in Cloux (now Clos-Luce) France. Leonardo da Vinci is believed to be the greatest genius that ever lived. Leonardo had become a master in more fields of any other before or since him. Most geniuses such as Albert Einstein or Alfred Hitchcock were masters only in a single field. It was not the case with Leonardo. He believed that all subject matter was interconnected in one way or another. Leonardo expressed a great deal of his other works in his works of art. He was an Italian painter, draftsman, sculpture, architect, engineer, mathematician, musician, scientist, a writer, and a well-known inventor.
Da Vinci, the Artist
Leonardo started his career as an artist in about 1469 in Verrocchio’s fabled workshop. Leonardo, a youth at the time was Verrocchio’s assistant. One of their famous masterpieces was the Baptism of Christ. This painting was started in 1472 and took roughly 3 years to complete. It is currently being housed at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy. A great deal of the detail of this painting was believed to be done by Leonardo himself. X-rays of the painting and comparing them to the original sketches shows that Leonardo had done the painting entirely different that the way Verrocchio had intended it to be in finished form. This may be the earliest indication that Leonardo was trying to free himself from his masters coaching to follow his own path. Verrocchio had felt threatened by the fact that da Vinci’s angel in the painting had seemed to be a great deal better than the other three which were painted by Verrocchio (John the Baptist) and other students) After this Verrocchio had lost interest in painting and concentrated on his other talents such as sculpture and metal working. Suffice to say, this was Verrocchio’s last well-known painting and the start of Leonardo’s career as a famous artist. Another of his more famous works, the Mona Lisa, has brought forth much controversy over the years since its completion in 1506. It was painted in Florence, Italy on wood with oil paints and now currently resides at the Musee du Louvre, Paris. Some of this controversy includes such questioning as follows: Why is she smiling (was she secretly pregnant at the time of the painting), is this really a woman or a cleverly disguised self-portrait of Leonardo himself? If Mona Lisa was actually a self portrait of Leonardo, then the smile couldn’t have been of a secret pregnancy, but most-likely of a secret that the painting is actually based on the artist. The Last Supper is another one of Leonardo’s great works of art. It is a mural that measures 30 feet by 14 feet. This great size mad it a great challenge for the very talented Leonardo. The work was started in 1495 and after 3 years of many sketches and preparatory drawings, the work was finally completed in 1498. This painting was done at the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie on the north refectory. This job focused on a scene at the moment of the announcement Judas’ betrayal. Instead of seating them in a traditional seating arrangement for that time, he seated them so that one could see each of the apostles’ faces and facial expressions as they hear the announcement of the betrayal of Jesus. This job couldn’t have come at a more perfect time for Leonardo, for he was in his time of depression. This job not only brought him out of his depression, but it also won back the Duke Lodovico’s patronage and through this he acquired a vineyard and a piece of property of 16 rods located near San Vittore. Other paintings by Leonardo include St. John in the Wilderness, Benois Madonna, Sala delle Asse, St. Jermome, Adoration of the Magi, and many others.
Da Vinci and his sculptures
Leonardo not only had a talent for art, which he seems the most famous for, but also he had a flare for sculpture. Some of his more well-known sculptures are the Horse in Bronze and the Il Cavallo. The Bronze horse was started in 1482 when the Duke of Milan had commissioned Leonardo to build the world’s biggest horse in honor of his father to guard over the Duke’s castle. It stood 24 feet high upon its completion. The sculpture started out as a full size cay model and was eventually later cast in Bronze, thus the name the Bronze Horse. Leonardo’s other well known sculpture, Il Cavallo, was another horse sculpture that he would not see completed. This only exists in the form of the multitude of drawings that were left behind by da Vinci. Also left behind were two issues da Vinci had with his sculpture. The first was the fact that he needed to fill the space where the horses’ belly was to be and the second issue was settling on the position of the rider. Unfortunately for Leonardo, this was one sculpture he could not complete.
Da Vinci, the Inventor
Leonardo had many great inventions for his time period and a great deal of them was ahead of their time. These inventions can be put into a number of categories according to the invention and the intended purpose of the invention. The first category would be flight. This category includes the parachute, the helicopter, and the glider. The second category is forgeries. In this category would be the Turin Shroud. The reason for this as being in the forgery category is the fact that people question whether it is authentic or it was one of da Vinci’s illusions of making it look authentic by using his many artistic talents. The third category of his inventions is maps. Leonardo had made great improvements in the area of map making in his time period. The fifth category is the military. This category includes the plans he had drawn up for an automobile (re-invention), the invention of a three-tiered machine gun, a scaling ladder (improvement), and a military tank. Even his paintings, which are the sixth category, can be considered as inventions for Leonardo in the fact that he had made improvements in the art and also in his creative techniques. The seventh category for inventions for da Vinci is statues in the fact that, just as in paintings he had made improvements and used different techniques and also invention. The last but not least category in the inventions for da Vinci is a category that I would have never even thought or known about is robots. Leonardo was experimenting with this concept in 1495. The robot is a knight in appearance and is wearing the traditional armor for the time which was Italian-German. It had realistic features as well. For instance if one were to look into the mouth of the robot one would find it looked as a real humans mouth would. Leonardo had done this to prove to himself how easily a human being’s body could be imitated. This to me in itself shows pure genius.
I could go basically on and on forever about the great deal of accomplishments of the great Leonardo da Vinci. He had made great improvements to the art world, helped science a great deal, made inventions and plans for inventions that would be a great help to society. He was also a great mathematician, musician and writer as well. I believe that for one to be considered the greatest genius to ever live they need to have a vast knowledge of a multitude of different subjects. Leonardo da Vinci is the only person thus far has come to mind as that such person who greatly qualifies for such an honor.
If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help!Find out more
Cite This Work
To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below:
Related ServicesView all
DMCA / Removal Request
If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please: | <urn:uuid:8edbe017-ff86-42a4-9222-6882fe80ca85> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/leonardo-davinci-the-greatest-genius-history-essay.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00249.warc.gz | en | 0.987506 | 1,717 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
-0.14217525720596313,
0.1866561621427536,
0.3379570245742798,
-0.13490299880504608,
-0.5988739728927612,
0.2805419862270355,
0.10694140195846558,
0.2562861442565918,
0.41652098298072815,
-0.06055101007223129,
0.10303448140621185,
-0.23341114819049835,
0.30488014221191406,
0.452828824520111... | 1 | Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays.
Leonardo da Vinci was born on April 15, 1452 in Anchiano, near Vinci in the Republic of Florence, which is now Italy. He died on May 2, 1519 in Cloux (now Clos-Luce) France. Leonardo da Vinci is believed to be the greatest genius that ever lived. Leonardo had become a master in more fields of any other before or since him. Most geniuses such as Albert Einstein or Alfred Hitchcock were masters only in a single field. It was not the case with Leonardo. He believed that all subject matter was interconnected in one way or another. Leonardo expressed a great deal of his other works in his works of art. He was an Italian painter, draftsman, sculpture, architect, engineer, mathematician, musician, scientist, a writer, and a well-known inventor.
Da Vinci, the Artist
Leonardo started his career as an artist in about 1469 in Verrocchio’s fabled workshop. Leonardo, a youth at the time was Verrocchio’s assistant. One of their famous masterpieces was the Baptism of Christ. This painting was started in 1472 and took roughly 3 years to complete. It is currently being housed at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy. A great deal of the detail of this painting was believed to be done by Leonardo himself. X-rays of the painting and comparing them to the original sketches shows that Leonardo had done the painting entirely different that the way Verrocchio had intended it to be in finished form. This may be the earliest indication that Leonardo was trying to free himself from his masters coaching to follow his own path. Verrocchio had felt threatened by the fact that da Vinci’s angel in the painting had seemed to be a great deal better than the other three which were painted by Verrocchio (John the Baptist) and other students) After this Verrocchio had lost interest in painting and concentrated on his other talents such as sculpture and metal working. Suffice to say, this was Verrocchio’s last well-known painting and the start of Leonardo’s career as a famous artist. Another of his more famous works, the Mona Lisa, has brought forth much controversy over the years since its completion in 1506. It was painted in Florence, Italy on wood with oil paints and now currently resides at the Musee du Louvre, Paris. Some of this controversy includes such questioning as follows: Why is she smiling (was she secretly pregnant at the time of the painting), is this really a woman or a cleverly disguised self-portrait of Leonardo himself? If Mona Lisa was actually a self portrait of Leonardo, then the smile couldn’t have been of a secret pregnancy, but most-likely of a secret that the painting is actually based on the artist. The Last Supper is another one of Leonardo’s great works of art. It is a mural that measures 30 feet by 14 feet. This great size mad it a great challenge for the very talented Leonardo. The work was started in 1495 and after 3 years of many sketches and preparatory drawings, the work was finally completed in 1498. This painting was done at the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie on the north refectory. This job focused on a scene at the moment of the announcement Judas’ betrayal. Instead of seating them in a traditional seating arrangement for that time, he seated them so that one could see each of the apostles’ faces and facial expressions as they hear the announcement of the betrayal of Jesus. This job couldn’t have come at a more perfect time for Leonardo, for he was in his time of depression. This job not only brought him out of his depression, but it also won back the Duke Lodovico’s patronage and through this he acquired a vineyard and a piece of property of 16 rods located near San Vittore. Other paintings by Leonardo include St. John in the Wilderness, Benois Madonna, Sala delle Asse, St. Jermome, Adoration of the Magi, and many others.
Da Vinci and his sculptures
Leonardo not only had a talent for art, which he seems the most famous for, but also he had a flare for sculpture. Some of his more well-known sculptures are the Horse in Bronze and the Il Cavallo. The Bronze horse was started in 1482 when the Duke of Milan had commissioned Leonardo to build the world’s biggest horse in honor of his father to guard over the Duke’s castle. It stood 24 feet high upon its completion. The sculpture started out as a full size cay model and was eventually later cast in Bronze, thus the name the Bronze Horse. Leonardo’s other well known sculpture, Il Cavallo, was another horse sculpture that he would not see completed. This only exists in the form of the multitude of drawings that were left behind by da Vinci. Also left behind were two issues da Vinci had with his sculpture. The first was the fact that he needed to fill the space where the horses’ belly was to be and the second issue was settling on the position of the rider. Unfortunately for Leonardo, this was one sculpture he could not complete.
Da Vinci, the Inventor
Leonardo had many great inventions for his time period and a great deal of them was ahead of their time. These inventions can be put into a number of categories according to the invention and the intended purpose of the invention. The first category would be flight. This category includes the parachute, the helicopter, and the glider. The second category is forgeries. In this category would be the Turin Shroud. The reason for this as being in the forgery category is the fact that people question whether it is authentic or it was one of da Vinci’s illusions of making it look authentic by using his many artistic talents. The third category of his inventions is maps. Leonardo had made great improvements in the area of map making in his time period. The fifth category is the military. This category includes the plans he had drawn up for an automobile (re-invention), the invention of a three-tiered machine gun, a scaling ladder (improvement), and a military tank. Even his paintings, which are the sixth category, can be considered as inventions for Leonardo in the fact that he had made improvements in the art and also in his creative techniques. The seventh category for inventions for da Vinci is statues in the fact that, just as in paintings he had made improvements and used different techniques and also invention. The last but not least category in the inventions for da Vinci is a category that I would have never even thought or known about is robots. Leonardo was experimenting with this concept in 1495. The robot is a knight in appearance and is wearing the traditional armor for the time which was Italian-German. It had realistic features as well. For instance if one were to look into the mouth of the robot one would find it looked as a real humans mouth would. Leonardo had done this to prove to himself how easily a human being’s body could be imitated. This to me in itself shows pure genius.
I could go basically on and on forever about the great deal of accomplishments of the great Leonardo da Vinci. He had made great improvements to the art world, helped science a great deal, made inventions and plans for inventions that would be a great help to society. He was also a great mathematician, musician and writer as well. I believe that for one to be considered the greatest genius to ever live they need to have a vast knowledge of a multitude of different subjects. Leonardo da Vinci is the only person thus far has come to mind as that such person who greatly qualifies for such an honor.
If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help!Find out more
Cite This Work
To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below:
Related ServicesView all
DMCA / Removal Request
If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please: | 1,695 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scientists have unearthed 12 million-year-old fossils in a mountainous region called Allgäu in Bavaria, Germany that provide the “missing link” between humans and our ape-like ancestors.
The ape-man had arms that would allow it to hang from trees, but had legs like modern humans, allowing it to swing from tree branches as well as walk upright on the ground. It even had an opposable big toe which means that it would have walked on the sole of its feet. Additionally, it had mobile wrists and hands with curved fingers. (Pictures of their discovery can be seen here.)
This rare discovery provides scientists with a picture of what the ape-man ancestor looked like millions of years ago and has been given the name Danuvius guggenmosi after a Celtic river god. The Danuvius guggenmosi was approximately three and a half feet tall and weighed as much as five stone (almost 32 kilograms or 70 pounds).
Madelaine Boehme, who is from the University of Tübingen in Germany as well as an author of a paper describing the discovery, said, “It is a missing link. It was astonishing for us to realize how similar certain bones are to humans, as opposed to great apes,” adding, “Danuvius is like an ape and a human – in one.” (Their findings were published in the journal Nature and can be read in full here.)
The teeth from the Danuvius revealed that it belonged to a group of extinct apes called dryopithecins that were around during the middle to late Miocene period approximately 16-5 million years ago. It would have had a broad chest, long spine, and extended hips and knees, just like humans and any other animal that walks on two feet.
In addition to the teeth, parts of a skull, jaw, spine, and rib cage were also discovered as well as a finger, arm, leg, and feet bones. The remains came from at least four individuals (a male, two females, and a juvenile). In fact, there were so many remains found from the adult male that the researchers were able to put together quite a bit of detail about his body proportions as well as his limbs.
“It was similar in size to modern-day bonobos. Thanks to completely preserved limb bones, vertebra, finger and toe bones, we were able to reconstruct the way Danuvius moved about in its environment,” Boehme explained.
She went on to say, “Our last common ancestor with great apes did not look like a chimp, or any living great ape – he may have looked like Danuvius,” adding, “Danuvius shows us the conditions from where both great apes and humans diverged. And this evolutionary process happened in Europe.”
Tracy Kivell, who is an anthropologist at the University of Kent, weighed in on the discovery by stating, “That would get us closer to answering why and how our human ancestors became less dependent on life in the trees and fully embraced two-footed terrestrial locomotion.” | <urn:uuid:b074ebe2-b4ff-42be-94e3-27cef1a92f18> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysteriousuniverse.org/2019/11/scientists-discover-missing-link-ape-man-that-changes-evolutionary-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00403.warc.gz | en | 0.985925 | 652 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
-0.3840581774711609,
0.3747715950012207,
0.10390342026948929,
0.07403039932250977,
-0.006011125631630421,
-0.04446244612336159,
0.05717381462454796,
0.14089462161064148,
-0.3002368211746216,
0.0021109567023813725,
0.45733141899108887,
-0.6716426610946655,
0.1902083456516266,
0.283673435449... | 10 | Scientists have unearthed 12 million-year-old fossils in a mountainous region called Allgäu in Bavaria, Germany that provide the “missing link” between humans and our ape-like ancestors.
The ape-man had arms that would allow it to hang from trees, but had legs like modern humans, allowing it to swing from tree branches as well as walk upright on the ground. It even had an opposable big toe which means that it would have walked on the sole of its feet. Additionally, it had mobile wrists and hands with curved fingers. (Pictures of their discovery can be seen here.)
This rare discovery provides scientists with a picture of what the ape-man ancestor looked like millions of years ago and has been given the name Danuvius guggenmosi after a Celtic river god. The Danuvius guggenmosi was approximately three and a half feet tall and weighed as much as five stone (almost 32 kilograms or 70 pounds).
Madelaine Boehme, who is from the University of Tübingen in Germany as well as an author of a paper describing the discovery, said, “It is a missing link. It was astonishing for us to realize how similar certain bones are to humans, as opposed to great apes,” adding, “Danuvius is like an ape and a human – in one.” (Their findings were published in the journal Nature and can be read in full here.)
The teeth from the Danuvius revealed that it belonged to a group of extinct apes called dryopithecins that were around during the middle to late Miocene period approximately 16-5 million years ago. It would have had a broad chest, long spine, and extended hips and knees, just like humans and any other animal that walks on two feet.
In addition to the teeth, parts of a skull, jaw, spine, and rib cage were also discovered as well as a finger, arm, leg, and feet bones. The remains came from at least four individuals (a male, two females, and a juvenile). In fact, there were so many remains found from the adult male that the researchers were able to put together quite a bit of detail about his body proportions as well as his limbs.
“It was similar in size to modern-day bonobos. Thanks to completely preserved limb bones, vertebra, finger and toe bones, we were able to reconstruct the way Danuvius moved about in its environment,” Boehme explained.
She went on to say, “Our last common ancestor with great apes did not look like a chimp, or any living great ape – he may have looked like Danuvius,” adding, “Danuvius shows us the conditions from where both great apes and humans diverged. And this evolutionary process happened in Europe.”
Tracy Kivell, who is an anthropologist at the University of Kent, weighed in on the discovery by stating, “That would get us closer to answering why and how our human ancestors became less dependent on life in the trees and fully embraced two-footed terrestrial locomotion.” | 628 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Doctors on Your Healthcare Team
If you are being treated in a hospital you may be confused by the wide variety of different titles that are used for physicians. This quick guide should help clarify the roles and education levels of the different students and physicians you may see during a hospitalization.In a large teaching facility, you may see individuals ranging from medical students who are not licensed physicians, physicians in training, and others who are fully trained and supervising other physicians.
Medical School Education
In the United States, an individual must complete high school and obtain a bachelor’s degree prior to beginning medical school. In order to apply to medical school, the student must complete a bachelor’s degree and coursework in biology, physics, and chemistry. In some cases, a school may combine the bachelor’s program with the medical school program, but these programs are less common than the traditional bachelor’s degree followed by medical school program of study.A teaching facility is traditionally a hospital that offers training to doctors after they complete medical school. University based hospitals are typically teaching facilities, but smaller hospitals and hospitals not affiliated with a school may also be teaching facilities.
Physician vs. Doctor
A physician is a medical doctor, either an M.D. or D.O., who has completed graduate training to provide health care. A physician may be referred to as a doctor. However, not all doctors are physicians.An individual with a PhD, such as a doctoral degree in economics, is referred to as a doctor. So while all physicians are doctors, not all doctors are physicians.Does It Make a Difference if My Doctor Is a DO or MD?
Individuals who are in medical school are referred to as medical students. They are not referred to as a doctor or physician until they graduate from medical school. Once they graduate, they are called a physician even though their training is not complete and they will continue to learn from experienced physicians for several years before practicing independently.
After completing medical school, the doctor completes their first year of post-medical school training. This year is referred to as the intern year. The intern does not have the right to practice unsupervised medicine and must practice within the confines of the training program in which they are enrolled.
Residency follows the intern year. At this point, when the internship year has been completed and a third level exam has been passed, the physician may practice as a general practitioner. While practicing independently is possible, the vast majority of physicians choose to pursue a residency for further training.Residency can range from an additional two years of education to an additional seven years of training, depending on the specialty. For example, a family practice residency would be two years of residency while a surgery residency may last five, seven, or more years.
A fellow is a physician who has completed their residency and elects to complete further training in a specialty. The fellow is a fully credentialed physician who chooses to pursue additional training, the fellowship is optional and is not required to practice medicine, but is necessary for training in a subspecialty.To be clear, after a general surgery residency a physician is fully qualified to perform general surgery independently. The fellowship is necessary for more specific training, such as pediatric neurosurgery.
A cardiothoracic surgeon would complete an intern year and a residency in general surgery. After residency, they would complete a fellowship in cardiothoracic surgery, which would provide more specific training in heart and lung procedures.
An attending physician has completed their training and is practicing independently in their chosen specialty. This term is typically used at teaching facilities to differentiate fully credentialed senior-level physicians from junior physicians who are still completing their higher education. In the hierarchy of physicians, the attending is at the top under only the physicians who run the hospital itself, while the medical student is at the bottom.Attendings may also be known as staff physicians or a rendering doctor and may be trained as an MD or a DO.
What an Attending Physician Does
An attending is considered an expert in their field of medicine or surgery. These physicians are typically working at a facility that provides education to physicians and may play an active role in that education. An attending typically has their own practice in their specialty that may include teaching residents and fellows. An attending may also oversee the practice and education of medical students.For example, A surgical attending performs surgery as part of their job. As an attending, they may have interns, residents, or fellows in the operating room with them, educating them on how to perform surgery. They may also provide lecture style education, and often include physicians in training when they round on patients, which is when physicians check on their patients daily.Attending may have additional titles that indicate their role in the education of physicians. They may have the title of professor, associate professor or could potentially be a Dean at a medical school. These titles may vary from institution to institution and vary based on the role the physician takes in the academic portion of medicine, and how much of their work is devoted to education rather than independent practice.
Short Coats and Long Coats
While it is generally true that the shorter the coat, the less training an individual has received, the short coat versus long coat rule is not absolute. The shortest white coats are worn by medical students, who are not physicians until they graduate. Interns also wear short coats, but not quite as short as those worn by students. Residents typically wear longer coats and attendings wear a full-length coat. Other professions in healthcare also wear lab coats, including nurse practitioners, phlebotomists, and other allied health professionals. While this general rule holds true, personal preference often dictates the length of the coats worn (if one is worn at all) by an attending, so coat length is not an absolute indication of what level of training a physician has completed. The reality is that many physicians wear whatever they choose, and you may see one physician wearing jeans, another wearing scrubs and yet another physician wearing a suit and white lab coat. It is no longer safe to assume that a person in scrubs, or even a lab coat, is a surgeon.
A Word From Verywell
It can be very confusing to keep all of the different types of doctors straight, and even more confusing when it seems like everyone in the hospital is wearing scrubs in a rainbow of colors. When in doubt, look for the person’s identification badge, or just ask them what their role is in your care. It is absolutely acceptable to make sure you know who is providing your care and what their personal responsibilities are during your surgical treatment. | <urn:uuid:da4e40db-7b3d-4d44-96cf-3ca882546448> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.10besthealth.com/types-of-doctors-residents-interns-and-fellows/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.980253 | 1,357 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
0.01813763752579689,
0.09583350270986557,
0.09151476621627808,
-0.3302554488182068,
-0.012062568217515945,
-0.18902809917926788,
0.14155226945877075,
0.20548996329307556,
-0.24190205335617065,
-0.03711842745542526,
0.11668902635574341,
0.022353652864694595,
-0.11950375139713287,
0.13783729... | 1 | The Doctors on Your Healthcare Team
If you are being treated in a hospital you may be confused by the wide variety of different titles that are used for physicians. This quick guide should help clarify the roles and education levels of the different students and physicians you may see during a hospitalization.In a large teaching facility, you may see individuals ranging from medical students who are not licensed physicians, physicians in training, and others who are fully trained and supervising other physicians.
Medical School Education
In the United States, an individual must complete high school and obtain a bachelor’s degree prior to beginning medical school. In order to apply to medical school, the student must complete a bachelor’s degree and coursework in biology, physics, and chemistry. In some cases, a school may combine the bachelor’s program with the medical school program, but these programs are less common than the traditional bachelor’s degree followed by medical school program of study.A teaching facility is traditionally a hospital that offers training to doctors after they complete medical school. University based hospitals are typically teaching facilities, but smaller hospitals and hospitals not affiliated with a school may also be teaching facilities.
Physician vs. Doctor
A physician is a medical doctor, either an M.D. or D.O., who has completed graduate training to provide health care. A physician may be referred to as a doctor. However, not all doctors are physicians.An individual with a PhD, such as a doctoral degree in economics, is referred to as a doctor. So while all physicians are doctors, not all doctors are physicians.Does It Make a Difference if My Doctor Is a DO or MD?
Individuals who are in medical school are referred to as medical students. They are not referred to as a doctor or physician until they graduate from medical school. Once they graduate, they are called a physician even though their training is not complete and they will continue to learn from experienced physicians for several years before practicing independently.
After completing medical school, the doctor completes their first year of post-medical school training. This year is referred to as the intern year. The intern does not have the right to practice unsupervised medicine and must practice within the confines of the training program in which they are enrolled.
Residency follows the intern year. At this point, when the internship year has been completed and a third level exam has been passed, the physician may practice as a general practitioner. While practicing independently is possible, the vast majority of physicians choose to pursue a residency for further training.Residency can range from an additional two years of education to an additional seven years of training, depending on the specialty. For example, a family practice residency would be two years of residency while a surgery residency may last five, seven, or more years.
A fellow is a physician who has completed their residency and elects to complete further training in a specialty. The fellow is a fully credentialed physician who chooses to pursue additional training, the fellowship is optional and is not required to practice medicine, but is necessary for training in a subspecialty.To be clear, after a general surgery residency a physician is fully qualified to perform general surgery independently. The fellowship is necessary for more specific training, such as pediatric neurosurgery.
A cardiothoracic surgeon would complete an intern year and a residency in general surgery. After residency, they would complete a fellowship in cardiothoracic surgery, which would provide more specific training in heart and lung procedures.
An attending physician has completed their training and is practicing independently in their chosen specialty. This term is typically used at teaching facilities to differentiate fully credentialed senior-level physicians from junior physicians who are still completing their higher education. In the hierarchy of physicians, the attending is at the top under only the physicians who run the hospital itself, while the medical student is at the bottom.Attendings may also be known as staff physicians or a rendering doctor and may be trained as an MD or a DO.
What an Attending Physician Does
An attending is considered an expert in their field of medicine or surgery. These physicians are typically working at a facility that provides education to physicians and may play an active role in that education. An attending typically has their own practice in their specialty that may include teaching residents and fellows. An attending may also oversee the practice and education of medical students.For example, A surgical attending performs surgery as part of their job. As an attending, they may have interns, residents, or fellows in the operating room with them, educating them on how to perform surgery. They may also provide lecture style education, and often include physicians in training when they round on patients, which is when physicians check on their patients daily.Attending may have additional titles that indicate their role in the education of physicians. They may have the title of professor, associate professor or could potentially be a Dean at a medical school. These titles may vary from institution to institution and vary based on the role the physician takes in the academic portion of medicine, and how much of their work is devoted to education rather than independent practice.
Short Coats and Long Coats
While it is generally true that the shorter the coat, the less training an individual has received, the short coat versus long coat rule is not absolute. The shortest white coats are worn by medical students, who are not physicians until they graduate. Interns also wear short coats, but not quite as short as those worn by students. Residents typically wear longer coats and attendings wear a full-length coat. Other professions in healthcare also wear lab coats, including nurse practitioners, phlebotomists, and other allied health professionals. While this general rule holds true, personal preference often dictates the length of the coats worn (if one is worn at all) by an attending, so coat length is not an absolute indication of what level of training a physician has completed. The reality is that many physicians wear whatever they choose, and you may see one physician wearing jeans, another wearing scrubs and yet another physician wearing a suit and white lab coat. It is no longer safe to assume that a person in scrubs, or even a lab coat, is a surgeon.
A Word From Verywell
It can be very confusing to keep all of the different types of doctors straight, and even more confusing when it seems like everyone in the hospital is wearing scrubs in a rainbow of colors. When in doubt, look for the person’s identification badge, or just ask them what their role is in your care. It is absolutely acceptable to make sure you know who is providing your care and what their personal responsibilities are during your surgical treatment. | 1,321 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Doménikos Theotokópoulos is El Greco’s real name, the latter being a nickname. This name is a reference to his origin, born in Heraklion, Crete in 1541. The artist was born to a prosperous urban family, and his father was a merchant. El Greco started his initial training as an icon painter in the Cretan School, then a leading center of post-Byzantine art. He probably studied the Greek and perhaps Latin classics as well.
The painter organized a painter’s guild, based on the Italian model. At age 22, he was described as a “master” in a document, meaning he was a master of the guild and probably operating his own workshop. Still, in Crete, El Greco painted the Dormition of the Virgin in tempera and gold. The painting combines post-Byzantine and Italian Mannerist style and iconography, as well as incorporating elements of the Cretan School.
Leaving Crete, he went to pursue a career in Venice, which is natural, because Crete was then property of the Republic of Venice since 1211. Little is known about his time in Italy, and he lived in Venice until 1570 when he was an apprentice of Titian. After Venice, he moved to Rome completing a series of works, clearly marked by his apprenticeship in Venice. El Greco was received at the Palazzo Farnese as a guest. The Palazzo was made by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese an artistic and intellectual center for the city. There El Greco made acquaintances with the intellectual elite of the town.
El Greco pursued a unique style to distinguish himself, unlike other Cretan painters living in Venice, making unusual and new interpretations of religious subjects. While in Italy he was deeply influenced by the Venetian Renaissance style of the period.
El Greco migrated to Spain in 1577, first to Madrid and then, Toledo, where he produced his mature works. In Toledo he met with many prominent figures, the main one being Luis de Castilla, son of Diego de Castilla, who was the dean of the Cathedral of Toledo. This friendship granted him many commissions. He signed contracts for several artworks to adorn the church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo and the renewed El Espolio, including Assumption of the Virgin and The Trinity, establishing his reputation in Toledo.
El Greco’s intention was to win the favor of Philip II of Spain and make his mark in his court. Although he commissioned two important works, the king was not satisfied, giving him no further commissions. Lacking the king’s favor, El Greco was forced to remain in Toledo, where he was regarded as a great painter at the time. He established a workshop, producing from altar frames, statues, to paintings as well. In 1586 he received a commission to create his best-known work, The Burial of Count Orgaz. | <urn:uuid:3370452d-1538-46c8-8257-e3d5b8b1d445> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.1st-art-gallery.com/El-Greco-Domenikos-Theotokopoulos/Portrait-Of-Cardinal-Ni%C3%B1o-De-Guevara-Detail.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00252.warc.gz | en | 0.987102 | 624 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
0.13547873497009277,
0.1247929111123085,
0.3326679468154907,
-0.048156917095184326,
-0.8287931680679321,
-0.2650034427642822,
0.22569763660430908,
0.5362881422042847,
-0.0887809544801712,
-0.016876911744475365,
-0.41970324516296387,
-0.2107142060995102,
-0.2016392946243286,
0.5258840322494... | 2 | Doménikos Theotokópoulos is El Greco’s real name, the latter being a nickname. This name is a reference to his origin, born in Heraklion, Crete in 1541. The artist was born to a prosperous urban family, and his father was a merchant. El Greco started his initial training as an icon painter in the Cretan School, then a leading center of post-Byzantine art. He probably studied the Greek and perhaps Latin classics as well.
The painter organized a painter’s guild, based on the Italian model. At age 22, he was described as a “master” in a document, meaning he was a master of the guild and probably operating his own workshop. Still, in Crete, El Greco painted the Dormition of the Virgin in tempera and gold. The painting combines post-Byzantine and Italian Mannerist style and iconography, as well as incorporating elements of the Cretan School.
Leaving Crete, he went to pursue a career in Venice, which is natural, because Crete was then property of the Republic of Venice since 1211. Little is known about his time in Italy, and he lived in Venice until 1570 when he was an apprentice of Titian. After Venice, he moved to Rome completing a series of works, clearly marked by his apprenticeship in Venice. El Greco was received at the Palazzo Farnese as a guest. The Palazzo was made by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese an artistic and intellectual center for the city. There El Greco made acquaintances with the intellectual elite of the town.
El Greco pursued a unique style to distinguish himself, unlike other Cretan painters living in Venice, making unusual and new interpretations of religious subjects. While in Italy he was deeply influenced by the Venetian Renaissance style of the period.
El Greco migrated to Spain in 1577, first to Madrid and then, Toledo, where he produced his mature works. In Toledo he met with many prominent figures, the main one being Luis de Castilla, son of Diego de Castilla, who was the dean of the Cathedral of Toledo. This friendship granted him many commissions. He signed contracts for several artworks to adorn the church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo and the renewed El Espolio, including Assumption of the Virgin and The Trinity, establishing his reputation in Toledo.
El Greco’s intention was to win the favor of Philip II of Spain and make his mark in his court. Although he commissioned two important works, the king was not satisfied, giving him no further commissions. Lacking the king’s favor, El Greco was forced to remain in Toledo, where he was regarded as a great painter at the time. He established a workshop, producing from altar frames, statues, to paintings as well. In 1586 he received a commission to create his best-known work, The Burial of Count Orgaz. | 617 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The poet Petrarch arranged to leave his personal library to the city of Venice, but it never arrived. The Venetian tradition that this was the founding of the Biblioteca Marciana is an anachronism; it was founded a century later.
When Petrarch broke up his personal collections at Parma and Vaucluse he had formed the habit of traveling with large bales of manuscripts in a long cavalcade. In his middle age he became tired of carrying his large collection of manuscripts and books around in his extensive travels. He came to the conclusion that he would offer his collection of manuscripts to the Republic of Venice, on condition that it should be properly housed, and should never be sold or divided. This was in exchange for a permanent residence that he and his daughter's family could live in. He decided he wanted to have his valuable collection of manuscripts and ancient books put into a public library on the concept of those of classical antiquity, like Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who built the Library of Alexandria. He called on his Venetian friend Grand Chancellor Benintendi de Ravagnani on this matter. Benintendi enthusiastically took on the idea of receiving Petrarch's books and manuscripts. He immediately prepared the Deliberation for the Great Council meeting in the beginning of September 1362 on this issue. It gave its approval for the donation of Petrarch's books to the church of Saint Mark (Marciana) as the protector of this precious gift, being the symbol of Venice.
The agreement between Petrarch and the Republic of Venice was that none of the ancient books nor Petrarch's manuscripts were to be dispersed. They were to be preserved in a safe place in memory and honor of the great poet. In return for this Petrarch was to have the use of a worthy residence at public expense during his lifetime. Petrarch received the Palazzo Molina, known locally as Casa Molin delle due Torri. The memorandum agreement stipulated that Petrarch could keep his library until his death and did not say he had to live in Venice. Petrarch and his daughter Francesca with his son-in-law Francescuolo da Brossano moved there in 1362. It became their prime residence from 1362 to 1367 along with his personal library of books and manuscripts.
Petrarch's library was then transferred to the quayside of Riva degli Schiavoni. This collection had about two hundred codices. This is actually thought to be a much higher number of titles however, given that a codex often contained more than one work within it. The library included as much of early antiquities and early Christian culture as Petrarch had been able to select over ten years of assiduous studying, research in the monastic libraries, and in his journeys of discovery. All this fit perfectly to form the ideal library of a man of culture and integrated in with Petrarch's humanism.
Sometime in the year 1367, however, Petrarch decided to leave Venice because the local scholars were not interested in his personal library. Venetian scholars were more interested in scientific knowledge rather than humanistic culture. It could also be because of Petrarch's habitual restlessness to move on to different ventures, or because of the plague then ravaging Venice, or because of the war that broke out between Venice and Padua at that time, or even because he held a canonry in Padua.
When Petrarch left Venice in 1368, he settled in the territory of Padua, normally hostile to Venice; Petrarch's biographer concludes that the agreement with Venice was abrogated at this point. Petrarch built himself a small house about ten miles outside of Arquà, in Paduan territory. A little vineyard with some olive trees were sufficient for his modest household needs at this time. While his health was poor he eased his mind by reading and prepared for the end. There he wrote to his beloved brother Gerard admiring his faithful religious duties. At this point in his life he seems to have given up his love for fine books along with other vanities of the world.
On July 19, 1374 Petrarch died peacefully at Arqua alone in his library. His few remaining manuscripts were dispersed. Some of them may be seen in Rome, Paris, London, or the Vatican. Those which he had given to the Republic of Venice in the "agreement" suffered a strange reverse of fortune. The collection was left neglected for centuries at the Palazzo Molina, Petrarch's past residence. Many of the manuscripts and ancient books had crumbled to powder and others had petrified because of the damp conditions of the storage facilities. Some were even glued into shapeless masses. The antiquary Tomasini found some of Petrarch's books cast aside in a dark room behind the "Horses of Lysippos". The surviving ancient manuscripts were placed in the Libraria Vecchia and are now in Doge's Palace. Many of Petrarch's manuscripts and books found their way to Gian Galeazzo Visconti's personal library in Pavia, later moved to Paris. Many other of Petrarch's books and manuscripts found their way to libraries throughout mainland Europe, as well as the Bodleian Library and the Vatican Library.
In Milan, the Biblioteca Ambrosiana holds a manuscript copy of Virgil illuminated by Simone Martini; it belonged to Petrarch. A very precise catalogue of Petrarch's library was reconstructed by the Italian philologist Giuseppe Billanovich.
- Symonds, John Addington (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 313. . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
- The Age of Petrarch
- Morris Bishop, Petrarch and his World, 1963, p. 360.
- The Story of Old Books Archived 2007-08-23 at the Wayback Machine
- Gutenberg Books on Petrarch
- This article incorporates text from The Great Book-Collectors by Charles Isaac Elton and Mary Augusta Elton, a publication now in the public domain. | <urn:uuid:ccde994a-2a70-4d19-9f64-43bf86deb48f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrarch%27s_library | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.981614 | 1,290 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.16476519405841827,
0.14438501000404358,
0.12495973706245422,
0.08638383448123932,
-0.5085992813110352,
-0.2282049059867859,
0.014666574075818062,
0.19208545982837677,
-0.1650266945362091,
-0.15548227727413177,
-0.14948323369026184,
-0.01567515730857849,
0.12379670143127441,
0.5995117425... | 1 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The poet Petrarch arranged to leave his personal library to the city of Venice, but it never arrived. The Venetian tradition that this was the founding of the Biblioteca Marciana is an anachronism; it was founded a century later.
When Petrarch broke up his personal collections at Parma and Vaucluse he had formed the habit of traveling with large bales of manuscripts in a long cavalcade. In his middle age he became tired of carrying his large collection of manuscripts and books around in his extensive travels. He came to the conclusion that he would offer his collection of manuscripts to the Republic of Venice, on condition that it should be properly housed, and should never be sold or divided. This was in exchange for a permanent residence that he and his daughter's family could live in. He decided he wanted to have his valuable collection of manuscripts and ancient books put into a public library on the concept of those of classical antiquity, like Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who built the Library of Alexandria. He called on his Venetian friend Grand Chancellor Benintendi de Ravagnani on this matter. Benintendi enthusiastically took on the idea of receiving Petrarch's books and manuscripts. He immediately prepared the Deliberation for the Great Council meeting in the beginning of September 1362 on this issue. It gave its approval for the donation of Petrarch's books to the church of Saint Mark (Marciana) as the protector of this precious gift, being the symbol of Venice.
The agreement between Petrarch and the Republic of Venice was that none of the ancient books nor Petrarch's manuscripts were to be dispersed. They were to be preserved in a safe place in memory and honor of the great poet. In return for this Petrarch was to have the use of a worthy residence at public expense during his lifetime. Petrarch received the Palazzo Molina, known locally as Casa Molin delle due Torri. The memorandum agreement stipulated that Petrarch could keep his library until his death and did not say he had to live in Venice. Petrarch and his daughter Francesca with his son-in-law Francescuolo da Brossano moved there in 1362. It became their prime residence from 1362 to 1367 along with his personal library of books and manuscripts.
Petrarch's library was then transferred to the quayside of Riva degli Schiavoni. This collection had about two hundred codices. This is actually thought to be a much higher number of titles however, given that a codex often contained more than one work within it. The library included as much of early antiquities and early Christian culture as Petrarch had been able to select over ten years of assiduous studying, research in the monastic libraries, and in his journeys of discovery. All this fit perfectly to form the ideal library of a man of culture and integrated in with Petrarch's humanism.
Sometime in the year 1367, however, Petrarch decided to leave Venice because the local scholars were not interested in his personal library. Venetian scholars were more interested in scientific knowledge rather than humanistic culture. It could also be because of Petrarch's habitual restlessness to move on to different ventures, or because of the plague then ravaging Venice, or because of the war that broke out between Venice and Padua at that time, or even because he held a canonry in Padua.
When Petrarch left Venice in 1368, he settled in the territory of Padua, normally hostile to Venice; Petrarch's biographer concludes that the agreement with Venice was abrogated at this point. Petrarch built himself a small house about ten miles outside of Arquà, in Paduan territory. A little vineyard with some olive trees were sufficient for his modest household needs at this time. While his health was poor he eased his mind by reading and prepared for the end. There he wrote to his beloved brother Gerard admiring his faithful religious duties. At this point in his life he seems to have given up his love for fine books along with other vanities of the world.
On July 19, 1374 Petrarch died peacefully at Arqua alone in his library. His few remaining manuscripts were dispersed. Some of them may be seen in Rome, Paris, London, or the Vatican. Those which he had given to the Republic of Venice in the "agreement" suffered a strange reverse of fortune. The collection was left neglected for centuries at the Palazzo Molina, Petrarch's past residence. Many of the manuscripts and ancient books had crumbled to powder and others had petrified because of the damp conditions of the storage facilities. Some were even glued into shapeless masses. The antiquary Tomasini found some of Petrarch's books cast aside in a dark room behind the "Horses of Lysippos". The surviving ancient manuscripts were placed in the Libraria Vecchia and are now in Doge's Palace. Many of Petrarch's manuscripts and books found their way to Gian Galeazzo Visconti's personal library in Pavia, later moved to Paris. Many other of Petrarch's books and manuscripts found their way to libraries throughout mainland Europe, as well as the Bodleian Library and the Vatican Library.
In Milan, the Biblioteca Ambrosiana holds a manuscript copy of Virgil illuminated by Simone Martini; it belonged to Petrarch. A very precise catalogue of Petrarch's library was reconstructed by the Italian philologist Giuseppe Billanovich.
- Symonds, John Addington (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 313. . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
- The Age of Petrarch
- Morris Bishop, Petrarch and his World, 1963, p. 360.
- The Story of Old Books Archived 2007-08-23 at the Wayback Machine
- Gutenberg Books on Petrarch
- This article incorporates text from The Great Book-Collectors by Charles Isaac Elton and Mary Augusta Elton, a publication now in the public domain. | 1,314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.