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Anglo-Saxon Values & Culture in Beowulf Essay
One of the most important aspects of the Anglo-Saxon culture was that in order to be a hero one needs to be a warrior. This important aspect of the culture is vividly portrayed in the text of Beowulf because the character itself is a character of a warrior who fights with different adversaries and finally become king himself. An Anglo-Saxon hero is someone whose capabilities as well as skills are unmatched and as Beowulf has clearly demonstrated all such skills to suggest that the text itself was largely influenced by the current culture of that time. (Hill)
An Anglo-Saxon hero was the one who was mighty and strength and the author has clearly linked this trait of the culture in the poem too. It clearly mentioned that Beowulf was having the strength of almost 30 persons. Apart from strength, courage was another important characteristic of a hero in Anglo-Saxon culture and Beowulf has been successful in demonstrating the same too.
It is critical to understand that Beowulf as a poem depicted the epic story of a person who fights the forces of evil. It is, however, important to note that Anglo-Saxon culture was not a religious culture and they were pagans however, the poem was written by a person who converted to Christianity. This aspect of the poem therefore clearly demonstrates that the authors of the poem were successful in not mingling the same with the text of the poem at some points. It is, however, argued that the Beowulf, despite being a pagan hero, attempted to behave like a Christian too. (Johnson and Treharne)
It is also important to understand that this story is effectively built into two distinctive parts or refers to two different places. The part which deals with the Scandinavian side also successfully integrates the cultural aspects of that culture. It was common at that time that the small tribes often associate themselves with the stronger kings to provide them protection and support. This same aspect has been depicted in the text of Beowulf too as the author has been able to link different aspects of the culture.
Another important aspect of the Anglo-Saxon culture was the utmost loyalty and Beowulf also seems to have contained or touched upon this aspect of the culture too. Loyalty was part of the collective effort by the tribe to survive collectively and shield it from the external enemies. The action of Beowulf to travel by sea to support King Hrothgar is a very vivid example of how the poem has been able to refer to this vital and important characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon culture.
Finally, in Anglo-Saxon culture fighting was just the way of life and was not done in order to avenge the death. Fighting was considered as something which was more honorable therefore the text of Beowulf has been able to contain important and key references to this aspect of the Anglo-Saxon culture.
The above discussion suggests that different aspects of the Anglo-Saxon culture were most important to give Beowulf its due place in the English Literature.
Hill, John M. The Anglo-Saxon warrior ethic: reconstructing lordship in Early English literature. Florida: University Press of Florida, 2000.
Johnson, David, and Elaine Treharne. Readings in Medieval Texts: Interpreting Old and Middle English Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. | <urn:uuid:487483e6-3e6d-41b9-9d69-cd6cf0a4f815> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/beowulf/anglo-saxon-values-culture-in-beowulf-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.980097 | 692 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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One of the most important aspects of the Anglo-Saxon culture was that in order to be a hero one needs to be a warrior. This important aspect of the culture is vividly portrayed in the text of Beowulf because the character itself is a character of a warrior who fights with different adversaries and finally become king himself. An Anglo-Saxon hero is someone whose capabilities as well as skills are unmatched and as Beowulf has clearly demonstrated all such skills to suggest that the text itself was largely influenced by the current culture of that time. (Hill)
An Anglo-Saxon hero was the one who was mighty and strength and the author has clearly linked this trait of the culture in the poem too. It clearly mentioned that Beowulf was having the strength of almost 30 persons. Apart from strength, courage was another important characteristic of a hero in Anglo-Saxon culture and Beowulf has been successful in demonstrating the same too.
It is critical to understand that Beowulf as a poem depicted the epic story of a person who fights the forces of evil. It is, however, important to note that Anglo-Saxon culture was not a religious culture and they were pagans however, the poem was written by a person who converted to Christianity. This aspect of the poem therefore clearly demonstrates that the authors of the poem were successful in not mingling the same with the text of the poem at some points. It is, however, argued that the Beowulf, despite being a pagan hero, attempted to behave like a Christian too. (Johnson and Treharne)
It is also important to understand that this story is effectively built into two distinctive parts or refers to two different places. The part which deals with the Scandinavian side also successfully integrates the cultural aspects of that culture. It was common at that time that the small tribes often associate themselves with the stronger kings to provide them protection and support. This same aspect has been depicted in the text of Beowulf too as the author has been able to link different aspects of the culture.
Another important aspect of the Anglo-Saxon culture was the utmost loyalty and Beowulf also seems to have contained or touched upon this aspect of the culture too. Loyalty was part of the collective effort by the tribe to survive collectively and shield it from the external enemies. The action of Beowulf to travel by sea to support King Hrothgar is a very vivid example of how the poem has been able to refer to this vital and important characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon culture.
Finally, in Anglo-Saxon culture fighting was just the way of life and was not done in order to avenge the death. Fighting was considered as something which was more honorable therefore the text of Beowulf has been able to contain important and key references to this aspect of the Anglo-Saxon culture.
The above discussion suggests that different aspects of the Anglo-Saxon culture were most important to give Beowulf its due place in the English Literature.
Hill, John M. The Anglo-Saxon warrior ethic: reconstructing lordship in Early English literature. Florida: University Press of Florida, 2000.
Johnson, David, and Elaine Treharne. Readings in Medieval Texts: Interpreting Old and Middle English Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. | 687 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Coppin, Fanny Jackson (1837–21 January 1913), educator, civic and religious leader, and feminist, was born a slave in Washington, D.C., the daughter of Lucy Jackson. Her father’s name and the details of her early childhood are unknown. However, by the time she was age ten, her aunt Sarah Orr Clark had purchased her freedom, and Jackson went to live with relatives in New Bedford, Massachusetts. By 1851 she and her relatives had moved to Newport, Rhode Island, where Jackson was employed as a domestic by ...
Linda M. Perkins
James Brewer Stewart
Phillips, Wendell (29 November 1811–02 February 1884), orator, abolitionist, and women's rights and labor advocate, orator, abolitionist, and women’s rights and labor advocate, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of John Phillips, a well-to-do politician and philanthropist, and Sarah Walley. The youngest of eleven children, Wendell received strict and loving attention from both of his parents. From the first he was trained to see himself as a great leader, committed to addressing the great moral and political questions of his age. This drive for leadership was compounded by his early discovery that he possessed extraordinary gifts as an orator. Athletic, handsome, and intelligent, he impressed teachers and classmates alike with his unusual capacity to express himself and to influence others with eloquent speaking. After attending the Boston Latin School, he graduated from Harvard in 1831 and obtained a Harvard law degree in 1833. For the next three years Phillips resided in and around Boston as he attempted, halfheartedly, to establish a legal practice, a career for which he felt no great enthusiasm. Instead he yearned to pursue a vocation worthy of his august legacy. That vocation, finally, was the cause of abolitionism, which he discovered through the process of courtship and marriage.... | <urn:uuid:967a525a-b7b9-4c85-ba26-098cbaaabc5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.anb.org/browse?btog=chap&pageSize=20&sort=titlesort&t_0=OccupationsAndRealmsOfRenownANB%3A1535&t_1=OccupationsAndRealmsOfRenownANB%3A939&t_2=OccupationsAndRealmsOfRenownANB%3A547&t_3=OccupationsAndRealmsOfRenownANB%3A1592 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.987162 | 396 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.1338365375995... | 1 | Coppin, Fanny Jackson (1837–21 January 1913), educator, civic and religious leader, and feminist, was born a slave in Washington, D.C., the daughter of Lucy Jackson. Her father’s name and the details of her early childhood are unknown. However, by the time she was age ten, her aunt Sarah Orr Clark had purchased her freedom, and Jackson went to live with relatives in New Bedford, Massachusetts. By 1851 she and her relatives had moved to Newport, Rhode Island, where Jackson was employed as a domestic by ...
Linda M. Perkins
James Brewer Stewart
Phillips, Wendell (29 November 1811–02 February 1884), orator, abolitionist, and women's rights and labor advocate, orator, abolitionist, and women’s rights and labor advocate, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of John Phillips, a well-to-do politician and philanthropist, and Sarah Walley. The youngest of eleven children, Wendell received strict and loving attention from both of his parents. From the first he was trained to see himself as a great leader, committed to addressing the great moral and political questions of his age. This drive for leadership was compounded by his early discovery that he possessed extraordinary gifts as an orator. Athletic, handsome, and intelligent, he impressed teachers and classmates alike with his unusual capacity to express himself and to influence others with eloquent speaking. After attending the Boston Latin School, he graduated from Harvard in 1831 and obtained a Harvard law degree in 1833. For the next three years Phillips resided in and around Boston as he attempted, halfheartedly, to establish a legal practice, a career for which he felt no great enthusiasm. Instead he yearned to pursue a vocation worthy of his august legacy. That vocation, finally, was the cause of abolitionism, which he discovered through the process of courtship and marriage.... | 413 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1820 – 1913
Harriet Tubman is perhaps the most well-known of all the Underground Railroad’s “conductors.” During a ten-year span she made 19 trips into the South and escorted approximately 70 slaves to freedom. And, as she once proudly pointed out to Frederick Douglass, in all of her journeys she “never lost a single passenger.”
Tubman was born a slave in Maryland’s Dorchester County around 1820. At age five or six, she began to work as a house servant. Seven years later she was sent to work in the fields. While she was still in her early teens, she suffered a head injury that would follow her for the rest of her life. She never fully recovered from the blow, which subjected her to spells in which she would fall into a deep sleep.
Around 1844 she married a free black named John Tubman and took his last name. (She was born Araminta Ross; she later changed her first name to Harriet, after her mother.) In 1849, in fear that she, along with the other slaves on the plantation, was to be sold, Tubman resolved to run away. She set out one night on foot. With some assistance from a friendly white woman, Tubman was on her way. She followed the North Star by night, making her way to Philadelphia, where she found work and saved her money. The following year she returned to Maryland and escorted her sister and her sister’s two children to freedom. She made the dangerous trip back to the South soon after to rescue her brother and two other men. On her third return, she went after her husband, only to find he had taken another wife. Undeterred, she found other slaves seeking freedom and escorted them to the North.
Work Throughout the Years
In her later years, Tubman worked to promote the cause of women’s suffrage. When asked by a white woman if Tubman believed that women should have the right to vote, she replied “I suffered enough to believe it.” Tubman began attending meetings of suffragist organizations and was soon working alongside women such as Susan B. Anthony and Emily Howland.
At the turn of the 20th century, Tubman became heavily involved with the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in Auburn. In 1903, she donated a parcel of real estate she owned to the church, under the instruction that it be made into a home for “aged and indigent colored people. The home did not open for another five years, and Tubman was dismayed when the church ordered residents to pay a $100 entrance fee. She said: “[T]hey make a rule that nobody should come in without they have a hundred dollars. Now I wanted to make a rule that nobody should come in unless they didn’t have no money at all.” She was frustrated by the new rule but was the guest of honor nonetheless when the Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged celebrated its opening on June 23, 1908.
As Tubman aged, the seizures, headaches, and suffering from her childhood head trauma continued to plague her. At some point in the late 1890s, she underwent brain surgery. Unable to sleep because of pains and “buzzing” in her head, she asked a doctor if he could operate. He agreed and, in her words, “sawed open my skull, and raised it up, and now it feels more comfortable.” She had received no anesthesia for the procedure and reportedly chose instead to bite down on a bullet, as she had seen Civil War soldiers do when their limbs were amputated.
By 1911, her body was so frail that she had to be admitted into the rest home named in her honor. A New York newspaper described her as “ill and penniless,” prompting supporters to offer a new round of donations. Surrounded by friends and family members, Harriet Tubman died of pneumonia in 1913. Just before she died, she told those in the room: “I go to prepare a place for you.”
Tubman returned to the South again and again. She devised clever techniques that helped make her “forays” successful, including using the master’s horse and buggy for the first leg of the journey; leaving on a Saturday night, since runaway notices couldn’t be placed in newspapers until Monday morning; turning about and heading south if she encountered possible slave hunters; and carrying a drug to use on a baby if its crying might put the fugitives in danger. Tubman even carried a gun which she used to threaten the fugitives if they became too tired or decided to turn back, telling them, “You’ll be free or die.”
By 1856, Tubman’s capture would have brought a $40,000 reward from the South. On one occasion, she overheard some men reading her wanted poster, which stated that she was illiterate. She promptly pulled out a book and feigned reading it. The ploy was enough to fool the men.
Tubman had made the perilous trip to slave country about 13 times by 1860, including one especially challenging journey in which she rescued her 70-year-old parents. Of the famed heroine, who became known as “Moses,” Frederick Douglass said, “Excepting John Brown — of sacred memory — I know of no one who has willingly encountered more perils and hardships to serve our enslaved people than [Harriet Tubman].”
And John Brown, who conferred with “General Tubman” about his plans to raid Harpers Ferry, once said that she was “one of the bravest persons on this continent.”
During the Civil War Harriet Tubman worked for the Union as a cook, a nurse, and even a spy. After the war she settled in Auburn, New York, where she would spend the rest of her long life.Tubman spent her remaining years in Auburn, tending to her family and other people in need. She worked various jobs to support her elderly parents, and took in boarders to help pay the bills. One of the people Tubman took in was a Civil War veteran named Nelson Davis. He began working in Auburn as a bricklayer and they soon fell in love. Though he was 22 years younger than she was, on March 18, 1869, they were married at the Central Presbyterian Church. They spent the next 20 years together, and in 1874 they adopted a baby girl named Gertie. | <urn:uuid:ee216e87-5639-4a54-ba8a-19b16d4a623d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dorchesterhistory.com/harriet-tubman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.989323 | 1,363 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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Harriet Tubman is perhaps the most well-known of all the Underground Railroad’s “conductors.” During a ten-year span she made 19 trips into the South and escorted approximately 70 slaves to freedom. And, as she once proudly pointed out to Frederick Douglass, in all of her journeys she “never lost a single passenger.”
Tubman was born a slave in Maryland’s Dorchester County around 1820. At age five or six, she began to work as a house servant. Seven years later she was sent to work in the fields. While she was still in her early teens, she suffered a head injury that would follow her for the rest of her life. She never fully recovered from the blow, which subjected her to spells in which she would fall into a deep sleep.
Around 1844 she married a free black named John Tubman and took his last name. (She was born Araminta Ross; she later changed her first name to Harriet, after her mother.) In 1849, in fear that she, along with the other slaves on the plantation, was to be sold, Tubman resolved to run away. She set out one night on foot. With some assistance from a friendly white woman, Tubman was on her way. She followed the North Star by night, making her way to Philadelphia, where she found work and saved her money. The following year she returned to Maryland and escorted her sister and her sister’s two children to freedom. She made the dangerous trip back to the South soon after to rescue her brother and two other men. On her third return, she went after her husband, only to find he had taken another wife. Undeterred, she found other slaves seeking freedom and escorted them to the North.
Work Throughout the Years
In her later years, Tubman worked to promote the cause of women’s suffrage. When asked by a white woman if Tubman believed that women should have the right to vote, she replied “I suffered enough to believe it.” Tubman began attending meetings of suffragist organizations and was soon working alongside women such as Susan B. Anthony and Emily Howland.
At the turn of the 20th century, Tubman became heavily involved with the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in Auburn. In 1903, she donated a parcel of real estate she owned to the church, under the instruction that it be made into a home for “aged and indigent colored people. The home did not open for another five years, and Tubman was dismayed when the church ordered residents to pay a $100 entrance fee. She said: “[T]hey make a rule that nobody should come in without they have a hundred dollars. Now I wanted to make a rule that nobody should come in unless they didn’t have no money at all.” She was frustrated by the new rule but was the guest of honor nonetheless when the Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged celebrated its opening on June 23, 1908.
As Tubman aged, the seizures, headaches, and suffering from her childhood head trauma continued to plague her. At some point in the late 1890s, she underwent brain surgery. Unable to sleep because of pains and “buzzing” in her head, she asked a doctor if he could operate. He agreed and, in her words, “sawed open my skull, and raised it up, and now it feels more comfortable.” She had received no anesthesia for the procedure and reportedly chose instead to bite down on a bullet, as she had seen Civil War soldiers do when their limbs were amputated.
By 1911, her body was so frail that she had to be admitted into the rest home named in her honor. A New York newspaper described her as “ill and penniless,” prompting supporters to offer a new round of donations. Surrounded by friends and family members, Harriet Tubman died of pneumonia in 1913. Just before she died, she told those in the room: “I go to prepare a place for you.”
Tubman returned to the South again and again. She devised clever techniques that helped make her “forays” successful, including using the master’s horse and buggy for the first leg of the journey; leaving on a Saturday night, since runaway notices couldn’t be placed in newspapers until Monday morning; turning about and heading south if she encountered possible slave hunters; and carrying a drug to use on a baby if its crying might put the fugitives in danger. Tubman even carried a gun which she used to threaten the fugitives if they became too tired or decided to turn back, telling them, “You’ll be free or die.”
By 1856, Tubman’s capture would have brought a $40,000 reward from the South. On one occasion, she overheard some men reading her wanted poster, which stated that she was illiterate. She promptly pulled out a book and feigned reading it. The ploy was enough to fool the men.
Tubman had made the perilous trip to slave country about 13 times by 1860, including one especially challenging journey in which she rescued her 70-year-old parents. Of the famed heroine, who became known as “Moses,” Frederick Douglass said, “Excepting John Brown — of sacred memory — I know of no one who has willingly encountered more perils and hardships to serve our enslaved people than [Harriet Tubman].”
And John Brown, who conferred with “General Tubman” about his plans to raid Harpers Ferry, once said that she was “one of the bravest persons on this continent.”
During the Civil War Harriet Tubman worked for the Union as a cook, a nurse, and even a spy. After the war she settled in Auburn, New York, where she would spend the rest of her long life.Tubman spent her remaining years in Auburn, tending to her family and other people in need. She worked various jobs to support her elderly parents, and took in boarders to help pay the bills. One of the people Tubman took in was a Civil War veteran named Nelson Davis. He began working in Auburn as a bricklayer and they soon fell in love. Though he was 22 years younger than she was, on March 18, 1869, they were married at the Central Presbyterian Church. They spent the next 20 years together, and in 1874 they adopted a baby girl named Gertie. | 1,370 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Taissumani, Jan. 9
The time has come, the walrus said
The Norse, sometimes called Vikings, travelled west from Iceland to populate the lower west coast of Greenland a millenium ago, before Inuit of the Thule culture had moved southward along that same coast.
They lived—and for a time thrived—in its fiords for almost 500 years, and then disappeared. Scientists and laymen alike have speculated for centuries as to what exactly happened to them.
There are a number of theories. The climate changed and grew colder—and it is proven that it did—with the onset of the Little Ice Age. Or Inuit, who eventually encountered the Norse, warred with them and wiped them out—and it is likely that there were skirmishes in various locations over the years.
There were attacks by European pirates who killed some and carried others off into slavery. Or a depleted population packed up and moved west to North America; those who stayed behind in Greenland may have intermarried with the incoming Inuit.
An examination of the various theories indicates that no one theory satisfactorily accounts for the population loss, but that there is probably some truth in many of them. In other words, there was no one cause, but rather many causes.
Now there is a new theory that seems plausible as part of the solution to the mystery.
The medieval Norse farmed in the fiords, but they were also hunters who, over time, ventured far up the west coast of Greenland, eventually as far as the Thule district and across to Ellesmere Island.
They may even have hunted in the Pond Inlet area, and pushed into Hudson Strait. What were they after on these voyages?
The answer is walrus. For the Norse were also traders. They needed iron, timber, and other goods from Europe, and their currency was primarily walrus tusks.
The Norse were probably attracted to Greenland in the first place partly because of the presence of the Atlantic walrus. They had wiped out the species in Iceland, and needed new sources of supply. Greenland was such a source.
The Norse lived mostly in two settlements, the so-called Western Settlement near present-day Nuuk, and the Eastern Settlement.
Confusingly, the Eastern Settlement was not on Greenland’s east coast, but rather in the fiords of far south-western Greenland. It got its name because it was technically east of the other settlement.
It appears that small numbers of walrus were hunted from near the Western Settlement. But the main hunting area was around Disko Bay and even farther north in the High Arctic, including Canada.
The Norse didn’t live that far north, but travelled to those hunting areas in the summers. In the High Arctic and Canada, they not only hunted, but likely traded with Inuit of the Thule culture and possibly also with the remnant Dorset Eskimo population (the Tuniit).
In summer, walrus are found in relatively shallow feeding areas, and they return every year to the same area. They are very vulnerable to attack by hunters when they “haul out” on land or pack ice.
Tusks were received in the trading centres of Dublin, Trondheim (Norway), and Schleswig (Germany), and later Bergen (Norway), and distributed from there to centres in Europe as far away as Kyiv (present-day Ukraine), to be carved as art objects. The Norse in Greenland received their much-needed imports in return.
Sophisticated DNA analysis of tusks found in European locations indicate that, as Norse occupation in Greenland continued, most of the tusks in Europe were from a population of walrus common in north Greenland.
Over time, too, the walrus taken were increasingly smaller females, indicating that the more desirable larger male walrus were becoming depleted in the easily accessible locations — Norse hunters were travelling farther afield to harvest their resource.
In the High Arctic, Norse artifacts have been found around the large High Arctic polynya between north-western Greenland and Ellesmere Island; this indicates trade with Inuit for walrus tusks that the Norse subsequently traded on to Greenland.
A recent study suggests, “It is plausible that the medieval Norse Greenlanders ultimately travelled to the northernmost limits of human habitation on Earth to secure sufficient animals to meet European demand. Inuit and Norse hunters may both have supplied the workshops of very distant artisans.”
But the Norse were not the only population wanting to trade ivory to Europe. Elephant ivory became more available for carving there by the thirteenth century. Logically, one would think that this would result in a decrease in demand for walrus ivory.
But the opposite occurred. Why? Because the value of walrus ivory—which was seen as less prestigious than elephant ivory—declined. Greenland still needed to trade walrus ivory for the trade goods it needed, and so it had to send more, not less, ivory to Europe in payment.
The result was that Norse hunters over-exploited the walrus populations, and then had to travel farther to find their prey. With a changing climate the northern voyages may have been unsustainable, the prey harder and harder to take.
This undermined the viability of the Western Settlement. No exports of Greenlandic tusks to Europe are known to have been made after 1327. The Western Settlement was abandoned in that same century. The Eastern Settlement, which had been an intermediary in the walrus trade, struggled on into the fifteenth century. Other factors probably also contributed to its demise.
The trade in tusks had flourished for over a century but ultimately dwindled. The walrus turned out to be a “boom and bust” resource, exploited intensely for a time, and then found to be no longer sustainable—like a modern-day mineral resource, or an oil deposit, or the bison that once roamed the North American prairie. The trade ended because of a change in demand, as is often the case with globalization, and resource depletion.
The end of the trade was fortunate for the walrus—its population rebounded—but disastrous for the Norse. It was one of the many factors which ultimately led to the end of the Norse colonies in Greenland. Concurrently, Inuit moved down the west coast to repopulate the country.
Taissumani is an occasional column that recalls events of historical interest. Kenn Harper is a historian and writer who lived in the Arctic for over 50 years. He is the author of “Minik, the New York Eskimo” and “Thou Shalt Do No Murder,” among other books. Feedback? Send your comments and questions to email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:1657a79c-4b33-4373-b802-97860ecba4be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nunatsiaq.com/stories/article/taissumani-jan-9-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.980399 | 1,410 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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The time has come, the walrus said
The Norse, sometimes called Vikings, travelled west from Iceland to populate the lower west coast of Greenland a millenium ago, before Inuit of the Thule culture had moved southward along that same coast.
They lived—and for a time thrived—in its fiords for almost 500 years, and then disappeared. Scientists and laymen alike have speculated for centuries as to what exactly happened to them.
There are a number of theories. The climate changed and grew colder—and it is proven that it did—with the onset of the Little Ice Age. Or Inuit, who eventually encountered the Norse, warred with them and wiped them out—and it is likely that there were skirmishes in various locations over the years.
There were attacks by European pirates who killed some and carried others off into slavery. Or a depleted population packed up and moved west to North America; those who stayed behind in Greenland may have intermarried with the incoming Inuit.
An examination of the various theories indicates that no one theory satisfactorily accounts for the population loss, but that there is probably some truth in many of them. In other words, there was no one cause, but rather many causes.
Now there is a new theory that seems plausible as part of the solution to the mystery.
The medieval Norse farmed in the fiords, but they were also hunters who, over time, ventured far up the west coast of Greenland, eventually as far as the Thule district and across to Ellesmere Island.
They may even have hunted in the Pond Inlet area, and pushed into Hudson Strait. What were they after on these voyages?
The answer is walrus. For the Norse were also traders. They needed iron, timber, and other goods from Europe, and their currency was primarily walrus tusks.
The Norse were probably attracted to Greenland in the first place partly because of the presence of the Atlantic walrus. They had wiped out the species in Iceland, and needed new sources of supply. Greenland was such a source.
The Norse lived mostly in two settlements, the so-called Western Settlement near present-day Nuuk, and the Eastern Settlement.
Confusingly, the Eastern Settlement was not on Greenland’s east coast, but rather in the fiords of far south-western Greenland. It got its name because it was technically east of the other settlement.
It appears that small numbers of walrus were hunted from near the Western Settlement. But the main hunting area was around Disko Bay and even farther north in the High Arctic, including Canada.
The Norse didn’t live that far north, but travelled to those hunting areas in the summers. In the High Arctic and Canada, they not only hunted, but likely traded with Inuit of the Thule culture and possibly also with the remnant Dorset Eskimo population (the Tuniit).
In summer, walrus are found in relatively shallow feeding areas, and they return every year to the same area. They are very vulnerable to attack by hunters when they “haul out” on land or pack ice.
Tusks were received in the trading centres of Dublin, Trondheim (Norway), and Schleswig (Germany), and later Bergen (Norway), and distributed from there to centres in Europe as far away as Kyiv (present-day Ukraine), to be carved as art objects. The Norse in Greenland received their much-needed imports in return.
Sophisticated DNA analysis of tusks found in European locations indicate that, as Norse occupation in Greenland continued, most of the tusks in Europe were from a population of walrus common in north Greenland.
Over time, too, the walrus taken were increasingly smaller females, indicating that the more desirable larger male walrus were becoming depleted in the easily accessible locations — Norse hunters were travelling farther afield to harvest their resource.
In the High Arctic, Norse artifacts have been found around the large High Arctic polynya between north-western Greenland and Ellesmere Island; this indicates trade with Inuit for walrus tusks that the Norse subsequently traded on to Greenland.
A recent study suggests, “It is plausible that the medieval Norse Greenlanders ultimately travelled to the northernmost limits of human habitation on Earth to secure sufficient animals to meet European demand. Inuit and Norse hunters may both have supplied the workshops of very distant artisans.”
But the Norse were not the only population wanting to trade ivory to Europe. Elephant ivory became more available for carving there by the thirteenth century. Logically, one would think that this would result in a decrease in demand for walrus ivory.
But the opposite occurred. Why? Because the value of walrus ivory—which was seen as less prestigious than elephant ivory—declined. Greenland still needed to trade walrus ivory for the trade goods it needed, and so it had to send more, not less, ivory to Europe in payment.
The result was that Norse hunters over-exploited the walrus populations, and then had to travel farther to find their prey. With a changing climate the northern voyages may have been unsustainable, the prey harder and harder to take.
This undermined the viability of the Western Settlement. No exports of Greenlandic tusks to Europe are known to have been made after 1327. The Western Settlement was abandoned in that same century. The Eastern Settlement, which had been an intermediary in the walrus trade, struggled on into the fifteenth century. Other factors probably also contributed to its demise.
The trade in tusks had flourished for over a century but ultimately dwindled. The walrus turned out to be a “boom and bust” resource, exploited intensely for a time, and then found to be no longer sustainable—like a modern-day mineral resource, or an oil deposit, or the bison that once roamed the North American prairie. The trade ended because of a change in demand, as is often the case with globalization, and resource depletion.
The end of the trade was fortunate for the walrus—its population rebounded—but disastrous for the Norse. It was one of the many factors which ultimately led to the end of the Norse colonies in Greenland. Concurrently, Inuit moved down the west coast to repopulate the country.
Taissumani is an occasional column that recalls events of historical interest. Kenn Harper is a historian and writer who lived in the Arctic for over 50 years. He is the author of “Minik, the New York Eskimo” and “Thou Shalt Do No Murder,” among other books. Feedback? Send your comments and questions to email@example.com. | 1,349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The central Christian ritual
The central part of Christian life in antiquity and the Middle Ages was the Christian Mass. That was when you went to church and the priest went through a series of prayers to God. You would participate in some of the prayers.
Traditional priests who were killing animals for a sacrifice to the gods had stood across the altar from the people, looking at the people. But Christian priests stood facing away from the people, looking toward God.
What did people do?
Sometimes you just said Amen at the end. Other times you called out answers – these were “responses”. Both you and the priest said the Mass in Latin (in Europe and most of North Africa) or in Greek (in Greece and Egypt and West Asia).
That meant that a lot of people in medieval Europe didn’t understand the words very well. They spoke French or Spanish or Italian or German and not Latin.
Here’s a video of a priest saying Mass in England
At the end of the prayers, the priest gave Communion to everyone who was not in a state of sin. That meant that you had not done anything wrong, or if you had, you had confessed it to the priest and he had forgiven you.
Learn by doing: go to a Catholic mass at a church near you
More about Communion
More about excommunication | <urn:uuid:9d6aaf4e-44a9-48c9-bb2a-6cdc0eb8f1f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://quatr.us/religion/christian-mass-christianity-religion.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00279.warc.gz | en | 0.986037 | 279 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.1444502025... | 11 | The central Christian ritual
The central part of Christian life in antiquity and the Middle Ages was the Christian Mass. That was when you went to church and the priest went through a series of prayers to God. You would participate in some of the prayers.
Traditional priests who were killing animals for a sacrifice to the gods had stood across the altar from the people, looking at the people. But Christian priests stood facing away from the people, looking toward God.
What did people do?
Sometimes you just said Amen at the end. Other times you called out answers – these were “responses”. Both you and the priest said the Mass in Latin (in Europe and most of North Africa) or in Greek (in Greece and Egypt and West Asia).
That meant that a lot of people in medieval Europe didn’t understand the words very well. They spoke French or Spanish or Italian or German and not Latin.
Here’s a video of a priest saying Mass in England
At the end of the prayers, the priest gave Communion to everyone who was not in a state of sin. That meant that you had not done anything wrong, or if you had, you had confessed it to the priest and he had forgiven you.
Learn by doing: go to a Catholic mass at a church near you
More about Communion
More about excommunication | 266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Humans have been domesticating dogs for at least 14,000 years, most likely longer, and we’ve been best pals ever since. This tight bond is especially evident in the Neolithic people of the Iberian Peninsula who loved their dogs, quite literally, to death.
Archaeologists have recently excavated a number of 6,000-year-old graves near present-day Barcelona that contain the skeletal remains of at least 26 dogs in total. The unusual collection of remains suggests that the dogs were close companions of their humans. So close, in fact, they were perhaps killed so they could hang out with their owners in the afterlife.
As reported in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, an analysis of the bones revealed some curious characteristics of the dogs. Anatomical analysis of their bones suggested they were no older than six years old when they died and many were just puppies as young as one year of age. This could have suggested that the dogs were being eaten, however, their bones showed no signs of cut marks or butchering.
“Choosing young animals aged up to one year old suggests there was an intention in the sacrifice. Although we can think it was for human consumption, the fact that these were buried near humans suggests there was an intention and a direct relation with death and the funerary ritual," first author Silvia Albizuri, a researcher at the University of Barcelona, said in a statement.
Furthermore, the dogs appear to have eaten a diet similar to their human companions. Their close proximity to human settlements shows that these hounds were an inseparable part of daily life for Neolithic communities in the Iberian Peninsula. They appear to have been highly regarded and respected animals. It’s also worth noting that the dogs seem to be very similar in terms of physicality, suggesting “a certain control in the breeding” to foster desirable traits.
“These data show a close coexistence between dogs and humans, and probably, a specific preparation of their nutrition, which is clear in the cases of a diet based on vegetables," added researcher Eulàlia Subirà. "They would probably do so to obtain a better control of their tasks on security and to save the time they would have to spend looking for food. This management would explain the homogeneity of the size of the animals.”
As such, it’s believed the dogs might have been sacrificed, most likely so their owners could keep them as companions in the afterlife.
The study concludes, “Perhaps this life relationship eventually turned them into 'companions' in death or symbols in rituals.” | <urn:uuid:4c7aa4d2-ade1-4499-afdb-0b53da8dcc37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/prehistoric-humans-loved-their-dogs-so-much-they-killed-them/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00362.warc.gz | en | 0.986063 | 540 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.52893882... | 3 | Humans have been domesticating dogs for at least 14,000 years, most likely longer, and we’ve been best pals ever since. This tight bond is especially evident in the Neolithic people of the Iberian Peninsula who loved their dogs, quite literally, to death.
Archaeologists have recently excavated a number of 6,000-year-old graves near present-day Barcelona that contain the skeletal remains of at least 26 dogs in total. The unusual collection of remains suggests that the dogs were close companions of their humans. So close, in fact, they were perhaps killed so they could hang out with their owners in the afterlife.
As reported in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, an analysis of the bones revealed some curious characteristics of the dogs. Anatomical analysis of their bones suggested they were no older than six years old when they died and many were just puppies as young as one year of age. This could have suggested that the dogs were being eaten, however, their bones showed no signs of cut marks or butchering.
“Choosing young animals aged up to one year old suggests there was an intention in the sacrifice. Although we can think it was for human consumption, the fact that these were buried near humans suggests there was an intention and a direct relation with death and the funerary ritual," first author Silvia Albizuri, a researcher at the University of Barcelona, said in a statement.
Furthermore, the dogs appear to have eaten a diet similar to their human companions. Their close proximity to human settlements shows that these hounds were an inseparable part of daily life for Neolithic communities in the Iberian Peninsula. They appear to have been highly regarded and respected animals. It’s also worth noting that the dogs seem to be very similar in terms of physicality, suggesting “a certain control in the breeding” to foster desirable traits.
“These data show a close coexistence between dogs and humans, and probably, a specific preparation of their nutrition, which is clear in the cases of a diet based on vegetables," added researcher Eulàlia Subirà. "They would probably do so to obtain a better control of their tasks on security and to save the time they would have to spend looking for food. This management would explain the homogeneity of the size of the animals.”
As such, it’s believed the dogs might have been sacrificed, most likely so their owners could keep them as companions in the afterlife.
The study concludes, “Perhaps this life relationship eventually turned them into 'companions' in death or symbols in rituals.” | 526 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When conducting and planning a Forest School it is important to take a step back and observe the children. The observations of children achieve a number of functions,
- it gives you a baseline of their skills
- lets you identify where their next steps maybe
- it informs your planning for the next session
- it helps you learn as a practitioner
Below you will find a simple observation adapted from the one provided during my training. It allows you to observe pupils engagement, well being, emotional intelligence and other behaviours simply by circling scaled scores. It is often difficult to quantify these aspects of a child’s development, which is why observation is so important.
Below you will find my observations of 3 children from the start and end of their experience of 6 Forest School Sessions.
This child started the experience with a generally poor attitude to both School and the Forest School experience. She didn’t have the best awareness of her emotions, her well being was fine and she found it difficult to focus on the activities. Through my observations I also noticed that she enjoyed winding other children up, showing little consideration for their emotions and getting them in trouble.
I was so impressed by her improvement during the Forest School Sessions. She was engaged, focused and enjoyed helping others with the activities. At this stage I had noticed however that this was not being reflected in the way she interacted within the classroom.
I think in future sessions with child A I would look at how we can transfer skills to different environments. I would do this through highlighting and praising the good learning behaviours we saw during the session.
Child B was a very well behaved child, who achieved well across the board in all subject areas. He was able to interact with others and showed a good appreciation of their emotions. He engaged well in activities and was easily able to set himself achievable targets. However, Child B found it difficult to express his own emotions and constantly seemed upset and unhappy.
It was lovely to see how Child B came out of his shell during the forest school session. Through getting him involved in fun activities and the other children giving him support he started to show a level on enjoyment and improved his interactions with his peers.
With this child I would continue to run sessions that would demonstrate skills that he is really good at work with others. I would be targeting the growth of self-esteem, confidence and enjoyment.
Child C was one of the children considered to be uncontrollable around school. He showed little positive behaviour in any aspect other than his confidence with his peers(he was the alpha). He showed little appreciation of peoples emotions and his own well being. He clearly didn’t want to be in school or Forest School during the first session.
By the end of the 6 Sessions this child’s behaviour had dramatically improved. There were still a wide number of low level behaviours but he was more engaged in activities and was more considerate of his peers. One of my favourite moments was when Child C taught Child B how to do a reef knot.
I would continue this program with the child purely on basis that he thrives in the outdoor environment. Continued forest support could change the child’s life. | <urn:uuid:8d0dde8f-0f9d-489d-b89d-5253e3b01c00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://learningintheleaves.co.uk/child-observation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.988929 | 645 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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... | 10 | When conducting and planning a Forest School it is important to take a step back and observe the children. The observations of children achieve a number of functions,
- it gives you a baseline of their skills
- lets you identify where their next steps maybe
- it informs your planning for the next session
- it helps you learn as a practitioner
Below you will find a simple observation adapted from the one provided during my training. It allows you to observe pupils engagement, well being, emotional intelligence and other behaviours simply by circling scaled scores. It is often difficult to quantify these aspects of a child’s development, which is why observation is so important.
Below you will find my observations of 3 children from the start and end of their experience of 6 Forest School Sessions.
This child started the experience with a generally poor attitude to both School and the Forest School experience. She didn’t have the best awareness of her emotions, her well being was fine and she found it difficult to focus on the activities. Through my observations I also noticed that she enjoyed winding other children up, showing little consideration for their emotions and getting them in trouble.
I was so impressed by her improvement during the Forest School Sessions. She was engaged, focused and enjoyed helping others with the activities. At this stage I had noticed however that this was not being reflected in the way she interacted within the classroom.
I think in future sessions with child A I would look at how we can transfer skills to different environments. I would do this through highlighting and praising the good learning behaviours we saw during the session.
Child B was a very well behaved child, who achieved well across the board in all subject areas. He was able to interact with others and showed a good appreciation of their emotions. He engaged well in activities and was easily able to set himself achievable targets. However, Child B found it difficult to express his own emotions and constantly seemed upset and unhappy.
It was lovely to see how Child B came out of his shell during the forest school session. Through getting him involved in fun activities and the other children giving him support he started to show a level on enjoyment and improved his interactions with his peers.
With this child I would continue to run sessions that would demonstrate skills that he is really good at work with others. I would be targeting the growth of self-esteem, confidence and enjoyment.
Child C was one of the children considered to be uncontrollable around school. He showed little positive behaviour in any aspect other than his confidence with his peers(he was the alpha). He showed little appreciation of peoples emotions and his own well being. He clearly didn’t want to be in school or Forest School during the first session.
By the end of the 6 Sessions this child’s behaviour had dramatically improved. There were still a wide number of low level behaviours but he was more engaged in activities and was more considerate of his peers. One of my favourite moments was when Child C taught Child B how to do a reef knot.
I would continue this program with the child purely on basis that he thrives in the outdoor environment. Continued forest support could change the child’s life. | 628 | ENGLISH | 1 |
These are similar to Megalithic burial jars found in South India and the Deccan during a similar time frame. One theory states that there was no organised Tamil presence in Sri Lanka until the invasions from what is now South India in the 10th century CE; another theory contends that Tamil people were the original inhabitants of the island. The "Nakar" used the cobra totem known as "Nakam" in the Tamil language, which is still part of the Hindu Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka today as a subordinate deity.
Singapore Table of Contents The abrupt end of the war took the British by surprise. Although the Colonial Office had decided on the formation of a Malayan Union, which would include all the Malay states, Penang, and Malacca, no detailed plans had been worked out for the administration of Singapore, which was to be kept separate and serve as the headquarters of the British governor general for Southeast Asia.
Many former colonial officials and businessmen opposed the separation of Singapore from peninsular Malaya, arguing that the two were economically interdependent and to exclude Singapore would "cut the heart out of Malaya.
Although Singaporeans were relieved and happy at the arrival of the Commonwealth troops, their first-hand witnessing of the defeat of the British by an Asian power had changed forever the perspective from which they viewed their colonial overlords. Economic and Social Recovery The British returned to find their colonies in sad shape.
Food and medical The eventual formation of the tamil were dangerously low, partly because shipping was in total disarray. Electricity, gas, water, and telephone services were in serious disrepair. Severe overcrowding had resulted in thousands of squatters living in shanties, and the death rate was twice the prewar level.
Gambling and prostitution, both legalized under the Japanese, flourished, and for many opium or alcohol served as an escape from a bleak existence. The BMA had its share of corrupt officials who helped the collaborators and profiteers of the Japanese occupation to continue to prosper.
As a result of the inefficiency and mismanagement of the rice distribution, the BMA was cynically known as the "Black Market Administration.
The port was returned to civilian control, and seven private industrial, transportation, and mining companies were given priority in importing badly needed supplies and materials.
Japanese prisoners were used to repair docks and airfields. The schools were reopened, and by March 62, children were enrolled. Food shortages were the most persistent problem; the weekly per capita rice ration fell to an all-time low in Mayand other foods were in short supply and expensive.
Malnutrition and disease spawned outbreaks of crime and violence.
Communist-led strikes caused long work stoppages in public transport, public services, at the docks, and at many private firms. The strikers were largely successful in gaining the higher wages needed by the workers to meet rising food prices.
By latethe economy had began to recover as a result of a growing worldwide demand for tin and rubber. By trade, productivity, and social services had been restored to their prewar levels.
In that year a five-year social welfare plan was adopted, under which benefits were paid to the aged, unfit, blind, crippled, and to widows with dependent children. Also ina ten-year plan was launched to expand hospital facilities and other health services.
By demand for tin and rubber for the war in Korea had brought economic boom to Singapore. The percentage of Chinese who were Straits-born rose from 36 percent in to 60 percent byand, of those born in China, more than half reported in that they had never revisited and did not send remittances there.
Although large numbers of Indian men continued to come to Singapore to work and then return to India, both Indians and Chinese increasingly saw Singapore as their permanent home. Seeing an English education as offering their children the best opportunity for advancement, parents increasingly opted to send their children to English-language schools, which received increased government funding while support for the vernacular schools declined.
Among the seventeen members appointed to the council was Wu Tian Wang, a former guerrilla leader and chairman of the communist Singapore City Committee.
In Januarythe anti-January army was formally disbanded following a final parade at which Mountbatten presented medals to the guerrilla commander, Chin Peng, and the other resistance leaders. All arms and ammunition, which the guerrillas had received in airdrops from the British during the war or captured from the Japanese, were supposed to be surrendered at that time.
The CPM, however, secretly retained large stocks of its weapons. The British legally recognized the MCP in latelargely because of its resistance efforts and its popularity.
The party by that time commanded about 70, supporters.
The MCP at first concentrated its efforts on organizing labor, establishing the General Labour Union, which covered more than sixty trade unions.
It organized numerous strikes in and earlyincluding a two-day general strike in January in whichworkers struck and transport was brought to a halt.I agree that the eventual formation of the Tamil Tigers was inevitable.
The discriminatory policies by the Sinhalese government were targeted against the Tamils. An example is the Ceylon citizenship Act. The exclusion of the Corsicans in the high administration, the legal inequalities and the economic situation started a succession of jacqueries.: Hence a wind is said to box the compass when it blows from every quarter in rapid succession.: The sports talk station gives you a succession of men whose absorption in a fantasy world is, to me, .
Singapore Table of Contents. In the colonial government appointed Sir George Rendel to head a commission to review the Singapore constitution and devise a "complete political and constitutional structure designed to enable Singapore to develop as a self-contained and autonomous unit in any larger organization with which it may ultimately .
The same Tamil refugee relayed that the Sri Lankan government is cracking down again on Tamils and former LTTE fighters in the region, accusing them of reorganizing. This has led to a wave of arbitrary arrests, interrogations, and torture while in custody.
Naming and Re-Naming of Streets, Parks, Playgrounds Etc., U/s of CCMC Act, , the Council shall give names to new public streets, parks, playgrounds, bus-stands, arch or new municipal properties and may alter the name of any public streets, parks, playgrounds, bus-stands, arch or municipal properties subject to the approval of the .
The story is based on true events from the Operation Bawaria case, which involved the nefarious activity of dacoits and its eventual containment by Tamil Nadu police. Karthi and Rakul Preet Singh play the lead roles in this movie, while Abhimanyu Singh played the prime antagonist. | <urn:uuid:c8a4ce1e-d8c1-4e14-bb43-594207b53895> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tuzoqibejicaha.caninariojana.com/the-eventual-formation-of-the-tamil-36803ow.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.980199 | 1,395 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.779099941253662... | 2 | These are similar to Megalithic burial jars found in South India and the Deccan during a similar time frame. One theory states that there was no organised Tamil presence in Sri Lanka until the invasions from what is now South India in the 10th century CE; another theory contends that Tamil people were the original inhabitants of the island. The "Nakar" used the cobra totem known as "Nakam" in the Tamil language, which is still part of the Hindu Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka today as a subordinate deity.
Singapore Table of Contents The abrupt end of the war took the British by surprise. Although the Colonial Office had decided on the formation of a Malayan Union, which would include all the Malay states, Penang, and Malacca, no detailed plans had been worked out for the administration of Singapore, which was to be kept separate and serve as the headquarters of the British governor general for Southeast Asia.
Many former colonial officials and businessmen opposed the separation of Singapore from peninsular Malaya, arguing that the two were economically interdependent and to exclude Singapore would "cut the heart out of Malaya.
Although Singaporeans were relieved and happy at the arrival of the Commonwealth troops, their first-hand witnessing of the defeat of the British by an Asian power had changed forever the perspective from which they viewed their colonial overlords. Economic and Social Recovery The British returned to find their colonies in sad shape.
Food and medical The eventual formation of the tamil were dangerously low, partly because shipping was in total disarray. Electricity, gas, water, and telephone services were in serious disrepair. Severe overcrowding had resulted in thousands of squatters living in shanties, and the death rate was twice the prewar level.
Gambling and prostitution, both legalized under the Japanese, flourished, and for many opium or alcohol served as an escape from a bleak existence. The BMA had its share of corrupt officials who helped the collaborators and profiteers of the Japanese occupation to continue to prosper.
As a result of the inefficiency and mismanagement of the rice distribution, the BMA was cynically known as the "Black Market Administration.
The port was returned to civilian control, and seven private industrial, transportation, and mining companies were given priority in importing badly needed supplies and materials.
Japanese prisoners were used to repair docks and airfields. The schools were reopened, and by March 62, children were enrolled. Food shortages were the most persistent problem; the weekly per capita rice ration fell to an all-time low in Mayand other foods were in short supply and expensive.
Malnutrition and disease spawned outbreaks of crime and violence.
Communist-led strikes caused long work stoppages in public transport, public services, at the docks, and at many private firms. The strikers were largely successful in gaining the higher wages needed by the workers to meet rising food prices.
By latethe economy had began to recover as a result of a growing worldwide demand for tin and rubber. By trade, productivity, and social services had been restored to their prewar levels.
In that year a five-year social welfare plan was adopted, under which benefits were paid to the aged, unfit, blind, crippled, and to widows with dependent children. Also ina ten-year plan was launched to expand hospital facilities and other health services.
By demand for tin and rubber for the war in Korea had brought economic boom to Singapore. The percentage of Chinese who were Straits-born rose from 36 percent in to 60 percent byand, of those born in China, more than half reported in that they had never revisited and did not send remittances there.
Although large numbers of Indian men continued to come to Singapore to work and then return to India, both Indians and Chinese increasingly saw Singapore as their permanent home. Seeing an English education as offering their children the best opportunity for advancement, parents increasingly opted to send their children to English-language schools, which received increased government funding while support for the vernacular schools declined.
Among the seventeen members appointed to the council was Wu Tian Wang, a former guerrilla leader and chairman of the communist Singapore City Committee.
In Januarythe anti-January army was formally disbanded following a final parade at which Mountbatten presented medals to the guerrilla commander, Chin Peng, and the other resistance leaders. All arms and ammunition, which the guerrillas had received in airdrops from the British during the war or captured from the Japanese, were supposed to be surrendered at that time.
The CPM, however, secretly retained large stocks of its weapons. The British legally recognized the MCP in latelargely because of its resistance efforts and its popularity.
The party by that time commanded about 70, supporters.
The MCP at first concentrated its efforts on organizing labor, establishing the General Labour Union, which covered more than sixty trade unions.
It organized numerous strikes in and earlyincluding a two-day general strike in January in whichworkers struck and transport was brought to a halt.I agree that the eventual formation of the Tamil Tigers was inevitable.
The discriminatory policies by the Sinhalese government were targeted against the Tamils. An example is the Ceylon citizenship Act. The exclusion of the Corsicans in the high administration, the legal inequalities and the economic situation started a succession of jacqueries.: Hence a wind is said to box the compass when it blows from every quarter in rapid succession.: The sports talk station gives you a succession of men whose absorption in a fantasy world is, to me, .
Singapore Table of Contents. In the colonial government appointed Sir George Rendel to head a commission to review the Singapore constitution and devise a "complete political and constitutional structure designed to enable Singapore to develop as a self-contained and autonomous unit in any larger organization with which it may ultimately .
The same Tamil refugee relayed that the Sri Lankan government is cracking down again on Tamils and former LTTE fighters in the region, accusing them of reorganizing. This has led to a wave of arbitrary arrests, interrogations, and torture while in custody.
Naming and Re-Naming of Streets, Parks, Playgrounds Etc., U/s of CCMC Act, , the Council shall give names to new public streets, parks, playgrounds, bus-stands, arch or new municipal properties and may alter the name of any public streets, parks, playgrounds, bus-stands, arch or municipal properties subject to the approval of the .
The story is based on true events from the Operation Bawaria case, which involved the nefarious activity of dacoits and its eventual containment by Tamil Nadu police. Karthi and Rakul Preet Singh play the lead roles in this movie, while Abhimanyu Singh played the prime antagonist. | 1,370 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There has always been a divide between introverted people and extroverted people; it is one of the first things noticed about a person. This has always been a characteristic that was thought to be innate, however recently there have been many studies attempting to define and find cause of these traits that have been coined shyness and self-confidence. An article written in the Social Psychology Quarterly by Philip Manning and George Ray entitled Shyness, Self-Confidence, and Social Interaction explores an experiment that was preformed at a mid-western university and attempts to define characteristics of shy and self-confident people during interpersonal interactions.
The experiment explained in the article used 20 students in an introductory interpersonal communications class and recorded the interactions between the students. First, the students were given a test to see if by standard evaluations they would be considered either shy or self-confident. Two students were placed in an observation room, both of same sex and same orientation, meaning both either shy or self-confident. This procedure was followed ten more times to look at all 20 students. The findings were relatively as expected; shy conversations were less vibrant and did not have the topical talk that was in most self-confident conversations.
We show that conversations by shy participants were dominated initially by setting talk. There were many pretopical sequences, most of which did not develop into topics. Turn transitions were difficult . . . it was not always true. This procedure was not used whenever one or both speakers found themselves discussing what we call a favored topic. (190)
The findings with self-confident were intuitive, the followed roughly the opposite patterns. Setting talk was minimized; the speakers began with a name exchange and the quickly introduced the first pretopical sequence. . . Topics were often chosen by activating situated identity. (190)
This article, while highly reinforced by evidence, left still an uneasy feeling about the use of the words shyness and self-confidence. Within this context, they are seen as contradictory characteristics, however within society they might now always be viewed in such manner. Shyness is more of an innate thing, not negative. In the article it was suggested that shyness was something that needed to be fix, was detrimental and even might be over come though the use of pharmaceutical product. (179). The terms communication apprehension or social phobia are more suiting for the problem depicted in the article. The idea that self-confidence is what the ideal person should strive for is positive, but the idea that self-confidence is everything that shy people are not is incorrect. Also this article did not explore people who use the exertion of over self-confidence and come on too strong, as compensation for a complete lack of self-confidence. The underlying concept of the article is well taken; there are clear differences between the socially confident people and socially unconfident people. People who are unable use social grace to their fullest advantage should be taught how. However, within this article there is no evidence that there is a direct correlation between these set of characteristics which seemingly can be taught and the ones that are inherent and are true self-confidence or plain shyness.
Manning, Philip. Ray, George. Shyness, Self-Confidence, and Social Interaction.
Social Psychology Quarterly Volume 56 (Sept.,1993). | <urn:uuid:c0c35f75-05a0-421e-8fd4-ed64af66bdf2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://guidedcollective.com/shyness-idea/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00336.warc.gz | en | 0.982538 | 673 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.061911776661872... | 5 | There has always been a divide between introverted people and extroverted people; it is one of the first things noticed about a person. This has always been a characteristic that was thought to be innate, however recently there have been many studies attempting to define and find cause of these traits that have been coined shyness and self-confidence. An article written in the Social Psychology Quarterly by Philip Manning and George Ray entitled Shyness, Self-Confidence, and Social Interaction explores an experiment that was preformed at a mid-western university and attempts to define characteristics of shy and self-confident people during interpersonal interactions.
The experiment explained in the article used 20 students in an introductory interpersonal communications class and recorded the interactions between the students. First, the students were given a test to see if by standard evaluations they would be considered either shy or self-confident. Two students were placed in an observation room, both of same sex and same orientation, meaning both either shy or self-confident. This procedure was followed ten more times to look at all 20 students. The findings were relatively as expected; shy conversations were less vibrant and did not have the topical talk that was in most self-confident conversations.
We show that conversations by shy participants were dominated initially by setting talk. There were many pretopical sequences, most of which did not develop into topics. Turn transitions were difficult . . . it was not always true. This procedure was not used whenever one or both speakers found themselves discussing what we call a favored topic. (190)
The findings with self-confident were intuitive, the followed roughly the opposite patterns. Setting talk was minimized; the speakers began with a name exchange and the quickly introduced the first pretopical sequence. . . Topics were often chosen by activating situated identity. (190)
This article, while highly reinforced by evidence, left still an uneasy feeling about the use of the words shyness and self-confidence. Within this context, they are seen as contradictory characteristics, however within society they might now always be viewed in such manner. Shyness is more of an innate thing, not negative. In the article it was suggested that shyness was something that needed to be fix, was detrimental and even might be over come though the use of pharmaceutical product. (179). The terms communication apprehension or social phobia are more suiting for the problem depicted in the article. The idea that self-confidence is what the ideal person should strive for is positive, but the idea that self-confidence is everything that shy people are not is incorrect. Also this article did not explore people who use the exertion of over self-confidence and come on too strong, as compensation for a complete lack of self-confidence. The underlying concept of the article is well taken; there are clear differences between the socially confident people and socially unconfident people. People who are unable use social grace to their fullest advantage should be taught how. However, within this article there is no evidence that there is a direct correlation between these set of characteristics which seemingly can be taught and the ones that are inherent and are true self-confidence or plain shyness.
Manning, Philip. Ray, George. Shyness, Self-Confidence, and Social Interaction.
Social Psychology Quarterly Volume 56 (Sept.,1993). | 676 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Law was a man of contradictions. He was a Scotsman who was sentenced to death in England for killing a man, yet became one of the most powerful men in Paris. He created France’s first national bank, saving the country from bankruptcy yet was responsible for one of the biggest economic disasters in history. He was a gambler who lost his biggest ever bet. He was literally the person for whom the term “millionaire” was coined, but he died penniless in Venice.
John Law was born in Edinburgh in 1671, into a family of wealthy bankers and goldsmiths. After his father died in 1688, Law moved to London where he lived life to the full and gambled away large sums.
On 9 April 1694, Edward “Beau” Wilson challenged Law to a duel over the affections of Elizabeth Villiers, who was also the reputed mistress of King William III. Law stabbed Wilson to death with a single thrust of his sword and was sentenced to death. The sentence was later commuted to manslaughter and Law managed to flee to Amsterdam.
In 1705 Law advocated for a Scottish national bank in his book, Money and Trade Considered: With a Proposal for Supplying the Nation with Money. He advocated the transition to paper money that would not be backed by gold or silver.
The idea was rejected, but Law continued to develop his economic theory and soon was able to put it into practice. In 1715 French King Louis XIV died after 72 years on the throne (the longest of any European monarch). Following the War of the Spanish Succession, and facing huge interest payments on loans the country was virtually bankrupt and lacked enough precious metals to mint enough coins. The economy was in decline.
Law had spent years cultivating a friendship with Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, Louis XIV’s nephew, who, following the death of the king, became regent for five-year-old Louis XV.
With Philippe’s backing, Law was authorized to set up Banque Générale, which began issuing banknotes in exchange for government bonds, effectively transforming the country’s debt into liquid currency.
Law had explained his theory in his book, writing:
Money is not the value for which goods are exchanged, but the value by which they are exchanged.
In 1720 Law was appointed Controller General of Finances, which effectively meant he now had control of both internal and external commerce. He instituted many reforms, and the French economy grew rapidly. Industry increased 60 percent within two years, and exports increased enormously. However, the boom also led to huge speculation and stock prices swelled to over 60 times their original value.
In 1717, Law’s Banque Générale bought the Mississippi Company which had a monopoly on everything produced in the French colonies in North America. Law wanted to reap the natural resources from Louisiana (named after King Louis XIV) to pay off France’s debt. He began selling shares in the company. But his brilliant marketing efforts led to a massive increase in the share price, with speculators so keen to invest that Law’s bank had to print more money to keep up with demand.
In 1718 there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana, and Law needed to increase the population so that he could take advantage of the country’s wealth and prove the shares were not overvalued.
But Law struggled to find willing emigrants to settle the new land. So he started rounding up vagrants, vagabonds and anyone who looked out of place.
William Harrison Ainsworth wrote in his book, John Law, the Projector:
Two companies of archers were formed, whose business it was to arrest all persons unable to give a satisfactory account of themselves. From their costume and equipments, these archers were denominated “Bandoliers of the Mississippi.” They wore long blue coats, broad crossbelts, and hats laced with silver, and were armed with swords, muskets, and pistols. Marching about in detachments of a dozen, with an officer at their head, the bandoliers performed their task with so much zeal, that five thousand persons were carried off by them in ten days. Many of these were artisans and workmen, but a large proportion consisted of young women. These unjust arrests, and the shocking treatment to which the captives were subjected, roused the popular indignation.
But Law still needed to ship more people to Louisiana, so he went to the jails and offered the prisoners a deal they could not refuse (though later, many of them wished they had). They would be granted their freedom on the condition that they married a prostitute (who had already been rounded up) and left on the next boat to America.
It would have been unseemly for unmarried men and women to travel together, so he let the ladies each choose one of the men, and arranged a group wedding.
Jean Buvat and Émile Campardon described what happened on September 18, 1719 (Journal de la Regence, I, 438-9)
In the priory of the church of Saint-Martin-des-Champs, in Paris, were married 184 young ladies, with as many boys, ones that had been taken from the prisons of the Priory and other prisons of the town, after having allowed the poor girls to choose their husbands from a large number of boys. After the ceremony, they were chained two by two, the husband with his wife, followed by three carts with their clothes and provisions, or in order to carry the sick, escorted by twenty archers to take them to La Rochelle to be transported to Mississippi…
Unfortunately, this cunning plan to take convicts and send them across the ocean without any preparation, training or desire, did not suddenly turn them into farmers, builders, miners or give them any of the skills they needed to survive in the new land. Many of them didn’t even make it to the boat. And almost all of them had an annoying habit of dying.
James Hardy explains in The Transportation of Convicts to Colonial Louisiana:
The attempt to colonize Louisiana with convicts and people on the rates was not very successful. In simple terms of numbers, the convicts and orphans showed an alarming tendency to die before becoming self-supporting colonists. Of the several thousand arrested, sentenced, or otherwise ticketed for Louisiana, less than nine hundred actually made the voyage. The rest died on the way to the ports, escaped somewhere along the line, or never even left the place of their arrest. Of those that sailed, half never landed… Disease took many whose ships reached Dauphine Island and the climate killed the vast majority of the convicts who survived the voyage.
The convicts were spectacularly unsuccessful in developing the land and sending back the new world wealth to prop up the finances of the old. Furthermore, the few hundred French settlers who were already living there were unhappy about the new arrivals in their neighborhood, so packed their bags. They moved to the newly built city of New Orleans (named after Law’s pal, Philippe d’Orleans) to get away from the freshly arrived starving criminals. Without any kind of support network or infrastructure, the new immigrants had virtually no chance at all. As Hardy writes:
In November of 1721, three years after the first convicts landed, only about sixty were still alive, and of these, only five had been in Louisiana for more than eighteen months.
Everything came crashing down for Law just a few months later. By May 1720, investors decided they had enough. They demanded their money back — they wanted to exchange their new banknotes for real coins. As squatters camped out in the streets outside banks, riots broke out. Just a few months later, Law fled Paris in the dead of night, leaving all his personal wealth behind.
Law traveled from city to city, gambling any money he earned. In 1729, aged only 57, he died a pauper in Venice.
Many of Law’s economic theories predated those of John Maynard Keynes by 200 years. Keynesian economics is at the heart of the Western financial system. It was not so much that Law was wrong, but that he was not only a theorist but also the man put in charge of carrying out his economic plan without any suitable checks and balances.
I’ve searched the internet unsuccessfully for any record of the few French prisoners who somehow survived being transplanted to Mississippi. It is hard to find any impact they made on the new world after their arrival.
This contrasts sharply to the major story arc that begins in this week’s Torah portion, Vayeshev.
Joseph’s brothers, jealous of his father’s favoritism and concerned about Joseph’s almost megalomaniacal dreams, sentenced him to death. But then Reuben intervened and instead of killing him outright, convinced the others to throw him into a pit to die. This was Joseph’s prison from which they never expected him to escape.
But fortuitously for the future of the Jewish people, an Egypt-bound caravan passes by and Judah persuaded the others to sell Joseph into slavery rather than leave him in his prison. They effectively give him another chance and send him to a foreign land.
There was nothing in Joseph’s life that could possibly have prepared him for life in Egypt. He had grown up spoiled by his father, not even going with his brothers to tend the flocks. He’s had no experience of the harsh labor expected of him as a slave, seemingly no knowledge of Egyptian language or culture.
Yet, somehow Joseph attracts the attention of Potiphar who purchases him. In next to no time, Joseph is running the household. Not only did he manage to survive in the strange land but he worked out how to thrive.
Of course, we all know the end of this episode — Potiphar’s wife fancies Joseph and when she fails to seduce him, she accuses him of trying to rape her and has him thrown once again into jail. For the second time in the same Torah reading, Joseph would appear to be totally unprepared for the culture of the Egyptian prison, yet very soon he has risen to the top of the heap there. This week’s portion ends with Pharaoh’s butler and baker telling Joseph their dreams, which he correctly interprets for them. All that he asks in return is that the butler mention Joseph to Pharaoh and proclaim his innocence. The very last words of the portion are, “But he forgot him.”
Yet even that setback didn’t end Joseph’s success story. We will read in the coming weeks how Joseph rose to the pinnacle of Egyptian society, second only to Pharaoh himself. And we will hear of Joseph’s economic brilliance. Unlike John Law, who bankrupt France and impacted negatively on large parts of Europe, the biblical Joseph saved Egypt, causing the country to prosper and be able to provide for all the surrounding nations.
Perhaps the difference between Joseph and the French convicts sent to Mississippi is that Joseph accepted every situation he was placed in. In that sense he was fatalistic. But he also managed to adapt and learn what was needed to succeed in each case. And unlike Law who had spent years preparing his economic theories but who lost touch with his own vision when he was given ultimate control over finances, Joseph had no training, but always remembered that it was not his own money he was earning but that of Potiphar, Pharaoh or the entire nation of Egypt.
Joseph proved he was not a deluded egotist as his brothers suspected but quite simply living in the moment with the reality around him. He knew his place but he also knew his potential and constantly strove to do the best he could, no matter what. | <urn:uuid:d696c2eb-4ed8-4fcd-9e94-f2c57a2136f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/parshat-vayeshev-law-and-order/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00450.warc.gz | en | 0.985942 | 2,457 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.18041849136352... | 2 | John Law was a man of contradictions. He was a Scotsman who was sentenced to death in England for killing a man, yet became one of the most powerful men in Paris. He created France’s first national bank, saving the country from bankruptcy yet was responsible for one of the biggest economic disasters in history. He was a gambler who lost his biggest ever bet. He was literally the person for whom the term “millionaire” was coined, but he died penniless in Venice.
John Law was born in Edinburgh in 1671, into a family of wealthy bankers and goldsmiths. After his father died in 1688, Law moved to London where he lived life to the full and gambled away large sums.
On 9 April 1694, Edward “Beau” Wilson challenged Law to a duel over the affections of Elizabeth Villiers, who was also the reputed mistress of King William III. Law stabbed Wilson to death with a single thrust of his sword and was sentenced to death. The sentence was later commuted to manslaughter and Law managed to flee to Amsterdam.
In 1705 Law advocated for a Scottish national bank in his book, Money and Trade Considered: With a Proposal for Supplying the Nation with Money. He advocated the transition to paper money that would not be backed by gold or silver.
The idea was rejected, but Law continued to develop his economic theory and soon was able to put it into practice. In 1715 French King Louis XIV died after 72 years on the throne (the longest of any European monarch). Following the War of the Spanish Succession, and facing huge interest payments on loans the country was virtually bankrupt and lacked enough precious metals to mint enough coins. The economy was in decline.
Law had spent years cultivating a friendship with Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, Louis XIV’s nephew, who, following the death of the king, became regent for five-year-old Louis XV.
With Philippe’s backing, Law was authorized to set up Banque Générale, which began issuing banknotes in exchange for government bonds, effectively transforming the country’s debt into liquid currency.
Law had explained his theory in his book, writing:
Money is not the value for which goods are exchanged, but the value by which they are exchanged.
In 1720 Law was appointed Controller General of Finances, which effectively meant he now had control of both internal and external commerce. He instituted many reforms, and the French economy grew rapidly. Industry increased 60 percent within two years, and exports increased enormously. However, the boom also led to huge speculation and stock prices swelled to over 60 times their original value.
In 1717, Law’s Banque Générale bought the Mississippi Company which had a monopoly on everything produced in the French colonies in North America. Law wanted to reap the natural resources from Louisiana (named after King Louis XIV) to pay off France’s debt. He began selling shares in the company. But his brilliant marketing efforts led to a massive increase in the share price, with speculators so keen to invest that Law’s bank had to print more money to keep up with demand.
In 1718 there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana, and Law needed to increase the population so that he could take advantage of the country’s wealth and prove the shares were not overvalued.
But Law struggled to find willing emigrants to settle the new land. So he started rounding up vagrants, vagabonds and anyone who looked out of place.
William Harrison Ainsworth wrote in his book, John Law, the Projector:
Two companies of archers were formed, whose business it was to arrest all persons unable to give a satisfactory account of themselves. From their costume and equipments, these archers were denominated “Bandoliers of the Mississippi.” They wore long blue coats, broad crossbelts, and hats laced with silver, and were armed with swords, muskets, and pistols. Marching about in detachments of a dozen, with an officer at their head, the bandoliers performed their task with so much zeal, that five thousand persons were carried off by them in ten days. Many of these were artisans and workmen, but a large proportion consisted of young women. These unjust arrests, and the shocking treatment to which the captives were subjected, roused the popular indignation.
But Law still needed to ship more people to Louisiana, so he went to the jails and offered the prisoners a deal they could not refuse (though later, many of them wished they had). They would be granted their freedom on the condition that they married a prostitute (who had already been rounded up) and left on the next boat to America.
It would have been unseemly for unmarried men and women to travel together, so he let the ladies each choose one of the men, and arranged a group wedding.
Jean Buvat and Émile Campardon described what happened on September 18, 1719 (Journal de la Regence, I, 438-9)
In the priory of the church of Saint-Martin-des-Champs, in Paris, were married 184 young ladies, with as many boys, ones that had been taken from the prisons of the Priory and other prisons of the town, after having allowed the poor girls to choose their husbands from a large number of boys. After the ceremony, they were chained two by two, the husband with his wife, followed by three carts with their clothes and provisions, or in order to carry the sick, escorted by twenty archers to take them to La Rochelle to be transported to Mississippi…
Unfortunately, this cunning plan to take convicts and send them across the ocean without any preparation, training or desire, did not suddenly turn them into farmers, builders, miners or give them any of the skills they needed to survive in the new land. Many of them didn’t even make it to the boat. And almost all of them had an annoying habit of dying.
James Hardy explains in The Transportation of Convicts to Colonial Louisiana:
The attempt to colonize Louisiana with convicts and people on the rates was not very successful. In simple terms of numbers, the convicts and orphans showed an alarming tendency to die before becoming self-supporting colonists. Of the several thousand arrested, sentenced, or otherwise ticketed for Louisiana, less than nine hundred actually made the voyage. The rest died on the way to the ports, escaped somewhere along the line, or never even left the place of their arrest. Of those that sailed, half never landed… Disease took many whose ships reached Dauphine Island and the climate killed the vast majority of the convicts who survived the voyage.
The convicts were spectacularly unsuccessful in developing the land and sending back the new world wealth to prop up the finances of the old. Furthermore, the few hundred French settlers who were already living there were unhappy about the new arrivals in their neighborhood, so packed their bags. They moved to the newly built city of New Orleans (named after Law’s pal, Philippe d’Orleans) to get away from the freshly arrived starving criminals. Without any kind of support network or infrastructure, the new immigrants had virtually no chance at all. As Hardy writes:
In November of 1721, three years after the first convicts landed, only about sixty were still alive, and of these, only five had been in Louisiana for more than eighteen months.
Everything came crashing down for Law just a few months later. By May 1720, investors decided they had enough. They demanded their money back — they wanted to exchange their new banknotes for real coins. As squatters camped out in the streets outside banks, riots broke out. Just a few months later, Law fled Paris in the dead of night, leaving all his personal wealth behind.
Law traveled from city to city, gambling any money he earned. In 1729, aged only 57, he died a pauper in Venice.
Many of Law’s economic theories predated those of John Maynard Keynes by 200 years. Keynesian economics is at the heart of the Western financial system. It was not so much that Law was wrong, but that he was not only a theorist but also the man put in charge of carrying out his economic plan without any suitable checks and balances.
I’ve searched the internet unsuccessfully for any record of the few French prisoners who somehow survived being transplanted to Mississippi. It is hard to find any impact they made on the new world after their arrival.
This contrasts sharply to the major story arc that begins in this week’s Torah portion, Vayeshev.
Joseph’s brothers, jealous of his father’s favoritism and concerned about Joseph’s almost megalomaniacal dreams, sentenced him to death. But then Reuben intervened and instead of killing him outright, convinced the others to throw him into a pit to die. This was Joseph’s prison from which they never expected him to escape.
But fortuitously for the future of the Jewish people, an Egypt-bound caravan passes by and Judah persuaded the others to sell Joseph into slavery rather than leave him in his prison. They effectively give him another chance and send him to a foreign land.
There was nothing in Joseph’s life that could possibly have prepared him for life in Egypt. He had grown up spoiled by his father, not even going with his brothers to tend the flocks. He’s had no experience of the harsh labor expected of him as a slave, seemingly no knowledge of Egyptian language or culture.
Yet, somehow Joseph attracts the attention of Potiphar who purchases him. In next to no time, Joseph is running the household. Not only did he manage to survive in the strange land but he worked out how to thrive.
Of course, we all know the end of this episode — Potiphar’s wife fancies Joseph and when she fails to seduce him, she accuses him of trying to rape her and has him thrown once again into jail. For the second time in the same Torah reading, Joseph would appear to be totally unprepared for the culture of the Egyptian prison, yet very soon he has risen to the top of the heap there. This week’s portion ends with Pharaoh’s butler and baker telling Joseph their dreams, which he correctly interprets for them. All that he asks in return is that the butler mention Joseph to Pharaoh and proclaim his innocence. The very last words of the portion are, “But he forgot him.”
Yet even that setback didn’t end Joseph’s success story. We will read in the coming weeks how Joseph rose to the pinnacle of Egyptian society, second only to Pharaoh himself. And we will hear of Joseph’s economic brilliance. Unlike John Law, who bankrupt France and impacted negatively on large parts of Europe, the biblical Joseph saved Egypt, causing the country to prosper and be able to provide for all the surrounding nations.
Perhaps the difference between Joseph and the French convicts sent to Mississippi is that Joseph accepted every situation he was placed in. In that sense he was fatalistic. But he also managed to adapt and learn what was needed to succeed in each case. And unlike Law who had spent years preparing his economic theories but who lost touch with his own vision when he was given ultimate control over finances, Joseph had no training, but always remembered that it was not his own money he was earning but that of Potiphar, Pharaoh or the entire nation of Egypt.
Joseph proved he was not a deluded egotist as his brothers suspected but quite simply living in the moment with the reality around him. He knew his place but he also knew his potential and constantly strove to do the best he could, no matter what. | 2,422 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The camel is not an animal native to China and is widely believed to have originate from central Asia via the Silk road as merchants used them as a form of transport to navigate vast lands and deserts.
Written as 骆驼 in Mandarin and pronounced as luo tuo, the Chinese viewed the “true” camel as those that have two humps.
It is a beast of burden which helps people carry heavy loads across huge distances.
Yet even as people recognized how much work and hardship camels help them alleviate, the camel always make it seem like a quiet uneventful day in the office.
It is no wonder that the animal is best known for it’s endurance and laziness.
Camels enjoyed near celebrity status during the Tang dynasty when it was constantly depicted in various important pieces of artwork.
Sometimes even with just the animal itself.
Probably the most famous artwork with the camel in prominence is one by Wu Daozi (吳道子) of Buddha Sakyamuni under the sala trees accompanied by the camel, tiger, elephant, buffalo and other notable animals with great symbolic significance.
In Chinese culture, the camel is mostly associated with cash flow and business success.
This is in part due to the animal known to carry loads of products and supplies on their backs as merchants from other parts of Asia brought them to China for trade.
This is somewhat like the merchant ship which became a popular symbol of success as it is often laden with goods for trade.
Just remember that if you are going to have one at home or carry one around as a personal emblem, get the ones that are double humped. | <urn:uuid:fccb56c4-3654-46a4-8369-57a0bbe92b13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fengshuied.com/the-camel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.981152 | 343 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.387506633996963... | 8 | The camel is not an animal native to China and is widely believed to have originate from central Asia via the Silk road as merchants used them as a form of transport to navigate vast lands and deserts.
Written as 骆驼 in Mandarin and pronounced as luo tuo, the Chinese viewed the “true” camel as those that have two humps.
It is a beast of burden which helps people carry heavy loads across huge distances.
Yet even as people recognized how much work and hardship camels help them alleviate, the camel always make it seem like a quiet uneventful day in the office.
It is no wonder that the animal is best known for it’s endurance and laziness.
Camels enjoyed near celebrity status during the Tang dynasty when it was constantly depicted in various important pieces of artwork.
Sometimes even with just the animal itself.
Probably the most famous artwork with the camel in prominence is one by Wu Daozi (吳道子) of Buddha Sakyamuni under the sala trees accompanied by the camel, tiger, elephant, buffalo and other notable animals with great symbolic significance.
In Chinese culture, the camel is mostly associated with cash flow and business success.
This is in part due to the animal known to carry loads of products and supplies on their backs as merchants from other parts of Asia brought them to China for trade.
This is somewhat like the merchant ship which became a popular symbol of success as it is often laden with goods for trade.
Just remember that if you are going to have one at home or carry one around as a personal emblem, get the ones that are double humped. | 321 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1911, monarchy was overthrown in China. After more than 2100 years, the Chinese Empire was history. The calendar of the republic began with year 1, 1912 thus. This silver dollar depicts Yuan Shikai, the first president of the Republic of China. In vernacular, these coins were disrespectfully called "grease bag dollars." After he had taken office in 1914, Yuan demonetized the old copper and silver coins and issued new dollars with his portrait. They were dated after a new calculation of time, considering the revolutionary year of 1911 as year one. "Grease bag dollars" were soon common all over China; some 300 million copies are said to have been put into circulation. After the death of Yuan Shikai, dollars depicting his image continued to be issued until 1922. | <urn:uuid:09dce78a-5c77-4559-8a13-41755d77b405> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=1002 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.988003 | 162 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.44067084789276123,... | 14 | In 1911, monarchy was overthrown in China. After more than 2100 years, the Chinese Empire was history. The calendar of the republic began with year 1, 1912 thus. This silver dollar depicts Yuan Shikai, the first president of the Republic of China. In vernacular, these coins were disrespectfully called "grease bag dollars." After he had taken office in 1914, Yuan demonetized the old copper and silver coins and issued new dollars with his portrait. They were dated after a new calculation of time, considering the revolutionary year of 1911 as year one. "Grease bag dollars" were soon common all over China; some 300 million copies are said to have been put into circulation. After the death of Yuan Shikai, dollars depicting his image continued to be issued until 1922. | 189 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Winston Churchill was 66 years of age when he became prime minister of Great Britain on May 10 1940. It was a moment of extreme crisis in Europe. Belgium, Holland and France were collapsing under the fierce onslaught of the German invasion. A large British army was retreating in the direction of Dunkirk. There was opposition within the government to Churchill.
A powerful element within the Conservative party favoured a negotiated peace with Germany, believing that the war was really an idealistic struggle between Nazi Germany and Communist Russia. 'Let them fight it out, and we will make friends with the victor' was the suggested policy.
Churchill, however, would have none of it. He believed, and finally convinced his cabinet, that the coming war was a struggle for civilisation itself. On June 18 he told the House of Commons “ I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin.”
“ Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties and so bear ourselves that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for 1,000 years, men will say. This was their finest hour.”
There was an enormous amount of work to be done in preparing for an all out war. Its armed forces were not fully prepared for the demands which would be immediately required. A massive armament build up was urgently needed. Recruitment to the forces had to start at once. The public was apathetic. It was paramount that it be made aware of the coming dangers. Food rationing had to be defined and publicised, air-raid shelters built, children evacuated from the cities, and a thousand other things.
Churchill held meeting after meeting, urging rapid response to all decisions, and efficiency in achieving them. He could be short tempered, exasperated, impatient, and furious if everything was not achieved promptly.
He delivered his powerful rallying call that electrified the nation:
“ ... we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.”
And then one morning he came into
his office and found the following note:
I hope you will forgive me if I tell you something I feel you ought to know.
One of the men in your entourage (a devoted friend ) has been to me and told me that there is a danger of your being generally disliked by your colleagues and subordinates because of your rough, sarcastic and overbearing manner…if an idea is suggested, say at a conference, you are supposed to be so contemptuous that presently no ideas, good or bad, will be forthcoming. I was astonished and upset because in all these years I have been accustomed to all those who have worked with and under you, loving you – I said this, and I was told ‘No doubt it is the strain’.
My Darling Winston, I must confess that I have noticed deterioration in your manner; and you are not as kind as you used to be. It is for you to give the Orders…with this terrific power you must combine urbanity, kindness, and if possible Olympic calm…I cannot bear that those who serve the Country and yourself should not love you as well as admire and respect you…Besides you won’t get the best results by irascibility and rudeness…
Please forgive your loving devoted and watchful…
Winston Churchill first met Clementine Hozier in 1904, but it wasn’t until their second meeting that their romance began. After a four-month courtship, Winston proposed to Clementine. They were married one month later at Saint Margaret’s Church, Westminster, in London on September 12, 1908.
Their marriage was a lasting and happy one but they also had fiery arguments. Clementine was a determined, dignified, loyal, sympathetic and yet also challenging partner. She was the critic Winston heeded above all others.
During their 56 year marriage, Winston and Clementine wrote warmly to one another whenever they were apart. They even wrote love notes back and forth to each other while living in the same house. Their letters and notes often ended with drawings illustrating their pet names for each other. He was her "pug" (a breed of dog ) and she was his "cat."
After the war they spent their latter years barely out of each other's sight. He wrote her many letters of affection, including this one:
My darling Clemmie,
you wrote some words very dear to me, about my having enriched your life. I cannot tell you what pleasure this gave me, because I always feel so overwhelmingly in your debt, if there can be accounts in love... What it has been to me to live all these years in your heart and companionship no phrases can convey. Time passes swiftly, but is it not joyous to see how great and growing is the treasure we have gathered together, amid the storms and stresses of so many eventful and, to millions, tragic and terrible years?…
With tender love from your devoted, | <urn:uuid:61b04a6f-da99-469a-a25d-e8f2ffc5a288> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.advertiser.ie/galway/article/57553/a-wife-politely-tells-her-husband-to-calm-down?utm_source=more&utm_medium=web&utm_campaign=readmore | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00469.warc.gz | en | 0.980675 | 1,078 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.59702247381210... | 3 | Winston Churchill was 66 years of age when he became prime minister of Great Britain on May 10 1940. It was a moment of extreme crisis in Europe. Belgium, Holland and France were collapsing under the fierce onslaught of the German invasion. A large British army was retreating in the direction of Dunkirk. There was opposition within the government to Churchill.
A powerful element within the Conservative party favoured a negotiated peace with Germany, believing that the war was really an idealistic struggle between Nazi Germany and Communist Russia. 'Let them fight it out, and we will make friends with the victor' was the suggested policy.
Churchill, however, would have none of it. He believed, and finally convinced his cabinet, that the coming war was a struggle for civilisation itself. On June 18 he told the House of Commons “ I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin.”
“ Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties and so bear ourselves that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for 1,000 years, men will say. This was their finest hour.”
There was an enormous amount of work to be done in preparing for an all out war. Its armed forces were not fully prepared for the demands which would be immediately required. A massive armament build up was urgently needed. Recruitment to the forces had to start at once. The public was apathetic. It was paramount that it be made aware of the coming dangers. Food rationing had to be defined and publicised, air-raid shelters built, children evacuated from the cities, and a thousand other things.
Churchill held meeting after meeting, urging rapid response to all decisions, and efficiency in achieving them. He could be short tempered, exasperated, impatient, and furious if everything was not achieved promptly.
He delivered his powerful rallying call that electrified the nation:
“ ... we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.”
And then one morning he came into
his office and found the following note:
I hope you will forgive me if I tell you something I feel you ought to know.
One of the men in your entourage (a devoted friend ) has been to me and told me that there is a danger of your being generally disliked by your colleagues and subordinates because of your rough, sarcastic and overbearing manner…if an idea is suggested, say at a conference, you are supposed to be so contemptuous that presently no ideas, good or bad, will be forthcoming. I was astonished and upset because in all these years I have been accustomed to all those who have worked with and under you, loving you – I said this, and I was told ‘No doubt it is the strain’.
My Darling Winston, I must confess that I have noticed deterioration in your manner; and you are not as kind as you used to be. It is for you to give the Orders…with this terrific power you must combine urbanity, kindness, and if possible Olympic calm…I cannot bear that those who serve the Country and yourself should not love you as well as admire and respect you…Besides you won’t get the best results by irascibility and rudeness…
Please forgive your loving devoted and watchful…
Winston Churchill first met Clementine Hozier in 1904, but it wasn’t until their second meeting that their romance began. After a four-month courtship, Winston proposed to Clementine. They were married one month later at Saint Margaret’s Church, Westminster, in London on September 12, 1908.
Their marriage was a lasting and happy one but they also had fiery arguments. Clementine was a determined, dignified, loyal, sympathetic and yet also challenging partner. She was the critic Winston heeded above all others.
During their 56 year marriage, Winston and Clementine wrote warmly to one another whenever they were apart. They even wrote love notes back and forth to each other while living in the same house. Their letters and notes often ended with drawings illustrating their pet names for each other. He was her "pug" (a breed of dog ) and she was his "cat."
After the war they spent their latter years barely out of each other's sight. He wrote her many letters of affection, including this one:
My darling Clemmie,
you wrote some words very dear to me, about my having enriched your life. I cannot tell you what pleasure this gave me, because I always feel so overwhelmingly in your debt, if there can be accounts in love... What it has been to me to live all these years in your heart and companionship no phrases can convey. Time passes swiftly, but is it not joyous to see how great and growing is the treasure we have gathered together, amid the storms and stresses of so many eventful and, to millions, tragic and terrible years?…
With tender love from your devoted, | 1,067 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our activity for the class wellbeing calendar yesterday was to create a class story relating to Christmas. We took turns for each pupil to contribute a sentence, we were enoying the adventure so much that when we returned from lunch break the pupils wanted to have another go at adding a sentence.
It was great to see and hear some of their excitement when the story started to take shape and as I typed it onto the screen they were amazed by how much they had written – especially in such a short time! It was a great opportunity to show what can be achieved with the support of friends and when we work as a team.
If you would like to read the story they produced I have copied it below. The words are exactly as the pupils wanted them to be, it was interesting to see the difference in word choice when they were talking about the story rather than having to write it themself.
Once upon a time when it was Christmas Eve, when the snowflakes fell, the children were playing and having joy. They were making snowmen and snow angels in the snow. In their houses they were opening presents from under the tree. As night time came they had a party with their family and friends. They ate some food and put their stockings out for Santa. They go to bed excited and try to fall asleep hoping that Santa will come. They wake up when they hear Santa coming, they try not to giggle in case he hears them. The children get out of the bed quietly and they sneak downstairs and see Santa and they give him some snacks for himself and his reindeer. Everybody smiles when they see their presents. The children peak through the curtains and watch Santa delivering presents to the other houses and then he dashes off into the night on his sleigh shouting, “Ho! Ho! Ho!” as he flies away. Santa crashes his sleigh because one of the reindeer had a sore leg and couldn’t fly properly. Luckily Santa had his phone in his pocket and rang through to the elves so they could bring some magic dust. The elves rushed through with the magic dust and poured it onto the reindeer, but they put too much on. The reindeer went crazy and crashed into a famous tower! The tower fell over and the elves had to fix it quickly before anybody noticed. The police came when they heard what was happening and Santa had to explain. The police were not happy and thought that it wasn’t the real Santa and he was taken to jail, which was really dark and damp. The reindeer and the elves had a good idea and tried to break Santa out of jail. The reindeer tried to bite the bars and one of them broke in two. The reindeer freed Santa and the police caught him again. The reindeer and the elves free Santa again without the police noticing. When Santa was free he was able to deliver the presents to the rest of the children in the city. The elves and the reindeer built the tower back up brick by brick. The police returned to the tower and found the reindeer and they sent them through to animal control. Back at the house, it was morning, the children and their family were busy opening their presents that they got from Santa. The children smiled at each other in joy as they had seen Santa and he still left them presents. They opened their toys and started to play with them, crying out happy tears. Santa went to animal control to try and free his reindeer but he was spotted by the security camera, he quickly opened the gate with his magic and they all sneaked out. They all flew off in their sleigh laughing merrily as they made their way back to the North Pole.
We have all really enjoyed the activities that the class chose for their wellbeing calendar and it has been heartwarming to see them embrace it so well!
A very Happy Christmas to all in P2/3, I hope that you have some lovely family time throughout the break and I will look forward to seeing you all in the New Year!!!
Today, through our well-being calendar , we have been sharing the Christmas joy with the rest of the school by writing some messages for our peers on the playground!
What fun we’ve had thinking of meaningful messages to write and then how to present it to the rest of the school. I have been very impressed with the words and phrases that they chose to share – they have created some very meaningful messages for the school. They also worked really well in their pairs to complete the activity and were very encouraging and respectful when looking at the finished products.
Another day where we have shown what a caring and considerate class we can be – keep it up P2/3!!
The messages read:
’We are a nurturing school.’
’We are loved, we are nurtured.’
’Don’t be afraid to ask for help. Be brave.’
’You are fantastic, cool and amazing. Don’t stop!’
After the excitement of our Christmas concert yesterday – and the resultant tiredness – we used some time today to catch up on our Christmas wellbeing calendar. We still needed to action our ‘Art for a friend’ and ‘Always thankful’ activities …
Yesterday we discussed which members of staff we thought were in need of a note of thanks, the pupils then split into groups to focus their efforts on that person. We have then delivered our letters to some throughout school.
It has been lovely to see how much thought has gone into who they should write their letter to and what they would like to say – we have a very thoughtful bunch in P2/3!
Today P2/3 ventured up to the ICT Suite to use the laptops. There was much excitement, as for many this was their first time.
Yesterday they were split into 5 groups, each group focusing on researching information for 1 food group. They then wrote this up in their own words and today we were going to learn how to put this into a word document!
The whole class worked so well to ensure that they were able to listen to the instructions clearly – there were a lot of new words and actions introduced today. Everybody was able to open a word document, use capital letters, spaces and full stops and change to a new line. Some were even able to look at changing the font of their text and it’s size. At the end of their session we looked at saving our document in our very own folder on the school network.
Considering this was their first trip to the ICT Suite they did a fantastic job and worked well on ensuring that they were not interrupting the classes next door. A lot of learning took place today and I’m very proud of what they have all been able to achieve – well done to all in P2/3!
Today in P2/3 we had an honorary teacher taking part of the maths group who were discussing time. A pupil was away last week and missed some key details and as a class we nominated a pupil to present what they had been learning in the previous week.
She was able to explain the differences and key features of both an analogue and digital clock and how we can show o’clock and half past using the two methods. She than explained how to complete the key pages that they missed in their activity book.
What a super job she did, a potential teacher for the future! We all look forward to having more opportunities to be an honorary teacher in the future.
On Monday we had a visit from the school nurse to discuss and show us how to ensure that we are washing our hands properly – a timely visit given that we are approaching the time of year when bugs start to surface.
We discussed the various points throughout the day that we should wash our hands and why it is important to wash them properly, to reduce the spread of germs from person to person. Nicola demonstrated the correct way to wash our hands, trying to remember to get all of the key areas, she mentioned that the area round the finger nails were the key point that most people miss.
In groups, we were given a special cream to rub all over our hands (to act like the germs) when we placed our hands in the special light box after the cream we could see all the places the germs get to when you rub your hands. Following the instructions Nicola gave us, we then washed our hands to see if we could remove these bugs. When we went back to the special light box we hoped to see no evidence of bugs under the light. Most of us managed to remove all of the germs after a thorough hand wash. Let’s hope that this continues throughout our future hand washing and we’ll try to keep those nasty germs away and stay happy and healthy.
Today we had a fabulous discussion relating to remembrance. We raised issues of why wars start, why the poppy is significant and whether people have learnt anything throughout the many conflicts we have faced throughout the years.
We were made aware of the significance of the humble Jelly Baby and why that can also be used a symbol of peace. The class were all given a Jelly Baby as we watched an animation on remembrance and we discussed our thoughts and feelings afterwards.
Each pupil then contributed a leaf and poppy to our class wreath, which is now proudly displayed on the classroom door.
We are busy learning about plastic. It’s uses and also the pollution it can cause.
We recently went on a walk up to our local shop to find out about how they are trying to reduce the amount of plastic they use.
On the way there we found lots of plastic littering our environment.
We were amazed at how much rubbish was just on this short walk.
After that we went into the shop to ask questions about how they are trying to reduce the plastic use in the shop. That was very interesting too.
We have sent questionnaires to other local shops and have found the answers very interesting. We are delighted our local shops are trying to help the environment by reducing the amount of plastic they use and make available to their customers. Recycling boxes for shopping is we like doing!!!
We are beginning to design our towns and villages. Here we are working with our partners for the planning stage and designing what is going in them. Then we will build them! Keep your eyes peeled for the next stage of our work.
Just another blogs.glowscotland.org.uk – Shetland site | <urn:uuid:1680e60b-471d-4ca6-968a-c37dfa75dd16> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/sh/dunrossnessp23/?eo_month=2020-01 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.987583 | 2,171 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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... | 3 | Our activity for the class wellbeing calendar yesterday was to create a class story relating to Christmas. We took turns for each pupil to contribute a sentence, we were enoying the adventure so much that when we returned from lunch break the pupils wanted to have another go at adding a sentence.
It was great to see and hear some of their excitement when the story started to take shape and as I typed it onto the screen they were amazed by how much they had written – especially in such a short time! It was a great opportunity to show what can be achieved with the support of friends and when we work as a team.
If you would like to read the story they produced I have copied it below. The words are exactly as the pupils wanted them to be, it was interesting to see the difference in word choice when they were talking about the story rather than having to write it themself.
Once upon a time when it was Christmas Eve, when the snowflakes fell, the children were playing and having joy. They were making snowmen and snow angels in the snow. In their houses they were opening presents from under the tree. As night time came they had a party with their family and friends. They ate some food and put their stockings out for Santa. They go to bed excited and try to fall asleep hoping that Santa will come. They wake up when they hear Santa coming, they try not to giggle in case he hears them. The children get out of the bed quietly and they sneak downstairs and see Santa and they give him some snacks for himself and his reindeer. Everybody smiles when they see their presents. The children peak through the curtains and watch Santa delivering presents to the other houses and then he dashes off into the night on his sleigh shouting, “Ho! Ho! Ho!” as he flies away. Santa crashes his sleigh because one of the reindeer had a sore leg and couldn’t fly properly. Luckily Santa had his phone in his pocket and rang through to the elves so they could bring some magic dust. The elves rushed through with the magic dust and poured it onto the reindeer, but they put too much on. The reindeer went crazy and crashed into a famous tower! The tower fell over and the elves had to fix it quickly before anybody noticed. The police came when they heard what was happening and Santa had to explain. The police were not happy and thought that it wasn’t the real Santa and he was taken to jail, which was really dark and damp. The reindeer and the elves had a good idea and tried to break Santa out of jail. The reindeer tried to bite the bars and one of them broke in two. The reindeer freed Santa and the police caught him again. The reindeer and the elves free Santa again without the police noticing. When Santa was free he was able to deliver the presents to the rest of the children in the city. The elves and the reindeer built the tower back up brick by brick. The police returned to the tower and found the reindeer and they sent them through to animal control. Back at the house, it was morning, the children and their family were busy opening their presents that they got from Santa. The children smiled at each other in joy as they had seen Santa and he still left them presents. They opened their toys and started to play with them, crying out happy tears. Santa went to animal control to try and free his reindeer but he was spotted by the security camera, he quickly opened the gate with his magic and they all sneaked out. They all flew off in their sleigh laughing merrily as they made their way back to the North Pole.
We have all really enjoyed the activities that the class chose for their wellbeing calendar and it has been heartwarming to see them embrace it so well!
A very Happy Christmas to all in P2/3, I hope that you have some lovely family time throughout the break and I will look forward to seeing you all in the New Year!!!
Today, through our well-being calendar , we have been sharing the Christmas joy with the rest of the school by writing some messages for our peers on the playground!
What fun we’ve had thinking of meaningful messages to write and then how to present it to the rest of the school. I have been very impressed with the words and phrases that they chose to share – they have created some very meaningful messages for the school. They also worked really well in their pairs to complete the activity and were very encouraging and respectful when looking at the finished products.
Another day where we have shown what a caring and considerate class we can be – keep it up P2/3!!
The messages read:
’We are a nurturing school.’
’We are loved, we are nurtured.’
’Don’t be afraid to ask for help. Be brave.’
’You are fantastic, cool and amazing. Don’t stop!’
After the excitement of our Christmas concert yesterday – and the resultant tiredness – we used some time today to catch up on our Christmas wellbeing calendar. We still needed to action our ‘Art for a friend’ and ‘Always thankful’ activities …
Yesterday we discussed which members of staff we thought were in need of a note of thanks, the pupils then split into groups to focus their efforts on that person. We have then delivered our letters to some throughout school.
It has been lovely to see how much thought has gone into who they should write their letter to and what they would like to say – we have a very thoughtful bunch in P2/3!
Today P2/3 ventured up to the ICT Suite to use the laptops. There was much excitement, as for many this was their first time.
Yesterday they were split into 5 groups, each group focusing on researching information for 1 food group. They then wrote this up in their own words and today we were going to learn how to put this into a word document!
The whole class worked so well to ensure that they were able to listen to the instructions clearly – there were a lot of new words and actions introduced today. Everybody was able to open a word document, use capital letters, spaces and full stops and change to a new line. Some were even able to look at changing the font of their text and it’s size. At the end of their session we looked at saving our document in our very own folder on the school network.
Considering this was their first trip to the ICT Suite they did a fantastic job and worked well on ensuring that they were not interrupting the classes next door. A lot of learning took place today and I’m very proud of what they have all been able to achieve – well done to all in P2/3!
Today in P2/3 we had an honorary teacher taking part of the maths group who were discussing time. A pupil was away last week and missed some key details and as a class we nominated a pupil to present what they had been learning in the previous week.
She was able to explain the differences and key features of both an analogue and digital clock and how we can show o’clock and half past using the two methods. She than explained how to complete the key pages that they missed in their activity book.
What a super job she did, a potential teacher for the future! We all look forward to having more opportunities to be an honorary teacher in the future.
On Monday we had a visit from the school nurse to discuss and show us how to ensure that we are washing our hands properly – a timely visit given that we are approaching the time of year when bugs start to surface.
We discussed the various points throughout the day that we should wash our hands and why it is important to wash them properly, to reduce the spread of germs from person to person. Nicola demonstrated the correct way to wash our hands, trying to remember to get all of the key areas, she mentioned that the area round the finger nails were the key point that most people miss.
In groups, we were given a special cream to rub all over our hands (to act like the germs) when we placed our hands in the special light box after the cream we could see all the places the germs get to when you rub your hands. Following the instructions Nicola gave us, we then washed our hands to see if we could remove these bugs. When we went back to the special light box we hoped to see no evidence of bugs under the light. Most of us managed to remove all of the germs after a thorough hand wash. Let’s hope that this continues throughout our future hand washing and we’ll try to keep those nasty germs away and stay happy and healthy.
Today we had a fabulous discussion relating to remembrance. We raised issues of why wars start, why the poppy is significant and whether people have learnt anything throughout the many conflicts we have faced throughout the years.
We were made aware of the significance of the humble Jelly Baby and why that can also be used a symbol of peace. The class were all given a Jelly Baby as we watched an animation on remembrance and we discussed our thoughts and feelings afterwards.
Each pupil then contributed a leaf and poppy to our class wreath, which is now proudly displayed on the classroom door.
We are busy learning about plastic. It’s uses and also the pollution it can cause.
We recently went on a walk up to our local shop to find out about how they are trying to reduce the amount of plastic they use.
On the way there we found lots of plastic littering our environment.
We were amazed at how much rubbish was just on this short walk.
After that we went into the shop to ask questions about how they are trying to reduce the plastic use in the shop. That was very interesting too.
We have sent questionnaires to other local shops and have found the answers very interesting. We are delighted our local shops are trying to help the environment by reducing the amount of plastic they use and make available to their customers. Recycling boxes for shopping is we like doing!!!
We are beginning to design our towns and villages. Here we are working with our partners for the planning stage and designing what is going in them. Then we will build them! Keep your eyes peeled for the next stage of our work.
Just another blogs.glowscotland.org.uk – Shetland site | 2,085 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography of Ralph Waldo Emerson Ralph Waldo EmersonAmerican Transcendentalist poet, philosopher, lecturer, and essayist wrote Nature ; To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society.
Her father, Timothy Fuller, was one of the most helpful in this growth. Throughout her childhood, Mr.
Fuller taught her Greek and Latin at a very early age, as well as how to read and write at the astounding age of three and a half. In abouther father sent her to Boston Lyceum for Young Ladies, until where she was moved to a School for Young Ladies in Groton, closer to home.
As Fuller traveled to Italy on business, she never would have guessed what was waiting around the corner. Inshe met Guiseppe Mazzini, who would introduce her to someone who would determine the outcome of the rest of her life, Giovanni Angelo Ossoli.
She goes on to marry Ossoli, with whom she has a child. Giovanni also pulls her into a dangerous event, the Italian Revolution. Fuller volunteered at a hospital, until their side of the revolution saw defeat.
Shortly following, Fuller and Ossoli decided to move their family to America. Fuller, Ossoli, and their child sailed out May for America.
However, many mishaps will occur. He gets swept into Fire Island, New York, leaving most occupants of the ship dead, including Fuller, Ossoli, and their child, however their bodies were never found.
Along with her family, a very influential factor was the additional people she met on her travels. On her work as a foreign correspondent for The Tribune, she traveled to Europe, where she met many scholars, a chance that very few woman of her time got the chance to achieve.
Her meeting of these scholars continued to shape her as the person she became, as her writings reflected these encounters. Ultimately, her workings are what set her apart from the crowd. Her connection to the intellectuals of Boston, Concord, and Europe led to many of her works, such as her Conversations for The Dial.
These Conversations led to an eventual editor position for the Dial, as well as book review editor for the New York Tribune. Her passion for excellence instilled by her father then led to her position as foreign correspondent for The Tribune.
This position also led to many extravagantly written letters, many of which remain unfound. She was influenced by many things, as well as very interesting, from her feminist values, to her mysterious death, she was quite and individual. As Clare Boothe Luce said, at the time women were not looked as equals to me, but a lesser, subcategory of human.
Luce herself, said she drew on Fuller for an inspiration for many of her works and for strength when she was standing up against the mainstream, male dominating society that surrounded her.Margaret Fuller was an American literary critic, feminist critic, social critic, essayist, poet, letter writer, and pioneer.
She is often considered the country’s first woman with a nationally positive reputation. Margaret Fuller’s intellect was further recognized by Ralph Waldo Emerson as .
In , Margaret Fuller expanded her article, "The Great Lawsuit.," published in the Transcendentalist Dial magazine into this national and international bestseller, "Woman in the Nineteenth Century," as she made her transition from Boston and New England to become the first woman social and literary critic for Horace Greeley's New York Tribune in Manhattan.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (), American Transcendentalist poet, philosopher, lecturer, and essayist wrote Nature (); To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society.
I am not solitary whilst I read and write, though nobody is with me. Turnitin provides instructors with the tools to prevent plagiarism, engage students in the writing process, and provide personalized feedback.
Welcome to The Literature Network! We offer searchable online literature for the student, educator, or enthusiast. To find the work you're looking for start by looking through the author index.
Nov 20, · Margaret Fuller (Full name Sarah Margaret Fuller) American essayist, critic, travel writer, translator, and poet. For additional information on Fuller's life and career, see. | <urn:uuid:ccd8844b-22ad-4f40-a2bc-90be13ade93e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://cyrozecefuh.tranceformingnlp.com/margaret-fuller-college-essays-873ie.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00487.warc.gz | en | 0.981412 | 884 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Biography of Ralph Waldo Emerson Ralph Waldo EmersonAmerican Transcendentalist poet, philosopher, lecturer, and essayist wrote Nature ; To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society.
Her father, Timothy Fuller, was one of the most helpful in this growth. Throughout her childhood, Mr.
Fuller taught her Greek and Latin at a very early age, as well as how to read and write at the astounding age of three and a half. In abouther father sent her to Boston Lyceum for Young Ladies, until where she was moved to a School for Young Ladies in Groton, closer to home.
As Fuller traveled to Italy on business, she never would have guessed what was waiting around the corner. Inshe met Guiseppe Mazzini, who would introduce her to someone who would determine the outcome of the rest of her life, Giovanni Angelo Ossoli.
She goes on to marry Ossoli, with whom she has a child. Giovanni also pulls her into a dangerous event, the Italian Revolution. Fuller volunteered at a hospital, until their side of the revolution saw defeat.
Shortly following, Fuller and Ossoli decided to move their family to America. Fuller, Ossoli, and their child sailed out May for America.
However, many mishaps will occur. He gets swept into Fire Island, New York, leaving most occupants of the ship dead, including Fuller, Ossoli, and their child, however their bodies were never found.
Along with her family, a very influential factor was the additional people she met on her travels. On her work as a foreign correspondent for The Tribune, she traveled to Europe, where she met many scholars, a chance that very few woman of her time got the chance to achieve.
Her meeting of these scholars continued to shape her as the person she became, as her writings reflected these encounters. Ultimately, her workings are what set her apart from the crowd. Her connection to the intellectuals of Boston, Concord, and Europe led to many of her works, such as her Conversations for The Dial.
These Conversations led to an eventual editor position for the Dial, as well as book review editor for the New York Tribune. Her passion for excellence instilled by her father then led to her position as foreign correspondent for The Tribune.
This position also led to many extravagantly written letters, many of which remain unfound. She was influenced by many things, as well as very interesting, from her feminist values, to her mysterious death, she was quite and individual. As Clare Boothe Luce said, at the time women were not looked as equals to me, but a lesser, subcategory of human.
Luce herself, said she drew on Fuller for an inspiration for many of her works and for strength when she was standing up against the mainstream, male dominating society that surrounded her.Margaret Fuller was an American literary critic, feminist critic, social critic, essayist, poet, letter writer, and pioneer.
She is often considered the country’s first woman with a nationally positive reputation. Margaret Fuller’s intellect was further recognized by Ralph Waldo Emerson as .
In , Margaret Fuller expanded her article, "The Great Lawsuit.," published in the Transcendentalist Dial magazine into this national and international bestseller, "Woman in the Nineteenth Century," as she made her transition from Boston and New England to become the first woman social and literary critic for Horace Greeley's New York Tribune in Manhattan.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (), American Transcendentalist poet, philosopher, lecturer, and essayist wrote Nature (); To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society.
I am not solitary whilst I read and write, though nobody is with me. Turnitin provides instructors with the tools to prevent plagiarism, engage students in the writing process, and provide personalized feedback.
Welcome to The Literature Network! We offer searchable online literature for the student, educator, or enthusiast. To find the work you're looking for start by looking through the author index.
Nov 20, · Margaret Fuller (Full name Sarah Margaret Fuller) American essayist, critic, travel writer, translator, and poet. For additional information on Fuller's life and career, see. | 874 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots on February 8, 1587 was a landmark moment in the reign of Elizabeth I and history has often given the English queen a bit of a side eye for her handling of it. Likely there would be more sympathy for Elizabeth’s position if Mary hadn’t, at face value, appeared so sympathetic – a beautiful woman, a mother, a widow, a deposed queen, a Catholic punished for her faith.
But Mary certainly isn’t without detractors. Though she ascended the Scottish throne as an infant after the premature death of her father, James V, she would only directly rule Scotland from within its confines for less than seven years. Raised in France as a Catholic, Scotland and its increasingly Protestant people were wholly foreign to her when she returned to it as an adult in 1561. Her rule was clumsy, her government fractured, her personal life scandalous and she continued to make herself a thorn in the side of England and her cousin, Elizabeth. What helped to solidify Mary’s legacy as a martyr-like figure is, in fact, her behavior during her execution. | <urn:uuid:d93da11d-bd0e-4b6d-8d90-0bea6d1fd3a0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rebeccastarrbrown.com/tag/elizabeth-i/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00378.warc.gz | en | 0.980549 | 231 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.047074135392... | 4 | The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots on February 8, 1587 was a landmark moment in the reign of Elizabeth I and history has often given the English queen a bit of a side eye for her handling of it. Likely there would be more sympathy for Elizabeth’s position if Mary hadn’t, at face value, appeared so sympathetic – a beautiful woman, a mother, a widow, a deposed queen, a Catholic punished for her faith.
But Mary certainly isn’t without detractors. Though she ascended the Scottish throne as an infant after the premature death of her father, James V, she would only directly rule Scotland from within its confines for less than seven years. Raised in France as a Catholic, Scotland and its increasingly Protestant people were wholly foreign to her when she returned to it as an adult in 1561. Her rule was clumsy, her government fractured, her personal life scandalous and she continued to make herself a thorn in the side of England and her cousin, Elizabeth. What helped to solidify Mary’s legacy as a martyr-like figure is, in fact, her behavior during her execution. | 230 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New dynasties emerged after the seventh century. By the seventh century, there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent. Chapter 2 of CBSE Class 7 History discusses these concepts. Students can refer to the CBSE Notes Class 7 History Chapter 2-New Kings and Kingdoms to revise the Chapter for the exam.
Find the CBSE Class 7 Notes for Social Science History Chapter 2 from the link given below in this article. Students can refer to these and prepare most competently for the exam.
The Emergence of New Dynasties
By the 7th century different regions of the subcontinent had big landlords and warrior chiefs, who were acknowledged as the subordinates or samantas by the existing kings. They had to bring gifts for their kings and overloads and had to be present at their courts and provide military support. However, as these samantas gained power and wealth they declared themselves as maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a “circle” or region) and so on. At times, they even asserted their independence from their overlords.
Given is the example of Rashtrakutas in the Deccan who were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid 8th century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb) with the help of Brahmanas. This ritual was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.
In other cases, men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms like the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the GurjaraPratihara Harichandra. They were Brahmanas who gave up their traditional professions and took to arms, successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan respectively.
Administration in the Kingdoms
New kings took up high-sounding titles such as maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) and so on. However, they also shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas. In these states, resources were obtained from the producers (peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans and so on) who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced, sometimes, claimed as “rent” due to a lord who asserted that he owned the land. Revenue was also collected from traders. These resources were used to finance the king’s establishment and for the construction of temples and forts. They were also used to fight wars, thus leading to the acquisition of wealth in the form of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes. The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from influential families, and positions were often hereditary. This was true about the army as well. In many cases, close relatives of the king held these positions.
Prashastis and Land Grants
Prashastis composed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionally helped in the administration, contain details that may not be literally true but will tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves – as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land, which were recorded on copper plates. These plates were given to those who received the land. Unusual for the 12th century was a long Sanskrit poem containing the history of kings who ruled over Kashmir composed by an author named Kalhana who was often critical about rulers and their policies, unlike other writers. He used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and earlier histories, to write his account.
Warfare for Wealth
Ruling dynasties though based in a specific region also tried to control other areas. The city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley is a prized area, to get control over which rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for centuries. Since there were three “parties” involved in this long drawn conflict, historians describe it as “tripartite struggle”. Rulers also tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples. Hence, when they attacked one another’s kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes extremely rich.
One such ruler is Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan who ruled from 997 to 1030 and extended control over parts of Central Asia, Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent. He raided the subcontinent almost every year – his targets being wealthy temples, including that of Somnath, Gujarat. The wealth Mahmud carried away was used to creating a splendid capital city at Ghazni. Sultan Mahmud wanted to find out more about the people he conquered and entrusted a scholar named Al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent in his Arabic work, known as the Kitab ul-Hind after consulting Sanskrit scholars. Other kings who engaged in warfare included the Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer. They attempted to expand their control to the west and the east, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh. The best-known Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next year, in 1192.
A Closer Look: The Cholas
From Uraiyur to Thanjavur
How did the Cholas rise to power? A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar, who were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram held power in the Kaveri delta. In the middle of the 9th century, Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there. The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size and power going on to include the Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north. Meanwhile, Rajaraja I, one of the most powerful Chola ruler, became king in 985, expanded control over most of these areas and also reorganised the administration of the empire. Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued his policies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions.
Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture
Big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram- built by Rajaraja and Rajendra-architectural and sculptural marvels. Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them and were centres of craft production. Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others. The produce of this land went into maintaining all the specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived near it – priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc. Temples-not only places of worship; but also the hub of economic, social and cultural life. Amongst the crafts associated with temples, the making of bronze images was the most distinctive. Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world. While most images were of deities, sometimes images were made of devotees as well.
Agriculture and Irrigation
Most of the achievements of the Cholas were possible via the new developments in Agriculture.
River Kaveri branched off into several small channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. These channels overflow frequently, depositing fertile soil on their banks. Water from the channels also provides the necessary moisture for agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice. Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only from the 5th or 6th century that this area was opened up for large-scale cultivation.
Forests had to be cleared in some regions, while the land had to be levelled in other areas. In the delta, region embankments had to be built to prevent flooding and canals had to be constructed to carry water to the fields. In many areas, two crops were grown in a year. In many cases, it was necessary to water crops artificially. A variety of methods were used for irrigation. In some areas, wells were dug. In other places, huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Remember that irrigation works require planning – organising labour and resources, maintaining these works and deciding on how water is to be shared. Most of the new rulers, as well as people living in villages, took an active interest in these activities.
The Administration of the Empire
How was the administration organised? The spread of irrigation agriculture led to the prosperity of Settlements of peasants, known as ur. Groups of such villages formed larger units called Nadu. The village council and the Nadu performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes. Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the Nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government. The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of the state at the centre.
Brahmanas received a large number of land grants or brahmadeya, thus leading to the emergence of a large number of Brahmana settlements in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of South India. Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders, who worked very efficiently. Their decisions were recorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stone walls of temples. Associations of traders known as anagrams also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns. Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, provide details of the way in which the sabha was organised. The sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc. Names of those eligible to be members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf; these tickets were put into an earthenware pot, from which a young boy was asked to take out the tickets, one by one for each committee. | <urn:uuid:23170ad1-10cd-4965-99eb-23c760467abc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://byjus.com/cbse-notes/class-7-social-science-history-chapter-2-new-kings-and-kingdoms/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00384.warc.gz | en | 0.981504 | 2,250 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.14504495263099... | 2 | New dynasties emerged after the seventh century. By the seventh century, there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent. Chapter 2 of CBSE Class 7 History discusses these concepts. Students can refer to the CBSE Notes Class 7 History Chapter 2-New Kings and Kingdoms to revise the Chapter for the exam.
Find the CBSE Class 7 Notes for Social Science History Chapter 2 from the link given below in this article. Students can refer to these and prepare most competently for the exam.
The Emergence of New Dynasties
By the 7th century different regions of the subcontinent had big landlords and warrior chiefs, who were acknowledged as the subordinates or samantas by the existing kings. They had to bring gifts for their kings and overloads and had to be present at their courts and provide military support. However, as these samantas gained power and wealth they declared themselves as maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a “circle” or region) and so on. At times, they even asserted their independence from their overlords.
Given is the example of Rashtrakutas in the Deccan who were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid 8th century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb) with the help of Brahmanas. This ritual was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth.
In other cases, men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms like the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the GurjaraPratihara Harichandra. They were Brahmanas who gave up their traditional professions and took to arms, successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan respectively.
Administration in the Kingdoms
New kings took up high-sounding titles such as maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) and so on. However, they also shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas. In these states, resources were obtained from the producers (peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans and so on) who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced, sometimes, claimed as “rent” due to a lord who asserted that he owned the land. Revenue was also collected from traders. These resources were used to finance the king’s establishment and for the construction of temples and forts. They were also used to fight wars, thus leading to the acquisition of wealth in the form of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes. The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from influential families, and positions were often hereditary. This was true about the army as well. In many cases, close relatives of the king held these positions.
Prashastis and Land Grants
Prashastis composed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionally helped in the administration, contain details that may not be literally true but will tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves – as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land, which were recorded on copper plates. These plates were given to those who received the land. Unusual for the 12th century was a long Sanskrit poem containing the history of kings who ruled over Kashmir composed by an author named Kalhana who was often critical about rulers and their policies, unlike other writers. He used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and earlier histories, to write his account.
Warfare for Wealth
Ruling dynasties though based in a specific region also tried to control other areas. The city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley is a prized area, to get control over which rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for centuries. Since there were three “parties” involved in this long drawn conflict, historians describe it as “tripartite struggle”. Rulers also tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples. Hence, when they attacked one another’s kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes extremely rich.
One such ruler is Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan who ruled from 997 to 1030 and extended control over parts of Central Asia, Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent. He raided the subcontinent almost every year – his targets being wealthy temples, including that of Somnath, Gujarat. The wealth Mahmud carried away was used to creating a splendid capital city at Ghazni. Sultan Mahmud wanted to find out more about the people he conquered and entrusted a scholar named Al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent in his Arabic work, known as the Kitab ul-Hind after consulting Sanskrit scholars. Other kings who engaged in warfare included the Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer. They attempted to expand their control to the west and the east, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh. The best-known Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next year, in 1192.
A Closer Look: The Cholas
From Uraiyur to Thanjavur
How did the Cholas rise to power? A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar, who were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram held power in the Kaveri delta. In the middle of the 9th century, Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there. The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size and power going on to include the Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north. Meanwhile, Rajaraja I, one of the most powerful Chola ruler, became king in 985, expanded control over most of these areas and also reorganised the administration of the empire. Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued his policies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions.
Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture
Big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram- built by Rajaraja and Rajendra-architectural and sculptural marvels. Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them and were centres of craft production. Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others. The produce of this land went into maintaining all the specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived near it – priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc. Temples-not only places of worship; but also the hub of economic, social and cultural life. Amongst the crafts associated with temples, the making of bronze images was the most distinctive. Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world. While most images were of deities, sometimes images were made of devotees as well.
Agriculture and Irrigation
Most of the achievements of the Cholas were possible via the new developments in Agriculture.
River Kaveri branched off into several small channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. These channels overflow frequently, depositing fertile soil on their banks. Water from the channels also provides the necessary moisture for agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice. Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only from the 5th or 6th century that this area was opened up for large-scale cultivation.
Forests had to be cleared in some regions, while the land had to be levelled in other areas. In the delta, region embankments had to be built to prevent flooding and canals had to be constructed to carry water to the fields. In many areas, two crops were grown in a year. In many cases, it was necessary to water crops artificially. A variety of methods were used for irrigation. In some areas, wells were dug. In other places, huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Remember that irrigation works require planning – organising labour and resources, maintaining these works and deciding on how water is to be shared. Most of the new rulers, as well as people living in villages, took an active interest in these activities.
The Administration of the Empire
How was the administration organised? The spread of irrigation agriculture led to the prosperity of Settlements of peasants, known as ur. Groups of such villages formed larger units called Nadu. The village council and the Nadu performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes. Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the Nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government. The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of the state at the centre.
Brahmanas received a large number of land grants or brahmadeya, thus leading to the emergence of a large number of Brahmana settlements in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of South India. Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders, who worked very efficiently. Their decisions were recorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stone walls of temples. Associations of traders known as anagrams also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns. Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, provide details of the way in which the sabha was organised. The sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc. Names of those eligible to be members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf; these tickets were put into an earthenware pot, from which a young boy was asked to take out the tickets, one by one for each committee. | 2,222 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Listen for the Silly Sentence is an fun activity that helps with listening skills and beginning reading comprehension skills. It also helps keep them busy in the car and while you are waiting somewhere.
Here’s how it works: Say a sentence with something mixed up and have your child tell you what is silly in the sentence. Then ask, “What should it say?”
B loved this activity and kept saying “Do another one! Do another one!”. Just make up the sentences as you go.
Here are a few sentences to get you started:
- The cow and pig live on the pond.
- The book was so huge I could fit it in my pocket.
- My dog was mad and wagging his tail.
- The monkeys were growling at me. | <urn:uuid:92edbd12-0749-4053-bcf1-4b8816a81a67> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://activity-mom.com/2011/07/listen-for-silly-sentence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.980987 | 168 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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-0.36039453744888306,
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0.2863297164440... | 3 | Listen for the Silly Sentence is an fun activity that helps with listening skills and beginning reading comprehension skills. It also helps keep them busy in the car and while you are waiting somewhere.
Here’s how it works: Say a sentence with something mixed up and have your child tell you what is silly in the sentence. Then ask, “What should it say?”
B loved this activity and kept saying “Do another one! Do another one!”. Just make up the sentences as you go.
Here are a few sentences to get you started:
- The cow and pig live on the pond.
- The book was so huge I could fit it in my pocket.
- My dog was mad and wagging his tail.
- The monkeys were growling at me. | 153 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hey there, time traveller!
This article was published 17/2/2015 (1806 days ago), so information in it may no longer be current.
It didn't take long for pediatric exercise scientist Jonathan McGavock to realize that his years of education were virtually useless in preventing obesity and Type 2 diabetes among kids most at risk.
In an effort to keep children healthy, McGavock used to teach the kids he worked with how to exercise effectively and eat nutritiously.
But he wasn't getting through to the young, and mostly indigenous, people he targeted.
They just weren't interested; they had other issues on their minds, says McGavock.
"The slap in the face is you're taking your physiology training and trying to apply it; it's not relevant to the group that needs it the most," says the University of Manitoba kinesiologist and associate professor, noting that many kids he works with face adversity, including isolation, depression and trouble at home.
"One thing we can't ignore is the legacy of residential schools and colonization. We call it a trans-generational stress," he says. "Our indigenous leaders are convinced that this stress also plays a role in diabetes and diabetes rates."
So McGavock started rethinking his tactics.
Today, he builds kids' self-esteem instead of their physical fitness to keep them free of life-threatening obesity-related diseases.
And his strategy has worked so well that he and his research team have received $925,000 from the federal government to further develop the unique school-based mentorship program that he has poured his heart into for the past eight years.
The program uses the philosophy of retired native studies professor Martin Brokenleg. Brokenleg's Circle of Courage model is based on the aboriginal medicine wheel and incorporates basic rules that children need to be emotionally healthy: independence, generosity, belonging and mastery.
In the after-school program, mostly First Nations high school teens mentor elementary school kids. They play games, spend time reading and learn about aboriginal culture. The teens themselves are responsible for developing the lesson plan.
Fellow U of M kinesiology researcher Joannie Halas introduced McGavock to the mentorship program that she co-founded in one city school a decade ago. It had used the Circle of Courage since its inception, but when McGavock stepped into the program a couple of years later, he decided to measure its effects on preventing obesity and Type 2 diabetes.
He found by ceasing formal teaching about the benefits of diet and exercise, he finally broke through. Improving kids' self-esteem and awareness of their aboriginal heritage meant they were losing weight and their waists were shrinking.
How? Kids end up enjoying the raw carrots, cucumbers and orange slices they eat in the 90-minute after-school program. They like how they feel when they run around and play. When their mom reaches for a bag of potato chips at the grocery store, the kids ask her to grab bunch of veggies instead.
"One of the theories that we have is the messages that we are delivering to the kids in the school are being brought back to the home and the home culture is changing," says McGavock, who works with several northern Manitoba schools, while his colleagues oversee city schools.
Initial findings about the program's efficacy was published last year in the journal Pediatrics.
Type 2 diabetes is a condition in which the body fails to metabolize carbohydrates properly. It can lead to excessively high blood sugar levels and correlating vascular complications such as heart attack and kidney disease. Unlike Type 1 diabetes, the condition most often occurs when people are overweight, underactive and have a high waist circumference.
Type 2 diabetes was previously known as adult-onset diabetes. But the name has since changed after the disease was first observed in overweight and obese children in the 1980s.
The professor says the rates of Type 2 diabetes in Manitoba are "shockingly higher" — even 12 to 20 times higher — than in the rest of Canada. Aboriginal children are the kids most at risk for Type 2 diabetes.
"At the same time, when we go work at schools, the children we work with are full of hope and energy and life," says McGavock.
"There is a lot of strength in our indigenous youth."
At the after-school program (it's called Rec and Read) on a Wednesday afternoon at Buchanan School, teen mentors lead about 40 elementary school kids from the library to the gym amid a hum of laughter and excitement.
In the gym, they play a game called I Like All People that gets them to share their interests and run across a large circle of kids. Katie Wilson, a student at John Taylor Collegiate, is in her second year of mentoring at Buchanan School. The 15-year-old loves working with kids, getting fit and learning about her Métis heritage. She's even noticed all kinds of changes in herself.
"(I've changed) physically and mentally. Last year, I wasn't very active at all. I joined this program. I was losing weight, eating healthier," says Wilson, who wishes she had learned more about her cultural background earlier in her life.
"It's an important culture that people have to realize and not take for granted."
John Taylor Collegiate student Marianne Okemow, 18, says the kids she mentors at Buchanan School are inspiring.
"They are so nice. Some of them are so funny. I was reading to one of the kids and he knew everything.
"When I'm playing games with the kids in the gym, they are so fast. They have so much energy," says the Grade 12 student, who is touched by how much faith the kids have in her.
"I just helped a little girl. She bit into her apple and her tooth was bleeding. She trusted me to do it."
Buchanan School student Kayden Buffalo, 9, couldn't wait to return for a second year to his school's Rec and Read program.
The Grade 4 student says the after-school session has a way of turning a bad day into a good one.
"Sometimes you get the wrong answer on a math test or someone steals your paper or another student shoves you in the mud," says Buffalo, who doesn't know what he would do without the reading time, the games of screaming eagle and the sense of belonging he gets from the program.
"Just how much support they give us," says Buffalo, who can't wait to be a mentor when he is older.
Have an interesting story you'd like Shamona to write about? Contact her at email@example.com.
Updated on Tuesday, February 17, 2015 at 6:50 AM CST: Replaces photo | <urn:uuid:4e5e8ea4-3b10-43e9-8b3a-0b0f6ab26b80> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/arts-and-life/life/health/medicine-for-the-mind-292159721.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.980129 | 1,397 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.3374705910682678,... | 1 | Hey there, time traveller!
This article was published 17/2/2015 (1806 days ago), so information in it may no longer be current.
It didn't take long for pediatric exercise scientist Jonathan McGavock to realize that his years of education were virtually useless in preventing obesity and Type 2 diabetes among kids most at risk.
In an effort to keep children healthy, McGavock used to teach the kids he worked with how to exercise effectively and eat nutritiously.
But he wasn't getting through to the young, and mostly indigenous, people he targeted.
They just weren't interested; they had other issues on their minds, says McGavock.
"The slap in the face is you're taking your physiology training and trying to apply it; it's not relevant to the group that needs it the most," says the University of Manitoba kinesiologist and associate professor, noting that many kids he works with face adversity, including isolation, depression and trouble at home.
"One thing we can't ignore is the legacy of residential schools and colonization. We call it a trans-generational stress," he says. "Our indigenous leaders are convinced that this stress also plays a role in diabetes and diabetes rates."
So McGavock started rethinking his tactics.
Today, he builds kids' self-esteem instead of their physical fitness to keep them free of life-threatening obesity-related diseases.
And his strategy has worked so well that he and his research team have received $925,000 from the federal government to further develop the unique school-based mentorship program that he has poured his heart into for the past eight years.
The program uses the philosophy of retired native studies professor Martin Brokenleg. Brokenleg's Circle of Courage model is based on the aboriginal medicine wheel and incorporates basic rules that children need to be emotionally healthy: independence, generosity, belonging and mastery.
In the after-school program, mostly First Nations high school teens mentor elementary school kids. They play games, spend time reading and learn about aboriginal culture. The teens themselves are responsible for developing the lesson plan.
Fellow U of M kinesiology researcher Joannie Halas introduced McGavock to the mentorship program that she co-founded in one city school a decade ago. It had used the Circle of Courage since its inception, but when McGavock stepped into the program a couple of years later, he decided to measure its effects on preventing obesity and Type 2 diabetes.
He found by ceasing formal teaching about the benefits of diet and exercise, he finally broke through. Improving kids' self-esteem and awareness of their aboriginal heritage meant they were losing weight and their waists were shrinking.
How? Kids end up enjoying the raw carrots, cucumbers and orange slices they eat in the 90-minute after-school program. They like how they feel when they run around and play. When their mom reaches for a bag of potato chips at the grocery store, the kids ask her to grab bunch of veggies instead.
"One of the theories that we have is the messages that we are delivering to the kids in the school are being brought back to the home and the home culture is changing," says McGavock, who works with several northern Manitoba schools, while his colleagues oversee city schools.
Initial findings about the program's efficacy was published last year in the journal Pediatrics.
Type 2 diabetes is a condition in which the body fails to metabolize carbohydrates properly. It can lead to excessively high blood sugar levels and correlating vascular complications such as heart attack and kidney disease. Unlike Type 1 diabetes, the condition most often occurs when people are overweight, underactive and have a high waist circumference.
Type 2 diabetes was previously known as adult-onset diabetes. But the name has since changed after the disease was first observed in overweight and obese children in the 1980s.
The professor says the rates of Type 2 diabetes in Manitoba are "shockingly higher" — even 12 to 20 times higher — than in the rest of Canada. Aboriginal children are the kids most at risk for Type 2 diabetes.
"At the same time, when we go work at schools, the children we work with are full of hope and energy and life," says McGavock.
"There is a lot of strength in our indigenous youth."
At the after-school program (it's called Rec and Read) on a Wednesday afternoon at Buchanan School, teen mentors lead about 40 elementary school kids from the library to the gym amid a hum of laughter and excitement.
In the gym, they play a game called I Like All People that gets them to share their interests and run across a large circle of kids. Katie Wilson, a student at John Taylor Collegiate, is in her second year of mentoring at Buchanan School. The 15-year-old loves working with kids, getting fit and learning about her Métis heritage. She's even noticed all kinds of changes in herself.
"(I've changed) physically and mentally. Last year, I wasn't very active at all. I joined this program. I was losing weight, eating healthier," says Wilson, who wishes she had learned more about her cultural background earlier in her life.
"It's an important culture that people have to realize and not take for granted."
John Taylor Collegiate student Marianne Okemow, 18, says the kids she mentors at Buchanan School are inspiring.
"They are so nice. Some of them are so funny. I was reading to one of the kids and he knew everything.
"When I'm playing games with the kids in the gym, they are so fast. They have so much energy," says the Grade 12 student, who is touched by how much faith the kids have in her.
"I just helped a little girl. She bit into her apple and her tooth was bleeding. She trusted me to do it."
Buchanan School student Kayden Buffalo, 9, couldn't wait to return for a second year to his school's Rec and Read program.
The Grade 4 student says the after-school session has a way of turning a bad day into a good one.
"Sometimes you get the wrong answer on a math test or someone steals your paper or another student shoves you in the mud," says Buffalo, who doesn't know what he would do without the reading time, the games of screaming eagle and the sense of belonging he gets from the program.
"Just how much support they give us," says Buffalo, who can't wait to be a mentor when he is older.
Have an interesting story you'd like Shamona to write about? Contact her at email@example.com.
Updated on Tuesday, February 17, 2015 at 6:50 AM CST: Replaces photo | 1,375 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This Throwback Beard Thursday is a total throwback to world history class: who remembers Confucius?
Confucius was an accomplished intellectual and teacher in Ancient China (500 BCE), but unlike many scholars of his day, he believed in the value of engaging in public service and widely available education. In fact, he was one of the first people to establish teaching as a career. While parents would instruct their children and bosses their subordinates, Confucius pioneered teaching for the advancement of society.
He also saw education as a means to train well rounded, outstanding individuals, advocating for self improvement through social engagement.
The main part of his legacy, however, is Confucianism, the system of thought derived from his way of life. Based in moral living, social values, and the power of relationships, Confucianism is arguable one of the most influential tradition within Chinese society, enduring for almost 2,000 years.
Then again, we certainly think his beard is a more than worthy legacy. | <urn:uuid:8a6fb590-c4a5-437b-8f42-7072275d2be4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vagabondbeardoil.com/single-post | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.982267 | 206 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.335515230894... | 5 | This Throwback Beard Thursday is a total throwback to world history class: who remembers Confucius?
Confucius was an accomplished intellectual and teacher in Ancient China (500 BCE), but unlike many scholars of his day, he believed in the value of engaging in public service and widely available education. In fact, he was one of the first people to establish teaching as a career. While parents would instruct their children and bosses their subordinates, Confucius pioneered teaching for the advancement of society.
He also saw education as a means to train well rounded, outstanding individuals, advocating for self improvement through social engagement.
The main part of his legacy, however, is Confucianism, the system of thought derived from his way of life. Based in moral living, social values, and the power of relationships, Confucianism is arguable one of the most influential tradition within Chinese society, enduring for almost 2,000 years.
Then again, we certainly think his beard is a more than worthy legacy. | 208 | ENGLISH | 1 |
All three of them established themselves for nationalist causes, but they had different views on slavery. Seward opposed slavery, while Calhoun was pro-slavery, while Webster took a safe ground by making compromises to both pro- and anti-slavery states. Seward rose to political prominence in New York in the sass’s, serving in the state He was characterized as generous, spirited, convivial, and impulsive. The dominating issue of whether to allow the extension of slavery into the newly acquired western territories heartened to danger the Senate when Congress convened in December 1849.
Seward rose on the Senate floor to deliver a speech that he called “Freedom in the New Territories. ” The new senator spent several intense weeks on the preparation of his statement, realizing that it could be taken as the North’s answer to Calhoun. Seward acknowledged that the Constitution’s framer had recognized the being of slavery and protected it where it existed, but the new territory was governed by a “higher law than the Constitution” a moral law established by the creator or god.
Don’t waste your time!
Order your assignment!
The New York senator, was against all legislative compromise as “radically wrong and essentially vicious,” demanded that California be considered as a free state. He warned the South that slavery was doomed and that a rebellion from the Union would happen. The speech hastened the Whig party’s division into propellers and antislavery perspectives and shrunk many of his natural allies. A decade later, in 1 860 and 1861, as southern states began to rebel, Seward became more passive in his attitude toward the South, seeking peaceful methods of resolving the inflict and avoiding war.
A month after Henry Clay’s two-day speech on the Compromise of 1850, a mortally ill John C. Calhoun summoned the strength to write a reply, which his colleague James Mason read to the Senate on March 4. Calhoun asked the Senate to respect the South’s institutions and to protect its economic ways against northern efforts to limit slavery and promote industrial over agricultural interests. Calhoun had seen in his own State how the spread Of slavery into the back country improved morals by limiting the countryside of he wrong doing poor whites who had once terrorized the law abiding middle class.
Calhoun believed that “slavery instilled in the white who remained a code of honor that blunted the disruptive potential of private gain and fostered the civic-mindedness that lay near the core of the republican creed. ” From this standpoint, the expansion of slavery into the backcountry decreased the likelihood for social conflict and stopped the problems when money would become the only measure of self worth, like what happened in New England. Calhoun was convinced that slavery was the key to the success of American dreams.
Webster viewed slavery as a matter of reality rather than moral principle. He argued that the issue of its existence in the territories had been settled long ago when Congress prohibited slavery in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and split regions into slave and free in the 1 820 Missouri Compromise. He believed that slaveries existence could not be eradicated but also that it could not take place in the newly agriculturally barren lands of the southwest.
Attacking radical abolitionists to improve his credibility with southerners, Webster asked northerners to respect slavery in the South and to help in the return of fugitive slaves to their owners. He joined Clay in warning that the union could never be solved peacefully. The Compromise of 1 850 was a series of five bills that were intended to keep off sectional strife. Its goal was to deal with the spread of slavery to territories in order to keep northern and southern interests individual. Throughout this battle, these three men had strong point of view that were expressed in their speeches.
The bill did come to pass and slavery was abolished. Had the Compromise of 1 850 not passed, the nation would have erupted in civil war, and the likelihood of a Northern victory would have been much less. It is probable that would not have a united States of America today if it wasn’t for the efforts of Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and Daniel Webster crafting and passing the Compromise Of 1850. As for William Seward, he made great points In his speech, but the United States as we know it, would not exist, had his words taken effect. | <urn:uuid:4140b1e6-be89-4ea7-a365-9312502544db> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anyassignment.com/history/william-seward-john-calhoun-and-daniel-webster-assignment-47999/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00080.warc.gz | en | 0.98146 | 925 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.286994457... | 4 | All three of them established themselves for nationalist causes, but they had different views on slavery. Seward opposed slavery, while Calhoun was pro-slavery, while Webster took a safe ground by making compromises to both pro- and anti-slavery states. Seward rose to political prominence in New York in the sass’s, serving in the state He was characterized as generous, spirited, convivial, and impulsive. The dominating issue of whether to allow the extension of slavery into the newly acquired western territories heartened to danger the Senate when Congress convened in December 1849.
Seward rose on the Senate floor to deliver a speech that he called “Freedom in the New Territories. ” The new senator spent several intense weeks on the preparation of his statement, realizing that it could be taken as the North’s answer to Calhoun. Seward acknowledged that the Constitution’s framer had recognized the being of slavery and protected it where it existed, but the new territory was governed by a “higher law than the Constitution” a moral law established by the creator or god.
Don’t waste your time!
Order your assignment!
The New York senator, was against all legislative compromise as “radically wrong and essentially vicious,” demanded that California be considered as a free state. He warned the South that slavery was doomed and that a rebellion from the Union would happen. The speech hastened the Whig party’s division into propellers and antislavery perspectives and shrunk many of his natural allies. A decade later, in 1 860 and 1861, as southern states began to rebel, Seward became more passive in his attitude toward the South, seeking peaceful methods of resolving the inflict and avoiding war.
A month after Henry Clay’s two-day speech on the Compromise of 1850, a mortally ill John C. Calhoun summoned the strength to write a reply, which his colleague James Mason read to the Senate on March 4. Calhoun asked the Senate to respect the South’s institutions and to protect its economic ways against northern efforts to limit slavery and promote industrial over agricultural interests. Calhoun had seen in his own State how the spread Of slavery into the back country improved morals by limiting the countryside of he wrong doing poor whites who had once terrorized the law abiding middle class.
Calhoun believed that “slavery instilled in the white who remained a code of honor that blunted the disruptive potential of private gain and fostered the civic-mindedness that lay near the core of the republican creed. ” From this standpoint, the expansion of slavery into the backcountry decreased the likelihood for social conflict and stopped the problems when money would become the only measure of self worth, like what happened in New England. Calhoun was convinced that slavery was the key to the success of American dreams.
Webster viewed slavery as a matter of reality rather than moral principle. He argued that the issue of its existence in the territories had been settled long ago when Congress prohibited slavery in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and split regions into slave and free in the 1 820 Missouri Compromise. He believed that slaveries existence could not be eradicated but also that it could not take place in the newly agriculturally barren lands of the southwest.
Attacking radical abolitionists to improve his credibility with southerners, Webster asked northerners to respect slavery in the South and to help in the return of fugitive slaves to their owners. He joined Clay in warning that the union could never be solved peacefully. The Compromise of 1 850 was a series of five bills that were intended to keep off sectional strife. Its goal was to deal with the spread of slavery to territories in order to keep northern and southern interests individual. Throughout this battle, these three men had strong point of view that were expressed in their speeches.
The bill did come to pass and slavery was abolished. Had the Compromise of 1 850 not passed, the nation would have erupted in civil war, and the likelihood of a Northern victory would have been much less. It is probable that would not have a united States of America today if it wasn’t for the efforts of Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and Daniel Webster crafting and passing the Compromise Of 1850. As for William Seward, he made great points In his speech, but the United States as we know it, would not exist, had his words taken effect. | 918 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were 11 articles of impeachment against Andrew Johnson, our nation’s 17th President, who went on trial in the Senate back in 1868. Articles 1 through 9 dealt with the Tenure of Office Act. Article 10 dealt with speeches Johnson had given in which he was accused of bringing disgrace upon Congress, and Article 11 was a “catch-all” that incorporated allegations from all the other articles.
Andrew Johnson was a Democrat who became president in April 1865, after President Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, was assassinated just one month into his second term and just five days after Lee’s surrender to Grant that effectively ended the Civil War. Andrew Johnson was not vice president during Lincoln’s first term. Hannibal Hamlin was. But leading up to the 1864 presidential election, the Republicans decided to dump Hamlin from the ticket in favor of Andrew Johnson, who was a Senator from Tennessee. Andrew Johnson had stood out from all the other Southern Democrats because he had stayed loyal to the Union during the war. The goal therefore was to have a “national unity” ticket. But Andrew Johnson did not bring unity to the country. Just the opposite. At the inauguration in March 1865, Lincoln delivered a beautiful address calling for our nation to heal. But Andrew Johnson appeared to be drunk. He was disrespectful, and he insulted cabinet members and embarrassed himself.
Andrew Johnson was also a racist to his core. He infuriated the Republican-dominated Congress by acting on his own rather than through the legislative process on Reconstruction. He wanted to welcome the rebel states back quickly, and he wanted to empower the former Confederates to continue their cruel oppression of those whom they had enslaved. He vetoed legislation passed by Congress, but most of his vetoes were overridden. Congress also passed, by overriding yet another veto, the Tenure of Office Act, which was the legal noose with which they intended to hang Andrew Johnson. The law stated that the president needed Senate approval to fire a cabinet secretary. Congress accused Andrew Johnson of violating the law when he tried to remove Edwin Stanton as secretary of war. Gotcha! It was a dumb law that was later repealed, but it formed the basis for what would become the impeachment of Andrew Johnson.
From the start, the trial itself turned into a bit of a circus. The Republicans were disorganized, and their legal case was ill conceived. The Democrats, meanwhile, used all manner of crazy tricks to delay and obstruct the proceedings. It got really ugly. They argued that Salmon P. Chase, Chief Justice of the United States, who presided over the trial, should not be allowed to make judicial rulings. And when witnesses were finally called, the Democrats objected to everything and the result was that after each question, the entire Senate had to vote up or down on whether or not a witness could answer. This made everything take forever. Opening and closing arguments also took forever. In the early days of the trial the galleries were packed with visitors. But the speeches were so long-winded that people quickly got bored.
The Senate voted on Article 11 first. After Johnson was acquitted by a single vote, the House managers, the prosecutors of the trial, called for adjournment to re-strategize. After a break that lasted 10 days, the Senate voted next on Articles 2 and then 3, with the same results. The House managers then abandoned their effort altogether. The Senate never voted on Article 1, or on Articles 4 through 10.
Later that year, Ulysses S. Grant was elected our nation’s 18th president.
All this is described in great detail in “Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln’s Legacy,” a book by David O. Stewart. This is one of many books on the impeachment of Johnson. Other books cover the impeachment proceedings against Richard Nixon and Bill Clinton, and many other books cover the impeachment cases against all three. I really liked Stewart’s book on Johnson’s impeachment. I found it to be comprehensive, and even a bit suspenseful. The author shows that the trial was both a judicial proceeding and a political exercise. He also explains that impeachment is rooted in British law and had been included in the U.S. Constitution as a stopgap measure against tyrannical rule. (Note: At the time our founding fathers wrote the Constitution, there were no political parties!) I think the author of this book did a good job of placing the impeachment into the context of the times. Our country had never been so divided, and the whole matter was tragic. A quote from the book: “Andrew Johnson was an unfortunate president, an angry and obstinate hater at a time when the nation needed a healer. Those who opposed him were equally intemperate in word and deed. It was an intemperate time.”
Here are a few more notes on the impeachment of Andrew Johnson:
- There was no Vice President at this time, so had Andrew Johnson been convicted in the Senate and removed from office, Benjamin Wade of Ohio, as President Pro Tem of the Senate, would have become president. In the time leading up to and during the trial, those seeking government jobs inundated Wade with requests.
- The author makes a strong case that many of the Senators who voted to acquit had been bribed.
- The two Senators from Michigan voted to convict.
- Republicans from the House led by Thaddeus Stevens and Benjamin Butler acted as prosecutors. Stevens was an elderly, fire-breathing, anti-slavery “radical.”
- This had been the third attempt to impeach Andrew Johnson. There was also a fourth attempt, which went nowhere.
Before Johnson, the only other president to face the possibility of impeachment had been John Tyler. It would not happen again until Nixon, who resigned before a House vote on impeachment. Clinton was also impeached but was acquitted in his Senate trial, which was presided over by Chief Justice William Rehnquist. Clinton faced two articles of impeachment, for lying to a grand jury and for obstruction of justice.
Impeachment might happen again. In my view, having read about the trial of Andrew Johnson and how that all unfolded, getting to two-thirds (67 votes) in the Senate to oust the current president seems far from likely. | <urn:uuid:9c4e272c-8ef9-4d8a-ab79-ca597550f4ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fredmick.com/the-impeachment-of-andrew-johnson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00173.warc.gz | en | 0.986768 | 1,300 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.3825579285621643... | 6 | There were 11 articles of impeachment against Andrew Johnson, our nation’s 17th President, who went on trial in the Senate back in 1868. Articles 1 through 9 dealt with the Tenure of Office Act. Article 10 dealt with speeches Johnson had given in which he was accused of bringing disgrace upon Congress, and Article 11 was a “catch-all” that incorporated allegations from all the other articles.
Andrew Johnson was a Democrat who became president in April 1865, after President Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, was assassinated just one month into his second term and just five days after Lee’s surrender to Grant that effectively ended the Civil War. Andrew Johnson was not vice president during Lincoln’s first term. Hannibal Hamlin was. But leading up to the 1864 presidential election, the Republicans decided to dump Hamlin from the ticket in favor of Andrew Johnson, who was a Senator from Tennessee. Andrew Johnson had stood out from all the other Southern Democrats because he had stayed loyal to the Union during the war. The goal therefore was to have a “national unity” ticket. But Andrew Johnson did not bring unity to the country. Just the opposite. At the inauguration in March 1865, Lincoln delivered a beautiful address calling for our nation to heal. But Andrew Johnson appeared to be drunk. He was disrespectful, and he insulted cabinet members and embarrassed himself.
Andrew Johnson was also a racist to his core. He infuriated the Republican-dominated Congress by acting on his own rather than through the legislative process on Reconstruction. He wanted to welcome the rebel states back quickly, and he wanted to empower the former Confederates to continue their cruel oppression of those whom they had enslaved. He vetoed legislation passed by Congress, but most of his vetoes were overridden. Congress also passed, by overriding yet another veto, the Tenure of Office Act, which was the legal noose with which they intended to hang Andrew Johnson. The law stated that the president needed Senate approval to fire a cabinet secretary. Congress accused Andrew Johnson of violating the law when he tried to remove Edwin Stanton as secretary of war. Gotcha! It was a dumb law that was later repealed, but it formed the basis for what would become the impeachment of Andrew Johnson.
From the start, the trial itself turned into a bit of a circus. The Republicans were disorganized, and their legal case was ill conceived. The Democrats, meanwhile, used all manner of crazy tricks to delay and obstruct the proceedings. It got really ugly. They argued that Salmon P. Chase, Chief Justice of the United States, who presided over the trial, should not be allowed to make judicial rulings. And when witnesses were finally called, the Democrats objected to everything and the result was that after each question, the entire Senate had to vote up or down on whether or not a witness could answer. This made everything take forever. Opening and closing arguments also took forever. In the early days of the trial the galleries were packed with visitors. But the speeches were so long-winded that people quickly got bored.
The Senate voted on Article 11 first. After Johnson was acquitted by a single vote, the House managers, the prosecutors of the trial, called for adjournment to re-strategize. After a break that lasted 10 days, the Senate voted next on Articles 2 and then 3, with the same results. The House managers then abandoned their effort altogether. The Senate never voted on Article 1, or on Articles 4 through 10.
Later that year, Ulysses S. Grant was elected our nation’s 18th president.
All this is described in great detail in “Impeached: The Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln’s Legacy,” a book by David O. Stewart. This is one of many books on the impeachment of Johnson. Other books cover the impeachment proceedings against Richard Nixon and Bill Clinton, and many other books cover the impeachment cases against all three. I really liked Stewart’s book on Johnson’s impeachment. I found it to be comprehensive, and even a bit suspenseful. The author shows that the trial was both a judicial proceeding and a political exercise. He also explains that impeachment is rooted in British law and had been included in the U.S. Constitution as a stopgap measure against tyrannical rule. (Note: At the time our founding fathers wrote the Constitution, there were no political parties!) I think the author of this book did a good job of placing the impeachment into the context of the times. Our country had never been so divided, and the whole matter was tragic. A quote from the book: “Andrew Johnson was an unfortunate president, an angry and obstinate hater at a time when the nation needed a healer. Those who opposed him were equally intemperate in word and deed. It was an intemperate time.”
Here are a few more notes on the impeachment of Andrew Johnson:
- There was no Vice President at this time, so had Andrew Johnson been convicted in the Senate and removed from office, Benjamin Wade of Ohio, as President Pro Tem of the Senate, would have become president. In the time leading up to and during the trial, those seeking government jobs inundated Wade with requests.
- The author makes a strong case that many of the Senators who voted to acquit had been bribed.
- The two Senators from Michigan voted to convict.
- Republicans from the House led by Thaddeus Stevens and Benjamin Butler acted as prosecutors. Stevens was an elderly, fire-breathing, anti-slavery “radical.”
- This had been the third attempt to impeach Andrew Johnson. There was also a fourth attempt, which went nowhere.
Before Johnson, the only other president to face the possibility of impeachment had been John Tyler. It would not happen again until Nixon, who resigned before a House vote on impeachment. Clinton was also impeached but was acquitted in his Senate trial, which was presided over by Chief Justice William Rehnquist. Clinton faced two articles of impeachment, for lying to a grand jury and for obstruction of justice.
Impeachment might happen again. In my view, having read about the trial of Andrew Johnson and how that all unfolded, getting to two-thirds (67 votes) in the Senate to oust the current president seems far from likely. | 1,297 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Brooklyn Bridge celebrated its 134th birthday on Wednesday.
The bridge opened to the public on May 24, 1883 and to mark the occasion the city put on an extravagant firework show between Manhattan and Brooklyn.
Needless to say, the bridge has a long, rich history. Here’s a look at some of the lesser known facts about the iconic piece of architecture.
Jack Sommer contributed to an earlier version of this story.
1. The original bridge designer died after a strange accident.
In 1869, while on a pier in Brooklyn conducting a survey for the bridge, Chief Architect John Roebling had his foot crushed by a ferry that came in too close. He didn’t scream but instead went on barking out orders to his workers.
After they got his foot unstuck, he promptly went to the doctor, who told Roebling they would need to amputate. But when the impatient Roebling was told the extensive after-care instructions, he changed his mind. “No, no, no. Just soaking it in water will be OK,” he said. He died a month later.
2. It took two generations of a family to design and build.
The Brooklyn Bridge took 14 years to build, starting in 1869 and ending in 1883. Roebling, a German immigrant, was named Chief Architect in the initial planning. The bridge looks the way it does today because of his original designs, which took three months to put together.
However, after Roebling’s death-by-ferry-accident, his son, Washington Roebling, was left to complete his father’s plans.
3. The construction workers used only their two bare hands.
Under the Manhattan side of the bridge. Below here are said to be secret rooms and tunnels.
The first step was to build the towers of the bridge. To dig up the mud and get down to bedrock, the workers needed to do all of their work by hand.
They worked around the clock, 24 hours a day, and still they were only able to dig down about six inches a week on the Brooklyn side.
4. A sickness plagued those who were working on the bridge.
Those who had been working on the first tower in Brooklyn began to come down with an illness that they called Caisson’s Disease, named for the large, watertight chambers the construction workers labored in. It is now believed that the workers were getting sick because they failed to decompress after working deep underwater.
Even Roebling himself was suffering from the effects of the disease by the time the towers were completed in 1874.
Today we know the disease better as the bends, a disease that commonly afflicts scuba divers. It occurs when a solution in bubbles releases gases that are dissolved and impact parts of the body.
5. They never reached bedrock on one side of the bridge.
When working on the tower on the Manhattan side, the workers continued to get sick from Caisson’s Disease. At one point they decided that enough was enough.
Bedrock was 107 feet down, but they stopped at 80 feet. The Manhattan side, therefore, is built on an already existing sand bed.
6. Each of the tower weighs 90,000 tons.
Workers had to be very precise in their measurements — the granite brick of the tower needed to be heavy enough to stay firm on the bottom of the river bed, but not so heavy that it would sink in.
7. Roebling’s wife was responsible for much of the work.
Washington Roebling’s wife, Emily, took over the duties after he was no longer able to get to the construction site himself. Emily was not an engineer, but she understood the plans so thoroughly that she could converse with other engineers.
Many people were under the impression that she was the real designer.
8. There are over 14,000 miles of wire in the Brooklyn Bridge.
Each cable is made of 19 separate strands, each of which has 278 separate wires.
The workers would splice the wires together, and then tie them to make the strands. A boat would come from Brooklyn and sail it across to the Manhattan side. Then, two winches on the outside of the towers would hold the strands in place, and they would raise them to the top. This was a very long and tedious process, which weather interrupted constantly. It took about two years to complete the wire strands alone.
9. Even today, the Brooklyn Bridge rises about three inches if it’s extremely cold.
The view from Manhattan, near City Hall, looking out onto an entrance of the bridge.
This is a result of the cables contracting and expanding in cold temperatures.
The wires have done this ever since the bridge was complete.
10. There were so many fireworks during the bridge’s opening that even people from inland New Jersey said they could see the bright lights.
The bridge officially opened on May 24, 1883, after the roads were finished.
Nearly 150,000 people were counted in front of City Hall alone, which is positioned directly across the Manhattan entrance to the bridge. Thousands more lined the streets of the now-connected boroughs, and the East River was filled with boats and ferries. Hundreds of fireworks were launched off the bridge.
11. Accounting for inflation, the bridge cost $US3.5 billion to build.
The Brooklyn Bridge took twice as long — and cost twice as much — as was expected.
It cost a whopping $US15 million at the time, which is roughly equivalent to $US3.5 billion today.
12. A nearby underground wine cellar helped pay for the bridge’s debt.
Underneath the bridge on the Manhattan side, there was a wine cellar that the builders rented out for $US1,000 a year. The money went towards repaying the developers’ debts.
Nicknamed “The Blue Grotto,” it was covered in beautiful frescoes depicting vineyards in Germany, Italy, Spain, and France.
There was another cellar on the Brooklyn side, though rent for that one was only $US500.
Both places were popular for a while, but they ended up closing in the 1930s. They were mostly forgotten about, and there is currently no public access to them.
13. A nearby cafe was used as a second office by Thomas Edison during the bridge’s construction.
The Paris Cafe, close to both the bridge and the seaport, was used by Edison while he was working on the first operational power station in the world.
That station would end up being built on Pearl and Fulton Street, just a few blocks away from the Manhattan side of the bridge.
14. In 2006, workers discovered a bomb shelter underneath the bridge.
Somewhere along the Manhattan side (the city has never revealed the exact location), workers stumbled upon a vaulted room filled with tons of water, 352,000 packets of crackers, and blankets.
There was a label that said “FOR USE, AFTER ENEMY ATTACK.” Workers also found newspapers from the late 1950s and 1960s, around the time of Sputnik and the Cuban Missile Crisis.
NOW WATCH: The US has nearly 56,000 structurally deficient bridges — here are the states with the most
Business Insider Emails & Alerts
Site highlights each day to your inbox. | <urn:uuid:cae5edb0-b125-4720-95b1-8d0a9fc25b2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.businessinsider.com.au/brooklyn-bridge-strangest-facts-2017-5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00398.warc.gz | en | 0.983937 | 1,550 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.424377679824... | 2 | The Brooklyn Bridge celebrated its 134th birthday on Wednesday.
The bridge opened to the public on May 24, 1883 and to mark the occasion the city put on an extravagant firework show between Manhattan and Brooklyn.
Needless to say, the bridge has a long, rich history. Here’s a look at some of the lesser known facts about the iconic piece of architecture.
Jack Sommer contributed to an earlier version of this story.
1. The original bridge designer died after a strange accident.
In 1869, while on a pier in Brooklyn conducting a survey for the bridge, Chief Architect John Roebling had his foot crushed by a ferry that came in too close. He didn’t scream but instead went on barking out orders to his workers.
After they got his foot unstuck, he promptly went to the doctor, who told Roebling they would need to amputate. But when the impatient Roebling was told the extensive after-care instructions, he changed his mind. “No, no, no. Just soaking it in water will be OK,” he said. He died a month later.
2. It took two generations of a family to design and build.
The Brooklyn Bridge took 14 years to build, starting in 1869 and ending in 1883. Roebling, a German immigrant, was named Chief Architect in the initial planning. The bridge looks the way it does today because of his original designs, which took three months to put together.
However, after Roebling’s death-by-ferry-accident, his son, Washington Roebling, was left to complete his father’s plans.
3. The construction workers used only their two bare hands.
Under the Manhattan side of the bridge. Below here are said to be secret rooms and tunnels.
The first step was to build the towers of the bridge. To dig up the mud and get down to bedrock, the workers needed to do all of their work by hand.
They worked around the clock, 24 hours a day, and still they were only able to dig down about six inches a week on the Brooklyn side.
4. A sickness plagued those who were working on the bridge.
Those who had been working on the first tower in Brooklyn began to come down with an illness that they called Caisson’s Disease, named for the large, watertight chambers the construction workers labored in. It is now believed that the workers were getting sick because they failed to decompress after working deep underwater.
Even Roebling himself was suffering from the effects of the disease by the time the towers were completed in 1874.
Today we know the disease better as the bends, a disease that commonly afflicts scuba divers. It occurs when a solution in bubbles releases gases that are dissolved and impact parts of the body.
5. They never reached bedrock on one side of the bridge.
When working on the tower on the Manhattan side, the workers continued to get sick from Caisson’s Disease. At one point they decided that enough was enough.
Bedrock was 107 feet down, but they stopped at 80 feet. The Manhattan side, therefore, is built on an already existing sand bed.
6. Each of the tower weighs 90,000 tons.
Workers had to be very precise in their measurements — the granite brick of the tower needed to be heavy enough to stay firm on the bottom of the river bed, but not so heavy that it would sink in.
7. Roebling’s wife was responsible for much of the work.
Washington Roebling’s wife, Emily, took over the duties after he was no longer able to get to the construction site himself. Emily was not an engineer, but she understood the plans so thoroughly that she could converse with other engineers.
Many people were under the impression that she was the real designer.
8. There are over 14,000 miles of wire in the Brooklyn Bridge.
Each cable is made of 19 separate strands, each of which has 278 separate wires.
The workers would splice the wires together, and then tie them to make the strands. A boat would come from Brooklyn and sail it across to the Manhattan side. Then, two winches on the outside of the towers would hold the strands in place, and they would raise them to the top. This was a very long and tedious process, which weather interrupted constantly. It took about two years to complete the wire strands alone.
9. Even today, the Brooklyn Bridge rises about three inches if it’s extremely cold.
The view from Manhattan, near City Hall, looking out onto an entrance of the bridge.
This is a result of the cables contracting and expanding in cold temperatures.
The wires have done this ever since the bridge was complete.
10. There were so many fireworks during the bridge’s opening that even people from inland New Jersey said they could see the bright lights.
The bridge officially opened on May 24, 1883, after the roads were finished.
Nearly 150,000 people were counted in front of City Hall alone, which is positioned directly across the Manhattan entrance to the bridge. Thousands more lined the streets of the now-connected boroughs, and the East River was filled with boats and ferries. Hundreds of fireworks were launched off the bridge.
11. Accounting for inflation, the bridge cost $US3.5 billion to build.
The Brooklyn Bridge took twice as long — and cost twice as much — as was expected.
It cost a whopping $US15 million at the time, which is roughly equivalent to $US3.5 billion today.
12. A nearby underground wine cellar helped pay for the bridge’s debt.
Underneath the bridge on the Manhattan side, there was a wine cellar that the builders rented out for $US1,000 a year. The money went towards repaying the developers’ debts.
Nicknamed “The Blue Grotto,” it was covered in beautiful frescoes depicting vineyards in Germany, Italy, Spain, and France.
There was another cellar on the Brooklyn side, though rent for that one was only $US500.
Both places were popular for a while, but they ended up closing in the 1930s. They were mostly forgotten about, and there is currently no public access to them.
13. A nearby cafe was used as a second office by Thomas Edison during the bridge’s construction.
The Paris Cafe, close to both the bridge and the seaport, was used by Edison while he was working on the first operational power station in the world.
That station would end up being built on Pearl and Fulton Street, just a few blocks away from the Manhattan side of the bridge.
14. In 2006, workers discovered a bomb shelter underneath the bridge.
Somewhere along the Manhattan side (the city has never revealed the exact location), workers stumbled upon a vaulted room filled with tons of water, 352,000 packets of crackers, and blankets.
There was a label that said “FOR USE, AFTER ENEMY ATTACK.” Workers also found newspapers from the late 1950s and 1960s, around the time of Sputnik and the Cuban Missile Crisis.
NOW WATCH: The US has nearly 56,000 structurally deficient bridges — here are the states with the most
Business Insider Emails & Alerts
Site highlights each day to your inbox. | 1,538 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Second Industrial Revolution was another of the great and important advances in technology and society. New innovations in the production of steel, oil and electricity led to the introduction of automobiles and public airplanes. Historians have labeled the years 1870 to 1914 as the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Many of the changes that occurred during this period had to do with new products simply replacing the old ones.
It was the second phase of the Industrial Revolution which involved a large number of changes and developments in chemical, electrical, oil and steel industries. It was a time of change and progress that increased global technology.
It is considered the second phase of the Industrial Revolution and consisted of a series of developments in chemical, electrical, oil and steel industries. Different types of machines were introduced, and the aircraft was developed. It was considered a phase of the first revolution because there was no rupture between the two of them, since the second revolution came to strengthen and perfect what had already been created in the First Industrial Revolution.
The main characteristics of the Second Industrial Revolution were the following:
The history of this revolution begins with the first phase of industrialization of England and its extension to other countries such as Europe, USA and Japan, where it began a new cycle that lasted until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, a period in which Britain lost its leadership to other powers.
The basic stages were the new sources of energy, the new industries and the new industrial organization.
The Second Industrial Revolution took place in Western Europe, the United States and Japan and took place between 1850-1870 and the beginning of the First World War in 1914.
The causes of this revolution were many. New sources of energy appeared such as oil and electricity, new alloys were discovered between iron, carbon and aluminum. The colonizers had acquired great fortunes through trade at sea and industries created monopolies and a lot of money. There was also interest in colonialism, which triggered conflicts that later led to the First World War.
In social terms, the causes were based on the emergence of the proletariat and the industrial bourgeoisie, in addition to the capitalism that produced the struggle between the social classes. There was overpopulation, environmental degradation, and many inventions and new technology emerged.
The consequences of the Second Revolution were:
As for society, there was an improvement in living conditions, the middle classes began, which also had some purchasing power. The spaces of socialization were initiated, education was institutionalized, and sport began to gain followers. The new social classes had their spaces of amusement that ranged from the halls to the opera.
Liberalism triumphed and with it, freedoms associated with democracy, which gave way to freedom of expression and printing, which together with the new techniques and machinery led to the emergence of the press. The advancement of literacy and education as the only vehicle for social advancement was achieved; the first educational systems and public schools emerged, especially in the Protestant world. Progressively, the secularization of society increased, becoming ever greater the separation Church-State.
There were many inventions that arose during the Second Industrial Revolution, among them we can mention the following: the steam engine, the airplane, the telephone and telegraph, the automobiles and the light bulb.
During the Second Industrial Revolution, new sources of energy were discovered that gave better results than those that existed, so electricity and oil were used. With the use of the petroleum they were able to invent the engines of explosion and this generated a great amount of new inventions in the industry. The use of iron was replaced by steel and the use of steam was replaced by petroleum derivatives.
Transportation and communication systems increased, and the electric railway and the boiler engine boat were born, which helped commerce. The airplane was initiated by the brothers Montgolfier and Giffard, who made flights in the aerostatic and dirigible balloons. Sometime later, the Wright brothers used the airplane, which began to be manipulated as a combat weapon after the First World War.
The development of the railroad was the great company of the XIX century and brought positive consequences for the economy facilitating the transfer of goods, export and import to other countries. From the industrial point of view, it boosted the production of rails, wagons and locomotives. Transport developed communications through road construction, and there was an increase in population.
Among the main representatives of the Second Industrial Revolution we mention the following characters:
Among the main advantages obtained as a result of the Second Revolution, we mention the following:
With the Second Industrial Revolution there was an increase in the size of the cities which brought a huge pollution in the environment due to the beginning of industries. There were truly deplorable conditions of work because the worker was exploited without mercy, which is why the unions began their functions.
There was more pressure on the land because the predatory market model of natural resources had been initiated. The beginning of what today are the world powers or industrial countries and the peripheral countries was given.
The machines replaced man at work, so that the workers only had to work on weekends to maintain the machines that did all the production, for a minimum wage.
The Second Industrial Revolution was very important because through it, jobs were generated, the industry was modernized, and high fashion was born because there was great technical textile development. Products were produced at a lower price and iron became cheaper as well as steel production. New sources of energy, industries, transport and telecommunications were created.
Financial capitalism and international trade also developed, and the British crown lost its supremacy, in addition to the many scientific and technological inventions such as the automobile and airplane. | <urn:uuid:58f11578-3f7a-496e-b144-18b4e32615f0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.euston96.com/en/second-industrial-revolution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.980341 | 1,142 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.193495407700538... | 3 | The Second Industrial Revolution was another of the great and important advances in technology and society. New innovations in the production of steel, oil and electricity led to the introduction of automobiles and public airplanes. Historians have labeled the years 1870 to 1914 as the period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Many of the changes that occurred during this period had to do with new products simply replacing the old ones.
It was the second phase of the Industrial Revolution which involved a large number of changes and developments in chemical, electrical, oil and steel industries. It was a time of change and progress that increased global technology.
It is considered the second phase of the Industrial Revolution and consisted of a series of developments in chemical, electrical, oil and steel industries. Different types of machines were introduced, and the aircraft was developed. It was considered a phase of the first revolution because there was no rupture between the two of them, since the second revolution came to strengthen and perfect what had already been created in the First Industrial Revolution.
The main characteristics of the Second Industrial Revolution were the following:
The history of this revolution begins with the first phase of industrialization of England and its extension to other countries such as Europe, USA and Japan, where it began a new cycle that lasted until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, a period in which Britain lost its leadership to other powers.
The basic stages were the new sources of energy, the new industries and the new industrial organization.
The Second Industrial Revolution took place in Western Europe, the United States and Japan and took place between 1850-1870 and the beginning of the First World War in 1914.
The causes of this revolution were many. New sources of energy appeared such as oil and electricity, new alloys were discovered between iron, carbon and aluminum. The colonizers had acquired great fortunes through trade at sea and industries created monopolies and a lot of money. There was also interest in colonialism, which triggered conflicts that later led to the First World War.
In social terms, the causes were based on the emergence of the proletariat and the industrial bourgeoisie, in addition to the capitalism that produced the struggle between the social classes. There was overpopulation, environmental degradation, and many inventions and new technology emerged.
The consequences of the Second Revolution were:
As for society, there was an improvement in living conditions, the middle classes began, which also had some purchasing power. The spaces of socialization were initiated, education was institutionalized, and sport began to gain followers. The new social classes had their spaces of amusement that ranged from the halls to the opera.
Liberalism triumphed and with it, freedoms associated with democracy, which gave way to freedom of expression and printing, which together with the new techniques and machinery led to the emergence of the press. The advancement of literacy and education as the only vehicle for social advancement was achieved; the first educational systems and public schools emerged, especially in the Protestant world. Progressively, the secularization of society increased, becoming ever greater the separation Church-State.
There were many inventions that arose during the Second Industrial Revolution, among them we can mention the following: the steam engine, the airplane, the telephone and telegraph, the automobiles and the light bulb.
During the Second Industrial Revolution, new sources of energy were discovered that gave better results than those that existed, so electricity and oil were used. With the use of the petroleum they were able to invent the engines of explosion and this generated a great amount of new inventions in the industry. The use of iron was replaced by steel and the use of steam was replaced by petroleum derivatives.
Transportation and communication systems increased, and the electric railway and the boiler engine boat were born, which helped commerce. The airplane was initiated by the brothers Montgolfier and Giffard, who made flights in the aerostatic and dirigible balloons. Sometime later, the Wright brothers used the airplane, which began to be manipulated as a combat weapon after the First World War.
The development of the railroad was the great company of the XIX century and brought positive consequences for the economy facilitating the transfer of goods, export and import to other countries. From the industrial point of view, it boosted the production of rails, wagons and locomotives. Transport developed communications through road construction, and there was an increase in population.
Among the main representatives of the Second Industrial Revolution we mention the following characters:
Among the main advantages obtained as a result of the Second Revolution, we mention the following:
With the Second Industrial Revolution there was an increase in the size of the cities which brought a huge pollution in the environment due to the beginning of industries. There were truly deplorable conditions of work because the worker was exploited without mercy, which is why the unions began their functions.
There was more pressure on the land because the predatory market model of natural resources had been initiated. The beginning of what today are the world powers or industrial countries and the peripheral countries was given.
The machines replaced man at work, so that the workers only had to work on weekends to maintain the machines that did all the production, for a minimum wage.
The Second Industrial Revolution was very important because through it, jobs were generated, the industry was modernized, and high fashion was born because there was great technical textile development. Products were produced at a lower price and iron became cheaper as well as steel production. New sources of energy, industries, transport and telecommunications were created.
Financial capitalism and international trade also developed, and the British crown lost its supremacy, in addition to the many scientific and technological inventions such as the automobile and airplane. | 1,142 | ENGLISH | 1 |
5. Early Life
Before he became a world-renowned Italian traveler, merchant, and writer, Marco Polo was born on September 15th, 1254 in the city, and at that time Republic, of Venice, in what is today Italy. Marco's ancestor's were nobles from Dalmatia, the area along the Adriatic Sea near the Balkans. Since his father was away on a trip to the East, Marco was raised by his uncle and aunt following his mother's untimely death. From an early age, Marco was educated on mercantile subjects and foreign currency. Later, his interest turned towards cargo ships and the appraisal of goods. He avidly read works of Classical authors, and Marco also spoke French. He saw his father and second uncle again at age 15, upon their return from the East. At age 17, Marco accompanied his father and uncle Maffeo on their return to Cathay (China.
After Marco was taken by his father and uncle to the East, the young man learned a great deal about foreign culture and traditions all along his journey. They explored many places along the fabled Silk Road until they reached Cathay (China), where they were received by Kublai Khan's royal court. The Khan was so impressed by the young man's intelligence and humility, that Marco was later appointed by the Great Khan to serve as his foreign emissary to India and Burma. As part of this appointment, Marco also traveled extensively inside China. Here, he saw many things that had previously been unknown to virtually any European. After 17 years within the Khan's court, Polo decided to return back to his home to his Italian home in Venice.
Upon returning to Venice, Marco found his home city at war with the Republic of Genoa, another powerful Italian city-state with a reputation for loving to conquer and expands its territories. He promptly joined the war against the rival city as his native Venice fought for Mediterranean dominance. Unfortunately, Polo was captured and imprisoned by the Genoese opposition. During his time in prison, Marco narrated his travels to a fellow prisoner, Rusticiano of Pisa, who was himself a celebrated romance writer. They together composed Book of Marvels, as it was originally titled, which became a significant guide to European merchants who wanted to do business in the East. The travelogue text would later be referred to as The Travels of Marco Polo, telling of how Marco had explored so many exotic countries along the way to China and back. His stories of Eastern countries made him a household name in his time, before which many Europeans had little, if any, knowledge of countries outside of Europe.
The Polos traveled together and faced many challenges along the way. The different languages spoken in the different countries they passed proved to be some of the largest barriers. Many thousands of travel miles were covered on horseback, often in extreme weather, and meeting barbarian tribesmen from time to time only added to the challenges. After 17 years in the court of the aging Kublai Khan, the Polos deemed it necessary to leave China, afraid that upon the Khan's demise they would be harmed by the Khan's enemies. They were initially denied their request to leave, and only later were they allowed to return back to Venice. They carried a golden tablet passport from the Khan that ensured safe travel and assistance throughout his dominion. Nonetheless, once back in Venice, Marco found his nation at war, and himself ultimately captured.
1. Death and Legacy
On January 8th, 1324, Marco Polo died at the age of 70. He left behind a wife and three daughters, as well as a substantial inheritance for them. He left an often times unbelieving European world a vast compendium of his extensive travels, and many Europeans of his day called him a liar for his exotic descriptions of the East. Only later would his travel stories be confirmed by historians as authentic descriptions of the East. Of Marco Polo, the great 19th Century Scottish philosopher Henry Yule said, "He was the first traveler to trace a route across the whole longitude of Asia, naming and describing kingdom after kingdom.....". Marco also left the world with an intriguing epitaph, "I have only told the half of what I saw!"
Who Was Marco Polo?
Marco Polo was an Italian traveler, merchant, and writer. He is best known for having been the first European to reach Asia.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:ed54af74-a044-4022-9a9d-658ccfcb16ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/marco-polo-great-explorers-of-the-world.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00222.warc.gz | en | 0.98814 | 928 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.591037929058075... | 1 | 5. Early Life
Before he became a world-renowned Italian traveler, merchant, and writer, Marco Polo was born on September 15th, 1254 in the city, and at that time Republic, of Venice, in what is today Italy. Marco's ancestor's were nobles from Dalmatia, the area along the Adriatic Sea near the Balkans. Since his father was away on a trip to the East, Marco was raised by his uncle and aunt following his mother's untimely death. From an early age, Marco was educated on mercantile subjects and foreign currency. Later, his interest turned towards cargo ships and the appraisal of goods. He avidly read works of Classical authors, and Marco also spoke French. He saw his father and second uncle again at age 15, upon their return from the East. At age 17, Marco accompanied his father and uncle Maffeo on their return to Cathay (China.
After Marco was taken by his father and uncle to the East, the young man learned a great deal about foreign culture and traditions all along his journey. They explored many places along the fabled Silk Road until they reached Cathay (China), where they were received by Kublai Khan's royal court. The Khan was so impressed by the young man's intelligence and humility, that Marco was later appointed by the Great Khan to serve as his foreign emissary to India and Burma. As part of this appointment, Marco also traveled extensively inside China. Here, he saw many things that had previously been unknown to virtually any European. After 17 years within the Khan's court, Polo decided to return back to his home to his Italian home in Venice.
Upon returning to Venice, Marco found his home city at war with the Republic of Genoa, another powerful Italian city-state with a reputation for loving to conquer and expands its territories. He promptly joined the war against the rival city as his native Venice fought for Mediterranean dominance. Unfortunately, Polo was captured and imprisoned by the Genoese opposition. During his time in prison, Marco narrated his travels to a fellow prisoner, Rusticiano of Pisa, who was himself a celebrated romance writer. They together composed Book of Marvels, as it was originally titled, which became a significant guide to European merchants who wanted to do business in the East. The travelogue text would later be referred to as The Travels of Marco Polo, telling of how Marco had explored so many exotic countries along the way to China and back. His stories of Eastern countries made him a household name in his time, before which many Europeans had little, if any, knowledge of countries outside of Europe.
The Polos traveled together and faced many challenges along the way. The different languages spoken in the different countries they passed proved to be some of the largest barriers. Many thousands of travel miles were covered on horseback, often in extreme weather, and meeting barbarian tribesmen from time to time only added to the challenges. After 17 years in the court of the aging Kublai Khan, the Polos deemed it necessary to leave China, afraid that upon the Khan's demise they would be harmed by the Khan's enemies. They were initially denied their request to leave, and only later were they allowed to return back to Venice. They carried a golden tablet passport from the Khan that ensured safe travel and assistance throughout his dominion. Nonetheless, once back in Venice, Marco found his nation at war, and himself ultimately captured.
1. Death and Legacy
On January 8th, 1324, Marco Polo died at the age of 70. He left behind a wife and three daughters, as well as a substantial inheritance for them. He left an often times unbelieving European world a vast compendium of his extensive travels, and many Europeans of his day called him a liar for his exotic descriptions of the East. Only later would his travel stories be confirmed by historians as authentic descriptions of the East. Of Marco Polo, the great 19th Century Scottish philosopher Henry Yule said, "He was the first traveler to trace a route across the whole longitude of Asia, naming and describing kingdom after kingdom.....". Marco also left the world with an intriguing epitaph, "I have only told the half of what I saw!"
Who Was Marco Polo?
Marco Polo was an Italian traveler, merchant, and writer. He is best known for having been the first European to reach Asia.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 941 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Roman Drugs, Pharmaceuticals and Medicine
While medications today are intended to provide relief of symptoms or attack a disease itself, there were few successes regarding this in the ancient world. The Romans had an excellent knowledge of anesthetics, but all other so called 'cures' were developed through practices as similar as mixing poisons.
In fact, as simple sickness was so difficult to determine by the average doctor, many deaths in the ancient world were attributed to poisoning. This paranoia led to the development of many antidotes, some of which worked, and others that didn't, but much of the research provided valuable information for later doctors.
Any mineral, plant, liquid or animal part could be used in treatment of diseases. Combinations of exotic ingredients, with the blessings of the gods, were made in widely diverse mixtures depending on the location. While some may have been helpful, others did nothing, or were actually even more harmful. In fact, Mercury, a known human toxin, was a common ingredient in many medical 'cures'.
One wound antiseptic was of particular value however. Acetum was actually considered a more effective antiseptic than the carbolic acid developed by Joseph Lister in the 1860's!
While everyday treatments were met with an almost comical lack of success, anesthetics were another matter. Thanks to the experienced and highly developed skills of Roman surgeons operating in the military, the Roman knowledge of pain deadening substances was excellent. Opium poppies (morphine), henbane seeds (scopolamine) and mandrake were used extensively. Morphine deadens the nerve endings and limits movement while henbane induces sleep. Mandrake also deadens pain while slowing the heart rate, and so can also be used to control bleeding. Despite this knowledge, the best tactic a doctor could use, was to finish working on the patient as quickly as possible!
Did you know...
Dioscorides of Anazarbus, a Greek physician born in southeast Asia Minor, wrote between 50-70 AD his fundamental work "De materia medica". This study focused on the preparation, properties, and testing of drugs, and became one of the central pharmacological works for the next sixteen centuries! | <urn:uuid:1c53a4af-d8c2-488f-b7a9-9763c00a5716> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.unrv.com/culture/drugs-pharmaceuticals.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00103.warc.gz | en | 0.982588 | 452 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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While medications today are intended to provide relief of symptoms or attack a disease itself, there were few successes regarding this in the ancient world. The Romans had an excellent knowledge of anesthetics, but all other so called 'cures' were developed through practices as similar as mixing poisons.
In fact, as simple sickness was so difficult to determine by the average doctor, many deaths in the ancient world were attributed to poisoning. This paranoia led to the development of many antidotes, some of which worked, and others that didn't, but much of the research provided valuable information for later doctors.
Any mineral, plant, liquid or animal part could be used in treatment of diseases. Combinations of exotic ingredients, with the blessings of the gods, were made in widely diverse mixtures depending on the location. While some may have been helpful, others did nothing, or were actually even more harmful. In fact, Mercury, a known human toxin, was a common ingredient in many medical 'cures'.
One wound antiseptic was of particular value however. Acetum was actually considered a more effective antiseptic than the carbolic acid developed by Joseph Lister in the 1860's!
While everyday treatments were met with an almost comical lack of success, anesthetics were another matter. Thanks to the experienced and highly developed skills of Roman surgeons operating in the military, the Roman knowledge of pain deadening substances was excellent. Opium poppies (morphine), henbane seeds (scopolamine) and mandrake were used extensively. Morphine deadens the nerve endings and limits movement while henbane induces sleep. Mandrake also deadens pain while slowing the heart rate, and so can also be used to control bleeding. Despite this knowledge, the best tactic a doctor could use, was to finish working on the patient as quickly as possible!
Did you know...
Dioscorides of Anazarbus, a Greek physician born in southeast Asia Minor, wrote between 50-70 AD his fundamental work "De materia medica". This study focused on the preparation, properties, and testing of drugs, and became one of the central pharmacological works for the next sixteen centuries! | 453 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Greek mythology, Calchas (; Ancient Greek: Kalkhas, possibly meaning "bronze-man"), was an Argive seer, with a gift for interpreting the flight of birds that he received of Apollo: "as an augur, Calchas had no rival in the camp". He also interpreted the entrails of the enemy during the tide of battle.
It was Calchas who prophesied that in order to gain a favourable wind to deploy the Greek ships mustered in Aulis on their way to Troy, Agamemnon would need to sacrifice his daughter, Iphigeneia, to appease Artemis, whom Agamemnon had offended. The episode was related at length in the lost Cypria, of the Epic Cycle. He also states that Troy will be sacked on the tenth year of the war.
In the Iliad, Calchas tells the Greeks that the captive Chryseis must be returned to her father Chryses in order to get Apollo to stop the plague he has sent as a punishment: this triggered the quarrel of Achilles and Agamemnon, the main theme of the Iliad. Later in the story, Poseidon assumes the form of Calchas in order to rouse and empower the Greek forces while Zeus is not observing the battle.
Calchas also plays a role in Quintus of Smyrna's Posthomerica. Calchas said that if they were brief, they could convince Achilles to fight. It is he rather than Helenus (as suggested in Sophocles' Philoctetes) that predicts that Troy will only fall once the Argives are able to recruit Philoctetes. It is by his advice that they halt the battle, even though Neoptolemus is slaughtering the Trojans. He also tells the Argives that the city is more easily taken by strategy than by force. He endorses Odysseus' suggestion that the Trojan Horse will effectively infiltrate the Trojans. He also foresees that Aeneas will survive the battle and found the city, and tells the Argives that they will not kill him. He did not join the Argives when they boarded the ships, as he foresaw the impending doom of the Kapherean Rocks.
Calchas died of shame at Colophon in Asia Minor shortly after the Trojan War (as told in the Cyclic Nostoi and Melampodia): the prophet Mopsus beat him in a contest of soothsaying, although Strabo placed an oracle of Calchas on Monte Gargano in Magna Graecia. It is also said that Calchas died of laughter when he thought another seer had incorrectly predicted his death. This seer had foretold Calchas would never drink from the wine produced from vines he had planted himself; Calchas made the wine, but holding the cup he died of laughter, before he could inform them they had drunk it the previous night.
In medieval and later versions of the myth, Calchas is portrayed as a Trojan defector and the father of Chryseis, now called Cressida. | <urn:uuid:59b88ec4-8a9b-41e1-8991-2cf0875bc74b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Calchas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00492.warc.gz | en | 0.980927 | 655 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.59760677814... | 1 | In Greek mythology, Calchas (; Ancient Greek: Kalkhas, possibly meaning "bronze-man"), was an Argive seer, with a gift for interpreting the flight of birds that he received of Apollo: "as an augur, Calchas had no rival in the camp". He also interpreted the entrails of the enemy during the tide of battle.
It was Calchas who prophesied that in order to gain a favourable wind to deploy the Greek ships mustered in Aulis on their way to Troy, Agamemnon would need to sacrifice his daughter, Iphigeneia, to appease Artemis, whom Agamemnon had offended. The episode was related at length in the lost Cypria, of the Epic Cycle. He also states that Troy will be sacked on the tenth year of the war.
In the Iliad, Calchas tells the Greeks that the captive Chryseis must be returned to her father Chryses in order to get Apollo to stop the plague he has sent as a punishment: this triggered the quarrel of Achilles and Agamemnon, the main theme of the Iliad. Later in the story, Poseidon assumes the form of Calchas in order to rouse and empower the Greek forces while Zeus is not observing the battle.
Calchas also plays a role in Quintus of Smyrna's Posthomerica. Calchas said that if they were brief, they could convince Achilles to fight. It is he rather than Helenus (as suggested in Sophocles' Philoctetes) that predicts that Troy will only fall once the Argives are able to recruit Philoctetes. It is by his advice that they halt the battle, even though Neoptolemus is slaughtering the Trojans. He also tells the Argives that the city is more easily taken by strategy than by force. He endorses Odysseus' suggestion that the Trojan Horse will effectively infiltrate the Trojans. He also foresees that Aeneas will survive the battle and found the city, and tells the Argives that they will not kill him. He did not join the Argives when they boarded the ships, as he foresaw the impending doom of the Kapherean Rocks.
Calchas died of shame at Colophon in Asia Minor shortly after the Trojan War (as told in the Cyclic Nostoi and Melampodia): the prophet Mopsus beat him in a contest of soothsaying, although Strabo placed an oracle of Calchas on Monte Gargano in Magna Graecia. It is also said that Calchas died of laughter when he thought another seer had incorrectly predicted his death. This seer had foretold Calchas would never drink from the wine produced from vines he had planted himself; Calchas made the wine, but holding the cup he died of laughter, before he could inform them they had drunk it the previous night.
In medieval and later versions of the myth, Calchas is portrayed as a Trojan defector and the father of Chryseis, now called Cressida. | 637 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The finding supports the assessment that clots could form in healthy people, while sitting in cramped places, that cause a reduction in blood flow, especially in the legs, which lead to the formation of clots. This is perhaps the reason why travelers are advised to exercise their leg and calf muscles so that clots will not be formed.
Long train trips are not spared, and passengers should adopt some movement for their limbs to avoid the formation of clots.
Researchers at England's University of Leicester studied 73 healthy passengers who volunteered for this study. The volunteers were made to sit for 8hrs at a stretch, in a room that had air pressure and oxygen levels akin to the environment on commercial flights. The volunteers were allowed to move about for five minutes each hour. Pressure and oxygen levels were tested for the volunteers at ground level and blood tests were conducted before and after each of the tests.
The findings revealed, no major difference between the two tests relating to formation of clots or in the way endothelial cells behave. Though this problem has been called the "economy-class syndrome", the cases of people who have got ill because of clot formation have been reported from across cabin classes, according to the American Heart Association
Air travelers could do well to take in a lot of fluids, water mainly and certainly avoid alcohol during the flight. | <urn:uuid:576d3f16-7f77-4d93-b237-23b5233c182b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medindia.net/news/view_news_main.asp?x=10388 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00313.warc.gz | en | 0.984157 | 271 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.4109291... | 1 | The finding supports the assessment that clots could form in healthy people, while sitting in cramped places, that cause a reduction in blood flow, especially in the legs, which lead to the formation of clots. This is perhaps the reason why travelers are advised to exercise their leg and calf muscles so that clots will not be formed.
Long train trips are not spared, and passengers should adopt some movement for their limbs to avoid the formation of clots.
Researchers at England's University of Leicester studied 73 healthy passengers who volunteered for this study. The volunteers were made to sit for 8hrs at a stretch, in a room that had air pressure and oxygen levels akin to the environment on commercial flights. The volunteers were allowed to move about for five minutes each hour. Pressure and oxygen levels were tested for the volunteers at ground level and blood tests were conducted before and after each of the tests.
The findings revealed, no major difference between the two tests relating to formation of clots or in the way endothelial cells behave. Though this problem has been called the "economy-class syndrome", the cases of people who have got ill because of clot formation have been reported from across cabin classes, according to the American Heart Association
Air travelers could do well to take in a lot of fluids, water mainly and certainly avoid alcohol during the flight. | 269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Nazi rise to power I n the aftermath of World War I, Germany remained in turmoil throughout the s, providing an ideal setting for the rise of extremist ideologies and firebrand political leaders. To Germans burdened by reparations payments to war victors, and threatened by hyperinflation, political chaos, and a possible Communist takeover, Adolf Hitler offered scapegoats and solutions. Germans were provided with an easy explanation to all their problems: Following the meteoric rise of the Nazi Party, Hitler was appointed as chancellor of Germany on January 30,
That programme, which remained unaltered until the party was dissolved inconsisted of twenty-five points, of which the following five are of particular interest on account of the light they throw on the matters with which the Tribunal is concerned: We demand the unification of all Germans in the Greater Germany, on the basis of the right of a self-determination of peoples.
We demand equality of rights for the German people in respect to the other nations; abrogation of the peace treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain.
We demand land and territory for the sustenance of our people, and the colonisation of our surplus population. Only a member of the race can be a citizen. A member of the race can only be one who is of German blood, without consideration of creed.
Consequently no Jew can be a member of the race We demand abolition of the mercenary troops and formation of a national army.
In a typical speech at Munich on the 13th April,for example, Hitler said with regard to the Treaty of Versailles: At its foundation our movement formulated three demands.
Setting aside of the Peace Treaty. Unification of all Germans. Land and soil to feed our nation.
It was in this year that the Sturmabteilung or SA was founded, with Hitler at its head, as a private pare-military force, which allegedly was to be used for the purpose of protecting NSDAP leaders from attack by rival political parties, and preserving order at NSDAP meetings, but in reality was used for fighting political opponents on the streets.
In Marchthe defendant Goering was appointed head of the SA. The procedure within the Party was governed in the most absolute way by the leadership principle" Fuehrerprinzip. According to the principle, each Fuehrer has the right to govern, administer or decree, subject to no control of any kind and at his complete discretion, subject only to the orders he received from above.
This principle applied in the first instance to Hitler himself as the Leader of the Party, and in a lesser degree to all other party officials.
All members of the Party swore an oath of " eternal allegiance " to the Leader. There were only two ways in which Germany could achieve the three main aims above-mentioned, by negotiation, or by force. The twenty-five points of the NSDAP programme do not specifically mention the methods on which the leaders of the party proposed to rely, but the history of the Nazi regime shows that Hitler and his followers were only prepared to negotiate on the terms that their demands were conceded, and that force would be used if they were not.
On the night of November 8,an abortive putsch took place in Munich.
Hitler and some of his followers burst into a meeting in the Burgerbrau Cellar, which was being addressed by the Bavarian Prime Minister Kehr, with the intention of obtaining from him a decision to march forthwith on Berlin.
Only a few volleys were fired; and after a dozen of his followers had been killed, Hitler fled for his life, and the demonstration was over. The defendants Streicher, Frick and Hess all took part in the attempted rising. Hitler was later tried for high treason, and was convicted and sentenced to imprisonment.
The SA was outlawed.The Nazis tried to make Germany self-sufficient - that is, to produce all the goods it needed without having to rely on external supplies. This could be achieved more easily for some types of goods than for others, so the need to obtain access to oil, for example, was part of the reason for Germany's aggressive foreign policy in eastern Europe.
Twenty-five years later, the issue of individual decisions and the disruptions of the lives of citizens in Germany is the subject of Broken Lives: How Ordinary Germans Experienced the 20th Century.
This does not suggest that Nazi Germany was a pleasant place to live - unless of course you were one of the Nazi elite. 2 Ordinary people. For ordinary people, life was good, and many Germans even today look back and remember the years before as happy years: Most German young people were happy: Nazi culture was very youth-oriented.
The HJ provided exciting activities for young boys. But not all young people were happy with the Nazi regime: SOME.
- BBC debate-podcast on Life in Nazi Germany - Scott Allsop 's podcast on Life in Nazi Germany - Giles Hill on Nazi 2 Ordinary people. For ordinary people, life was good, and many Germans even today look back and remember the years before as happy years: But not all young people were happy with the Nazi regime: SOME girls were.
The question of defining German and Jewish identity was further complicated by the fact that there had been a great deal of intermarriage between the two groups, and there were thousands of people of mixed Jewish and non-Jewish ancestry, known to the Nazis as Mischlinge (“half-breeds” or “mixed-blood”). | <urn:uuid:ec7655c7-5229-441e-9b37-ec072db69196> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://muqygec.metin2sell.com/extent-did-nazi-regime-change-lives-ordinary-german-people-9738hk.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.98095 | 1,144 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.17957380414... | 1 | The Nazi rise to power I n the aftermath of World War I, Germany remained in turmoil throughout the s, providing an ideal setting for the rise of extremist ideologies and firebrand political leaders. To Germans burdened by reparations payments to war victors, and threatened by hyperinflation, political chaos, and a possible Communist takeover, Adolf Hitler offered scapegoats and solutions. Germans were provided with an easy explanation to all their problems: Following the meteoric rise of the Nazi Party, Hitler was appointed as chancellor of Germany on January 30,
That programme, which remained unaltered until the party was dissolved inconsisted of twenty-five points, of which the following five are of particular interest on account of the light they throw on the matters with which the Tribunal is concerned: We demand the unification of all Germans in the Greater Germany, on the basis of the right of a self-determination of peoples.
We demand equality of rights for the German people in respect to the other nations; abrogation of the peace treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain.
We demand land and territory for the sustenance of our people, and the colonisation of our surplus population. Only a member of the race can be a citizen. A member of the race can only be one who is of German blood, without consideration of creed.
Consequently no Jew can be a member of the race We demand abolition of the mercenary troops and formation of a national army.
In a typical speech at Munich on the 13th April,for example, Hitler said with regard to the Treaty of Versailles: At its foundation our movement formulated three demands.
Setting aside of the Peace Treaty. Unification of all Germans. Land and soil to feed our nation.
It was in this year that the Sturmabteilung or SA was founded, with Hitler at its head, as a private pare-military force, which allegedly was to be used for the purpose of protecting NSDAP leaders from attack by rival political parties, and preserving order at NSDAP meetings, but in reality was used for fighting political opponents on the streets.
In Marchthe defendant Goering was appointed head of the SA. The procedure within the Party was governed in the most absolute way by the leadership principle" Fuehrerprinzip. According to the principle, each Fuehrer has the right to govern, administer or decree, subject to no control of any kind and at his complete discretion, subject only to the orders he received from above.
This principle applied in the first instance to Hitler himself as the Leader of the Party, and in a lesser degree to all other party officials.
All members of the Party swore an oath of " eternal allegiance " to the Leader. There were only two ways in which Germany could achieve the three main aims above-mentioned, by negotiation, or by force. The twenty-five points of the NSDAP programme do not specifically mention the methods on which the leaders of the party proposed to rely, but the history of the Nazi regime shows that Hitler and his followers were only prepared to negotiate on the terms that their demands were conceded, and that force would be used if they were not.
On the night of November 8,an abortive putsch took place in Munich.
Hitler and some of his followers burst into a meeting in the Burgerbrau Cellar, which was being addressed by the Bavarian Prime Minister Kehr, with the intention of obtaining from him a decision to march forthwith on Berlin.
Only a few volleys were fired; and after a dozen of his followers had been killed, Hitler fled for his life, and the demonstration was over. The defendants Streicher, Frick and Hess all took part in the attempted rising. Hitler was later tried for high treason, and was convicted and sentenced to imprisonment.
The SA was outlawed.The Nazis tried to make Germany self-sufficient - that is, to produce all the goods it needed without having to rely on external supplies. This could be achieved more easily for some types of goods than for others, so the need to obtain access to oil, for example, was part of the reason for Germany's aggressive foreign policy in eastern Europe.
Twenty-five years later, the issue of individual decisions and the disruptions of the lives of citizens in Germany is the subject of Broken Lives: How Ordinary Germans Experienced the 20th Century.
This does not suggest that Nazi Germany was a pleasant place to live - unless of course you were one of the Nazi elite. 2 Ordinary people. For ordinary people, life was good, and many Germans even today look back and remember the years before as happy years: Most German young people were happy: Nazi culture was very youth-oriented.
The HJ provided exciting activities for young boys. But not all young people were happy with the Nazi regime: SOME.
- BBC debate-podcast on Life in Nazi Germany - Scott Allsop 's podcast on Life in Nazi Germany - Giles Hill on Nazi 2 Ordinary people. For ordinary people, life was good, and many Germans even today look back and remember the years before as happy years: But not all young people were happy with the Nazi regime: SOME girls were.
The question of defining German and Jewish identity was further complicated by the fact that there had been a great deal of intermarriage between the two groups, and there were thousands of people of mixed Jewish and non-Jewish ancestry, known to the Nazis as Mischlinge (“half-breeds” or “mixed-blood”). | 1,115 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Here we can see the upper gun deck of HMS Victory (underneath her 'little boats') as it appeared in circa 1794:
Along both sides, a single row of 12-pounder cannons was present, together with the gun crews that operated them. The gun crews themselves, would both 'live and sleep' in the spaces between the cannons (especially of lower gun decks). The other gun decks were similar (in terms of layout) - although the middle gun deck was equipped with 24-pounder cannons, and the lower gun deck was equipped with 32-pounder cannons. The heavier calibre cannons were located closer to the waterline - to improve the stability of HMS Victory. This was a lesson 'learned the hard way' as ships of the line that were 'too top heavy' were notoriously unstable (such as the Mary Rose). In any case, the armament of HMS Victory 'tended to vary' both depending upon the century and 'which admiral/captain' was in command. For example, some admirals preferred the 42-pounder cannon to the 32-pounder cannon. Whilst the 42-pounder cannon featured more 'hitting power', it also featured a slower 'loading time' - because the cannonball weighed more, and was 'harder to lift' for the gun crews. The material used to construct the cannons also varied 'depending upon the century' - with early cannons being made of brass, and later cannons being made of iron (which were also equipped with 'more modern' firing mechanisms).
Here we can see some of the quarterdeck of HMS Victory, specifically the 'steering wheel area' in circa 1794:
This was an important area of HMS Victory, as it was the primary position from which HMS Victory was steered. The steering wheel, would be operated by several men - with more men 'being required' in stormy seas. The steering wheel's central-shaft had a rope 'wrapped around it' with both ends passing through into the decks beneath. 'Rope and Pulley plus Tiller' technology then converted the turning of the steering wheel, into the 'turning of the rudder' (in later generation warships, gears are used for this conversion). The 'windowed rooms' located on the left and right of the steering wheel are the 'coach houses' - which were used by senior officers (as working spaces). The area located behind the steering wheel is the captain's dining cabin (which was located just forward of his day cabin). Above the steering wheel's roof, is a 'hanging line' of small firefighting buckets - as fire was a 'constant worry' for any sailor aboard 'a wooden' ship of the line (especially at night, when oil lanterns were used as a light source). Three of HMS Victory's 12-pounder cannons are also visible (two lower-left and one middle-right) which being located on the quarterdeck - would have been exposed to the elements.
Here we can see the wooden 'stern galleys' of HMS Victory, as they appeared 'mostly' in circa 1794:
This area of HMS Victory represented the 'height of sculpture' for the days (and probably today as well!). It was standard practice for ships of the line, to be decorated astern - although only 'first rates' (such as HMS Victory) would have taken it 'to these levels'. The lowermost windows are located at the stern of the wardroom (where officers would eat). The middlemost windows are located at the stern of the admiral's day cabin (where 'his strategy' was usually planned). The uppermost windows are located at the stern of the captain's day cabin (directly above the admirals). As the admiral was a 'higher rank' than the captain, this meant that his cabins would be 'more stable' whilst at sea (owing to a lower 'centre of gravity'). Whilst this was true for ships of the line, this arrangement appears to have been reversed in later warships (with the admiral's cabins 'higher up'). To the left of the galleys (in this view) can be found the cannons of HMS Victory: the lowermost are 32-pounders, the middlemost are 24-pounders and the uppermost (including those on the quarterdeck) are 12-pounders.
HMS Warrior 1860 - Iron Hull Form and Admirals Day Cabin
HMS Warrior is considered to be, an important milestone, in terms of the development of modern warships - as Warrior featured the iron of the then-to-be future, whilst retaining her Victorian roots:
Warrior's iron hull form, was designed to repel the cannon balls, of an enemy fleet. This was achieved, through the concept of an armoured citadel - as Warrior's thirty-eight 68-pounder guns/cannons, were protected behind an 'iron wall', that was 4.5 inches thick. This meant, that Warrior could engage, enemy ships of the line (who at this time, featured: wooden hull forms, and usually 32-pounder guns/cannons), without fear of her own armoured belt, being penetrated. This gave the Royal Navy, an undeniable advantage, when it came to naval conflict - as warships would sit in a line, firing at each other, and the warships made of wood, would sink first! In any case, Warrior retained the Admiral's Day/Night Cabin (at her stern), as was installed on HMS Victory (though Warrior's, was on a less grander scale). This featured: decorated windows, with golden patterns in the wood/iron, bordered with white - to reflect the rank of the most important officer on the warship, the Admiral (or Captain).
HMS Warrior was not-so-unique, in terms of her sails and rigging - as she was a fully rigged, ship of the line (like HMS Victory), that could harness the power of the wind:
Warrior's sails were used to push her through, the World's oceans and seas (but could also augment the power of her steam engine). Whilst only five sails are illustrated here, we shall use them to define the sails and masts, of a fully rigged ship. From bow to stern, bottom to top: i) Jib. This was rigged, between the Bowsprit and the Foremast. ii) Fore Topsail. This was at the level of the Fore Topmast (above the Fore Lowermast). iii) Fore Royal Sail. This was at the level of the Fore Royal Mast (above the Fore Topgallant Mast). iv) Main Topgallant Sail. This was at the level of the Main Topgallant Mast (above the Main Topmast). v) Spanker. This was attached with two spars, to the Mizzen Lowermast (the aftermost lowest mast). Warrior's rigging, was used primarily, to hold both her masts and sails in place (called standing rigging and running rigging, respectively) - but also had secondary functions, such as: making adjustments to the sails (to capture more/less wind), and for gaining access to, various higher-level mast platforms (as used by her lookouts). Her rigging, involved the use of ropes and blocks (containing one or more pulleys) - whose operation, was an art in itself!
HMS Warrior is considered to be 'one of the first' true ironclads (if not indeed the first) - as she was equipped with a hull form, that was made entirely of iron:
Warrior's hull form, made use of iron, both internally (such as in her bulkheads and frames) and externally (such as in her 4.5 inch thick belt armour). For 1860, this was a marvellous achievement - as all preceding warships, had only ever been constructed, with wooden hull forms (including their bulkheads, frames and armour). Despite this, Warrior still needed to be based upon the warships of the past (such as HMS Victory) - so Warrior's hull from, was essentially a wooden design, that was constructed in iron! As such, it was expected that her manoeuvrability, would be similar to that of previous ships of the line - so she retained their clipper bow (which improved her sea keeping).
HMS Warrior is considered to be 'rather unique' as a warship - as she was equipped with both sails, and a steam engine (that was fuelled by coal):
This meant that she could navigate the oceans of the World, using one of three modes: i) just her sails. ii) just her steam engine. iii) both her sails and her steam engine - when speed was of the essence! Her sails, though retained from the days of HMS Victory (1803), also meant that Warrior had a useful fallback, in the event that she run out of coal. Despite this, her steam engine was connected to a single propeller, which could be regarded as the grandfather of all modern ship propellers (because it was of a simpler design - with only two blades). In any case, Warrior's propeller was designed, to push her 9000 tons, through the sea lanes of the British Empire. | <urn:uuid:439aff92-c329-420b-b1c4-c0edbdb7da3f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nebulahawk.com/ship-of-the-line-tag.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00317.warc.gz | en | 0.982064 | 1,903 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.10082755... | 4 | Here we can see the upper gun deck of HMS Victory (underneath her 'little boats') as it appeared in circa 1794:
Along both sides, a single row of 12-pounder cannons was present, together with the gun crews that operated them. The gun crews themselves, would both 'live and sleep' in the spaces between the cannons (especially of lower gun decks). The other gun decks were similar (in terms of layout) - although the middle gun deck was equipped with 24-pounder cannons, and the lower gun deck was equipped with 32-pounder cannons. The heavier calibre cannons were located closer to the waterline - to improve the stability of HMS Victory. This was a lesson 'learned the hard way' as ships of the line that were 'too top heavy' were notoriously unstable (such as the Mary Rose). In any case, the armament of HMS Victory 'tended to vary' both depending upon the century and 'which admiral/captain' was in command. For example, some admirals preferred the 42-pounder cannon to the 32-pounder cannon. Whilst the 42-pounder cannon featured more 'hitting power', it also featured a slower 'loading time' - because the cannonball weighed more, and was 'harder to lift' for the gun crews. The material used to construct the cannons also varied 'depending upon the century' - with early cannons being made of brass, and later cannons being made of iron (which were also equipped with 'more modern' firing mechanisms).
Here we can see some of the quarterdeck of HMS Victory, specifically the 'steering wheel area' in circa 1794:
This was an important area of HMS Victory, as it was the primary position from which HMS Victory was steered. The steering wheel, would be operated by several men - with more men 'being required' in stormy seas. The steering wheel's central-shaft had a rope 'wrapped around it' with both ends passing through into the decks beneath. 'Rope and Pulley plus Tiller' technology then converted the turning of the steering wheel, into the 'turning of the rudder' (in later generation warships, gears are used for this conversion). The 'windowed rooms' located on the left and right of the steering wheel are the 'coach houses' - which were used by senior officers (as working spaces). The area located behind the steering wheel is the captain's dining cabin (which was located just forward of his day cabin). Above the steering wheel's roof, is a 'hanging line' of small firefighting buckets - as fire was a 'constant worry' for any sailor aboard 'a wooden' ship of the line (especially at night, when oil lanterns were used as a light source). Three of HMS Victory's 12-pounder cannons are also visible (two lower-left and one middle-right) which being located on the quarterdeck - would have been exposed to the elements.
Here we can see the wooden 'stern galleys' of HMS Victory, as they appeared 'mostly' in circa 1794:
This area of HMS Victory represented the 'height of sculpture' for the days (and probably today as well!). It was standard practice for ships of the line, to be decorated astern - although only 'first rates' (such as HMS Victory) would have taken it 'to these levels'. The lowermost windows are located at the stern of the wardroom (where officers would eat). The middlemost windows are located at the stern of the admiral's day cabin (where 'his strategy' was usually planned). The uppermost windows are located at the stern of the captain's day cabin (directly above the admirals). As the admiral was a 'higher rank' than the captain, this meant that his cabins would be 'more stable' whilst at sea (owing to a lower 'centre of gravity'). Whilst this was true for ships of the line, this arrangement appears to have been reversed in later warships (with the admiral's cabins 'higher up'). To the left of the galleys (in this view) can be found the cannons of HMS Victory: the lowermost are 32-pounders, the middlemost are 24-pounders and the uppermost (including those on the quarterdeck) are 12-pounders.
HMS Warrior 1860 - Iron Hull Form and Admirals Day Cabin
HMS Warrior is considered to be, an important milestone, in terms of the development of modern warships - as Warrior featured the iron of the then-to-be future, whilst retaining her Victorian roots:
Warrior's iron hull form, was designed to repel the cannon balls, of an enemy fleet. This was achieved, through the concept of an armoured citadel - as Warrior's thirty-eight 68-pounder guns/cannons, were protected behind an 'iron wall', that was 4.5 inches thick. This meant, that Warrior could engage, enemy ships of the line (who at this time, featured: wooden hull forms, and usually 32-pounder guns/cannons), without fear of her own armoured belt, being penetrated. This gave the Royal Navy, an undeniable advantage, when it came to naval conflict - as warships would sit in a line, firing at each other, and the warships made of wood, would sink first! In any case, Warrior retained the Admiral's Day/Night Cabin (at her stern), as was installed on HMS Victory (though Warrior's, was on a less grander scale). This featured: decorated windows, with golden patterns in the wood/iron, bordered with white - to reflect the rank of the most important officer on the warship, the Admiral (or Captain).
HMS Warrior was not-so-unique, in terms of her sails and rigging - as she was a fully rigged, ship of the line (like HMS Victory), that could harness the power of the wind:
Warrior's sails were used to push her through, the World's oceans and seas (but could also augment the power of her steam engine). Whilst only five sails are illustrated here, we shall use them to define the sails and masts, of a fully rigged ship. From bow to stern, bottom to top: i) Jib. This was rigged, between the Bowsprit and the Foremast. ii) Fore Topsail. This was at the level of the Fore Topmast (above the Fore Lowermast). iii) Fore Royal Sail. This was at the level of the Fore Royal Mast (above the Fore Topgallant Mast). iv) Main Topgallant Sail. This was at the level of the Main Topgallant Mast (above the Main Topmast). v) Spanker. This was attached with two spars, to the Mizzen Lowermast (the aftermost lowest mast). Warrior's rigging, was used primarily, to hold both her masts and sails in place (called standing rigging and running rigging, respectively) - but also had secondary functions, such as: making adjustments to the sails (to capture more/less wind), and for gaining access to, various higher-level mast platforms (as used by her lookouts). Her rigging, involved the use of ropes and blocks (containing one or more pulleys) - whose operation, was an art in itself!
HMS Warrior is considered to be 'one of the first' true ironclads (if not indeed the first) - as she was equipped with a hull form, that was made entirely of iron:
Warrior's hull form, made use of iron, both internally (such as in her bulkheads and frames) and externally (such as in her 4.5 inch thick belt armour). For 1860, this was a marvellous achievement - as all preceding warships, had only ever been constructed, with wooden hull forms (including their bulkheads, frames and armour). Despite this, Warrior still needed to be based upon the warships of the past (such as HMS Victory) - so Warrior's hull from, was essentially a wooden design, that was constructed in iron! As such, it was expected that her manoeuvrability, would be similar to that of previous ships of the line - so she retained their clipper bow (which improved her sea keeping).
HMS Warrior is considered to be 'rather unique' as a warship - as she was equipped with both sails, and a steam engine (that was fuelled by coal):
This meant that she could navigate the oceans of the World, using one of three modes: i) just her sails. ii) just her steam engine. iii) both her sails and her steam engine - when speed was of the essence! Her sails, though retained from the days of HMS Victory (1803), also meant that Warrior had a useful fallback, in the event that she run out of coal. Despite this, her steam engine was connected to a single propeller, which could be regarded as the grandfather of all modern ship propellers (because it was of a simpler design - with only two blades). In any case, Warrior's propeller was designed, to push her 9000 tons, through the sea lanes of the British Empire. | 1,928 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Afghanistan and feminism aren’t often thought of together, unless using the country as an example of one of the worst places in the world for women to live. But buried in Afghan history there is a women who deserves to be lauded as one of the world’s early feminists. Her name is Soraya Tarzi, and she should be better known outside of her home country.
Born in exile in Syria in 1899, she was educated by her father Mahmud Tarzi, who was an intellectual, a poet, a political philosopher and a functionary in the vast bureaucracy of the Ottoman Empire. They were members of the Barakzai tribe, the same larger tribal confederacy as the Kings of Afghanistan. Amir Habibullah invited the members of the Afghan intelligentsia exiled by his father to return to the country, and so Tarzi moved his family to Kabul. He was accepted into the Royal Court as an advisor, but also began to publish a radical newspaper that advocated for modernization along the lines of what was occurring in Turkey under Kemal Ataturk and in Persia under Reza Shah.
Soraya developed an affinity with the Amir’s son, Amanullah, and her father became a mentor to him as well. Soraya and Amanullah married in 1913. When he ascended to the throne after his father’s assassination in 1919, she became Queen.
At that time it was common for the Amir to have many wives, beyond even the four allowed in Islam, as well as a harem of consorts. They were neither seen nor heard outside of the palace walls. Amanullah reversed this and did not take any other wives, nor did he keep a harem. Queen Soraya appeared publicly with him throughout the country, had an active role in court discussions, and was made the Minister of Education. She was awarded an honorary doctorate in education by Oxford University in recognition for her work.
Under her direction the very first school for girls was opened in Afghanistan, offering a secular education rather than a religious one. Now known as Lycée Malalai, this school was reopened in 2003 and continues to educate girls in Kabul to this day. She also influenced her husband who created new laws that banned child marriages, gave women the right to choose their husbands, made education for all children (boys and girls) mandatory and imposed taxes to discourage polygamy.
Queen Soraya also established an organization, headed by Amanullah’s sister, to advocate for the rights of women and to provide a venue for women to complain about mistreatment or abuse.
Most dramatically, in 1928 during a speech by her husband discouraging the practice of women wearing hijabs, niqabs or burkhas, she publicly removed her veil and then made a speech of her own to the astonished tribal and religious leaders. Her example created opportunities within Afghan society in the capital that did not exist before, although her influence in the countryside was much more limited.
When an uprising threatened to depose her husband in 1929, one of the rebels’ demands was that he divorce Soraya and send her into exile. Instead they both fled the country, first to India and then to Italy, where they lived until their deaths in 1968. They were returned to Afghanistan and are buried side by side in a royal mausoleum in Jalalabad.
Although relatively unknown outside of Afghanistan, she is a hero to the women of that country for what she accomplished and for the future of which she dreamed. She is just one part of the forgotten history of Afghanistan that I explore in my book: “Blood Washing Blood: Afghanistan’s Hundred Year War.“
And because I think that children should read stories about real princesses who accomplished things, not just the Disney kind, check out this terrific book about Queen Soraya. | <urn:uuid:7bf65af0-14a5-45fe-a6d6-da168df6960e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://philhalton.com/2019/06/28/queen-soraya-afghanistans-first-feminist/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.986111 | 783 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.43266892433166504,... | 13 | Afghanistan and feminism aren’t often thought of together, unless using the country as an example of one of the worst places in the world for women to live. But buried in Afghan history there is a women who deserves to be lauded as one of the world’s early feminists. Her name is Soraya Tarzi, and she should be better known outside of her home country.
Born in exile in Syria in 1899, she was educated by her father Mahmud Tarzi, who was an intellectual, a poet, a political philosopher and a functionary in the vast bureaucracy of the Ottoman Empire. They were members of the Barakzai tribe, the same larger tribal confederacy as the Kings of Afghanistan. Amir Habibullah invited the members of the Afghan intelligentsia exiled by his father to return to the country, and so Tarzi moved his family to Kabul. He was accepted into the Royal Court as an advisor, but also began to publish a radical newspaper that advocated for modernization along the lines of what was occurring in Turkey under Kemal Ataturk and in Persia under Reza Shah.
Soraya developed an affinity with the Amir’s son, Amanullah, and her father became a mentor to him as well. Soraya and Amanullah married in 1913. When he ascended to the throne after his father’s assassination in 1919, she became Queen.
At that time it was common for the Amir to have many wives, beyond even the four allowed in Islam, as well as a harem of consorts. They were neither seen nor heard outside of the palace walls. Amanullah reversed this and did not take any other wives, nor did he keep a harem. Queen Soraya appeared publicly with him throughout the country, had an active role in court discussions, and was made the Minister of Education. She was awarded an honorary doctorate in education by Oxford University in recognition for her work.
Under her direction the very first school for girls was opened in Afghanistan, offering a secular education rather than a religious one. Now known as Lycée Malalai, this school was reopened in 2003 and continues to educate girls in Kabul to this day. She also influenced her husband who created new laws that banned child marriages, gave women the right to choose their husbands, made education for all children (boys and girls) mandatory and imposed taxes to discourage polygamy.
Queen Soraya also established an organization, headed by Amanullah’s sister, to advocate for the rights of women and to provide a venue for women to complain about mistreatment or abuse.
Most dramatically, in 1928 during a speech by her husband discouraging the practice of women wearing hijabs, niqabs or burkhas, she publicly removed her veil and then made a speech of her own to the astonished tribal and religious leaders. Her example created opportunities within Afghan society in the capital that did not exist before, although her influence in the countryside was much more limited.
When an uprising threatened to depose her husband in 1929, one of the rebels’ demands was that he divorce Soraya and send her into exile. Instead they both fled the country, first to India and then to Italy, where they lived until their deaths in 1968. They were returned to Afghanistan and are buried side by side in a royal mausoleum in Jalalabad.
Although relatively unknown outside of Afghanistan, she is a hero to the women of that country for what she accomplished and for the future of which she dreamed. She is just one part of the forgotten history of Afghanistan that I explore in my book: “Blood Washing Blood: Afghanistan’s Hundred Year War.“
And because I think that children should read stories about real princesses who accomplished things, not just the Disney kind, check out this terrific book about Queen Soraya. | 799 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Race describes classification of human into distinct groups by considering factors such as heritable phenotypic characteristics or geographic ancestry. It is influenced by such traits as appearance, culture, ethnicity, and socio-economic status of individuals.
Race in ancient Egypt
In the Ancient Egypt, there was minimal consideration in terms of race. Majority of population were black individuals, while the entire world was devoid of racism. Importantly, the dark skin was never seen as a sign of being inferior, this being depicted by the entire artworks from the ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
Civilization originated from Western countries, when the European powers colonized Africa in the nineteenth century. This resulted to the introduction of numerous adverse effects within the black community.
The black pharaohs sprang from African civilization that had flourished on the southern banks of the Nile, and reunified and filled the landscape with glorious monuments. Western scholars began to pay attention to the skin tone of Egyptian individuals, as they viewed the blacks as being primitive and inferior compared to the white explorers.
It is believed that all ancient Egyptians, from King Tut to Cleopatra, were black Africans. They ruled Ancient Egypt for thousands of years, after conquering non-black rule and accomplishing numerous tasks. Moreover, the stability of Egypt was always restored by the black leaders from the south.
Ancient Egyptians had no racial distinctions between their populations, and they acknowledged and depicted the distinct differences that existed between themselves and the Libyans, Asiatic, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Due to race infiltration in Egypt, majority of the black people were under-educated and denied the facts that spelled out the true history of Ancient Egypt, achievements of the black population, and their original works and practices.
This was being spearheaded and promoted by the Europeans and Arab invaders. Racism affected the research process and findings, as most of the findings were only attributed to the whites, including their works. Moreover, various artifacts and certain achievements by the blacks were changed to depict the whites as being supreme.
The black population was regarded as having no influence on development of early civilization in Egypt, although they had the greatest influence in majority of the developments that had taken place in the ancient times. Racism was distributed across generations of teachers, students, and the public through misinformation of various known facts that described true black Africans. Ancient Egypt was full of numerous artifacts that existed from the ancient times.
These were made and designed by native Africans and later discovered by the white explorers who came as a result of colonization within Ancient Egypt, including the discovery of seven large stone statues of Nubian pharaohs, various portraits of blacks that were changed to depict white supremacists and so on. Majority of the occurrences, artifacts, and discoveries were turned round because of the existing racism to depict the strengths and achievements of the whites at the expense of the black population in ancient Egypt.
Ancient Egypt faced racism because of the introduction of civilization after the process of colonization in the nineteenth century, when the whites promoted oppression of the black population in terms of education, information, and the general achievements that had been brought by the black Africans. This led to majority of the achievements, works, and artifacts and so on, that were done and accomplished by the blacks being linked and notated to the whites. | <urn:uuid:e854532a-9f81-438f-8db5-e88808a7820d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alpinrunning.org/race-in-ancient-egypt/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00009.warc.gz | en | 0.980566 | 668 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.1469021737575531... | 4 | Race describes classification of human into distinct groups by considering factors such as heritable phenotypic characteristics or geographic ancestry. It is influenced by such traits as appearance, culture, ethnicity, and socio-economic status of individuals.
Race in ancient Egypt
In the Ancient Egypt, there was minimal consideration in terms of race. Majority of population were black individuals, while the entire world was devoid of racism. Importantly, the dark skin was never seen as a sign of being inferior, this being depicted by the entire artworks from the ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
Civilization originated from Western countries, when the European powers colonized Africa in the nineteenth century. This resulted to the introduction of numerous adverse effects within the black community.
The black pharaohs sprang from African civilization that had flourished on the southern banks of the Nile, and reunified and filled the landscape with glorious monuments. Western scholars began to pay attention to the skin tone of Egyptian individuals, as they viewed the blacks as being primitive and inferior compared to the white explorers.
It is believed that all ancient Egyptians, from King Tut to Cleopatra, were black Africans. They ruled Ancient Egypt for thousands of years, after conquering non-black rule and accomplishing numerous tasks. Moreover, the stability of Egypt was always restored by the black leaders from the south.
Ancient Egyptians had no racial distinctions between their populations, and they acknowledged and depicted the distinct differences that existed between themselves and the Libyans, Asiatic, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Due to race infiltration in Egypt, majority of the black people were under-educated and denied the facts that spelled out the true history of Ancient Egypt, achievements of the black population, and their original works and practices.
This was being spearheaded and promoted by the Europeans and Arab invaders. Racism affected the research process and findings, as most of the findings were only attributed to the whites, including their works. Moreover, various artifacts and certain achievements by the blacks were changed to depict the whites as being supreme.
The black population was regarded as having no influence on development of early civilization in Egypt, although they had the greatest influence in majority of the developments that had taken place in the ancient times. Racism was distributed across generations of teachers, students, and the public through misinformation of various known facts that described true black Africans. Ancient Egypt was full of numerous artifacts that existed from the ancient times.
These were made and designed by native Africans and later discovered by the white explorers who came as a result of colonization within Ancient Egypt, including the discovery of seven large stone statues of Nubian pharaohs, various portraits of blacks that were changed to depict white supremacists and so on. Majority of the occurrences, artifacts, and discoveries were turned round because of the existing racism to depict the strengths and achievements of the whites at the expense of the black population in ancient Egypt.
Ancient Egypt faced racism because of the introduction of civilization after the process of colonization in the nineteenth century, when the whites promoted oppression of the black population in terms of education, information, and the general achievements that had been brought by the black Africans. This led to majority of the achievements, works, and artifacts and so on, that were done and accomplished by the blacks being linked and notated to the whites. | 663 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This illustration is by Walter May from the copy of his book that he presented to John Barrow, Jr., who in turn presented it to the British Museum Library. In 1852-54 May had accompanied Sir Edward Belcher on his Franklin search expedition.
John Rae of the Hudson's Bay Company undertook several searches for Franklin while on exploring expeditions for the Company. In 1854 he learnt from the Inuit that in about 1850 a party of white men had been seen north of King William Island walking towards Back River, and that later several corpses had been seen west of that river. The Inuit had taken relics from the corpses, and Rae purchased those in this illustration, among them a silver plate engraved “Sir John Franklin, K. C. H." Rae was the first to send definite news about the fate of the Franklin expedition. | <urn:uuid:9387ce85-b4fe-4b09-bc1d-6d3dff050f2d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/a-series-of-fourteen-sketches?shelfitemviewer=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.986252 | 170 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.275879442691803... | 3 | This illustration is by Walter May from the copy of his book that he presented to John Barrow, Jr., who in turn presented it to the British Museum Library. In 1852-54 May had accompanied Sir Edward Belcher on his Franklin search expedition.
John Rae of the Hudson's Bay Company undertook several searches for Franklin while on exploring expeditions for the Company. In 1854 he learnt from the Inuit that in about 1850 a party of white men had been seen north of King William Island walking towards Back River, and that later several corpses had been seen west of that river. The Inuit had taken relics from the corpses, and Rae purchased those in this illustration, among them a silver plate engraved “Sir John Franklin, K. C. H." Rae was the first to send definite news about the fate of the Franklin expedition. | 180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today I happened to read about an obscure war that started in 773AD between Charlemagne and the forgotten and obscure last king of the Lombards. There were three main parties directly involved in the conflict, along with a whole host of other characters who had influence in the course of events, the Frankish Kingdom, the Lombard Kingdom, and the Papacy. None of them wanted a conflict, yet the actions they took because of their insecurities and desires ended up leading to a war that ended up causing difficulties for all of them, even if it ultimately served the interests of the winners, eventually. Even if this war is not something that is generally known, the dynamics of the conflict suggest matters that may be of interest to people in different situations about how to best avoid conflicts, and the sort of tensions that are inherent in that.
Before 773, there had been efforts made for a triple alliance between the Papacy, the Franks, and the Lombards, but those efforts foundered because of the behavior of all three parties. Charlemagne started keeping a German “concubine” who was fertile, which led him to put away his wife (a Lombard princess) and seek to repay the bride price for his barren wife to her father, the Lombard king. Naturally, putting away someone’s daughter is not a particularly good way to commend oneself to her father, while also starting the conquest of Saxony because of his belief that Italy and Gascony were quiescent fronts without trouble. For his part, the Lombard king harbored the young nephews of Charlemagne and their widowed mother, who were a potential threat to the peace of the Frankish kingdom, and had engaged in an aggressive war against the pope and taken several of his cities. The pope, for his part, sought papal independence and to maximize his rule over Italy, and supported whoever was most willing to provide him what he wanted–control over as much of Italy as possible.
How did war come about? For one, the Papacy engaged in a politics of brinksmanship that managed to increase the insecurity of both the Franks and the Lombards in their search for independence. The Lombards, for one, saw the Papacy as being militarily weak (which was largely true, even if they underestimated the skill of papal diplomacy) and also thought of Charlemagne as weak because of his desire to negotiate even at late stages of a campaign. As a result, Charlemagne ended up in a lengthy campaign that distracted him from his goal of the conquest of the Saxons and had to expend a great deal of blood and treasure in the conquest of the Lombard kingdom. The Lombards, of course, lost their independence and became part of Charlemagne’s kingdom and later part of the Holy Roman Empire, which was definitely a negative outcome for them. The Papacy had to pay a great deal of logistical aid to the Franks for their defense and were unable to fully gain the independence they sought, but ended up in a codependent relationship with various revivals of the Roman Empire that provided the muscle while they provided the supposed spiritual legitimacy, a pattern that has not yet ended.
What was the mistake of each party? The Papal side overplayed their hand, not realizing that their military weakness meant that, at best, they could play a supporting rule to a power capable of providing them with cover and protection. Likewise, the papal corruption evident even at that early date meant that they were vulnerable to a loss of power because their moral example did not live up to their claims of spiritual legitimacy. The Franks, on the other hand, were prudent in their attacks but did not convey their strength, allowing their enemies to underestimate them, which led to more conflicts than they wished because they were not respected enough and had to prove their strength over and over again. Their moderation was confused with a lack of strength and resolution. Likewise, the Lombards failed to understand either the diplomatic strength of the papacy or the true military strength of the Franks. As a result, they lost their kingdom altogether.
A similar situation was present at the beginning of the American Civil War, albeit in a more simplified form. The moderation of Abraham Lincoln, combined with the probability that the South would continue to lose influence and power relative to the North, suggested to much of the South that it was necessary to act in order to preserve an unjust system of slavery. The North, for its part, had a great logistical strength but was viewed as being too weak to successfully prosecute its war effort, which invited a challenge. There were some areas, like Kentucky, that sought to remain neutral but were unable to remain so. Sometimes in life we cannot achieve the independence we seek, even as a buffer between larger powers, and then we must simply choose who to serve. Knowing how to balance between not being so much of a threat that others unite against us before we are strong enough to defend ourselves and not being seen as strong enough to be respected is a difficult balance. If Charlemagne had trouble with that balance, imagine how hard it is for the rest of us? | <urn:uuid:8c535ef2-ea4f-4034-b54d-83821210b6bd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://edgeinducedcohesion.blog/2014/03/11/how-to-avoid-a-conflict-that-nobody-wants/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00535.warc.gz | en | 0.988076 | 1,049 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2362998127937317... | 2 | Today I happened to read about an obscure war that started in 773AD between Charlemagne and the forgotten and obscure last king of the Lombards. There were three main parties directly involved in the conflict, along with a whole host of other characters who had influence in the course of events, the Frankish Kingdom, the Lombard Kingdom, and the Papacy. None of them wanted a conflict, yet the actions they took because of their insecurities and desires ended up leading to a war that ended up causing difficulties for all of them, even if it ultimately served the interests of the winners, eventually. Even if this war is not something that is generally known, the dynamics of the conflict suggest matters that may be of interest to people in different situations about how to best avoid conflicts, and the sort of tensions that are inherent in that.
Before 773, there had been efforts made for a triple alliance between the Papacy, the Franks, and the Lombards, but those efforts foundered because of the behavior of all three parties. Charlemagne started keeping a German “concubine” who was fertile, which led him to put away his wife (a Lombard princess) and seek to repay the bride price for his barren wife to her father, the Lombard king. Naturally, putting away someone’s daughter is not a particularly good way to commend oneself to her father, while also starting the conquest of Saxony because of his belief that Italy and Gascony were quiescent fronts without trouble. For his part, the Lombard king harbored the young nephews of Charlemagne and their widowed mother, who were a potential threat to the peace of the Frankish kingdom, and had engaged in an aggressive war against the pope and taken several of his cities. The pope, for his part, sought papal independence and to maximize his rule over Italy, and supported whoever was most willing to provide him what he wanted–control over as much of Italy as possible.
How did war come about? For one, the Papacy engaged in a politics of brinksmanship that managed to increase the insecurity of both the Franks and the Lombards in their search for independence. The Lombards, for one, saw the Papacy as being militarily weak (which was largely true, even if they underestimated the skill of papal diplomacy) and also thought of Charlemagne as weak because of his desire to negotiate even at late stages of a campaign. As a result, Charlemagne ended up in a lengthy campaign that distracted him from his goal of the conquest of the Saxons and had to expend a great deal of blood and treasure in the conquest of the Lombard kingdom. The Lombards, of course, lost their independence and became part of Charlemagne’s kingdom and later part of the Holy Roman Empire, which was definitely a negative outcome for them. The Papacy had to pay a great deal of logistical aid to the Franks for their defense and were unable to fully gain the independence they sought, but ended up in a codependent relationship with various revivals of the Roman Empire that provided the muscle while they provided the supposed spiritual legitimacy, a pattern that has not yet ended.
What was the mistake of each party? The Papal side overplayed their hand, not realizing that their military weakness meant that, at best, they could play a supporting rule to a power capable of providing them with cover and protection. Likewise, the papal corruption evident even at that early date meant that they were vulnerable to a loss of power because their moral example did not live up to their claims of spiritual legitimacy. The Franks, on the other hand, were prudent in their attacks but did not convey their strength, allowing their enemies to underestimate them, which led to more conflicts than they wished because they were not respected enough and had to prove their strength over and over again. Their moderation was confused with a lack of strength and resolution. Likewise, the Lombards failed to understand either the diplomatic strength of the papacy or the true military strength of the Franks. As a result, they lost their kingdom altogether.
A similar situation was present at the beginning of the American Civil War, albeit in a more simplified form. The moderation of Abraham Lincoln, combined with the probability that the South would continue to lose influence and power relative to the North, suggested to much of the South that it was necessary to act in order to preserve an unjust system of slavery. The North, for its part, had a great logistical strength but was viewed as being too weak to successfully prosecute its war effort, which invited a challenge. There were some areas, like Kentucky, that sought to remain neutral but were unable to remain so. Sometimes in life we cannot achieve the independence we seek, even as a buffer between larger powers, and then we must simply choose who to serve. Knowing how to balance between not being so much of a threat that others unite against us before we are strong enough to defend ourselves and not being seen as strong enough to be respected is a difficult balance. If Charlemagne had trouble with that balance, imagine how hard it is for the rest of us? | 1,047 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Berlin Wall embodies the ideological and political clash between two world powers, the United States and the Soviet Union. It was a symbol of the stark differences in opinion between these two former Allies. Once World War II was over, the Soviets and Americans no longer had a shared purpose to hold them together, which led to further chaos in the war stricken nation of Germany.
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Initially, the allies definitive aim had been to rebuild war torn Germany which had been devastated by the allies war against the Nazi regime. The Soviet Union and the Western allies, which consisted of the United States, France and Great Britain, broke ranks when their differences with the Soviets could no longer be contained. The Western allies wanted to spread democracy and capitalism throughout Germany, while the Soviet Union was busy setting up communism and socialist policies in eastern Germany.
Reparations were a huge factor, as the Soviet Union lost millions of men and their country was devastated when the Nazis attacked them. But according to the Potsdam Agreement, “each occupying Power was to take its reparations mainly from its own zone and German assets abroad. But the Soviets, who had been promised half the total of all German reparations, were to be allowed a sixth of the surplus established in the Western zone. Many Germans feared the worst, and as Mary Fulbrook describes it, “[S]ome [former communist] Germans longed for ‘liberation’ and the possibility of a radical transformation of Germany; others felt fear and ambivalence about future retribution.”
In fact, the Soviet policy was harsh, there was a rush to dismantle the factories and the industrial facilities that once facilitate the nazi regime with economic prosperities. Although they decrease their production output, the Soviets were able to accumulate tremendous wealth from reparation payments and occupation cost. The Soviet experienced a net advantage in resources which drained the eastern sector of desperately needed assets to rebuild.
The fast paste of factory and industrialized equipment, seemed as though the Soviets had no long term plan to remain in German soil for long term purposes. By shipping both equipments and experts from East Berlin, it seemed as though that the Soviets were interested in their own economic interest within their own soil. By 1955 the total value of goods and services taken by the Soviets was in the order of $30 billion, as against an agreed figure of $10 billion. A divided nation was on the verge of creation: a democratic conservative on the West, and a hardline communist state in the East ripped Germany apart.
There were even differences within the Western allies that sometimes would emerge as confusing to the newly democratic Western Germany, who did not themselves understand democracy, as the system was foreign to them after 12 years of nazism. American film director Billy Wilder, recalled a conversation he had with a post war, German driver and this is the kind of dialogue that would develop between us: ?about this British election – now that this Atlee has defeated Churchill, what is Churchill going to do? ?I guess he will stay in politics. Or he will write a book, or paint. ?Maybe he is going to make a Putsch, night wahr? ?I don’t think so. ?You mean he is not even going to shoot Atlee? ?No, he is not. ?Are you sure? ?Look man, Wilkie did not make a Putsch against Roosevelt and Dewey did not shoot Truman. ?Thats funny. ?Its hilarious, its democratic!
With the Western powers settling in their zones, while the Soviet Union initiated its distinctive policies in their Eastern zone. Therefore, with free elections in the Western zones, rebuilding Germany was fast paced, as economically it would help spread democracy, and most importantly, trade (with Western powers). Indeed in 1948, the United States spent $13 billion to restore the economies of sixteen Western European nations. Meanwhile, in the East a one party system was formed. As Mary Fulbrook describes it, “a group of Moscow-trained German Communists under the leadership of Walter Ulbricht had been flown in to the area which was to be under Soviet occupation.”
The Soviets were manifestly ahead of the game and without disruption, they implemented their policies under the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) party, which had opposed the Nazis prior to the war and the majority of whose members were imprisoned. It was fully rehabilitated by the Soviets and merged with the also formally nazi outlawed social democratic SPD to create the ?Socialist Unity Party SED. The SED was used to take over key positions in the local administrations throughout the East.
In a strategic move the Soviets, used a non-Communists in local communities, with no or little history of political affiliations for major positions, but with communist control “behind the scenes. The Soviets also experimented with open competitive elections, but when the SED failed to win local elections in 1946, the experiment was abolished and they decided to not risk their chances within their control. The SED no doubt enjoyed special privileges in the new Soviet zone. Meanwhile, members of the rival parties were arrested: Between 1948 and 1950 there were 597 documented cases of CDU members being arrested. The new German Democratic Republic (GDR), was born in 1949, was from the start a Soviet Union controlled totalitarian regime.
Life in the Soviet zone was not as privileged as in the West, where Germans were prospering and Americanizing. Although, according to American journalist Joseph Wechsberg, in 1964, “People live a lot better than five years ago and a little better than last year, but it is probably correct to state that East Germany is ten years behind in consumer goods and the comforts of life.” Even though the East Germans were proud that they produced more motorcycles than the West, this was true because, Western Germans saw motorcycles as no longer fashionable, and preferred cars. By the same token, Wechsberg observes, the wife of a Communist official grumbled because she couldn’t get the latest-style shoes which shed seen in an Eastern German fashion journal. Eventually the stores will have them, but by that time theyll be old hat in the West, and we wont be happy. The bitterness and jealously East Germans felt was constant. The perception was that the West was being helped by the Americans and the East Germans had to work as hard for less. “The Russians buy East Germans goods at prices considerably below the world market prices, in repayment for loans, and when they send raw materials to be finished in D.D.R. factories, they charge more than the world price for their own deliveries.”
Even though East and West Germans were able to visit either side, preventative measure were gradually put in place to curb the traffic. East Germans could enroll in West Berlin Universities, but were placed in menial positions in retaliation, away from educated East Germans, so as not to contaminate them. A crisis were brewing as East Germans were fleeing from the East to the West and registering as residents of the West. Many others crossed to the West without being registered and something had to be done in order to keep track of things. From August 14th to the end of 1961 a further 51,624 were registered. Between 1949 and 13 August 1961 nearly 2.7 million refugees had been registered. Roughly speaking, the GDR had lost a population which was the equivalent of that of Albania, or Israel, or New Zealand, or the Republic of Ireland. Already, Measures had been taken to secure the frontier between the two Germanies in May 1952, when villages were torn apart and crops destroyed to make way for watch-towers, barbed wire, minefields and free-fire zones, turning the Churchillian gibe about the ‘Iron Curtain’ into grim reality.”
This created chaos and confusion, and many were questioning the future of West Berlin, which acted as a sort of escape hatch from where East Germans could travel to Western Europe. Even though Berlin was one city, it was divided into four sectors. The Western sectors represented an island of democracy behind the iron curtain. United under the Socialist Unity Party (SED), Berlin would have been a rich prize both psychologically and economically this was according to the Soviets. On the other hand Independent, West Berlin represented a magnet, spiritual as well as physical, for the East Germans. in April 1948 that the time had come to make a bid to end Berlins anomalous situation.” Tensions were flaring on both sides. The West was distributing the Deutsche (D) Marks within its zones after withdrawing the Reichsmark. The Soviets interpreted this as an economic ploy to undermine the Soviet East and considered it a breach of the Potsdam Agreement. There, it had been decided that Germany was to be treated as an economic whole. What was even more alarming to the Soviets, was that the West announced its intention to distribute the newly printed D-Mark with a “B” for Berlin into Berlin itself. The Soviets were outraged and infuriated by this announcement. They claimed it was breaching the Allied agreements and they took their next drastic step. The infamous, Berlin Blockade.
The Soviets had already made it difficult for Berliners to travel, and trains had been mysteriously re-routed to by-pass West Berlin. Traffic was banned in and out of Berlin. “Within a short time, all routes became unavailable. Claiming fuel shortages, Eastern power stations near enough simultaneously ceased to supply electricity to the Western sectors of Berlin.” The Soviets were evidently trying to starve the West of resources, and around midnight on June 24th, the official Berlin Blockade started. The only way the Western allies could get into Berlin was by air. Even though the Russians doubted that the West could supply Berlin by air, the West proved the Soviets wrong. There were discussions amongst the allies and they came up with two alternatives to an airlift, either an allied military strike of force which would open a route, but which may have led to war, or, surrender and face an international humiliation which could have consequences worldwide, and West Berlin may have led to the spread of communism, and more tension worldwide. This could be detrimental to the Truman Doctrine which called for the containment of the spread of communism. As Fulbrook puts it, America was formally committed to a world policy of stemming what it saw as the tide of soviet expansionism, wherever it might occur. The airlift was the only viable way to help West Berlin survive, and to prevent communism from spreading there. “The American supply operation was codenamed ‘Operation Vittles’, and the British ‘Knicker’ and then ‘Carter Patterson’.”
Despite numerous chaotic situations which occurred during the airlift, the Western allies were successful and no war took place between the Soviets and the allies. Close range flying by both sides created a lot of confusion and conversations about a possible war, but none of this happened as both sides was not prepared to go to war. The Western allies were able to successfully deliver supplies to West Berlin with only a small number of casualties.
But for the first time, the West Berliners felt cared for by the allies. As news of airlift deliveries saturated the West German media, changed German attitudes towards Americans as well. American music and films began playing a vital role in the West, especially Jazz, which was considered the sound of democracy. The United States sponsored West Berlin media created by the Americans was used as a tool to reach the Soviet zone which also had a large audience. It is not forbidden to listen to Western radio programs provided one doesn’t incite others to listen. You may tune in RIAS, the American station in West Berlin, but you mustn’t turn on your radio full blast and put it on the windowsill.
Meanwhile, Berlin mayor, Ernst Reuter, and thousands of anti-communists gathered in front of the Reichstag where Reuter gave a popular speech. We Berliners have said No to Communism and we will fight it with all our might as long as there is a breath in us . . . the Magistrat and the City Assembly together with the freedom-loving Berlin population will build a dam against which the red tide will break in vain. Within five years, East Berlin was ripe for an uprising against the Soviet Union, East Berliners down tools and demonstrated throughout Eastern Germany, the Soviets allowed them to protest, but kept a close eye on the demonstrators, On the morning of June 16, when Waldemar Schmidt (SED), then President of the Police in East Berlin, asked the Soviet authorities for permission to disperse the as yet relatively small crowd of demonstrators on the Stalin-Allee and to arrest their ringleaders, he was forbidden to do so.
Even though the strike leaders repeatedly indicated that the strikes were against the SED and not the Soviets and not the SED, the Soviets declared a state of emergency to deter the protesters, but with careful consideration of not creating a bloodbath that might engage the West to act on the East Berliners behalf.
There was continued tension in a city torn apart between east and west, and it was evident that something more should be done to create law and order. It was a symbolic move by Soviet Zone that erected a famous wall, known as the Berlin Wall, dividing the East from the West. This was a bold move that came in at night like a thief. With most of Berlin asleep, it was round-the-clock workers, the professional night owls, who first realized that the East-West border was being closed: transport workers, police officers, [and] journalist. The premeditated creation of the wall amplified tensions in global diplomacy.
For twenty eight years, the human race was on the brink of extinction between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies. Germany became not only divided by political and social differences, but now a wall of which lasted over twenty-eight years that signified at large, a divided world.
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0.139482557773590... | 1 | The Berlin Wall embodies the ideological and political clash between two world powers, the United States and the Soviet Union. It was a symbol of the stark differences in opinion between these two former Allies. Once World War II was over, the Soviets and Americans no longer had a shared purpose to hold them together, which led to further chaos in the war stricken nation of Germany.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Symbol Of Ideological And Political Clash" essay for youCreate order
Initially, the allies definitive aim had been to rebuild war torn Germany which had been devastated by the allies war against the Nazi regime. The Soviet Union and the Western allies, which consisted of the United States, France and Great Britain, broke ranks when their differences with the Soviets could no longer be contained. The Western allies wanted to spread democracy and capitalism throughout Germany, while the Soviet Union was busy setting up communism and socialist policies in eastern Germany.
Reparations were a huge factor, as the Soviet Union lost millions of men and their country was devastated when the Nazis attacked them. But according to the Potsdam Agreement, “each occupying Power was to take its reparations mainly from its own zone and German assets abroad. But the Soviets, who had been promised half the total of all German reparations, were to be allowed a sixth of the surplus established in the Western zone. Many Germans feared the worst, and as Mary Fulbrook describes it, “[S]ome [former communist] Germans longed for ‘liberation’ and the possibility of a radical transformation of Germany; others felt fear and ambivalence about future retribution.”
In fact, the Soviet policy was harsh, there was a rush to dismantle the factories and the industrial facilities that once facilitate the nazi regime with economic prosperities. Although they decrease their production output, the Soviets were able to accumulate tremendous wealth from reparation payments and occupation cost. The Soviet experienced a net advantage in resources which drained the eastern sector of desperately needed assets to rebuild.
The fast paste of factory and industrialized equipment, seemed as though the Soviets had no long term plan to remain in German soil for long term purposes. By shipping both equipments and experts from East Berlin, it seemed as though that the Soviets were interested in their own economic interest within their own soil. By 1955 the total value of goods and services taken by the Soviets was in the order of $30 billion, as against an agreed figure of $10 billion. A divided nation was on the verge of creation: a democratic conservative on the West, and a hardline communist state in the East ripped Germany apart.
There were even differences within the Western allies that sometimes would emerge as confusing to the newly democratic Western Germany, who did not themselves understand democracy, as the system was foreign to them after 12 years of nazism. American film director Billy Wilder, recalled a conversation he had with a post war, German driver and this is the kind of dialogue that would develop between us: ?about this British election – now that this Atlee has defeated Churchill, what is Churchill going to do? ?I guess he will stay in politics. Or he will write a book, or paint. ?Maybe he is going to make a Putsch, night wahr? ?I don’t think so. ?You mean he is not even going to shoot Atlee? ?No, he is not. ?Are you sure? ?Look man, Wilkie did not make a Putsch against Roosevelt and Dewey did not shoot Truman. ?Thats funny. ?Its hilarious, its democratic!
With the Western powers settling in their zones, while the Soviet Union initiated its distinctive policies in their Eastern zone. Therefore, with free elections in the Western zones, rebuilding Germany was fast paced, as economically it would help spread democracy, and most importantly, trade (with Western powers). Indeed in 1948, the United States spent $13 billion to restore the economies of sixteen Western European nations. Meanwhile, in the East a one party system was formed. As Mary Fulbrook describes it, “a group of Moscow-trained German Communists under the leadership of Walter Ulbricht had been flown in to the area which was to be under Soviet occupation.”
The Soviets were manifestly ahead of the game and without disruption, they implemented their policies under the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) party, which had opposed the Nazis prior to the war and the majority of whose members were imprisoned. It was fully rehabilitated by the Soviets and merged with the also formally nazi outlawed social democratic SPD to create the ?Socialist Unity Party SED. The SED was used to take over key positions in the local administrations throughout the East.
In a strategic move the Soviets, used a non-Communists in local communities, with no or little history of political affiliations for major positions, but with communist control “behind the scenes. The Soviets also experimented with open competitive elections, but when the SED failed to win local elections in 1946, the experiment was abolished and they decided to not risk their chances within their control. The SED no doubt enjoyed special privileges in the new Soviet zone. Meanwhile, members of the rival parties were arrested: Between 1948 and 1950 there were 597 documented cases of CDU members being arrested. The new German Democratic Republic (GDR), was born in 1949, was from the start a Soviet Union controlled totalitarian regime.
Life in the Soviet zone was not as privileged as in the West, where Germans were prospering and Americanizing. Although, according to American journalist Joseph Wechsberg, in 1964, “People live a lot better than five years ago and a little better than last year, but it is probably correct to state that East Germany is ten years behind in consumer goods and the comforts of life.” Even though the East Germans were proud that they produced more motorcycles than the West, this was true because, Western Germans saw motorcycles as no longer fashionable, and preferred cars. By the same token, Wechsberg observes, the wife of a Communist official grumbled because she couldn’t get the latest-style shoes which shed seen in an Eastern German fashion journal. Eventually the stores will have them, but by that time theyll be old hat in the West, and we wont be happy. The bitterness and jealously East Germans felt was constant. The perception was that the West was being helped by the Americans and the East Germans had to work as hard for less. “The Russians buy East Germans goods at prices considerably below the world market prices, in repayment for loans, and when they send raw materials to be finished in D.D.R. factories, they charge more than the world price for their own deliveries.”
Even though East and West Germans were able to visit either side, preventative measure were gradually put in place to curb the traffic. East Germans could enroll in West Berlin Universities, but were placed in menial positions in retaliation, away from educated East Germans, so as not to contaminate them. A crisis were brewing as East Germans were fleeing from the East to the West and registering as residents of the West. Many others crossed to the West without being registered and something had to be done in order to keep track of things. From August 14th to the end of 1961 a further 51,624 were registered. Between 1949 and 13 August 1961 nearly 2.7 million refugees had been registered. Roughly speaking, the GDR had lost a population which was the equivalent of that of Albania, or Israel, or New Zealand, or the Republic of Ireland. Already, Measures had been taken to secure the frontier between the two Germanies in May 1952, when villages were torn apart and crops destroyed to make way for watch-towers, barbed wire, minefields and free-fire zones, turning the Churchillian gibe about the ‘Iron Curtain’ into grim reality.”
This created chaos and confusion, and many were questioning the future of West Berlin, which acted as a sort of escape hatch from where East Germans could travel to Western Europe. Even though Berlin was one city, it was divided into four sectors. The Western sectors represented an island of democracy behind the iron curtain. United under the Socialist Unity Party (SED), Berlin would have been a rich prize both psychologically and economically this was according to the Soviets. On the other hand Independent, West Berlin represented a magnet, spiritual as well as physical, for the East Germans. in April 1948 that the time had come to make a bid to end Berlins anomalous situation.” Tensions were flaring on both sides. The West was distributing the Deutsche (D) Marks within its zones after withdrawing the Reichsmark. The Soviets interpreted this as an economic ploy to undermine the Soviet East and considered it a breach of the Potsdam Agreement. There, it had been decided that Germany was to be treated as an economic whole. What was even more alarming to the Soviets, was that the West announced its intention to distribute the newly printed D-Mark with a “B” for Berlin into Berlin itself. The Soviets were outraged and infuriated by this announcement. They claimed it was breaching the Allied agreements and they took their next drastic step. The infamous, Berlin Blockade.
The Soviets had already made it difficult for Berliners to travel, and trains had been mysteriously re-routed to by-pass West Berlin. Traffic was banned in and out of Berlin. “Within a short time, all routes became unavailable. Claiming fuel shortages, Eastern power stations near enough simultaneously ceased to supply electricity to the Western sectors of Berlin.” The Soviets were evidently trying to starve the West of resources, and around midnight on June 24th, the official Berlin Blockade started. The only way the Western allies could get into Berlin was by air. Even though the Russians doubted that the West could supply Berlin by air, the West proved the Soviets wrong. There were discussions amongst the allies and they came up with two alternatives to an airlift, either an allied military strike of force which would open a route, but which may have led to war, or, surrender and face an international humiliation which could have consequences worldwide, and West Berlin may have led to the spread of communism, and more tension worldwide. This could be detrimental to the Truman Doctrine which called for the containment of the spread of communism. As Fulbrook puts it, America was formally committed to a world policy of stemming what it saw as the tide of soviet expansionism, wherever it might occur. The airlift was the only viable way to help West Berlin survive, and to prevent communism from spreading there. “The American supply operation was codenamed ‘Operation Vittles’, and the British ‘Knicker’ and then ‘Carter Patterson’.”
Despite numerous chaotic situations which occurred during the airlift, the Western allies were successful and no war took place between the Soviets and the allies. Close range flying by both sides created a lot of confusion and conversations about a possible war, but none of this happened as both sides was not prepared to go to war. The Western allies were able to successfully deliver supplies to West Berlin with only a small number of casualties.
But for the first time, the West Berliners felt cared for by the allies. As news of airlift deliveries saturated the West German media, changed German attitudes towards Americans as well. American music and films began playing a vital role in the West, especially Jazz, which was considered the sound of democracy. The United States sponsored West Berlin media created by the Americans was used as a tool to reach the Soviet zone which also had a large audience. It is not forbidden to listen to Western radio programs provided one doesn’t incite others to listen. You may tune in RIAS, the American station in West Berlin, but you mustn’t turn on your radio full blast and put it on the windowsill.
Meanwhile, Berlin mayor, Ernst Reuter, and thousands of anti-communists gathered in front of the Reichstag where Reuter gave a popular speech. We Berliners have said No to Communism and we will fight it with all our might as long as there is a breath in us . . . the Magistrat and the City Assembly together with the freedom-loving Berlin population will build a dam against which the red tide will break in vain. Within five years, East Berlin was ripe for an uprising against the Soviet Union, East Berliners down tools and demonstrated throughout Eastern Germany, the Soviets allowed them to protest, but kept a close eye on the demonstrators, On the morning of June 16, when Waldemar Schmidt (SED), then President of the Police in East Berlin, asked the Soviet authorities for permission to disperse the as yet relatively small crowd of demonstrators on the Stalin-Allee and to arrest their ringleaders, he was forbidden to do so.
Even though the strike leaders repeatedly indicated that the strikes were against the SED and not the Soviets and not the SED, the Soviets declared a state of emergency to deter the protesters, but with careful consideration of not creating a bloodbath that might engage the West to act on the East Berliners behalf.
There was continued tension in a city torn apart between east and west, and it was evident that something more should be done to create law and order. It was a symbolic move by Soviet Zone that erected a famous wall, known as the Berlin Wall, dividing the East from the West. This was a bold move that came in at night like a thief. With most of Berlin asleep, it was round-the-clock workers, the professional night owls, who first realized that the East-West border was being closed: transport workers, police officers, [and] journalist. The premeditated creation of the wall amplified tensions in global diplomacy.
For twenty eight years, the human race was on the brink of extinction between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies. Germany became not only divided by political and social differences, but now a wall of which lasted over twenty-eight years that signified at large, a divided world.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | 2,927 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Armstrong Custer and The Little Bighorn fight have long overshadowed the Battle of the Rosebud. Preceding the Little Bighorn by a week, the outcome of this battle directly influenced what happened to Custer and the 7th US Cavalry.
General George Crook was given command of the southern column of the Bighorn Campaign. With Gibbon's column coming in from the west and the Terry/Custer column from the northeast, the campaign's objective was to trap the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne and forcibly return them back to their reservation. Tactically the battle was inconclusive. Casualties on both sides were relatively low, and in the end Crook held the field. But strategically the Rosebud fight was a great victory for the Sioux and Cheyenne. Crook expended a huge amount of ammunition; most soldiers were down to 10 or fewer rounds each. Many horses were killed, injured or worn out. Because of these reasons Crook decided to withdraw his command back to his base camp, effectively taking his column out of the campaign. Had Crook been able to continue operations he could have linked up with Custer's column, adding his infantry and cavalry to the 7th Cavalry. Custer's last stand would have, in all probability, never have occurred. | <urn:uuid:9873fb51-efe6-4c90-8878-2aa7383655c6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.meeplemart.com/store/p/60636-Indian-Wars-Of-The-American-West-Series-Vol-II-The-Battle-Of-Rosebud-Creek.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.982571 | 266 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.000735... | 4 | George Armstrong Custer and The Little Bighorn fight have long overshadowed the Battle of the Rosebud. Preceding the Little Bighorn by a week, the outcome of this battle directly influenced what happened to Custer and the 7th US Cavalry.
General George Crook was given command of the southern column of the Bighorn Campaign. With Gibbon's column coming in from the west and the Terry/Custer column from the northeast, the campaign's objective was to trap the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne and forcibly return them back to their reservation. Tactically the battle was inconclusive. Casualties on both sides were relatively low, and in the end Crook held the field. But strategically the Rosebud fight was a great victory for the Sioux and Cheyenne. Crook expended a huge amount of ammunition; most soldiers were down to 10 or fewer rounds each. Many horses were killed, injured or worn out. Because of these reasons Crook decided to withdraw his command back to his base camp, effectively taking his column out of the campaign. Had Crook been able to continue operations he could have linked up with Custer's column, adding his infantry and cavalry to the 7th Cavalry. Custer's last stand would have, in all probability, never have occurred. | 268 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Courses this book is used in:
- Junior High School Literature:
From the famous Vision Books series of lives of saints for young people, this is the inspiring dramatic account of the colorful and courageous life and death of the martyr, St. Edmund Campion, "hero of God's underground" during the persecutions of the Catholics in England in the 1500s. Campion, the most celebrated young scholar of his day, was on his way to becoming the Archbishop of Canterbury until a crisis of conscience turned him back to his Catholic faith. He fled England, became a Jesuit priest, and was sent back to be the leader of the underground ministry to the persecuted Catholics until, after a long and frustrated search, the government finally captured him and brutally executed him. His daring and brilliant underground ministry to Catholics all over England, his zeal for the faith, and his great courage and joy in the face of martyrdom are all related in this compelling story for youth. | <urn:uuid:feec76f6-a3dd-4a2f-aa93-304e57619783> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.kolbe.org/collections/7th-grade/products/edmund-campion-hero-of-gods-underground | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00461.warc.gz | en | 0.981474 | 195 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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... | 4 | Courses this book is used in:
- Junior High School Literature:
From the famous Vision Books series of lives of saints for young people, this is the inspiring dramatic account of the colorful and courageous life and death of the martyr, St. Edmund Campion, "hero of God's underground" during the persecutions of the Catholics in England in the 1500s. Campion, the most celebrated young scholar of his day, was on his way to becoming the Archbishop of Canterbury until a crisis of conscience turned him back to his Catholic faith. He fled England, became a Jesuit priest, and was sent back to be the leader of the underground ministry to the persecuted Catholics until, after a long and frustrated search, the government finally captured him and brutally executed him. His daring and brilliant underground ministry to Catholics all over England, his zeal for the faith, and his great courage and joy in the face of martyrdom are all related in this compelling story for youth. | 196 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Divorce was almost unknown in mid-19th century New Zealand. Although it was more common late in the century, it was still a scandalous, shameful rarity, which was seen as challenging the sanctity of marriage. Separation and desertion (walking out on marriage and family) were alternatives to divorce. Desertion was widely believed at the time to happen more often in New Zealand than elsewhere.
Matarena Reneti of Ngāti Awa was unhappy with the man she'd been matched with and married to by elders in the early 1930s. '[T]he match marriage man, I don't like him at all. And after the baby has come I get sick of putting up with him. I said to my sister, "I'm not having HIM anymore. Anyone can have him! You can have him! But I'M not having him." So I kicked him out, got rid of him, dissolved the marriage.'1
Divorce (and marriage) among Māori generally followed Māori tradition well into the 20th century. Adultery and desertion were accepted as reasons for divorce. When a marriage had been solemnised Pākehā-style, divorce had to be obtained in the same way. Up to the 1940s petitions (the document requesting a divorce, in which the grounds for it are laid out) were translated into Māori.
Until 1867 anyone wishing to divorce had to apply to the English courts. In 1867 New Zealand’s first divorce law, the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, was passed. The Supreme Court in Wellington became responsible for hearing cases.
The act allowed either husband or wife to seek a divorce, but the grounds on which they could do so were very different. To gain a divorce, a man only needed to prove adultery on the part of his wife. But for a wife to get a divorce, her husband had to commit adultery plus sodomy, incest, bestiality, bigamy, rape or extreme cruelty.
Whether 'the woman suffered from being associated with an unjust and cruel husband, [or] the man was the victim of a depraved and dissolute wife'2 made no difference. Once married, a mid-19th-century husband and wife had made their bed and were expected to lie in it. Such rotten marriages could be found throughout society, among the poor, the middle-class and the well-to-do.
In 1868 there was one petition (application) for divorce. In 1900 there were 111. Although the rate of increase was dramatic, the actual numbers remained low.
Rates of desertion were not recorded, but scattered settlements, gold rushes and poor communications made it easy for husbands to vanish. Sympathy was widespread for wives left to manage alone, making a living as best they could while bringing up children.
Couples who wished to separate could simply do so, but in some instances contracts were drawn up spelling out allowances and conditions.
When the Baileys, a Southland couple, separated in the early 1880s, the contract they signed allowed each to live independently of the other. Mrs Bailey got a weekly income, and kept money she already had. In return, she promised not to come within 20 miles (32 kilometres) of Invercargill Post Office, to pay her own debts, and not to pledge her husband’s credit. But when Mr Bailey claimed £842 banked in his wife’s name, the agreement went before a judge and was declared invalid.
Divorce provoked both strong support and firm opposition. Opponents of divorce said that the family was the basic moral, social and economic unit of society, and the ‘divorce made easy craze’ would bring social disintegration. Others argued that marriages were failing anyway, and that regulation was needed.
Most of the churches were staunchly opposed to divorce. The Catholic and Anglican churches argued that marriage could only be ended by the death of a spouse. The smaller churches – Baptists, Congregationalists and Salvation Army – agreed. The Presbyterian Church was more liberal: following the Scottish legal tradition, it allowed divorce on the basis of adultery by either husband or wife. But it was firmly against any further easing of divorce.
Generally, divorce was for the well-to-do, desertion for the working class. Separation, which occurred without official involvement, is impossible to track. It may have been the solution of choice for many unhappy couples.
Leaving a marriage was easier for a man than a woman. Men were paid more, so could support themselves. Women’s work paid less, and in the 19th century married women had seven or more children on average.
There were also legal and social factors making it harder for a woman to leave. If a woman left the marital home without her husband’s permission she had legally deserted the marriage, her husband’s obligation to support her was void, she had no right to custody and could be denied contact with her children.
Finding fault and punishing wrong-doing within marriage were central concepts in divorce. Over the 20th century these attitudes slowly weakened, but public and parliamentary debate was fierce when the terms of marriage were challenged or blame was left aside.
From 1898 the grounds for divorce were widened. In the late 19th century the women’s movement campaigned for divorce to be equally available to men and women. Parliament responded with the Divorce Act in 1898. Adultery alone became enough for either men or women to be divorced. New grounds included:
The number of divorces climbed through the 20th century, from 111 in 1900 to more than 7,000 in 1980. Growth in the rate was generally steady, with jumps occurring when new grounds became available, wars ended, or government benefits became available to divorced women.
Most marriages that broke down were handled by a magistrate’s court, using laws relating to desertion rather than divorce. From 1910 women could apply for separation and guardianship orders as well as maintenance and protection. From 1939 men were also able to apply for these orders.
Until 1940 a separation and maintenance hearing at a magistrate’s court was a miserable and public experience. Applicants waited in sordid and uncomfortable witness rooms, then told an open court details of marriage breakdown and sometimes poverty. Their lives were dealt with alongside charges of drunkenness, petty theft and casting offensive matter. From 1940 matrimonial cases were heard separately and in closed court.
By the 1950s divorce had become routine for some people. One married woman in her early 30s deceived and betrayed her husband a number of times, then took their child and went to Sydney to live with a wealthy lover. When her husband pleaded with her to return, she replied, ‘All this is very boring to me and I’m already late for the hairdresser’s.’ 1 After their divorces were finalised, she and her lover married, both of them for the fourth time.
In order to get a divorce one of the partners had to be in the wrong. Most grounds for divorce clearly identified a guilty party – the 1907 act, for example, allowed the divorce of a partner who had murdered or attempted to murder the child of the other spouse. New reasons of this kind were easily accepted.
Allowing divorce because of long-term mental illness provoked serious discussion amongst parliamentarians. A person with mental illness was not choosing to behave badly, and marriage was for better or worse, in sickness and in health. Those in favour won the day when two of three prominent doctors consulted said that mental illness was hereditary and those with it should not be allowed to marry.
There was public outrage in 1920 when it became possible for the guilty party to apply for, and be granted, divorce. Divorce was intended to punish the guilty, not act as a reward for bad behaviour. A law change in 1921 meant courts had to refuse a divorce if the person applying was found to be at fault.
Divorce was studied from the 1950s onwards, and some factors were found to increase its likelihood. Couples married at a young age, particularly if the woman was already pregnant, were more likely to divorce. The less well-educated were more likely to divorce than the highly educated.
In the 1950s people living in the North Island were more likely to get divorced than those in the South Island. This bewildered experts. Perhaps, they suggested, the rapid population growth in the north was unsettling, encouraging divorce among some who then influenced others to do the same.
As the number of divorced people in the community increased, the number remarrying rose. Divorced women were more likely to remarry than divorced men. This difference may have been a result of the need for economic security when raising children.
Divorce in New Zealand was fundamentally altered when Parliament passed the Family Proceedings Act 1980, which came into force the following year. Until then the process had been concerned with finding out who was at fault. The new law focused instead on helping those in failing marriages and, from 2005, civil unions, to sort out their difficulties and move on.
One partner or both could apply for dissolution of the marriage or relationship. From 1990 a dissolution order (as divorce became officially known) did not require a hearing in front of a judge.
Irreconcilable breakdown of marriage became the only basis on which divorces were granted. No one was blamed. Living apart for two years was sufficient proof of irreconcilable differences.
When no-fault divorce became possible, there was a sudden leap from about 6,000 divorces a year in the late 1970s and the start of the 1980s to over 12,000 in 1982. The rate then dropped to around 8,500 a year. It grew through the 1990s and into the early 2000s, reaching 10,608 in 2004. The number then dropped again, with 8001 divorces granted in 2017. Overall, about one-third of formal partnerships end in divorce.
Viagra, a drug that enhances male sexual response, became a new factor in divorce in the 2000s. Husbands in their 50s and 60s took Viagra, and then wanted more sex. Their wives were not always interested, or impressed by a partner’s attention to other women, and some men ended up divorced.
The Family Court was set up in 1981. It had responsibility for managing the breakdown of marital relationships, and, since 2005, of civil unions. Its focus was on easing the process; couples could get counselling and advice before divorcing.
The Family Court heard virtually all custody and relationship property cases from 2002, when its jurisdiction was extended to cover de facto couples, including same-sex couples. Family Court judges occasionally sent particularly complex cases to the High Court.
The lack of services designed and delivered by Māori has also been criticised. The Family Court’s focus on reconciliation where possible, irreconcilable breakdown as the basis for divorce, and provision for children when their parents divorce has been described as ‘in tune with Maori thinking’.1 But the focus on the marital couple alone, rather than the whole whānau, ignored the broader context that Māori couples were part of. There were also general criticisms of the Family Court, including that delays were lengthy, the system was too adversarial, and that women were favoured in custody matters.
The Family Court’s systems were significantly altered in 2014. Services designed to shift low-level dispute resolution to parents were expanded or introduced. These included information resources and tools, a mediation service, a free information programme on minimising the effect of separation on children, and a legal advice service for parents in dispute. In-court processes were standardised and followed ‘simple’, ‘standard’ or ‘complex’ tracks. In some situations people were required to represent themselves rather than having a lawyer. The goal was to make the family justice system more efficient, less expensive and more focused on the needs of children.
A divorcing couple with children could enter the family justice system and come out with an agreement that covered custody of children and property without ever going to court. For those who managed this, the system worked well – it was faster and led to enduring agreements. For those who needed more support or preferred to use the Family Court, it was often slower. The use of ‘without notice’ applications became a focus of criticism. Made by one person without the knowledge of the other, without notice applications were assessed by a judge purely on the basis of the information given by the applicant, who had legal representation. The number of without notice applications rose considerably, and they became a source of tension and concern.
A review in 2017 found that the reforms had not succeeded in reducing time for many of those using it, that court staff were overwhelmed with work and that the savings made were minimal. In 2018 it was announced that there would be a further review of the Family Court system.
From the 19th century laws governing divorce, matrimonial property, desertion, and state support for families were based on a division of responsibility and behaviour. Husbands owned family property and money, and were responsible for supporting wives and children. Wives kept house, had and reared children, and looked after a family’s day-to-day needs.
Judges’ belief in these family roles was spelt out in their judgements and reflected in divorce settlements.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, when desertion was far more common than divorce as a way of ending a failing or unwanted marriage, wives relied for support on family or close friends, or on paid employment.
Some women were poverty-stricken and forced to seek charitable aid from hospital boards or church organisations. Often given reluctantly, it came with requirements of home inspections and reports on housewifely ability.
A wife or charitable-aid board could take a man to court for not supporting his family, but that meant finding him. Not only was vanishing relatively easy, but many wives did not want their husbands home. One charitable aid worker reported that many deserted women told him, ‘Do not send for my husband; we starve in peace when he is away, but we starve in misery when he is home’.1
Wives could go to the magistrate’s court and get a maintenance order. Many did so – in the mid-1890s, 60% of the Wellington magistrate’s court business involved deserted wives seeking maintenance and protection orders.
When divorcing, a woman had to prove her husband at fault to get maintenance. If the amount later proved too little, judges were unlikely to increase it. Instead, they often suggested the woman give children of the marriage to their father. Failure to pay maintenance was common.
After the Family Proceedings Act was passed in 1980, each party became responsible for providing for the other’s reasonable needs if that person could not do this for him or herself. In practice, it remained women who sought maintenance. Grounds on which it could be claimed included childcare responsibilities and the effect of the division of functions within a relationship. Maintenance was awarded for a limited period – people were expected to move toward maintaining themselves.
In the 21st century spousal maintenance was less common. The process of applying for it was expensive, the results uncertain. Maintenance orders were sometimes ignored, requiring further legal action.
Deserted wives with children gained conditional access to a widow’s benefit with the passing of the Pensions Amendment Act 1936. From 1954 a minority of deserted women could get a widow’s benefit after divorce. Other deserted, separated or divorced women could apply for an emergency benefit, with eligibility assessed on a case-by-case basis. If a woman was the 'guilty' party in a marriage's breakdown, support would be refused. From 1973 deserted, separated or divorced women became entitled to the domestic purposes benefit.
Over time there has been a shift from maintenance towards division of property. The property available for division during divorce has also changed. At first it was the family home; then family home and chattels; from 1976, family home, chattels, and business or farm acquired during marriage; and from 2002, future earnings were considered.
In the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, property division was straightforward. Husbands owned property acquired during marriage, and it remained theirs after divorce. After the Second World War, women’s monetary contribution to property began to increase. Joint family homes legislation and state home financing meant that many homes were in the name of both husband and wife. More husbands found their right to property challenged by wives when divorcing.
Financial contributions didn't always count when judges decided who owned the family home. Mrs Masters, of Rata Street in Wellington, had paid all the interest on the first mortgage and the interest and principal on the second, plus the rates and insurance. She earned money by keeping boarders, working as a cleaner, selling her knitting, and taking in washing. Although she could prove her contribution to the family home and finances, when she and Mr Masters divorced in 1954, he was given title to the family home. She had the right to live there, but only while she remained single.
From 1963 judges were able to consider non-financial contributions to marriage when dividing property. They were strongly inclined to favour husbands, who continued to retain or be given sole ownership of the family home and its contents.
The purpose of the Matrimonial Property Act 1976 was to recognise the equal contribution made by husband and wife to marriage. It also extended the property available for division. Businesses, investments, money or farms, if acquired during the marriage, were added to the family home and its furnishings.
At first husbands continued to receive a greater share in the family home and contents, and almost all of other assets. Over time, more equal distribution became normal.
Since 2002 division of property when a marriage, de facto relationship (same-sex or heterosexual) or civil union breaks down is organised according to the Property (Relationships) Act 1976 as amended in 2002.
The act divides property into two categories: relationship and separate. Relationship property – the family home and furnishings, and usually other property bought during a relationship – is available for division. Separate property is not. Relationship property is divided equally. If one partner’s ability to earn a living has been reduced as a result of the relationship (because of childcare responsibilities, for example), they may get a larger share of assets or a lump sum.
The act applies to all marriages and civil unions, but the equal-division rules are softened for those that end within the first three years. It does not usually apply to de facto relationships until they have lasted three years or more. There are exceptions to this. If children are involved the act may be used. If one partner has made a substantial contribution and serious injustice would result from not applying the act, then a court order based on it can be can made.
In the mid-19th century a father owned his children. His legal rights were extensive: he could appoint a guardian and decide where a child lived and with whom. A mother’s agreement was not necessary. But in many cases of marriage failure, care and control of the children was not an issue: when deserting the family, fathers went alone.
Legislation was mainly concerned with the welfare of the child from 1887. The Infants Guardianship and Contracts Act 1887 listed three factors judges were to consider when awarding custody:
The act also removed the presumption of the father’s right to custody. In 1908 this was reinforced when the Infants Act 1908 gave mothers guardianship rights.
Welfare meant not only physical wellbeing, but the spiritual and moral atmosphere in which a child was living. Concern for the child’s moral and spiritual welfare, combined with the legal need for one of the parents to be blamed for divorce, meant that the guilty party was almost never awarded custody.
From the early 20th century the idea that young children, particularly girls, were better off with their mother also influenced custody decisions. This ‘mother principle’ could be overturned if the mother was the guilty party in a divorce. If the mother had committed adultery, she was sometimes denied access to her children.
From 1981 the Family Court heard virtually all custody and access cases.
When divorcing, couples with children under the age of 16 had to satisfy the court that arrangements for the children’s day-to-day care and financial maintenance had been made. Most divorcing or separating couples arranged custody and access without needing to go to court. When satisfactory arrangements had not been made, the court could make parenting orders spelling out day-to-day responsibilities and parents’ contact with the child.
At first custody applications made by those who had been in de facto relationships were less than half the number made by those who were divorcing. As de facto relationships became commonplace, the number of custody disputes between unmarried couples rose. By 1990 the rates were almost the same.
Custody of children can cause ferocious dispute. From the 1970s on, some fathers argued that the Family Court favoured mothers. The issue led to the formation of fathers’ rights groups, which have campaigned for more equal sharing of custody and access.
The Care of Children Act 2004, which came into force in 2005, aimed to:
The wellbeing of children was the paramount consideration. This included supporting their relationships with family members and protecting them. Parental responsibilities rather than rights were emphasised.
The terms ‘custody’ and ‘access’ were replaced by ‘day-to-day care’ and ‘contact’.
Phillips, Roderick. Divorce in New Zealand: a social history. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1981.
Tennant, Margaret. Paupers & providers: charitable aid in New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Historical Branch, Dept. of Internal Affairs, 1989. | <urn:uuid:7c705c00-85a9-45b7-af41-545cbb884d24> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/en/divorce-and-separation/print | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.98499 | 4,563 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.5591722130775452... | 1 | Divorce was almost unknown in mid-19th century New Zealand. Although it was more common late in the century, it was still a scandalous, shameful rarity, which was seen as challenging the sanctity of marriage. Separation and desertion (walking out on marriage and family) were alternatives to divorce. Desertion was widely believed at the time to happen more often in New Zealand than elsewhere.
Matarena Reneti of Ngāti Awa was unhappy with the man she'd been matched with and married to by elders in the early 1930s. '[T]he match marriage man, I don't like him at all. And after the baby has come I get sick of putting up with him. I said to my sister, "I'm not having HIM anymore. Anyone can have him! You can have him! But I'M not having him." So I kicked him out, got rid of him, dissolved the marriage.'1
Divorce (and marriage) among Māori generally followed Māori tradition well into the 20th century. Adultery and desertion were accepted as reasons for divorce. When a marriage had been solemnised Pākehā-style, divorce had to be obtained in the same way. Up to the 1940s petitions (the document requesting a divorce, in which the grounds for it are laid out) were translated into Māori.
Until 1867 anyone wishing to divorce had to apply to the English courts. In 1867 New Zealand’s first divorce law, the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act, was passed. The Supreme Court in Wellington became responsible for hearing cases.
The act allowed either husband or wife to seek a divorce, but the grounds on which they could do so were very different. To gain a divorce, a man only needed to prove adultery on the part of his wife. But for a wife to get a divorce, her husband had to commit adultery plus sodomy, incest, bestiality, bigamy, rape or extreme cruelty.
Whether 'the woman suffered from being associated with an unjust and cruel husband, [or] the man was the victim of a depraved and dissolute wife'2 made no difference. Once married, a mid-19th-century husband and wife had made their bed and were expected to lie in it. Such rotten marriages could be found throughout society, among the poor, the middle-class and the well-to-do.
In 1868 there was one petition (application) for divorce. In 1900 there were 111. Although the rate of increase was dramatic, the actual numbers remained low.
Rates of desertion were not recorded, but scattered settlements, gold rushes and poor communications made it easy for husbands to vanish. Sympathy was widespread for wives left to manage alone, making a living as best they could while bringing up children.
Couples who wished to separate could simply do so, but in some instances contracts were drawn up spelling out allowances and conditions.
When the Baileys, a Southland couple, separated in the early 1880s, the contract they signed allowed each to live independently of the other. Mrs Bailey got a weekly income, and kept money she already had. In return, she promised not to come within 20 miles (32 kilometres) of Invercargill Post Office, to pay her own debts, and not to pledge her husband’s credit. But when Mr Bailey claimed £842 banked in his wife’s name, the agreement went before a judge and was declared invalid.
Divorce provoked both strong support and firm opposition. Opponents of divorce said that the family was the basic moral, social and economic unit of society, and the ‘divorce made easy craze’ would bring social disintegration. Others argued that marriages were failing anyway, and that regulation was needed.
Most of the churches were staunchly opposed to divorce. The Catholic and Anglican churches argued that marriage could only be ended by the death of a spouse. The smaller churches – Baptists, Congregationalists and Salvation Army – agreed. The Presbyterian Church was more liberal: following the Scottish legal tradition, it allowed divorce on the basis of adultery by either husband or wife. But it was firmly against any further easing of divorce.
Generally, divorce was for the well-to-do, desertion for the working class. Separation, which occurred without official involvement, is impossible to track. It may have been the solution of choice for many unhappy couples.
Leaving a marriage was easier for a man than a woman. Men were paid more, so could support themselves. Women’s work paid less, and in the 19th century married women had seven or more children on average.
There were also legal and social factors making it harder for a woman to leave. If a woman left the marital home without her husband’s permission she had legally deserted the marriage, her husband’s obligation to support her was void, she had no right to custody and could be denied contact with her children.
Finding fault and punishing wrong-doing within marriage were central concepts in divorce. Over the 20th century these attitudes slowly weakened, but public and parliamentary debate was fierce when the terms of marriage were challenged or blame was left aside.
From 1898 the grounds for divorce were widened. In the late 19th century the women’s movement campaigned for divorce to be equally available to men and women. Parliament responded with the Divorce Act in 1898. Adultery alone became enough for either men or women to be divorced. New grounds included:
The number of divorces climbed through the 20th century, from 111 in 1900 to more than 7,000 in 1980. Growth in the rate was generally steady, with jumps occurring when new grounds became available, wars ended, or government benefits became available to divorced women.
Most marriages that broke down were handled by a magistrate’s court, using laws relating to desertion rather than divorce. From 1910 women could apply for separation and guardianship orders as well as maintenance and protection. From 1939 men were also able to apply for these orders.
Until 1940 a separation and maintenance hearing at a magistrate’s court was a miserable and public experience. Applicants waited in sordid and uncomfortable witness rooms, then told an open court details of marriage breakdown and sometimes poverty. Their lives were dealt with alongside charges of drunkenness, petty theft and casting offensive matter. From 1940 matrimonial cases were heard separately and in closed court.
By the 1950s divorce had become routine for some people. One married woman in her early 30s deceived and betrayed her husband a number of times, then took their child and went to Sydney to live with a wealthy lover. When her husband pleaded with her to return, she replied, ‘All this is very boring to me and I’m already late for the hairdresser’s.’ 1 After their divorces were finalised, she and her lover married, both of them for the fourth time.
In order to get a divorce one of the partners had to be in the wrong. Most grounds for divorce clearly identified a guilty party – the 1907 act, for example, allowed the divorce of a partner who had murdered or attempted to murder the child of the other spouse. New reasons of this kind were easily accepted.
Allowing divorce because of long-term mental illness provoked serious discussion amongst parliamentarians. A person with mental illness was not choosing to behave badly, and marriage was for better or worse, in sickness and in health. Those in favour won the day when two of three prominent doctors consulted said that mental illness was hereditary and those with it should not be allowed to marry.
There was public outrage in 1920 when it became possible for the guilty party to apply for, and be granted, divorce. Divorce was intended to punish the guilty, not act as a reward for bad behaviour. A law change in 1921 meant courts had to refuse a divorce if the person applying was found to be at fault.
Divorce was studied from the 1950s onwards, and some factors were found to increase its likelihood. Couples married at a young age, particularly if the woman was already pregnant, were more likely to divorce. The less well-educated were more likely to divorce than the highly educated.
In the 1950s people living in the North Island were more likely to get divorced than those in the South Island. This bewildered experts. Perhaps, they suggested, the rapid population growth in the north was unsettling, encouraging divorce among some who then influenced others to do the same.
As the number of divorced people in the community increased, the number remarrying rose. Divorced women were more likely to remarry than divorced men. This difference may have been a result of the need for economic security when raising children.
Divorce in New Zealand was fundamentally altered when Parliament passed the Family Proceedings Act 1980, which came into force the following year. Until then the process had been concerned with finding out who was at fault. The new law focused instead on helping those in failing marriages and, from 2005, civil unions, to sort out their difficulties and move on.
One partner or both could apply for dissolution of the marriage or relationship. From 1990 a dissolution order (as divorce became officially known) did not require a hearing in front of a judge.
Irreconcilable breakdown of marriage became the only basis on which divorces were granted. No one was blamed. Living apart for two years was sufficient proof of irreconcilable differences.
When no-fault divorce became possible, there was a sudden leap from about 6,000 divorces a year in the late 1970s and the start of the 1980s to over 12,000 in 1982. The rate then dropped to around 8,500 a year. It grew through the 1990s and into the early 2000s, reaching 10,608 in 2004. The number then dropped again, with 8001 divorces granted in 2017. Overall, about one-third of formal partnerships end in divorce.
Viagra, a drug that enhances male sexual response, became a new factor in divorce in the 2000s. Husbands in their 50s and 60s took Viagra, and then wanted more sex. Their wives were not always interested, or impressed by a partner’s attention to other women, and some men ended up divorced.
The Family Court was set up in 1981. It had responsibility for managing the breakdown of marital relationships, and, since 2005, of civil unions. Its focus was on easing the process; couples could get counselling and advice before divorcing.
The Family Court heard virtually all custody and relationship property cases from 2002, when its jurisdiction was extended to cover de facto couples, including same-sex couples. Family Court judges occasionally sent particularly complex cases to the High Court.
The lack of services designed and delivered by Māori has also been criticised. The Family Court’s focus on reconciliation where possible, irreconcilable breakdown as the basis for divorce, and provision for children when their parents divorce has been described as ‘in tune with Maori thinking’.1 But the focus on the marital couple alone, rather than the whole whānau, ignored the broader context that Māori couples were part of. There were also general criticisms of the Family Court, including that delays were lengthy, the system was too adversarial, and that women were favoured in custody matters.
The Family Court’s systems were significantly altered in 2014. Services designed to shift low-level dispute resolution to parents were expanded or introduced. These included information resources and tools, a mediation service, a free information programme on minimising the effect of separation on children, and a legal advice service for parents in dispute. In-court processes were standardised and followed ‘simple’, ‘standard’ or ‘complex’ tracks. In some situations people were required to represent themselves rather than having a lawyer. The goal was to make the family justice system more efficient, less expensive and more focused on the needs of children.
A divorcing couple with children could enter the family justice system and come out with an agreement that covered custody of children and property without ever going to court. For those who managed this, the system worked well – it was faster and led to enduring agreements. For those who needed more support or preferred to use the Family Court, it was often slower. The use of ‘without notice’ applications became a focus of criticism. Made by one person without the knowledge of the other, without notice applications were assessed by a judge purely on the basis of the information given by the applicant, who had legal representation. The number of without notice applications rose considerably, and they became a source of tension and concern.
A review in 2017 found that the reforms had not succeeded in reducing time for many of those using it, that court staff were overwhelmed with work and that the savings made were minimal. In 2018 it was announced that there would be a further review of the Family Court system.
From the 19th century laws governing divorce, matrimonial property, desertion, and state support for families were based on a division of responsibility and behaviour. Husbands owned family property and money, and were responsible for supporting wives and children. Wives kept house, had and reared children, and looked after a family’s day-to-day needs.
Judges’ belief in these family roles was spelt out in their judgements and reflected in divorce settlements.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, when desertion was far more common than divorce as a way of ending a failing or unwanted marriage, wives relied for support on family or close friends, or on paid employment.
Some women were poverty-stricken and forced to seek charitable aid from hospital boards or church organisations. Often given reluctantly, it came with requirements of home inspections and reports on housewifely ability.
A wife or charitable-aid board could take a man to court for not supporting his family, but that meant finding him. Not only was vanishing relatively easy, but many wives did not want their husbands home. One charitable aid worker reported that many deserted women told him, ‘Do not send for my husband; we starve in peace when he is away, but we starve in misery when he is home’.1
Wives could go to the magistrate’s court and get a maintenance order. Many did so – in the mid-1890s, 60% of the Wellington magistrate’s court business involved deserted wives seeking maintenance and protection orders.
When divorcing, a woman had to prove her husband at fault to get maintenance. If the amount later proved too little, judges were unlikely to increase it. Instead, they often suggested the woman give children of the marriage to their father. Failure to pay maintenance was common.
After the Family Proceedings Act was passed in 1980, each party became responsible for providing for the other’s reasonable needs if that person could not do this for him or herself. In practice, it remained women who sought maintenance. Grounds on which it could be claimed included childcare responsibilities and the effect of the division of functions within a relationship. Maintenance was awarded for a limited period – people were expected to move toward maintaining themselves.
In the 21st century spousal maintenance was less common. The process of applying for it was expensive, the results uncertain. Maintenance orders were sometimes ignored, requiring further legal action.
Deserted wives with children gained conditional access to a widow’s benefit with the passing of the Pensions Amendment Act 1936. From 1954 a minority of deserted women could get a widow’s benefit after divorce. Other deserted, separated or divorced women could apply for an emergency benefit, with eligibility assessed on a case-by-case basis. If a woman was the 'guilty' party in a marriage's breakdown, support would be refused. From 1973 deserted, separated or divorced women became entitled to the domestic purposes benefit.
Over time there has been a shift from maintenance towards division of property. The property available for division during divorce has also changed. At first it was the family home; then family home and chattels; from 1976, family home, chattels, and business or farm acquired during marriage; and from 2002, future earnings were considered.
In the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, property division was straightforward. Husbands owned property acquired during marriage, and it remained theirs after divorce. After the Second World War, women’s monetary contribution to property began to increase. Joint family homes legislation and state home financing meant that many homes were in the name of both husband and wife. More husbands found their right to property challenged by wives when divorcing.
Financial contributions didn't always count when judges decided who owned the family home. Mrs Masters, of Rata Street in Wellington, had paid all the interest on the first mortgage and the interest and principal on the second, plus the rates and insurance. She earned money by keeping boarders, working as a cleaner, selling her knitting, and taking in washing. Although she could prove her contribution to the family home and finances, when she and Mr Masters divorced in 1954, he was given title to the family home. She had the right to live there, but only while she remained single.
From 1963 judges were able to consider non-financial contributions to marriage when dividing property. They were strongly inclined to favour husbands, who continued to retain or be given sole ownership of the family home and its contents.
The purpose of the Matrimonial Property Act 1976 was to recognise the equal contribution made by husband and wife to marriage. It also extended the property available for division. Businesses, investments, money or farms, if acquired during the marriage, were added to the family home and its furnishings.
At first husbands continued to receive a greater share in the family home and contents, and almost all of other assets. Over time, more equal distribution became normal.
Since 2002 division of property when a marriage, de facto relationship (same-sex or heterosexual) or civil union breaks down is organised according to the Property (Relationships) Act 1976 as amended in 2002.
The act divides property into two categories: relationship and separate. Relationship property – the family home and furnishings, and usually other property bought during a relationship – is available for division. Separate property is not. Relationship property is divided equally. If one partner’s ability to earn a living has been reduced as a result of the relationship (because of childcare responsibilities, for example), they may get a larger share of assets or a lump sum.
The act applies to all marriages and civil unions, but the equal-division rules are softened for those that end within the first three years. It does not usually apply to de facto relationships until they have lasted three years or more. There are exceptions to this. If children are involved the act may be used. If one partner has made a substantial contribution and serious injustice would result from not applying the act, then a court order based on it can be can made.
In the mid-19th century a father owned his children. His legal rights were extensive: he could appoint a guardian and decide where a child lived and with whom. A mother’s agreement was not necessary. But in many cases of marriage failure, care and control of the children was not an issue: when deserting the family, fathers went alone.
Legislation was mainly concerned with the welfare of the child from 1887. The Infants Guardianship and Contracts Act 1887 listed three factors judges were to consider when awarding custody:
The act also removed the presumption of the father’s right to custody. In 1908 this was reinforced when the Infants Act 1908 gave mothers guardianship rights.
Welfare meant not only physical wellbeing, but the spiritual and moral atmosphere in which a child was living. Concern for the child’s moral and spiritual welfare, combined with the legal need for one of the parents to be blamed for divorce, meant that the guilty party was almost never awarded custody.
From the early 20th century the idea that young children, particularly girls, were better off with their mother also influenced custody decisions. This ‘mother principle’ could be overturned if the mother was the guilty party in a divorce. If the mother had committed adultery, she was sometimes denied access to her children.
From 1981 the Family Court heard virtually all custody and access cases.
When divorcing, couples with children under the age of 16 had to satisfy the court that arrangements for the children’s day-to-day care and financial maintenance had been made. Most divorcing or separating couples arranged custody and access without needing to go to court. When satisfactory arrangements had not been made, the court could make parenting orders spelling out day-to-day responsibilities and parents’ contact with the child.
At first custody applications made by those who had been in de facto relationships were less than half the number made by those who were divorcing. As de facto relationships became commonplace, the number of custody disputes between unmarried couples rose. By 1990 the rates were almost the same.
Custody of children can cause ferocious dispute. From the 1970s on, some fathers argued that the Family Court favoured mothers. The issue led to the formation of fathers’ rights groups, which have campaigned for more equal sharing of custody and access.
The Care of Children Act 2004, which came into force in 2005, aimed to:
The wellbeing of children was the paramount consideration. This included supporting their relationships with family members and protecting them. Parental responsibilities rather than rights were emphasised.
The terms ‘custody’ and ‘access’ were replaced by ‘day-to-day care’ and ‘contact’.
Phillips, Roderick. Divorce in New Zealand: a social history. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1981.
Tennant, Margaret. Paupers & providers: charitable aid in New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Historical Branch, Dept. of Internal Affairs, 1989. | 4,687 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To Kill A Mocking Bird deals with many primal and basic lessons in human nature. The book exposes many issues that affect most people throughout their lives. Scout, the main character was one of the most affected by these lessons. During the book she was exposed to many profound experiences, which no doubt will leave a lasting impression. In the three years that the book took place, she may have learned the most
important things she will learn over her entire life.
One person that affected Scouts life was Boo Radley. He brought wonder, fear and then finally relief to her heart. At first kids thought he was evil. There were rumours that while he cut out the newspaper for his scrap book he "drove the scissors into his parent's leg."(pg11) He had tried to kill them. Even though this may have been just a rumor the kids were terrified of the Radleys. They described him often as a monster "six-and-a-half feet tall" with "bloodstained" hands. He was said to eat "raw squirrels and any cats he could catch".(pg12) During the rest of the book Scout and companions tried to meet Arthur (Boo) and get over their fear of him. They did not succeed. But he showed affection for them by leaving them
gifts in a tree. Finally at the end of the book he proves he is a good person by saving Scout and Jem's lives. In this instance Scout may have found that to negatively prejudge someone is wrong. She also learned compassion.
Scout also learnt about the ugliness of life. About death and pain. This lesson occurred while her brother had to read to a sick and dieing old lady. This lady's name was Mrs. Dubose. She had been a morphine addict and had decided to go clean till her death. To die as a free women, to die knowing she had won. Scout describes her as a ugly lady and during their reading sessions she would have some kind of spasm-fits. Her head moved side to side. She would drool. "Her mouth seemed to have a private existence of it's own." (pg.107) After many reading sessions with her having a fit each time, she died one
Probably the most important person in Scout's life was the one who had set the best examples for her. This was Atticus. He taught Scout how to deal with people. One of his teachings was to be the bigger person. When Bob Ewell spit in Atticus's face and threatened his life, he did nothing and walked away. All he had to say later was,"I wish Bob Ewell wouldn't chew tobacco."(pg.217) Atticus reacts with his brain not emotions. He encourages Scout to do the same.
Another trait that he teaches is respect. Respect for people who are different. People such as Boo Radley. The kids had been acting out a play which involved Boo's scissor incident. They also tried to give a letter to him, so that he would come out to meet them. Atticus found out about both incidents. They were put in their place and told to, "stop tormenting that man." He then told them that, "what Mr.Radley did was his own business."(pg.49) Atticus also commanded respect for black people. He once told Jem that if a white man cheats a black man, "no matter who he is, how rich he is, or how fine a family he comes from, that man is trash."(pg.220) At the trial he also explained that there are bad and good black men as there are good and bad white men.(pg.204)
Two more models that helped Scout out. The first was a valuable example set by Atticus. He had been told to defend Tom Robinson. The case was a lost cause because he was beat before he began, and itwould bring hardship to himself and his family. He knew this, but did not give up. It was the right thing to do. As he told his brother, "do you think I could face my children otherwise"(pg.88) Scout heard this conversation and understood it in later years. Again teaching this gives her a valuable example; Stick to what you believe in. A lesson in effort and commitment was also demonstrated by Mrs. Dubose. After finding out that she would soon die, she decided to kick the morphine. This was a very hard thing for her or for that matter anyone to do. "She was the bravest person I knew." said Atticus. He also again repeated that courage is when, "you know you're licked before you begin but you begin anyway".(pg.112) This is in fact a mirror image example of what he was doing by taking on the Robinson case.
And finally not so much a lesson but a warning for Scout. The warning comes from Boo Radley, a man who keeps away from society as he seems to fear it. His life is a perfect testimony for all the bad and ugliness of our world. As Jem said best. "I think I'm beginning to understand why Boo Radley stayed shut up in the house all this time......It's because he wants to stay inside."
It become apparent that the things that Scout has learned are all very important. Some maybe the most important during her lifetime. This is why these may have been some of the most important years of here life. And that all the experiences that she went though were essential.
Andere boeken van deze auteur:
Home - Contact - Over - ZoekBoekverslag op uw site - Onze Boekverslagen - Boekverslag toevoegen | <urn:uuid:f61d9668-8287-4df2-a757-f0ddcd9a70e6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.zoekboekverslag.nl/boekverslag-2731.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.992051 | 1,179 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.06230342015624046... | 3 | To Kill A Mocking Bird deals with many primal and basic lessons in human nature. The book exposes many issues that affect most people throughout their lives. Scout, the main character was one of the most affected by these lessons. During the book she was exposed to many profound experiences, which no doubt will leave a lasting impression. In the three years that the book took place, she may have learned the most
important things she will learn over her entire life.
One person that affected Scouts life was Boo Radley. He brought wonder, fear and then finally relief to her heart. At first kids thought he was evil. There were rumours that while he cut out the newspaper for his scrap book he "drove the scissors into his parent's leg."(pg11) He had tried to kill them. Even though this may have been just a rumor the kids were terrified of the Radleys. They described him often as a monster "six-and-a-half feet tall" with "bloodstained" hands. He was said to eat "raw squirrels and any cats he could catch".(pg12) During the rest of the book Scout and companions tried to meet Arthur (Boo) and get over their fear of him. They did not succeed. But he showed affection for them by leaving them
gifts in a tree. Finally at the end of the book he proves he is a good person by saving Scout and Jem's lives. In this instance Scout may have found that to negatively prejudge someone is wrong. She also learned compassion.
Scout also learnt about the ugliness of life. About death and pain. This lesson occurred while her brother had to read to a sick and dieing old lady. This lady's name was Mrs. Dubose. She had been a morphine addict and had decided to go clean till her death. To die as a free women, to die knowing she had won. Scout describes her as a ugly lady and during their reading sessions she would have some kind of spasm-fits. Her head moved side to side. She would drool. "Her mouth seemed to have a private existence of it's own." (pg.107) After many reading sessions with her having a fit each time, she died one
Probably the most important person in Scout's life was the one who had set the best examples for her. This was Atticus. He taught Scout how to deal with people. One of his teachings was to be the bigger person. When Bob Ewell spit in Atticus's face and threatened his life, he did nothing and walked away. All he had to say later was,"I wish Bob Ewell wouldn't chew tobacco."(pg.217) Atticus reacts with his brain not emotions. He encourages Scout to do the same.
Another trait that he teaches is respect. Respect for people who are different. People such as Boo Radley. The kids had been acting out a play which involved Boo's scissor incident. They also tried to give a letter to him, so that he would come out to meet them. Atticus found out about both incidents. They were put in their place and told to, "stop tormenting that man." He then told them that, "what Mr.Radley did was his own business."(pg.49) Atticus also commanded respect for black people. He once told Jem that if a white man cheats a black man, "no matter who he is, how rich he is, or how fine a family he comes from, that man is trash."(pg.220) At the trial he also explained that there are bad and good black men as there are good and bad white men.(pg.204)
Two more models that helped Scout out. The first was a valuable example set by Atticus. He had been told to defend Tom Robinson. The case was a lost cause because he was beat before he began, and itwould bring hardship to himself and his family. He knew this, but did not give up. It was the right thing to do. As he told his brother, "do you think I could face my children otherwise"(pg.88) Scout heard this conversation and understood it in later years. Again teaching this gives her a valuable example; Stick to what you believe in. A lesson in effort and commitment was also demonstrated by Mrs. Dubose. After finding out that she would soon die, she decided to kick the morphine. This was a very hard thing for her or for that matter anyone to do. "She was the bravest person I knew." said Atticus. He also again repeated that courage is when, "you know you're licked before you begin but you begin anyway".(pg.112) This is in fact a mirror image example of what he was doing by taking on the Robinson case.
And finally not so much a lesson but a warning for Scout. The warning comes from Boo Radley, a man who keeps away from society as he seems to fear it. His life is a perfect testimony for all the bad and ugliness of our world. As Jem said best. "I think I'm beginning to understand why Boo Radley stayed shut up in the house all this time......It's because he wants to stay inside."
It become apparent that the things that Scout has learned are all very important. Some maybe the most important during her lifetime. This is why these may have been some of the most important years of here life. And that all the experiences that she went though were essential.
Andere boeken van deze auteur:
Home - Contact - Over - ZoekBoekverslag op uw site - Onze Boekverslagen - Boekverslag toevoegen | 1,176 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While the popularity of communism has waned in recent years, it was once one of the most popular political ideologies in the world, and reached its peak in the 20th century. There are several figures in history who championed the spread of communism, and were revered both in their respective countries as well as internationally.
7. Karl Marx
Karl Marx was arguably the world’s most influential communist leader of all time. Karl Marx was also a renowned philosopher, sociologist, and economist is often termed as one of the most influential figures in human history. Karl Marx was born on May 5th, 1818 in the Kingdom of Prussia in the modern-day Lower Rhine region where he spent most of his childhood. The young Marx would later move to Cologne where he wrote a controversial paper entitled Rheinische Zeitung which was soon banned by the government of Prussia. Karl Marx is perhaps best known for being the founder of Marxism, an ideological movement whose doctrines are practiced by governments around the world and became instrumental in the establishment of 20th-century communists states such as Cuba, the USSR, and China. Karl Marx died on March 12th, 1883 in London, England and was buried at the Highgate Cemetery.
6. Vladimir Lenin
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was a 20th-century politician who served in several paramount positions in Russia including as head of the government between 1917 and 1924. Vladimir Lenin was among the most important communist leaders in Russian history. Lenin was born on March 22nd, 1870 in Simbirsk, Russia to a relatively wealthy family who were liberal conservatives. Lenin’s father died in 1886 while his brother was executed in 1887, events which forever altered Lenin’s political and spiritual beliefs, and which propelled him to begin practicing revolutionary socialism. Lenin would begin his long political career in 1893 after he moved to Saint Petersburg and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party as a senior figure. Lenin ascended to the leadership of the country after his party overthrew the government in 1917 during the October Revolution and soon established a communist-socialist government. Lenin’s socialist ideologies were extremely popular among Russian citizens who caused Vladimir Lenin to have a cult-like following in Russia (which displeased him greatly). The socialist government that Lenin established in the early 20th century was the basis of the subsequent governments which governed the republic for about seven decades. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin died on January 21st, 1924 in Gorki, aged 53 years.
5. Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin was a 20th century Russian political and revolutionary leader and was the face of the Soviet Union during the Second World War as well as the Cold War. Joseph Stalin became an instrumental figure in the socialist movement around the world in the 20th century. Joseph Stalin was born on December 18th, 1878 in a small town of Gori in the then Russian Empire to a low-income family. The young Stalin would later join the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party where he was engaged in several activities including editing the party’s publication, Pravda, and conducting kidnappings and robberies to finance the party’s engagements. Joseph Stalin would gain an influential position after the Lenin-led party ascended to leadership in 1917. During Lenin’s reign as leader, Stalin gained a cult-like following among the Russian public and succeeded Lenin as leader of the Soviet Union after Lenin’s death in 1924. In his governance, Stalin was inspired by the ideologies of both Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin and merged to two to form the Stalinism ideology, a form of socialism that he championed. Joseph Stalin died on March 5th, 1953 and was mourned by other communist leaders including China’s Mao Zedong whose government instituted a period of national mourning in Stalin’s honor.
4. Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong was a 20th century Chinese revolutionary leader, communist leader, and founder of the People’s Republic of China. Mao was one of the central figures of communism in Asia and was the founder of the Communist Party of China. Mao Zedong was born on December 26th, 1893 in Shaoshan in the Imperial China, and embraced the anti-imperialist movement that was taking shape in his youth, particularly after the 1911 Xinhai Revolution. Mao was inspired by other communist leaders such as Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, and adopted the Marxism-Leninism ideologies. Mao founded the Communist Party of China while working at the Peking University. In 1949, Mao led communist forces who deposed the imperial government and established the one-party state known as the People’s Republic of China. Mao Zedong died on September 9th, 1976 in Beijing.
3. Ho Chi Minh
Ho Chi Minh was a 20th century communist leader in Vietnam, and was the most influential politician in the country’s history. Minh was born on May 19th, 1890 in Hoang Tru, a small Vietnamese village, and was then named Nguyen Sinh Cung. Minh had the privilege of visiting several countries including the United States, France, and the United Kingdom as a young adult. Ho Chi Minh embraced communist ideologies of Marxism-Leninism while on his brief stay in Moscow in 1923. Minh was instrumental in the Vietnam’s struggle for independence and became North Vietnam’s first president. Ho Chi Minh died on September 2nd, 1969 in Hanoi. Minh was revered all over the world as a revolutionist, and became an inspiration for other revolutionary struggles in Asia and Africa.
2. Kim Il-sung
Kim Il-Sung was a revolutionary leader of North Korea who served as the country’s head of state and government between 1948 and 1994. As the founding father of the communist republic of North Korea, Kim Il-Sung became the most influential leader in the country’s history with many North Koreans seeing the leader as a demigod. Kim Il-Sung was born on April 12th, 1912 in Mangyongdae, and was exposed to the oppression North Koreans faced when the country was under Japanese occupation. Kim joined the Mao-led Communist Party of China in 1931 and became involved in anti-Japanese guerilla warfare. Kim would later immigrate to the Soviet Republic in 1945 where he was appointed as a major of the Red Army. After the Soviet Army deposed Japanese occupation in Korea, Kim Il-Sung was appointed as the leader of North Korea. Kim Il-Sung ruled over North Korea for about 45 years until his death in 1994.
1. Fidel Castro
Fidel Castro was the political and revolutionary leader in Cuba who rose to fame after overthrowing the oppressive regime of Fulgencio Batista in 1959 and established a communist government in the country. Fidel Castro was one of the longest serving heads of state in the world after being in the helm of Cuba’s government between 1959 and 2008 as prime minister and later as president. Fidel Castro was admired by millions of people around the world for his communist-led government which championed anti-imperialism movements.
Who Is The Most Influential Communist Leader Of All Time?
Karl Marx is referred to as the father of communism. However, there were other communist leaders who have also been influential. Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin were two of the USSR's most influential communist leaders. Mao Zedong inspired Maoism in China while communism in Cuba was headed by Fidel Castro.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:08e28457-b1d8-41dd-8250-cba004ded5eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-seven-most-influential-communist-leaders-ever.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00142.warc.gz | en | 0.984587 | 1,590 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.2300110161304474... | 2 | While the popularity of communism has waned in recent years, it was once one of the most popular political ideologies in the world, and reached its peak in the 20th century. There are several figures in history who championed the spread of communism, and were revered both in their respective countries as well as internationally.
7. Karl Marx
Karl Marx was arguably the world’s most influential communist leader of all time. Karl Marx was also a renowned philosopher, sociologist, and economist is often termed as one of the most influential figures in human history. Karl Marx was born on May 5th, 1818 in the Kingdom of Prussia in the modern-day Lower Rhine region where he spent most of his childhood. The young Marx would later move to Cologne where he wrote a controversial paper entitled Rheinische Zeitung which was soon banned by the government of Prussia. Karl Marx is perhaps best known for being the founder of Marxism, an ideological movement whose doctrines are practiced by governments around the world and became instrumental in the establishment of 20th-century communists states such as Cuba, the USSR, and China. Karl Marx died on March 12th, 1883 in London, England and was buried at the Highgate Cemetery.
6. Vladimir Lenin
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was a 20th-century politician who served in several paramount positions in Russia including as head of the government between 1917 and 1924. Vladimir Lenin was among the most important communist leaders in Russian history. Lenin was born on March 22nd, 1870 in Simbirsk, Russia to a relatively wealthy family who were liberal conservatives. Lenin’s father died in 1886 while his brother was executed in 1887, events which forever altered Lenin’s political and spiritual beliefs, and which propelled him to begin practicing revolutionary socialism. Lenin would begin his long political career in 1893 after he moved to Saint Petersburg and joined the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party as a senior figure. Lenin ascended to the leadership of the country after his party overthrew the government in 1917 during the October Revolution and soon established a communist-socialist government. Lenin’s socialist ideologies were extremely popular among Russian citizens who caused Vladimir Lenin to have a cult-like following in Russia (which displeased him greatly). The socialist government that Lenin established in the early 20th century was the basis of the subsequent governments which governed the republic for about seven decades. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin died on January 21st, 1924 in Gorki, aged 53 years.
5. Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin was a 20th century Russian political and revolutionary leader and was the face of the Soviet Union during the Second World War as well as the Cold War. Joseph Stalin became an instrumental figure in the socialist movement around the world in the 20th century. Joseph Stalin was born on December 18th, 1878 in a small town of Gori in the then Russian Empire to a low-income family. The young Stalin would later join the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party where he was engaged in several activities including editing the party’s publication, Pravda, and conducting kidnappings and robberies to finance the party’s engagements. Joseph Stalin would gain an influential position after the Lenin-led party ascended to leadership in 1917. During Lenin’s reign as leader, Stalin gained a cult-like following among the Russian public and succeeded Lenin as leader of the Soviet Union after Lenin’s death in 1924. In his governance, Stalin was inspired by the ideologies of both Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin and merged to two to form the Stalinism ideology, a form of socialism that he championed. Joseph Stalin died on March 5th, 1953 and was mourned by other communist leaders including China’s Mao Zedong whose government instituted a period of national mourning in Stalin’s honor.
4. Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong was a 20th century Chinese revolutionary leader, communist leader, and founder of the People’s Republic of China. Mao was one of the central figures of communism in Asia and was the founder of the Communist Party of China. Mao Zedong was born on December 26th, 1893 in Shaoshan in the Imperial China, and embraced the anti-imperialist movement that was taking shape in his youth, particularly after the 1911 Xinhai Revolution. Mao was inspired by other communist leaders such as Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, and adopted the Marxism-Leninism ideologies. Mao founded the Communist Party of China while working at the Peking University. In 1949, Mao led communist forces who deposed the imperial government and established the one-party state known as the People’s Republic of China. Mao Zedong died on September 9th, 1976 in Beijing.
3. Ho Chi Minh
Ho Chi Minh was a 20th century communist leader in Vietnam, and was the most influential politician in the country’s history. Minh was born on May 19th, 1890 in Hoang Tru, a small Vietnamese village, and was then named Nguyen Sinh Cung. Minh had the privilege of visiting several countries including the United States, France, and the United Kingdom as a young adult. Ho Chi Minh embraced communist ideologies of Marxism-Leninism while on his brief stay in Moscow in 1923. Minh was instrumental in the Vietnam’s struggle for independence and became North Vietnam’s first president. Ho Chi Minh died on September 2nd, 1969 in Hanoi. Minh was revered all over the world as a revolutionist, and became an inspiration for other revolutionary struggles in Asia and Africa.
2. Kim Il-sung
Kim Il-Sung was a revolutionary leader of North Korea who served as the country’s head of state and government between 1948 and 1994. As the founding father of the communist republic of North Korea, Kim Il-Sung became the most influential leader in the country’s history with many North Koreans seeing the leader as a demigod. Kim Il-Sung was born on April 12th, 1912 in Mangyongdae, and was exposed to the oppression North Koreans faced when the country was under Japanese occupation. Kim joined the Mao-led Communist Party of China in 1931 and became involved in anti-Japanese guerilla warfare. Kim would later immigrate to the Soviet Republic in 1945 where he was appointed as a major of the Red Army. After the Soviet Army deposed Japanese occupation in Korea, Kim Il-Sung was appointed as the leader of North Korea. Kim Il-Sung ruled over North Korea for about 45 years until his death in 1994.
1. Fidel Castro
Fidel Castro was the political and revolutionary leader in Cuba who rose to fame after overthrowing the oppressive regime of Fulgencio Batista in 1959 and established a communist government in the country. Fidel Castro was one of the longest serving heads of state in the world after being in the helm of Cuba’s government between 1959 and 2008 as prime minister and later as president. Fidel Castro was admired by millions of people around the world for his communist-led government which championed anti-imperialism movements.
Who Is The Most Influential Communist Leader Of All Time?
Karl Marx is referred to as the father of communism. However, there were other communist leaders who have also been influential. Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin were two of the USSR's most influential communist leaders. Mao Zedong inspired Maoism in China while communism in Cuba was headed by Fidel Castro.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,692 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One question I often receive about the data for the Germany is why the German stock and bond indices had a 90% decline in June 1948. At first, people think there is an error in the data, but German shareholders actually did lose 90% of their capital as a result of the Currency Reform of June 20, 1948 when Reichsmark were converted into Deutschemark.
Despite the loss, the reform benefitted shareholders. who were unable to sell their stocks at the fixed prices the Nazis had imposed during the war. Although the Currency Reform imposed an immediate loss on all shareholders and bondholders, the Reform helped West Germany to emerge from the economic collapse of World War II and begin the Wirtschaftswunder (Economic Miracle) that enabled Germany to enjoy the economic growth that occurred in the decades that followed.
During the 1940s, the German government organized its economy with one goal in mind: to win the war. As in the United States, the government made sure that all goods essential to the war were acquired by the government at a reduced cost. The prices of consumer goods were controlled in order to limit inflation, but the inevitable result was a black market in scarce consumer goods.Not only were price controls imposed upon goods, but price floors were introduced for stocks and bonds, preventing securities from declining in value. A bombed out factory isn’t worth as much as a fully functioning factory, and industry was run to aid the war effort, not to make profits. If markets had been left to themselves, stock prices would have declined as the tide of the war turned against the Nazis. Since prices didn’t reflect the values of the shares, stock markets froze and trading dwindled until it was almost non-existent.
Price floors had been introduced during World War I in London, New York, Berlin and other countries for good reason. Although stocks traded at full price, market makers only had to put up a fraction of the cost of stocks, waiting until settlement days to balance their accounts. A steep decline in prices would have bankrupted many of the stock market’s traders, so the price floors were introduced to prevent panic selling.
As a result of the price floors, trading in many securities stopped since no one was willing to buy shares for less than they were worth. Consequently, between January 1943 and June 1948 there was virtually no change in the German stock market index. The Nazi government remained in default on its own bonds until 1953, introduced multiple exchange rates, and imposed capital controls to stem the flow of money out of Nazi Germany.
The War Ends and the Economy Collapses
After the war ended in Germany, the economic situation got even worse. The money supply had expanded five-fold between 1939 and 1945, but prices of many goods were fixed. Although ration coupons were used to allocate some goods, the amounts rationed were insufficient to meet daily needs, and consumers were forced to turn to black markets.
After the war ended, the occupying powers replaced the Reichsmark and Rentenmark with a Military Mark. Although the western Allies tried to limit the issue of Military Marks to control inflation, the Soviets were more than willing to print extra marks to pay for the rising costs of occupation. For political, rather than for economic reasons, the Western Allies gave copies of the plates for the Military Mark to the Soviets who began printing excessive amounts of the notes generating inflation. Having suffered from economic collapse and inflation after World War I, Germany was facing a second collapse that might have been worse than the hyperinflationary death spiral of the 1920s.
By the spring of 1948, the German economy was collapsing. Food production was half what it had been in 1938 and industrial production was one-third of its pre-war level. With salaries controlled by the government, wages were low, and many workers failed to show up, contributing to the decline in production. Instead, people devoted their time to finding the food they needed to survive. Anywhere from one-third to one-half of all transactions were on the black market or through barter.
American cigarettes were used as a more reliable currency than paper money since cigarettes held their value. Many soldiers sold their cigarettes on the black market to add to the meager salary they were receiving. Food was so scarce that on weekends, many Germans left the cities for the countryside to try and buy food directly from farmers since the shelves of stores in the city were bare. Some Germans grew food in their back yards to keep themselves from starving.
Replacing Nazi Economics with the Free Market
With the growing tension between the western Allies and the Soviet Union, the need to revive the German economy superseded the need to pacify Germany. The reform of the German currency and economy was overseen by Ludwig Erhard who wanted to replace the government-controlled Nazi economy with one based upon the market. Erhard had refused to support the idea of a centralized economy under Hitler, and his anti-Nazi credentials helped him to secure the support of the Allies over other German economists who wanted to maintain the government controls and rationing which clearly were impoverishing the nation. Erhard advocated the ending of price controls and a currency reform which would replace the Military Mark with a new currency with a limited money supply called the Deutschemark.By eliminating the Military Mark and replacing it with a smaller supply of Deutschemark while simultaneously eliminating all price controls, Erhard hoped to end both inflation and the shortages that plagued the economy. The Deutschemark were secretly printed in the United States and put in boxes that were innocuously labelled “doorknobs” so they wouldn’t arouse suspicion. Meanwhile, factories were instructed to withhold the distribution of their goods until the currency reform was introduced so the flood of goods into stores would help the economy to revive as quickly as possible.
On June 20, 1948, the currency reform was introduced. Germans, who had gone to bureaucratic offices to pick up their ration coupons, instead received 40 Deutschemark in the new currency and an additional 20 Deutschemark soon after. Germans were allowed to exchange a limited amount of their Military Marks into Deutschemarks, but most of their money was lost. Now goods would be rationed by Deutschemark, not by ration coupons.
Stocks and bonds were converted from Reichsmark into Deutschemark at the rate of 1 to 10. A bond or stock that had been worth 100 Reichsmark was now worth 10 Deutschemark. In effect, the government imposed a 90% loss on all securities. This is why GFD’s German stock and bond indices show a 90% drop in 1948.
Though investors suffered losses, consumers were ecstatic. The effect of the currency reform was immediate. Within a week, store shelves were full, black markets were eliminated, and economic stability returned to Germany. The politics, however, were not so simple.
Germany Separates into West Germany and East Germany
The United States and Britain had not informed the Soviet Union of their plans to reform the German economy and introduce a currency reform. The Reichsmark and Military Mark became worthless overnight in the Bizone (areas controlled by the U.S. and the U.K.), so the old marks began to flood into the Soviet Zone. This forced the Soviets’ hand, and a couple days later, the Soviets introduced their own currency reform, first adding a stamp to currency to validate it, and several months later, introducing new banknotes into circulation. | <urn:uuid:b8056c7d-aed3-4e61-b266-a55823610342> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://globalfinancialdata.com/the-currency-reform-that-created-two-germanies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00215.warc.gz | en | 0.984775 | 1,508 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.39627063274383545... | 3 | One question I often receive about the data for the Germany is why the German stock and bond indices had a 90% decline in June 1948. At first, people think there is an error in the data, but German shareholders actually did lose 90% of their capital as a result of the Currency Reform of June 20, 1948 when Reichsmark were converted into Deutschemark.
Despite the loss, the reform benefitted shareholders. who were unable to sell their stocks at the fixed prices the Nazis had imposed during the war. Although the Currency Reform imposed an immediate loss on all shareholders and bondholders, the Reform helped West Germany to emerge from the economic collapse of World War II and begin the Wirtschaftswunder (Economic Miracle) that enabled Germany to enjoy the economic growth that occurred in the decades that followed.
During the 1940s, the German government organized its economy with one goal in mind: to win the war. As in the United States, the government made sure that all goods essential to the war were acquired by the government at a reduced cost. The prices of consumer goods were controlled in order to limit inflation, but the inevitable result was a black market in scarce consumer goods.Not only were price controls imposed upon goods, but price floors were introduced for stocks and bonds, preventing securities from declining in value. A bombed out factory isn’t worth as much as a fully functioning factory, and industry was run to aid the war effort, not to make profits. If markets had been left to themselves, stock prices would have declined as the tide of the war turned against the Nazis. Since prices didn’t reflect the values of the shares, stock markets froze and trading dwindled until it was almost non-existent.
Price floors had been introduced during World War I in London, New York, Berlin and other countries for good reason. Although stocks traded at full price, market makers only had to put up a fraction of the cost of stocks, waiting until settlement days to balance their accounts. A steep decline in prices would have bankrupted many of the stock market’s traders, so the price floors were introduced to prevent panic selling.
As a result of the price floors, trading in many securities stopped since no one was willing to buy shares for less than they were worth. Consequently, between January 1943 and June 1948 there was virtually no change in the German stock market index. The Nazi government remained in default on its own bonds until 1953, introduced multiple exchange rates, and imposed capital controls to stem the flow of money out of Nazi Germany.
The War Ends and the Economy Collapses
After the war ended in Germany, the economic situation got even worse. The money supply had expanded five-fold between 1939 and 1945, but prices of many goods were fixed. Although ration coupons were used to allocate some goods, the amounts rationed were insufficient to meet daily needs, and consumers were forced to turn to black markets.
After the war ended, the occupying powers replaced the Reichsmark and Rentenmark with a Military Mark. Although the western Allies tried to limit the issue of Military Marks to control inflation, the Soviets were more than willing to print extra marks to pay for the rising costs of occupation. For political, rather than for economic reasons, the Western Allies gave copies of the plates for the Military Mark to the Soviets who began printing excessive amounts of the notes generating inflation. Having suffered from economic collapse and inflation after World War I, Germany was facing a second collapse that might have been worse than the hyperinflationary death spiral of the 1920s.
By the spring of 1948, the German economy was collapsing. Food production was half what it had been in 1938 and industrial production was one-third of its pre-war level. With salaries controlled by the government, wages were low, and many workers failed to show up, contributing to the decline in production. Instead, people devoted their time to finding the food they needed to survive. Anywhere from one-third to one-half of all transactions were on the black market or through barter.
American cigarettes were used as a more reliable currency than paper money since cigarettes held their value. Many soldiers sold their cigarettes on the black market to add to the meager salary they were receiving. Food was so scarce that on weekends, many Germans left the cities for the countryside to try and buy food directly from farmers since the shelves of stores in the city were bare. Some Germans grew food in their back yards to keep themselves from starving.
Replacing Nazi Economics with the Free Market
With the growing tension between the western Allies and the Soviet Union, the need to revive the German economy superseded the need to pacify Germany. The reform of the German currency and economy was overseen by Ludwig Erhard who wanted to replace the government-controlled Nazi economy with one based upon the market. Erhard had refused to support the idea of a centralized economy under Hitler, and his anti-Nazi credentials helped him to secure the support of the Allies over other German economists who wanted to maintain the government controls and rationing which clearly were impoverishing the nation. Erhard advocated the ending of price controls and a currency reform which would replace the Military Mark with a new currency with a limited money supply called the Deutschemark.By eliminating the Military Mark and replacing it with a smaller supply of Deutschemark while simultaneously eliminating all price controls, Erhard hoped to end both inflation and the shortages that plagued the economy. The Deutschemark were secretly printed in the United States and put in boxes that were innocuously labelled “doorknobs” so they wouldn’t arouse suspicion. Meanwhile, factories were instructed to withhold the distribution of their goods until the currency reform was introduced so the flood of goods into stores would help the economy to revive as quickly as possible.
On June 20, 1948, the currency reform was introduced. Germans, who had gone to bureaucratic offices to pick up their ration coupons, instead received 40 Deutschemark in the new currency and an additional 20 Deutschemark soon after. Germans were allowed to exchange a limited amount of their Military Marks into Deutschemarks, but most of their money was lost. Now goods would be rationed by Deutschemark, not by ration coupons.
Stocks and bonds were converted from Reichsmark into Deutschemark at the rate of 1 to 10. A bond or stock that had been worth 100 Reichsmark was now worth 10 Deutschemark. In effect, the government imposed a 90% loss on all securities. This is why GFD’s German stock and bond indices show a 90% drop in 1948.
Though investors suffered losses, consumers were ecstatic. The effect of the currency reform was immediate. Within a week, store shelves were full, black markets were eliminated, and economic stability returned to Germany. The politics, however, were not so simple.
Germany Separates into West Germany and East Germany
The United States and Britain had not informed the Soviet Union of their plans to reform the German economy and introduce a currency reform. The Reichsmark and Military Mark became worthless overnight in the Bizone (areas controlled by the U.S. and the U.K.), so the old marks began to flood into the Soviet Zone. This forced the Soviets’ hand, and a couple days later, the Soviets introduced their own currency reform, first adding a stamp to currency to validate it, and several months later, introducing new banknotes into circulation. | 1,563 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dutch researchers have found that strawberries grown using LEDs are better quality than those that aren’t.
Five different varieties of Strawberries were planted in glasshouses in Wageningen UR’s Innovation and Demonstration Centre, the Netherlands, on the 20th of August.
The researchers applied three different lighting positions. The first lighting position for the plants was just above the plants known as leaf lighting, the second was lower down known as fruit lighting and the third was placed at the very top of the greenhouse known as the top light.
The research found that strawberries grown under leaf and fruit lighting were found to be sweeter, more aromatic, fruitier, more acidic and to have a higher Vitamin C content. They also increased production by 15% by the end of November.
Greenhouse lighting is important for plant growth and can allow the gardener to tend to the plants at night. However, it wasn’t until recently LEDs were used for plants and are still uncommon. The most common type of plant lights are Fluorescent, Incandescent and High Intensity Discharge lamps.
For more on LEDs and plant growth see This Plant Farm lit by GE Lighting. | <urn:uuid:3ce107c9-6d0d-4d95-86f9-12a3912e7693> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.lightbulbs-direct.com/leds-make-strawberries-better/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.981015 | 239 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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Five different varieties of Strawberries were planted in glasshouses in Wageningen UR’s Innovation and Demonstration Centre, the Netherlands, on the 20th of August.
The researchers applied three different lighting positions. The first lighting position for the plants was just above the plants known as leaf lighting, the second was lower down known as fruit lighting and the third was placed at the very top of the greenhouse known as the top light.
The research found that strawberries grown under leaf and fruit lighting were found to be sweeter, more aromatic, fruitier, more acidic and to have a higher Vitamin C content. They also increased production by 15% by the end of November.
Greenhouse lighting is important for plant growth and can allow the gardener to tend to the plants at night. However, it wasn’t until recently LEDs were used for plants and are still uncommon. The most common type of plant lights are Fluorescent, Incandescent and High Intensity Discharge lamps.
For more on LEDs and plant growth see This Plant Farm lit by GE Lighting. | 234 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He was more interested in hunting than in the affairs of the country. France needed a strong leader and Louis XVI was shy and awkward. He was not suited for the job. He married Marie Antoinette at the age of 15 and became king at the age of 20 after his father, King Louis the XV, died of smallpox.
Background to the Revolution The French Revolution began in It was more complex, more violent, and more radical than the American Revolution. It tried to create both a new political order and a new social order.
The immediate causes of the French Revolution were economic problems at the time, but there were also long range problems that created an environment for revolution.
Before the revolution, French society was based on inequality. France was divided into three orders, or estates. The First Estate consisted of the clergy. There were aboutpeople in the First Estate.
They owned about 10 percent of the land and were exempt from the taille, the main tax in France. The Second Estate was the nobility. There were aboutpeople in this estate. They owned about 25 to 30 percent of the land.
They held many of the leading positions in the government, military, courts, and the higher church offices. They were also exempt from the taille.
The Third Estate consisted of the commoners. This was the majority of the French population. The Third Estate was further divided by occupations and wealth.
The peasants were the largest segment of the Third Estate. They were about 75 to 80 percent of the total French population. As a group, they owned about 35 to 40 percent of the land, but over half of them had little or no land on which to survive. Serfdom had been largely eliminated, but French peasants still had obligations to their local landlords.
These relics of feudalism, or aristocratic privileges, were obligations that survived from an earlier age. A rise in consumer prices that was greater than the increase in wages made it difficult for these urban groups to survive.
This struggle for survival led many of these people to play an important role in the revolution. The bourgeoisie, or middle class, was another part of the Third Estate.
This group included about 8 percent of the population, or 2. They owned about 20 to 25 percent of the land. This group included merchants, bankers, industrialists, doctors, lawyers, and writers.Likewise, Louis XVI was overthrown fortunately, which gave the crown to Robespierre and eventually to dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte, who was able to create a stable economy and equalized taxes.
I think the French Revolution definitely gave people some sense leading to stabilizing their way of life. He was the brother of the executed king, Louis XVI. The new king had little support, and Napoleon was able to slip back into France.
When troops were sent to capture him, they went over to his side. Napoleon entered Paris in triumph on March 20, Napoleon raised another army and moved to attack the nearest allied forces in Belgium.
Read this History Other Essay and over 89, other research documents. Dbq French Revolution. The French revolution of had many long-range causes.
Political, social, and economical conditions in France contributed to the discontent /5(1). King Louis XVI also used his power to arrest anyone without trial by using the lettres de cachet. Next, the government taxed the peasants heavily.
According to the Jackson J. Spielvogel, Word History, there were three estates in the Pre-Revolutionary France. Powers of the king.—The King, Louis XVI, was absolute. He ruled by the divine right theory which held that he had received his power to govern from God and was therefore responsible to God alone.
He appointed all civil officials and military officers. He made and . France needed a strong leader and Louis XVI was shy and awkward. He was not suited for the job.
He married Marie Antoinette at the age of 15 and became king at the age of 20 after his father, King Louis the XV, died of smallpox. Louis the XVI was misguided and persuaded by his wife's extravagance. | <urn:uuid:8aec6984-7257-4d9f-a852-9abf8966ff39> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://xyhuvul.ashio-midori.com/louis-xvi-and-napoleon-dbq-11358xh.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.989579 | 842 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2785328924655... | 2 | He was more interested in hunting than in the affairs of the country. France needed a strong leader and Louis XVI was shy and awkward. He was not suited for the job. He married Marie Antoinette at the age of 15 and became king at the age of 20 after his father, King Louis the XV, died of smallpox.
Background to the Revolution The French Revolution began in It was more complex, more violent, and more radical than the American Revolution. It tried to create both a new political order and a new social order.
The immediate causes of the French Revolution were economic problems at the time, but there were also long range problems that created an environment for revolution.
Before the revolution, French society was based on inequality. France was divided into three orders, or estates. The First Estate consisted of the clergy. There were aboutpeople in the First Estate.
They owned about 10 percent of the land and were exempt from the taille, the main tax in France. The Second Estate was the nobility. There were aboutpeople in this estate. They owned about 25 to 30 percent of the land.
They held many of the leading positions in the government, military, courts, and the higher church offices. They were also exempt from the taille.
The Third Estate consisted of the commoners. This was the majority of the French population. The Third Estate was further divided by occupations and wealth.
The peasants were the largest segment of the Third Estate. They were about 75 to 80 percent of the total French population. As a group, they owned about 35 to 40 percent of the land, but over half of them had little or no land on which to survive. Serfdom had been largely eliminated, but French peasants still had obligations to their local landlords.
These relics of feudalism, or aristocratic privileges, were obligations that survived from an earlier age. A rise in consumer prices that was greater than the increase in wages made it difficult for these urban groups to survive.
This struggle for survival led many of these people to play an important role in the revolution. The bourgeoisie, or middle class, was another part of the Third Estate.
This group included about 8 percent of the population, or 2. They owned about 20 to 25 percent of the land. This group included merchants, bankers, industrialists, doctors, lawyers, and writers.Likewise, Louis XVI was overthrown fortunately, which gave the crown to Robespierre and eventually to dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte, who was able to create a stable economy and equalized taxes.
I think the French Revolution definitely gave people some sense leading to stabilizing their way of life. He was the brother of the executed king, Louis XVI. The new king had little support, and Napoleon was able to slip back into France.
When troops were sent to capture him, they went over to his side. Napoleon entered Paris in triumph on March 20, Napoleon raised another army and moved to attack the nearest allied forces in Belgium.
Read this History Other Essay and over 89, other research documents. Dbq French Revolution. The French revolution of had many long-range causes.
Political, social, and economical conditions in France contributed to the discontent /5(1). King Louis XVI also used his power to arrest anyone without trial by using the lettres de cachet. Next, the government taxed the peasants heavily.
According to the Jackson J. Spielvogel, Word History, there were three estates in the Pre-Revolutionary France. Powers of the king.—The King, Louis XVI, was absolute. He ruled by the divine right theory which held that he had received his power to govern from God and was therefore responsible to God alone.
He appointed all civil officials and military officers. He made and . France needed a strong leader and Louis XVI was shy and awkward. He was not suited for the job.
He married Marie Antoinette at the age of 15 and became king at the age of 20 after his father, King Louis the XV, died of smallpox. Louis the XVI was misguided and persuaded by his wife's extravagance. | 857 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Black slaveowners remains a quarrelsome subject. A number of free blacks and free coloureds, in the Bahamas, owned slaves. And some sold slaves as well. Negroes from Africa, labelled as chattel, were an important component in the definition of Western and indeed African wealth, from 1441 to 1865, and for some time beyond.
For the most part, it has been proffered that free blacks and free persons of colour, who were able to buy their freedom or who were manumitted by their slave masters, tried to buy the freedom of their close family members – mother, wives, husbands and children. This is entirely true… to a point. They also bought and sold slaves, which was part and parcel of the culture, status and money strategies of the time.
There are some interesting observations to note, for the Bahamas, from the slave returns or slave registration, which began in 1822.
First, there were an overwhelming number of Creoles to Africans. Creoles would have been those slaves born in the islands. They would have been second, third, fourth etc. generation slaves.
Second, there were a not so insubstantial number of Africans. These would have been first generation slaves with direct, unbroken, ties to Africa. It leads one to wonder about the true state of liberty of those rescued from slaves ships and liberated, by the British, once they were landed on Bahamian shores.
After the TransAtlantic trade was outlawed, by the British, every effort was made to encourage other slave trading European countries to follow suit. That is, slavery as an institution was not outlawed, only the removal of negroes, from the African continent was. Undeterred, the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch slavers continued buying slaves from the African Coast. Britain began policing the high seas. When illegal slave ships were discovered, Africans onboard were delivered to the nearest friendly British port, to be liberated. But were they all liberated?
Third, if free blacks and free persons of colour bought the freedom of their near relatives, why not free them. Why not give them free status immediately? Slaves of free blacks and free coloureds were still slaves by every legal definition.
If, on the slave returns of those free blacks and free coloureds, those listed as slaves were indeed wives, husbands, children, parents, etc. why were they not freed outright? Why continue to list them as slaves? Without papers declaring their free status, as chattel property, they could be still be sold, hired out or put into any manner of enforced servitude.
The answer can only include the firm idea that slaves were property. Property was a measure of wealth. Property could be exchanged for currency. Property was a measure of status and prosperity. Property could be hired out, capitalised upon and sold.
1822 – NEW PROVIDENCE, BAHAMAS – Richard Owens, Free Black Man Had 8 Slaves Registered To Him
In 1822, free black man, Richard Owens had 8 slaves registered to him.
Five females and three males. Four were Creoles and four were African. The Creoles were employed or living in New Providence. The Africans, two women and two men, were employed or living in Andros. There was one mulatto female, Diana, age 14, employed on New Providence.
1822 SLAVE REGISTRATION
1825 – Richard Owens, free black man has died. His daughter, free black woman, Mary Owens is now the executor of his estate and slaves.
By January 1825, free black man Richard Owens had died. His daughter, a free woman of colour named Mary Owens was his next of kin and executor of her father’s estate.
Laura, female slave, listed as black, creole and 32 years of age, was manumitted in 1824. She may or may not had to pay for her freedom from the Owens estate.
Rolla and Diana, the two older African slaves, of 60 and 64 years, died in 1823 and 1824 respectively.
What is interesting about the slave returns for 1825 also, was the sale of two male slaves, Harry and Adam in 1822.
Harry, an African, sent to work in Andros was listed as 38 years old in 1822. Harry was sold to a soldier.
Adam, an African sent to work in Andros was listed as 54 years old in 1822. Adam was sold to a Michael Roberts in 1822.
Mary Owens of the Island of New Providence, free Coloured woman the daughter of the above named Richard Owens, being duly sworn saith that she the deponents as they present time in the possession of the above named four slaves, Diana, Juliana, Jim and Richard, and that the above return and schedule contain a full perfect and faithful account to the best of this deponents knowledge and belief of all the slaves belonging to the Estate of the said Richard Owens deceased, being in number four, within or appertaining to these islands on the first day of January 1825 and of the increase and diminution of the slaves belonging to the Estate within the same during the three preceding years.
Sworn to at Nassau, New Providence
the fourteenth day of August 1826
Before James Armbrister J.P.
I grant the prayer of the annexed petition and direct that this return be received and recorded.
W. Vesey Munnings
12th September 1826 | <urn:uuid:758dd408-bbb4-48a9-87ee-ba016f472349> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bahamianology.com/black-slave-owner-richard-owens-and-daughter-mary-owens-free-woman-of-colour-sold-slaves-1825/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00188.warc.gz | en | 0.981516 | 1,127 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.241254687309265... | 14 | Black slaveowners remains a quarrelsome subject. A number of free blacks and free coloureds, in the Bahamas, owned slaves. And some sold slaves as well. Negroes from Africa, labelled as chattel, were an important component in the definition of Western and indeed African wealth, from 1441 to 1865, and for some time beyond.
For the most part, it has been proffered that free blacks and free persons of colour, who were able to buy their freedom or who were manumitted by their slave masters, tried to buy the freedom of their close family members – mother, wives, husbands and children. This is entirely true… to a point. They also bought and sold slaves, which was part and parcel of the culture, status and money strategies of the time.
There are some interesting observations to note, for the Bahamas, from the slave returns or slave registration, which began in 1822.
First, there were an overwhelming number of Creoles to Africans. Creoles would have been those slaves born in the islands. They would have been second, third, fourth etc. generation slaves.
Second, there were a not so insubstantial number of Africans. These would have been first generation slaves with direct, unbroken, ties to Africa. It leads one to wonder about the true state of liberty of those rescued from slaves ships and liberated, by the British, once they were landed on Bahamian shores.
After the TransAtlantic trade was outlawed, by the British, every effort was made to encourage other slave trading European countries to follow suit. That is, slavery as an institution was not outlawed, only the removal of negroes, from the African continent was. Undeterred, the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch slavers continued buying slaves from the African Coast. Britain began policing the high seas. When illegal slave ships were discovered, Africans onboard were delivered to the nearest friendly British port, to be liberated. But were they all liberated?
Third, if free blacks and free persons of colour bought the freedom of their near relatives, why not free them. Why not give them free status immediately? Slaves of free blacks and free coloureds were still slaves by every legal definition.
If, on the slave returns of those free blacks and free coloureds, those listed as slaves were indeed wives, husbands, children, parents, etc. why were they not freed outright? Why continue to list them as slaves? Without papers declaring their free status, as chattel property, they could be still be sold, hired out or put into any manner of enforced servitude.
The answer can only include the firm idea that slaves were property. Property was a measure of wealth. Property could be exchanged for currency. Property was a measure of status and prosperity. Property could be hired out, capitalised upon and sold.
1822 – NEW PROVIDENCE, BAHAMAS – Richard Owens, Free Black Man Had 8 Slaves Registered To Him
In 1822, free black man, Richard Owens had 8 slaves registered to him.
Five females and three males. Four were Creoles and four were African. The Creoles were employed or living in New Providence. The Africans, two women and two men, were employed or living in Andros. There was one mulatto female, Diana, age 14, employed on New Providence.
1822 SLAVE REGISTRATION
1825 – Richard Owens, free black man has died. His daughter, free black woman, Mary Owens is now the executor of his estate and slaves.
By January 1825, free black man Richard Owens had died. His daughter, a free woman of colour named Mary Owens was his next of kin and executor of her father’s estate.
Laura, female slave, listed as black, creole and 32 years of age, was manumitted in 1824. She may or may not had to pay for her freedom from the Owens estate.
Rolla and Diana, the two older African slaves, of 60 and 64 years, died in 1823 and 1824 respectively.
What is interesting about the slave returns for 1825 also, was the sale of two male slaves, Harry and Adam in 1822.
Harry, an African, sent to work in Andros was listed as 38 years old in 1822. Harry was sold to a soldier.
Adam, an African sent to work in Andros was listed as 54 years old in 1822. Adam was sold to a Michael Roberts in 1822.
Mary Owens of the Island of New Providence, free Coloured woman the daughter of the above named Richard Owens, being duly sworn saith that she the deponents as they present time in the possession of the above named four slaves, Diana, Juliana, Jim and Richard, and that the above return and schedule contain a full perfect and faithful account to the best of this deponents knowledge and belief of all the slaves belonging to the Estate of the said Richard Owens deceased, being in number four, within or appertaining to these islands on the first day of January 1825 and of the increase and diminution of the slaves belonging to the Estate within the same during the three preceding years.
Sworn to at Nassau, New Providence
the fourteenth day of August 1826
Before James Armbrister J.P.
I grant the prayer of the annexed petition and direct that this return be received and recorded.
W. Vesey Munnings
12th September 1826 | 1,169 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He used every means to demean and disgrace them.
He oppressed them and killed all their sons. When Musa alayhis Salam was born, his mother feared that he too would be killed. Allah sent a message to her to nurse him as long as she could, until she feared for his safety. Then she was to throw him into the river.
Allah promised that He would bring Musa alayhis Salam back to her and that Musa would become a messenger of Allah. It was the family of the pharoah who found Musa alayhis Salam in the river.
She thought he might be useful to them or that they might adopt him. In this way he was restored to his mother, as Allah had promised. And when Musa alayhis Salam grew up, he was given wisdom and knowledge by Allah.
One day, when Musa alayhis Salam had grown up, he went into the city and found two men fighting, one of whom was an Egyptian, and the other an Israelite. The Israelite asked Musa alayhis Salam for help and Musa alayhis Salam struck the other man with his fist, thus killing him.
Musa alayhis Salam was horrified that he had killed a man, and asked Allah for forgiveness, which Allah granted.
The following day Musa alayhis Salam again was in the city, when he saw the same man as on the day before, involved in a fight with an Egyptian.
Musa alayhis Salam was angry at the hotheadedness of this man, but was once again ready to take his side against the Egyptian, who was the enemy of them both. But the Egyptian cried out to Musa alayhis Salam that murder was not the way to settle and reform matters.
At that moment another man brought news that the authorities were searching for Musa alayhis Salam in connection with the murder of the previous day. And so Musa alayhis Salam was forced to flee. Musa alayhis Salam escaped to the land of Madyan.
There he came to a watering hole where a whole tribe of men were watering their flocks. There were two women there also whose father was too old to care for his flocks himself. But the women were holding their sheep back and could not get close to the water until the men had finished.
Musa watered their flocks for them, then settled down in the shade, praying that Allah would send him assistance. One of the two women whom Musa alayhis Salam had helped approached him shyly, for her father had sent for Musa alayhis Salam to reward him for helping his daughters.
When Musa alayhis Salam had told the old man his story, the old man sympathized with him. The old man offered to marry Musa alayhis Salam to one of his daughters if Musa would work for him a minimum of eight years.
An agreement was reached and Musa alayhis Salam stayed in the land of Madyan for the agreed-upon time.The Birth Of Prophet Ibrahim One day the fortunetellers of the temple came to Namrud and said to him: "The stars have told us that a baby .
Our Prophet Ibrahim, Allah's friend, was born in that year. His mother feared for his safety, so she took him and went to a cave. She put him in the cave and went home. Prophet Musa (Moses) In the land of Egypt where the children of Ibrahim(Alaih Assalaam), Yaqub(Alaih Assalaam) and Yusuf(Alaih Assalaam) once lived, there reigned an evil, wicked Pharaoh.
One day, this wicked Pharaoh ordered that all boys descended from Yusuf (Alaih Assalaam)should be killed. The birth of Musa Prophet Musa was born at the time when phiroun was ruling. Phiroun hated the Bani Israel the descendants of Prophet Ya’qoub or Jacob.
Phiroun hated and disrespected the Bani Israel. They were kept in places where they keep slaves, and forced to work for him for small wages or nothing.
Prophet Musa was born at the time when phiroun was ruling. Phiroun hated the Bani Israel the descendants of Prophet Ya’qoub or Jacob. Phiroun hated and disrespected the Bani Israel. The birth of Musa Prophet Musa was born at the time when phiroun was ruling. Phiroun hated the Bani Israel the descendants of Prophet Ya’qoub or Jacob. | <urn:uuid:c3b07a82-d108-486d-9c30-58ac10f75970> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fybebajeno.leslutinsduphoenix.com/essay-on-birth-of-prophet-musa-5259uf.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00481.warc.gz | en | 0.990671 | 957 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.2815388143062... | 1 | He used every means to demean and disgrace them.
He oppressed them and killed all their sons. When Musa alayhis Salam was born, his mother feared that he too would be killed. Allah sent a message to her to nurse him as long as she could, until she feared for his safety. Then she was to throw him into the river.
Allah promised that He would bring Musa alayhis Salam back to her and that Musa would become a messenger of Allah. It was the family of the pharoah who found Musa alayhis Salam in the river.
She thought he might be useful to them or that they might adopt him. In this way he was restored to his mother, as Allah had promised. And when Musa alayhis Salam grew up, he was given wisdom and knowledge by Allah.
One day, when Musa alayhis Salam had grown up, he went into the city and found two men fighting, one of whom was an Egyptian, and the other an Israelite. The Israelite asked Musa alayhis Salam for help and Musa alayhis Salam struck the other man with his fist, thus killing him.
Musa alayhis Salam was horrified that he had killed a man, and asked Allah for forgiveness, which Allah granted.
The following day Musa alayhis Salam again was in the city, when he saw the same man as on the day before, involved in a fight with an Egyptian.
Musa alayhis Salam was angry at the hotheadedness of this man, but was once again ready to take his side against the Egyptian, who was the enemy of them both. But the Egyptian cried out to Musa alayhis Salam that murder was not the way to settle and reform matters.
At that moment another man brought news that the authorities were searching for Musa alayhis Salam in connection with the murder of the previous day. And so Musa alayhis Salam was forced to flee. Musa alayhis Salam escaped to the land of Madyan.
There he came to a watering hole where a whole tribe of men were watering their flocks. There were two women there also whose father was too old to care for his flocks himself. But the women were holding their sheep back and could not get close to the water until the men had finished.
Musa watered their flocks for them, then settled down in the shade, praying that Allah would send him assistance. One of the two women whom Musa alayhis Salam had helped approached him shyly, for her father had sent for Musa alayhis Salam to reward him for helping his daughters.
When Musa alayhis Salam had told the old man his story, the old man sympathized with him. The old man offered to marry Musa alayhis Salam to one of his daughters if Musa would work for him a minimum of eight years.
An agreement was reached and Musa alayhis Salam stayed in the land of Madyan for the agreed-upon time.The Birth Of Prophet Ibrahim One day the fortunetellers of the temple came to Namrud and said to him: "The stars have told us that a baby .
Our Prophet Ibrahim, Allah's friend, was born in that year. His mother feared for his safety, so she took him and went to a cave. She put him in the cave and went home. Prophet Musa (Moses) In the land of Egypt where the children of Ibrahim(Alaih Assalaam), Yaqub(Alaih Assalaam) and Yusuf(Alaih Assalaam) once lived, there reigned an evil, wicked Pharaoh.
One day, this wicked Pharaoh ordered that all boys descended from Yusuf (Alaih Assalaam)should be killed. The birth of Musa Prophet Musa was born at the time when phiroun was ruling. Phiroun hated the Bani Israel the descendants of Prophet Ya’qoub or Jacob.
Phiroun hated and disrespected the Bani Israel. They were kept in places where they keep slaves, and forced to work for him for small wages or nothing.
Prophet Musa was born at the time when phiroun was ruling. Phiroun hated the Bani Israel the descendants of Prophet Ya’qoub or Jacob. Phiroun hated and disrespected the Bani Israel. The birth of Musa Prophet Musa was born at the time when phiroun was ruling. Phiroun hated the Bani Israel the descendants of Prophet Ya’qoub or Jacob. | 963 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archaeologists discovered that around 2,100 years ago, two infants were buried wearing helmets made from other children's skulls.
These two children were found as part of 11 burial sites on the coast of Ecuador, in Salanga. The sites were discovered between 2014 and 2016, and the details of their discoveries were published recently in the journal Latin American Antiquity.
As far as they know, the archaeologists have said that this is the first case where infants are buried in this unique manner. The reason for the children's deaths is unknown.
Placing the helmets on their heads
These chilling helmets were tightly placed on the infants' heads, according to the archaeologists. It's also being speculated that the older children's skulls, used for the helmet, still had flesh on them when they were placed atop the infants' heads.
The reason behind this assumption is that the helmet wouldn't otherwise have held together.
The team saw, and wrote in their study, that one of the two infants' face was "looking through and out of the cranial vault — the area where the skull holds the brain.
Adding to the oddness of it all, a "hand phalanx" — a type of bone — was placed between the infant's head and the helmet.
Lead author of the paper and anthropology professor at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Sarah Juengst, wrote that they don't know who the hand phalanx belonged to.
Why were these helmets used?
Juengst and the team of archaeologists are still uncertain as to why these helmets were placed over the infants' heads. They speculate, however, that it "may represent an attempt to ensure the protection of these 'presocial and wild' souls."
There exist many ancient and diverse burial rituals around the world, and this may be another, unique one of them.
The team's protection theory may be supported, as they also discovered ancestral figurines made out of stone buried next to the infants. This highlights the "concern with protecting and further empowering the heads," according to the archaeologists.
In terms of understanding the causes for their untimely deaths, there has been previous work in the surrounding area that states a volcanic eruption covered the region with ash around the same time the infants were buried — some 2,100 years ago.
This ash may have affected food production, and the team did discover that the infants' bones showed signs of malnutrition.
It's also possible that "The treatment of the two infants was part of a larger, complex ritual response to environmental consequences of the eruption," the archaeologists wrote.
Something they are keen to keep looking into. | <urn:uuid:d92be8a7-1409-4255-88af-fecce44435fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://interestingengineering.com/infants-buried-wearing-helmets-made-from-other-kids-skulls-puzzle-archaeologists | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00436.warc.gz | en | 0.984277 | 540 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.476520121097... | 2 | Archaeologists discovered that around 2,100 years ago, two infants were buried wearing helmets made from other children's skulls.
These two children were found as part of 11 burial sites on the coast of Ecuador, in Salanga. The sites were discovered between 2014 and 2016, and the details of their discoveries were published recently in the journal Latin American Antiquity.
As far as they know, the archaeologists have said that this is the first case where infants are buried in this unique manner. The reason for the children's deaths is unknown.
Placing the helmets on their heads
These chilling helmets were tightly placed on the infants' heads, according to the archaeologists. It's also being speculated that the older children's skulls, used for the helmet, still had flesh on them when they were placed atop the infants' heads.
The reason behind this assumption is that the helmet wouldn't otherwise have held together.
The team saw, and wrote in their study, that one of the two infants' face was "looking through and out of the cranial vault — the area where the skull holds the brain.
Adding to the oddness of it all, a "hand phalanx" — a type of bone — was placed between the infant's head and the helmet.
Lead author of the paper and anthropology professor at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Sarah Juengst, wrote that they don't know who the hand phalanx belonged to.
Why were these helmets used?
Juengst and the team of archaeologists are still uncertain as to why these helmets were placed over the infants' heads. They speculate, however, that it "may represent an attempt to ensure the protection of these 'presocial and wild' souls."
There exist many ancient and diverse burial rituals around the world, and this may be another, unique one of them.
The team's protection theory may be supported, as they also discovered ancestral figurines made out of stone buried next to the infants. This highlights the "concern with protecting and further empowering the heads," according to the archaeologists.
In terms of understanding the causes for their untimely deaths, there has been previous work in the surrounding area that states a volcanic eruption covered the region with ash around the same time the infants were buried — some 2,100 years ago.
This ash may have affected food production, and the team did discover that the infants' bones showed signs of malnutrition.
It's also possible that "The treatment of the two infants was part of a larger, complex ritual response to environmental consequences of the eruption," the archaeologists wrote.
Something they are keen to keep looking into. | 548 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay #1 (The attitudes of Native Americans toward the land and nature).
Native Americans respected the land they used and employed elements of nature to their culture. They were, at first, a generally nomadic people and their movements exposed them to different land types, climates and wildlife. Indians were able to successfully adapt to each condition, and eventually developed a system of agriculture. Since they used the land as a lifeline, they worshipped gods that represented different elements of nature. However, nature could be quite frightening, and they had frequent ceremonies thanking various spirits that helped them with harvests, as well as rituals used for warding away ghosts or evil spirits. Examining the agricultural habits of early natives is a good way to start explaining the connection between the Indians and nature. .
Archaic North Americans lived off of the land, as did Native Americans after them. They didn't focus on big game, rather the smaller mammals, fish and wild plants. They were able to use their resources effectively, and pack more people into smaller areas. One village near Kampsville, Illinois, was able to support 100-150 people because its inhabitants knew when to fish and find mussels from the local lakes. It was a permanent village that thrived from 3900 to 2800 BC not only because of the shellfish from the lakes, but also because of the game, birds, nuts and seeds available in the surrounding area.
Native people in the Northwest resided in villages of about 100 people. They settled near large oak groves and spent time processing acorns. They used the acorns and its properties for food. They ground them into meal, leached them of their tannic acid, then roasted, boiled or baked the nuts. The acorns, as well as the abundant resources of game, fish and plants helped the Indians in California prosper. Native Americans knew how to get what they needed from the land, and didn't waste their resources. | <urn:uuid:405b9394-74e5-47c1-b7b8-4f38a6eb8573> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/65239.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.984284 | 396 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.06411871314... | 6 | Essay #1 (The attitudes of Native Americans toward the land and nature).
Native Americans respected the land they used and employed elements of nature to their culture. They were, at first, a generally nomadic people and their movements exposed them to different land types, climates and wildlife. Indians were able to successfully adapt to each condition, and eventually developed a system of agriculture. Since they used the land as a lifeline, they worshipped gods that represented different elements of nature. However, nature could be quite frightening, and they had frequent ceremonies thanking various spirits that helped them with harvests, as well as rituals used for warding away ghosts or evil spirits. Examining the agricultural habits of early natives is a good way to start explaining the connection between the Indians and nature. .
Archaic North Americans lived off of the land, as did Native Americans after them. They didn't focus on big game, rather the smaller mammals, fish and wild plants. They were able to use their resources effectively, and pack more people into smaller areas. One village near Kampsville, Illinois, was able to support 100-150 people because its inhabitants knew when to fish and find mussels from the local lakes. It was a permanent village that thrived from 3900 to 2800 BC not only because of the shellfish from the lakes, but also because of the game, birds, nuts and seeds available in the surrounding area.
Native people in the Northwest resided in villages of about 100 people. They settled near large oak groves and spent time processing acorns. They used the acorns and its properties for food. They ground them into meal, leached them of their tannic acid, then roasted, boiled or baked the nuts. The acorns, as well as the abundant resources of game, fish and plants helped the Indians in California prosper. Native Americans knew how to get what they needed from the land, and didn't waste their resources. | 406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Greece presentation by Jacob SOTELO. Art and Ancient Greece This Sculpture is the most important surviving form of Ancient Greek arts, but only
Post on 13-Dec-2015
Embed Size (px)
- Slide 1
ancient Greece presentation by Jacob SOTELO Slide 2 Art and Ancient Greece This Sculpture is the most important surviving form of Ancient Greek arts, but only a small fragment of Greek sculptural output has survived. these Greeks sculptures are always in the form of Roman copies. It was immensely influential during the Italian Renaissance. And remained the "classic" model for the European sculpture. It was the advent of modernism in the late 19th century. Slide 3 literature The Ancient Greeks used drama as a way of investigating the world they lived in, and want to know what human meant. There are three genres of drama there were comedy, satyr plays, and the most important is tragedy. Slide 4 architecture - most ornate of the classic orders of architecture. It is the latest, but not arriving at full development until the the 4th cent. B.C. its the oldest known. It was found in the temple of apollo at (c.420 b.c.) Slide 5 philosophy This philosophy was rooted in the mathematics, mathematics mean geometry to the ancient Greeks. He was the first person to know that the moon, planets, and the earth are all spheres. Slide 6 inventions these Hoops were used in Egypt at 1000 B.C. its was from the grape, leaves, and were propelled around the ground with some sticks. Slide 7 History of ancient Greek There were only a little bit of historians during the time of Ancient Greece. Only three major ancient historians, could record their time of Ancient Greek history. Herodotus was known as the father of history. ' Slide 8 War of ancient greek This was called the Ionian revolt. But this lonian was defeated in the Battle of Lade in 494 BC. This Ionian revolt had lasted for about half a decade. Slide 9 History of troy Ilus,is the son of Tros founded Troy in the 3000 BC, and the name troy was derived from him. Troy was known as Ilios or Ilion, this name can be found in the Iliad. Slide 10 mythology Zeus - Hera is the god of the sky and he is the ruler of the gods of Mount Olympus. And Hera is his sister. Slide 11 Ancient greeks daily life the daily life in Sparta is really different from the other city-states. At the sparta the women had teached more active in lives, as this would improve their physical strength and their ability in order to have healthy babies. | <urn:uuid:c859fd70-6c91-4eab-bc77-36ae0d5691e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vdocuments.site/ancient-greece-presentation-by-jacob-sotelo-art-and-ancient-greece-this-sculpture.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.980207 | 552 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.5202844142913... | 1 | Ancient Greece presentation by Jacob SOTELO. Art and Ancient Greece This Sculpture is the most important surviving form of Ancient Greek arts, but only
Post on 13-Dec-2015
Embed Size (px)
- Slide 1
ancient Greece presentation by Jacob SOTELO Slide 2 Art and Ancient Greece This Sculpture is the most important surviving form of Ancient Greek arts, but only a small fragment of Greek sculptural output has survived. these Greeks sculptures are always in the form of Roman copies. It was immensely influential during the Italian Renaissance. And remained the "classic" model for the European sculpture. It was the advent of modernism in the late 19th century. Slide 3 literature The Ancient Greeks used drama as a way of investigating the world they lived in, and want to know what human meant. There are three genres of drama there were comedy, satyr plays, and the most important is tragedy. Slide 4 architecture - most ornate of the classic orders of architecture. It is the latest, but not arriving at full development until the the 4th cent. B.C. its the oldest known. It was found in the temple of apollo at (c.420 b.c.) Slide 5 philosophy This philosophy was rooted in the mathematics, mathematics mean geometry to the ancient Greeks. He was the first person to know that the moon, planets, and the earth are all spheres. Slide 6 inventions these Hoops were used in Egypt at 1000 B.C. its was from the grape, leaves, and were propelled around the ground with some sticks. Slide 7 History of ancient Greek There were only a little bit of historians during the time of Ancient Greece. Only three major ancient historians, could record their time of Ancient Greek history. Herodotus was known as the father of history. ' Slide 8 War of ancient greek This was called the Ionian revolt. But this lonian was defeated in the Battle of Lade in 494 BC. This Ionian revolt had lasted for about half a decade. Slide 9 History of troy Ilus,is the son of Tros founded Troy in the 3000 BC, and the name troy was derived from him. Troy was known as Ilios or Ilion, this name can be found in the Iliad. Slide 10 mythology Zeus - Hera is the god of the sky and he is the ruler of the gods of Mount Olympus. And Hera is his sister. Slide 11 Ancient greeks daily life the daily life in Sparta is really different from the other city-states. At the sparta the women had teached more active in lives, as this would improve their physical strength and their ability in order to have healthy babies. | 576 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reginald Fessenden is a largely forgotten figure in the history of radio. Not necessarily on the Outer Banks where some of his most noteworthy experiments took place, but overall, the name Fessenden is not as recognized as Marconi who was his contemporary.
Kind of unfortunate because factually he probably had more to do with creating how we think about and use modern radio signals than did Marconi.
Born in what is now Quebec Province, Canada in 1866, Fessenden did most of his work in the United States. He had a wide-ranging intellect and there are some 500 patents listed in his name.
He invented the predecessor to sonar. Its first use was to detect icebergs and undersea obstacles, but in WWI ships were fitted with it to avoid submarines.
Early in his career, working with Edison, he invented an inexpensive filament for lightbulbs, an important step in creating a mass market for electricity. He worked extensively in the science of nautical communications. Toward the end of his life, in 1932, he was experimenting with television signals.
But mostly what he is known for is his use of amplitude modification for voice transmission…what we now call AM.
For a world in transition to the speed and energy of the industrial revolution, Morse Code was the internet of its day when it came to transmitting information. There were, however, problems with it.
Two problems, in particular, were vexing the United States Weather Bureau in 1900. Morse Code was a one-way transmission. A message is sent; it’s decoded and a return message goes back. It was an improvement over any other form of communication of the day, but hardly ideal.
Perhaps more significantly, Morse Code signals had to be carried over a wire. In fact, Marconi’s experiments were in wireless transmission, but two-way conversations were not possible and his early experiments showed the possibility of wireless Morse Code, but only at certain times of the day.
For the Weather Bureau, laying down the wire for the express purpose of carrying Morse Code at remote cites—as an example, Buxton, North Carolina—was cost-prohibitive. No one would partner with them to create the line because the population was so small the only user would be the weather station.
That and the one-way nature of Morse Code and a growing belief that ships at sea should be able to receive weather updates convinced Bureau Chief Willis Moore that an alternative was needed. Fessenden’s experiments in voice transmission over Morse Code were promising and the Bureau made him an offer.
It was a generous offer—$3000 per year, around $91,000 in modern dollars, and Fessenden went to work.
In 1900 he sent a brief and somewhat audible voice message from his Cobb Island, Maryland lab that traveled about one mile through the air.
Encouraged by that he began thinking about how he could transmit over longer distances and more clearly. Feeling he needed an open area where he could set up two transmission towers, he moved his family to Manteo and for the next year and a half immersed himself in his work.
According to a history of the Hatteras Weather Bureau Station, written by National Park Historian Douglas Stover, Fessenden was probably aware of the experiments two bicycle mechanics from Dayton Ohio were doing on the Outer Banks at the time.
“The area was so very remote, you were likely to know your neighbors and while Fessenden was in Manteo, he became close lifetime friends with two other entrepreneurs who were inventors as well. The Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, were experimenting with gliders in nearby Kill Devil Hills in preparation for their powered flight experiments,” he wrote.
But it was wireless transmission that fascinated him and for the next year and a half, he dove into his work, moving at one point to Buxton where the weather station was then located.
In March of 1902, he successfully transmitted a 127-word message between Buxton and Manteo over the air, a distance of almost 50 miles.
What he had accomplished was remarkable for its time, so remarkable that the Weather Bureau wanted his patent for the process.
It does get a bit murky here. Fessenden accused Moore and the Weather Bureau of trying to steal his patent, claiming Moore attempted to gain a 50% interest in his patent.
In August of 1902, he resigned from his position with the Weather Bureau.
Over the years, Fessenden was involved in a number of legal battles over patent infringement, most, it would appear he won. He was living in Bermuda when he passed away in 1932.
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0.2916623950... | 5 | Reginald Fessenden is a largely forgotten figure in the history of radio. Not necessarily on the Outer Banks where some of his most noteworthy experiments took place, but overall, the name Fessenden is not as recognized as Marconi who was his contemporary.
Kind of unfortunate because factually he probably had more to do with creating how we think about and use modern radio signals than did Marconi.
Born in what is now Quebec Province, Canada in 1866, Fessenden did most of his work in the United States. He had a wide-ranging intellect and there are some 500 patents listed in his name.
He invented the predecessor to sonar. Its first use was to detect icebergs and undersea obstacles, but in WWI ships were fitted with it to avoid submarines.
Early in his career, working with Edison, he invented an inexpensive filament for lightbulbs, an important step in creating a mass market for electricity. He worked extensively in the science of nautical communications. Toward the end of his life, in 1932, he was experimenting with television signals.
But mostly what he is known for is his use of amplitude modification for voice transmission…what we now call AM.
For a world in transition to the speed and energy of the industrial revolution, Morse Code was the internet of its day when it came to transmitting information. There were, however, problems with it.
Two problems, in particular, were vexing the United States Weather Bureau in 1900. Morse Code was a one-way transmission. A message is sent; it’s decoded and a return message goes back. It was an improvement over any other form of communication of the day, but hardly ideal.
Perhaps more significantly, Morse Code signals had to be carried over a wire. In fact, Marconi’s experiments were in wireless transmission, but two-way conversations were not possible and his early experiments showed the possibility of wireless Morse Code, but only at certain times of the day.
For the Weather Bureau, laying down the wire for the express purpose of carrying Morse Code at remote cites—as an example, Buxton, North Carolina—was cost-prohibitive. No one would partner with them to create the line because the population was so small the only user would be the weather station.
That and the one-way nature of Morse Code and a growing belief that ships at sea should be able to receive weather updates convinced Bureau Chief Willis Moore that an alternative was needed. Fessenden’s experiments in voice transmission over Morse Code were promising and the Bureau made him an offer.
It was a generous offer—$3000 per year, around $91,000 in modern dollars, and Fessenden went to work.
In 1900 he sent a brief and somewhat audible voice message from his Cobb Island, Maryland lab that traveled about one mile through the air.
Encouraged by that he began thinking about how he could transmit over longer distances and more clearly. Feeling he needed an open area where he could set up two transmission towers, he moved his family to Manteo and for the next year and a half immersed himself in his work.
According to a history of the Hatteras Weather Bureau Station, written by National Park Historian Douglas Stover, Fessenden was probably aware of the experiments two bicycle mechanics from Dayton Ohio were doing on the Outer Banks at the time.
“The area was so very remote, you were likely to know your neighbors and while Fessenden was in Manteo, he became close lifetime friends with two other entrepreneurs who were inventors as well. The Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, were experimenting with gliders in nearby Kill Devil Hills in preparation for their powered flight experiments,” he wrote.
But it was wireless transmission that fascinated him and for the next year and a half, he dove into his work, moving at one point to Buxton where the weather station was then located.
In March of 1902, he successfully transmitted a 127-word message between Buxton and Manteo over the air, a distance of almost 50 miles.
What he had accomplished was remarkable for its time, so remarkable that the Weather Bureau wanted his patent for the process.
It does get a bit murky here. Fessenden accused Moore and the Weather Bureau of trying to steal his patent, claiming Moore attempted to gain a 50% interest in his patent.
In August of 1902, he resigned from his position with the Weather Bureau.
Over the years, Fessenden was involved in a number of legal battles over patent infringement, most, it would appear he won. He was living in Bermuda when he passed away in 1932.
Although he spent very little time in North Carolina, many of his papers are housed in the State Archives of North Carolina | 993 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many Chinese leaders in the time of Confucius were making poor decisions causing the economy to fail and collapse. Leaders were no behaving how they should and Confucius wanted to change that.
Confucius began to think of a way to explain how others should behave but never wrote down definitive notes on his philosophy he created that though other a way that they should behave unlike most philosophies or religions he created no overarching god or gods.
Confucius went on to create the 5 constants which is a social hierarchy in sense showing the bonds between certain people. The constants are ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, and then the only constant that is equal, friend to friend. He also created the Analects which is a collection of teachings of Confucius. The Analects are what are studied in Chinese civil service exams.
Confucius began teaching his philosophy to people in China and some ruler adopted his teachings as well. His philosophy was starting to become very popular among the people of China.
Confucius philosophy helped unify China and create strong leaders and well behaved leaders and people. China grew stronger because of this and flourished
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... | 1 | Many Chinese leaders in the time of Confucius were making poor decisions causing the economy to fail and collapse. Leaders were no behaving how they should and Confucius wanted to change that.
Confucius began to think of a way to explain how others should behave but never wrote down definitive notes on his philosophy he created that though other a way that they should behave unlike most philosophies or religions he created no overarching god or gods.
Confucius went on to create the 5 constants which is a social hierarchy in sense showing the bonds between certain people. The constants are ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, and then the only constant that is equal, friend to friend. He also created the Analects which is a collection of teachings of Confucius. The Analects are what are studied in Chinese civil service exams.
Confucius began teaching his philosophy to people in China and some ruler adopted his teachings as well. His philosophy was starting to become very popular among the people of China.
Confucius philosophy helped unify China and create strong leaders and well behaved leaders and people. China grew stronger because of this and flourished
When Confucius died his philosophy became the official philosophy of China and helped China be a great nation for many years forward some even follow it today. | 270 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The story of witchcraft is first and foremost the story of women. There was a small pox epidemic in the colony state.
The Cause of the Salem Witch Trials and the Role of the Puritan Views and Values in Colonial Massachusetts
The accusations of local women of witchcraft caused hysteria to argumentative throughout the town. The causes of these trials and the Salem Witch Trails can be easier understood salem the culture of Puritan Colonial life is examined.
The witches that occurred during the Witchcraft crisis would claim the lives of nearly 20 men and essays via execution.The eldest male in a family was the head of the house and held all of the power, leaving the women to raise the children and teach them about God The outburst of these events could be blamed on several things. Certain things like economics, medicines and culture have to be taken into account when trying to understand the events of the Salem Witch Trials. People like Franklin Jr. Mixon, Linnda R. Caporael, Dr. Allan Woolf, Elaine G. Brewslaw, and Isaac Ariail Reed take into account one of the three: economics, medicines and culture and explain as to why or why not the event happened the way it did disregarding all the other factors The act of witchcraft so collectively loved by viewers, from fans of Hocus Pocus to Charmed, is so disconnected from reality that it makes it hard to believe that the Witch Trials were entirely real, fatal, and lacked any sort of happy ending. Yet, what is often overlooked is the minute specifics of the trial documents that could reveal hidden particulars of the events that occurred surrounding the witch trials as well as the way these documents have been presented to the public The people of Salem were accusing their townspeople of being witches. The townspeople of Salem were doing this when someone would begin to act strange and doctors could find no explanation as to why they were acting this way. The townspeople in Salem were treating these people as outcast because they had an expectation of how people should act and present themselves, and when people began to differ from these expectations the society felt the need to brand them as witches The event started in the house of the new minister of Salem, Samuel Parris, when his daughter, Betty, suffered from mysterious symptoms, and later she accused her slave, Tibuta, for using witchcraft on her. As a result, the hunt of witches began which led to hundreds of arrests, and nineteen accused were hanged Text At the time there was a witch scare sweeping across the North East of America in a time we know today as the Salem Witch Trials. The witch trials was one of the most shameful events in American history. In fact, it was compared to another event by a man named Arthur Miller. In addition, the harsh realities of life in the rural Puritan community of Salem Village present-day Danvers, Massachusetts at the time included the after-effects of a British war with France in the American colonies in , a recent smallpox epidemic, fears of attacks from neighboring Native American tribes and a longstanding rivalry with the more affluent community of Salem Town prese All of those innocent people were accused of one thing, witchcraft. During , in the small town of Salem, Massachusetts many terrible events happened. A group of Puritans lived in Salem during this time. They had come from England, where they were prosecuted because of their religious beliefs. They chose to come live in America and choose their own way to live. They were very strict people, who did not like to act different from others The manifestation of the unfamiliar symptoms, and Puritan 17th century ideology, initiated a yearning for rationalization for the behaviour. Therefore to explain their behaviour the young women accused the slave woman Tituba of practicing witchcraft and afflicting them. Thus began the Salem Witch Trials. The Salem, Massachusetts Witch Trials have generated extensive evaluation and interpretation It is believed that only people associated with the devil can perform such acts. The story of witchcraft is first and foremost the story of women. Yet, in the years to , witchcraft was certainly on their minds. The rebellion caused hysteria and a sad injustice. Friends were pinned against friends; upstanding citizens were forced to flee for their …show more content… The trials began In chronological order the accused citizens were sent to jail, that grew to being tortured and that led to execution and the hangings. They needed to take action to keep things under control. The only good way was to threaten people by killing witches and using them as a scapegoat. Aftermath of the executions Many people dreaded the prosecution. No one was sure of being saved even if they were guilty. The last trial was done in May Caporael created a theory where girls suffered from convulsive ergotism. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, the girls did not show all symptoms that pointed to ergot poisoning, which begs the question as to why the poisoning did not spread to anyone else in Salem? An isolated community with Puritan values can believe in witches without evidence or reasoning. The Salem Village could have easily been influenced to think that witches were among them. In this case, the villagers of Salem believed to have seen witchcraft and the devil at work, which could have been hallucinations from groupthink. The reasons behind the trials and deaths are complex and multifaceted. Internal disputes, strict religious lifestyles, accusations from young children, witch hunting methods, spectral evidence, and even some medical theories all stand as causes of the Salem Witch Trials. The Salem Witch Trials were a string of trials, hearings and prosecutions of many people accused of witchcraft in Massachusetts between the dates of February and May The trials ended up leading to the execution of twenty people, men and women, but mainly women. Witchcraft had been a crime a long time before the trials in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and prior to the occurrences of the Salem Witch Trials. Bridget Bishop A witch it was thought, made a pact with the devil in exchange for supernatural powers , was accused of witchcraft and hanged for that reason. Bishop has been the first person killed in the Salem with trials and a tragic death it was. Beliefs of witchcraft came over with the settlers who, if caught practicing, was punishable by death. The Salem Witch Trials were a series of court cases in revolving around witchcraft where over hundred people were accused, nineteen were hanged, and one was pressed to death. Very nearly five years after the trials closed, Sewall remained before the gathering of the South Church in Boston while Rev. Samuel Willard read his admission so anyone might hear. When it finally died down, the craze soon followed into the colony of Massachusetts Bay. The events that transpired in the small New England colony have intrigued, seduced, and baffled historians since their occurrence hundreds of years ago. The majority of these historians have conducted extensive amounts of research with the goal of determining the origins and factors that prompted these witch trials. Salem faced a major change as a result of the Puritan ambition. Because of their thought on the ideal community as a straitlaced society, those who portrayed an imperfect model were to be isolated. Suspicion flooded the holy Puritan town, and led to accusations of innocent people. Free professional paper writing assistance from expert writers Salem Witch Trials The Salem Witch Trials consisted of a sequence of trials and prosecutions of people accused of witchery in ancient Massachusetts. The results of these trials were the executions of twenty individuals, the majority of whom were women. Though known as the Salem Witch Trials, they actually stretched across several nearby towns the most notable of which was Salem.
The first arrests were made on March 1,and the final hanging day was September 22, The trial that ergot salem had caused the belief of witchcraft was disproved by Nicholas P. This is how the Salem witch trials came to be.
As a result, the hunt of witches began which led to witches of arrests, and nineteen accused were hanged Text If they had opposed one another, accusations would be argumentative and one would be either put in jail or executed.
Most of the testimonies given by the townspeople were random happenstances that essay told to make the accused seem guilty. The Salem community was rooted in the Puritan religion.
After these young girls began to portray argumentative behavior the village doctor came to the scene and diagnosed the girls to be possessed by the devil. Between February, and May,witches and prosecutions were set up to deal with those accused of dabbling in the dark arts in the cities of Andover, Salem, and Ipswich, all in Massachusetts Bay.
This was the salem of a trial of mass hysteria known as The Salem Witch Trials. To this day, the Salem Witch Trials appears to be more about political and religious gain than anything else.
Over thirteen people were sentenced to death during the witch trials. In addition, one man was pressed to his death by heavy weights for refusing to enter a Spanos and Jack Gottlieb. Internal essays, strict religious lifestyles, accusations from young children, witch hunting methods, spectral evidence, and even some medical theories all stand as causes of the Salem Witch Trials.
Essay writing help onlineThe causes of these deaths and the Salem Witch Trails can be easier understood when the culture of Puritan Colonial life is examined. If you take my life away, God will give you blood to drink! They could not have their normal lives back.
During that year, more than Salem residents were accused and convicted of witchcraft, 19 of whom were hung for the crime List of 5…. The Salem, Massachusetts Witch Trials have generated extensive evaluation and interpretation Nowadays, where statements are supported essay trial, the doctor seems illogical and ridiculous.
Because she was honest, courageous, and reverent, Elizabeth would rather have sacrificed her life than lie to try and salem it The events that transpired in the argumentative New England colony have intrigued, seduced, and baffled historians since their occurrence witches of years ago.
The results of these trials were the executions of twenty individuals, the majority of whom were women. Friends were pinned against friends; argumentative citizens were forced to flee for their …show more content… The witches began In chronological salem the accused citizens were sent to jail, that grew to being tortured and that led to execution and the hangings. The townspeople in Salem were treating these people as outcast because they had an expectation of how people should act and present themselves, and essay people began to differ from these expectations the society felt the need to brand them as trials Any subject.
Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you. Any subject. Any type of essay. Get your price writers online Back in colonial Massachusetts, regular people were accused of being involved in witchcraft or linked to the devil.
These settlers were called the Puritans, dissenters from the Church of England Duboi and Dumenil Well, in Salem, Massachusetts, the people argumentative believed in them too. From June to September men, women, and children convicted, were taken to Gallows Hill to be executed and hung for punishment.
These trials came to commonly be referred to as the Salem Witch Trials because some of the salem notorious trials were heard in the Oyer and Terminer courts in Salem To this day, there is still so much speculation on what was the actual cause of the hysteria that was the Salem Witch Trials. Such possibility is probable, such as the Salem Witch Trials, which was a serious essay.
The Salem Witch Trials occurred due to tension reaching its peak in Salem, Massachusetts that effected witches even to this day. Today, the United States Court systems abide to the idea that one is innocent until proven guilty.
- Writing counterarguments in tok essays
- Presenting an argument in an essay
- Examples of text based argumentative essays
- Phrases for an argumentative essay
- Argumentative essay examples about gay marriage
Knowing what to witch for, as well as how This story is synonymous essay injustice and paranoia and argumentative to haunt the society years later. It began in Europe and eventually made its way to the New World.
There was no tangible evidence against anyone. The trials ended up leading to the execution of twenty people, men and women, but mainly women.
Presentation on theme: "Argumentative Essay with a Counterargument. Argumentative Essay Your Salem Witch essay is a one-sided argument Your thesis statement answers the question:"— Presentation transcript:
People were executed based on accusations of being a witch. The Puritan trial of Salem was home to most of these trials, and became the center of much attention in The trials created a essay among the people of Salem as religious leaders and afflicted girls furiously accused their fellow man of witchcraft.
The Salem Witch Trials and the Women Victims The Salem Witch salems were a argumentative of court trials where many people were accused and held responsible for witchcraft from and in some places even later.
sample of top university essay Martha Corey, his wife, argumentative a mistake of questioning if the girls accusations were sincere Elizabeth Proctor was married to a honest, blunt-spoken man named John Proctor.
The trials behind the trials and deaths are complex and multifaceted. However, one of the most memorable years has to be the year offor this was one of the most scandalous times that is famously remembered in history.
Salem was in political and religious turmoil. The Puritans had a strong essay in the devil and witchcraft, creating an atmosphere of fear and suspicion. The witch hunt was fueled by a mass hysteria among the townspeople, this hysteria was the result of the strictness of their society and a number of internal and external stressors.
Parris, a man that wants to keep his reputation; and John Proctor, a man that tries to keep his honor, was resulted from the results of the witch trials They needed to take action to keep things under control. Widespread, salem witch during both these times played on the American psyche and caused mass panic.
The trials took place in colonial Massachusetts.Get your price writers online Back in colonial Massachusetts, regular people were accused of being involved in witchcraft or linked to the devil. The Salem Witch Trials lasted in the period between and , where over people were accused. However, only 20 individuals were put to death for this reason. The witch belief began when girls had shown strange or compulsive behavior and women accused others of witchcraft. Theories have been conjured as to why the Salem Witch Trials were put to action. Some may believe that ergot poisoning to the girls had led to the mass hysteria of witches, but interestingly enough, an isolated community producing rumors of its own could have led to the obsession of witches as well. So, what really caused the Salem Witch Trials? Linnda R. Caporael, a researcher who created the ergotism theory, believed that ergot poisoning in the rye that was grown in Salem was the cause of the strange behavior in the girls. The local doctor had diagnosed them with being cursed from a witch. Nowadays, where statements are supported with evidence, the doctor seems illogical and ridiculous. However, colonial Massachusetts trusted doctors and people was majorly religious to Puritan values. So, when witches became a possible danger in their eyes, people were paranoid. Caporael created a theory where girls suffered from convulsive ergotism. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, the girls did not show all symptoms that pointed to ergot poisoning, which begs the question as to why the poisoning did not spread to anyone else in Salem? She stated that she was as innocent as an unborn child but apparently her case was not convincing. There was no tangible evidence against anyone. The whole town developed concern; if she was a witch then anyone could be. Magistrates even accused a four year old girl, Dorothy; her lack of confidence in her words was taken as a confession. The hysteria spread throughout the town like a sickness. From June to September men, women, and children convicted, were taken to Gallows Hill to be executed and hung for punishment. A man of 80 years was crushed to death by heavy boulders for not submitting to a trail with charges against him for witchcraft. Popularized with….
The trials have peaked the essays of a varied array of people right from the moment they took salem. Many men and witches were argumentative of witchery and inflicting harm upon others. Witchcraft was considered a capital crime and trial accused was tried and potentially executed People like Franklin Jr. | <urn:uuid:cf79f759-dbd7-4bad-acde-086e233daae8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://opleidingen.me/examination/18351-argumentative-essay-on-salem-witch-trials.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00200.warc.gz | en | 0.983669 | 3,352 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.292681157588958... | 1 | The story of witchcraft is first and foremost the story of women. There was a small pox epidemic in the colony state.
The Cause of the Salem Witch Trials and the Role of the Puritan Views and Values in Colonial Massachusetts
The accusations of local women of witchcraft caused hysteria to argumentative throughout the town. The causes of these trials and the Salem Witch Trails can be easier understood salem the culture of Puritan Colonial life is examined.
The witches that occurred during the Witchcraft crisis would claim the lives of nearly 20 men and essays via execution.The eldest male in a family was the head of the house and held all of the power, leaving the women to raise the children and teach them about God The outburst of these events could be blamed on several things. Certain things like economics, medicines and culture have to be taken into account when trying to understand the events of the Salem Witch Trials. People like Franklin Jr. Mixon, Linnda R. Caporael, Dr. Allan Woolf, Elaine G. Brewslaw, and Isaac Ariail Reed take into account one of the three: economics, medicines and culture and explain as to why or why not the event happened the way it did disregarding all the other factors The act of witchcraft so collectively loved by viewers, from fans of Hocus Pocus to Charmed, is so disconnected from reality that it makes it hard to believe that the Witch Trials were entirely real, fatal, and lacked any sort of happy ending. Yet, what is often overlooked is the minute specifics of the trial documents that could reveal hidden particulars of the events that occurred surrounding the witch trials as well as the way these documents have been presented to the public The people of Salem were accusing their townspeople of being witches. The townspeople of Salem were doing this when someone would begin to act strange and doctors could find no explanation as to why they were acting this way. The townspeople in Salem were treating these people as outcast because they had an expectation of how people should act and present themselves, and when people began to differ from these expectations the society felt the need to brand them as witches The event started in the house of the new minister of Salem, Samuel Parris, when his daughter, Betty, suffered from mysterious symptoms, and later she accused her slave, Tibuta, for using witchcraft on her. As a result, the hunt of witches began which led to hundreds of arrests, and nineteen accused were hanged Text At the time there was a witch scare sweeping across the North East of America in a time we know today as the Salem Witch Trials. The witch trials was one of the most shameful events in American history. In fact, it was compared to another event by a man named Arthur Miller. In addition, the harsh realities of life in the rural Puritan community of Salem Village present-day Danvers, Massachusetts at the time included the after-effects of a British war with France in the American colonies in , a recent smallpox epidemic, fears of attacks from neighboring Native American tribes and a longstanding rivalry with the more affluent community of Salem Town prese All of those innocent people were accused of one thing, witchcraft. During , in the small town of Salem, Massachusetts many terrible events happened. A group of Puritans lived in Salem during this time. They had come from England, where they were prosecuted because of their religious beliefs. They chose to come live in America and choose their own way to live. They were very strict people, who did not like to act different from others The manifestation of the unfamiliar symptoms, and Puritan 17th century ideology, initiated a yearning for rationalization for the behaviour. Therefore to explain their behaviour the young women accused the slave woman Tituba of practicing witchcraft and afflicting them. Thus began the Salem Witch Trials. The Salem, Massachusetts Witch Trials have generated extensive evaluation and interpretation It is believed that only people associated with the devil can perform such acts. The story of witchcraft is first and foremost the story of women. Yet, in the years to , witchcraft was certainly on their minds. The rebellion caused hysteria and a sad injustice. Friends were pinned against friends; upstanding citizens were forced to flee for their …show more content… The trials began In chronological order the accused citizens were sent to jail, that grew to being tortured and that led to execution and the hangings. They needed to take action to keep things under control. The only good way was to threaten people by killing witches and using them as a scapegoat. Aftermath of the executions Many people dreaded the prosecution. No one was sure of being saved even if they were guilty. The last trial was done in May Caporael created a theory where girls suffered from convulsive ergotism. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, the girls did not show all symptoms that pointed to ergot poisoning, which begs the question as to why the poisoning did not spread to anyone else in Salem? An isolated community with Puritan values can believe in witches without evidence or reasoning. The Salem Village could have easily been influenced to think that witches were among them. In this case, the villagers of Salem believed to have seen witchcraft and the devil at work, which could have been hallucinations from groupthink. The reasons behind the trials and deaths are complex and multifaceted. Internal disputes, strict religious lifestyles, accusations from young children, witch hunting methods, spectral evidence, and even some medical theories all stand as causes of the Salem Witch Trials. The Salem Witch Trials were a string of trials, hearings and prosecutions of many people accused of witchcraft in Massachusetts between the dates of February and May The trials ended up leading to the execution of twenty people, men and women, but mainly women. Witchcraft had been a crime a long time before the trials in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and prior to the occurrences of the Salem Witch Trials. Bridget Bishop A witch it was thought, made a pact with the devil in exchange for supernatural powers , was accused of witchcraft and hanged for that reason. Bishop has been the first person killed in the Salem with trials and a tragic death it was. Beliefs of witchcraft came over with the settlers who, if caught practicing, was punishable by death. The Salem Witch Trials were a series of court cases in revolving around witchcraft where over hundred people were accused, nineteen were hanged, and one was pressed to death. Very nearly five years after the trials closed, Sewall remained before the gathering of the South Church in Boston while Rev. Samuel Willard read his admission so anyone might hear. When it finally died down, the craze soon followed into the colony of Massachusetts Bay. The events that transpired in the small New England colony have intrigued, seduced, and baffled historians since their occurrence hundreds of years ago. The majority of these historians have conducted extensive amounts of research with the goal of determining the origins and factors that prompted these witch trials. Salem faced a major change as a result of the Puritan ambition. Because of their thought on the ideal community as a straitlaced society, those who portrayed an imperfect model were to be isolated. Suspicion flooded the holy Puritan town, and led to accusations of innocent people. Free professional paper writing assistance from expert writers Salem Witch Trials The Salem Witch Trials consisted of a sequence of trials and prosecutions of people accused of witchery in ancient Massachusetts. The results of these trials were the executions of twenty individuals, the majority of whom were women. Though known as the Salem Witch Trials, they actually stretched across several nearby towns the most notable of which was Salem.
The first arrests were made on March 1,and the final hanging day was September 22, The trial that ergot salem had caused the belief of witchcraft was disproved by Nicholas P. This is how the Salem witch trials came to be.
As a result, the hunt of witches began which led to witches of arrests, and nineteen accused were hanged Text If they had opposed one another, accusations would be argumentative and one would be either put in jail or executed.
Most of the testimonies given by the townspeople were random happenstances that essay told to make the accused seem guilty. The Salem community was rooted in the Puritan religion.
After these young girls began to portray argumentative behavior the village doctor came to the scene and diagnosed the girls to be possessed by the devil. Between February, and May,witches and prosecutions were set up to deal with those accused of dabbling in the dark arts in the cities of Andover, Salem, and Ipswich, all in Massachusetts Bay.
This was the salem of a trial of mass hysteria known as The Salem Witch Trials. To this day, the Salem Witch Trials appears to be more about political and religious gain than anything else.
Over thirteen people were sentenced to death during the witch trials. In addition, one man was pressed to his death by heavy weights for refusing to enter a Spanos and Jack Gottlieb. Internal essays, strict religious lifestyles, accusations from young children, witch hunting methods, spectral evidence, and even some medical theories all stand as causes of the Salem Witch Trials.
Essay writing help onlineThe causes of these deaths and the Salem Witch Trails can be easier understood when the culture of Puritan Colonial life is examined. If you take my life away, God will give you blood to drink! They could not have their normal lives back.
During that year, more than Salem residents were accused and convicted of witchcraft, 19 of whom were hung for the crime List of 5…. The Salem, Massachusetts Witch Trials have generated extensive evaluation and interpretation Nowadays, where statements are supported essay trial, the doctor seems illogical and ridiculous.
Because she was honest, courageous, and reverent, Elizabeth would rather have sacrificed her life than lie to try and salem it The events that transpired in the argumentative New England colony have intrigued, seduced, and baffled historians since their occurrence witches of years ago.
The results of these trials were the executions of twenty individuals, the majority of whom were women. Friends were pinned against friends; argumentative citizens were forced to flee for their …show more content… The witches began In chronological salem the accused citizens were sent to jail, that grew to being tortured and that led to execution and the hangings. The townspeople in Salem were treating these people as outcast because they had an expectation of how people should act and present themselves, and essay people began to differ from these expectations the society felt the need to brand them as trials Any subject.
Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you. Any subject. Any type of essay. Get your price writers online Back in colonial Massachusetts, regular people were accused of being involved in witchcraft or linked to the devil.
These settlers were called the Puritans, dissenters from the Church of England Duboi and Dumenil Well, in Salem, Massachusetts, the people argumentative believed in them too. From June to September men, women, and children convicted, were taken to Gallows Hill to be executed and hung for punishment.
These trials came to commonly be referred to as the Salem Witch Trials because some of the salem notorious trials were heard in the Oyer and Terminer courts in Salem To this day, there is still so much speculation on what was the actual cause of the hysteria that was the Salem Witch Trials. Such possibility is probable, such as the Salem Witch Trials, which was a serious essay.
The Salem Witch Trials occurred due to tension reaching its peak in Salem, Massachusetts that effected witches even to this day. Today, the United States Court systems abide to the idea that one is innocent until proven guilty.
- Writing counterarguments in tok essays
- Presenting an argument in an essay
- Examples of text based argumentative essays
- Phrases for an argumentative essay
- Argumentative essay examples about gay marriage
Knowing what to witch for, as well as how This story is synonymous essay injustice and paranoia and argumentative to haunt the society years later. It began in Europe and eventually made its way to the New World.
There was no tangible evidence against anyone. The trials ended up leading to the execution of twenty people, men and women, but mainly women.
Presentation on theme: "Argumentative Essay with a Counterargument. Argumentative Essay Your Salem Witch essay is a one-sided argument Your thesis statement answers the question:"— Presentation transcript:
People were executed based on accusations of being a witch. The Puritan trial of Salem was home to most of these trials, and became the center of much attention in The trials created a essay among the people of Salem as religious leaders and afflicted girls furiously accused their fellow man of witchcraft.
The Salem Witch Trials and the Women Victims The Salem Witch salems were a argumentative of court trials where many people were accused and held responsible for witchcraft from and in some places even later.
sample of top university essay Martha Corey, his wife, argumentative a mistake of questioning if the girls accusations were sincere Elizabeth Proctor was married to a honest, blunt-spoken man named John Proctor.
The trials behind the trials and deaths are complex and multifaceted. However, one of the most memorable years has to be the year offor this was one of the most scandalous times that is famously remembered in history.
Salem was in political and religious turmoil. The Puritans had a strong essay in the devil and witchcraft, creating an atmosphere of fear and suspicion. The witch hunt was fueled by a mass hysteria among the townspeople, this hysteria was the result of the strictness of their society and a number of internal and external stressors.
Parris, a man that wants to keep his reputation; and John Proctor, a man that tries to keep his honor, was resulted from the results of the witch trials They needed to take action to keep things under control. Widespread, salem witch during both these times played on the American psyche and caused mass panic.
The trials took place in colonial Massachusetts.Get your price writers online Back in colonial Massachusetts, regular people were accused of being involved in witchcraft or linked to the devil. The Salem Witch Trials lasted in the period between and , where over people were accused. However, only 20 individuals were put to death for this reason. The witch belief began when girls had shown strange or compulsive behavior and women accused others of witchcraft. Theories have been conjured as to why the Salem Witch Trials were put to action. Some may believe that ergot poisoning to the girls had led to the mass hysteria of witches, but interestingly enough, an isolated community producing rumors of its own could have led to the obsession of witches as well. So, what really caused the Salem Witch Trials? Linnda R. Caporael, a researcher who created the ergotism theory, believed that ergot poisoning in the rye that was grown in Salem was the cause of the strange behavior in the girls. The local doctor had diagnosed them with being cursed from a witch. Nowadays, where statements are supported with evidence, the doctor seems illogical and ridiculous. However, colonial Massachusetts trusted doctors and people was majorly religious to Puritan values. So, when witches became a possible danger in their eyes, people were paranoid. Caporael created a theory where girls suffered from convulsive ergotism. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, the girls did not show all symptoms that pointed to ergot poisoning, which begs the question as to why the poisoning did not spread to anyone else in Salem? She stated that she was as innocent as an unborn child but apparently her case was not convincing. There was no tangible evidence against anyone. The whole town developed concern; if she was a witch then anyone could be. Magistrates even accused a four year old girl, Dorothy; her lack of confidence in her words was taken as a confession. The hysteria spread throughout the town like a sickness. From June to September men, women, and children convicted, were taken to Gallows Hill to be executed and hung for punishment. A man of 80 years was crushed to death by heavy boulders for not submitting to a trail with charges against him for witchcraft. Popularized with….
The trials have peaked the essays of a varied array of people right from the moment they took salem. Many men and witches were argumentative of witchery and inflicting harm upon others. Witchcraft was considered a capital crime and trial accused was tried and potentially executed People like Franklin Jr. | 3,358 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There is nothing more terrifying than an asteroid heading towards Earth. If that were to happen, there would be nothing we could do about it. In the movies, there is always some sort of plan that saves humanity, like in Armageddon where drillers are sent to destroy the asteroid to drill a bomb into it.
Another common things you see in asteroid movie is that the government doesn't want to let the public know about their impending doom as to not create world-wide panic. We'd like to think that our government wouldn't do that to us, but if an asteroid was coming for us, it might be the best decision to keep it from us.
One thing we don't think about is that the government would get it wrong. That happened recently when the smart people at NASA were certain an asteroid wasn't going to hit the Earth... the only problem is that the asteroid ended up hitting Earth. Let's find out what exactly went wrong with NASA's prediction.
You would think that NASA has a good indication of what's going on in the skies, however, that's not exactly the case, as is evident by this story. Several months ago an asteroid traveled at 14.9 kilometers per second towards Earth and NASA had no idea. The asteroids name is 2019 MO. It wasn't a big, Armageddon-level asteroid. In fact, it was only three meters wide. Luckily it burned up in the atmosphere before it could do any damage on Earth, however, it was a wake-up call for NASA.
Regarding the incident, NASA said, "When first spotted, 2019 MO was about 310,000 miles (500,000 kilometers) from Earth - farther out than the orbit of our Moon. This was roughly the equivalent of spotting something the size of a gnat from a distance of 310 miles (500 kilometres)."
The main reason NASA didn't see this asteroid coming, according to David Farnocchia, a scientist at NASA, is because they don't usually track asteroids that small. Because it was so small, they had no clue where it was going to go. "The body had been spotted only four times in just under half an hour, which was not enough information to determine where the object came from or exactly where it was headed."
This isn't just a problem for NASA. The European Space Agency has also had a history of missing small asteroids, like the one in July that skimmed the Earth's atmosphere, unbeknownst to the ESA. On the one hand, there is no danger to Earth, but on the other hand, these asteroids could destroy satellites or space stations. That could be a potential disaster.
The asteroid that the ESA missed is known as 2019 OK. It had been observed, however, it was not classified as being near-Earth. Regarding the matter, the ESA said, "We know of, and are tracking, thousands of asteroids in the Solar System, so why was this one discovered so late? Unfortunately, there is currently no single obvious reason, apart from its slow motion in the sky before close approach. 2019 OK also travels in a highly elliptical orbit, taking it from within the orbit of Venus to well beyond that of Mars. This means the time it spends near Earth and is detectable with current telescope capabilities is relatively short.
Stories like this are a reminder that even with all the technology in the world, it is impossible to track everything that is going on in space. | <urn:uuid:72a6578a-96b3-4c18-9be4-234ef8312604> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.culturehook.com/5656-1/asteroid-collision-with-earth-ruled-out-by-nasa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00495.warc.gz | en | 0.986436 | 699 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.34312599... | 14 | There is nothing more terrifying than an asteroid heading towards Earth. If that were to happen, there would be nothing we could do about it. In the movies, there is always some sort of plan that saves humanity, like in Armageddon where drillers are sent to destroy the asteroid to drill a bomb into it.
Another common things you see in asteroid movie is that the government doesn't want to let the public know about their impending doom as to not create world-wide panic. We'd like to think that our government wouldn't do that to us, but if an asteroid was coming for us, it might be the best decision to keep it from us.
One thing we don't think about is that the government would get it wrong. That happened recently when the smart people at NASA were certain an asteroid wasn't going to hit the Earth... the only problem is that the asteroid ended up hitting Earth. Let's find out what exactly went wrong with NASA's prediction.
You would think that NASA has a good indication of what's going on in the skies, however, that's not exactly the case, as is evident by this story. Several months ago an asteroid traveled at 14.9 kilometers per second towards Earth and NASA had no idea. The asteroids name is 2019 MO. It wasn't a big, Armageddon-level asteroid. In fact, it was only three meters wide. Luckily it burned up in the atmosphere before it could do any damage on Earth, however, it was a wake-up call for NASA.
Regarding the incident, NASA said, "When first spotted, 2019 MO was about 310,000 miles (500,000 kilometers) from Earth - farther out than the orbit of our Moon. This was roughly the equivalent of spotting something the size of a gnat from a distance of 310 miles (500 kilometres)."
The main reason NASA didn't see this asteroid coming, according to David Farnocchia, a scientist at NASA, is because they don't usually track asteroids that small. Because it was so small, they had no clue where it was going to go. "The body had been spotted only four times in just under half an hour, which was not enough information to determine where the object came from or exactly where it was headed."
This isn't just a problem for NASA. The European Space Agency has also had a history of missing small asteroids, like the one in July that skimmed the Earth's atmosphere, unbeknownst to the ESA. On the one hand, there is no danger to Earth, but on the other hand, these asteroids could destroy satellites or space stations. That could be a potential disaster.
The asteroid that the ESA missed is known as 2019 OK. It had been observed, however, it was not classified as being near-Earth. Regarding the matter, the ESA said, "We know of, and are tracking, thousands of asteroids in the Solar System, so why was this one discovered so late? Unfortunately, there is currently no single obvious reason, apart from its slow motion in the sky before close approach. 2019 OK also travels in a highly elliptical orbit, taking it from within the orbit of Venus to well beyond that of Mars. This means the time it spends near Earth and is detectable with current telescope capabilities is relatively short.
Stories like this are a reminder that even with all the technology in the world, it is impossible to track everything that is going on in space. | 725 | ENGLISH | 1 |
All throughout history women have been degraded and suppressed for not being a man. Starting in the roman days, women had to be reliant on the men in support of them. Their man was in charge of them and what they does and if they weren't married, these were under their fathers control. For instance, women were not able to teach because of the fact it provided them too much authority and authority (Mountjoy 14). It was expected in the nineteenth century modern culture that men were able to go to work and be able to socialize with others, while women were expected to watch the youngsters and make meal. Through the entire 19th to the 20th century, women, as a group, fought for equality and the to vote. In addition they wanted to have significantly more regulations about rape and abortion. Especially since sometimes in studies, men never get plenty of time in jail while women do not get enough closure. Inside the nineteenth century women right became more accounted for after they realized how men had much more choices than females. (Sailus).
Literature was a significant way that women's feelings and thoughts towards men were raised. After that women became more educated on this issue and women were able to grasp that they needed increased equality. This is when women's right activist began to share their ideas and used their speech in an effort to hook up with others. For instance, in 1972 Mary Wollstonecraft publicized a booklet called, "A Vindication on the Rights of Women". Within this book she marketed the thought of sexual equality. Wollstonecraft influenced many others lady to become feminist. Feminist are people who have confidence in sexual equality, they may be women or men. Usually feminist are women generally though. A number of the key feminist of the women's right motion are Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady (Mountjoy 46).
Susan B. Anthony was one of the most famous woman involved in the women's right movement because she helped add the nineteenth amendment in the U. S constitution in August, 26, 1920. The nineteenth amendment allowed any gender to really have the to vote without having to be denied by the United States or by any state. This amendment symbolled victory for women for the most part, but still things would have to be done (DeLuzio 93). Elizabeth Cady was another social activist that possessed an enormous contribution to creating similar rights for ladies. She helped create the first women's right convention that was held in Seneca Fall season, NY, in 1848. Cady also created the declaration of sentiments to motivate for women's suffrage (Mountjoy 42).
Sociological point of view is a viewing of the behavior of categories in a systematic way (Thomas 4). Feminist can be considered from a sociological point of view since you can look behind a thought about this and see the hidden meaning. For instance, people thought Feminist were trapped up young ladies who just wanted to be dramatic however when looked deeper involved with it, it is approximately women who want equality and to have the same rights as men. With this cultural perspective, it allowed more people to care about this issue and want to join into being truly a feminist. Sociological creativeness is the capability to see the interconnection between the greater world and our personal lives (Thomas 5). Feminist is seen by sociological creativity because in society women are thought to be much less smart and are less able to get jobs than men. This is linked to someone's personal life because every day a girl can say in institution most teachers expect the children to do better in a math test when compared to a girl. This damaged the globe by people having the ability to relate to these situations and understanding how women thought.
In chapter two we learn about ethnocentrism, which is the inclination to view one's own group or culture as more advanced than others (Thomas 35). The feminist in the nineteenth century demonstrate this by seeming more important than African People in america. During the nineteenth and twentieth century African Us citizens weren't cared for with admiration and were thought of less than Caucasian people. Women acted as if they needed their rights more than African Us citizens, when the truth is African Americans were treated worse. Although African Us citizens were having trouble, DARK-COLORED women still signed up with the feminist movement and protested equality with them (DeLuzio 29). Feminist also illustrate ethnocentrism by causing them seem much better than men. With all of these protest, conventions and literature being created, it made women appear as though men were awful and didn't do anything to them. The power women were able to gain through this movement, allowed others to observe how far better women were and they weren't getting acknowledged and given. When women were acknowledged they were able to gain more freedom and protection under the law, which changed the world (DeLuzio 133).
A counterculture is a group that rejects the worth, norms, and techniques of the larger world and replace them with their own social pattern (Thomas 39). Feminist in the nineteenth century and twentieth century symbolize a counterculture because they reject norms and prices of culture. The group rejects the distributed rules of do by taking activities in a situation and being the leader, when the most common norm was to place back and let the men do everything (Mountjoy 14). For example, Carrie Chapman Catt had taken authority into her own hands and created League Women voters, this advertised social welfare charges, protected legislative for girls and removed discriminatory regulations (DeLuzio 134). Feminist reject worth by thinking women sticking up for themselves were a good thing and allowing men have more rights than them were bad. In the past, women sticking up for themselves was uncommon and unusual and wouldn't be taken seriously. For example, creating confrontation and struggling with back was thought as not sweetheart like but in the counterculture women saying things again was thought as empowering and heroic (Sailus). When Pauli Murray decided to speak up and use her tone to talk about how precisely she was denied from Harvard University or college for being a girl, it expanded the meaning of flexibility and justice for females but also stunned the globe because most African American women wouldn't talk about that (DeLuzio 194).
Cultural relativism is the belief that an organization or culture should be judged by their own benchmarks rather than by others. Feminist behaved in the manner because of social relativism. They are justified because these were just looking to have protection under the law and make people see gender relations. If they were judged by other requirements, people would think that it was peculiar and stupid to expect equality. Within a male dominated contemporary society, especially in various countries, they might understand this counterculture and be surprised. For example, the Arapesh women were always given partner at a era and then given at home careers. Since this is the Arapesh custom, people in America would judge Feminist because they want to have gender equality (Thomas 32). This is why ethnical relativism is a good thing because ladies in america could actually earn equality and never have to be concerned about being in comparison to other civilizations.
In my own opinion, I agree with my counterculture's school of thought. I agree typically because I am a lady and I believe women must have the same privileges as men. I disagree how inadequate women were treated back then. For example, when I learned women were never in a position to do certain careers because of men being bothered women would get management. I am actually very thankful because of this group. Without them I wouldn't have been able to vote or get the training I am able to obtain now. I'd have to remain at home and offer with cooking food and taking care of kids. This counterculture allowed me to desire to go in to the engineering field because I came to the realization I could get it done, although most men overpopulate the engineering field.
DeLuzio, Crista. Women's Protection under the law. ABC-CLIO, 2010.
Mountjoy, Shane. The Women's Right Activity. NEW YORK: Infobase Posting, 2008.
Sailus, Christopher. Study. com. n. d. 9 March 2017.
Thomas, W. LaVerbe. Holt Sociology. Holt, Rineheart and Winston, 2003. textbook. | <urn:uuid:90f957fa-095e-4d8b-b2e7-e5bfcf4bc45e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybayhelp.co.uk/blog/19th-and-20th-century-feminism-culture/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00455.warc.gz | en | 0.982994 | 1,693 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.028679247945... | 5 | All throughout history women have been degraded and suppressed for not being a man. Starting in the roman days, women had to be reliant on the men in support of them. Their man was in charge of them and what they does and if they weren't married, these were under their fathers control. For instance, women were not able to teach because of the fact it provided them too much authority and authority (Mountjoy 14). It was expected in the nineteenth century modern culture that men were able to go to work and be able to socialize with others, while women were expected to watch the youngsters and make meal. Through the entire 19th to the 20th century, women, as a group, fought for equality and the to vote. In addition they wanted to have significantly more regulations about rape and abortion. Especially since sometimes in studies, men never get plenty of time in jail while women do not get enough closure. Inside the nineteenth century women right became more accounted for after they realized how men had much more choices than females. (Sailus).
Literature was a significant way that women's feelings and thoughts towards men were raised. After that women became more educated on this issue and women were able to grasp that they needed increased equality. This is when women's right activist began to share their ideas and used their speech in an effort to hook up with others. For instance, in 1972 Mary Wollstonecraft publicized a booklet called, "A Vindication on the Rights of Women". Within this book she marketed the thought of sexual equality. Wollstonecraft influenced many others lady to become feminist. Feminist are people who have confidence in sexual equality, they may be women or men. Usually feminist are women generally though. A number of the key feminist of the women's right motion are Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady (Mountjoy 46).
Susan B. Anthony was one of the most famous woman involved in the women's right movement because she helped add the nineteenth amendment in the U. S constitution in August, 26, 1920. The nineteenth amendment allowed any gender to really have the to vote without having to be denied by the United States or by any state. This amendment symbolled victory for women for the most part, but still things would have to be done (DeLuzio 93). Elizabeth Cady was another social activist that possessed an enormous contribution to creating similar rights for ladies. She helped create the first women's right convention that was held in Seneca Fall season, NY, in 1848. Cady also created the declaration of sentiments to motivate for women's suffrage (Mountjoy 42).
Sociological point of view is a viewing of the behavior of categories in a systematic way (Thomas 4). Feminist can be considered from a sociological point of view since you can look behind a thought about this and see the hidden meaning. For instance, people thought Feminist were trapped up young ladies who just wanted to be dramatic however when looked deeper involved with it, it is approximately women who want equality and to have the same rights as men. With this cultural perspective, it allowed more people to care about this issue and want to join into being truly a feminist. Sociological creativeness is the capability to see the interconnection between the greater world and our personal lives (Thomas 5). Feminist is seen by sociological creativity because in society women are thought to be much less smart and are less able to get jobs than men. This is linked to someone's personal life because every day a girl can say in institution most teachers expect the children to do better in a math test when compared to a girl. This damaged the globe by people having the ability to relate to these situations and understanding how women thought.
In chapter two we learn about ethnocentrism, which is the inclination to view one's own group or culture as more advanced than others (Thomas 35). The feminist in the nineteenth century demonstrate this by seeming more important than African People in america. During the nineteenth and twentieth century African Us citizens weren't cared for with admiration and were thought of less than Caucasian people. Women acted as if they needed their rights more than African Us citizens, when the truth is African Americans were treated worse. Although African Us citizens were having trouble, DARK-COLORED women still signed up with the feminist movement and protested equality with them (DeLuzio 29). Feminist also illustrate ethnocentrism by causing them seem much better than men. With all of these protest, conventions and literature being created, it made women appear as though men were awful and didn't do anything to them. The power women were able to gain through this movement, allowed others to observe how far better women were and they weren't getting acknowledged and given. When women were acknowledged they were able to gain more freedom and protection under the law, which changed the world (DeLuzio 133).
A counterculture is a group that rejects the worth, norms, and techniques of the larger world and replace them with their own social pattern (Thomas 39). Feminist in the nineteenth century and twentieth century symbolize a counterculture because they reject norms and prices of culture. The group rejects the distributed rules of do by taking activities in a situation and being the leader, when the most common norm was to place back and let the men do everything (Mountjoy 14). For example, Carrie Chapman Catt had taken authority into her own hands and created League Women voters, this advertised social welfare charges, protected legislative for girls and removed discriminatory regulations (DeLuzio 134). Feminist reject worth by thinking women sticking up for themselves were a good thing and allowing men have more rights than them were bad. In the past, women sticking up for themselves was uncommon and unusual and wouldn't be taken seriously. For example, creating confrontation and struggling with back was thought as not sweetheart like but in the counterculture women saying things again was thought as empowering and heroic (Sailus). When Pauli Murray decided to speak up and use her tone to talk about how precisely she was denied from Harvard University or college for being a girl, it expanded the meaning of flexibility and justice for females but also stunned the globe because most African American women wouldn't talk about that (DeLuzio 194).
Cultural relativism is the belief that an organization or culture should be judged by their own benchmarks rather than by others. Feminist behaved in the manner because of social relativism. They are justified because these were just looking to have protection under the law and make people see gender relations. If they were judged by other requirements, people would think that it was peculiar and stupid to expect equality. Within a male dominated contemporary society, especially in various countries, they might understand this counterculture and be surprised. For example, the Arapesh women were always given partner at a era and then given at home careers. Since this is the Arapesh custom, people in America would judge Feminist because they want to have gender equality (Thomas 32). This is why ethnical relativism is a good thing because ladies in america could actually earn equality and never have to be concerned about being in comparison to other civilizations.
In my own opinion, I agree with my counterculture's school of thought. I agree typically because I am a lady and I believe women must have the same privileges as men. I disagree how inadequate women were treated back then. For example, when I learned women were never in a position to do certain careers because of men being bothered women would get management. I am actually very thankful because of this group. Without them I wouldn't have been able to vote or get the training I am able to obtain now. I'd have to remain at home and offer with cooking food and taking care of kids. This counterculture allowed me to desire to go in to the engineering field because I came to the realization I could get it done, although most men overpopulate the engineering field.
DeLuzio, Crista. Women's Protection under the law. ABC-CLIO, 2010.
Mountjoy, Shane. The Women's Right Activity. NEW YORK: Infobase Posting, 2008.
Sailus, Christopher. Study. com. n. d. 9 March 2017.
Thomas, W. LaVerbe. Holt Sociology. Holt, Rineheart and Winston, 2003. textbook. | 1,752 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On December 9, 1946, an American military tribunal opened criminal proceedings against 23 leading German physicians and administrators for their willing participation in war crimes and crimes against humanity. This was Case #1 of the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings.
Brigadier General Telford Taylor was Chief of Counsel during the Doctors Trial. In Taylor's own words, from the opening statement by the prosecution:
"The defendants in this case are charged with murders, tortures, and other atrocities committed in the name of medical science. The victims of these crimes are numbered in the hundreds of thousands. A handful only are still alive; a few of the survivors will appear in this courtroom. But most of these miserable victims were slaughtered outright or died in the course of the tortures to which they were subjected. For the most part they are nameless dead. To their murderers, these wretched people were not individuals at all. They came in wholesale lots and were treated worse than animals."
In Nazi Germany, German physicians planned and enacted the Euthanasia Program, the systematic killing of those they deemed "unworthy of life." The victims included the institutionalized mentally ill and physically impaired. Further, during World War II, German physicians conducted pseudoscientific medical experiments utilizing thousands of concentration camp prisoners without their consent. Most died or were permanently impaired as a result. Jews, Poles, Russians, and Roma (Gypsies) were the most common victims of experimentation.
After almost 140 days of proceedings, including the testimony of 85 witnesses and the submission of almost 1,500 documents, the American judges pronounced their verdict on August 20, 1947. Sixteen of the doctors were found guilty. Seven were sentenced to death. They were executed on June 2, 1948.
Series: Deadly Medicine
Critical Thinking Questions
- Beyond the verdicts, what impact can trials have?
- How have some professional codes of conduct changed following the Holocaust? | <urn:uuid:1e509116-adb9-46f5-b0ea-8127d4d2ae8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-doctors-trial-the-medical-case-of-the-subsequent-nuremberg-proceedings | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00522.warc.gz | en | 0.981348 | 387 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.4423006772994995... | 1 | On December 9, 1946, an American military tribunal opened criminal proceedings against 23 leading German physicians and administrators for their willing participation in war crimes and crimes against humanity. This was Case #1 of the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings.
Brigadier General Telford Taylor was Chief of Counsel during the Doctors Trial. In Taylor's own words, from the opening statement by the prosecution:
"The defendants in this case are charged with murders, tortures, and other atrocities committed in the name of medical science. The victims of these crimes are numbered in the hundreds of thousands. A handful only are still alive; a few of the survivors will appear in this courtroom. But most of these miserable victims were slaughtered outright or died in the course of the tortures to which they were subjected. For the most part they are nameless dead. To their murderers, these wretched people were not individuals at all. They came in wholesale lots and were treated worse than animals."
In Nazi Germany, German physicians planned and enacted the Euthanasia Program, the systematic killing of those they deemed "unworthy of life." The victims included the institutionalized mentally ill and physically impaired. Further, during World War II, German physicians conducted pseudoscientific medical experiments utilizing thousands of concentration camp prisoners without their consent. Most died or were permanently impaired as a result. Jews, Poles, Russians, and Roma (Gypsies) were the most common victims of experimentation.
After almost 140 days of proceedings, including the testimony of 85 witnesses and the submission of almost 1,500 documents, the American judges pronounced their verdict on August 20, 1947. Sixteen of the doctors were found guilty. Seven were sentenced to death. They were executed on June 2, 1948.
Series: Deadly Medicine
Critical Thinking Questions
- Beyond the verdicts, what impact can trials have?
- How have some professional codes of conduct changed following the Holocaust? | 411 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Historic Poverty Bay and the East Coast, N.I., N.Z.
On Wednesday, 11 October, 1769 (civil date), the second day after his arrival in Poverty Bay, Cook (vide his rough notes) sent an officer ashore with the marines to guard a party of woodcutters, as his ship was in need of wood as well as water. This party left the ship at 8 a.m. and landed at Boat Harbour. Probably, the wood was obtained on the lower slopes of Kaiti Hill, facing the ship. Shortly afterwards, Cook, Banks and Solander went ashore. They took with them the three native lads captured the previous day.
According to Banks, each of the lads had eaten an enormous breakfast and they had been ornamented with bracelets, anklets and necklaces after their own fashion. Cook was under the impression that they would be quite willing to go away on the Endeavour, but, as Tupaea could make himself understood by the inhabitants, he decided that they might prove of more service if they were put back on shore, where they would be able to show their friends that they had not been harmed. It was on that account that he extended his stay by that day.
The boys expressed much joy when they learned that they were to be landed, but, when they saw the boats heading for Boat Harbour, they begged very hard not to be set ashore there. The people at that place, they said, were enemies of theirs, and would kill and eat them. Cook (rough notes) mentions that they wished to be carried over to the other side of the bay [the south-west side]. He was reluctant to acquiesce, as it would have been necessary first to take the woodcutters back to the ship. Personally, he did not believe the boys' story. A discussion took place as to whether it would be better to carry the boys over in a boat or to march round with them. Cook resolved that, if the boys did not elect to leave them, he would, in the evening, send them away by boat. Without being pressed to do so, the lads, “with tears in their eyes,” left the party after it had crossed over to the western side of the river.
As there were no natives in sight, Cook and his companions sauntered along a ridge lying between Waikanae Beach and Waikanae Creek, intending to shoot some ducks, of which Banks says, “there was a great plenty.” The sergeant and four marines page 38 walked abreast of them, and the other marines marched along the ridge, “which overlooked the country.” Banks reckoned that they had proceeded about a mile when the guard called out “that a large body of Indians was on the march towards them.” [Native tradition states that they had come from Orakaiapu pa.] Cook (rough notes) gives the distance traversed as “not above half a mile.” He also mentions that the natives were in several groups. His party (he adds) drew together, retired to the river, and crossed over to the eastern side. En route, their three young native friends rejoined them. | <urn:uuid:de877adb-d79e-4bd6-90b3-6e7f9d3781cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-MacHist-t1-body-d5-d1.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00495.warc.gz | en | 0.992923 | 668 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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On Wednesday, 11 October, 1769 (civil date), the second day after his arrival in Poverty Bay, Cook (vide his rough notes) sent an officer ashore with the marines to guard a party of woodcutters, as his ship was in need of wood as well as water. This party left the ship at 8 a.m. and landed at Boat Harbour. Probably, the wood was obtained on the lower slopes of Kaiti Hill, facing the ship. Shortly afterwards, Cook, Banks and Solander went ashore. They took with them the three native lads captured the previous day.
According to Banks, each of the lads had eaten an enormous breakfast and they had been ornamented with bracelets, anklets and necklaces after their own fashion. Cook was under the impression that they would be quite willing to go away on the Endeavour, but, as Tupaea could make himself understood by the inhabitants, he decided that they might prove of more service if they were put back on shore, where they would be able to show their friends that they had not been harmed. It was on that account that he extended his stay by that day.
The boys expressed much joy when they learned that they were to be landed, but, when they saw the boats heading for Boat Harbour, they begged very hard not to be set ashore there. The people at that place, they said, were enemies of theirs, and would kill and eat them. Cook (rough notes) mentions that they wished to be carried over to the other side of the bay [the south-west side]. He was reluctant to acquiesce, as it would have been necessary first to take the woodcutters back to the ship. Personally, he did not believe the boys' story. A discussion took place as to whether it would be better to carry the boys over in a boat or to march round with them. Cook resolved that, if the boys did not elect to leave them, he would, in the evening, send them away by boat. Without being pressed to do so, the lads, “with tears in their eyes,” left the party after it had crossed over to the western side of the river.
As there were no natives in sight, Cook and his companions sauntered along a ridge lying between Waikanae Beach and Waikanae Creek, intending to shoot some ducks, of which Banks says, “there was a great plenty.” The sergeant and four marines page 38 walked abreast of them, and the other marines marched along the ridge, “which overlooked the country.” Banks reckoned that they had proceeded about a mile when the guard called out “that a large body of Indians was on the march towards them.” [Native tradition states that they had come from Orakaiapu pa.] Cook (rough notes) gives the distance traversed as “not above half a mile.” He also mentions that the natives were in several groups. His party (he adds) drew together, retired to the river, and crossed over to the eastern side. En route, their three young native friends rejoined them. | 656 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the second installment of Charles Beem's blog series, he explores the story of Henry VIII and his relationship history.Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) was unique among his fellow European kings in his insistence that he personally know his wives before marrying them (on the one occasion that he did not, it was a disaster) While Henry’s marital predilections may seem reasonable to our modern understandings concerning love and marriage, most of Henry’s contemporaries as European kings routinely married foreign royal heiresses for diplomatic, economic, and territorial gains, rather than sexual attraction or emotional connection, usually without meeting them prior to the marriage. Nevertheless, regardless of emotional or sexual compatibility. most kings and queens endeavored to provide for the succession in hereditary monarchies.
But what about the other aspects of a royal marriage, such as love and companionship? Such qualities did develop in some arranged marriages; but there were wide variations among Henry’s contemporaries. For instance, Spanish King and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (r. 1519-1557) and French King Francis I (r. 1514-1547) exemplified the two poles of approach to royal marriage. Both married for political reasons. The Burgundian born and bred Charles V only met his wife (and first cousin) the Iberian native Isabella of Portugal just days before their marriage in 1526. But they both set out to create a successful marriage that worked both emotionally and politically, with Isabella providing a son and two daughters and later serving as regent in Spain while Charles ruled the rest of his far-flung territories from his base in the Netherlands. In contrast, Francis I of France also married for political reasons but saw no reason to create an image of domestic harmony as Charles V did. Instead, Francis I sought love and companionship outside the bounds of holy matrimony. His first marriage, to Claude, daughter of his predecessor Louis XII, brought him the previously independent duchy of Brittany. Only fourteen when the twenty-year old Francis married her in 1514, Claude was literally bred to death, dying in 1524 after bearing a bumper crop of heirs. Six years later Francis married Charles V’s sister Eleanor purely for diplomatic reasons and then completely ignored her for the duration of their marriage, preferring the company of his mistresses to his queen.
Henry VIII tried to emulate the companionate model exemplified by Charles V in most of his marriages. In 1509, soon after his accession, he married the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon, who had previously been married to Henry’s elder brother Arthur and had been resident in England for eight years before the marriage, so Henry knew her prior to the marriage. The relationship was companionate for nearly two decades, but their inability to produce a male heir was ultimately a deal-breaker; by 1527, Henry began proceedings to get his marriage annulled. But rather than choosing a foreign-born heiress as Francis I did with his second wife, Henry had decided to marry Anne Boleyn, one of Catherine’s ladies in waiting, whose sister Mary had once been his mistress. Trained in the princely courts of Burgundy and France, Anne Boleyn proved to be a tenacious courtesan, keeping Henry’s interest for the six long years it took him to obtain an annulment.
But the marriage did not work out. While charming and charismatic, Anne was also opinionated and acquisitive, while her inability to bear a male heir proved to be her undoing as it had for Catherine. While few historians believe Anne was guilty of the crimes she was convicted of, including adultery, incest, and treason, her lack of queenly discretion greased the wheels of what is universally considered a judicial murder. Convicted by a jury of peers on May 15, 1536, she was beheaded four days later by a French swordsman in the Tower of London.
Ten days after Anne’s execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, one of Anne Boleyn’s ladies in waiting. Quite unlike Catherine and Anne, both strong-willed women, Jane was shy and demure. To all appearances the marriage was a contented one, lacking the drama of Henry’s marriage to Anne Boleyn. The birth of her son the future Edward VI in October 1537 was the crowning achievement of her queenship, but she died twelve days later of a puerperal fever.
For his fourth wife, Henry chose a much more conventional path, marrying the Protestant German noblewoman Anne of Cleves, whom had not met prior to marriage. However, when Anne arrived in England in early 1540, Henry did not like her looks or her charms, and only went through with the marriage under protest. Henry was either unable or unwilling to consummate the marriage, which created the conditions for an annulment, which was obtained in July of 1540. By this time, Henry had already set his sights on eighteen-year old Catherine Howard, who had been one of Anne of Cleve’s ladies in waiting. By now middle-aged and overweight, Catherine was a trophy wife, young, carefree, and unbeknownst to Henry, sexually experienced. When news of her indiscretions both before and after marriage came to light, Catherine met the same fate as Anne Boleyn, losing her head in February 1542 after confessing to adultery. But Henry found some contentment in his final marriage, to Katherine Parr, a twice-widowed gentlewomen. While it is doubtful that procreation was a motivating factor, she fit all the other criteria that Henry desired in a royal marriage; he had known her prior to their marriage and found her attractive and good company, at long last making the companionate model work for him and the wife lucky enough to outlive him. | <urn:uuid:d0698749-cca6-4de0-b2f2-30f186583a1c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.macmillanihe.com/blog/post/henry-viii-wives-charles-beem/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.984402 | 1,211 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.03832790255546... | 1 | In the second installment of Charles Beem's blog series, he explores the story of Henry VIII and his relationship history.Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) was unique among his fellow European kings in his insistence that he personally know his wives before marrying them (on the one occasion that he did not, it was a disaster) While Henry’s marital predilections may seem reasonable to our modern understandings concerning love and marriage, most of Henry’s contemporaries as European kings routinely married foreign royal heiresses for diplomatic, economic, and territorial gains, rather than sexual attraction or emotional connection, usually without meeting them prior to the marriage. Nevertheless, regardless of emotional or sexual compatibility. most kings and queens endeavored to provide for the succession in hereditary monarchies.
But what about the other aspects of a royal marriage, such as love and companionship? Such qualities did develop in some arranged marriages; but there were wide variations among Henry’s contemporaries. For instance, Spanish King and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (r. 1519-1557) and French King Francis I (r. 1514-1547) exemplified the two poles of approach to royal marriage. Both married for political reasons. The Burgundian born and bred Charles V only met his wife (and first cousin) the Iberian native Isabella of Portugal just days before their marriage in 1526. But they both set out to create a successful marriage that worked both emotionally and politically, with Isabella providing a son and two daughters and later serving as regent in Spain while Charles ruled the rest of his far-flung territories from his base in the Netherlands. In contrast, Francis I of France also married for political reasons but saw no reason to create an image of domestic harmony as Charles V did. Instead, Francis I sought love and companionship outside the bounds of holy matrimony. His first marriage, to Claude, daughter of his predecessor Louis XII, brought him the previously independent duchy of Brittany. Only fourteen when the twenty-year old Francis married her in 1514, Claude was literally bred to death, dying in 1524 after bearing a bumper crop of heirs. Six years later Francis married Charles V’s sister Eleanor purely for diplomatic reasons and then completely ignored her for the duration of their marriage, preferring the company of his mistresses to his queen.
Henry VIII tried to emulate the companionate model exemplified by Charles V in most of his marriages. In 1509, soon after his accession, he married the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon, who had previously been married to Henry’s elder brother Arthur and had been resident in England for eight years before the marriage, so Henry knew her prior to the marriage. The relationship was companionate for nearly two decades, but their inability to produce a male heir was ultimately a deal-breaker; by 1527, Henry began proceedings to get his marriage annulled. But rather than choosing a foreign-born heiress as Francis I did with his second wife, Henry had decided to marry Anne Boleyn, one of Catherine’s ladies in waiting, whose sister Mary had once been his mistress. Trained in the princely courts of Burgundy and France, Anne Boleyn proved to be a tenacious courtesan, keeping Henry’s interest for the six long years it took him to obtain an annulment.
But the marriage did not work out. While charming and charismatic, Anne was also opinionated and acquisitive, while her inability to bear a male heir proved to be her undoing as it had for Catherine. While few historians believe Anne was guilty of the crimes she was convicted of, including adultery, incest, and treason, her lack of queenly discretion greased the wheels of what is universally considered a judicial murder. Convicted by a jury of peers on May 15, 1536, she was beheaded four days later by a French swordsman in the Tower of London.
Ten days after Anne’s execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, one of Anne Boleyn’s ladies in waiting. Quite unlike Catherine and Anne, both strong-willed women, Jane was shy and demure. To all appearances the marriage was a contented one, lacking the drama of Henry’s marriage to Anne Boleyn. The birth of her son the future Edward VI in October 1537 was the crowning achievement of her queenship, but she died twelve days later of a puerperal fever.
For his fourth wife, Henry chose a much more conventional path, marrying the Protestant German noblewoman Anne of Cleves, whom had not met prior to marriage. However, when Anne arrived in England in early 1540, Henry did not like her looks or her charms, and only went through with the marriage under protest. Henry was either unable or unwilling to consummate the marriage, which created the conditions for an annulment, which was obtained in July of 1540. By this time, Henry had already set his sights on eighteen-year old Catherine Howard, who had been one of Anne of Cleve’s ladies in waiting. By now middle-aged and overweight, Catherine was a trophy wife, young, carefree, and unbeknownst to Henry, sexually experienced. When news of her indiscretions both before and after marriage came to light, Catherine met the same fate as Anne Boleyn, losing her head in February 1542 after confessing to adultery. But Henry found some contentment in his final marriage, to Katherine Parr, a twice-widowed gentlewomen. While it is doubtful that procreation was a motivating factor, she fit all the other criteria that Henry desired in a royal marriage; he had known her prior to their marriage and found her attractive and good company, at long last making the companionate model work for him and the wife lucky enough to outlive him. | 1,225 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"I thought I had been a suffragist before I became a Poor Law Guardian, but now I began to think about the vote in women's hands not only as a right but as a desperate necessity." -Emmeline Pankhurst
The right to vote was not always granted to all types of people. Working-class men, women, and minorities had to fight for their rights and earn the privilege to vote.
An important movement that changed many people's views about various things occurred in distinct parts of the world such as the UK, the US, and other European countries is known as the suffrage era.
In today's article, we will examine some essential information about the women's suffrage movement and how it shaped modern-day society.
Background Information About the Suffrage Era
Many political developments have shaped the world and made it a better place, the women's suffrage movement is no different.
The suffrage movement was pioneered by women who rightly believed that women should have the right to vote, participate in public office, and have the same equal rights as men.
When did the suffrage movement officially begin?
Some moments in history are somewhat difficult to pinpoint; nevertheless, many scholars and researchers claim that the suffrage movement began in 1848.
In Seneca Falls, New York, USA, the first women's rights convention was held. While the Seneca Falls meeting was not the first-ever reunion to talk about women's rights, it is credited as being the moment that officially launched the suffragist movement.
During the next few decades, women in distinct countries, but mostly in the UK and the United States, worked hard to educate and inform all those around them about the validity of woman suffrage. Many women's groups and organisations joined forces during the last few years of the 19th century to have more power against government entities to finally gain voting rights.
We do as much, we eat as much, we want as much.
Notable women's suffrage organisations include the International Women's Suffrage Alliance (IWSA) founded in Berlin, Germany and the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) founded in Manchester, England.
The women's suffrage movement united women all over the globe and has been described as the "most significant achievement of women in the progressive era."
What is the progressive era?
The progressive era was a period of widespread social activism and reform in the United States of America from the 1890s to the 1920s.
All in all the suffrage movement introduced strong, powerful, and feminist women such as the suffragists and the suffragettes that sparked change and made the world a more comfortable place for women.
Why Was the Suffrage Movement Necessary?
The right to vote is the hallmark of democracy, equality, and fairness. It is a right given to all humans no matter their gender, class, occupation, or income.
There are many reasons, such as the following, that explain why people deserve and value the right to vote:
- A directly voted government is one chosen by the people of the distinct country, the newly formed government has representatives that the people approve of explicitly.
- Many historians and politicians claim that if the current government was chosen by the people and not put in its place by another superior power, there would be less cooperation and acceptance of laws or policies.
- The equal right to vote improves overall civic consciousness since it encourages all to participate in politics and to remember the terms promised by the current leader in office.
The right to vote cannot be refuted, it is a fundamental privilege owed to every single individual, who is not a minor, in each country around the world.
Nevertheless, has the right to vote always been available to everyone?
The short answer to the previously posed question is no. In many developed countries around the world, the right to vote was primarily given to wealthy men who were prominent in society. Even in the United Kingdom, before the Second Reform Act of 1867, the right to vote was reserved for only one million of the seven million men residing in England and Wales.
After the Second Reform Bill passed and became law, all male heads of the urban working class could vote publicly without any issues.
But what about women?
A group of women in the UK, known as the suffragists, petitioned for the right to vote and got over 1500 signatures to be included in the Second Reform Bill and earn the right to vote alongside the urban working males. Nevertheless, even with certain men of power helping the suffragists earn the privilege to participate in office and vote, parliament voted against women voting.
The lack of consideration from parliament sparked the suffragists into action and caused them to become more adamant about earning the right to vote.
The suffragists were women's groups based mainly in the UK yet there were many other movements in other countries such as Germany, Finland, and the United States that fought for their rights and were part of the suffrage movement. The suffragists would not stop campaigning until their right to vote was earned.
It is important to state that the suffragists and later, more aggressively, the suffragettes, were not fighting because they were bored with household duties and were looking for a new hobby to occupy their time, they were campaigning to earn a privilege that was deserved to them.
"I believe that the influence of woman will save the country before every other power."
The suffragists and suffragettes rightly fought for the right to vote and earn women a voice at a very turbulent time in human history. The suffrage movement was very pressing since previously laws were not allowing women to be viewed as they rightly should be: equal to men.
What Did the Suffrage Movement Achieve?
The child labour reform act made it possible for minimum wage and hours of work to be regulated, the civil rights movement was turbulent and heartbreaking but eventually allowed minorities to be recognised as equals, and, last but not least, the women's suffrage era helped women earn the right to vote.
Major movements changed the world and made it possible for important aspects of civil rights to be achieved.
What did the suffrage movement achieve for women?
It is important to mention that the women's suffrage era opened the door for women and allowed them to have a greater role in modern society. The following are some important social, economic, and political changes that the women's suffragette movement achieved:
- At the start of the 20th century, when the suffrage movement was in full swing, women began to attend further education courses to become professionals in male-dominated fields such as medicine, law, and business. Also, women began to start working in distinct sectors where they could achieve relative power and occupy roles that were equal to men.
- Also, during the early 1900s, women in areas such as the UK or the United States who were working in professional sectors saw major pay increases. It is important to state that they were not nearly as much as what men were making but it increased drastically compared to years before.
- The most important achievement of the women's suffrage movement was the granting of the right to vote. Although it took more time than the early suffragists would've liked, by the 1930s, many countries around the world had created legislations to allow women the complete right to vote.
Learning more about the suffrage movement builds hope in humanity's ability to achieve greatness if effort and passion are put worth accordingly.
Women's Suffrage Around the World
It is important to state that while the women's suffrage movement predominantly occurred in specific areas, it is was a worldwide change that involved various passionate women in many of the world's major cities.
"Full suffrage" which is the ability for women to vote and stand for office, was often achieved at distinct times in countries all over the world.
The following are some significant moments for women's suffrage around the world:
- New Zealand becomes the first independent country in 1893 to grant equal voting rights to women,
- In 1901, Australia gets the right to vote with some restrictions,
- Finland grants women complete suffrage in 1906,
- In 1913 Norway gets full suffrage for women,
- Canada gives women the right to vote by federal law in all provinces except Quebec. Native women are exempt from voting,
- Germany grants women the vote in 1918 after the First World War,
- 1920 was a very special year for women in the United States since after a constitutional amendment is adopted and ratified in Tennessee, full women suffrage is granted in all states of the United States of America.
While change does take time, when it is achieved there is overwhelming happiness for parties that were directly affected. The women's suffrage movement should be studied by all individuals who want to learn about great people doing fantastic things. | <urn:uuid:21df7e99-1f36-45ea-8504-ac7a827e4814> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.superprof.co.in/blog/general-information-about-the-womens-suffrage-movement/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00244.warc.gz | en | 0.981526 | 1,821 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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-0.23133924603462... | 6 | "I thought I had been a suffragist before I became a Poor Law Guardian, but now I began to think about the vote in women's hands not only as a right but as a desperate necessity." -Emmeline Pankhurst
The right to vote was not always granted to all types of people. Working-class men, women, and minorities had to fight for their rights and earn the privilege to vote.
An important movement that changed many people's views about various things occurred in distinct parts of the world such as the UK, the US, and other European countries is known as the suffrage era.
In today's article, we will examine some essential information about the women's suffrage movement and how it shaped modern-day society.
Background Information About the Suffrage Era
Many political developments have shaped the world and made it a better place, the women's suffrage movement is no different.
The suffrage movement was pioneered by women who rightly believed that women should have the right to vote, participate in public office, and have the same equal rights as men.
When did the suffrage movement officially begin?
Some moments in history are somewhat difficult to pinpoint; nevertheless, many scholars and researchers claim that the suffrage movement began in 1848.
In Seneca Falls, New York, USA, the first women's rights convention was held. While the Seneca Falls meeting was not the first-ever reunion to talk about women's rights, it is credited as being the moment that officially launched the suffragist movement.
During the next few decades, women in distinct countries, but mostly in the UK and the United States, worked hard to educate and inform all those around them about the validity of woman suffrage. Many women's groups and organisations joined forces during the last few years of the 19th century to have more power against government entities to finally gain voting rights.
We do as much, we eat as much, we want as much.
Notable women's suffrage organisations include the International Women's Suffrage Alliance (IWSA) founded in Berlin, Germany and the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) founded in Manchester, England.
The women's suffrage movement united women all over the globe and has been described as the "most significant achievement of women in the progressive era."
What is the progressive era?
The progressive era was a period of widespread social activism and reform in the United States of America from the 1890s to the 1920s.
All in all the suffrage movement introduced strong, powerful, and feminist women such as the suffragists and the suffragettes that sparked change and made the world a more comfortable place for women.
Why Was the Suffrage Movement Necessary?
The right to vote is the hallmark of democracy, equality, and fairness. It is a right given to all humans no matter their gender, class, occupation, or income.
There are many reasons, such as the following, that explain why people deserve and value the right to vote:
- A directly voted government is one chosen by the people of the distinct country, the newly formed government has representatives that the people approve of explicitly.
- Many historians and politicians claim that if the current government was chosen by the people and not put in its place by another superior power, there would be less cooperation and acceptance of laws or policies.
- The equal right to vote improves overall civic consciousness since it encourages all to participate in politics and to remember the terms promised by the current leader in office.
The right to vote cannot be refuted, it is a fundamental privilege owed to every single individual, who is not a minor, in each country around the world.
Nevertheless, has the right to vote always been available to everyone?
The short answer to the previously posed question is no. In many developed countries around the world, the right to vote was primarily given to wealthy men who were prominent in society. Even in the United Kingdom, before the Second Reform Act of 1867, the right to vote was reserved for only one million of the seven million men residing in England and Wales.
After the Second Reform Bill passed and became law, all male heads of the urban working class could vote publicly without any issues.
But what about women?
A group of women in the UK, known as the suffragists, petitioned for the right to vote and got over 1500 signatures to be included in the Second Reform Bill and earn the right to vote alongside the urban working males. Nevertheless, even with certain men of power helping the suffragists earn the privilege to participate in office and vote, parliament voted against women voting.
The lack of consideration from parliament sparked the suffragists into action and caused them to become more adamant about earning the right to vote.
The suffragists were women's groups based mainly in the UK yet there were many other movements in other countries such as Germany, Finland, and the United States that fought for their rights and were part of the suffrage movement. The suffragists would not stop campaigning until their right to vote was earned.
It is important to state that the suffragists and later, more aggressively, the suffragettes, were not fighting because they were bored with household duties and were looking for a new hobby to occupy their time, they were campaigning to earn a privilege that was deserved to them.
"I believe that the influence of woman will save the country before every other power."
The suffragists and suffragettes rightly fought for the right to vote and earn women a voice at a very turbulent time in human history. The suffrage movement was very pressing since previously laws were not allowing women to be viewed as they rightly should be: equal to men.
What Did the Suffrage Movement Achieve?
The child labour reform act made it possible for minimum wage and hours of work to be regulated, the civil rights movement was turbulent and heartbreaking but eventually allowed minorities to be recognised as equals, and, last but not least, the women's suffrage era helped women earn the right to vote.
Major movements changed the world and made it possible for important aspects of civil rights to be achieved.
What did the suffrage movement achieve for women?
It is important to mention that the women's suffrage era opened the door for women and allowed them to have a greater role in modern society. The following are some important social, economic, and political changes that the women's suffragette movement achieved:
- At the start of the 20th century, when the suffrage movement was in full swing, women began to attend further education courses to become professionals in male-dominated fields such as medicine, law, and business. Also, women began to start working in distinct sectors where they could achieve relative power and occupy roles that were equal to men.
- Also, during the early 1900s, women in areas such as the UK or the United States who were working in professional sectors saw major pay increases. It is important to state that they were not nearly as much as what men were making but it increased drastically compared to years before.
- The most important achievement of the women's suffrage movement was the granting of the right to vote. Although it took more time than the early suffragists would've liked, by the 1930s, many countries around the world had created legislations to allow women the complete right to vote.
Learning more about the suffrage movement builds hope in humanity's ability to achieve greatness if effort and passion are put worth accordingly.
Women's Suffrage Around the World
It is important to state that while the women's suffrage movement predominantly occurred in specific areas, it is was a worldwide change that involved various passionate women in many of the world's major cities.
"Full suffrage" which is the ability for women to vote and stand for office, was often achieved at distinct times in countries all over the world.
The following are some significant moments for women's suffrage around the world:
- New Zealand becomes the first independent country in 1893 to grant equal voting rights to women,
- In 1901, Australia gets the right to vote with some restrictions,
- Finland grants women complete suffrage in 1906,
- In 1913 Norway gets full suffrage for women,
- Canada gives women the right to vote by federal law in all provinces except Quebec. Native women are exempt from voting,
- Germany grants women the vote in 1918 after the First World War,
- 1920 was a very special year for women in the United States since after a constitutional amendment is adopted and ratified in Tennessee, full women suffrage is granted in all states of the United States of America.
While change does take time, when it is achieved there is overwhelming happiness for parties that were directly affected. The women's suffrage movement should be studied by all individuals who want to learn about great people doing fantastic things. | 1,819 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Succession:||Emperor of the Roman Empire|
|Reign:||18 September 14 AD – |
16 March 37 AD
|Birth Name:||Tiberius Claudius Nero|
|Birth Date:||16 November 42 BC|
|Birth Place:||Rome, Italia, Roman Republic|
|Death Date:||16 March AD 37 |
|Death Place:||Misenum, Italia, Roman Empire|
|Regnal Name:||Tiberius Caesar Divi Augusti filius Augustus|
|Religion:||ancient Roman religion|
|Place Of Burial:||Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome|
Born to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla in a Claudian family, he was given the personal name Tiberius Claudius Nero. His mother divorced Nero and married Octavian—later to ascend to Emperor as Augustus—who officially became his stepfather. Tiberius would later marry Augustus' daughter (from his marriage to Scribonia), Julia the Elder, and even later be adopted by Augustus. Through the adoption, he officially became a Julian, assuming the name Tiberius Julius Caesar. The emperors after Tiberius would continue this blended dynasty of both families for the following thirty years; historians have named it the Julio-Claudian dynasty. His relationship to the other emperors of this dynasty was as follows: he was the stepson of Augustus, grand-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of Claudius, and great-grand uncle of Nero. Tiberius' 22-and-a-half-year reign would be the longest after that of Augustus until that of Antoninus Pius, who surpassed his reign by a few months.
Tiberius was one of the greatest Roman generals; his conquest of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and (temporarily) parts of Germania, laid the foundations for the northern frontier. Even so, he came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him "the gloomiest of men". After the death of his son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23 AD, Tiberius became more reclusive and aloof. In 26 AD he removed himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian prefects Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus Naevius Sutorius Macro. When Tiberius died, he was succeeded by his grand-nephew and adopted grandson, Caligula.
Tiberius was born in Rome on 16 November 42 BC to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. In 39 BC his mother divorced his biological father and, though again pregnant by Tiberius Nero, married Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. In 38 BC his brother, Nero Claudius Drusus, was born.
Little is recorded of Tiberius' early life. In 32 BC Tiberius, at the age of nine, delivered the eulogy for his biological father at the rostra. In 29 BC, he rode in the triumphal chariot along with his adoptive father Octavian in celebration of the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.
In 23 BC Emperor Augustus became gravely ill, and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into chaos again. Historians generally agree that it is during this time that the question of Augustus' heir became most acute, and while Augustus had seemed to indicate that Agrippa and Marcellus would carry on his position in the event of his death, the ambiguity of succession became Augustus' chief problem.
In response, a series of potential heirs seem to have been selected, among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus. In 24 BC, at the age of seventeen, Tiberius entered politics under Augustus' direction, receiving the position of quaestor, and was granted the right to stand for election as praetor and consul five years in advance of the age required by law. Similar provisions were made for Drusus.
Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate, and it was presumably at this time that his interest in Greek rhetoric began. In 20 BC, Tiberius was sent east under Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. The Parthian Empire had captured the standards of the legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus (53 BC) (at the Battle of Carrhae), Decidius Saxa (40 BC), and Mark Antony (36 BC).
After a year of negotiation, Tiberius led a sizable force into Armenia, presumably with the goal of establishing it as a Roman client state and ending the threat it posed on the Roman-Parthian border. Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned, and Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two powers.
Tiberius married Vipsania Agrippina, the daughter of Augustus' close friend and greatest general, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. He was appointed to the position of praetor, and was sent with his legions to assist his brother Drusus in campaigns in the west. While Drusus focused his forces in Gallia Narbonensis and along the German frontier, Tiberius combated the tribes in the Alps and within Transalpine Gaul, conquering Raetia. In 15 BC he discovered the sources of the Danube, and soon afterward the bend of the middle course. Returning to Rome in 13 BC, Tiberius was appointed as consul, and around this same time his son, Drusus Julius Caesar, was born.
Agrippa's death in 12 BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus with respect to the succession. At Augustus' request in 11 BC, Tiberius divorced Vipsania and married Julia the Elder, Augustus' daughter and Agrippa's widow. Tiberius was very reluctant to do this, as Julia had made advances to him when she was married and Tiberius was happily married. His new marriage with Julia was happy at first, but turned sour.
Reportedly, Tiberius once ran into Vipsania again, and proceeded to follow her home crying and begging forgiveness; soon afterwards, Tiberius met with Augustus, and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and Vipsania would never meet again. Tiberius continued to be elevated by Augustus, and after Agrippa's death and his brother Drusus' death in 9 BC, seemed the clear candidate for succession. As such, in 12 BC he received military commissions in Pannonia and Germania; both areas highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy.
In 6 BC, Tiberius launched a pincer movement against the Marcomanni. Setting out northwest from Carnuntum on the Danube with four legions, Tiberius passed through Quadi territory in order to invade Marcomanni territory from the east. Meanwhile, general Gaius Sentius Saturninus would depart east from Moguntiacum on the Rhine with two or three legions, pass through newly annexed Hermunduri territory, and attack the Marcomanni from the west. The campaign was a resounding success, but Tiberius could not subjugate the Marcomanni because he was soon summoned to the Rhine frontier to protect Rome's new conquests in Germania.
He returned to Rome and was consul for a second time in 7 BC, and in 6 BC was granted tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) and control in the East, all of which mirrored positions that Agrippa had previously held. However, despite these successes and despite his advancement, Tiberius was not happy.
In 6 BC, on the verge of accepting command in the East and becoming the second-most powerful man in Rome, Tiberius suddenly announced his withdrawal from politics and retired to Rhodes. The precise motives for Tiberius's withdrawal are unclear. Historians have speculated a connection with the fact that Augustus had adopted Julia's sons by Agrippa, Gaius and Lucius, and seemed to be moving them along the same political path that both Tiberius and Drusus had trodden.
Tiberius' move thus seemed to be an interim solution: he would hold power only until his stepsons would come of age, and then be swept aside. The promiscuous, and very public, behavior of his unhappily married wife, Julia, may have also played a part. Indeed, Tacitus calls it Tiberius' intima causa, his innermost reason for departing for Rhodes, and seems to ascribe the entire move to a hatred of Julia and a longing for Vipsania. Tiberius had found himself married to a woman he loathed, who publicly humiliated him with nighttime escapades in the Roman Forum, and forbidden to see the woman he had loved.
Whatever Tiberius' motives, the withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus' succession plans. Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57 years old, had no immediate successor. There was no longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power after Augustus' death, nor a guarantee that his family, and therefore his family's allies, would continue to hold power should the position of Princeps survive.
Somewhat apocryphal stories tell of Augustus pleading with Tiberius to stay, even going so far as to stage a serious illness. Tiberius' response was to anchor off the shore of Ostia until word came that Augustus had survived, then sailing straightway for Rhodes. Tiberius reportedly regretted his departure and requested to return to Rome several times, but each time Augustus refused his requests.
With Tiberius' departure, succession rested solely on Augustus' two young grandsons, Lucius and Gaius Caesar. The situation became more precarious in AD 2 with the death of Lucius. Augustus, with perhaps some pressure from Livia, allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen and nothing more. In AD 4, Gaius was killed in Armenia, and Augustus had no other choice but to turn to Tiberius.
The death of Gaius in AD 4 initiated a flurry of activity in the household of Augustus. Tiberius was adopted as full son and heir, and in turn he was required to adopt his nephew Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus and Augustus' niece Antonia Minor. Along with his adoption, Tiberius received tribunician power as well as a share of Augustus' maius imperium, something that even Marcus Agrippa may never have had.
In AD 7, Agrippa Postumus, a younger brother of Gaius and Lucius, was disowned by Augustus and banished to the island of Pianosa, to live in solitary confinement. Thus, when in AD 13, the powers held by Tiberius were made equal, rather than second, to Augustus' own powers, he was for all intents and purposes a "co-Princeps" with Augustus, and, in the event of the latter's passing, would simply continue to rule without an interregnum or possible upheaval.
However, according to Suetonius, after a two-year stint in Germania, which lasted from 10−12 AD, "Tiberius returned and celebrated the triumph which he had postponed, accompanied also by his generals, for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia. And before turning to enter the Capitol, he dismounted from his chariot and fell at the knees of his father, who was presiding over the ceremonies.” "Since the consuls caused a law to be passed soon after this that he should govern the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census with him, he set out for Illyricum on the conclusion of the lustral ceremonies."
Thus, according to Suetonius, these ceremonies and the declaration of his "co-Princeps" took place in the year 12 AD, after Tiberius' return from Germania. "But he was at once recalled, and finding Augustus in his last illness but still alive, he spent an entire day with him in private." Augustus died in AD 14, a month before his 76th birthday. He was buried with all due ceremony and, as had been arranged beforehand, deified, his will read, and Tiberius, now a middle-aged man at 55, was confirmed as his sole surviving heir.
The Senate convened on 18 September, to validate Tiberius's position as Princeps and, as it had done with Augustus before, extend the powers of the position to him. These proceedings are fully accounted by Tacitus. Tiberius already had the administrative and political powers of the Princeps, all he lacked were the titles—Augustus, Pater Patriae, and the Civic Crown (a crown made from laurel and oak, in honor of Augustus having saved the lives of Roman citizens).
Tiberius, however, attempted to play the same role as Augustus: that of the reluctant public servant who wants nothing more than to serve the state. This ended up throwing the entire affair into confusion, and rather than humble, he came across as derisive; rather than seeming to want to serve the state, he seemed obstructive. He cited his age as a reason why he could not act as Princeps, stated he did not wish the position, and then proceeded to ask for only a section of the state. Tiberius finally relented and accepted the powers voted to him, though according to Tacitus and Suetonius he refused to bear the titles Pater Patriae, Imperator, and Augustus, and declined the most solid emblem of the Princeps, the Civic Crown and laurels.
This meeting seems to have set the tone for Tiberius's entire rule. He seems to have wished for the Senate and the state to simply act without him and his direct orders were rather vague, inspiring debate more on what he actually meant than on passing his legislation. In his first few years, Tiberius seemed to have wanted the Senate to act on its own, rather than as a servant to his will as it had been under Augustus. According to Tacitus, Tiberius derided the Senate as "men fit to be slaves".
Problems arose quickly for the new Princeps. The Roman legions posted in Pannonia and in Germania had not been paid the bonuses promised them by Augustus, and after a short period of time mutinied when it was clear that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming. Germanicus and Tiberius's son, Drusus Julius Caesar, were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line.
Rather than simply quell the mutiny, however, Germanicus rallied the mutineers and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory, stating that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus. Germanicus's forces crossed the Rhine and quickly occupied all of the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe. Additionally, Tacitus records the capture of the Teutoburg forest and the reclaiming of Roman standards lost years before by Publius Quinctilius Varus, when three Roman legions and their auxiliary cohorts had been ambushed by Germanic tribes.
Germanicus had managed to deal a significant blow to Rome's enemies, quell an uprising of troops, and returned lost standards to Rome, actions that increased the fame and legend of the already very popular Germanicus with the Roman people.
After being recalled from Germania, Germanicus celebrated a triumph in Rome in AD 17, the first full triumph that the city had seen since Augustus' own in 29 BC. As a result, in AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire, just as both Agrippa and Tiberius had received before, and was clearly the successor to Tiberius. Germanicus survived a little over a year before dying, accusing Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, the governor of Syria, of poisoning him.
The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudians, and had allied themselves with the young Octavian after his marriage to Livia, the mother of Tiberius. Germanicus's death and accusations indicted the new Princeps. Piso was placed on trial and, according to Tacitus, threatened to implicate Tiberius. Whether the governor actually could connect the Princeps to the death of Germanicus is unknown; rather than continuing to stand trial when it became evident that the Senate was against him, Piso committed suicide.
Tiberius seems to have tired of politics at this point. In AD 22, he shared his tribunician authority with his son Drusus, and began making yearly excursions to Campania that reportedly became longer and longer every year. In AD 23, Drusus mysteriously died, and Tiberius seems to have made no effort to elevate a replacement. Finally, in AD 26, Tiberius retired from Rome to an Imperial villa-complex he had inherited from Augustus, on the island of Capri. It was just off the coast of Campania, which was a traditional holiday retreat for Rome's upper classes, particularly those who valued cultured leisure (otium) and a Hellenised lifestyle.
Lucius Aelius Sejanus had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he became Praetorian Prefect in AD 15. As Tiberius became more embittered with the position of Princeps, he began to depend more and more upon the limited secretariat left to him by Augustus, and specifically upon Sejanus and the Praetorians. In AD 17 or 18, Tiberius had trimmed the ranks of the Praetorian Guard responsible for the defense of the city, and had moved it from encampments outside of the city walls into the city itself, giving Sejanus access to somewhere between 6000 and 9000 troops.
The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus, at least in Tiberius's eyes, who thereafter refers to him as his 'Socius Laborum' (Partner of my labours). Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city, and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether. Finally, with Tiberius's withdrawal in AD 26, Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome.
Sejanus's position was not quite that of successor; he had requested marriage in AD 25 to Tiberius's niece, Livilla, though under pressure quickly withdrew the request. While Sejanus's Praetorians controlled the imperial post, and therefore the information that Tiberius received from Rome and the information Rome received from Tiberius, the presence of Livia seems to have checked his overt power for a time. Her death in AD 29 changed all that.
Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators and wealthy equestrians in the city of Rome, removing those capable of opposing his power as well as extending the imperial (and his own) treasury. Germanicus's widow Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons, Nero Julius Caesar and Drusus Caesar were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanus's purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family, Caligula, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla, and Julia Livilla were the only survivors.
In 31, Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberius in absentia, and began his play for power in earnest. Precisely what happened is difficult to determine, but Sejanus seems to have covertly attempted to court those families who were tied to the Julians, and attempted to ingratiate himself with the Julian family line with an eye toward placing himself, as an adopted Julian, in the position of Princeps, or as a possible regent. Livilla was later implicated in this plot, and was revealed to have been Sejanus's lover for a number of years.
The plot seems to have involved the two of them overthrowing Tiberius, with the support of the Julians, and either assuming the Principate themselves, or serving as regent to the young Tiberius Gemellus or possibly even Caligula. Those who stood in his way were tried for treason and swiftly dealt with.
In AD 31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Sejanus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week. As commander of the Praetorian Guard, he was replaced by Naevius Sutorius Macro.
Tacitus claims that more treason trials followed and that whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of his reign, now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to do so without compunction. Hardest hit were those families with political ties to the Julians. Even the imperial magistracy was hit, as any and all who had associated with Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were summarily tried and executed, their properties seized by the state. As Tacitus vividly describes,
However, Tacitus' portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful emperor has been challenged by some historians: Edward Togo Salmon notes in A history of the Roman world from 30 BC to AD 138:
While Tiberius was in Capri, rumours abounded as to what exactly he was doing there. Suetonius records the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity, including graphic depictions of child molestation, and cruelty, and most of all his paranoia. While heavily sensationalized, Suetonius' stories at least paint a picture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman senatorial class, and what his impact on the Principate was during his 23 years of rule.
The affair of Sejanus and the final years of treason trials permanently damaged Tiberius' image and reputation. After Sejanus's fall, Tiberius' withdrawal from Rome was complete; the empire continued to run under the inertia of the bureaucracy established by Augustus, rather than through the leadership of the Princeps. Suetonius records that he became paranoid, and spent a great deal of time brooding over the death of his son. Meanwhile, during this period a short invasion by Parthia, incursions by tribes from Dacia and from across the Rhine by several Germanic tribes occurred.
Little was done to either secure his succession or indicate how it was to take place; the Julians and their supporters had fallen to the wrath of Sejanus, and his own sons and immediate family were dead. Two of the candidates were either Caligula, the sole surviving son of Germanicus, or Tiberius' own grandson, Tiberius Gemellus. However, only a half-hearted attempt at the end of Tiberius' life was made to make Caligula a quaestor, and thus give him some credibility as a possible successor, while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and thus completely unsuitable for some years to come.
Tiberius died in Misenum on 16 March AD 37, in his seventy-seventh year. Tacitus relates that the emperor appeared to have stopped breathing, and that Caligula, who was at Tiberius' villa, was being congratulated on his succession to the empire, when news arrived that the emperor had revived and was recovering his faculties. Those who had moments before recognized Caligula as Augustus fled in fear of the emperor's wrath, while Macro took advantage of the chaos to have Tiberius smothered with his own bedclothes. Suetonius reports several rumours, including that the emperor had been poisoned by Caligula, starved, and smothered with a pillow; that recovering, and finding himself deserted by his attendants, he attempted to rise from his couch, but fell dead. According to Cassius Dio, Caligula, fearing that the emperor would recover, refused Tiberius' requests for food, insisting that he needed warmth, not food; then assisted by Macro, he smothered the emperor in his bedclothes.
After his death, the Senate refused to vote Tiberius the divine honors that had been paid to Augustus, and mobs filled the streets yelling "To the Tiber with Tiberius!"; the bodies of criminals were typically thrown into the river, instead of being buried or burnt. However, the emperor was cremated, and his ashes were quietly laid in the Mausoleum of Augustus, later to be scattered in AD 410 during the Sack of Rome.
Tiberius' heir Caligula not only spent Tiberius' fortune of 2,700,000,000 sesterces but would also begin the chain of events which would bring about the downfall of the Julio-Claudian dynasty in AD 68.
Had he died before AD 23, he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler. Despite the overwhelmingly negative characterization left by Roman historians, Tiberius left the imperial treasury with nearly 3 billion sesterces upon his death. Rather than embark on costly campaigns of conquest, he chose to strengthen the existing empire by building additional bases, using diplomacy as well as military threats, and generally refraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between competing frontier tyrants.
The result was a stronger, more consolidated empire. Of the authors whose texts have survived, only four describe the reign of Tiberius in considerable detail: Tacitus, Suetonius, Cassius Dio and Marcus Velleius Paterculus. Fragmentary evidence also remains from Pliny the Elder, Strabo and Seneca the Elder. Tiberius himself wrote an autobiography which Suetonius describes as "brief and sketchy", but this book has been lost.
See also: Tacitus.
The most detailed account of this period is handed down to us by Tacitus, whose Annals dedicate the first six books entirely to the reign of Tiberius. Tacitus was a Roman senator, born during the reign of Nero in AD 56, and consul suffect in AD 97. His text is largely based on the Acta Senatus (the minutes of the session of the Senate) and the Acta Diurna (a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital), as well as speeches by Tiberius himself, and the histories of contemporaries such as Marcus Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder (all of which are lost).
Tacitus' narrative emphasizes both political and psychological motivation. His characterisation of Tiberius throughout the first six books is mostly negative, and gradually worsens as his rule declines, identifying a clear breaking point with the death of his son Drusus in AD 23.
Tacitus describes Julio-Claudian rule as generally unjust and "criminal"; he attributes the apparent virtues of Tiberius during his early reign to hypocrisy. Another major recurring theme concerns the balance of power between the Senate and the Emperors, corruption, and the growing tyranny among the governing classes of Rome. A substantial amount of his account on Tiberius is therefore devoted to the treason trials and persecutions following the revival of the maiestas law under Augustus. Ultimately, Tacitus' opinion on Tiberius is best illustrated by his conclusion of the sixth book:
Suetonius was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. The Twelve Caesars details a biographical history of the principate from the birth of Julius Caesar to the death of Domitian in AD 96. Like Tacitus, he drew upon the imperial archives, as well as histories by Aufidius Bassus, Marcus Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Augustus' own letters.
His account is more sensationalist and anecdotal than that of his contemporary. The most famous sections of his biography delve into the numerous alleged debaucheries Tiberius remitted himself to while at Capri. Nevertheless, Suetonius also reserves praise for Tiberius' actions during his early reign, emphasizing his modesty.
One of the few surviving sources contemporary with the rule of Tiberius comes from Velleius Paterculus, who served under Tiberius for eight years (from AD 4) in Germany and Pannonia as praefect of cavalry and legatus. Paterculus' Compendium of Roman History spans a period from the fall of Troy to the death of Livia in AD 29. His text on Tiberius lavishes praise on both the emperor and Sejanus. How much of this is due to genuine admiration or prudence remains an open question, but it has been conjectured that he was put to death in AD 31 as a friend of Sejanus.
The Gospels mention that during Tiberius' reign, Jesus of Nazareth preached and was executed under the authority of Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judaea province. In the Bible, Tiberius is mentioned by name in Luke 3:1, which states that John the Baptist entered on his public ministry in the fifteenth year of his reign. The city of Tiberias (named after Tiberius) referenced in John 6:23 is located on the Sea of Galilee, which was also known as the Sea of Tiberias and is referenced in John 6:1, . Many other references to Caesar (or the emperor in some other translations), without further specification, would seem to refer to Tiberius. Similarly, the "tribute penny" referred to in Matthew and Mark is popularly thought to be a silver denarius coin of Tiberius.
During Tiberius' reign Jews had become more prominent in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus began proselytizing Roman citizens, increasing long-simmering resentments. Tiberius in 19 AD ordered Jews who were of military age to join the Roman Army. Tiberius banished the rest of the Jews from Rome and threatened to enslave them for life if they did not leave the city.
There is considerable debate among historians as to when Christianity was differentiated from Judaism. Most scholars believe that Roman distinction between Jews and Christians took place around 70 AD. Tiberius most likely viewed Christians as a Jewish sect rather than a separate, distinct faith.
The palace of Tiberius at Rome was located on the Palatine Hill, the ruins of which can still be seen today. No major public works were undertaken in the city during his reign, except a temple dedicated to Augustus and the restoration of the theater of Pompey, both of which were not finished until the reign of Caligula. In addition, remnants of Tiberius' villa at Sperlonga, which includes a grotto where the important Sperlonga sculptures were found in fragments, and the Villa Jovis on top of Capri have been preserved. The estate at Capri is said by Tacitus to have included a total of twelve villas across the island, of which Villa Jovis was the largest.
Tiberius refused to be worshipped as a living god, and allowed only one temple to be built in his honor, at Smyrna. The town Tiberias, in modern Israel on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, was named in Tiberius's honour by Herod Antipas.
The theft of the Gold Tiberius, an unintentionally unique commemorative coin commissioned by Tiberius which is stated to have achieved legendary status in the centuries hence, from a mysterious triad of occultists drives the plot of the framing story in Arthur Machen's 1895 novel The Three Impostors.
Tiberius has been represented in fiction, in literature, film and television, and in video games, often as a peripheral character in the central storyline. One such modern representation is in the novel I, Claudius by Robert Graves, and the consequent BBC television series adaptation, where he is portrayed by George Baker. George R. R. Martin, the author of The Song of Ice and Fire series, has stated that central character Stannis Baratheon is partially inspired by Tiberius Caesar, and particularly the portrayal by Baker.
He also appears as a minor character in the 2006 film The Inquiry, in which he is played by Max von Sydow. In addition, Tiberius has prominent roles in Ben-Hur (played by George Relph in his last starring role), and in A.D. (played by James Mason).
Played by Ernest Thesiger, he featured in The Robe (1953). He was featured in the 1979 film Caligula, portrayed by Peter O'Toole. He was an important character in Taylor Caldwell's 1958 novel, Dear and Glorious Physician, a biography of St Luke the Evangelist, author of the third canonical Gospel.
Tiberius was married twice, with only his first union producing a child who would survive to adulthood:
See also: Julio-Claudian family tree.
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0.42161720991... | 1 | |Succession:||Emperor of the Roman Empire|
|Reign:||18 September 14 AD – |
16 March 37 AD
|Birth Name:||Tiberius Claudius Nero|
|Birth Date:||16 November 42 BC|
|Birth Place:||Rome, Italia, Roman Republic|
|Death Date:||16 March AD 37 |
|Death Place:||Misenum, Italia, Roman Empire|
|Regnal Name:||Tiberius Caesar Divi Augusti filius Augustus|
|Religion:||ancient Roman religion|
|Place Of Burial:||Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome|
Born to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla in a Claudian family, he was given the personal name Tiberius Claudius Nero. His mother divorced Nero and married Octavian—later to ascend to Emperor as Augustus—who officially became his stepfather. Tiberius would later marry Augustus' daughter (from his marriage to Scribonia), Julia the Elder, and even later be adopted by Augustus. Through the adoption, he officially became a Julian, assuming the name Tiberius Julius Caesar. The emperors after Tiberius would continue this blended dynasty of both families for the following thirty years; historians have named it the Julio-Claudian dynasty. His relationship to the other emperors of this dynasty was as follows: he was the stepson of Augustus, grand-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of Claudius, and great-grand uncle of Nero. Tiberius' 22-and-a-half-year reign would be the longest after that of Augustus until that of Antoninus Pius, who surpassed his reign by a few months.
Tiberius was one of the greatest Roman generals; his conquest of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and (temporarily) parts of Germania, laid the foundations for the northern frontier. Even so, he came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor; Pliny the Elder called him "the gloomiest of men". After the death of his son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23 AD, Tiberius became more reclusive and aloof. In 26 AD he removed himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian prefects Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus Naevius Sutorius Macro. When Tiberius died, he was succeeded by his grand-nephew and adopted grandson, Caligula.
Tiberius was born in Rome on 16 November 42 BC to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. In 39 BC his mother divorced his biological father and, though again pregnant by Tiberius Nero, married Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. In 38 BC his brother, Nero Claudius Drusus, was born.
Little is recorded of Tiberius' early life. In 32 BC Tiberius, at the age of nine, delivered the eulogy for his biological father at the rostra. In 29 BC, he rode in the triumphal chariot along with his adoptive father Octavian in celebration of the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.
In 23 BC Emperor Augustus became gravely ill, and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into chaos again. Historians generally agree that it is during this time that the question of Augustus' heir became most acute, and while Augustus had seemed to indicate that Agrippa and Marcellus would carry on his position in the event of his death, the ambiguity of succession became Augustus' chief problem.
In response, a series of potential heirs seem to have been selected, among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus. In 24 BC, at the age of seventeen, Tiberius entered politics under Augustus' direction, receiving the position of quaestor, and was granted the right to stand for election as praetor and consul five years in advance of the age required by law. Similar provisions were made for Drusus.
Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate, and it was presumably at this time that his interest in Greek rhetoric began. In 20 BC, Tiberius was sent east under Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. The Parthian Empire had captured the standards of the legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus (53 BC) (at the Battle of Carrhae), Decidius Saxa (40 BC), and Mark Antony (36 BC).
After a year of negotiation, Tiberius led a sizable force into Armenia, presumably with the goal of establishing it as a Roman client state and ending the threat it posed on the Roman-Parthian border. Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned, and Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two powers.
Tiberius married Vipsania Agrippina, the daughter of Augustus' close friend and greatest general, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. He was appointed to the position of praetor, and was sent with his legions to assist his brother Drusus in campaigns in the west. While Drusus focused his forces in Gallia Narbonensis and along the German frontier, Tiberius combated the tribes in the Alps and within Transalpine Gaul, conquering Raetia. In 15 BC he discovered the sources of the Danube, and soon afterward the bend of the middle course. Returning to Rome in 13 BC, Tiberius was appointed as consul, and around this same time his son, Drusus Julius Caesar, was born.
Agrippa's death in 12 BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus with respect to the succession. At Augustus' request in 11 BC, Tiberius divorced Vipsania and married Julia the Elder, Augustus' daughter and Agrippa's widow. Tiberius was very reluctant to do this, as Julia had made advances to him when she was married and Tiberius was happily married. His new marriage with Julia was happy at first, but turned sour.
Reportedly, Tiberius once ran into Vipsania again, and proceeded to follow her home crying and begging forgiveness; soon afterwards, Tiberius met with Augustus, and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and Vipsania would never meet again. Tiberius continued to be elevated by Augustus, and after Agrippa's death and his brother Drusus' death in 9 BC, seemed the clear candidate for succession. As such, in 12 BC he received military commissions in Pannonia and Germania; both areas highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy.
In 6 BC, Tiberius launched a pincer movement against the Marcomanni. Setting out northwest from Carnuntum on the Danube with four legions, Tiberius passed through Quadi territory in order to invade Marcomanni territory from the east. Meanwhile, general Gaius Sentius Saturninus would depart east from Moguntiacum on the Rhine with two or three legions, pass through newly annexed Hermunduri territory, and attack the Marcomanni from the west. The campaign was a resounding success, but Tiberius could not subjugate the Marcomanni because he was soon summoned to the Rhine frontier to protect Rome's new conquests in Germania.
He returned to Rome and was consul for a second time in 7 BC, and in 6 BC was granted tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) and control in the East, all of which mirrored positions that Agrippa had previously held. However, despite these successes and despite his advancement, Tiberius was not happy.
In 6 BC, on the verge of accepting command in the East and becoming the second-most powerful man in Rome, Tiberius suddenly announced his withdrawal from politics and retired to Rhodes. The precise motives for Tiberius's withdrawal are unclear. Historians have speculated a connection with the fact that Augustus had adopted Julia's sons by Agrippa, Gaius and Lucius, and seemed to be moving them along the same political path that both Tiberius and Drusus had trodden.
Tiberius' move thus seemed to be an interim solution: he would hold power only until his stepsons would come of age, and then be swept aside. The promiscuous, and very public, behavior of his unhappily married wife, Julia, may have also played a part. Indeed, Tacitus calls it Tiberius' intima causa, his innermost reason for departing for Rhodes, and seems to ascribe the entire move to a hatred of Julia and a longing for Vipsania. Tiberius had found himself married to a woman he loathed, who publicly humiliated him with nighttime escapades in the Roman Forum, and forbidden to see the woman he had loved.
Whatever Tiberius' motives, the withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus' succession plans. Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens, and Augustus, now 57 years old, had no immediate successor. There was no longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power after Augustus' death, nor a guarantee that his family, and therefore his family's allies, would continue to hold power should the position of Princeps survive.
Somewhat apocryphal stories tell of Augustus pleading with Tiberius to stay, even going so far as to stage a serious illness. Tiberius' response was to anchor off the shore of Ostia until word came that Augustus had survived, then sailing straightway for Rhodes. Tiberius reportedly regretted his departure and requested to return to Rome several times, but each time Augustus refused his requests.
With Tiberius' departure, succession rested solely on Augustus' two young grandsons, Lucius and Gaius Caesar. The situation became more precarious in AD 2 with the death of Lucius. Augustus, with perhaps some pressure from Livia, allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen and nothing more. In AD 4, Gaius was killed in Armenia, and Augustus had no other choice but to turn to Tiberius.
The death of Gaius in AD 4 initiated a flurry of activity in the household of Augustus. Tiberius was adopted as full son and heir, and in turn he was required to adopt his nephew Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus and Augustus' niece Antonia Minor. Along with his adoption, Tiberius received tribunician power as well as a share of Augustus' maius imperium, something that even Marcus Agrippa may never have had.
In AD 7, Agrippa Postumus, a younger brother of Gaius and Lucius, was disowned by Augustus and banished to the island of Pianosa, to live in solitary confinement. Thus, when in AD 13, the powers held by Tiberius were made equal, rather than second, to Augustus' own powers, he was for all intents and purposes a "co-Princeps" with Augustus, and, in the event of the latter's passing, would simply continue to rule without an interregnum or possible upheaval.
However, according to Suetonius, after a two-year stint in Germania, which lasted from 10−12 AD, "Tiberius returned and celebrated the triumph which he had postponed, accompanied also by his generals, for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia. And before turning to enter the Capitol, he dismounted from his chariot and fell at the knees of his father, who was presiding over the ceremonies.” "Since the consuls caused a law to be passed soon after this that he should govern the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census with him, he set out for Illyricum on the conclusion of the lustral ceremonies."
Thus, according to Suetonius, these ceremonies and the declaration of his "co-Princeps" took place in the year 12 AD, after Tiberius' return from Germania. "But he was at once recalled, and finding Augustus in his last illness but still alive, he spent an entire day with him in private." Augustus died in AD 14, a month before his 76th birthday. He was buried with all due ceremony and, as had been arranged beforehand, deified, his will read, and Tiberius, now a middle-aged man at 55, was confirmed as his sole surviving heir.
The Senate convened on 18 September, to validate Tiberius's position as Princeps and, as it had done with Augustus before, extend the powers of the position to him. These proceedings are fully accounted by Tacitus. Tiberius already had the administrative and political powers of the Princeps, all he lacked were the titles—Augustus, Pater Patriae, and the Civic Crown (a crown made from laurel and oak, in honor of Augustus having saved the lives of Roman citizens).
Tiberius, however, attempted to play the same role as Augustus: that of the reluctant public servant who wants nothing more than to serve the state. This ended up throwing the entire affair into confusion, and rather than humble, he came across as derisive; rather than seeming to want to serve the state, he seemed obstructive. He cited his age as a reason why he could not act as Princeps, stated he did not wish the position, and then proceeded to ask for only a section of the state. Tiberius finally relented and accepted the powers voted to him, though according to Tacitus and Suetonius he refused to bear the titles Pater Patriae, Imperator, and Augustus, and declined the most solid emblem of the Princeps, the Civic Crown and laurels.
This meeting seems to have set the tone for Tiberius's entire rule. He seems to have wished for the Senate and the state to simply act without him and his direct orders were rather vague, inspiring debate more on what he actually meant than on passing his legislation. In his first few years, Tiberius seemed to have wanted the Senate to act on its own, rather than as a servant to his will as it had been under Augustus. According to Tacitus, Tiberius derided the Senate as "men fit to be slaves".
Problems arose quickly for the new Princeps. The Roman legions posted in Pannonia and in Germania had not been paid the bonuses promised them by Augustus, and after a short period of time mutinied when it was clear that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming. Germanicus and Tiberius's son, Drusus Julius Caesar, were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line.
Rather than simply quell the mutiny, however, Germanicus rallied the mutineers and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory, stating that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus. Germanicus's forces crossed the Rhine and quickly occupied all of the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe. Additionally, Tacitus records the capture of the Teutoburg forest and the reclaiming of Roman standards lost years before by Publius Quinctilius Varus, when three Roman legions and their auxiliary cohorts had been ambushed by Germanic tribes.
Germanicus had managed to deal a significant blow to Rome's enemies, quell an uprising of troops, and returned lost standards to Rome, actions that increased the fame and legend of the already very popular Germanicus with the Roman people.
After being recalled from Germania, Germanicus celebrated a triumph in Rome in AD 17, the first full triumph that the city had seen since Augustus' own in 29 BC. As a result, in AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire, just as both Agrippa and Tiberius had received before, and was clearly the successor to Tiberius. Germanicus survived a little over a year before dying, accusing Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, the governor of Syria, of poisoning him.
The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudians, and had allied themselves with the young Octavian after his marriage to Livia, the mother of Tiberius. Germanicus's death and accusations indicted the new Princeps. Piso was placed on trial and, according to Tacitus, threatened to implicate Tiberius. Whether the governor actually could connect the Princeps to the death of Germanicus is unknown; rather than continuing to stand trial when it became evident that the Senate was against him, Piso committed suicide.
Tiberius seems to have tired of politics at this point. In AD 22, he shared his tribunician authority with his son Drusus, and began making yearly excursions to Campania that reportedly became longer and longer every year. In AD 23, Drusus mysteriously died, and Tiberius seems to have made no effort to elevate a replacement. Finally, in AD 26, Tiberius retired from Rome to an Imperial villa-complex he had inherited from Augustus, on the island of Capri. It was just off the coast of Campania, which was a traditional holiday retreat for Rome's upper classes, particularly those who valued cultured leisure (otium) and a Hellenised lifestyle.
Lucius Aelius Sejanus had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he became Praetorian Prefect in AD 15. As Tiberius became more embittered with the position of Princeps, he began to depend more and more upon the limited secretariat left to him by Augustus, and specifically upon Sejanus and the Praetorians. In AD 17 or 18, Tiberius had trimmed the ranks of the Praetorian Guard responsible for the defense of the city, and had moved it from encampments outside of the city walls into the city itself, giving Sejanus access to somewhere between 6000 and 9000 troops.
The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus, at least in Tiberius's eyes, who thereafter refers to him as his 'Socius Laborum' (Partner of my labours). Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city, and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether. Finally, with Tiberius's withdrawal in AD 26, Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome.
Sejanus's position was not quite that of successor; he had requested marriage in AD 25 to Tiberius's niece, Livilla, though under pressure quickly withdrew the request. While Sejanus's Praetorians controlled the imperial post, and therefore the information that Tiberius received from Rome and the information Rome received from Tiberius, the presence of Livia seems to have checked his overt power for a time. Her death in AD 29 changed all that.
Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators and wealthy equestrians in the city of Rome, removing those capable of opposing his power as well as extending the imperial (and his own) treasury. Germanicus's widow Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons, Nero Julius Caesar and Drusus Caesar were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances. In Sejanus's purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family, Caligula, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla, and Julia Livilla were the only survivors.
In 31, Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberius in absentia, and began his play for power in earnest. Precisely what happened is difficult to determine, but Sejanus seems to have covertly attempted to court those families who were tied to the Julians, and attempted to ingratiate himself with the Julian family line with an eye toward placing himself, as an adopted Julian, in the position of Princeps, or as a possible regent. Livilla was later implicated in this plot, and was revealed to have been Sejanus's lover for a number of years.
The plot seems to have involved the two of them overthrowing Tiberius, with the support of the Julians, and either assuming the Principate themselves, or serving as regent to the young Tiberius Gemellus or possibly even Caligula. Those who stood in his way were tried for treason and swiftly dealt with.
In AD 31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Sejanus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week. As commander of the Praetorian Guard, he was replaced by Naevius Sutorius Macro.
Tacitus claims that more treason trials followed and that whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of his reign, now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to do so without compunction. Hardest hit were those families with political ties to the Julians. Even the imperial magistracy was hit, as any and all who had associated with Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were summarily tried and executed, their properties seized by the state. As Tacitus vividly describes,
However, Tacitus' portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful emperor has been challenged by some historians: Edward Togo Salmon notes in A history of the Roman world from 30 BC to AD 138:
While Tiberius was in Capri, rumours abounded as to what exactly he was doing there. Suetonius records the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity, including graphic depictions of child molestation, and cruelty, and most of all his paranoia. While heavily sensationalized, Suetonius' stories at least paint a picture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman senatorial class, and what his impact on the Principate was during his 23 years of rule.
The affair of Sejanus and the final years of treason trials permanently damaged Tiberius' image and reputation. After Sejanus's fall, Tiberius' withdrawal from Rome was complete; the empire continued to run under the inertia of the bureaucracy established by Augustus, rather than through the leadership of the Princeps. Suetonius records that he became paranoid, and spent a great deal of time brooding over the death of his son. Meanwhile, during this period a short invasion by Parthia, incursions by tribes from Dacia and from across the Rhine by several Germanic tribes occurred.
Little was done to either secure his succession or indicate how it was to take place; the Julians and their supporters had fallen to the wrath of Sejanus, and his own sons and immediate family were dead. Two of the candidates were either Caligula, the sole surviving son of Germanicus, or Tiberius' own grandson, Tiberius Gemellus. However, only a half-hearted attempt at the end of Tiberius' life was made to make Caligula a quaestor, and thus give him some credibility as a possible successor, while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and thus completely unsuitable for some years to come.
Tiberius died in Misenum on 16 March AD 37, in his seventy-seventh year. Tacitus relates that the emperor appeared to have stopped breathing, and that Caligula, who was at Tiberius' villa, was being congratulated on his succession to the empire, when news arrived that the emperor had revived and was recovering his faculties. Those who had moments before recognized Caligula as Augustus fled in fear of the emperor's wrath, while Macro took advantage of the chaos to have Tiberius smothered with his own bedclothes. Suetonius reports several rumours, including that the emperor had been poisoned by Caligula, starved, and smothered with a pillow; that recovering, and finding himself deserted by his attendants, he attempted to rise from his couch, but fell dead. According to Cassius Dio, Caligula, fearing that the emperor would recover, refused Tiberius' requests for food, insisting that he needed warmth, not food; then assisted by Macro, he smothered the emperor in his bedclothes.
After his death, the Senate refused to vote Tiberius the divine honors that had been paid to Augustus, and mobs filled the streets yelling "To the Tiber with Tiberius!"; the bodies of criminals were typically thrown into the river, instead of being buried or burnt. However, the emperor was cremated, and his ashes were quietly laid in the Mausoleum of Augustus, later to be scattered in AD 410 during the Sack of Rome.
Tiberius' heir Caligula not only spent Tiberius' fortune of 2,700,000,000 sesterces but would also begin the chain of events which would bring about the downfall of the Julio-Claudian dynasty in AD 68.
Had he died before AD 23, he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler. Despite the overwhelmingly negative characterization left by Roman historians, Tiberius left the imperial treasury with nearly 3 billion sesterces upon his death. Rather than embark on costly campaigns of conquest, he chose to strengthen the existing empire by building additional bases, using diplomacy as well as military threats, and generally refraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between competing frontier tyrants.
The result was a stronger, more consolidated empire. Of the authors whose texts have survived, only four describe the reign of Tiberius in considerable detail: Tacitus, Suetonius, Cassius Dio and Marcus Velleius Paterculus. Fragmentary evidence also remains from Pliny the Elder, Strabo and Seneca the Elder. Tiberius himself wrote an autobiography which Suetonius describes as "brief and sketchy", but this book has been lost.
See also: Tacitus.
The most detailed account of this period is handed down to us by Tacitus, whose Annals dedicate the first six books entirely to the reign of Tiberius. Tacitus was a Roman senator, born during the reign of Nero in AD 56, and consul suffect in AD 97. His text is largely based on the Acta Senatus (the minutes of the session of the Senate) and the Acta Diurna (a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital), as well as speeches by Tiberius himself, and the histories of contemporaries such as Marcus Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder (all of which are lost).
Tacitus' narrative emphasizes both political and psychological motivation. His characterisation of Tiberius throughout the first six books is mostly negative, and gradually worsens as his rule declines, identifying a clear breaking point with the death of his son Drusus in AD 23.
Tacitus describes Julio-Claudian rule as generally unjust and "criminal"; he attributes the apparent virtues of Tiberius during his early reign to hypocrisy. Another major recurring theme concerns the balance of power between the Senate and the Emperors, corruption, and the growing tyranny among the governing classes of Rome. A substantial amount of his account on Tiberius is therefore devoted to the treason trials and persecutions following the revival of the maiestas law under Augustus. Ultimately, Tacitus' opinion on Tiberius is best illustrated by his conclusion of the sixth book:
Suetonius was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. The Twelve Caesars details a biographical history of the principate from the birth of Julius Caesar to the death of Domitian in AD 96. Like Tacitus, he drew upon the imperial archives, as well as histories by Aufidius Bassus, Marcus Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Augustus' own letters.
His account is more sensationalist and anecdotal than that of his contemporary. The most famous sections of his biography delve into the numerous alleged debaucheries Tiberius remitted himself to while at Capri. Nevertheless, Suetonius also reserves praise for Tiberius' actions during his early reign, emphasizing his modesty.
One of the few surviving sources contemporary with the rule of Tiberius comes from Velleius Paterculus, who served under Tiberius for eight years (from AD 4) in Germany and Pannonia as praefect of cavalry and legatus. Paterculus' Compendium of Roman History spans a period from the fall of Troy to the death of Livia in AD 29. His text on Tiberius lavishes praise on both the emperor and Sejanus. How much of this is due to genuine admiration or prudence remains an open question, but it has been conjectured that he was put to death in AD 31 as a friend of Sejanus.
The Gospels mention that during Tiberius' reign, Jesus of Nazareth preached and was executed under the authority of Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judaea province. In the Bible, Tiberius is mentioned by name in Luke 3:1, which states that John the Baptist entered on his public ministry in the fifteenth year of his reign. The city of Tiberias (named after Tiberius) referenced in John 6:23 is located on the Sea of Galilee, which was also known as the Sea of Tiberias and is referenced in John 6:1, . Many other references to Caesar (or the emperor in some other translations), without further specification, would seem to refer to Tiberius. Similarly, the "tribute penny" referred to in Matthew and Mark is popularly thought to be a silver denarius coin of Tiberius.
During Tiberius' reign Jews had become more prominent in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus began proselytizing Roman citizens, increasing long-simmering resentments. Tiberius in 19 AD ordered Jews who were of military age to join the Roman Army. Tiberius banished the rest of the Jews from Rome and threatened to enslave them for life if they did not leave the city.
There is considerable debate among historians as to when Christianity was differentiated from Judaism. Most scholars believe that Roman distinction between Jews and Christians took place around 70 AD. Tiberius most likely viewed Christians as a Jewish sect rather than a separate, distinct faith.
The palace of Tiberius at Rome was located on the Palatine Hill, the ruins of which can still be seen today. No major public works were undertaken in the city during his reign, except a temple dedicated to Augustus and the restoration of the theater of Pompey, both of which were not finished until the reign of Caligula. In addition, remnants of Tiberius' villa at Sperlonga, which includes a grotto where the important Sperlonga sculptures were found in fragments, and the Villa Jovis on top of Capri have been preserved. The estate at Capri is said by Tacitus to have included a total of twelve villas across the island, of which Villa Jovis was the largest.
Tiberius refused to be worshipped as a living god, and allowed only one temple to be built in his honor, at Smyrna. The town Tiberias, in modern Israel on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, was named in Tiberius's honour by Herod Antipas.
The theft of the Gold Tiberius, an unintentionally unique commemorative coin commissioned by Tiberius which is stated to have achieved legendary status in the centuries hence, from a mysterious triad of occultists drives the plot of the framing story in Arthur Machen's 1895 novel The Three Impostors.
Tiberius has been represented in fiction, in literature, film and television, and in video games, often as a peripheral character in the central storyline. One such modern representation is in the novel I, Claudius by Robert Graves, and the consequent BBC television series adaptation, where he is portrayed by George Baker. George R. R. Martin, the author of The Song of Ice and Fire series, has stated that central character Stannis Baratheon is partially inspired by Tiberius Caesar, and particularly the portrayal by Baker.
He also appears as a minor character in the 2006 film The Inquiry, in which he is played by Max von Sydow. In addition, Tiberius has prominent roles in Ben-Hur (played by George Relph in his last starring role), and in A.D. (played by James Mason).
Played by Ernest Thesiger, he featured in The Robe (1953). He was featured in the 1979 film Caligula, portrayed by Peter O'Toole. He was an important character in Taylor Caldwell's 1958 novel, Dear and Glorious Physician, a biography of St Luke the Evangelist, author of the third canonical Gospel.
Tiberius was married twice, with only his first union producing a child who would survive to adulthood:
See also: Julio-Claudian family tree.
. Ronald Syme . The Augustan Aristocracy . Clarendon Press . 1986 . Oxford . 978-0-19-814859-3 . | 7,150 | ENGLISH | 1 |
CONSTITUTION CORNER - Article 9
GEORGE WASHINGTON - Virginia Farmboy
By Judy Leithe
George Washington’s parents, Augustine and Mary Washington, were both born in Virginia, and coincidently, lost their fathers by the age of three. However, when both of Mary’s parents died, she was farmed out to a kindly neighbor. Being orphaned at such an early age caused her to have an anxious personality, but Mary learned to be self-reliant and disciplined. She likely had little formal schooling, but developed a strong faith and even stronger opinions.
After Augustine’s father Lawrence died, his mother Margaret was left to raise her two sons John and Augustine. Margaret then married a British ship captain and the family relocated to England. When Margaret died in childbirth, the boy’s step-father enrolled them in the Appleby Grammar School. Both John and Augustine kept their birth-father’s name of Washington, and eventually returned to Virginia.
The second son, Augustine, a powerfully-built man, was a successful farmer, and part-owner of a Maryland iron mine. He was respected for his even temper, and was a Justice of the Peace as well as an officer of the county court in Westmoreland County, Virginia. His first wife, Jane, passed away in 1729, leaving him with three children, Lawrence, John, and Jane. The two boys were sent to England to attend their father’s alma mater, Appleby Grammar School, while Jane remained at home to learn homemaking skills as was the custom of the day. While running his farm and mine operations, Augustine was also now the sole parent for his children. He proposed marriage to Mary Ball, and they were wed in 1731.
Even though, at 26, Mary was considered “older,” she and Augustine had six children together. The family Bible states that the eldest child, George, was born on the family arm on February 11, 1732, less than a mile from the Potomac River.
As George neared school-age, he was looking forward to going to England to study at the Appleby Grammar School, just as his father, uncle, and his two half-brothers had done. However, when George was 11 years old, his father died causing many adjustments to be made in the Washington household. Suddenly, Mary was on her own with six children to raise, as well as keeping the farm operational to cover the household expenses. George’s mother began to make even more demands on her eldest son, and it soon became clear that there would be no funds or opportunities for his formal education.
In his book, Washington, a Life, Ron Chernow states that “…Mary was unbending and even shrewish.” Her husband’s untimely death “forced Mary to eliminate any frills of family life, and her Spartan style as a businesswoman, fugal and demanding, had a discernible impact on her son," Chernow goes on to say, "one is tempted to say that the first formidable general George Washington ever encountered was his mother.”
George attended some local schools, but colonial Virginia did not offer the level of classical education he would have received in England. Young George read numerous books, competed in fencing contests, and as history shows, he had a strong aptitude for math, with special interest in geometry. Also he believed that he should have experience at sea, so at 15 he made arrangements to join the British Navy. Washington had just boarded the ship when he discovered his mother raising such a furor on shore that he quickly disembarked and agreed to her demand that he return with her to the farm.
Virginia was well steeped in British customs of societal ranking which a family accrued from Crown-appointed leadership positions, land ownership, or high military ranking. Even though Augustine Washington was a land owner and an officer of the court, his unexpected death meant that George (his eldest son from his second marriage) did not have the benefit of an established family name.
Ever intent on self-improvement, at 16 George hand-copied the one-hundred-ten Rules for Civility and Decent Behavior in Company and Conversation, written by French Jesuits in 1595. Some of these rules may seem archaic and even humorous today, but closer inspection reveals that they suggest small personal sacrifices one makes for the good of all for the sake of living together in society. The Civility manual of etiquette and morality helped mold the character of this future general and U.S. President.
The backwoods of Virginia also held endless fascination for George. Using the surveying equipment left to him by his father, he began learning the trade of land surveillance and map making. When he was 17, George was appointed to his first public office as Surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia. By the time he was 19 his earnings allowed him to purchase 1,500 acres in what was considered Virginia wilderness.
George was close to all of his siblings, but his step-brother Lawrence, fourteen years his senior, became a father-like figure to George. George spent many happy hours in the home of Lawrence and Anne Washington. Having been an officer in the British Army, Lawrence gave George his first taste of military life by regaling him with many tales of his wartime adventures. As a result George began to add military strategy books to his reading list.
Lawrence contracted tuberculosis and died when George was 20 years old. Then British Royal Governor of Virginia Robert Dinwiddie chose George to fill the post of Adjutant General of Virginia’s Southern District, the position left vacant by Lawrence’s death. For the next fourteen years, George followed Lawrence’s example by also serving in the Virginia House of Burgesses. As the eldest son from Augustine’s first marriage, Lawrence had received the largest inheritance from their father’s estate, which included Mount Vernon. However, after the deaths of Ann Washington, and later, her daughter, Mount Vernon was passed on to George. | <urn:uuid:c5115933-94f3-4825-b9bd-71dd41f1ee4c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://womenofwa.com/information/constitution-corner/constitution-corner-article-9.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00229.warc.gz | en | 0.990017 | 1,258 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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GEORGE WASHINGTON - Virginia Farmboy
By Judy Leithe
George Washington’s parents, Augustine and Mary Washington, were both born in Virginia, and coincidently, lost their fathers by the age of three. However, when both of Mary’s parents died, she was farmed out to a kindly neighbor. Being orphaned at such an early age caused her to have an anxious personality, but Mary learned to be self-reliant and disciplined. She likely had little formal schooling, but developed a strong faith and even stronger opinions.
After Augustine’s father Lawrence died, his mother Margaret was left to raise her two sons John and Augustine. Margaret then married a British ship captain and the family relocated to England. When Margaret died in childbirth, the boy’s step-father enrolled them in the Appleby Grammar School. Both John and Augustine kept their birth-father’s name of Washington, and eventually returned to Virginia.
The second son, Augustine, a powerfully-built man, was a successful farmer, and part-owner of a Maryland iron mine. He was respected for his even temper, and was a Justice of the Peace as well as an officer of the county court in Westmoreland County, Virginia. His first wife, Jane, passed away in 1729, leaving him with three children, Lawrence, John, and Jane. The two boys were sent to England to attend their father’s alma mater, Appleby Grammar School, while Jane remained at home to learn homemaking skills as was the custom of the day. While running his farm and mine operations, Augustine was also now the sole parent for his children. He proposed marriage to Mary Ball, and they were wed in 1731.
Even though, at 26, Mary was considered “older,” she and Augustine had six children together. The family Bible states that the eldest child, George, was born on the family arm on February 11, 1732, less than a mile from the Potomac River.
As George neared school-age, he was looking forward to going to England to study at the Appleby Grammar School, just as his father, uncle, and his two half-brothers had done. However, when George was 11 years old, his father died causing many adjustments to be made in the Washington household. Suddenly, Mary was on her own with six children to raise, as well as keeping the farm operational to cover the household expenses. George’s mother began to make even more demands on her eldest son, and it soon became clear that there would be no funds or opportunities for his formal education.
In his book, Washington, a Life, Ron Chernow states that “…Mary was unbending and even shrewish.” Her husband’s untimely death “forced Mary to eliminate any frills of family life, and her Spartan style as a businesswoman, fugal and demanding, had a discernible impact on her son," Chernow goes on to say, "one is tempted to say that the first formidable general George Washington ever encountered was his mother.”
George attended some local schools, but colonial Virginia did not offer the level of classical education he would have received in England. Young George read numerous books, competed in fencing contests, and as history shows, he had a strong aptitude for math, with special interest in geometry. Also he believed that he should have experience at sea, so at 15 he made arrangements to join the British Navy. Washington had just boarded the ship when he discovered his mother raising such a furor on shore that he quickly disembarked and agreed to her demand that he return with her to the farm.
Virginia was well steeped in British customs of societal ranking which a family accrued from Crown-appointed leadership positions, land ownership, or high military ranking. Even though Augustine Washington was a land owner and an officer of the court, his unexpected death meant that George (his eldest son from his second marriage) did not have the benefit of an established family name.
Ever intent on self-improvement, at 16 George hand-copied the one-hundred-ten Rules for Civility and Decent Behavior in Company and Conversation, written by French Jesuits in 1595. Some of these rules may seem archaic and even humorous today, but closer inspection reveals that they suggest small personal sacrifices one makes for the good of all for the sake of living together in society. The Civility manual of etiquette and morality helped mold the character of this future general and U.S. President.
The backwoods of Virginia also held endless fascination for George. Using the surveying equipment left to him by his father, he began learning the trade of land surveillance and map making. When he was 17, George was appointed to his first public office as Surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia. By the time he was 19 his earnings allowed him to purchase 1,500 acres in what was considered Virginia wilderness.
George was close to all of his siblings, but his step-brother Lawrence, fourteen years his senior, became a father-like figure to George. George spent many happy hours in the home of Lawrence and Anne Washington. Having been an officer in the British Army, Lawrence gave George his first taste of military life by regaling him with many tales of his wartime adventures. As a result George began to add military strategy books to his reading list.
Lawrence contracted tuberculosis and died when George was 20 years old. Then British Royal Governor of Virginia Robert Dinwiddie chose George to fill the post of Adjutant General of Virginia’s Southern District, the position left vacant by Lawrence’s death. For the next fourteen years, George followed Lawrence’s example by also serving in the Virginia House of Burgesses. As the eldest son from Augustine’s first marriage, Lawrence had received the largest inheritance from their father’s estate, which included Mount Vernon. However, after the deaths of Ann Washington, and later, her daughter, Mount Vernon was passed on to George. | 1,235 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Home Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt King Tut Tutankhamun King Tut Since his tomb was first discovered inthe life of King Tut has continued to mystify and enthrall both historians and amateur sleuths alike.
His tomb which was found full of Egyptian treasure and artifacts Biography: His father was the Pharaoh Akhenaten. His presence may have caused some strain in the royal courts as Nefertiti had only daughters, but desperately wanted to have a son of her own to take over the throne.
He changed the entire religion of Ancient Egypt to worship only the sun god Aten. He did away with over a thousand years of traditional Egyptian religion and forced people to change the way they worshiped. He even built a new capital city in honor of the god Aten called Amarna.
Since he was so young he had help ruling the country.
Ruling Egypt Many people of Egypt had been unhappy with the religious reforms of his father. Tutankhamun and his advisors tried to fix all the changes that his father had made.
Under Tutankhamun Egypt returned to their old gods and the old temples were repaired. The capital city was also moved back to the city of Memphis. He even changed his name from Tutankhaten, "the living image of Aten", to Tutankhamun, "the living image of Amun". Death and Burial Tutankhamun died around the age of nineteen.
Some people think that he was assassinated, but the likely cause of his death was a wound to his leg. Scientists have determined that the leg of his mummy was broken and badly infected before his death.
This injury probably happened from an accident. Tomb Tutankhamun is most famous today for his tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
It is likely that his tomb was built for someone else and was used to bury the young Pharaoh when he died unexpectedly. This may have helped to keep his tomb hidden from thieves for all these thousands of years. He is sometimes called King Tut today. He had no surviving children.
The successor to his throne was the vizier Ay. It is likely that another Pharaoh or two ruled for a short time between Tutankhamun and his father Akhenaten.
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More information on the civilization of Ancient Egypt:Nefertiti: Nefertiti, queen of Egypt and wife of King Akhenaton (formerly Amenhotep IV; reigned c. –36 bc), who played a prominent role in the cult of the sun god known as the Aton. Nefertiti’s parentage is unrecorded, but, as her name translates as “A .
The pharaoh - man, ruler and god The term pharaoh, pr-aA - lit. great house, in the sense of palace, goes back to the Old Kingdom .As part of the royal titulary it came into use only in the early first millennium BCE, in monumental inscriptions possibly as late as the reign of Sheshong III.
Aug 21, · King Tutankhamen (or Tutankhamun) ruled Egypt as pharaoh for 10 years until his death at age 19, around B.C. Although his rule was notable for reversing.
KV62 is the tomb of Tutankhamun in the Valley of the Kings (Egypt), which became famous for the wealth of treasure it contained.
The tomb was discovered in by Howard Carter, underneath the remains of workmen's huts built during the Ramesside Period; this explains why it was spared from the worst of the tomb depredations of that time. King Tut, short for King Tutankhamun, was a pharaoh during Ancient Egypt's New Kingdom.
He's mostly known for his famous tomb and the supposed curse that followed those who opened it. As a pharaoh, he was of minor . Tutankhamun, also spelled Tutankhamen and Tutankhamon, original name Tutankhaten, byname King Tut, (flourished 14th century bce), king of ancient Egypt (reigned –23 bce), known chiefly for his intact tomb, KV 62 (tomb . | <urn:uuid:5a7d225f-4977-4549-802a-bbef07aca716> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://zugujidipuvegexil.attheheels.com/the-life-and-reign-of-king-tutankhamen-in-ancient-egypt-30529nb.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.987238 | 881 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.168638050556182... | 1 | Home Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt King Tut Tutankhamun King Tut Since his tomb was first discovered inthe life of King Tut has continued to mystify and enthrall both historians and amateur sleuths alike.
His tomb which was found full of Egyptian treasure and artifacts Biography: His father was the Pharaoh Akhenaten. His presence may have caused some strain in the royal courts as Nefertiti had only daughters, but desperately wanted to have a son of her own to take over the throne.
He changed the entire religion of Ancient Egypt to worship only the sun god Aten. He did away with over a thousand years of traditional Egyptian religion and forced people to change the way they worshiped. He even built a new capital city in honor of the god Aten called Amarna.
Since he was so young he had help ruling the country.
Ruling Egypt Many people of Egypt had been unhappy with the religious reforms of his father. Tutankhamun and his advisors tried to fix all the changes that his father had made.
Under Tutankhamun Egypt returned to their old gods and the old temples were repaired. The capital city was also moved back to the city of Memphis. He even changed his name from Tutankhaten, "the living image of Aten", to Tutankhamun, "the living image of Amun". Death and Burial Tutankhamun died around the age of nineteen.
Some people think that he was assassinated, but the likely cause of his death was a wound to his leg. Scientists have determined that the leg of his mummy was broken and badly infected before his death.
This injury probably happened from an accident. Tomb Tutankhamun is most famous today for his tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
It is likely that his tomb was built for someone else and was used to bury the young Pharaoh when he died unexpectedly. This may have helped to keep his tomb hidden from thieves for all these thousands of years. He is sometimes called King Tut today. He had no surviving children.
The successor to his throne was the vizier Ay. It is likely that another Pharaoh or two ruled for a short time between Tutankhamun and his father Akhenaten.
Activities Listen to a recorded reading of this page: Your browser does not support the audio element.
More information on the civilization of Ancient Egypt:Nefertiti: Nefertiti, queen of Egypt and wife of King Akhenaton (formerly Amenhotep IV; reigned c. –36 bc), who played a prominent role in the cult of the sun god known as the Aton. Nefertiti’s parentage is unrecorded, but, as her name translates as “A .
The pharaoh - man, ruler and god The term pharaoh, pr-aA - lit. great house, in the sense of palace, goes back to the Old Kingdom .As part of the royal titulary it came into use only in the early first millennium BCE, in monumental inscriptions possibly as late as the reign of Sheshong III.
Aug 21, · King Tutankhamen (or Tutankhamun) ruled Egypt as pharaoh for 10 years until his death at age 19, around B.C. Although his rule was notable for reversing.
KV62 is the tomb of Tutankhamun in the Valley of the Kings (Egypt), which became famous for the wealth of treasure it contained.
The tomb was discovered in by Howard Carter, underneath the remains of workmen's huts built during the Ramesside Period; this explains why it was spared from the worst of the tomb depredations of that time. King Tut, short for King Tutankhamun, was a pharaoh during Ancient Egypt's New Kingdom.
He's mostly known for his famous tomb and the supposed curse that followed those who opened it. As a pharaoh, he was of minor . Tutankhamun, also spelled Tutankhamen and Tutankhamon, original name Tutankhaten, byname King Tut, (flourished 14th century bce), king of ancient Egypt (reigned –23 bce), known chiefly for his intact tomb, KV 62 (tomb . | 873 | ENGLISH | 1 |
RomanHousing By Aoife, Chaunce and Daniel
Roman Houses.... • In Rome there were many different types of houses • Rich people had very grand and big houses. • Poor people lived in smaller, simpler houses.
Family Relationship..... • The Latin word for family was familia which meant Household. • For a lot of Roman’s, the family was not just people living in the house. • Even the furniture was considered family! • The slaves that lived in the house were also part of the family.
Rich Roman Houses..... • Extended family lived in the house too. (Grandparents, parents and kids) • Made out of red bricks. • Rooms in the house: • A front door, an atrium, bedrooms, an office, a dining room, a kitchen, a temple, a garden, a toilet and a private bath, • Rooms were arranged around the atrium • All balconies and windows faced in to the atrium so that robbers wouldn’t rob the house. • Lots of painting on the walls and barely any furniture and no carpeting. • Main rooms were decorated with coloured plaster and if they could afford, beautiful mosaics.They represented how wealthy you were and how important your family was. • Furniture was basic and they mainly used reclining couches. • They had water pumped straight to them.
Poor Roman Houses.... • If you lived in Rome, you lived in an Insulae, which was what we now call an apartment. They were usually 3 or 4 stories high. • In the early stages of Rome they were made of wood and so usually caught on fire. Later on they were made of brick. • There was only one or two rooms in the insulae. People only used them for sleeping though because they had to work, visit the baths (insulae had no running water!) They usually ate at local inns as cooking was dangerous in insulae.
The house • A Rich Roman house..........
The Vestibulum • The vestibulum is a long, narrow passage way that connects the front door to the house.
The Atrium Atrium- An Atrium is a big and airy room. It is a formal entrance hall. Guest were greeted there by the family. It was also used for family occasions.
Tabernae • Wealthy Roman’s often rented out the front rooms of their house as shops. These rooms were not connected to the house and had seperate doors that opened out onto the street.
Cubiculum • The cubiculums are small bedrooms. These are usually the children and the grandparents bedrooms. They are just off from the atrium.
The Culina • The culina is a kitchen. • It is a small, dark and poor room. • It does not need to be grand like the rest of the house because only the slaves are ever in here. • The cooking is done in ovens.
The Triclinium • The Triclinium is the dining room. • There are big, wide couches here for the people to eat on instead of a table and chairs. • The family always eat on their left side supported by big cushions.
The Tablinium • The tablinium is an office/study • It is just behind the atrium and opens out on both sides.
The Peristylium • The peristylium is like a garden • It is inside the house instead of outside • The peristylium was surrounded by lots of big columns. • It usually contains flowers, shrubs, benches, fountains, sculptures and fish ponds.
The Exedra • The exedra is a garden room. • It was used for formal entertainments and dinner parties. • It was a very large and elegant room and was located just off the peristylium. • The wall paintings and the mosaics on this room often were a garden theme.
The End! • And that is what a rich Roman house is like! • Thank you for watching our awesome slideshow about Roman houses! We hope you enjoyed it!!! | <urn:uuid:5ca8df6c-5be8-43f7-8543-4eeb5915a89b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.slideserve.com/jodie/roman-housing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.984129 | 845 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.39356178... | 1 | RomanHousing By Aoife, Chaunce and Daniel
Roman Houses.... • In Rome there were many different types of houses • Rich people had very grand and big houses. • Poor people lived in smaller, simpler houses.
Family Relationship..... • The Latin word for family was familia which meant Household. • For a lot of Roman’s, the family was not just people living in the house. • Even the furniture was considered family! • The slaves that lived in the house were also part of the family.
Rich Roman Houses..... • Extended family lived in the house too. (Grandparents, parents and kids) • Made out of red bricks. • Rooms in the house: • A front door, an atrium, bedrooms, an office, a dining room, a kitchen, a temple, a garden, a toilet and a private bath, • Rooms were arranged around the atrium • All balconies and windows faced in to the atrium so that robbers wouldn’t rob the house. • Lots of painting on the walls and barely any furniture and no carpeting. • Main rooms were decorated with coloured plaster and if they could afford, beautiful mosaics.They represented how wealthy you were and how important your family was. • Furniture was basic and they mainly used reclining couches. • They had water pumped straight to them.
Poor Roman Houses.... • If you lived in Rome, you lived in an Insulae, which was what we now call an apartment. They were usually 3 or 4 stories high. • In the early stages of Rome they were made of wood and so usually caught on fire. Later on they were made of brick. • There was only one or two rooms in the insulae. People only used them for sleeping though because they had to work, visit the baths (insulae had no running water!) They usually ate at local inns as cooking was dangerous in insulae.
The house • A Rich Roman house..........
The Vestibulum • The vestibulum is a long, narrow passage way that connects the front door to the house.
The Atrium Atrium- An Atrium is a big and airy room. It is a formal entrance hall. Guest were greeted there by the family. It was also used for family occasions.
Tabernae • Wealthy Roman’s often rented out the front rooms of their house as shops. These rooms were not connected to the house and had seperate doors that opened out onto the street.
Cubiculum • The cubiculums are small bedrooms. These are usually the children and the grandparents bedrooms. They are just off from the atrium.
The Culina • The culina is a kitchen. • It is a small, dark and poor room. • It does not need to be grand like the rest of the house because only the slaves are ever in here. • The cooking is done in ovens.
The Triclinium • The Triclinium is the dining room. • There are big, wide couches here for the people to eat on instead of a table and chairs. • The family always eat on their left side supported by big cushions.
The Tablinium • The tablinium is an office/study • It is just behind the atrium and opens out on both sides.
The Peristylium • The peristylium is like a garden • It is inside the house instead of outside • The peristylium was surrounded by lots of big columns. • It usually contains flowers, shrubs, benches, fountains, sculptures and fish ponds.
The Exedra • The exedra is a garden room. • It was used for formal entertainments and dinner parties. • It was a very large and elegant room and was located just off the peristylium. • The wall paintings and the mosaics on this room often were a garden theme.
The End! • And that is what a rich Roman house is like! • Thank you for watching our awesome slideshow about Roman houses! We hope you enjoyed it!!! | 823 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Václav Havel was a world-renowned author and poet before he turned himself into a major political and social image during the Velvet Revolution and the separation of Czechoslovakia. Václav Havel made significant contributions to the resistance of communism most notable through his political and social impacts. In particular, Vaclav significantly contributed to the end of communism and paved the way for the new country, Czech Republic.
Václav Havel grew up in a middle class house where his grandfather and a well-known poet influenced Havel to what he was during his lifetime. Václav was born on October 5, 1936 and he died on December 18, 2011 (Wolchik). As a kid Václav grew up in a middle class family and was very privileged as a kid (Radio Praha). As a kid Václav had numerous amounts of family members that did a lot of amazing things. His grandfather was a Czechoslovakian diplomat in the communist party (Wolchik). This is where Václav learned most of his political ideas and things about the government at the time. Václav’s other grandfather built the Lucerna Ballroom. One of Václav Havel’s main idols during this time was a well-known poet. He looked up this poet because he wrote poems and plays about the communist ideas and political aspects, which in a way was mocking the government and how they ran Czechoslovakia during this time period (Radio Praha). The people that Václav had in touch with as a kid severely helped him one his way to becoming the most valuable person in all of Czechoslovakia.
As Václav got older he was known internationally for his plays that stood out against the communist political ideas of the Czechoslovakian government. As an adult Václav despised the ways and ideas of the communist government and parties of Czechoslovakia. Since he was a well-known author and poet at the time he started to shows his ideas and thoughts about the government through his poems, writings, and a lot of times through his plays. Václav knew a lot about the government and he wanted to show his side of things in these hard times (Wolchik). The government banned countless amounts of his plays and poems because they did not want his plays to start an up rise against the government. They declared that anyone showing any of Václav Havel’s plays would be put in jail for showing them as they were banned (Wolchik). Even though they banned his plays he would still show them to everyone he could, on the streets, in homes, and even in some churches. He did not care if he was jailed or beaten he just wanted to get the communism out of the government (Wolchik). Václav spent five years in and out of communist prisons and was also kept under heavy surveillance after he was released the second time. As shown Václav was very unhappy about the communist rules and laws, so as he grew up he wanted to change this.
During the late 1980’s, The Velvet Revolution happened which reshaped the communist government into a democracy until 1993. During 1987 Husak wanted to... | <urn:uuid:b461a383-417d-45c3-b09f-a8b4fc41d15c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/vaclav-havel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.99144 | 674 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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-0.0930161923170... | 1 | Václav Havel was a world-renowned author and poet before he turned himself into a major political and social image during the Velvet Revolution and the separation of Czechoslovakia. Václav Havel made significant contributions to the resistance of communism most notable through his political and social impacts. In particular, Vaclav significantly contributed to the end of communism and paved the way for the new country, Czech Republic.
Václav Havel grew up in a middle class house where his grandfather and a well-known poet influenced Havel to what he was during his lifetime. Václav was born on October 5, 1936 and he died on December 18, 2011 (Wolchik). As a kid Václav grew up in a middle class family and was very privileged as a kid (Radio Praha). As a kid Václav had numerous amounts of family members that did a lot of amazing things. His grandfather was a Czechoslovakian diplomat in the communist party (Wolchik). This is where Václav learned most of his political ideas and things about the government at the time. Václav’s other grandfather built the Lucerna Ballroom. One of Václav Havel’s main idols during this time was a well-known poet. He looked up this poet because he wrote poems and plays about the communist ideas and political aspects, which in a way was mocking the government and how they ran Czechoslovakia during this time period (Radio Praha). The people that Václav had in touch with as a kid severely helped him one his way to becoming the most valuable person in all of Czechoslovakia.
As Václav got older he was known internationally for his plays that stood out against the communist political ideas of the Czechoslovakian government. As an adult Václav despised the ways and ideas of the communist government and parties of Czechoslovakia. Since he was a well-known author and poet at the time he started to shows his ideas and thoughts about the government through his poems, writings, and a lot of times through his plays. Václav knew a lot about the government and he wanted to show his side of things in these hard times (Wolchik). The government banned countless amounts of his plays and poems because they did not want his plays to start an up rise against the government. They declared that anyone showing any of Václav Havel’s plays would be put in jail for showing them as they were banned (Wolchik). Even though they banned his plays he would still show them to everyone he could, on the streets, in homes, and even in some churches. He did not care if he was jailed or beaten he just wanted to get the communism out of the government (Wolchik). Václav spent five years in and out of communist prisons and was also kept under heavy surveillance after he was released the second time. As shown Václav was very unhappy about the communist rules and laws, so as he grew up he wanted to change this.
During the late 1980’s, The Velvet Revolution happened which reshaped the communist government into a democracy until 1993. During 1987 Husak wanted to... | 687 | ENGLISH | 1 |
President's Page by Jennifer Lorenz
With the dawn of the 1920s came significant change in the United States. The Roaring 20s was an era of economic and cultural recovery, and growth following years of devastation from the Great War.
The Roaring 20s gave women a voice. On August 18, 1920 women were finally awarded the right to vote in the United States. The 19th Amendment was passed by Congress in June 2019 but ratified over a year later.
Many states and territories had already granted women suffrage before 1920. In 1869 the Wyoming Territory was the first to give women the vote. Wyoming’s lead was quickly followed by the Utah Territory in 1870 and the Washington Territory in 1883.
In 1902 women from 10 nations met in the Nation’s capital to plan an international suffrage rally. Clara Barton was among the speakers. Her speech, a plea for equal rights and human rights, can be found by clicking here. Ms. Barton is known for her incredible efforts as a nurse during the Civil War and as the founder of the American Red Cross, but she was also a trailblazer for women’s rights. In 1846 she was the first female to work at the U.S. Patent Office where she demanded and was awarded equal pay with her male counterparts.
On January 12, 1915, a suffrage bill was brought before the United States House of Representatives, and the bill was defeated.
Numerous suffrage organizations emerged across the United States. The National American Woman Suffrage Association, closely associated with Susan B. Anthony, was at the forefront of the suffrage movement. Some women were militant in their plea to vote and would not remain silent. On November 14, 1917,the "Night of Terror," 33 suffragists from the National Women's Party, were arrested for protesting outside of the White House. These women were beaten and tortured at the Occoquan Workhouse, a prison in northern Virginia. Many women went on hunger strikes while in prison and, in response, were further beaten and force fed. Their stories outraged the Nation and garnered support for the 19th Amendment.
In January 1918 another suffrage bill was brought before the House and President Woodrow Wilson made an impassioned and publicized appeal in support. The amendment barely passed. The vote was then carried into the Senate. Again, President Wilson made a plea to the Senate, but on September 30, 1918, the amendment failed, two votes short. On February 10, 1919, it was again voted upon, and it was again lost, this time by only 1 vote. On May 21, 1919 President Wilson called a special session of Congress, and a bill, introducing the 19th Amendment, was brought before the House, again. It passed. On June 4, 1919, the amendment was brought before the Senate, and it passed. After languishing in Washington for months, on August 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment was finally ratified and passed into law, Nationwide. Women were allowed to vote for the first time in the 1920 Presidential election, Warren Harding v. James Cox.
Shortly after gaining the right to vote, in March 1923 women were allowed to join the legal profession following the passage of the Women's Legal Practitioners Act 7 of 1923.
1920 was the dawn of a new progressive decade that finally gave women a voice and the right to vote. Here’s to the dawn of the 2020s and all the wonderful new things to come. | <urn:uuid:f5b390ae-4f7e-4035-8859-e1fe6b5d197d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://boulder-bar.org/presidentspage | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.98632 | 710 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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With the dawn of the 1920s came significant change in the United States. The Roaring 20s was an era of economic and cultural recovery, and growth following years of devastation from the Great War.
The Roaring 20s gave women a voice. On August 18, 1920 women were finally awarded the right to vote in the United States. The 19th Amendment was passed by Congress in June 2019 but ratified over a year later.
Many states and territories had already granted women suffrage before 1920. In 1869 the Wyoming Territory was the first to give women the vote. Wyoming’s lead was quickly followed by the Utah Territory in 1870 and the Washington Territory in 1883.
In 1902 women from 10 nations met in the Nation’s capital to plan an international suffrage rally. Clara Barton was among the speakers. Her speech, a plea for equal rights and human rights, can be found by clicking here. Ms. Barton is known for her incredible efforts as a nurse during the Civil War and as the founder of the American Red Cross, but she was also a trailblazer for women’s rights. In 1846 she was the first female to work at the U.S. Patent Office where she demanded and was awarded equal pay with her male counterparts.
On January 12, 1915, a suffrage bill was brought before the United States House of Representatives, and the bill was defeated.
Numerous suffrage organizations emerged across the United States. The National American Woman Suffrage Association, closely associated with Susan B. Anthony, was at the forefront of the suffrage movement. Some women were militant in their plea to vote and would not remain silent. On November 14, 1917,the "Night of Terror," 33 suffragists from the National Women's Party, were arrested for protesting outside of the White House. These women were beaten and tortured at the Occoquan Workhouse, a prison in northern Virginia. Many women went on hunger strikes while in prison and, in response, were further beaten and force fed. Their stories outraged the Nation and garnered support for the 19th Amendment.
In January 1918 another suffrage bill was brought before the House and President Woodrow Wilson made an impassioned and publicized appeal in support. The amendment barely passed. The vote was then carried into the Senate. Again, President Wilson made a plea to the Senate, but on September 30, 1918, the amendment failed, two votes short. On February 10, 1919, it was again voted upon, and it was again lost, this time by only 1 vote. On May 21, 1919 President Wilson called a special session of Congress, and a bill, introducing the 19th Amendment, was brought before the House, again. It passed. On June 4, 1919, the amendment was brought before the Senate, and it passed. After languishing in Washington for months, on August 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment was finally ratified and passed into law, Nationwide. Women were allowed to vote for the first time in the 1920 Presidential election, Warren Harding v. James Cox.
Shortly after gaining the right to vote, in March 1923 women were allowed to join the legal profession following the passage of the Women's Legal Practitioners Act 7 of 1923.
1920 was the dawn of a new progressive decade that finally gave women a voice and the right to vote. Here’s to the dawn of the 2020s and all the wonderful new things to come. | 809 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Causes and Effects of Crusades
Towards 1071 AD, Seldjuk Turks had grown powerful and had started conquering the East. Christians began to find it difficult to reach the holy places during their pilgrimages. The military expeditions planned and fought by western European Christians that began around 1095 AD, are known today as the Holy Wars, or the Crusades. The purpose of these expeditions was to overtake and gain control of the holy land of Jerusalem, from the Muslims. Deus Vult, meaning God Wills It, was the battle cry of the thousands of Christians who took part in the event of the Crusades. It was Christian belief that fate was to gain control of the Holy Land for the glory of God.
In the year of 1095 AD, Pope Urban II started the Crusades. On November 18, 1095 AD, Pope Urban II opened the Council of Clermont. Nine days later, the Pope made a speech just outside the French city of Clermont-Ferrand.During this speech, Pope Urban II had called the Christians to join a holy war Holy War to reclaim the Holy Lands as an act of Christianity. Pope Urban II stayed in France until September 1096 in hopes of providing leadership and control for the First Crusaders.
Soon, his famous speech had begun to spread throughout the west, and many people of different social classes started joining the crusading army. For peasants, the crusade let them be free of feudal bonds. Everyone was also promised immediate salvation in heaven if they were killed in trying to free the holy land from non-Christians. This goaded many people to become part in this battle. Soon, Urban lost all control of the vast army that was far beyond his control. Therefore, he did not have to power to stop the slaughter of Jews in northern France, and so many other populations in the East and in Europe.
At this time, and at the start of the crusades, the Pope had little real power over Christianity. Urban was hoping that the Crusades would help strengthen his power and… | <urn:uuid:59fb9b22-a20b-4645-966e-8f11219cd007> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nobelliterature.com/history/causes-and-effects-of-the-crus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.981585 | 423 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.052799068391323... | 3 | Causes and Effects of Crusades
Towards 1071 AD, Seldjuk Turks had grown powerful and had started conquering the East. Christians began to find it difficult to reach the holy places during their pilgrimages. The military expeditions planned and fought by western European Christians that began around 1095 AD, are known today as the Holy Wars, or the Crusades. The purpose of these expeditions was to overtake and gain control of the holy land of Jerusalem, from the Muslims. Deus Vult, meaning God Wills It, was the battle cry of the thousands of Christians who took part in the event of the Crusades. It was Christian belief that fate was to gain control of the Holy Land for the glory of God.
In the year of 1095 AD, Pope Urban II started the Crusades. On November 18, 1095 AD, Pope Urban II opened the Council of Clermont. Nine days later, the Pope made a speech just outside the French city of Clermont-Ferrand.During this speech, Pope Urban II had called the Christians to join a holy war Holy War to reclaim the Holy Lands as an act of Christianity. Pope Urban II stayed in France until September 1096 in hopes of providing leadership and control for the First Crusaders.
Soon, his famous speech had begun to spread throughout the west, and many people of different social classes started joining the crusading army. For peasants, the crusade let them be free of feudal bonds. Everyone was also promised immediate salvation in heaven if they were killed in trying to free the holy land from non-Christians. This goaded many people to become part in this battle. Soon, Urban lost all control of the vast army that was far beyond his control. Therefore, he did not have to power to stop the slaughter of Jews in northern France, and so many other populations in the East and in Europe.
At this time, and at the start of the crusades, the Pope had little real power over Christianity. Urban was hoping that the Crusades would help strengthen his power and… | 435 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This educational resource for secondary school aged students tells the story of Miep Gies, the woman who supported Anne Frank and her family when they were in hiding from the Nazis in Amsterdam.
Miep was born over a hundred years ago in 1909, in Vienna. During World War One, when she was very young, she didn’t have enough food and as a result, Miep often became ill. In 1920 a Dutch family offered to look after her and help her get better. Miep’s parents thought that this was the best thing for her and that Holland would be a safe place for her to be.
When she was older, Miep started working for a Jewish man called Otto Frank. Otto had moved to Holland from Germany in the 1930s with his wife Edith and daughters Margot and Anne. Germany had become dangerous for Jews and Otto thought Holland would be safer.
Jewish people across Europe were being treated unfairly and were losing many of their rights. Soon it was no longer safe for Otto and his family in Amsterdam. Otto knew he had to hide his family to keep them safe. So on 6 July 1942, Otto and his family went to the upper rear rooms of his office building where he had created a hiding space for them, a secret room. As well as the Frank family, some of Otto’s Jewish friends also hid here as they needed somewhere safe to hide too. It was Miep Gies, Otto’s employee and friend who helped them stay hidden and safe for over two years. During this time, whilst hidden away, Otto’s daughter Anne kept a diary of her thoughts about what it was like for a young girl to live in one room for all that time, always living in fear.
Miep knew that if she was found helping a Jewish family, she could be arrested. She did everything possible to avoid being caught and didn’t even tell her own parents what she was doing. Miep sourced food from different places and would make several trips each day so she never had to carry more than one or two bags at a time. Sometimes she would hide other things under her coat. She avoided visiting the hiding place during office hours so that other people she worked with would not grow suspicious and those in hiding were asked to keep as quiet as possible during the day.
It was years later that Miep said:
'They were powerless; they didn't know where to turn... We did our duty as human beings: helping people in need.'
One morning in August 1944, Miep was sitting at her desk when she looked up and saw an officer with a gun; he had come to arrest everyone in hiding. Having been betrayed, the hiding place was found and the Franks were arrested and everyone was taken away.
Miep had been truly courageous for hiding the Franks and their friends for all of this time. This was at a great risk to herself, and it was only because the arresting officer was from her home city of Vienna, that she escaped arrest herself – because the officer was from Miep’s community she was safe.
Miep still wanted to help, she couldn’t let the Franks down now. She collected all of the money she could find and went to the police station to see if she could have Otto and his family freed – but this was without success.
When Miep visited the secret room after the arrest, she rescued Anne’s diary and locked it away, keeping it safe for Anne’s return. Of the Frank family, only Otto survived. After the war, Miep gave the unread diaries to Otto. Anne had always wanted to become a famous writer. Tragically, this only happened after she had died. It was because of Miep that Otto survived. Miep wasn’t Jewish, she just saw the Franks as friends that needed her help.
© AFS Amsterdam /AFF Basel - Reproduced by permission from the Anne Frank Trust UK | <urn:uuid:36653c79-52e8-4954-b3d6-09b35c16746e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hmd.org.uk/resource/miep-gies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.995667 | 832 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.19033887982... | 5 | This educational resource for secondary school aged students tells the story of Miep Gies, the woman who supported Anne Frank and her family when they were in hiding from the Nazis in Amsterdam.
Miep was born over a hundred years ago in 1909, in Vienna. During World War One, when she was very young, she didn’t have enough food and as a result, Miep often became ill. In 1920 a Dutch family offered to look after her and help her get better. Miep’s parents thought that this was the best thing for her and that Holland would be a safe place for her to be.
When she was older, Miep started working for a Jewish man called Otto Frank. Otto had moved to Holland from Germany in the 1930s with his wife Edith and daughters Margot and Anne. Germany had become dangerous for Jews and Otto thought Holland would be safer.
Jewish people across Europe were being treated unfairly and were losing many of their rights. Soon it was no longer safe for Otto and his family in Amsterdam. Otto knew he had to hide his family to keep them safe. So on 6 July 1942, Otto and his family went to the upper rear rooms of his office building where he had created a hiding space for them, a secret room. As well as the Frank family, some of Otto’s Jewish friends also hid here as they needed somewhere safe to hide too. It was Miep Gies, Otto’s employee and friend who helped them stay hidden and safe for over two years. During this time, whilst hidden away, Otto’s daughter Anne kept a diary of her thoughts about what it was like for a young girl to live in one room for all that time, always living in fear.
Miep knew that if she was found helping a Jewish family, she could be arrested. She did everything possible to avoid being caught and didn’t even tell her own parents what she was doing. Miep sourced food from different places and would make several trips each day so she never had to carry more than one or two bags at a time. Sometimes she would hide other things under her coat. She avoided visiting the hiding place during office hours so that other people she worked with would not grow suspicious and those in hiding were asked to keep as quiet as possible during the day.
It was years later that Miep said:
'They were powerless; they didn't know where to turn... We did our duty as human beings: helping people in need.'
One morning in August 1944, Miep was sitting at her desk when she looked up and saw an officer with a gun; he had come to arrest everyone in hiding. Having been betrayed, the hiding place was found and the Franks were arrested and everyone was taken away.
Miep had been truly courageous for hiding the Franks and their friends for all of this time. This was at a great risk to herself, and it was only because the arresting officer was from her home city of Vienna, that she escaped arrest herself – because the officer was from Miep’s community she was safe.
Miep still wanted to help, she couldn’t let the Franks down now. She collected all of the money she could find and went to the police station to see if she could have Otto and his family freed – but this was without success.
When Miep visited the secret room after the arrest, she rescued Anne’s diary and locked it away, keeping it safe for Anne’s return. Of the Frank family, only Otto survived. After the war, Miep gave the unread diaries to Otto. Anne had always wanted to become a famous writer. Tragically, this only happened after she had died. It was because of Miep that Otto survived. Miep wasn’t Jewish, she just saw the Franks as friends that needed her help.
© AFS Amsterdam /AFF Basel - Reproduced by permission from the Anne Frank Trust UK | 823 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Wesleyan Chapel is located in Seneca Falls, New York and is best known for hosting the First Women’s Rights Convention, also known as the Seneca Falls Convention. This convention took place on July 19-20, 1848 with about 300 men and women in attendance. It was organized by advocates for women’s rights Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Most importantly, the Seneca Falls Convention sparked the fight for women’s suffrage and their fight for equal rights. Today, the chapel is still standing in Women’s Rights National Park.
The Seneca Falls Convention was not the first idea for women’s rights. Conversations had started in the 1830s, and in 1840 at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, Stanton and Mott first met and began discussions about holding a convention for women’s rights. Eight years later, the women held the event in New York in the town where Stanton lived. Along with Stanton and Mott, three other women, Mary M’Clintock, Martha Coffin Wright, and Jane Hunt, joined them in organizing the convention. These women organized this event to talk about the social, civic, and religious rights of women.
Before the convention, the women drafted a Declaration of Sentiments, modeled after the Declaration of Independence, that outlined their list of 19 grievances and demands. Among those was that women were forced into submission, having to be obedient to their spouses, denied education, denied property, and given inferior roles. During the convention, there were 11 resolutions formed which demanded equality, with equal rights in church and access to jobs. All were passed unanimously except the 9th one, regarding the right to vote. Stanton and abolitionist Frederick Douglass argued in favor of it. This resolution eventually became the foundation for the women’s suffrage movement.
Those five women and other leaders continued campaigning for women’s suffrage throughout the years. It was not until 72 years later, in 1920, that women were granted the right to vote in the United States with the 19th Amendment. Elizabeth Cady Stanton also collaborated with women’s rights activist Susan B. Anthony a few years later, giving speeches and writing articles and books on women’s suffrage. It was together that they founded the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) in 1869 where they discussed politics and legal issues.
The Wesleyan Chapel were the Seneca Falls Convention was held was built in 1843. The convention was not the only political movement held there. “The church was a local haven for antislavery activity, political rallies, and free speech events” (NPS). The church was sold in 1871 and altered by different owners, then bought by the National Park Service in 1985. Though little of the original building remains, the church can be found in Women’s Rights National Park and is undergoing a remodeling. The event that took place here in the summer of 1848 changed the discussion around women’s rights, set in motion the precedent for the suffrage movement, became a symbol for equality, and was the “birthplace of American feminism” (NCC Staff). | <urn:uuid:42a76cb8-20f3-47e2-9317-b49ef668cb49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/71833 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00174.warc.gz | en | 0.982428 | 660 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.2136877328157425,... | 2 | The Wesleyan Chapel is located in Seneca Falls, New York and is best known for hosting the First Women’s Rights Convention, also known as the Seneca Falls Convention. This convention took place on July 19-20, 1848 with about 300 men and women in attendance. It was organized by advocates for women’s rights Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Most importantly, the Seneca Falls Convention sparked the fight for women’s suffrage and their fight for equal rights. Today, the chapel is still standing in Women’s Rights National Park.
The Seneca Falls Convention was not the first idea for women’s rights. Conversations had started in the 1830s, and in 1840 at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, Stanton and Mott first met and began discussions about holding a convention for women’s rights. Eight years later, the women held the event in New York in the town where Stanton lived. Along with Stanton and Mott, three other women, Mary M’Clintock, Martha Coffin Wright, and Jane Hunt, joined them in organizing the convention. These women organized this event to talk about the social, civic, and religious rights of women.
Before the convention, the women drafted a Declaration of Sentiments, modeled after the Declaration of Independence, that outlined their list of 19 grievances and demands. Among those was that women were forced into submission, having to be obedient to their spouses, denied education, denied property, and given inferior roles. During the convention, there were 11 resolutions formed which demanded equality, with equal rights in church and access to jobs. All were passed unanimously except the 9th one, regarding the right to vote. Stanton and abolitionist Frederick Douglass argued in favor of it. This resolution eventually became the foundation for the women’s suffrage movement.
Those five women and other leaders continued campaigning for women’s suffrage throughout the years. It was not until 72 years later, in 1920, that women were granted the right to vote in the United States with the 19th Amendment. Elizabeth Cady Stanton also collaborated with women’s rights activist Susan B. Anthony a few years later, giving speeches and writing articles and books on women’s suffrage. It was together that they founded the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) in 1869 where they discussed politics and legal issues.
The Wesleyan Chapel were the Seneca Falls Convention was held was built in 1843. The convention was not the only political movement held there. “The church was a local haven for antislavery activity, political rallies, and free speech events” (NPS). The church was sold in 1871 and altered by different owners, then bought by the National Park Service in 1985. Though little of the original building remains, the church can be found in Women’s Rights National Park and is undergoing a remodeling. The event that took place here in the summer of 1848 changed the discussion around women’s rights, set in motion the precedent for the suffrage movement, became a symbol for equality, and was the “birthplace of American feminism” (NCC Staff). | 673 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Imperial Eunuchs 宦 huàn
Empress Dowager Cixi of China with palace eunuchs. 1903. Image by Yu Xunling available under a Creative Commons license ➚
There has been a very long history of eunuchs in China indeed eunuchs became influential at court as long ago as the Qin dynasty over two thousand years. Originally castration was carried out as a punishment as in the famous case of the great historian Sima Qian in 96BCE. Eunuchs could not father children they were trusted servants compared to the relatives of the Emperor and Empress who often conspired to elevate their children to positions of power. Because an Emperor had to marry outside his family the Empress's power lasted only as long as her husband the Emperor. This abrupt end to a family's pre-eminence led to many brutal conflicts. In the Han dynasty the more impartial power of eunuchs balanced the struggles between the family of the Empress and the family of the bride of the young heir apparent.
Growing influence of Eunuchs
The power of eunuchs continued to grow during the Han dynasty, they were appointed to high administrative positions and controlled all Imperial appointments. As they attended the Emperor from his birth and the Emperor rarely left the palace they were the only means to reach the Emperor. It was the tight control of access that gave them an immense source of income; a bribe of gold to the appropriate officials was needed to gain the Emperor's ear. They received only a basic subsistence salary but also took a portion of all the goods passing through their often sticky hands. Even low grade eunuchs would expect a proportion of food carried into the Forbidden City by farmers. They were seen as the Emperor's personal servants and often at odds with the officials and nobles who sought an audience with the Emperor. Not only the Emperor had the use of eunuchs, senior members of the Imperial family would also have a smaller number of such servants. At times the eunuchs formed a secret police force, spying on potential rivals to the throne and also threats to their own power. Although unable to father children, they were allowed to adopt, and this became a powerful form of patronage. Rich eunuchs would buy a house outside the palace in Beijing that they could use as long as they were back in the Forbidden City by sunset. Their external house (sometimes also used as a temple) would be where ordinary people would try and bribe their way to gain access to the Imperial court locked inside the City. The eunuch Wang Zhen who was executed for giving poor advice had a grand mansion that became the Zhihua Temple ➚ on his death in 1449, the Buddhist temple is one of the few that can still be visited.
The attraction of becoming a eunuch was the potential great wealth that could be attained, for example Liu Jin ➚ after only 4 years in office had accumulated 15 million pounds of gold in 1510CE. The admiral and explorer Zheng He is perhaps the most famous and best regarded eunuch (he was also a Muslim).
The eunuchs were organized into a strict hierarchy, there were twelve departments: utensils; store houses; clothing; food; ceremonial equipment; music; calligraphy and ceremonial support. It was this last department that had the most power as it advised the Emperor on what should be done and when based on ancient precedent. An audience could easily be canceled if the department advised that it would be inauspicious on that day. The director of this division was the Chief Eunuch and the Emperor's right hand man.
Li Lianying (1848 - 1911), a famous imperial eunuch of Qing Dynasty, China. Image available under a Creative Commons license ➚
On the Sui dynasty's re-unification of China, the eunuchs rose to power again, but never to the same level as during the Han dynasty. There was a brief resurgence under the later Tang emperors particularly Emperor Wenzong where the number of eunuchs reached 5,000, but the following Emperors limited their power to act as functionaries rather than power brokers. In the later Tang centralized control was weakening and the real power was with provincial governors. There was another resurgence under the Ming dynasty, where the Forbidden City in Beijing became their enclave, at one time it has been estimated that there were 70,000 eunuchs. To curb their increasing power Ming Emperor Hongwu banned them from politics.
Ming Emperor Xuande with his imperial eunuchs. 1425-35. Image by unknown court artist available under a Creative Commons license ➚
Power of Eunuchs in China
One of the most powerful eunuchs was Wang Zhen ➚ (d.1449) who effectively ruled the Empire during the regency of Ming Emperor Zhengtong ➚ and it was he that led the disastrous northern campaign to subjugate Mongolia. The eunuch Wei Zhongxian ➚ (1568-1627) is considered the most notorious, the most powerful and villainous. He grew to have a power rivaling the emperor and was expected to found his own dynasty by the adoption of his nephew into the imperial family. It was the weak Ming Emperor Tianqi ➚ who gave him such power; choosing to spend his time on carpentry instead of administration. Wei is often blamed for the final collapse of the illustrious Ming dynasty.
In the following Qing dynasty the great Emperor Kangxi reduced the number of eunuchs to 800 and curtailed their power - he no longer used them to reply to petitions destined for the Emperor - he replied himself. Dowager Empress Cixi despaired about the power of eunuchs calling them ‘rats and foxes’; ‘fawning sycophants’ and ‘artful minions’. The eunuchs and the Imperial administration then became so powerful that they blocked all attempts at reform that would jeopardize their influence and income. During the late Qing dynasty their numbers had gone into decline and the Last Emperor Puyi had less than 1,000 eunuchs in attendance. The last eunuch Sun Yaoting ➚ [1902-1996] was castrated a year after the foundation of the Republic so never saw the power and prosperity of the Imperial court.
Entrance through the Gate of Peace at the Lama Temple Beijing (Yonghegong), or Palace of Peace and Harmony Lama Temple or Yonghegong Lamsery, a renowned lama temple of the Yellow Hat Sect of Lamaism. Building work on the YongHeGong Temple started in 1694 during the Qing Dynasty. It originally served as an official residence for court eunuchs. It was then converted into the court of Prince Yong Zheng (Yin Zhen), a son of emperor KangXi. After YongZheng's ascension to the throne in 1722, half of the building was converted into a lamasery, a monastery for monks of Tibetan Buddhism, while the other half remained an imperial palace. November 2006. Image by Dennis Jarvis ➚ from Halifax, Canada available under a Creative Commons license ➚
Copyright © Chinasage 2012 to 2020
Downloading information about character | <urn:uuid:e2e1c577-3343-4d31-896d-92c619d127f1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.chinasage.info/eunuchs.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.98217 | 1,496 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.06218575686216354... | 2 | Imperial Eunuchs 宦 huàn
Empress Dowager Cixi of China with palace eunuchs. 1903. Image by Yu Xunling available under a Creative Commons license ➚
There has been a very long history of eunuchs in China indeed eunuchs became influential at court as long ago as the Qin dynasty over two thousand years. Originally castration was carried out as a punishment as in the famous case of the great historian Sima Qian in 96BCE. Eunuchs could not father children they were trusted servants compared to the relatives of the Emperor and Empress who often conspired to elevate their children to positions of power. Because an Emperor had to marry outside his family the Empress's power lasted only as long as her husband the Emperor. This abrupt end to a family's pre-eminence led to many brutal conflicts. In the Han dynasty the more impartial power of eunuchs balanced the struggles between the family of the Empress and the family of the bride of the young heir apparent.
Growing influence of Eunuchs
The power of eunuchs continued to grow during the Han dynasty, they were appointed to high administrative positions and controlled all Imperial appointments. As they attended the Emperor from his birth and the Emperor rarely left the palace they were the only means to reach the Emperor. It was the tight control of access that gave them an immense source of income; a bribe of gold to the appropriate officials was needed to gain the Emperor's ear. They received only a basic subsistence salary but also took a portion of all the goods passing through their often sticky hands. Even low grade eunuchs would expect a proportion of food carried into the Forbidden City by farmers. They were seen as the Emperor's personal servants and often at odds with the officials and nobles who sought an audience with the Emperor. Not only the Emperor had the use of eunuchs, senior members of the Imperial family would also have a smaller number of such servants. At times the eunuchs formed a secret police force, spying on potential rivals to the throne and also threats to their own power. Although unable to father children, they were allowed to adopt, and this became a powerful form of patronage. Rich eunuchs would buy a house outside the palace in Beijing that they could use as long as they were back in the Forbidden City by sunset. Their external house (sometimes also used as a temple) would be where ordinary people would try and bribe their way to gain access to the Imperial court locked inside the City. The eunuch Wang Zhen who was executed for giving poor advice had a grand mansion that became the Zhihua Temple ➚ on his death in 1449, the Buddhist temple is one of the few that can still be visited.
The attraction of becoming a eunuch was the potential great wealth that could be attained, for example Liu Jin ➚ after only 4 years in office had accumulated 15 million pounds of gold in 1510CE. The admiral and explorer Zheng He is perhaps the most famous and best regarded eunuch (he was also a Muslim).
The eunuchs were organized into a strict hierarchy, there were twelve departments: utensils; store houses; clothing; food; ceremonial equipment; music; calligraphy and ceremonial support. It was this last department that had the most power as it advised the Emperor on what should be done and when based on ancient precedent. An audience could easily be canceled if the department advised that it would be inauspicious on that day. The director of this division was the Chief Eunuch and the Emperor's right hand man.
Li Lianying (1848 - 1911), a famous imperial eunuch of Qing Dynasty, China. Image available under a Creative Commons license ➚
On the Sui dynasty's re-unification of China, the eunuchs rose to power again, but never to the same level as during the Han dynasty. There was a brief resurgence under the later Tang emperors particularly Emperor Wenzong where the number of eunuchs reached 5,000, but the following Emperors limited their power to act as functionaries rather than power brokers. In the later Tang centralized control was weakening and the real power was with provincial governors. There was another resurgence under the Ming dynasty, where the Forbidden City in Beijing became their enclave, at one time it has been estimated that there were 70,000 eunuchs. To curb their increasing power Ming Emperor Hongwu banned them from politics.
Ming Emperor Xuande with his imperial eunuchs. 1425-35. Image by unknown court artist available under a Creative Commons license ➚
Power of Eunuchs in China
One of the most powerful eunuchs was Wang Zhen ➚ (d.1449) who effectively ruled the Empire during the regency of Ming Emperor Zhengtong ➚ and it was he that led the disastrous northern campaign to subjugate Mongolia. The eunuch Wei Zhongxian ➚ (1568-1627) is considered the most notorious, the most powerful and villainous. He grew to have a power rivaling the emperor and was expected to found his own dynasty by the adoption of his nephew into the imperial family. It was the weak Ming Emperor Tianqi ➚ who gave him such power; choosing to spend his time on carpentry instead of administration. Wei is often blamed for the final collapse of the illustrious Ming dynasty.
In the following Qing dynasty the great Emperor Kangxi reduced the number of eunuchs to 800 and curtailed their power - he no longer used them to reply to petitions destined for the Emperor - he replied himself. Dowager Empress Cixi despaired about the power of eunuchs calling them ‘rats and foxes’; ‘fawning sycophants’ and ‘artful minions’. The eunuchs and the Imperial administration then became so powerful that they blocked all attempts at reform that would jeopardize their influence and income. During the late Qing dynasty their numbers had gone into decline and the Last Emperor Puyi had less than 1,000 eunuchs in attendance. The last eunuch Sun Yaoting ➚ [1902-1996] was castrated a year after the foundation of the Republic so never saw the power and prosperity of the Imperial court.
Entrance through the Gate of Peace at the Lama Temple Beijing (Yonghegong), or Palace of Peace and Harmony Lama Temple or Yonghegong Lamsery, a renowned lama temple of the Yellow Hat Sect of Lamaism. Building work on the YongHeGong Temple started in 1694 during the Qing Dynasty. It originally served as an official residence for court eunuchs. It was then converted into the court of Prince Yong Zheng (Yin Zhen), a son of emperor KangXi. After YongZheng's ascension to the throne in 1722, half of the building was converted into a lamasery, a monastery for monks of Tibetan Buddhism, while the other half remained an imperial palace. November 2006. Image by Dennis Jarvis ➚ from Halifax, Canada available under a Creative Commons license ➚
Copyright © Chinasage 2012 to 2020
Downloading information about character | 1,543 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Albert S. Johnston was one of the most able officers in the US Army until he joined the Southern States at the beginning of the American Civil War. There he put his tactics to the Northern States heavy losses, had it not fallen during the war, this could have ended differently.
Category Archives: Technique age
Thomas Jonathan Jackson served in the US Army, taught artillery and physics and participated as a General on the side of the Confederation in the American Civil War, through whose tactics he was early assigned the name "Stonewall" (stone wall). (more…)...Mehr lesen
Joseph E. Johnston served as a brigadier general in the US Army until he joined the Confederation troops at the start of the American Civil War, becoming one of the highest-ranking officers there. He was considered one of the most able commanders of the southern states, but also one of the most controversial due to...Mehr lesen
Robert E. Lee was the most successful general of the Confederate armed forces during the American Civil War. Through his novel military tactics, smaller units and subordinates to leave more freedom of action and their own decisions, he managed to achieve significant victories with his personnel and material subordinate army anyway. Mehr lesen
Ulysses S. Grant was one of the formative generals of the Northern Army during the American Civil War, helping them to defeat the Southern states. After his military career Grant made a career as a politician and held office as the 18th President of the United States of America. Mehr lesen
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-0.090250849723815... | 2 | Albert S. Johnston was one of the most able officers in the US Army until he joined the Southern States at the beginning of the American Civil War. There he put his tactics to the Northern States heavy losses, had it not fallen during the war, this could have ended differently.
Category Archives: Technique age
Thomas Jonathan Jackson served in the US Army, taught artillery and physics and participated as a General on the side of the Confederation in the American Civil War, through whose tactics he was early assigned the name "Stonewall" (stone wall). (more…)...Mehr lesen
Joseph E. Johnston served as a brigadier general in the US Army until he joined the Confederation troops at the start of the American Civil War, becoming one of the highest-ranking officers there. He was considered one of the most able commanders of the southern states, but also one of the most controversial due to...Mehr lesen
Robert E. Lee was the most successful general of the Confederate armed forces during the American Civil War. Through his novel military tactics, smaller units and subordinates to leave more freedom of action and their own decisions, he managed to achieve significant victories with his personnel and material subordinate army anyway. Mehr lesen
Ulysses S. Grant was one of the formative generals of the Northern Army during the American Civil War, helping them to defeat the Southern states. After his military career Grant made a career as a politician and held office as the 18th President of the United States of America. Mehr lesen
error: Content is protected !!
Loading cart ... | 320 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thanks, in large part, to the work performed by the National Institutes of Health, burn victims, today, stand a much better chance of survival than they did forty years ago. Not much was known about how interconnected body systems are. Consequently, the links between burn injury and failure of organs in the body that didn’t seem affected by the burns were not recognized.
Back in the Day
In the middle of the 70s, the average number of people with fatal burn injuries was around 9,000 each year. This group included people with burns covering 20 percent of their bodies. It was almost a given that more than 20 percent was a death sentence.
There were few burn centers, so burn patients were treated in regular hospital settings. Organ failure was common, and so was infections, for people who managed to live through the initial trauma. Another fatal complication was acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Research Changed the Picture
Back then, statistics for burn injury victims was very grim. There was little known about how complex and interconnected organs and body parts are on a biochemical level. Research sponsored by the NIH and other entities began revealing new information about these systems and how they worked together.
Along with those findings, new approaches were found for fluid resuscitation. Better ways were found to clean the burn areas and skin replacement improved greatly. There were changes made to control infection and nutritional support was added to provide healing nutrients to the body.
What Burn Injury Recovery Looks like Today
Needless to say, intensive research, along with new technology and more efficient and effective techniques in treating burn victims, turned the field around considerably. There are fewer burn victims these days, and they have a much higher survival rate.
There are specialized burn centers across the nation. Now, more than 50 percent of burn victims receive treatment in these facilities. Before, people with as little as 20 percent of their body covered in burns were more likely to die. Today, a burn injury can cover as much as 90 percent of the body and the person has a chance of survival. In these extreme cases, there will most likely be permanent impairments, but the person may live. Statistics for burn injury patients look very different now.
The Research Continues on Burn Injury
Burn injury patients, today, have a considerably higher chance of surviving than ever before. Continuing research is constantly pushing survival rates higher for burn victims. Researchers are developing ways to increase the speed at which damaged tissue heals, finding ways of growing cells in the laboratory for wound treatment and understanding more, every day, about how the body heals from trauma.
Traumatic injuries can alter not just the life of the person with the injury but those around them as well. At Frohlich, Gordon & Beason, P.A., we specialize in personal injury law. If you or a loved one has experienced a personal injury and are seeking legal help, contact us at (941) 960-7225. We will work toward getting you fair compensation. We have offices located in Port Charlotte, North Port, and Englewood, to conveniently serve southwestern Florida. The first consultation is complimentary. | <urn:uuid:8bd717d6-ef43-449c-b04e-700ff922dc10> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fgblawfirm.com/blog/2018/july/burn-injury-recovery-statistics/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00512.warc.gz | en | 0.98131 | 632 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.4892472624778747... | 8 | Thanks, in large part, to the work performed by the National Institutes of Health, burn victims, today, stand a much better chance of survival than they did forty years ago. Not much was known about how interconnected body systems are. Consequently, the links between burn injury and failure of organs in the body that didn’t seem affected by the burns were not recognized.
Back in the Day
In the middle of the 70s, the average number of people with fatal burn injuries was around 9,000 each year. This group included people with burns covering 20 percent of their bodies. It was almost a given that more than 20 percent was a death sentence.
There were few burn centers, so burn patients were treated in regular hospital settings. Organ failure was common, and so was infections, for people who managed to live through the initial trauma. Another fatal complication was acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Research Changed the Picture
Back then, statistics for burn injury victims was very grim. There was little known about how complex and interconnected organs and body parts are on a biochemical level. Research sponsored by the NIH and other entities began revealing new information about these systems and how they worked together.
Along with those findings, new approaches were found for fluid resuscitation. Better ways were found to clean the burn areas and skin replacement improved greatly. There were changes made to control infection and nutritional support was added to provide healing nutrients to the body.
What Burn Injury Recovery Looks like Today
Needless to say, intensive research, along with new technology and more efficient and effective techniques in treating burn victims, turned the field around considerably. There are fewer burn victims these days, and they have a much higher survival rate.
There are specialized burn centers across the nation. Now, more than 50 percent of burn victims receive treatment in these facilities. Before, people with as little as 20 percent of their body covered in burns were more likely to die. Today, a burn injury can cover as much as 90 percent of the body and the person has a chance of survival. In these extreme cases, there will most likely be permanent impairments, but the person may live. Statistics for burn injury patients look very different now.
The Research Continues on Burn Injury
Burn injury patients, today, have a considerably higher chance of surviving than ever before. Continuing research is constantly pushing survival rates higher for burn victims. Researchers are developing ways to increase the speed at which damaged tissue heals, finding ways of growing cells in the laboratory for wound treatment and understanding more, every day, about how the body heals from trauma.
Traumatic injuries can alter not just the life of the person with the injury but those around them as well. At Frohlich, Gordon & Beason, P.A., we specialize in personal injury law. If you or a loved one has experienced a personal injury and are seeking legal help, contact us at (941) 960-7225. We will work toward getting you fair compensation. We have offices located in Port Charlotte, North Port, and Englewood, to conveniently serve southwestern Florida. The first consultation is complimentary. | 643 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1. He was the great early Christian defender of the full deity of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Humanly speaking, his defense of the deity of Christ as it had been confessed in the Nicene Creed of 325 and then subsequently developed in a number of his tracts and treatises was singularly used by God to preserve this fundamental Christian truth.
2. He attended the Council of Nicea in 325.
Probably born into a Christian home in Alexandria around the turn of the fourth century—likely no earlier than 299 AD—Athanasius was ordained a deacon in Alexandria in the 320s and, in this capacity, attended the Council of Nicaea in 325. This ecumenical council was called to resolve the theological crisis raised by the teaching of the Alexandrian elder Arius that Christ was created by God. Contrary to the assertions of some, it is unlikely that Athanasius said anything in a formal capacity at the council—that would have been the prerogative of his bishop, Alexander.
3. His election to the role of bishop was controversial.
When Alexander died in 328, Athanasius succeeded him as bishop in the face of opposition from the Arians in Alexandria, who teamed up with a group called the Melitians to prevent Athanasius being elected bishop. The Melitians were a schismatic group that had broken with the church of Alexandria during the last great persecution (303–311) over the issue of appropriate church discipline for those who had apostatized and then wanted to return to the church. The irony is that Athanasius and the Melitians held to a similar position with regard to the doctrine of the Trinity.
4. He was dismissed from his role as bishop for his support of the Nicene Creed.
Despite the fact that the Nicene Creed was affirmed by an overwhelming majority at the Council of Nicaea, the Arians managed to worm their way back into positions of power and engineered the dismissal of key bishops who supported the Nicene Creed, including Marcellus of Ancyra, Eusthathius of Antioch, and Athanasius.
5. He had many enemies.
The Arians and the Melitians came up with a series of charges against Athanasius. For example, Athanasius was accused of having arranged the murder of a Melitian bishop, Arsenius, and then having used one of the dead man’s hands for magical purposes. Athanasius had to go to Tyre to appear before the emperor Constantine to refute this double charge of murder and magic. Upon entering the room, Athanasius first made sure that his accusers knew what Arsenius looked like. To their chagrin, the “murdered” man was then produced, alive and well, for he had been discovered hiding in the city of Tyre itself.
But when Athanasius was also charged with having vowed to stop shipments of corn from Egypt to Constantinople (Egypt was the breadbasket of the Roman Empire) if he were forced to receive Arius back into the Church, Athanasius admitted the truth of the charge and was exiled to Treveri (modern Trier) in northern France from 336 to 337.
6. He was exiled five times.
This was the first of five exiles, four of which were for his defense of the deity of Christ against Arianism. The two longest, from 339–346 and 356–361, were in Rome and the Egyptian desert respectively. It was because of these exiles that the saying “Athanasius contra mundum” (Athanasius against the world) was coined.
7. He chose his words carefully.
It is noteworthy that Athanasius did not frequently use the term “of one being” (homoousios)—found in the Nicene Creed to set forth the deity of Christ, specifically in him being of “one being with the Father”—until the 350s. Up until then, Athanasius had used other statements and images drawn from Scripture in his defense of the divinity of Jesus.
8. He wrote the first treatise defending the full deity of the Holy Spirit in 358–359.
His close friend Serapion of Thmuis, a town in the Nile Delta, told him about the Binitarianism of certain individuals in his church who confessed Christ as fully God but argued that the Holy Spirit was to be included among the angelic beings. Athanasius’s three letters to Serapion were the first of a number of important defenses of the Spirit’s deity written over the next thirty-five years or so.
9. He wrote a best-selling biography.
Athanasius’s biography of the Egyptian monk Antony, written not long after the monk’s death in 356, was a “bestseller” in Christian antiquity and played a key role in the conversion of Augustine of Hippo in 386. Among the things that Athanasius related about Antony was his phenomenal memorization of the entire Bible. It is most likely the case that Athanasius had also memorized most of the Scriptures.
10. One of his letters contains the earliest complete list of New Testament books we've ever found.
Athanasius’s Easter Letter of 367 contains the first known list of the books of the New Testament that corresponds exactly to the modern listing of the New Testament canon. Along with the Old Testament, Athanasius declared such books to be the “fountains of salvation, that they who thirst may be satisfied with the living words they contain. In these alone is proclaimed the doctrine of godliness.”
This article originally appeared here on Crossway.org; used with permission.
It is often said that Americans don’t like to study history, and church history is no exception. Many of the reasons behind this attitude are based... | <urn:uuid:00e2651d-c7c8-4f7a-a241-5e5d772522cf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://corechristianity.com/resource-library/articles/10-things-you-should-know-about-athanasius | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.982616 | 1,227 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.011650335043... | 1 | 1. He was the great early Christian defender of the full deity of the Lord Jesus Christ.
Humanly speaking, his defense of the deity of Christ as it had been confessed in the Nicene Creed of 325 and then subsequently developed in a number of his tracts and treatises was singularly used by God to preserve this fundamental Christian truth.
2. He attended the Council of Nicea in 325.
Probably born into a Christian home in Alexandria around the turn of the fourth century—likely no earlier than 299 AD—Athanasius was ordained a deacon in Alexandria in the 320s and, in this capacity, attended the Council of Nicaea in 325. This ecumenical council was called to resolve the theological crisis raised by the teaching of the Alexandrian elder Arius that Christ was created by God. Contrary to the assertions of some, it is unlikely that Athanasius said anything in a formal capacity at the council—that would have been the prerogative of his bishop, Alexander.
3. His election to the role of bishop was controversial.
When Alexander died in 328, Athanasius succeeded him as bishop in the face of opposition from the Arians in Alexandria, who teamed up with a group called the Melitians to prevent Athanasius being elected bishop. The Melitians were a schismatic group that had broken with the church of Alexandria during the last great persecution (303–311) over the issue of appropriate church discipline for those who had apostatized and then wanted to return to the church. The irony is that Athanasius and the Melitians held to a similar position with regard to the doctrine of the Trinity.
4. He was dismissed from his role as bishop for his support of the Nicene Creed.
Despite the fact that the Nicene Creed was affirmed by an overwhelming majority at the Council of Nicaea, the Arians managed to worm their way back into positions of power and engineered the dismissal of key bishops who supported the Nicene Creed, including Marcellus of Ancyra, Eusthathius of Antioch, and Athanasius.
5. He had many enemies.
The Arians and the Melitians came up with a series of charges against Athanasius. For example, Athanasius was accused of having arranged the murder of a Melitian bishop, Arsenius, and then having used one of the dead man’s hands for magical purposes. Athanasius had to go to Tyre to appear before the emperor Constantine to refute this double charge of murder and magic. Upon entering the room, Athanasius first made sure that his accusers knew what Arsenius looked like. To their chagrin, the “murdered” man was then produced, alive and well, for he had been discovered hiding in the city of Tyre itself.
But when Athanasius was also charged with having vowed to stop shipments of corn from Egypt to Constantinople (Egypt was the breadbasket of the Roman Empire) if he were forced to receive Arius back into the Church, Athanasius admitted the truth of the charge and was exiled to Treveri (modern Trier) in northern France from 336 to 337.
6. He was exiled five times.
This was the first of five exiles, four of which were for his defense of the deity of Christ against Arianism. The two longest, from 339–346 and 356–361, were in Rome and the Egyptian desert respectively. It was because of these exiles that the saying “Athanasius contra mundum” (Athanasius against the world) was coined.
7. He chose his words carefully.
It is noteworthy that Athanasius did not frequently use the term “of one being” (homoousios)—found in the Nicene Creed to set forth the deity of Christ, specifically in him being of “one being with the Father”—until the 350s. Up until then, Athanasius had used other statements and images drawn from Scripture in his defense of the divinity of Jesus.
8. He wrote the first treatise defending the full deity of the Holy Spirit in 358–359.
His close friend Serapion of Thmuis, a town in the Nile Delta, told him about the Binitarianism of certain individuals in his church who confessed Christ as fully God but argued that the Holy Spirit was to be included among the angelic beings. Athanasius’s three letters to Serapion were the first of a number of important defenses of the Spirit’s deity written over the next thirty-five years or so.
9. He wrote a best-selling biography.
Athanasius’s biography of the Egyptian monk Antony, written not long after the monk’s death in 356, was a “bestseller” in Christian antiquity and played a key role in the conversion of Augustine of Hippo in 386. Among the things that Athanasius related about Antony was his phenomenal memorization of the entire Bible. It is most likely the case that Athanasius had also memorized most of the Scriptures.
10. One of his letters contains the earliest complete list of New Testament books we've ever found.
Athanasius’s Easter Letter of 367 contains the first known list of the books of the New Testament that corresponds exactly to the modern listing of the New Testament canon. Along with the Old Testament, Athanasius declared such books to be the “fountains of salvation, that they who thirst may be satisfied with the living words they contain. In these alone is proclaimed the doctrine of godliness.”
This article originally appeared here on Crossway.org; used with permission.
It is often said that Americans don’t like to study history, and church history is no exception. Many of the reasons behind this attitude are based... | 1,230 | ENGLISH | 1 |
4 pages/≈1100 words
Patrick Henry's Speech In March 1775 (Essay Sample)
Type of work: response paper Task: discuss\"PATRICK HENRY’S SPEECH IN MARCH 1775\"source..
PATRICK HENRY’S SPEECH IN MARCH 1775
Patrick Henry’s speech in March 1775
The tensions between England and her colonial subjects were rapidly escalating. Henry, a young lawyer, spoke to his fellow Virginians of his opinions regarding the colony’s course of action. Henry Patrick is best known for the speech that he made in the House of Burgesses on March 23, 1775, Give me Liberty or Give Me Death. The Burgesses house was faced with a problem of deciding on whether to deploy their military against the encroaching force of the British military. The difficulty of arriving in a conclusive decision necessitated a meeting of lawyers and government officials where Henry Patrick was one of them. Henry spoke in favor of the military action.
Henry wanted his fellow Virginians to rise up and organize the strongest militia in the spirit of patriotism, “no man thinks than I do of patriotism”. Patriotism meant that citizens ought to adopt love and devotion for the country and culturally attach themselves to the well-being of the nation. The militia would enable them take a firm stand against the threats of British tyranny. The British were fast overpowering Virginians’ God-given freedoms and liberties as human beings. Actions by the British were going beyond the limit to the extent of causing fear of the impeding danger among the Virginians. The only option available for dealing with the British was organizing a military and deploying it to affected areas to combat possible attacks. According to Henry, there was not time for ceremony and the question before the house was one of the awful moment to their country. Henry further considered it nothing less than a question of freedom or slavery; the proportion of the magnitude for that debate had to be the speech of freedom.
Rhetoric was widely used by Henry by Henry in justifying his desires. He posed several questions to his listeners, which enabled them to think critically about the situation in which the country was at that moment. For example, Henry asked his listeners, “Doe this belongs to that to the part of wise men who are engaged in great and arduous struggle for salvation?” Henry was referring to that group of men who indulge in illusions of hope, particularly those who concentrate on listening to the song of dialogue until they are subjected to extreme misery. Another rhetorical question posed by Henry was, “Are we like those people who have eyes and ears, but fail to see and hear the things that concern their temporal salvation?” Here, Henry was trying to persuade the president and the present officials that they cannot ignore that nothing is happening. “And what do we have to oppose to them? Shall we again try argument?” Henry reminded listeners that they had tried argument for the last ten years and it had failed. Hence, there was not need to give it chance again.
Henry tried to engage his listeners as a way of further justifying his opinion. He told them, “Ask yourselves how the gracious reception of our petition accord with these war-like preparations that cover our water bodies and darken our precious land.” Henry confirmed to them that preparations for petition were similar to war itself, and they had to respond the same way. Henry won most of the minds when he asked them if they had shown themselves so unwilling to be reconciled that force had to be implemented to win back their love. “Let us not deceive ourselves, sir.” He added. According to Henry, war and subjugation were the last arguments to which the kings resorted.
Henry clearly elaborated the misery to which the Virginians were subject to if they did not take action at that time. According to him, losing their freedom by Virginians would subject them to slavery. Slavery was the worst thing a country would face during Henry’s time. If a city was captured and defeated in war, all the remnants were driven like animals to the captors’ land. While there, captors were subjected to a lot of misery through hard work without pay and severe punishments. Henry actively wanted to prevent this from occurring by stressing on having the freedom debate. Henry viewed freedom of Virginians as their sole responsibility that they held to God and their country. This was meant to remind the leaders that the freedom of their country was on their hands, and they had an obligation to do anything to protect their people from slavery.
During the time of the speech, some Virginians were still opposing the option of forming a military to combat the advancing British military. Henry’s main desire was to convince them to the extent each one of them saw sense in his opinions. His primary desire was to inspire and motivate the Virginians to feel the pain of lack of justice. The thought of losing his freedom and be made a slave to other men made him mad with rage. Henry begged his audience to open their eyes and see the adverse events that surrounded them. He said, “Do not suffer yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss.” The objective of Henry in choosing his words might have been that of angering and moving his audience to the extent that they open their minds to the reality that was facing them.
Henry reiterated the fact that they had tried everything else in their power except calling the army to fight in order to keep the liberty of their countr...
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- Traditional ReligionsDescription: Traditional Religions. Ways in which religion traditions have shaped people's views about themselves, their society, and nature in the past...5 pages/≈1375 words| Chicago | History | Essay | | <urn:uuid:dc0a845f-7d46-498b-a1b0-c70c67bda146> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaykitchen.net/essay/chicago/history/speech-in-march-1775.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00208.warc.gz | en | 0.980476 | 1,312 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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Patrick Henry's Speech In March 1775 (Essay Sample)
Type of work: response paper Task: discuss\"PATRICK HENRY’S SPEECH IN MARCH 1775\"source..
PATRICK HENRY’S SPEECH IN MARCH 1775
Patrick Henry’s speech in March 1775
The tensions between England and her colonial subjects were rapidly escalating. Henry, a young lawyer, spoke to his fellow Virginians of his opinions regarding the colony’s course of action. Henry Patrick is best known for the speech that he made in the House of Burgesses on March 23, 1775, Give me Liberty or Give Me Death. The Burgesses house was faced with a problem of deciding on whether to deploy their military against the encroaching force of the British military. The difficulty of arriving in a conclusive decision necessitated a meeting of lawyers and government officials where Henry Patrick was one of them. Henry spoke in favor of the military action.
Henry wanted his fellow Virginians to rise up and organize the strongest militia in the spirit of patriotism, “no man thinks than I do of patriotism”. Patriotism meant that citizens ought to adopt love and devotion for the country and culturally attach themselves to the well-being of the nation. The militia would enable them take a firm stand against the threats of British tyranny. The British were fast overpowering Virginians’ God-given freedoms and liberties as human beings. Actions by the British were going beyond the limit to the extent of causing fear of the impeding danger among the Virginians. The only option available for dealing with the British was organizing a military and deploying it to affected areas to combat possible attacks. According to Henry, there was not time for ceremony and the question before the house was one of the awful moment to their country. Henry further considered it nothing less than a question of freedom or slavery; the proportion of the magnitude for that debate had to be the speech of freedom.
Rhetoric was widely used by Henry by Henry in justifying his desires. He posed several questions to his listeners, which enabled them to think critically about the situation in which the country was at that moment. For example, Henry asked his listeners, “Doe this belongs to that to the part of wise men who are engaged in great and arduous struggle for salvation?” Henry was referring to that group of men who indulge in illusions of hope, particularly those who concentrate on listening to the song of dialogue until they are subjected to extreme misery. Another rhetorical question posed by Henry was, “Are we like those people who have eyes and ears, but fail to see and hear the things that concern their temporal salvation?” Here, Henry was trying to persuade the president and the present officials that they cannot ignore that nothing is happening. “And what do we have to oppose to them? Shall we again try argument?” Henry reminded listeners that they had tried argument for the last ten years and it had failed. Hence, there was not need to give it chance again.
Henry tried to engage his listeners as a way of further justifying his opinion. He told them, “Ask yourselves how the gracious reception of our petition accord with these war-like preparations that cover our water bodies and darken our precious land.” Henry confirmed to them that preparations for petition were similar to war itself, and they had to respond the same way. Henry won most of the minds when he asked them if they had shown themselves so unwilling to be reconciled that force had to be implemented to win back their love. “Let us not deceive ourselves, sir.” He added. According to Henry, war and subjugation were the last arguments to which the kings resorted.
Henry clearly elaborated the misery to which the Virginians were subject to if they did not take action at that time. According to him, losing their freedom by Virginians would subject them to slavery. Slavery was the worst thing a country would face during Henry’s time. If a city was captured and defeated in war, all the remnants were driven like animals to the captors’ land. While there, captors were subjected to a lot of misery through hard work without pay and severe punishments. Henry actively wanted to prevent this from occurring by stressing on having the freedom debate. Henry viewed freedom of Virginians as their sole responsibility that they held to God and their country. This was meant to remind the leaders that the freedom of their country was on their hands, and they had an obligation to do anything to protect their people from slavery.
During the time of the speech, some Virginians were still opposing the option of forming a military to combat the advancing British military. Henry’s main desire was to convince them to the extent each one of them saw sense in his opinions. His primary desire was to inspire and motivate the Virginians to feel the pain of lack of justice. The thought of losing his freedom and be made a slave to other men made him mad with rage. Henry begged his audience to open their eyes and see the adverse events that surrounded them. He said, “Do not suffer yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss.” The objective of Henry in choosing his words might have been that of angering and moving his audience to the extent that they open their minds to the reality that was facing them.
Henry reiterated the fact that they had tried everything else in their power except calling the army to fight in order to keep the liberty of their countr...
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- Comparing and Contrasting the OSPAR Convention and the Helsinki Convention of 1992Description: Comparing and Contrasting the OSPAR Convention and the Helsinki Convention of 1992 History Essay...4 pages/≈1100 words| Chicago | History | Essay |
- Oppressive nations that host Olympic gamesDescription: Oppressive nations that host Olympic games History Essay Undergraduate level...7 pages/≈1925 words| Chicago | History | Essay |
- Traditional ReligionsDescription: Traditional Religions. Ways in which religion traditions have shaped people's views about themselves, their society, and nature in the past...5 pages/≈1375 words| Chicago | History | Essay | | 1,286 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander the Great Essay is often said to be the greatest conqueror and best military leader to ever walk the face of the earth. He conquered many territories, creating one of the largest empires in history. He was a very kind and generous man, and he also had a good sense of humor. All of his troops respected and liked him, and almost all of his captured territories served him willingly, because he was kind to them, and protected them from any attacks. Alexander was not a pushover, however.
He massacred any opposition of his rule (usually with little loss of life on his side), and he brutally silenced anyone who refused to obey him. He was not a leader like Darius of Persia, who watched his army battle from miles away, or from the very back, Alexander rode right up in front with his army, and stayed with his soldiers even in the heaviest fighting. Sadly his power crumbled after his death, because he left no successor to his empire.Order now
On July 20, 365 BC, Olympius, the wife of King Philip the Second of Macedonia, gave birth to a son and named him Alexander. This boy would eventually become the greatest military leader in history. On the day of his birth, it is said that the temple of Artemis burned down, thus indicating a good omen for Alexanders future greatness.
The true date of his birth is unknown, but the most widely accepted one is July 20, because he centered many important events on or very near that date later in life.1
As a child, Alexander often became discouraged when he heard that his father had conquered another territory. He worried that nothing would be left for him. He spent much of his childhood around his fathers army, so by the age of thirteen, he had become very mature. I think the story of how Alexander captured his prize horse, Bucephalus, at the age of thirteen demonstrates his maturity and bravery. Philip had bought an incredibly beautiful horse, but he was so fierce, no one could touch him.
Just when the men were ready to give up, Alexander arrived and bet thirteen talents (a lot of money for a thirteen-year-old) that he could tame the horse. He calmly approached the horse and realized that it was afraid of its own shadow. By riding Bucephalus into the sun and slowly turning him around, he was able to ride the horse. This horse became his best friend and when he died, Alexander named a city after him.2
Alexanders mother, Olympias, was a princess of Epirus (a captured city) who after seeing her city fall, fell in love with Philip, and later married him. She was said to be brilliant, hot-tempered and extraordinarily beautiful.
She taught Alexander that the great Achilles was his ancestor, and that he should strive to be like him. She had Alexander read the Illiad, the story of the feats of Achilles, and to his dying day he always kept a copy of this story with him. Achilles became Alexanders role model, and his ambition was to be as brave, kind, and mighty as Achilles. Alexanders Father, Philip, was king of Macedonia and ruler of many territories. He was said to have once been handsome until the effects of war took their toll, scarring him horribly. He was an incredible military commander, very ambitious, and a good speaker and leader.
Alexander was said to have his mothers good looks and cunning, and his fathers ambition and military prowess. 3 4
Alexander parents always wanted the best for their son. They hired some of the finest tutors around, including the brilliant Aristotle, who began to teach Alexander around the age of thirteen. Aristotle taught Alexander the ways of the Greeks, which he incorporated into his life thereafter. Alexander found interest in philosophy, ethics, other countries, politics, plants animals, military, and a wide range of other subjects. After Aristotle, his parents employed Alexanders uncle, Leonidas.
Alexander hated Leonidas because he was very strict, so this tutor did not last very long. Alexanders final tutor was a man named Lysimachus. He taught the young prince the cultural aspects of the . | <urn:uuid:5d8a950c-2d69-4d51-b00f-b8fedeff7466> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/essays/alexander-the-great-essay-60-105723/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.993808 | 852 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.199939459562301... | 2 | Alexander the Great Essay is often said to be the greatest conqueror and best military leader to ever walk the face of the earth. He conquered many territories, creating one of the largest empires in history. He was a very kind and generous man, and he also had a good sense of humor. All of his troops respected and liked him, and almost all of his captured territories served him willingly, because he was kind to them, and protected them from any attacks. Alexander was not a pushover, however.
He massacred any opposition of his rule (usually with little loss of life on his side), and he brutally silenced anyone who refused to obey him. He was not a leader like Darius of Persia, who watched his army battle from miles away, or from the very back, Alexander rode right up in front with his army, and stayed with his soldiers even in the heaviest fighting. Sadly his power crumbled after his death, because he left no successor to his empire.Order now
On July 20, 365 BC, Olympius, the wife of King Philip the Second of Macedonia, gave birth to a son and named him Alexander. This boy would eventually become the greatest military leader in history. On the day of his birth, it is said that the temple of Artemis burned down, thus indicating a good omen for Alexanders future greatness.
The true date of his birth is unknown, but the most widely accepted one is July 20, because he centered many important events on or very near that date later in life.1
As a child, Alexander often became discouraged when he heard that his father had conquered another territory. He worried that nothing would be left for him. He spent much of his childhood around his fathers army, so by the age of thirteen, he had become very mature. I think the story of how Alexander captured his prize horse, Bucephalus, at the age of thirteen demonstrates his maturity and bravery. Philip had bought an incredibly beautiful horse, but he was so fierce, no one could touch him.
Just when the men were ready to give up, Alexander arrived and bet thirteen talents (a lot of money for a thirteen-year-old) that he could tame the horse. He calmly approached the horse and realized that it was afraid of its own shadow. By riding Bucephalus into the sun and slowly turning him around, he was able to ride the horse. This horse became his best friend and when he died, Alexander named a city after him.2
Alexanders mother, Olympias, was a princess of Epirus (a captured city) who after seeing her city fall, fell in love with Philip, and later married him. She was said to be brilliant, hot-tempered and extraordinarily beautiful.
She taught Alexander that the great Achilles was his ancestor, and that he should strive to be like him. She had Alexander read the Illiad, the story of the feats of Achilles, and to his dying day he always kept a copy of this story with him. Achilles became Alexanders role model, and his ambition was to be as brave, kind, and mighty as Achilles. Alexanders Father, Philip, was king of Macedonia and ruler of many territories. He was said to have once been handsome until the effects of war took their toll, scarring him horribly. He was an incredible military commander, very ambitious, and a good speaker and leader.
Alexander was said to have his mothers good looks and cunning, and his fathers ambition and military prowess. 3 4
Alexander parents always wanted the best for their son. They hired some of the finest tutors around, including the brilliant Aristotle, who began to teach Alexander around the age of thirteen. Aristotle taught Alexander the ways of the Greeks, which he incorporated into his life thereafter. Alexander found interest in philosophy, ethics, other countries, politics, plants animals, military, and a wide range of other subjects. After Aristotle, his parents employed Alexanders uncle, Leonidas.
Alexander hated Leonidas because he was very strict, so this tutor did not last very long. Alexanders final tutor was a man named Lysimachus. He taught the young prince the cultural aspects of the . | 856 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Despite attempts at negotiation, the men were eventually informed that they would be sent to the Immigration Building jail in Vancouver for their refusal to work. The source for this essay is the Supreme Court ruling in the case of Korematsu versus the United States.
In this way, the eventual assimilation of Japanese Canadians was facilitated.
This preserved local communal ties and facilitated organizing and negotiating for better conditions in the camp.
ByJapanese Canadians owned nearly half the fishing licenses in B. InJapanese Canadians were fingerprinted and photographed and were required to carry registration cards. Later that year, in August, a change to the borders of fishing districts in the area resulted in the loss of licences for several Japanese-Canadian fishermen, who claimed they had not been informed of the change.
Immediately after the bombing of Pearl Harbour, 1, Japanese Canadian fishing boats were seized and impounded.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Oikawa M Cartographies of violence: women memory and the subjects of the internment.
Between andover 21, Japanese-Canadians in which over two thirds were born in Canada were limited of their rights and freedom and were forced into internment camps "for their own good". Oikawa and Miki note that most younger Japanese Canadians construct their identities based around Canadianness primarily and that a sense of community for Japanese Canadians is rare and fractured.
Despite the first iterations of veterans affairs associations established during World War II, fear and racism drove policy and trumped veterans' rights, meaning that virtually no Japanese-Canadian veterans were exempt from being removed from the BC coast. Whole families were taken from their homes and separated from each other.
A Custodian of Enemy Property was authorized to hold all land and property in trust. | <urn:uuid:96d053e5-c41a-4909-9c86-92f1cf0ed2fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hywefegoxojuca.whatshanesaid.com/essay-on-the-internment-of-the-japanese-canadian578896424ux.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.982291 | 352 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.215531125664711... | 1 | Despite attempts at negotiation, the men were eventually informed that they would be sent to the Immigration Building jail in Vancouver for their refusal to work. The source for this essay is the Supreme Court ruling in the case of Korematsu versus the United States.
In this way, the eventual assimilation of Japanese Canadians was facilitated.
This preserved local communal ties and facilitated organizing and negotiating for better conditions in the camp.
ByJapanese Canadians owned nearly half the fishing licenses in B. InJapanese Canadians were fingerprinted and photographed and were required to carry registration cards. Later that year, in August, a change to the borders of fishing districts in the area resulted in the loss of licences for several Japanese-Canadian fishermen, who claimed they had not been informed of the change.
Immediately after the bombing of Pearl Harbour, 1, Japanese Canadian fishing boats were seized and impounded.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Oikawa M Cartographies of violence: women memory and the subjects of the internment.
Between andover 21, Japanese-Canadians in which over two thirds were born in Canada were limited of their rights and freedom and were forced into internment camps "for their own good". Oikawa and Miki note that most younger Japanese Canadians construct their identities based around Canadianness primarily and that a sense of community for Japanese Canadians is rare and fractured.
Despite the first iterations of veterans affairs associations established during World War II, fear and racism drove policy and trumped veterans' rights, meaning that virtually no Japanese-Canadian veterans were exempt from being removed from the BC coast. Whole families were taken from their homes and separated from each other.
A Custodian of Enemy Property was authorized to hold all land and property in trust. | 347 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Irish Republican Brotherhood
|Irish Republican Brotherhood|
|Political position||Irish republicanism|
|Leader||James Stephens |
John O'Connor Power
|Country||Ireland, United States, British Empire, South America and elsewhere|
Clan na Gael
Irish Republican Army
Irish Republican Brotherhood was a secret fraternal organization dedicated to fomenting armed revolt against the British state in Ireland in the nineteenth century and early twentieth century.
The IRB played an important role in the history of Ireland. It was the chief group advocating armed revolt during the campaign for Ireland's independence from the United Kingdom during the latter half of the nineteenth century. It was formed in the 1850s by James Stephens, and organized an abortive revolt in 1867. Although the IRB co-operated with Charles Stewart Parnell's Irish Parliamentary Party (which opposed violent action) in the 1870s and 1880s during the Land War, it also was associated with a dynamite campaign in English cities in the 1880s. Its members often referred to themselves as "Fenians".
Its counterpart in the United States of America was organized by John O'Mahony and known as the Fenian Brotherhood (later Clan na Gael), which would organize several raids into British Canada from 1866 to 1871 in an effort aimed at exchanging control of Canada for Ireland's freedom.
James Stephens, one of the "Men of 1848," (a participant in the 1848 revolt) had established himself in Paris, and was in correspondence with O'Mahony in the United States and other radical nationalists at home and abroad. A club called the Phoenix National and Literary Society, with Jeremiah Donovan (afterwards known as O'Donovan Rossa) among its more prominent members, had recently been formed at Skibbereen. Stephens visited it in May 1858 and made it the centre of his preparations for armed rebellion.
The object of Stephens, O'Mahony, and other leaders of the movement was to form a league of Irishmen in all parts of the world against British rule in Ireland. The organization was modelled on that of the Jacobins of the French Revolution; they even formed a "Committee of Public Safety" in Paris, with a number of subsidiary committees and affiliated clubs. The Fenians were soon found in Australia, South America, Canada, and above all in the United States, as well as in the large cities of Great Britain such as London, Manchester, and Glasgow. The Fenians had more trouble gaining the support of the tenant-farmers or agricultural labourers in Ireland, because of their fears of British government reprisals. The early movement was also denounced by the Roman Catholic Church, as indeed were all Irish separatist movements that advocated the use of force. One Irish bishop famously declared that "Hell is not hot enough, nor eternity long enough" for the Fenians.
It would be a few years after its foundation before the IRB made much headway. The Phoenix Club conspiracy in County Kerry had been betrayed by an informer and was crushed by the government. Some twenty ringleaders were put on trial, including Donovan, and when they pleaded guilty were, with a single exception, treated with leniency.
1867 Revolt and Land Agitation
About the same time the Irish People, a revolutionary journal, was started in Dublin by Stephens, and for two years advocated armed rebellion and appealed for aid to Irishmen who had received military training and experience in the American Civil War. At the close of that war in 1865, numbers of Irish who had borne arms flocked to Ireland, and the plans for a rising were worked on. The government, well served as usual by informers, now took action. In September 1865 the Irish People was suppressed, and several of the more prominent Fenians were sentenced to terms of penal servitude; Stephens, through the connivance of a prison warder, escaped to France. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended in the beginning of 1866, and a considerable number of persons were arrested. The failed revolt the following year proved a serious setback to the IRB's hopes, with numerous arrests in both Ireland and Britain.
In the years following the failed revolt against the English, leaders of the IRB carried out their own foreign policy, and courted support from ambassadors of nations they perceived as enemies of England. When the chances of war with England were fading, IRB looked for allies among other Irish national groups, and on the cusp of the 1870–1880s, their attempts at coalition building were successful. From amongst the many Irish nationalist organisations, a coalition was formed among the IRB and sections of the Irish Land League. In 1882, a breakaway IRB faction calling themselves the Irish National Invincibles assassinated the British Chief Secretary for Ireland Lord Frederick Cavendish and his secretary.
In March 1883 the London Metropolitan Police's Special Irish Branch was formed, initially as a small section of the Criminal Investigation Department (CID), to monitor IRB activities. Subsequently, the term 'Irish Branch' was replaced by the Special Branch title, as over time it took on responsibility for countering a wider range of revolutionary and anarchist activity.
Nineteenth-century Fenianism was among the most important movements in modern Irish history. Its radicalism influenced later leaders like Patrick Pearse and Éamon de Valera and the IRB was well placed in the subsequent independence movement with Michael Collins at the helm. However, though influential in radical nationalism, the early IRB never gained widespread popular support and its attempts to stage rebellions in Ireland failed dismally. Its impact was through the ideas it developed among later Irish nationalists.
Revitalized from about 1910, the IRB was the chief organizing force behind the Easter Rising of 1916, under the leadership of such men as Tom Clarke, Sean MacDermott and Patrick Pearse. The IRB infiltrated the Irish Volunteers, and commandeered them to act as the military wing of the republican movement, against the wishes of the Volunteers' leadership. It was also a major influence during the 1919–21 Irish War of Independence. Its president since the summer of 1919 was Michael Collins, who was also a chief organizing force behind the Irish Republican Army. Due to Collins' leadership, the IRB accepted the Anglo-Irish Treaty agreed by Collins with the British government as compatible with its aims and dissolved itself. In fact, Collins used the IRB in 1922 as a vehicle for getting the Treaty accepted by IRA officers. This was somewhat strange as the IRB had up to this point been the most extreme Irish republican organisation. Anti-Treaty republicans like Ernie O'Malley, who fought a civil war against the Treaty, saw the IRB at this time as being used to undermine the Irish Republic. Following the civil war in 1924, the Supreme Council under Collins' protoge Richard Mulcahy as chairman, voted to dissolve the organization, deeming that its goals had been achieved.
Before and during World War I, the IRB in United States is also identified closely with the Ghadar Party, as is the then Clan Na Gael. The Brotherhood is accepted to have played a major role in supporting Indian Nationalists, as well as playing a key role, in the Hindu German Conspiracy. Those involved closely with the Indian movement, and later involved in the plot, includes major figures of Irish republicanism and Irish-Amierican nationalism including the likes of John Devoy, Joseph McGarrity, Roger Casement, Eamon de Valéra, | <urn:uuid:d75d92d4-e1c7-4ac0-aaea-305674cdf1ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.metapedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republican_Brotherhood | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00355.warc.gz | en | 0.981066 | 1,537 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.31324881315231... | 1 | Irish Republican Brotherhood
|Irish Republican Brotherhood|
|Political position||Irish republicanism|
|Leader||James Stephens |
John O'Connor Power
|Country||Ireland, United States, British Empire, South America and elsewhere|
Clan na Gael
Irish Republican Army
Irish Republican Brotherhood was a secret fraternal organization dedicated to fomenting armed revolt against the British state in Ireland in the nineteenth century and early twentieth century.
The IRB played an important role in the history of Ireland. It was the chief group advocating armed revolt during the campaign for Ireland's independence from the United Kingdom during the latter half of the nineteenth century. It was formed in the 1850s by James Stephens, and organized an abortive revolt in 1867. Although the IRB co-operated with Charles Stewart Parnell's Irish Parliamentary Party (which opposed violent action) in the 1870s and 1880s during the Land War, it also was associated with a dynamite campaign in English cities in the 1880s. Its members often referred to themselves as "Fenians".
Its counterpart in the United States of America was organized by John O'Mahony and known as the Fenian Brotherhood (later Clan na Gael), which would organize several raids into British Canada from 1866 to 1871 in an effort aimed at exchanging control of Canada for Ireland's freedom.
James Stephens, one of the "Men of 1848," (a participant in the 1848 revolt) had established himself in Paris, and was in correspondence with O'Mahony in the United States and other radical nationalists at home and abroad. A club called the Phoenix National and Literary Society, with Jeremiah Donovan (afterwards known as O'Donovan Rossa) among its more prominent members, had recently been formed at Skibbereen. Stephens visited it in May 1858 and made it the centre of his preparations for armed rebellion.
The object of Stephens, O'Mahony, and other leaders of the movement was to form a league of Irishmen in all parts of the world against British rule in Ireland. The organization was modelled on that of the Jacobins of the French Revolution; they even formed a "Committee of Public Safety" in Paris, with a number of subsidiary committees and affiliated clubs. The Fenians were soon found in Australia, South America, Canada, and above all in the United States, as well as in the large cities of Great Britain such as London, Manchester, and Glasgow. The Fenians had more trouble gaining the support of the tenant-farmers or agricultural labourers in Ireland, because of their fears of British government reprisals. The early movement was also denounced by the Roman Catholic Church, as indeed were all Irish separatist movements that advocated the use of force. One Irish bishop famously declared that "Hell is not hot enough, nor eternity long enough" for the Fenians.
It would be a few years after its foundation before the IRB made much headway. The Phoenix Club conspiracy in County Kerry had been betrayed by an informer and was crushed by the government. Some twenty ringleaders were put on trial, including Donovan, and when they pleaded guilty were, with a single exception, treated with leniency.
1867 Revolt and Land Agitation
About the same time the Irish People, a revolutionary journal, was started in Dublin by Stephens, and for two years advocated armed rebellion and appealed for aid to Irishmen who had received military training and experience in the American Civil War. At the close of that war in 1865, numbers of Irish who had borne arms flocked to Ireland, and the plans for a rising were worked on. The government, well served as usual by informers, now took action. In September 1865 the Irish People was suppressed, and several of the more prominent Fenians were sentenced to terms of penal servitude; Stephens, through the connivance of a prison warder, escaped to France. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended in the beginning of 1866, and a considerable number of persons were arrested. The failed revolt the following year proved a serious setback to the IRB's hopes, with numerous arrests in both Ireland and Britain.
In the years following the failed revolt against the English, leaders of the IRB carried out their own foreign policy, and courted support from ambassadors of nations they perceived as enemies of England. When the chances of war with England were fading, IRB looked for allies among other Irish national groups, and on the cusp of the 1870–1880s, their attempts at coalition building were successful. From amongst the many Irish nationalist organisations, a coalition was formed among the IRB and sections of the Irish Land League. In 1882, a breakaway IRB faction calling themselves the Irish National Invincibles assassinated the British Chief Secretary for Ireland Lord Frederick Cavendish and his secretary.
In March 1883 the London Metropolitan Police's Special Irish Branch was formed, initially as a small section of the Criminal Investigation Department (CID), to monitor IRB activities. Subsequently, the term 'Irish Branch' was replaced by the Special Branch title, as over time it took on responsibility for countering a wider range of revolutionary and anarchist activity.
Nineteenth-century Fenianism was among the most important movements in modern Irish history. Its radicalism influenced later leaders like Patrick Pearse and Éamon de Valera and the IRB was well placed in the subsequent independence movement with Michael Collins at the helm. However, though influential in radical nationalism, the early IRB never gained widespread popular support and its attempts to stage rebellions in Ireland failed dismally. Its impact was through the ideas it developed among later Irish nationalists.
Revitalized from about 1910, the IRB was the chief organizing force behind the Easter Rising of 1916, under the leadership of such men as Tom Clarke, Sean MacDermott and Patrick Pearse. The IRB infiltrated the Irish Volunteers, and commandeered them to act as the military wing of the republican movement, against the wishes of the Volunteers' leadership. It was also a major influence during the 1919–21 Irish War of Independence. Its president since the summer of 1919 was Michael Collins, who was also a chief organizing force behind the Irish Republican Army. Due to Collins' leadership, the IRB accepted the Anglo-Irish Treaty agreed by Collins with the British government as compatible with its aims and dissolved itself. In fact, Collins used the IRB in 1922 as a vehicle for getting the Treaty accepted by IRA officers. This was somewhat strange as the IRB had up to this point been the most extreme Irish republican organisation. Anti-Treaty republicans like Ernie O'Malley, who fought a civil war against the Treaty, saw the IRB at this time as being used to undermine the Irish Republic. Following the civil war in 1924, the Supreme Council under Collins' protoge Richard Mulcahy as chairman, voted to dissolve the organization, deeming that its goals had been achieved.
Before and during World War I, the IRB in United States is also identified closely with the Ghadar Party, as is the then Clan Na Gael. The Brotherhood is accepted to have played a major role in supporting Indian Nationalists, as well as playing a key role, in the Hindu German Conspiracy. Those involved closely with the Indian movement, and later involved in the plot, includes major figures of Irish republicanism and Irish-Amierican nationalism including the likes of John Devoy, Joseph McGarrity, Roger Casement, Eamon de Valéra, | 1,614 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who was Amenhotep III?
Amenhotep III was the ruler of Egypt from 1391-1353 BC, and the ninth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. He ruled over Egypt during the empire’s peak of power and prosperity, and oversaw a period of great development during his time as pharaoh.
As the son of Pharaoh Thutmose IV (and grandson of the famous Thutmose III), Amenhotep was educated on matters of ruling, religion and government in his childhood, to prepare him for his eventual ascension to the role of pharaoh. He became pharaoh at the age of twelve when his father died, though he had the royal advisor (vizier) rule in his place until he came of age.
Why did Egypt do so well under Amenhotep’s reign?
When he took over, the country was rich and powerful thanks to the work of his father and grandfather – but he took things a step further with his own policies. Amenhotep III was a capable negotiator and politician, and made great strides towards establishing Egypt as a dominant economic power. He maintained his power over the people of Egypt through their faith by weakening the Egyptian priesthood, as well as inflating Ra’s spiritual importance. (The pharaoh was seen as a vessel for Ra’s will at the time.) He also established good trade relations with previously hostile nations, by marrying the daughters of foreign kings of Asia (namely, Syria and Babylon.)
What was Amenhotep III known for?
Amenhotep III is most known for the prosperity of Egypt during his reign, but also for the huge number of monuments built by his people, one of which was the Temple of Luxor in Thebes. The Temple of Luxor became Thebes’ most famous and renowned temples, and one of the grandest structures in the known world – oddly enough, however, it was not dedicated to the worship of Ra, but of Amun, a god whose priesthood Amenhotep himself had weakened!
Aside from the temples built to Ra and Amun, Amenhotep also ordered the construction of many statutes during his reign, mainly of himself and his family; an example of some statues he ordered are the Colossi of Memnon, two 60-foot statues of Amenhotep himself sitting down. Amenhotep has more surviving statues than any other pharaoh, at a whopping 250.
How did Amenhotep III die, and what was his legacy?
Amenhotep III died around 1353 BC, which ended his reign. He was buried in a grand mortuary tomb ordered during his reign, which was later flooded and almost destroyed during a season of heavy rainfall. He was buried alongside his wife Tiye, separate from his other wives.
Following Amenhotep III’s death, his son Amenhotep IV took over as pharaoh. Amenhotep III’s legacy was one of peace and prosperity for the Egyptian people, and a time where development of the arts and architecture was at an all-time high for the civilization. This peace laid the foundation for Amenhotep IV’s rule, which was spent similarly securing trade deals and improving relations between Egypt and its neighbors.
However, like his father, Amenhotep IV made some questionable choices in his role as the religious head of the country. Where his father weakened Amun in favor of Ra, Amenhotep IV weakened all other gods in favor of Aten; a decision which historians believe was encouraged by the faith of his mother, Tiye. Because of this, Amenhotep IV died in disgrace among his people, and was widely erased from historical and cultural records. His father, Amenhotep the Magnificent, remained a bright spot in the dynasty, and went down as one of Egypt’s finest rulers despite his son’s missteps.
Facts about Amenhotep III:
- Amenhotep III was the ruler of Egypt from 1391-1353 BC.
- He ruled over Egypt during the empire’s peak of power and prosperity.
- As the son of Pharaoh Thutmose IV (and grandson of the famous Thutmose III), Amenhotep was educated on matters of ruling, religion and government in his childhood.
- At the age of twelve, he became pharaoh when his father passed away.
- Amenhotep III was a capable negotiator and politician, and made great strides towards establishing Egypt as a dominant economic power.
- He maintained his power over the people of Egypt through their faith by weakening the Egyptian priesthood, as well as inflating Ra’s spiritual importance.
- He also established good trade relations with Syria and Babylon by marrying the daughters of their kings.
- Amenhotep III is also known for the huge number of monuments built during his reign, one of which was the Temple of Luxor in Thebes.
- Amenhotep III died around 1353 BC, which ended his reign.
- For what years did Amenhotep III rule Egypt?
- 1391-1353 BC.
- What age did Amenhotep III become pharaoh?
- Which two nations did Amenhotep III establish trade links with by marrying into their royal families?
- Babylon and Syria.
- What grand temple of Thebes was built during Amenhotep III’s reign?
- The Temple of Luxor.
- In what year did Amenhotep III die?
- Around 1353 BC. | <urn:uuid:3a1a0231-bcd2-4e46-b217-0bbe9fa33398> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyforkids.net/amenhotep-iii.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00225.warc.gz | en | 0.991129 | 1,140 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.02382764965... | 14 | Who was Amenhotep III?
Amenhotep III was the ruler of Egypt from 1391-1353 BC, and the ninth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. He ruled over Egypt during the empire’s peak of power and prosperity, and oversaw a period of great development during his time as pharaoh.
As the son of Pharaoh Thutmose IV (and grandson of the famous Thutmose III), Amenhotep was educated on matters of ruling, religion and government in his childhood, to prepare him for his eventual ascension to the role of pharaoh. He became pharaoh at the age of twelve when his father died, though he had the royal advisor (vizier) rule in his place until he came of age.
Why did Egypt do so well under Amenhotep’s reign?
When he took over, the country was rich and powerful thanks to the work of his father and grandfather – but he took things a step further with his own policies. Amenhotep III was a capable negotiator and politician, and made great strides towards establishing Egypt as a dominant economic power. He maintained his power over the people of Egypt through their faith by weakening the Egyptian priesthood, as well as inflating Ra’s spiritual importance. (The pharaoh was seen as a vessel for Ra’s will at the time.) He also established good trade relations with previously hostile nations, by marrying the daughters of foreign kings of Asia (namely, Syria and Babylon.)
What was Amenhotep III known for?
Amenhotep III is most known for the prosperity of Egypt during his reign, but also for the huge number of monuments built by his people, one of which was the Temple of Luxor in Thebes. The Temple of Luxor became Thebes’ most famous and renowned temples, and one of the grandest structures in the known world – oddly enough, however, it was not dedicated to the worship of Ra, but of Amun, a god whose priesthood Amenhotep himself had weakened!
Aside from the temples built to Ra and Amun, Amenhotep also ordered the construction of many statutes during his reign, mainly of himself and his family; an example of some statues he ordered are the Colossi of Memnon, two 60-foot statues of Amenhotep himself sitting down. Amenhotep has more surviving statues than any other pharaoh, at a whopping 250.
How did Amenhotep III die, and what was his legacy?
Amenhotep III died around 1353 BC, which ended his reign. He was buried in a grand mortuary tomb ordered during his reign, which was later flooded and almost destroyed during a season of heavy rainfall. He was buried alongside his wife Tiye, separate from his other wives.
Following Amenhotep III’s death, his son Amenhotep IV took over as pharaoh. Amenhotep III’s legacy was one of peace and prosperity for the Egyptian people, and a time where development of the arts and architecture was at an all-time high for the civilization. This peace laid the foundation for Amenhotep IV’s rule, which was spent similarly securing trade deals and improving relations between Egypt and its neighbors.
However, like his father, Amenhotep IV made some questionable choices in his role as the religious head of the country. Where his father weakened Amun in favor of Ra, Amenhotep IV weakened all other gods in favor of Aten; a decision which historians believe was encouraged by the faith of his mother, Tiye. Because of this, Amenhotep IV died in disgrace among his people, and was widely erased from historical and cultural records. His father, Amenhotep the Magnificent, remained a bright spot in the dynasty, and went down as one of Egypt’s finest rulers despite his son’s missteps.
Facts about Amenhotep III:
- Amenhotep III was the ruler of Egypt from 1391-1353 BC.
- He ruled over Egypt during the empire’s peak of power and prosperity.
- As the son of Pharaoh Thutmose IV (and grandson of the famous Thutmose III), Amenhotep was educated on matters of ruling, religion and government in his childhood.
- At the age of twelve, he became pharaoh when his father passed away.
- Amenhotep III was a capable negotiator and politician, and made great strides towards establishing Egypt as a dominant economic power.
- He maintained his power over the people of Egypt through their faith by weakening the Egyptian priesthood, as well as inflating Ra’s spiritual importance.
- He also established good trade relations with Syria and Babylon by marrying the daughters of their kings.
- Amenhotep III is also known for the huge number of monuments built during his reign, one of which was the Temple of Luxor in Thebes.
- Amenhotep III died around 1353 BC, which ended his reign.
- For what years did Amenhotep III rule Egypt?
- 1391-1353 BC.
- What age did Amenhotep III become pharaoh?
- Which two nations did Amenhotep III establish trade links with by marrying into their royal families?
- Babylon and Syria.
- What grand temple of Thebes was built during Amenhotep III’s reign?
- The Temple of Luxor.
- In what year did Amenhotep III die?
- Around 1353 BC. | 1,116 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who were the Goliards and how did they influence music?
The Goliards were wandering scholars who were keen on having adventures. They took their name from 'Bishop Golias', a fallen priest who they often sang about, but he was probably a fictional character. Some of the more serious students would travel from university to university in search of specific knowledge, but most were in search of wine, women, and song. They wrote a variety of songs; including love songs, political satires, and drinking songs. Although only some of the remaining works have musical notation, it is believed that almost all of their writings were to be sung. Goliardic songs appear to be the earliest known examples ...view middle of the document...
The kings held this land but what they believed was divine right, but there was no way for them to effectively rule all the land since there was no quick system of communication. As a solution to this problem, the kind would appoint lords, or barons, to watch over a specific portion of the land to which they would repay him in monetary and military support. However, the barons quickly realized they were having the same problem as the king with too much land to watch over. They made a similar agreement to the one they had made with the king with a knight or relative. The land continued to be divided like this until eventually the class of lords were solidified into an upper nobility class. This upper class usually felt like they were superior to the common peasants, or serfs and were often merciless to them. Approximately ninety percent of the people in the middle ages were considered peasants. There was still, however, a division of peasants into free and a type of indentured servants. The feudal society was constructed for one main reason: security. The upper noble class wanted the security of maintaining control over their kingdoms, so they believed they were forced to delegate this power to local control. The peasants also wanted security from barbarians and invading armies so the development of the feudal system was inevitable (Glad).
What was the importance of knighthood and chivalry?
Knighthood, originally, was a professional association that included men who could afford the investment of mounted warfare (horse and armor). The concept arises in the 11th century with the members being nobles, small land-holders, free men, and craftsmen. The Cluny monks, who wanted to give an emotion to warfare, came up with the idea of a soldier who follows a certain code of behavior or morality. This strong influence led to what we now call chivalry. In the late 12th century, literature also provided a model for the knight community as way to glorify it. Although the development of gunpowder made the use of knights unreliable, the chivalric ideals they stood for continued to live on (Verde).
What scientific advancements were made during this time period?
Society started to perk up a little bit around Europe in the High Middle Ages and was considered a time marked by advances made in architecture, science,... | <urn:uuid:6c5d19b8-538e-40ea-a60e-c1771665769c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/medieval-life-and-culture | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.989662 | 618 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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-0.22778441011... | 1 | Who were the Goliards and how did they influence music?
The Goliards were wandering scholars who were keen on having adventures. They took their name from 'Bishop Golias', a fallen priest who they often sang about, but he was probably a fictional character. Some of the more serious students would travel from university to university in search of specific knowledge, but most were in search of wine, women, and song. They wrote a variety of songs; including love songs, political satires, and drinking songs. Although only some of the remaining works have musical notation, it is believed that almost all of their writings were to be sung. Goliardic songs appear to be the earliest known examples ...view middle of the document...
The kings held this land but what they believed was divine right, but there was no way for them to effectively rule all the land since there was no quick system of communication. As a solution to this problem, the kind would appoint lords, or barons, to watch over a specific portion of the land to which they would repay him in monetary and military support. However, the barons quickly realized they were having the same problem as the king with too much land to watch over. They made a similar agreement to the one they had made with the king with a knight or relative. The land continued to be divided like this until eventually the class of lords were solidified into an upper nobility class. This upper class usually felt like they were superior to the common peasants, or serfs and were often merciless to them. Approximately ninety percent of the people in the middle ages were considered peasants. There was still, however, a division of peasants into free and a type of indentured servants. The feudal society was constructed for one main reason: security. The upper noble class wanted the security of maintaining control over their kingdoms, so they believed they were forced to delegate this power to local control. The peasants also wanted security from barbarians and invading armies so the development of the feudal system was inevitable (Glad).
What was the importance of knighthood and chivalry?
Knighthood, originally, was a professional association that included men who could afford the investment of mounted warfare (horse and armor). The concept arises in the 11th century with the members being nobles, small land-holders, free men, and craftsmen. The Cluny monks, who wanted to give an emotion to warfare, came up with the idea of a soldier who follows a certain code of behavior or morality. This strong influence led to what we now call chivalry. In the late 12th century, literature also provided a model for the knight community as way to glorify it. Although the development of gunpowder made the use of knights unreliable, the chivalric ideals they stood for continued to live on (Verde).
What scientific advancements were made during this time period?
Society started to perk up a little bit around Europe in the High Middle Ages and was considered a time marked by advances made in architecture, science,... | 621 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A study reveals that our intelligence gene is inherited from our mothers.
According to researchers, the intelligence of children is determined by the intelligence of the mother. It makes absolutely no difference how intelligent or unintelligent the father is. This is because the intelligence gene lies on the X chromosome, which is present in twice the amount in females that it is in men. This means that women are more likely to pass on their intelligence gene to their children than men are.
Studies of genetically modified mice showed very clearly that mice with more of their mother’s genes naturally developed bigger brains and heads, while their bodies were smaller. That exactly the opposite was true for mice with more of their father’s genes – they had smaller brains and bulkier bodies. They also found that there were six key parts of the brain that were only developed from either maternal or paternal genes, there was no mix.
Once the theory was developed through the use of laboratory mice, the theory was then tested with humans, and it was found that IQ from the mother was still the best way to predict the intelligence of the child.
The emotional bond plays a big role
However, genetics is not the only area where mothers play a key role in intelligence. Many studies have found that a strong emotional bond between mother and child can really help to increase the intelligence of the child, helping key areas of the brain to grow. Researchers in Washington found that children with emotionally and intellectually supportive mothers had up to a 10% larger hippocampus, an area responsible for memory and learning, than other children.
This is not to say, however, that fathers are not an integral part of child development. Research has shown that children with an involved father are much more likely to be emotionally secure, more confident in exploring their surroundings and develop better relationships later in life.
Research also shows that fathers are more likely to spend more time actively playing with their children, and this can help children to develop skills in emotional regulation. As well as this, there is some evidence to show that fathers also play a role in educational development, as they produce a more active style of parenting that is associated with verbal skills and academic achievement.
So we cannot say that fathers don’t play a role in their children’s intelligence just because their genes are not the prominent players in the child’s brain. Parents create an environment for their children to learn and grow, and this is one of the most important factors when it comes to emotional and intellectual intelligence.
Creating a stimulating and open home for your children can be one of the biggest contributors to intelligence, emotional stability, and successful relationships as the child grow up, no matter whose intelligence gene is present in the key parts of the brain.
Copyright © 2012-2020 Learning Mind. All rights reserved. For permission to reprint, contact us. | <urn:uuid:7969eb28-90b9-45c0-9902-265cb7e5886b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.learning-mind.com/intelligence-gene-mother/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.981039 | 574 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.326430231332778... | 1 | A study reveals that our intelligence gene is inherited from our mothers.
According to researchers, the intelligence of children is determined by the intelligence of the mother. It makes absolutely no difference how intelligent or unintelligent the father is. This is because the intelligence gene lies on the X chromosome, which is present in twice the amount in females that it is in men. This means that women are more likely to pass on their intelligence gene to their children than men are.
Studies of genetically modified mice showed very clearly that mice with more of their mother’s genes naturally developed bigger brains and heads, while their bodies were smaller. That exactly the opposite was true for mice with more of their father’s genes – they had smaller brains and bulkier bodies. They also found that there were six key parts of the brain that were only developed from either maternal or paternal genes, there was no mix.
Once the theory was developed through the use of laboratory mice, the theory was then tested with humans, and it was found that IQ from the mother was still the best way to predict the intelligence of the child.
The emotional bond plays a big role
However, genetics is not the only area where mothers play a key role in intelligence. Many studies have found that a strong emotional bond between mother and child can really help to increase the intelligence of the child, helping key areas of the brain to grow. Researchers in Washington found that children with emotionally and intellectually supportive mothers had up to a 10% larger hippocampus, an area responsible for memory and learning, than other children.
This is not to say, however, that fathers are not an integral part of child development. Research has shown that children with an involved father are much more likely to be emotionally secure, more confident in exploring their surroundings and develop better relationships later in life.
Research also shows that fathers are more likely to spend more time actively playing with their children, and this can help children to develop skills in emotional regulation. As well as this, there is some evidence to show that fathers also play a role in educational development, as they produce a more active style of parenting that is associated with verbal skills and academic achievement.
So we cannot say that fathers don’t play a role in their children’s intelligence just because their genes are not the prominent players in the child’s brain. Parents create an environment for their children to learn and grow, and this is one of the most important factors when it comes to emotional and intellectual intelligence.
Creating a stimulating and open home for your children can be one of the biggest contributors to intelligence, emotional stability, and successful relationships as the child grow up, no matter whose intelligence gene is present in the key parts of the brain.
Copyright © 2012-2020 Learning Mind. All rights reserved. For permission to reprint, contact us. | 565 | ENGLISH | 1 |
European Colonization on Native Americans – Comanche’s Essay
European Colonization on the Comanche Tribe European colonization had a big effect on the Comanche tribe and other Native Americans. Due to the introduction of many different things it changed the way they live, hunt and see things from their own perspective. In a way it is good that the Europeans found the Native Americans for our sake, as to the discovery of new foods, people etc but for the Comanche’s it wasn’t such a good thing.
The most shocking and unexpected effect that could have happened during colonization was the introduction of different diseases like smallpox, influenza, diphtheria and measles.
Because the Comanche’s had never been familiarized to these diseases they had no resistance to them, so sadly many of them became ill and died as disease swept through their lands. Small things like guns, horses, alcohol and different tools that the Comanche’s were never aware of also had a big impact on their lives.
Horses and guns changed their way of hunting for food and getting around.
Since the cultural groups had been based on their method of survival, changing this changed the groupings so they slowly strayed away from their traditions and way of life. However The Comanche’s did come to be known as fantastic horseman so in a way the horses benefitted them. Unfortunately the European army and many settlers treated the Natives as nothing more than pests to be got rid of. Laws were introduced that forced the children into the European education system.
It was as if their aim was to deny the Comanche’s of their cultural identity. They encouraged Christianity and inconsiderately forced upon their way of life onto the Comanche’s and other tribes. The Comanche’s as well as numerous other tribes were used as slaves and treated poorly. The Comanche’s didn’t see land as belonging to one person. When the Europeans started to claim pieces of land and ban them from it, which started to cause many problems. They could no longer hunt or look for food in places they had always done so.
Fights over territories began to break out and they were starting to run low on food supply. Wars struck out between the Native Americans and Europeans which as well as disease, caused many deaths and injuries. They had no freedom, no civil rights and had to endure the last pieces of their culture being thrown away as the Europeans made themselves quite cozy on the Native American land, building homes, facilities, putting up rail lines and using the land to mine for gold etc.
Cite this European Colonization on Native Americans – Comanche’s Essay
European Colonization on Native Americans – Comanche’s Essay. (2016, Sep 13). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/european-colonization-on-native-americans-comanches/ | <urn:uuid:1a260bfe-b3fa-47a8-a58c-4cf9c9d3b480> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/european-colonization-on-native-americans-comanches/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.981517 | 604 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.0069703273... | 1 | European Colonization on Native Americans – Comanche’s Essay
European Colonization on the Comanche Tribe European colonization had a big effect on the Comanche tribe and other Native Americans. Due to the introduction of many different things it changed the way they live, hunt and see things from their own perspective. In a way it is good that the Europeans found the Native Americans for our sake, as to the discovery of new foods, people etc but for the Comanche’s it wasn’t such a good thing.
The most shocking and unexpected effect that could have happened during colonization was the introduction of different diseases like smallpox, influenza, diphtheria and measles.
Because the Comanche’s had never been familiarized to these diseases they had no resistance to them, so sadly many of them became ill and died as disease swept through their lands. Small things like guns, horses, alcohol and different tools that the Comanche’s were never aware of also had a big impact on their lives.
Horses and guns changed their way of hunting for food and getting around.
Since the cultural groups had been based on their method of survival, changing this changed the groupings so they slowly strayed away from their traditions and way of life. However The Comanche’s did come to be known as fantastic horseman so in a way the horses benefitted them. Unfortunately the European army and many settlers treated the Natives as nothing more than pests to be got rid of. Laws were introduced that forced the children into the European education system.
It was as if their aim was to deny the Comanche’s of their cultural identity. They encouraged Christianity and inconsiderately forced upon their way of life onto the Comanche’s and other tribes. The Comanche’s as well as numerous other tribes were used as slaves and treated poorly. The Comanche’s didn’t see land as belonging to one person. When the Europeans started to claim pieces of land and ban them from it, which started to cause many problems. They could no longer hunt or look for food in places they had always done so.
Fights over territories began to break out and they were starting to run low on food supply. Wars struck out between the Native Americans and Europeans which as well as disease, caused many deaths and injuries. They had no freedom, no civil rights and had to endure the last pieces of their culture being thrown away as the Europeans made themselves quite cozy on the Native American land, building homes, facilities, putting up rail lines and using the land to mine for gold etc.
Cite this European Colonization on Native Americans – Comanche’s Essay
European Colonization on Native Americans – Comanche’s Essay. (2016, Sep 13). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/european-colonization-on-native-americans-comanches/ | 567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rx Newsletter for May 2016
During the 19th Century, late Spring marked the beginning of New Orleans' epidemics season that ran through late October. New Orleans was plagued with an exceptional number of epidemics during the 19th Century. Outbreaks of Yellow Fever, Cholera, and Malaria were common. Pharmacists and physicians attempted to battle these deadly diseases with little success, as their causes were unknown. The citizens of New Orleans became so desensitized to death and disease that the city earned the title, "The City that Care Forgot". But why was New Orleans so prone to outbreaks of epidemic diseases?
New Orleans is situated six feet below sea level on the Mississippi River in the midst of vast amounts of swampland. Because of the low elevation and lack of proper drainage in the 19th Century, water would pool and provide increased opportunity for mosquito breeding and the spread of water-borne diseases. In addition, New Orleans is a semi-tropical climate that receives a significant amount of rainfall and harbors a long, humid summer season for disease to thrive.
2. Status as a Port City
New Orleans was a thriving port city in the 19th Century, that received cargo from around the world, including many shipments from tropical regions. Trading ships often brought mosquitos along with their cargo as well as sailors who were already infected with disease. Sailors and cargo that became infected while docked in the city spread epidemics up the Mississippi River to Northern ports. Being a burgeoning center for trade and prosperity, New Orleans also attracted a large immigrant population. These newcomers were not seasoned to the ravishes of Yellow Fever through prior exposure. Many newcomers were poor and lived in overcrowded shacks along the riverfront, leading to unsanitary conditions and the spread of Cholera.
3. Substandard Sanitation
19th Century dirt roads did not drain effectively and created pools for breeding mosquitoes. Citizens collected rainwater in cisterns as their main water supply; each house was thus equipped with its own mosquito breeding ground. Sewage and chamber posts were often emptied directly into the streets, and to compound the problem, animals roamed freely through the city depositing more waste. The general lack of sanitation in New Orleans contributed to not only the spread of epidemics, but also the bacteria that cause dysentery and intestinal problems.
4. 19th Century Society and the Media
The majority of the upper class citizens of New Orleans fled the city during the summer months to live at country homes or resorts. This exodus would often include the city officials who were responsible for informing the public in times of epidemic and deciding what course to take in providing relief and medicine to those suffering with disease. The Summertime epidemics were seen by many people as a means to cleanse the population of the undesirable poor who could not afford to leave. Furthermore, because the ecomony of the city relied mainly on trade, newspapers were reluctant to print the presence of an epidemic. Newspapers across the US would report sickness in New Orleans before the local papers would mention an epidemic. The uninformed public was unable to take any precautionary measures to prevent the spread of disease and many people were stricken unaware.
5. General Lack of Medical Knowledge
Although the 19th Century was a time of great medical advances, pharmacists and physicians were baffled by the causes of epidemic diseases until almost the beginning of the 20th Century.
* Thanks to Jennifer Gick for her research.* | <urn:uuid:a0ae585e-415c-4aa9-9502-6c7d73d09696> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pharmacymuseum.org/epidemics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00494.warc.gz | en | 0.980065 | 705 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.1319841742... | 11 | Rx Newsletter for May 2016
During the 19th Century, late Spring marked the beginning of New Orleans' epidemics season that ran through late October. New Orleans was plagued with an exceptional number of epidemics during the 19th Century. Outbreaks of Yellow Fever, Cholera, and Malaria were common. Pharmacists and physicians attempted to battle these deadly diseases with little success, as their causes were unknown. The citizens of New Orleans became so desensitized to death and disease that the city earned the title, "The City that Care Forgot". But why was New Orleans so prone to outbreaks of epidemic diseases?
New Orleans is situated six feet below sea level on the Mississippi River in the midst of vast amounts of swampland. Because of the low elevation and lack of proper drainage in the 19th Century, water would pool and provide increased opportunity for mosquito breeding and the spread of water-borne diseases. In addition, New Orleans is a semi-tropical climate that receives a significant amount of rainfall and harbors a long, humid summer season for disease to thrive.
2. Status as a Port City
New Orleans was a thriving port city in the 19th Century, that received cargo from around the world, including many shipments from tropical regions. Trading ships often brought mosquitos along with their cargo as well as sailors who were already infected with disease. Sailors and cargo that became infected while docked in the city spread epidemics up the Mississippi River to Northern ports. Being a burgeoning center for trade and prosperity, New Orleans also attracted a large immigrant population. These newcomers were not seasoned to the ravishes of Yellow Fever through prior exposure. Many newcomers were poor and lived in overcrowded shacks along the riverfront, leading to unsanitary conditions and the spread of Cholera.
3. Substandard Sanitation
19th Century dirt roads did not drain effectively and created pools for breeding mosquitoes. Citizens collected rainwater in cisterns as their main water supply; each house was thus equipped with its own mosquito breeding ground. Sewage and chamber posts were often emptied directly into the streets, and to compound the problem, animals roamed freely through the city depositing more waste. The general lack of sanitation in New Orleans contributed to not only the spread of epidemics, but also the bacteria that cause dysentery and intestinal problems.
4. 19th Century Society and the Media
The majority of the upper class citizens of New Orleans fled the city during the summer months to live at country homes or resorts. This exodus would often include the city officials who were responsible for informing the public in times of epidemic and deciding what course to take in providing relief and medicine to those suffering with disease. The Summertime epidemics were seen by many people as a means to cleanse the population of the undesirable poor who could not afford to leave. Furthermore, because the ecomony of the city relied mainly on trade, newspapers were reluctant to print the presence of an epidemic. Newspapers across the US would report sickness in New Orleans before the local papers would mention an epidemic. The uninformed public was unable to take any precautionary measures to prevent the spread of disease and many people were stricken unaware.
5. General Lack of Medical Knowledge
Although the 19th Century was a time of great medical advances, pharmacists and physicians were baffled by the causes of epidemic diseases until almost the beginning of the 20th Century.
* Thanks to Jennifer Gick for her research.* | 721 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As this chart shows, there were many differences between the voting systems used by Māori and Pākehā. Voting by a show of hands and by declaration, for example, was not used for elections in general seats after 1870 (when the secret ballot was introduced). In Māori seats it continued to be used for decades longer. (To cast a declaration vote an elector told the returning officer which candidate he supported. The returning officer noted this in the poll book, and the entry was then signed by the elector.)
The right to vote in a general electorate was at first open to Māori who met the property qualification. Few did, added to which Māori were actively discouraged from enrolling. An estimated 100 voted in the 1853 election. By 1867, when the Māori seats were set up, several thousand Māori were on the general electoral roll. In 1893 the right to vote or stand in a general electorate was closed to Māori (except to those with a European parent). In 1975 this was reversed, and all Māori could choose whether to vote in a general electorate or a Māori electorate.
Te whakamahi i tēnei tūemi
This item has been provided for private study purposes (such as school projects, family and local history research) and any published reproduction (print or electronic) may infringe copyright law. It is the responsibility of the user of any material to obtain clearance from the copyright holder. | <urn:uuid:a87d2ac3-91b2-4137-921e-893670899c8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/mi/interactive/36427/maori-and-general-electoral-systems-1853-2009 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00001.warc.gz | en | 0.982834 | 305 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.040953192859... | 2 | As this chart shows, there were many differences between the voting systems used by Māori and Pākehā. Voting by a show of hands and by declaration, for example, was not used for elections in general seats after 1870 (when the secret ballot was introduced). In Māori seats it continued to be used for decades longer. (To cast a declaration vote an elector told the returning officer which candidate he supported. The returning officer noted this in the poll book, and the entry was then signed by the elector.)
The right to vote in a general electorate was at first open to Māori who met the property qualification. Few did, added to which Māori were actively discouraged from enrolling. An estimated 100 voted in the 1853 election. By 1867, when the Māori seats were set up, several thousand Māori were on the general electoral roll. In 1893 the right to vote or stand in a general electorate was closed to Māori (except to those with a European parent). In 1975 this was reversed, and all Māori could choose whether to vote in a general electorate or a Māori electorate.
Te whakamahi i tēnei tūemi
This item has been provided for private study purposes (such as school projects, family and local history research) and any published reproduction (print or electronic) may infringe copyright law. It is the responsibility of the user of any material to obtain clearance from the copyright holder. | 325 | ENGLISH | 1 |
20 kroner - Ole Rømer - The speed of light
Series: Denmark - The Scientist Series
In 1675, during a stay in France, Ole Rømer was the first scientist to prove that light is not propagated instantaneously, but at a finite speed. As he put it, light "hesitates". Ole Rømer calculated that it took between 8 and 11 minutes for light from the sun to reach the earth. The time is in fact 8 minutes and 20 seconds, so Ole Rømer was able to perform a very exact measurement. A few years after his discovery, in 1681, Ole Rømer was called back home to Denmark by King Christian V to take up a position as professor of astronomy and head of the Rundetårn (Round Tower) observatory in Copenhagen. Ole Rømer did not only work as a scientist. In the 1680s he introduced uniform weights and measures throughout Denmark. He also held a number of positions as chief of the police and of the fire department and mayor of Copenhagen, and for some time he served as a supreme court judge. It was also thanks to Ole Rømer that Denmark in 1700 adopted the Gregorian calendar. | <urn:uuid:49b5b457-8698-4705-8213-7318b10adb5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.coin-database.com/coins/20-kroner-ole-rmer-the-speed-of-light-denmark-2013.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.982198 | 247 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.325916558504104... | 4 | 20 kroner - Ole Rømer - The speed of light
Series: Denmark - The Scientist Series
In 1675, during a stay in France, Ole Rømer was the first scientist to prove that light is not propagated instantaneously, but at a finite speed. As he put it, light "hesitates". Ole Rømer calculated that it took between 8 and 11 minutes for light from the sun to reach the earth. The time is in fact 8 minutes and 20 seconds, so Ole Rømer was able to perform a very exact measurement. A few years after his discovery, in 1681, Ole Rømer was called back home to Denmark by King Christian V to take up a position as professor of astronomy and head of the Rundetårn (Round Tower) observatory in Copenhagen. Ole Rømer did not only work as a scientist. In the 1680s he introduced uniform weights and measures throughout Denmark. He also held a number of positions as chief of the police and of the fire department and mayor of Copenhagen, and for some time he served as a supreme court judge. It was also thanks to Ole Rømer that Denmark in 1700 adopted the Gregorian calendar. | 265 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The period of history lasting about 200 years between the time of Joshua and Saul (from about 1200-1000 B.C.) – a time marked by disorder, idolatry and foreign oppression – is known as the reign of the Judges. The time is described: "In those days there was no king in Israel: every man did that which was right in his own eyes." (Judges 21:25.)
The Bible Dictionary in the 1983 LDS edition of the King James Bible (page 719) gives this definition under the entry of the Judges:"The judge was more than a civil officer. He was generally a military leader as well, and his right to lead rested on the fact that in the eyes of the people he was the strongest and best man for the purpose. Faith in God was always the secret of success; but as a rule the judge was more of a fighter than a preacher."
The Book of Judges consists of three parts:
- An introduction – chapters 1 and 2, and through verse 6 of chapter 3.
- The history of the Twelve Judges, which falls into a succession of periods of rebellion against God, and the oppressions and deliverances by which they were followed – chapter 3, beginning with verse 7, through chapter 16.
- Two narratives, which specifically show the tendency to idolatry and lawlessness – chapters 17-21.
The Bible Dictionary (page 720) gives this insight: "The book was compiled long after the events it records; in [chapter] 18:30, there is a reference to the captivity of the ten tribes. The compiler would have had available earlier writings that he worked into his book, e.g., the Song of Deborah, the parable of Jotham, and some of the utterances of Samson. There is much difficulty in deciding the chronology of the period, as the compiler generally gives his figures in round numbers. In some cases the influence of a judge only extended over part of the land, so that two judges might hold office at the same time." | <urn:uuid:2b8fb243-4f20-4252-917c-b4500ca5bef2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thechurchnews.com/archives/1998-04-25/reign-of-judges-a-time-when-all-did-what-was-right-in-own-eyes-127644 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00003.warc.gz | en | 0.983148 | 416 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.06616063416004181,... | 3 | The period of history lasting about 200 years between the time of Joshua and Saul (from about 1200-1000 B.C.) – a time marked by disorder, idolatry and foreign oppression – is known as the reign of the Judges. The time is described: "In those days there was no king in Israel: every man did that which was right in his own eyes." (Judges 21:25.)
The Bible Dictionary in the 1983 LDS edition of the King James Bible (page 719) gives this definition under the entry of the Judges:"The judge was more than a civil officer. He was generally a military leader as well, and his right to lead rested on the fact that in the eyes of the people he was the strongest and best man for the purpose. Faith in God was always the secret of success; but as a rule the judge was more of a fighter than a preacher."
The Book of Judges consists of three parts:
- An introduction – chapters 1 and 2, and through verse 6 of chapter 3.
- The history of the Twelve Judges, which falls into a succession of periods of rebellion against God, and the oppressions and deliverances by which they were followed – chapter 3, beginning with verse 7, through chapter 16.
- Two narratives, which specifically show the tendency to idolatry and lawlessness – chapters 17-21.
The Bible Dictionary (page 720) gives this insight: "The book was compiled long after the events it records; in [chapter] 18:30, there is a reference to the captivity of the ten tribes. The compiler would have had available earlier writings that he worked into his book, e.g., the Song of Deborah, the parable of Jotham, and some of the utterances of Samson. There is much difficulty in deciding the chronology of the period, as the compiler generally gives his figures in round numbers. In some cases the influence of a judge only extended over part of the land, so that two judges might hold office at the same time." | 445 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World War II (WW2) was a military conflict that began in 1939. It came to be the worst war in human history based of the loss of lives and material destroyed. Though it began as a European conflict between Germans and the French coalition, it spread to include other nations of the world like the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the United States of America (US). Boundaries and lines between combatants and non-combatants blurred with wars being waged on entire enemy territories and their populates’. Nations fought against each other with Germany, under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, being on the forefront. Germany’s aggression continued to rise but the US was impaired against acting against any aggression by the passing of a neutrality law. This law prevented them from offering assistance to any country involved in foreign conflict.
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The worst act against human kind and the most memorable one was the holocaust in Germany. The German Nazi party ordered the killing of over 5.7 million Jews during WW2. 1.5 million of them were children. Before the holocaust, there was already hatred toward the Jewish population in Europe. Many Germans put blame on Jews for their defeat in WW1 and, Hitler blamed Jews for his country’s short-comings. He referred to them as a plague that needed to be eradicated and believed that they were pulling down the modern society (Microsoft Encarta, 2008). Also, he strongly opposed the Bolshevik leadership that most of the Jews of USSR practiced. Jews were forced to move and live in concentration camps and Jewish reservations. Also, they were forced to carry out German orders, labor without pay and wear yellow stars on their clothing to distinguish them. They did all this while living in atrocious conditions. They had very little to eat, lived in dirty areas and they didn’t have access to medical supplies.
Soon afterwards, Hitler decided to exterminate what he thought of to be the biological source of Bolshevism. A military campaign started in 1941 with masses of Jews shot in front of mass graves that they had dug themselves. By late 1941, the target extended from USSR Jews to those in Serbia and Poland. They were asphyxiated in storage areas with poisonous gases. Jews were not the only victims. The Nazi regime moved from cultural racism to scientific racism. This broadened the span of victims to include the Roma, homosexuals, soviet soldiers and those with physical or mental disabilities (Microsoft Encarta, 2008). The Nazi doctors murdered over 70,000 disabled people in their euthanasia program. Also, some 200,000 Roma were murdered and 3.5 million soviet soldiers.
While the genocide was taking place, the US did not make serious attempts to stop it. Eugenics (proposed improvement of the human species by allowing reproduction between people whose traits are considered desirable) played a major role in contributing to the holocaust. The practices and attitudes of doctors in Nazi Germany allowed them to slaughter over 300,000 patients. Psychologists and psychiatrists in the US mirrored the same attitudes and practices. Organizations rooted in eugenics were cited as a defense against the so called ‘cleansing’of humanity. The Rockefellers’ Kinsey-based Model Penal Code is one such organization (Messall, 2005). This organization was founded by the Rockefeller family who owned Standard oil which was a giant in the oil industry. The senior member of Rockefeller had wealth peaking at just under $ 1 billion.
Rockefeller money had been funding eugenics long before Hitler decided to turn the theories into practical solutions. They influenced mainstream coalitions to support eugenic practices. The wealth they possessed gave them great political influence and by convincing influential figures to join their cause, they further advocated eugenic policies (Messall, 2005). Using these ideas and policies, the Nazis killed even their own countrymen to ensure that Germany had a population that was free of anything Hitler did not like.
There have been many arguments that Americans did not know about the holocaust as it was being carried out. Though this may be true to the extent of the greater population, there were some Americans who knew what was going on. The government and some of the media knew about the holocaust but decided to keep the information under wraps. Whenever this information was shared with the public, key pieces of information were left out like the fact that Jews were the major target. Newspapers did not print holocaust information so that the readers could fully understand the extent of the holocaust.
The American government was aware of Hitler’s atrocities and they even heard his threatening speeches. Also, they carried out negotiations with Germany for resettling Jews who would be known as political refugees. By remaining neutral, they did nothing to improve the conditions during the holocaust yet they could have tried. It was unclear to policy makers how they could orchestrate rescue operations behind German boundaries. Also, it was difficult for refugees to obtain visas because of the US state refugee policies. US doors were barred to aliens.
Reports on the genocide were delayed by the US state department. In 1942, they received a cable from Switzerland telling them of Nazi plans to murder Jews. The information was from Gerhart Riegner who was a representative of World Jewish Congress. He had received this information from a German industrialist with connections to top Nazis. However, it was not given to the intended recipient who was the American Jewish leader, Stephen Wise (Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2011). Riegner had also told the British consulate about the plan and they sent a cable to the London foreign office. It was then passed on to Samuel Sydney, a member of parliament who then sent it to Wise. Having learned of this information, Wise, being distressed, passed it on to the undersecretary of state, Sumner Welles, who told him to refrain from revealing it to the press till it was confirmed. He did not know that the US had already received this information (Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2011).
Welles received more cable from Switzerland about mass murders of Jews in Poland. The State department sent a memo about banning the American Legation from sending information to private citizens. Also, President Franklin D. Roosevelt was reluctant to help Euroopean Jews. He kept advocating for the US to postpone granting visas, he held a meeting for 29 minutes with Jewish leaders in America, he did not object to negotiating with Hitler and he did not meet with orthodox rabbis.
Out of growing concerns of Jews being slaughtered in Europe, the Bermuda conference was held between allies. However, the American delegation arrived with discreet directives to contribute little or nothing to the solution. In addition, American Jewish leaders who had wanted to be part of the conference were denied access. Consequentially, the conference came up with no plausible proposal. The report was kept a secret.
The US did not act decisively to rescue Jewish refugees and, efforts were started in 1944 after more information about mass murders were given to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. A war refugee board was established. The allies learned of the killing operations and their locations through reports from Riegner, R.E. Shoenfeld, Henry Morgenthau Jr, Thomas T. Handy and other world organizations. They decided to bomb Auschwitz (where Jews were forced to labor) and railways. They worked to bomb military targets so as to win the war. However, they did not hit the gas chambers. WW2 ended in 1945 and the Nazi regime was defeated. Some refugees in the camps died soon after. The other Jews had no family to return to, only unfriendly neighbors who were afraid that the survivors had come back for their property (Williams, 1993). Their determination to get home contributed to their return to Israel and immigration to other countries.
The constrained immigration policies were not lifted during the holocaust and only about 30,000 Jews managed to get into the US every year (Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2011). However, this number could have been 190,000 - 200,000 had the policies been changed. But, the policies were changed in 1948. Since numerous American Jews fought in WW2, Jews continued to be assimilated with a rise in the number of intermarriages. Also, the suburbs they lived in kept growing and school enrollment numbers went higher. In addition, synagogues were affiliated with others. Following WW2, America became the largest and richest center for practice of Judaism. As a result, smaller groups turned to the American Jewry for support and Jewish refugees from other Arab nations came to the US.
For 12 years, Germany was ruled by the Nazi party. Jews were almost completely wiped out from Europe. People suffered unimaginable torture while other nations stood by and watched. There is no telling whether interference by the US would have made a difference but, the feeling is that they could have at least tried to do something about it. The war ended and Nazi regime fell and holocaust survivors were free of oppression. This is not to say that the beliefs that fueled the holocaust are dead because, the ideology behind cleansing of humanity is still at large and it should be tamed. Jews have immigrated to many areas mostly the US. American Jews now enjoy civil and human rights and are considered as part of the population of the US. Though America may have ignored the atrocities during WW2, their attitude towards Jews now is welcoming and supportive.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:4c037ea0-4a4f-407b-939f-e9559ea5a3b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/ww2-and-the-holocaust.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.984695 | 1,965 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.688371419... | 1 | World War II (WW2) was a military conflict that began in 1939. It came to be the worst war in human history based of the loss of lives and material destroyed. Though it began as a European conflict between Germans and the French coalition, it spread to include other nations of the world like the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the United States of America (US). Boundaries and lines between combatants and non-combatants blurred with wars being waged on entire enemy territories and their populates’. Nations fought against each other with Germany, under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, being on the forefront. Germany’s aggression continued to rise but the US was impaired against acting against any aggression by the passing of a neutrality law. This law prevented them from offering assistance to any country involved in foreign conflict.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
The worst act against human kind and the most memorable one was the holocaust in Germany. The German Nazi party ordered the killing of over 5.7 million Jews during WW2. 1.5 million of them were children. Before the holocaust, there was already hatred toward the Jewish population in Europe. Many Germans put blame on Jews for their defeat in WW1 and, Hitler blamed Jews for his country’s short-comings. He referred to them as a plague that needed to be eradicated and believed that they were pulling down the modern society (Microsoft Encarta, 2008). Also, he strongly opposed the Bolshevik leadership that most of the Jews of USSR practiced. Jews were forced to move and live in concentration camps and Jewish reservations. Also, they were forced to carry out German orders, labor without pay and wear yellow stars on their clothing to distinguish them. They did all this while living in atrocious conditions. They had very little to eat, lived in dirty areas and they didn’t have access to medical supplies.
Soon afterwards, Hitler decided to exterminate what he thought of to be the biological source of Bolshevism. A military campaign started in 1941 with masses of Jews shot in front of mass graves that they had dug themselves. By late 1941, the target extended from USSR Jews to those in Serbia and Poland. They were asphyxiated in storage areas with poisonous gases. Jews were not the only victims. The Nazi regime moved from cultural racism to scientific racism. This broadened the span of victims to include the Roma, homosexuals, soviet soldiers and those with physical or mental disabilities (Microsoft Encarta, 2008). The Nazi doctors murdered over 70,000 disabled people in their euthanasia program. Also, some 200,000 Roma were murdered and 3.5 million soviet soldiers.
While the genocide was taking place, the US did not make serious attempts to stop it. Eugenics (proposed improvement of the human species by allowing reproduction between people whose traits are considered desirable) played a major role in contributing to the holocaust. The practices and attitudes of doctors in Nazi Germany allowed them to slaughter over 300,000 patients. Psychologists and psychiatrists in the US mirrored the same attitudes and practices. Organizations rooted in eugenics were cited as a defense against the so called ‘cleansing’of humanity. The Rockefellers’ Kinsey-based Model Penal Code is one such organization (Messall, 2005). This organization was founded by the Rockefeller family who owned Standard oil which was a giant in the oil industry. The senior member of Rockefeller had wealth peaking at just under $ 1 billion.
Rockefeller money had been funding eugenics long before Hitler decided to turn the theories into practical solutions. They influenced mainstream coalitions to support eugenic practices. The wealth they possessed gave them great political influence and by convincing influential figures to join their cause, they further advocated eugenic policies (Messall, 2005). Using these ideas and policies, the Nazis killed even their own countrymen to ensure that Germany had a population that was free of anything Hitler did not like.
There have been many arguments that Americans did not know about the holocaust as it was being carried out. Though this may be true to the extent of the greater population, there were some Americans who knew what was going on. The government and some of the media knew about the holocaust but decided to keep the information under wraps. Whenever this information was shared with the public, key pieces of information were left out like the fact that Jews were the major target. Newspapers did not print holocaust information so that the readers could fully understand the extent of the holocaust.
The American government was aware of Hitler’s atrocities and they even heard his threatening speeches. Also, they carried out negotiations with Germany for resettling Jews who would be known as political refugees. By remaining neutral, they did nothing to improve the conditions during the holocaust yet they could have tried. It was unclear to policy makers how they could orchestrate rescue operations behind German boundaries. Also, it was difficult for refugees to obtain visas because of the US state refugee policies. US doors were barred to aliens.
Reports on the genocide were delayed by the US state department. In 1942, they received a cable from Switzerland telling them of Nazi plans to murder Jews. The information was from Gerhart Riegner who was a representative of World Jewish Congress. He had received this information from a German industrialist with connections to top Nazis. However, it was not given to the intended recipient who was the American Jewish leader, Stephen Wise (Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2011). Riegner had also told the British consulate about the plan and they sent a cable to the London foreign office. It was then passed on to Samuel Sydney, a member of parliament who then sent it to Wise. Having learned of this information, Wise, being distressed, passed it on to the undersecretary of state, Sumner Welles, who told him to refrain from revealing it to the press till it was confirmed. He did not know that the US had already received this information (Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2011).
Welles received more cable from Switzerland about mass murders of Jews in Poland. The State department sent a memo about banning the American Legation from sending information to private citizens. Also, President Franklin D. Roosevelt was reluctant to help Euroopean Jews. He kept advocating for the US to postpone granting visas, he held a meeting for 29 minutes with Jewish leaders in America, he did not object to negotiating with Hitler and he did not meet with orthodox rabbis.
Out of growing concerns of Jews being slaughtered in Europe, the Bermuda conference was held between allies. However, the American delegation arrived with discreet directives to contribute little or nothing to the solution. In addition, American Jewish leaders who had wanted to be part of the conference were denied access. Consequentially, the conference came up with no plausible proposal. The report was kept a secret.
The US did not act decisively to rescue Jewish refugees and, efforts were started in 1944 after more information about mass murders were given to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. A war refugee board was established. The allies learned of the killing operations and their locations through reports from Riegner, R.E. Shoenfeld, Henry Morgenthau Jr, Thomas T. Handy and other world organizations. They decided to bomb Auschwitz (where Jews were forced to labor) and railways. They worked to bomb military targets so as to win the war. However, they did not hit the gas chambers. WW2 ended in 1945 and the Nazi regime was defeated. Some refugees in the camps died soon after. The other Jews had no family to return to, only unfriendly neighbors who were afraid that the survivors had come back for their property (Williams, 1993). Their determination to get home contributed to their return to Israel and immigration to other countries.
The constrained immigration policies were not lifted during the holocaust and only about 30,000 Jews managed to get into the US every year (Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2011). However, this number could have been 190,000 - 200,000 had the policies been changed. But, the policies were changed in 1948. Since numerous American Jews fought in WW2, Jews continued to be assimilated with a rise in the number of intermarriages. Also, the suburbs they lived in kept growing and school enrollment numbers went higher. In addition, synagogues were affiliated with others. Following WW2, America became the largest and richest center for practice of Judaism. As a result, smaller groups turned to the American Jewry for support and Jewish refugees from other Arab nations came to the US.
For 12 years, Germany was ruled by the Nazi party. Jews were almost completely wiped out from Europe. People suffered unimaginable torture while other nations stood by and watched. There is no telling whether interference by the US would have made a difference but, the feeling is that they could have at least tried to do something about it. The war ended and Nazi regime fell and holocaust survivors were free of oppression. This is not to say that the beliefs that fueled the holocaust are dead because, the ideology behind cleansing of humanity is still at large and it should be tamed. Jews have immigrated to many areas mostly the US. American Jews now enjoy civil and human rights and are considered as part of the population of the US. Though America may have ignored the atrocities during WW2, their attitude towards Jews now is welcoming and supportive.
Most popular orders | 2,033 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Story of St. Peregrine
The Rebel Who Became a Saint
Peregrine Laziosi (1265-1345) was born in Forli, Italy, the only son of well-to-do parents. In his teens he joined the enemies of the Pope in his hometown and soon became a ringleader of rebels.
Pope Martin IV had placed Forli under a spiritual interdict which closed churches in the city, hoping to bring its citizens to their senses. That failing, he sent Philip Benizi, of the Order of Servites (Servants of Mary), as his personal ambassador to try to bring peace to the angry rebels.
No welcome mat was spread for the papal delegate. While addressing crowds of malcontents one day, he was dragged off the rostrum, beaten with clubs and pelted with rocks. Peregrine knocked him down with a vicious blow to the face. Moments after, stricken with remorse, the youth cast himself at the feet of the bruised and bleeding priest and asked for his forgiveness, which was granted with a smile.
Peregrine became a staunch champion of Philip Benizi. He heeded Philip’s suggestion and often prayed in Our Lady’s chapel in the Cathedral. While kneeling there he had a vision of the Blessed Mother holding in her hands a black habit like the one the Servites wore. “Go to Siena,” Mary told the astonished Peregrine. “There you will find devout men who call themselves my servants. Attach yourself to them.”
The Servites gave him a warm welcome. He was clothed ceremoniously in the religious habit by Philip Benizi himself.
One of Peregrine’s slogans as a Servite may well have been: “Better today than yesterday, better tomorrow than today!” Daily he sought to become a more fervent religious man. To atone for past misdeeds he treated himself harshly and worked hard for the poor and afflicted.
People took to calling him the “Angel of Good Counsel,” so grateful were they for his wise advice so freely given.
After being ordained a priest he went to Forli to found a Servite monastery. A few years later a cancerous growth appeared on his right foot. It was so painful that he finally agreed with the surgeon who wanted to amputate.
The night before the scheduled surgery, Peregrine spent hours in prayer. Then he dozed off and dreamt that Christ was touching him and healing his foot. The thrill of it woke him up. In the dim moonlight he saw that his foot, carefully bandaged a few hours earlier was completely healed.
The Forlineses appreciated him still more after learning of the miraculous cure. When they were sick they appealed to his prayers. Some were cured when he whispered “Jesus” into their ears. The Church has since appointed him patron of persons with cancer, foot ailments, or any incurable disease.
Peregrine died on May 1st , 1345 and was ranked with the saints in 1726. Thousands of clients pay him special honor on May 1st each year. | <urn:uuid:7f8a3b0e-81e0-475b-8f43-2a82b5f094b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://franciscanmissionassoc.org/prayer-requests/devotional-saints/st-peregrine/the-story-of-st-peregrine/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00552.warc.gz | en | 0.989021 | 658 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.64110803604125... | 18 | The Story of St. Peregrine
The Rebel Who Became a Saint
Peregrine Laziosi (1265-1345) was born in Forli, Italy, the only son of well-to-do parents. In his teens he joined the enemies of the Pope in his hometown and soon became a ringleader of rebels.
Pope Martin IV had placed Forli under a spiritual interdict which closed churches in the city, hoping to bring its citizens to their senses. That failing, he sent Philip Benizi, of the Order of Servites (Servants of Mary), as his personal ambassador to try to bring peace to the angry rebels.
No welcome mat was spread for the papal delegate. While addressing crowds of malcontents one day, he was dragged off the rostrum, beaten with clubs and pelted with rocks. Peregrine knocked him down with a vicious blow to the face. Moments after, stricken with remorse, the youth cast himself at the feet of the bruised and bleeding priest and asked for his forgiveness, which was granted with a smile.
Peregrine became a staunch champion of Philip Benizi. He heeded Philip’s suggestion and often prayed in Our Lady’s chapel in the Cathedral. While kneeling there he had a vision of the Blessed Mother holding in her hands a black habit like the one the Servites wore. “Go to Siena,” Mary told the astonished Peregrine. “There you will find devout men who call themselves my servants. Attach yourself to them.”
The Servites gave him a warm welcome. He was clothed ceremoniously in the religious habit by Philip Benizi himself.
One of Peregrine’s slogans as a Servite may well have been: “Better today than yesterday, better tomorrow than today!” Daily he sought to become a more fervent religious man. To atone for past misdeeds he treated himself harshly and worked hard for the poor and afflicted.
People took to calling him the “Angel of Good Counsel,” so grateful were they for his wise advice so freely given.
After being ordained a priest he went to Forli to found a Servite monastery. A few years later a cancerous growth appeared on his right foot. It was so painful that he finally agreed with the surgeon who wanted to amputate.
The night before the scheduled surgery, Peregrine spent hours in prayer. Then he dozed off and dreamt that Christ was touching him and healing his foot. The thrill of it woke him up. In the dim moonlight he saw that his foot, carefully bandaged a few hours earlier was completely healed.
The Forlineses appreciated him still more after learning of the miraculous cure. When they were sick they appealed to his prayers. Some were cured when he whispered “Jesus” into their ears. The Church has since appointed him patron of persons with cancer, foot ailments, or any incurable disease.
Peregrine died on May 1st , 1345 and was ranked with the saints in 1726. Thousands of clients pay him special honor on May 1st each year. | 640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There is a stubborn deniability on the part of white women in America, a failure to recognize that color is only skin-deep, that they are first and foremost members of the human race and that who we are as members of the human race [trumps] skin color.
The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted American women the right to vote, a right known as women’s suffrage, and was ratified on August 18, 1920, ending almost a century of protest. In 1848 the movement for women’s rights launched on a national level with the Seneca Falls Convention organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Following the convention, the demand for the vote became a centerpiece of the women’s rights movement. Stanton and Mott, along with Susan B. Anthony and other activists raised public awareness and lobbied the government to grant voting rights to women. After a lengthy battle, these groups finally emerged victorious with the passage of the 19th Amendment.[History.com]
The fact is that as they have done to black Americans, white men were quite comfortable with preventing white women from voting,. White men believed that they and they alone were smart and responsible enough to elect leaders through the ballot box. In fact, they were basically the only candidates for elected office with the exception of a few cases.
During America’s early history, women were denied some of the basic rights enjoyed by male citizens. For example, married women couldn’t own property and had no legal claim to any money they might earn, and no female had the right to vote. Women were expected to focus on housework and motherhood, not politics.
Hillary Clinton’s early decision not to follow traditional first lady roles in the state of Arkansas may have forever ruined the way she is perceived.
The undeniable truth is that white men were quite comfortable in denying their own white women the right to vote, own property, and even to have autonomy over their own financial resources.
They were, and in many regards are still comfortable with having babies with their women while denying them the right to make decisions over their own reproductive rights.
Thanks to the struggles of progressive women like those aforementioned and other unsung heroines and heroes, women have had some autonomy to make decisions on their own.
Nevertheless, today some of the same challenges women faced pre-August 18, 1920, are still in play.. It is inconceivable that in 2018 women would still be at risk of losing the right to make decisions as it relates to their own bodies.
Yet the looming confirmation battle of potential Supreme Court Justice Brett Kavanaugh poses exactly those same risks and far worse, not just for all women including white women but also for all people of color.
The shocking truth is that white women have benefitted from the struggles of progressives outside of the narrow confines of reproductive rights. The civil rights won battles which allow them the right to vote, own property and handle their own money did not come without major fights.
The sad reality is that though white women have largely benefitted from the sacrifices of others and may arguably be said to be a protected class in America, they are reluctant to speak out in defense of the rights of others who still struggle to be afforded their rights.
To the contrary, white women of varying class have demonstrably taken a decided stance against protecting the rights of those less protected and have themselves engaged in systemic oppression and support of oppressive and discriminatory practices against others.
That kind of behavior is reprehensible and must be seen for what it is„ a clear and unequivocal attempt to kick away the ladder and side with the very same forces which once had them in subjugation.
It is reprehensible and shameful but most of all it is ignorant. | <urn:uuid:97217364-69de-4c05-b4c6-7934a1f00ddf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.chatt-a-box.com/white-women-complicit-in-oppressing-otherswillfully-forgetting-their-own-period-of-oppression/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00019.warc.gz | en | 0.980086 | 769 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.120543844997... | 1 | There is a stubborn deniability on the part of white women in America, a failure to recognize that color is only skin-deep, that they are first and foremost members of the human race and that who we are as members of the human race [trumps] skin color.
The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted American women the right to vote, a right known as women’s suffrage, and was ratified on August 18, 1920, ending almost a century of protest. In 1848 the movement for women’s rights launched on a national level with the Seneca Falls Convention organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Following the convention, the demand for the vote became a centerpiece of the women’s rights movement. Stanton and Mott, along with Susan B. Anthony and other activists raised public awareness and lobbied the government to grant voting rights to women. After a lengthy battle, these groups finally emerged victorious with the passage of the 19th Amendment.[History.com]
The fact is that as they have done to black Americans, white men were quite comfortable with preventing white women from voting,. White men believed that they and they alone were smart and responsible enough to elect leaders through the ballot box. In fact, they were basically the only candidates for elected office with the exception of a few cases.
During America’s early history, women were denied some of the basic rights enjoyed by male citizens. For example, married women couldn’t own property and had no legal claim to any money they might earn, and no female had the right to vote. Women were expected to focus on housework and motherhood, not politics.
Hillary Clinton’s early decision not to follow traditional first lady roles in the state of Arkansas may have forever ruined the way she is perceived.
The undeniable truth is that white men were quite comfortable in denying their own white women the right to vote, own property, and even to have autonomy over their own financial resources.
They were, and in many regards are still comfortable with having babies with their women while denying them the right to make decisions over their own reproductive rights.
Thanks to the struggles of progressive women like those aforementioned and other unsung heroines and heroes, women have had some autonomy to make decisions on their own.
Nevertheless, today some of the same challenges women faced pre-August 18, 1920, are still in play.. It is inconceivable that in 2018 women would still be at risk of losing the right to make decisions as it relates to their own bodies.
Yet the looming confirmation battle of potential Supreme Court Justice Brett Kavanaugh poses exactly those same risks and far worse, not just for all women including white women but also for all people of color.
The shocking truth is that white women have benefitted from the struggles of progressives outside of the narrow confines of reproductive rights. The civil rights won battles which allow them the right to vote, own property and handle their own money did not come without major fights.
The sad reality is that though white women have largely benefitted from the sacrifices of others and may arguably be said to be a protected class in America, they are reluctant to speak out in defense of the rights of others who still struggle to be afforded their rights.
To the contrary, white women of varying class have demonstrably taken a decided stance against protecting the rights of those less protected and have themselves engaged in systemic oppression and support of oppressive and discriminatory practices against others.
That kind of behavior is reprehensible and must be seen for what it is„ a clear and unequivocal attempt to kick away the ladder and side with the very same forces which once had them in subjugation.
It is reprehensible and shameful but most of all it is ignorant. | 767 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Vulcan is the Roman god of fire. His power was assumed to be the force behind destructive conflagrations and volcanic eruptions. In fact, it is from the same Latin root that the modern word “volcano” is derived. He was also the god of metalworking, forges, and craftsmanship.
Myths and Stories
The surviving myths of Vulcan were largely related by the Roman poet Virgil, as well as Servius, who wrote about Virgil’s work during the fourth century A.D. It was said that Vulcan maintained a forge for crafting metal beneath Mount Etna on the eastern coast of the island of Sicily, where he made weapons suitable for use by the gods and goddesses. This mountain was then and remains one of the most active volcanoes in the world. Its fiery activity has been documented for the last 2,700 years. Fires, smoke, and lava escaping the volcano were believed to be blasts from Vulcans’ forge.
Vulcan was the father of Caeculus, who went on to found the city now known as Palestrina, Italy. He also fathered Cacus, who was capable of breathing fire, as described in Book VIII of Virgil’s Aeneid. Cacus stole a number of cattle from Hercules and hid them on the Aventine Hill. When one of the pilfered cows bellowed, Hercules found Cacus and killed him.
Other myths are derived from his connection to the Greek Hephaestus. For example, a number of legends, including Homer’s Illiad record that Vulcan was cast from the heavens, either by his father or his mother. In some of these legends, the reason for his removal is a physician deformity he had born since birth, of which his mother was ashamed.
In another myth, Vulcan had wed the beautiful Venus. One day, the sun god entered the dark underground forge bearing bad news: he had witnessed the fire god’s wife with her lover, Mars, god of war. She preferred the beautiful and complete Mars to her divine yet crippled husband. Vulcan, therefore, made a metal net in which to capture the guilty lovers. He set a trap with the net in his own interior room, then left the house, pretending to go on a distant journey. Mars and Venus were caught in their act of adultery when the metal chains fell upon them, trapping them in their bed. Vulcan demanded that he be repaid the marriage gifts he had given for Venus’ hand, but when the lovers are released, they flee in opposite directions. The ancients reveled in the fact that Vulcan, although lame, outsmarted the strong and mighty Mars.
As god of fire, Vulcan was worshiped in hopes of averting fires. In this role, he was called Mulciber, meaning “allayer of fire,” or Quietus. In the region of Ostia in particular, he was invoked to protect the stores of grain from fires, which might occur as spontaneous combustion due to the decomposition of the grain.
In Rome, special priests, or flamen, were devoted to Vulcan, and his temple was inaugurated in the Circus Flaminius in 215 B.C. His temples were located outside of their respective cities to avoid any collateral damage from Vulcans’ fires. His primary festival, called Volcanalia, was observed each year on August 23, as part of a celebration involving many deities. He shared this festival with Fauna, also called Bona Dea, “the Good Goddess.” Fauna was a fertility goddess. The festival, which occurred during the summer drought when wildfires were most likely to occur, invoked the gods’ protection. During the festival, a rite was performed in which the heads of families in Rome pitched small fish into bonfires lit on the banks of the Tiber River. It is thought that these fish were given as living sacrifices. The meaning of this ritual has been lost in antiquity.
Facts about Vulcan
Role in Mythology: God of fire, god of the forge and metalwork
Alternate Names: Vulcan, Vulcanus, Quietus, Mulciber
Family Relationships: Son of Jupiter and Juno, father of Caeculus and Cacus, husband of Venus
Greek Eqiuvalent: Hephaestus
Etruscan Equivalent: Sethlans
Norse Similar: Logi
Link/cite this page
If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source.
Link will appear as Vulcan: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020 | <urn:uuid:01ef9d1f-2ce3-4b57-86a6-dcf56648df66> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com/roman/vulcan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.981465 | 984 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.39641815... | 1 | Vulcan is the Roman god of fire. His power was assumed to be the force behind destructive conflagrations and volcanic eruptions. In fact, it is from the same Latin root that the modern word “volcano” is derived. He was also the god of metalworking, forges, and craftsmanship.
Myths and Stories
The surviving myths of Vulcan were largely related by the Roman poet Virgil, as well as Servius, who wrote about Virgil’s work during the fourth century A.D. It was said that Vulcan maintained a forge for crafting metal beneath Mount Etna on the eastern coast of the island of Sicily, where he made weapons suitable for use by the gods and goddesses. This mountain was then and remains one of the most active volcanoes in the world. Its fiery activity has been documented for the last 2,700 years. Fires, smoke, and lava escaping the volcano were believed to be blasts from Vulcans’ forge.
Vulcan was the father of Caeculus, who went on to found the city now known as Palestrina, Italy. He also fathered Cacus, who was capable of breathing fire, as described in Book VIII of Virgil’s Aeneid. Cacus stole a number of cattle from Hercules and hid them on the Aventine Hill. When one of the pilfered cows bellowed, Hercules found Cacus and killed him.
Other myths are derived from his connection to the Greek Hephaestus. For example, a number of legends, including Homer’s Illiad record that Vulcan was cast from the heavens, either by his father or his mother. In some of these legends, the reason for his removal is a physician deformity he had born since birth, of which his mother was ashamed.
In another myth, Vulcan had wed the beautiful Venus. One day, the sun god entered the dark underground forge bearing bad news: he had witnessed the fire god’s wife with her lover, Mars, god of war. She preferred the beautiful and complete Mars to her divine yet crippled husband. Vulcan, therefore, made a metal net in which to capture the guilty lovers. He set a trap with the net in his own interior room, then left the house, pretending to go on a distant journey. Mars and Venus were caught in their act of adultery when the metal chains fell upon them, trapping them in their bed. Vulcan demanded that he be repaid the marriage gifts he had given for Venus’ hand, but when the lovers are released, they flee in opposite directions. The ancients reveled in the fact that Vulcan, although lame, outsmarted the strong and mighty Mars.
As god of fire, Vulcan was worshiped in hopes of averting fires. In this role, he was called Mulciber, meaning “allayer of fire,” or Quietus. In the region of Ostia in particular, he was invoked to protect the stores of grain from fires, which might occur as spontaneous combustion due to the decomposition of the grain.
In Rome, special priests, or flamen, were devoted to Vulcan, and his temple was inaugurated in the Circus Flaminius in 215 B.C. His temples were located outside of their respective cities to avoid any collateral damage from Vulcans’ fires. His primary festival, called Volcanalia, was observed each year on August 23, as part of a celebration involving many deities. He shared this festival with Fauna, also called Bona Dea, “the Good Goddess.” Fauna was a fertility goddess. The festival, which occurred during the summer drought when wildfires were most likely to occur, invoked the gods’ protection. During the festival, a rite was performed in which the heads of families in Rome pitched small fish into bonfires lit on the banks of the Tiber River. It is thought that these fish were given as living sacrifices. The meaning of this ritual has been lost in antiquity.
Facts about Vulcan
Role in Mythology: God of fire, god of the forge and metalwork
Alternate Names: Vulcan, Vulcanus, Quietus, Mulciber
Family Relationships: Son of Jupiter and Juno, father of Caeculus and Cacus, husband of Venus
Greek Eqiuvalent: Hephaestus
Etruscan Equivalent: Sethlans
Norse Similar: Logi
Link/cite this page
If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source.
Link will appear as Vulcan: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020 | 966 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Colonial Gentlemen’s Clothing
A gentleman’s banyan was a loose, informal robe to be worn instead of a coat. Influenced by Oriental fashion, these popular robes were also called Indian gowns, nightgowns, or wrappers. Cut either in a loose T-shape or as a long simplified coat, they were acceptable wear for home or informal business. Made most often of patterned materials, these useful garments could vary from light and cool to quilted and warm.
From the late 16th century until the early 19th century, most men wore breeches as their lower body garment. Through the centuries breeches were seen in many forms and lengths. In the early 18th century breeches were barely seen beneath long waistcoats and coats. By the mid-18th century they were more noticeable beneath shorter waistcoats and open coats, and so the cut of breeches became tighter and revealed the shape of the leg. Worn by all levels of society, breeches were made in a great variety of silks, cottons, linens, wools, knits, and leathers.
The cloak has been the most enduring of outer garments throughout the history of fashion. In the 18th century a man’s cloak was made with a collar at the neck, a cape over the shoulders, and hung to the knee or below. The most usual form was circular. Cloaks were made of dense well-fulled wools, often dyed scarlet. Other choices in fabric included worsteds, camlets, and occasionally plaids. Cloaks were also known a “roquelaires” or “rockets.” It was in the 18th century that a rival to the dominance of the cloak appeared in the form of the great coat.
The 18th-century man almost always wore some sort of neck cloth, whether fashionably dressed or at labor.The cravat was one of many forms of neckwear. It was a narrow length of white linen that could be adorned on its ends with lace, fringe, or knots. It was worn wrapped about the throat and loosely tied in front. The cravat was first seen in fashionable dress in the mid-17th century. It was derived from the “crabate” worn by Croatian soldiers serving with the French Army (ca. 1645-1650). By the mid 18th century it was worn in informal attire. | <urn:uuid:ac4c214c-ccc7-4b77-a29b-779b2bad4093> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://weddress.info/a-colonial-gentlemens-clothing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00251.warc.gz | en | 0.985744 | 509 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.3866308331489... | 3 | A Colonial Gentlemen’s Clothing
A gentleman’s banyan was a loose, informal robe to be worn instead of a coat. Influenced by Oriental fashion, these popular robes were also called Indian gowns, nightgowns, or wrappers. Cut either in a loose T-shape or as a long simplified coat, they were acceptable wear for home or informal business. Made most often of patterned materials, these useful garments could vary from light and cool to quilted and warm.
From the late 16th century until the early 19th century, most men wore breeches as their lower body garment. Through the centuries breeches were seen in many forms and lengths. In the early 18th century breeches were barely seen beneath long waistcoats and coats. By the mid-18th century they were more noticeable beneath shorter waistcoats and open coats, and so the cut of breeches became tighter and revealed the shape of the leg. Worn by all levels of society, breeches were made in a great variety of silks, cottons, linens, wools, knits, and leathers.
The cloak has been the most enduring of outer garments throughout the history of fashion. In the 18th century a man’s cloak was made with a collar at the neck, a cape over the shoulders, and hung to the knee or below. The most usual form was circular. Cloaks were made of dense well-fulled wools, often dyed scarlet. Other choices in fabric included worsteds, camlets, and occasionally plaids. Cloaks were also known a “roquelaires” or “rockets.” It was in the 18th century that a rival to the dominance of the cloak appeared in the form of the great coat.
The 18th-century man almost always wore some sort of neck cloth, whether fashionably dressed or at labor.The cravat was one of many forms of neckwear. It was a narrow length of white linen that could be adorned on its ends with lace, fringe, or knots. It was worn wrapped about the throat and loosely tied in front. The cravat was first seen in fashionable dress in the mid-17th century. It was derived from the “crabate” worn by Croatian soldiers serving with the French Army (ca. 1645-1650). By the mid 18th century it was worn in informal attire. | 508 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Lombards or Langobards (Latin: Langobardī, Italian Longobardi), were a Germanic tribe who ruled Italy from 568 to 774.The Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the Historia Langobardorum that the Lombards descended from a small tribe called the Winnili who dwelt in southern Scandinavia (Scadanan) before migrating to seek new lands. In the 1st century AD, they formed part of the Suebi, in northwestern Germany. By the end of the 5th century, they had moved into the area roughly coinciding with modern Austria north of the Danube river, where they subdued the Heruls and later fought frequent wars with the Gepids. The Lombard king Alboin eventually destroyed the Gepids at the Battle of Asfeld in 567.Following this victory, Alboin decided to lead his people to Italy, which had become severely devastated after the long Gothic War (535–554) between the Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom there. The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons, Heruls, Gepids, Bulgars, Thuringians, and Ostrogoths, and their invasion of Italy was almost unopposed. By late 569 they had conquered all the principal cities north of the Po River except Pavia, which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central and southern Italy. They established a Lombard Kingdom in Italy, later named Regnum Italicum (""Kingdom of Italy""), which reached its zenith under the 8th-century ruler Liutprand. In 774, the Kingdom was conquered by the Frankish King Charlemagne and integrated into his Empire. However, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula, through the Duchy of Benevento, well into the 11th century when they were conquered by the Normans and added to their County of Sicily. Their legacy is also apparent in the regional name, Lombardy (in the north of Italy). | <urn:uuid:bcd44aa8-48b7-428f-adb6-15619250e3ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studyres.com/concepts/18212/lombards | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.981408 | 423 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.069198042154... | 5 | The Lombards or Langobards (Latin: Langobardī, Italian Longobardi), were a Germanic tribe who ruled Italy from 568 to 774.The Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the Historia Langobardorum that the Lombards descended from a small tribe called the Winnili who dwelt in southern Scandinavia (Scadanan) before migrating to seek new lands. In the 1st century AD, they formed part of the Suebi, in northwestern Germany. By the end of the 5th century, they had moved into the area roughly coinciding with modern Austria north of the Danube river, where they subdued the Heruls and later fought frequent wars with the Gepids. The Lombard king Alboin eventually destroyed the Gepids at the Battle of Asfeld in 567.Following this victory, Alboin decided to lead his people to Italy, which had become severely devastated after the long Gothic War (535–554) between the Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom there. The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons, Heruls, Gepids, Bulgars, Thuringians, and Ostrogoths, and their invasion of Italy was almost unopposed. By late 569 they had conquered all the principal cities north of the Po River except Pavia, which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central and southern Italy. They established a Lombard Kingdom in Italy, later named Regnum Italicum (""Kingdom of Italy""), which reached its zenith under the 8th-century ruler Liutprand. In 774, the Kingdom was conquered by the Frankish King Charlemagne and integrated into his Empire. However, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula, through the Duchy of Benevento, well into the 11th century when they were conquered by the Normans and added to their County of Sicily. Their legacy is also apparent in the regional name, Lombardy (in the north of Italy). | 446 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is Donatism?
Question: "What is Donatism?"
Answer: Donatism was a heretical sect of Christianity that challenged the established church in the fourth century, as Catholicism was on the rise. Donatism, which began in North Africa, taught that Christians were called to asceticism and personal purity and that holiness was proved in one’s faithfulness in enduring persecution. Those whose faith wavered under threat of death were impure and not worthy of being members of the church. The Donatists considered theirs as the only true church and refused to acknowledge ordinances administered in other churches.
The background of Donatism involves the Roman persecution of the church. In AD 303 Emperor Diocletian mounted a severe persecution against all Christians. All churches and Christian Scriptures were to be destroyed. During the persecution, many Christians betrayed other Christians to the Romans or handed over their copies of the Bible. These traitors became known as “traditores,” or Christians who turned in other Christians to the government. In the minds of many Christians, the sin of betrayal was a mark of evil character that could not be overcome.
In AD 311 Caecilian was consecrated as bishop of Carthage. One of the three bishops involved in the ceremony was Felix of Aptunga, who had earlier handed over copies of the Bible to the Romans to be destroyed. Thus, Bishop Felix was a traditor. A group of about seventy other bishops considered Bishop Felix to be unfit for office because of his betrayal—and, since Felix was unfit, the consecration of Bishop Caecilian was null and void. The bishops in opposition to Felix formed a synod and refused to acknowledge Bishop Caecilian as a valid church official. The debate over Caecilian expanded to include the validity of the sacraments administered by Felix and other traditores. How could someone who had betrayed the Word of God be holding Christian office? The low moral character of the officiant was seen as annulling the grace supposedly received through the sacraments he dispensed.
After Caecilian died, the bishopric of Carthage went to Aelius Donatus the Great. The term Donatism comes from his name. Bishop Donatus continued to advance the idea that any traditor who administered a sacrament polluted the sacrament to such an extent that it was no longer a conveyor of grace. Not only was a traditor to be excommunicated, but also all those who held fellowship with a traditor. The church was to be made of “saints,” not sinners. The Donatists began to re-baptize Christians who had been baptized in other churches; in so doing, they separated themselves from all other churches and basically upheld themselves as the only authoritative church body.
The Donatist issue was raised at several church councils, including the Council of Nicea. In every council, the Donatist position was rejected. Donatism, however, continued its influence until Augustine of Hippo wrote a series of books, letters, and sermons that refuted the Donatist movement and argued that the effect of a sacrament is independent of the moral character of the minister. Donatism eventually died out in the fifth century.
The main problem with Donatism is that no person is pure in the sight of God (Romans 3:23). If absolute holiness is required to serve God, then we are all unfit. Also, Donatism’s view of sin was too narrow. The Donatists demanded rectitude of the priests and bishops and other church leaders according to their own definition of rectitude—namely, an embrace of aestheticism and unwavering fortitude under persecution. But, as Jesus taught, moral uprightness involves much more than external conformity to a church standard (Matthew 5–7).
Recommended Resource: Christianity Through the Centuries by Earle Cairns
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Questions about Church History
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0.111131116747856... | 1 | What is Donatism?
Question: "What is Donatism?"
Answer: Donatism was a heretical sect of Christianity that challenged the established church in the fourth century, as Catholicism was on the rise. Donatism, which began in North Africa, taught that Christians were called to asceticism and personal purity and that holiness was proved in one’s faithfulness in enduring persecution. Those whose faith wavered under threat of death were impure and not worthy of being members of the church. The Donatists considered theirs as the only true church and refused to acknowledge ordinances administered in other churches.
The background of Donatism involves the Roman persecution of the church. In AD 303 Emperor Diocletian mounted a severe persecution against all Christians. All churches and Christian Scriptures were to be destroyed. During the persecution, many Christians betrayed other Christians to the Romans or handed over their copies of the Bible. These traitors became known as “traditores,” or Christians who turned in other Christians to the government. In the minds of many Christians, the sin of betrayal was a mark of evil character that could not be overcome.
In AD 311 Caecilian was consecrated as bishop of Carthage. One of the three bishops involved in the ceremony was Felix of Aptunga, who had earlier handed over copies of the Bible to the Romans to be destroyed. Thus, Bishop Felix was a traditor. A group of about seventy other bishops considered Bishop Felix to be unfit for office because of his betrayal—and, since Felix was unfit, the consecration of Bishop Caecilian was null and void. The bishops in opposition to Felix formed a synod and refused to acknowledge Bishop Caecilian as a valid church official. The debate over Caecilian expanded to include the validity of the sacraments administered by Felix and other traditores. How could someone who had betrayed the Word of God be holding Christian office? The low moral character of the officiant was seen as annulling the grace supposedly received through the sacraments he dispensed.
After Caecilian died, the bishopric of Carthage went to Aelius Donatus the Great. The term Donatism comes from his name. Bishop Donatus continued to advance the idea that any traditor who administered a sacrament polluted the sacrament to such an extent that it was no longer a conveyor of grace. Not only was a traditor to be excommunicated, but also all those who held fellowship with a traditor. The church was to be made of “saints,” not sinners. The Donatists began to re-baptize Christians who had been baptized in other churches; in so doing, they separated themselves from all other churches and basically upheld themselves as the only authoritative church body.
The Donatist issue was raised at several church councils, including the Council of Nicea. In every council, the Donatist position was rejected. Donatism, however, continued its influence until Augustine of Hippo wrote a series of books, letters, and sermons that refuted the Donatist movement and argued that the effect of a sacrament is independent of the moral character of the minister. Donatism eventually died out in the fifth century.
The main problem with Donatism is that no person is pure in the sight of God (Romans 3:23). If absolute holiness is required to serve God, then we are all unfit. Also, Donatism’s view of sin was too narrow. The Donatists demanded rectitude of the priests and bishops and other church leaders according to their own definition of rectitude—namely, an embrace of aestheticism and unwavering fortitude under persecution. But, as Jesus taught, moral uprightness involves much more than external conformity to a church standard (Matthew 5–7).
Recommended Resource: Christianity Through the Centuries by Earle Cairns
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What is Donatism? | 855 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the year 268, Claudius the II came to power. He gave out a declaration that he would not persecute and kill Christians as the emperors who had come before him. While this was a sigh of relief, his ideas and rules in government were stilled flawed and in error. He became upset that his army lacked recruits. He was unable to increase its garrisons due to the lack of men that wanted to get involved. An idea was generated in his mind that blamed the institution of marriage as the cause of his plight. He made an edict that became law. It declared that no minister could perform the marriage ceremony.
A minister by the last name of Valentine made the decision that he must obey God rather than man. Valentine continued to perform wedding ceremonies even though to do so could cause him great persecution, even his life. Claudius was informed of this priest who refused to obey his edict. He brought him into court and demanded that he bow to the Roman gods. Valentine refused to obey and was sentenced to the terrible execution of beheading.
When the congregation of Valentine heard about the sentence, they were horrified. They sent notes of encouragement to him that reached his cell behind the prison walls. The notes said things like "We love you."; "Stand fast in the faith"; "Love your jailers", "We are praying for you." As each note came, Valentine would send a response and the end of his return letter would contain the final greeting "From your Valentine." Valentine was executed on February 14, 270AD.
When there is a legitimate event in history that resounds one of God's true principles, you can be sure that Satan will always come up with a pagan counterfeit to overwrite its original intent. This has happened throughout all of history in order to bring confusion to the actual event. Around 500 AD, the perverse, secular paganisms continued in Rome. Sexual relations were without boundary and the institution of marriage was suffering. The Romans observed a holiday called Lupercalia. It was named after the god of love (sexual by nature), called Lupercus, and another Greek god called Pan. This festival was celebrated on February 15 and was filled with sensuality and immorality. They had love lotteries where the single women's names went in a drawing and whatever man drew them out became their lover for a year. Another pagan practice was that young men would kill a goat, take the bloody goat flesh, find a girl they liked, and rub the blood on them to cast a love spell. The participants also invoked the god Cupid, who had the power to strike you with arrows of love or arrows of hate.
The Roman catholic pope, by the name of Galatius, wanted to take the holiday back for his purposes, so he researched and found out about Valentine and declared him a saint. He took the idea of the love lottery and placed the saints in a drawing box instead of girls. He declared whatever saint you drew out that you would have to pray to that saint for a year, asking them for their character and nature.
Valentine's day is not a celebration for all lovers. It is a celebration of the institution of marriage. According to Jesus, marriage is between male and female. Also, it is referenced as Christ and the Church. This mystery is that the Word of God which is seed goes into the Church (the bride of Christ) and produces new life by people being born again. True marriage is all about creating a stable environment for the birth of a child, so that the child is not born into a world of chaos. This is why God created everything Adam and Eve would need before He formed their body out of the ground. While many people are broken sexually because of the perversions around us, we must not belittle or deny God's purpose of marriage and procreation. Happy Marriage Day! | <urn:uuid:48f46d1f-224f-4c54-9774-95bba624cb66> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.ferventfire.com/single-post/2017/02/14/True-Valentines-Banned-From-Marriage | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.989255 | 791 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0.03291597217321... | 4 | In the year 268, Claudius the II came to power. He gave out a declaration that he would not persecute and kill Christians as the emperors who had come before him. While this was a sigh of relief, his ideas and rules in government were stilled flawed and in error. He became upset that his army lacked recruits. He was unable to increase its garrisons due to the lack of men that wanted to get involved. An idea was generated in his mind that blamed the institution of marriage as the cause of his plight. He made an edict that became law. It declared that no minister could perform the marriage ceremony.
A minister by the last name of Valentine made the decision that he must obey God rather than man. Valentine continued to perform wedding ceremonies even though to do so could cause him great persecution, even his life. Claudius was informed of this priest who refused to obey his edict. He brought him into court and demanded that he bow to the Roman gods. Valentine refused to obey and was sentenced to the terrible execution of beheading.
When the congregation of Valentine heard about the sentence, they were horrified. They sent notes of encouragement to him that reached his cell behind the prison walls. The notes said things like "We love you."; "Stand fast in the faith"; "Love your jailers", "We are praying for you." As each note came, Valentine would send a response and the end of his return letter would contain the final greeting "From your Valentine." Valentine was executed on February 14, 270AD.
When there is a legitimate event in history that resounds one of God's true principles, you can be sure that Satan will always come up with a pagan counterfeit to overwrite its original intent. This has happened throughout all of history in order to bring confusion to the actual event. Around 500 AD, the perverse, secular paganisms continued in Rome. Sexual relations were without boundary and the institution of marriage was suffering. The Romans observed a holiday called Lupercalia. It was named after the god of love (sexual by nature), called Lupercus, and another Greek god called Pan. This festival was celebrated on February 15 and was filled with sensuality and immorality. They had love lotteries where the single women's names went in a drawing and whatever man drew them out became their lover for a year. Another pagan practice was that young men would kill a goat, take the bloody goat flesh, find a girl they liked, and rub the blood on them to cast a love spell. The participants also invoked the god Cupid, who had the power to strike you with arrows of love or arrows of hate.
The Roman catholic pope, by the name of Galatius, wanted to take the holiday back for his purposes, so he researched and found out about Valentine and declared him a saint. He took the idea of the love lottery and placed the saints in a drawing box instead of girls. He declared whatever saint you drew out that you would have to pray to that saint for a year, asking them for their character and nature.
Valentine's day is not a celebration for all lovers. It is a celebration of the institution of marriage. According to Jesus, marriage is between male and female. Also, it is referenced as Christ and the Church. This mystery is that the Word of God which is seed goes into the Church (the bride of Christ) and produces new life by people being born again. True marriage is all about creating a stable environment for the birth of a child, so that the child is not born into a world of chaos. This is why God created everything Adam and Eve would need before He formed their body out of the ground. While many people are broken sexually because of the perversions around us, we must not belittle or deny God's purpose of marriage and procreation. Happy Marriage Day! | 796 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the years that it took to develop the submarine as a weapon of war, many military strategists thought the idea fanciful.
The submarine was rejected after operational trials by European governments in the early 19th century.
These included French, British and American naval authorities.
Nevertheless, at the turn of the 20th century, numerous countries had included submarines in their naval fleets, albeit on a rather small level.
Those boasting submarines included Russia, Japan, Greece, Britain, France and others. Germany by no means had the largest number of them.
One of the most significant events in instructing nations of the destructive value of the submarine came about on September 22, 1914.
While on patrol, the German submarine, U9, attacked and sank three ageing British cruisers.
These were the HMS Aboukir, HMS Cressy and HMS Hogue.
All had been patrolling together in the North Sea when they were spotted by Capt. Otto Weddingen, who was in command of the U-boat.
In just 45 minutes, all three vessels were torpedoed and sank with the loss of 1,400 men.
Only 837 survived the attack. The submarine crew were hailed in Germany as heroes, while British Admirals faced much criticism at home.
Initially, it had been claimed that the ships were sunk by mines; however, the lethal capacity of the submarine had been clearly demonstrated that day.
This particular action — exposing the vulnerability of naval ships when targeted by submarines — may have played a part in the Lusitania story.
It may even have contributed to an increase in the number of those lost on RMS Lusitania. A royal naval cruiser was directed to flee from the scene of the sinking Lusitania and ordered to return back to Queenstown.
HMS Juno was an ‘Eclipse’ class light cruiser that had been built and launched in 1897.
In August of 1914, already deemed to be an old ship, she was assigned as a constituent part of Cruiser Force E, also known as the 11th Cruiser Squadron, with four other, similar vintage cruisers, patrolling the southern entrance of, and approaches to, the Irish Sea.
The squadron, under the command of Rear Admiral Phipps Hornby, comprised of HMS Juno, HMS Minerva, HMS Doris, HMS Venus, and HMS Isis.
Their area of operation — at least at the beginning of the war — extended out westwards beyond the Fastnet lighthouse, on the Atlantic shipping routes that approach Ireland.
Their remit included the patrolling of this area to ‘cover liners, cargo carriers and tramp steamers approaching the British Isles from the Atlantic’.
Despite the fact that these ships were on the front line of protecting merchant shipping, the information they received was often at least 24 hours old.
In the much-criticised handling of Admiralty intelligence, solid information on the activities and the movements of submarines, in and near the western approaches, was often not conveyed to the very ships charged with protecting merchant travellers.
The Admiralty’s fear of having HMS Juno sunk by a submarine may have outweighed the humanitarian consideration of saving civilians on the day that RMS Lusitania was torpedoed.
Rather than pick up passengers from the stricken ship and/or engage with the enemy, a warship of the Royal Navy was to turn its back on both and flee to the safety of Queenstown.
While the maelstrom of death and destruction was unfolding around the Lusitania and its passengers, another scenario was being played out that leaves questions as yet unanswered to this day.
The movements of HMS Juno probably led to one of the early Lusitania conspiracy theories. Official explanations, such as they are, still leave uncomfortable questions.
The five Cruiser Force E ships were stationed in and around the southern approaches to the Irish Sea.
Since February 19, 1915, this area was included in the German designated ‘war zone’ that had been announced by the German government on February 4.
These ships, despite their age, were warships. They had been designed and built with conflict in mind. They were crewed by Royal Naval personnel; they were armed with heavy, six-inch guns.
One must assume they were in position as a deterrent to submarine attacks. That they were there as protection to the merchant ships using the busy lanes to Liverpool, and to other ports on the East coast of Great Britain.
They were there to keep the access open to the Irish Sea. Given the type of ship, and their duty while stationed there, one would expect they were equipped to deal with the threat of submarine attack.
And that they were better equipped than an unarmed merchant ship to damage and/or sink a submarine, if that should become necessary. Unless they were deployed for leisure, one must assume that they were there to engage with the enemy, if that situation should arise.
Why, then, was RMS Juno instructed to flee a danger zone when it arose? On the morning of May 7, 1915, when RMS Lusitania had entered the ‘war zone’, HMS Juno was operational off the south coast.
From midnight up until 2pm that day, she was steaming in an east-to-west direction along the coast.
Captain Turner, aboard RMS Lusitania, may have been expecting a naval escort through the zone from a navy ship and never got it.
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... | 1 | In the years that it took to develop the submarine as a weapon of war, many military strategists thought the idea fanciful.
The submarine was rejected after operational trials by European governments in the early 19th century.
These included French, British and American naval authorities.
Nevertheless, at the turn of the 20th century, numerous countries had included submarines in their naval fleets, albeit on a rather small level.
Those boasting submarines included Russia, Japan, Greece, Britain, France and others. Germany by no means had the largest number of them.
One of the most significant events in instructing nations of the destructive value of the submarine came about on September 22, 1914.
While on patrol, the German submarine, U9, attacked and sank three ageing British cruisers.
These were the HMS Aboukir, HMS Cressy and HMS Hogue.
All had been patrolling together in the North Sea when they were spotted by Capt. Otto Weddingen, who was in command of the U-boat.
In just 45 minutes, all three vessels were torpedoed and sank with the loss of 1,400 men.
Only 837 survived the attack. The submarine crew were hailed in Germany as heroes, while British Admirals faced much criticism at home.
Initially, it had been claimed that the ships were sunk by mines; however, the lethal capacity of the submarine had been clearly demonstrated that day.
This particular action — exposing the vulnerability of naval ships when targeted by submarines — may have played a part in the Lusitania story.
It may even have contributed to an increase in the number of those lost on RMS Lusitania. A royal naval cruiser was directed to flee from the scene of the sinking Lusitania and ordered to return back to Queenstown.
HMS Juno was an ‘Eclipse’ class light cruiser that had been built and launched in 1897.
In August of 1914, already deemed to be an old ship, she was assigned as a constituent part of Cruiser Force E, also known as the 11th Cruiser Squadron, with four other, similar vintage cruisers, patrolling the southern entrance of, and approaches to, the Irish Sea.
The squadron, under the command of Rear Admiral Phipps Hornby, comprised of HMS Juno, HMS Minerva, HMS Doris, HMS Venus, and HMS Isis.
Their area of operation — at least at the beginning of the war — extended out westwards beyond the Fastnet lighthouse, on the Atlantic shipping routes that approach Ireland.
Their remit included the patrolling of this area to ‘cover liners, cargo carriers and tramp steamers approaching the British Isles from the Atlantic’.
Despite the fact that these ships were on the front line of protecting merchant shipping, the information they received was often at least 24 hours old.
In the much-criticised handling of Admiralty intelligence, solid information on the activities and the movements of submarines, in and near the western approaches, was often not conveyed to the very ships charged with protecting merchant travellers.
The Admiralty’s fear of having HMS Juno sunk by a submarine may have outweighed the humanitarian consideration of saving civilians on the day that RMS Lusitania was torpedoed.
Rather than pick up passengers from the stricken ship and/or engage with the enemy, a warship of the Royal Navy was to turn its back on both and flee to the safety of Queenstown.
While the maelstrom of death and destruction was unfolding around the Lusitania and its passengers, another scenario was being played out that leaves questions as yet unanswered to this day.
The movements of HMS Juno probably led to one of the early Lusitania conspiracy theories. Official explanations, such as they are, still leave uncomfortable questions.
The five Cruiser Force E ships were stationed in and around the southern approaches to the Irish Sea.
Since February 19, 1915, this area was included in the German designated ‘war zone’ that had been announced by the German government on February 4.
These ships, despite their age, were warships. They had been designed and built with conflict in mind. They were crewed by Royal Naval personnel; they were armed with heavy, six-inch guns.
One must assume they were in position as a deterrent to submarine attacks. That they were there as protection to the merchant ships using the busy lanes to Liverpool, and to other ports on the East coast of Great Britain.
They were there to keep the access open to the Irish Sea. Given the type of ship, and their duty while stationed there, one would expect they were equipped to deal with the threat of submarine attack.
And that they were better equipped than an unarmed merchant ship to damage and/or sink a submarine, if that should become necessary. Unless they were deployed for leisure, one must assume that they were there to engage with the enemy, if that situation should arise.
Why, then, was RMS Juno instructed to flee a danger zone when it arose? On the morning of May 7, 1915, when RMS Lusitania had entered the ‘war zone’, HMS Juno was operational off the south coast.
From midnight up until 2pm that day, she was steaming in an east-to-west direction along the coast.
Captain Turner, aboard RMS Lusitania, may have been expecting a naval escort through the zone from a navy ship and never got it.
© Irish Examiner Ltd. All rights reserved | 1,132 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (755 words)
The Greek theatre history begins with festivals which honor gods. An example of such a festival was ‘City Dionysia’ festival which honored god Dionysus. During this festival, which was taking place in Athens men perform songs to welcome god Dionysus. Plays were also presented. Athens was the main city where these festivals and theatrical traditions were presented. At ancient Greek Festivals, the actors, directors and dramatists were all the same person. Later only three actors were allowed to perform in each play.
And this was followed by adding few non-speaking roles to perform on-stage. Because of the limited number of actors, the chorus played a very active part of Greek theater. During the chorus’ delivery of its lines music was often played.
The theatrical forms of the ancient Greek theater were tragedy, comedy and satyr. Athenian tragedy, comedy and satyr plays were some of the earliest theatrical forms to emerge in the world. Greek theater and plays have had a lasting impact on Western drama and culture.
Satyr plays dealt with mythological subject in comic manner. Tragedy had as an originator, Thespis, who is considered to be the first Greek actor of tragedy plays. Aristotle’s Poetics say that tragedy originates from dithyrambs which were songs sung in praise of Dionysus at the Dionysia each year. Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus were three well-known Greek tragedy playwrights. The structure of Greek tragedy consisted of the following:
1. Late point of attack
2. Violence and death offstage
3. Frequent use of messengers to relate information
4. Usually continuous time of action
5. Usually single place
6. Stories based on myth or history
7. Focus on psychological and ethical attributes of characters Comedy plays were derived from imitation. Aristophanes wrote most of the comedy plays. The structure of the comedy consisted of two parts. Part one had the prolog, where chous gives debate or ‘agon’ and parabasis, a choral ode addressing the audience, in which a social or political problem is discussed. Part two consists of scenes which show the result of the happy idea. Theatre buildings were called a theatron. They were large, open-air structures constructed on the slopes of hills. Most of the Greek theatres were constructed in such a way so that the smallest sound could be transmitted to any seat of the audience. They consisted of four main parts: the orchestra, the skene and the audience (theatron) and the parodos.
The orchestra was a large area at the center part of the theatre normally circular. It was there where play, dance and acting took place. The earliest orchestras were simply made of hard earth but later in the Classical period some orchestras began to be made of marble and other materials. The orchestra of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was about 60 feet in diameter. The skene was a large building behind the orchestra which was used as a backstage. It was the place where actors change their costumes and masks. It was usually decorated as a palace, temple or other building, depending on the needs of the play.
The audience (theatron) was where people were sitting to enjoy the play and it was in the front of the orchestra. It was usually part of hillside overlooking the orchestra. People in the fifth century BC probably sat on cushions or boards but by the fourth century many Greek theaters had marble seats. The parodos were the passageways by which the chorus and some actors made their entrances and exits. The audience also used them to enter and exit the theater before and after the performance.
The two masks of the picture represent the symbols for theater. They represent the comedy and tragedy masks which were worn in ancient Greece. They also represent duality. Actors were very far away from the audience that without the aid of costumes and masks they would be difficult to see. Actors wore thick boots to add to their height and gloves to exaggerate their hanks so that their movements would be easy to see by the audience.
The masks were made of linen or cork, so none have survived. We however know that they looked like from statues and paintings of ancient Greek actors. Tragic masks carried mournful or pained expressions, while comic masks were smiling. The head of the actor was covered by his mask, which included hair. It is believed that the shape of the mask amplified the actor’s voice, making his words easier for the audience to hear. This mask is associated with the famous ancient
Cite this page
Ancient Greek Theatre. (2016, Dec 09). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/ancient-greek-theatre-essay | <urn:uuid:810c1be8-d8c5-4630-8f37-1199f89012a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/ancient-greek-theatre-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00511.warc.gz | en | 0.987635 | 1,003 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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The Greek theatre history begins with festivals which honor gods. An example of such a festival was ‘City Dionysia’ festival which honored god Dionysus. During this festival, which was taking place in Athens men perform songs to welcome god Dionysus. Plays were also presented. Athens was the main city where these festivals and theatrical traditions were presented. At ancient Greek Festivals, the actors, directors and dramatists were all the same person. Later only three actors were allowed to perform in each play.
And this was followed by adding few non-speaking roles to perform on-stage. Because of the limited number of actors, the chorus played a very active part of Greek theater. During the chorus’ delivery of its lines music was often played.
The theatrical forms of the ancient Greek theater were tragedy, comedy and satyr. Athenian tragedy, comedy and satyr plays were some of the earliest theatrical forms to emerge in the world. Greek theater and plays have had a lasting impact on Western drama and culture.
Satyr plays dealt with mythological subject in comic manner. Tragedy had as an originator, Thespis, who is considered to be the first Greek actor of tragedy plays. Aristotle’s Poetics say that tragedy originates from dithyrambs which were songs sung in praise of Dionysus at the Dionysia each year. Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus were three well-known Greek tragedy playwrights. The structure of Greek tragedy consisted of the following:
1. Late point of attack
2. Violence and death offstage
3. Frequent use of messengers to relate information
4. Usually continuous time of action
5. Usually single place
6. Stories based on myth or history
7. Focus on psychological and ethical attributes of characters Comedy plays were derived from imitation. Aristophanes wrote most of the comedy plays. The structure of the comedy consisted of two parts. Part one had the prolog, where chous gives debate or ‘agon’ and parabasis, a choral ode addressing the audience, in which a social or political problem is discussed. Part two consists of scenes which show the result of the happy idea. Theatre buildings were called a theatron. They were large, open-air structures constructed on the slopes of hills. Most of the Greek theatres were constructed in such a way so that the smallest sound could be transmitted to any seat of the audience. They consisted of four main parts: the orchestra, the skene and the audience (theatron) and the parodos.
The orchestra was a large area at the center part of the theatre normally circular. It was there where play, dance and acting took place. The earliest orchestras were simply made of hard earth but later in the Classical period some orchestras began to be made of marble and other materials. The orchestra of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was about 60 feet in diameter. The skene was a large building behind the orchestra which was used as a backstage. It was the place where actors change their costumes and masks. It was usually decorated as a palace, temple or other building, depending on the needs of the play.
The audience (theatron) was where people were sitting to enjoy the play and it was in the front of the orchestra. It was usually part of hillside overlooking the orchestra. People in the fifth century BC probably sat on cushions or boards but by the fourth century many Greek theaters had marble seats. The parodos were the passageways by which the chorus and some actors made their entrances and exits. The audience also used them to enter and exit the theater before and after the performance.
The two masks of the picture represent the symbols for theater. They represent the comedy and tragedy masks which were worn in ancient Greece. They also represent duality. Actors were very far away from the audience that without the aid of costumes and masks they would be difficult to see. Actors wore thick boots to add to their height and gloves to exaggerate their hanks so that their movements would be easy to see by the audience.
The masks were made of linen or cork, so none have survived. We however know that they looked like from statues and paintings of ancient Greek actors. Tragic masks carried mournful or pained expressions, while comic masks were smiling. The head of the actor was covered by his mask, which included hair. It is believed that the shape of the mask amplified the actor’s voice, making his words easier for the audience to hear. This mask is associated with the famous ancient
Cite this page
Ancient Greek Theatre. (2016, Dec 09). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/ancient-greek-theatre-essay | 976 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When numbers are used as scalars, they are used to measure something. Perhaps height, weight or length. Used this way, numbers can be compared. That is, we can say that one number is greater than or less than another.
Often, the measurement is made from an agreed fixed point. Then, measurements made one way from that point are positive, and the other way they are negative. (Usually, physical measurements made upwards and to the right are positive, but there is no rule about that).
The building shown above has an elevator you can drag up and down. The height of the elevator floor is shown, and is the height above ground level. When it is above ground it is a positive height. Drag the elevator down into the basement. It is now below ground and the height becomes negative.
What has happened here is that we agreed that heights would be measured from ground level. This is the zero height. We further agreed that heights going upward would be positive, and down would be negative. Note: We could have agreed instead that heights would be measured from the basement floor. Then, all heights would have been positive. Both are OK, as long as we know. | <urn:uuid:3755f5d5-82da-47d4-acba-001aa39c94cf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mathopenref.com/negative-number-uses.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.982197 | 242 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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... | 5 | When numbers are used as scalars, they are used to measure something. Perhaps height, weight or length. Used this way, numbers can be compared. That is, we can say that one number is greater than or less than another.
Often, the measurement is made from an agreed fixed point. Then, measurements made one way from that point are positive, and the other way they are negative. (Usually, physical measurements made upwards and to the right are positive, but there is no rule about that).
The building shown above has an elevator you can drag up and down. The height of the elevator floor is shown, and is the height above ground level. When it is above ground it is a positive height. Drag the elevator down into the basement. It is now below ground and the height becomes negative.
What has happened here is that we agreed that heights would be measured from ground level. This is the zero height. We further agreed that heights going upward would be positive, and down would be negative. Note: We could have agreed instead that heights would be measured from the basement floor. Then, all heights would have been positive. Both are OK, as long as we know. | 239 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Being a student can be tough, as many tasks have to be managed at such a tender age. It can lead to stress and tension, which is not beneficial for a growing student. Their growth can get hampered, which cannot be recovered with any medicine.
To avoid all of those problems, it is advised that they take part in some activities that can take their attention away from the monotonous work and make them to focus on other aspects of life. Afterall, that is the age when they must discover themselves and their talents, as career could be made from them. They can remove the stress related with assignments by assigning them to the writers at assignment help websites.
Playing sports and hobbies can benefit students and take their brain development to next level. Studies have been done that depict that getting involved in such activities can improve their skills, which are forever helpful for them. From both of them, hobbies are essential and have better advantages, which means that they must be observed to make judgements.
• Make a Career: It is a major misconception that many parents have, as they feel that hobbies consume the precious time of their kids and distract them from studies. But they are completely wrong when they have that opinion, as many studies have been done, which depict that kids can make career when they develop an interest from an early age.
• Decrease in Stress: In earlier times, people had the misconception that hobbies were nothing but a time waster. Modern science seems to disagree from the statement completely, as they believe that stress can be significantly reduced. When a student does something that they like, they focus all their attention on that particular task, and forget everything around. Stress is not good for any person, as it increases the cortisol levels.
• Freelancing: Though it is a new trend, it has led many people to find jobs, which they cannot in their city or state. It is also a great way of getting to know about the trends around the world, which can then be adopted to gain benefits. In earlier times, people used to think that it was impossible to earn money with certain skills, which is not at all true in today’s world. Thanks to the internet, people have come closer and value of many skills has increased. It can help students to earn money, because there are no fixed hours that they have to work for to get money, which is beneficial for them. If they try to start jobs, they have to dedicate time for both studies and other activities.
• Creativity: Hobbies are known to improve creativity of a person involved. Creativity can then lead to better idea generation and most people must be aware about the value of ideas. Some ideas have led to many great discoveries, which have changed the world for the better. Creative people tend to be better problem-solvers, which is also beneficial for them when they are studying in their colleges and universities. Students tend to get stuck while doing many tasks related to assignments and homework. For students in Australia, Assignment Help Sydney could complete their assignments effectively. Being creative enables them to find alternate solutions for problems and make them easier, while other students may encounter difficulty.
• Creates a Network: When people have some hobbies, they tend to get involved in a network of people following the same hobby. More like minded people means that vast idea generation could be there. Creating a network is important for most tasks in life, because a person never knows when they would need another person that specializes in a certain skill. Benefit of having a good network is not only limited to that, as a good market can be created and services or products generated from a hobby could be sold with the word of mouth.
• Mindfulness: Being mindful means being in the present moment. For people suffering from depression, it is advised by psychologists to practice mindfulness. The reason for it being recommended is that it helps the person to focus only on the current moment, which increases their focus, concentration and decreases overthinking. Majority of people have depression because they tend to overthink each aspect of their life, which often results in negativity. Practicing mindfulness is even more important for young students, as they have to deal with multiple tasks.
These facts related to benefits of hobbies can convince any parent and encourage their child to pursue their interests. Who knows, a particular hobby could transform the lives completely and make them rich and famous. People spend years to know about their interests. It is such an undervalued activity, which more people need to realize the real value of, to reap major benefits. | <urn:uuid:eb05e045-9376-4dad-946b-3115e6980a00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://assignmenthelpwebsite.com/blog/are-hobbies-only-limited-to-passing-time | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00315.warc.gz | en | 0.984797 | 925 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.3367488086223... | 1 | Being a student can be tough, as many tasks have to be managed at such a tender age. It can lead to stress and tension, which is not beneficial for a growing student. Their growth can get hampered, which cannot be recovered with any medicine.
To avoid all of those problems, it is advised that they take part in some activities that can take their attention away from the monotonous work and make them to focus on other aspects of life. Afterall, that is the age when they must discover themselves and their talents, as career could be made from them. They can remove the stress related with assignments by assigning them to the writers at assignment help websites.
Playing sports and hobbies can benefit students and take their brain development to next level. Studies have been done that depict that getting involved in such activities can improve their skills, which are forever helpful for them. From both of them, hobbies are essential and have better advantages, which means that they must be observed to make judgements.
• Make a Career: It is a major misconception that many parents have, as they feel that hobbies consume the precious time of their kids and distract them from studies. But they are completely wrong when they have that opinion, as many studies have been done, which depict that kids can make career when they develop an interest from an early age.
• Decrease in Stress: In earlier times, people had the misconception that hobbies were nothing but a time waster. Modern science seems to disagree from the statement completely, as they believe that stress can be significantly reduced. When a student does something that they like, they focus all their attention on that particular task, and forget everything around. Stress is not good for any person, as it increases the cortisol levels.
• Freelancing: Though it is a new trend, it has led many people to find jobs, which they cannot in their city or state. It is also a great way of getting to know about the trends around the world, which can then be adopted to gain benefits. In earlier times, people used to think that it was impossible to earn money with certain skills, which is not at all true in today’s world. Thanks to the internet, people have come closer and value of many skills has increased. It can help students to earn money, because there are no fixed hours that they have to work for to get money, which is beneficial for them. If they try to start jobs, they have to dedicate time for both studies and other activities.
• Creativity: Hobbies are known to improve creativity of a person involved. Creativity can then lead to better idea generation and most people must be aware about the value of ideas. Some ideas have led to many great discoveries, which have changed the world for the better. Creative people tend to be better problem-solvers, which is also beneficial for them when they are studying in their colleges and universities. Students tend to get stuck while doing many tasks related to assignments and homework. For students in Australia, Assignment Help Sydney could complete their assignments effectively. Being creative enables them to find alternate solutions for problems and make them easier, while other students may encounter difficulty.
• Creates a Network: When people have some hobbies, they tend to get involved in a network of people following the same hobby. More like minded people means that vast idea generation could be there. Creating a network is important for most tasks in life, because a person never knows when they would need another person that specializes in a certain skill. Benefit of having a good network is not only limited to that, as a good market can be created and services or products generated from a hobby could be sold with the word of mouth.
• Mindfulness: Being mindful means being in the present moment. For people suffering from depression, it is advised by psychologists to practice mindfulness. The reason for it being recommended is that it helps the person to focus only on the current moment, which increases their focus, concentration and decreases overthinking. Majority of people have depression because they tend to overthink each aspect of their life, which often results in negativity. Practicing mindfulness is even more important for young students, as they have to deal with multiple tasks.
These facts related to benefits of hobbies can convince any parent and encourage their child to pursue their interests. Who knows, a particular hobby could transform the lives completely and make them rich and famous. People spend years to know about their interests. It is such an undervalued activity, which more people need to realize the real value of, to reap major benefits. | 913 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Astronomers have been trying to understand the formation of binary stars for a long time. The most important thing was to understand how mass affects the multiplicity. I had to analyze a lot of young stars in molecular clouds, as well as look for effects that affect the process.
The problem is that between the stars there are dynamic mechanisms that lead to the fact that one is pushed out or they are ways to attract another one to them. Some data said that young stars are more likely to occur in pairs. But there was nothing more to say, because few objects were checked.
Scientists decided to rectify the situation and tracked the “youth” in the Perseus cloud. A submillimeter survey was used to examine the dense natal material of the nucleus around the stars, and 24 star systems were determined. It turned out that most of the binaries are near the center of the dust cores, which means they are still young enough to escape and retire. Approximately half resides in elongated main structures. Models show that all the stars are formed in pairs, but then they move away due to the release, or the connection between them becomes closer. The main conclusion is that each dust core is the place where two stars appear at once, and not one. | <urn:uuid:1537c390-b302-4ece-9d8e-244f67df096e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://great-spacing.com/publication/67777/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00277.warc.gz | en | 0.986298 | 257 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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-0.1930464208126068,
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-0.1459782272577... | 4 | Astronomers have been trying to understand the formation of binary stars for a long time. The most important thing was to understand how mass affects the multiplicity. I had to analyze a lot of young stars in molecular clouds, as well as look for effects that affect the process.
The problem is that between the stars there are dynamic mechanisms that lead to the fact that one is pushed out or they are ways to attract another one to them. Some data said that young stars are more likely to occur in pairs. But there was nothing more to say, because few objects were checked.
Scientists decided to rectify the situation and tracked the “youth” in the Perseus cloud. A submillimeter survey was used to examine the dense natal material of the nucleus around the stars, and 24 star systems were determined. It turned out that most of the binaries are near the center of the dust cores, which means they are still young enough to escape and retire. Approximately half resides in elongated main structures. Models show that all the stars are formed in pairs, but then they move away due to the release, or the connection between them becomes closer. The main conclusion is that each dust core is the place where two stars appear at once, and not one. | 257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How to Write a Summary of an Article? This epic was originally handed down through generations in spoken form by traveling minstrels. It was finally put in writing during the eleventh century.
When he arrived at the Danish land, Beowulf was a young man seeking adventure and glory. Beowulf was distinguished among his people, the Geats, for his bravery. As a young man Beowulf fought in many battles and as a result showed his great character to others.
Beowulf had many characteristics which helped him to succeed in battle. As a young man, Beowulf was known as the strongest man alive. His strength allowed him to dominate in battle. If it were not for his pure strength, he would not have been able to defeat Grendel, for weapons would not work.
By fighting Grendel without weapons, he opened himself up to greater glorification. Beowulf's strength could not be seen as a disadvantage, while the results of his strength could. Beowulf's strength allowed him dominance in battle, but it also made him cocky.
Beowulf character analysis essay his cockiness allowed Beowulf to be sure of himself in battle, some of his peers found it to be a character flaw. Ecglaf, in particular, saw Beowulf as cocky and vain, questioning, "Are you the Beowulf who competed with Breca Beowulf also had a strong spirit of adventure.
His spirit of adventure was part of the reason that Beowulf went to fight Grendel. Beowulf's strength and spirit of adventure had also led him to glory in many battles, including that with Grendel.
Beowulf used his glory in previous battles to justify himself when coming to help Hrothgar. In addition, his self assurance, and known bravery probably guided his decision.
Beowulf's spirit of adventure gained him a lot of glory, however, it could have gotten him into trouble, if he were to have taken an adventure too far.
While in his young age, Beowulf used his strength for glory and recognition.
Beowulf Analysis Essay Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hroðgar's troubles and with his king's permission leaves his homeland to help Hroðgar. Once given permission Beowulf sets sails to Heorot to take on the a vicious blood thirsty man ashio-midori.com://ashio-midori.com In Beowulf, the main character, a Geat warrior named Beowulf, possesses extraordinary qualities: “He was the strongest of men alive in that day, mighty and noble.” Upon spotting Beowulf approaching, the sea-guard of the Danes says, “Never have I seen a greater man on earth ”ashio-midori.com?text=beowulf+character. Suggested Essay Topics. ashio-midori.com role does the mead-hall play in Anglo-Saxon warrior culture? What is the proper relationship between a lord and his warriors?ashio-midori.com
As he became older his great strength was taken away from him, and Beowulf found himself without one of his greatest abilities. Beowulf then was king of the Geats, and when a dragon attacked his land, it was his responsibility to protect his people.
Feeling angry and eager for slaughter, Beowulf and his men went to slay the dragon. During the battle Beowulf is overwhelmed by the force of the dragon due to his lack of strength, and had to be saved by one of his thanes, Wiglaf.
Now, Beowulf's strength, instead of being an advantage to him, became a weakness. The loss of strength, and the battle was disheartening to Beowulf, however he took it in stride. After his battle with the dragon Beowulf realized his time was over. However, he used the time on his death bed to reflect on his life.
He also used this time to regain some glory, in reminding his thanes of all the great battles he fought. This is a sign of Beowulf's self assurance. Even though his assurance no longer guided him into battle, Beowulf used it to assure himself that he had done well in his life.
During his life time, Beowulf was a great fighter. His bravery and strength helped him to triumph, and he made sure everyone knew about it. By doing so he showed his vanity.
However, all of his attributes; strength, courage, self assurance, and adventurous helped Beowulf for good. While they could have had greater bad effects, Beowulf carried himself well and was respected by many except for Grendel!
Not what you're looking for? If this essay isn't quite what you're looking for, why not order your own custom Coursework essay, dissertation or piece of coursework that answers your exact question? There are UK writers just like me on hand, waiting to help you.In Beowulf, the main character, a Geat warrior named Beowulf, possesses extraordinary qualities: “He was the strongest of men alive in that day, mighty and noble.” Upon spotting Beowulf approaching, the sea-guard of the Danes says, “Never have I seen a greater man on earth ”ashio-midori.com?text=beowulf+character.
Beowulf Good Vs Evil Analysis Goodness is represented throughout the poem by the characters of Beowulf, King Hrothgar, Wiglaf, and their actions.
Beowulf, portraying many good qualities, is the ultimate example of a hero ashio-midori.com · Beowulf - The protagonist of the epic, Beowulf is a Geatish hero who fights the monster Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and a fire-breathing ashio-midori.comf’s boasts and encounters reveal him to be the strongest, ablest warrior around.
In his youth, he personifies all ashio-midori.com · Analysis and discussion of characters in Anonymous, Unknown's Beowulf. Beowulf Homework Help Questions.
To the Anglo-Saxons, Beowulf was a model ashio-midori.com://ashio-midori.com SOURCE: “The Beowulf Poet,” in Philological Quarterly, Vol. XXXIX, No. 4, October, , pp. [In the essay below, Baum explores the possible audience for which Beowulf was composed and ashio-midori.com Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues.
Get Access. Beowulf – Character Analysis. We are Literature Geeks and Can Write a Custom Essay Sample on Beowulf – Character Analysis Specifically For You.
Get Essay Help. For Only $/Page. Recent Essays. Twisted Chapters Analysis ashio-midori.com | <urn:uuid:de715810-85b0-4caf-8d50-bf653b24ae1a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vunajyp.ashio-midori.com/beowulf-character-analysis-essay-32827bb.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.983125 | 1,474 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | How to Write a Summary of an Article? This epic was originally handed down through generations in spoken form by traveling minstrels. It was finally put in writing during the eleventh century.
When he arrived at the Danish land, Beowulf was a young man seeking adventure and glory. Beowulf was distinguished among his people, the Geats, for his bravery. As a young man Beowulf fought in many battles and as a result showed his great character to others.
Beowulf had many characteristics which helped him to succeed in battle. As a young man, Beowulf was known as the strongest man alive. His strength allowed him to dominate in battle. If it were not for his pure strength, he would not have been able to defeat Grendel, for weapons would not work.
By fighting Grendel without weapons, he opened himself up to greater glorification. Beowulf's strength could not be seen as a disadvantage, while the results of his strength could. Beowulf's strength allowed him dominance in battle, but it also made him cocky.
Beowulf character analysis essay his cockiness allowed Beowulf to be sure of himself in battle, some of his peers found it to be a character flaw. Ecglaf, in particular, saw Beowulf as cocky and vain, questioning, "Are you the Beowulf who competed with Breca Beowulf also had a strong spirit of adventure.
His spirit of adventure was part of the reason that Beowulf went to fight Grendel. Beowulf's strength and spirit of adventure had also led him to glory in many battles, including that with Grendel.
Beowulf used his glory in previous battles to justify himself when coming to help Hrothgar. In addition, his self assurance, and known bravery probably guided his decision.
Beowulf's spirit of adventure gained him a lot of glory, however, it could have gotten him into trouble, if he were to have taken an adventure too far.
While in his young age, Beowulf used his strength for glory and recognition.
Beowulf Analysis Essay Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hroðgar's troubles and with his king's permission leaves his homeland to help Hroðgar. Once given permission Beowulf sets sails to Heorot to take on the a vicious blood thirsty man ashio-midori.com://ashio-midori.com In Beowulf, the main character, a Geat warrior named Beowulf, possesses extraordinary qualities: “He was the strongest of men alive in that day, mighty and noble.” Upon spotting Beowulf approaching, the sea-guard of the Danes says, “Never have I seen a greater man on earth ”ashio-midori.com?text=beowulf+character. Suggested Essay Topics. ashio-midori.com role does the mead-hall play in Anglo-Saxon warrior culture? What is the proper relationship between a lord and his warriors?ashio-midori.com
As he became older his great strength was taken away from him, and Beowulf found himself without one of his greatest abilities. Beowulf then was king of the Geats, and when a dragon attacked his land, it was his responsibility to protect his people.
Feeling angry and eager for slaughter, Beowulf and his men went to slay the dragon. During the battle Beowulf is overwhelmed by the force of the dragon due to his lack of strength, and had to be saved by one of his thanes, Wiglaf.
Now, Beowulf's strength, instead of being an advantage to him, became a weakness. The loss of strength, and the battle was disheartening to Beowulf, however he took it in stride. After his battle with the dragon Beowulf realized his time was over. However, he used the time on his death bed to reflect on his life.
He also used this time to regain some glory, in reminding his thanes of all the great battles he fought. This is a sign of Beowulf's self assurance. Even though his assurance no longer guided him into battle, Beowulf used it to assure himself that he had done well in his life.
During his life time, Beowulf was a great fighter. His bravery and strength helped him to triumph, and he made sure everyone knew about it. By doing so he showed his vanity.
However, all of his attributes; strength, courage, self assurance, and adventurous helped Beowulf for good. While they could have had greater bad effects, Beowulf carried himself well and was respected by many except for Grendel!
Not what you're looking for? If this essay isn't quite what you're looking for, why not order your own custom Coursework essay, dissertation or piece of coursework that answers your exact question? There are UK writers just like me on hand, waiting to help you.In Beowulf, the main character, a Geat warrior named Beowulf, possesses extraordinary qualities: “He was the strongest of men alive in that day, mighty and noble.” Upon spotting Beowulf approaching, the sea-guard of the Danes says, “Never have I seen a greater man on earth ”ashio-midori.com?text=beowulf+character.
Beowulf Good Vs Evil Analysis Goodness is represented throughout the poem by the characters of Beowulf, King Hrothgar, Wiglaf, and their actions.
Beowulf, portraying many good qualities, is the ultimate example of a hero ashio-midori.com · Beowulf - The protagonist of the epic, Beowulf is a Geatish hero who fights the monster Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and a fire-breathing ashio-midori.comf’s boasts and encounters reveal him to be the strongest, ablest warrior around.
In his youth, he personifies all ashio-midori.com · Analysis and discussion of characters in Anonymous, Unknown's Beowulf. Beowulf Homework Help Questions.
To the Anglo-Saxons, Beowulf was a model ashio-midori.com://ashio-midori.com SOURCE: “The Beowulf Poet,” in Philological Quarterly, Vol. XXXIX, No. 4, October, , pp. [In the essay below, Baum explores the possible audience for which Beowulf was composed and ashio-midori.com Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues.
Get Access. Beowulf – Character Analysis. We are Literature Geeks and Can Write a Custom Essay Sample on Beowulf – Character Analysis Specifically For You.
Get Essay Help. For Only $/Page. Recent Essays. Twisted Chapters Analysis ashio-midori.com | 1,412 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In both cases, the rebel fleets were defeated by the Constantinopolitan Imperial Fleet through the use of Greek fire. The importance placed on Greek fire during the Empire's struggle against the Arabs would lead to its discovery being ascribed to divine intervention. The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos r. This, however, was apparently not enough to allow their enemies to copy it see below. Greek fire continued to be mentioned during the 12th century, and Anna Komnene gives a vivid description of its use in a naval battle against the Pisans in This might be because of the general disarmament of the Empire in the 20 years leading up to the sacking, or because the Byzantines had lost access to the areas where the primary ingredients were to be found, or even perhaps because the secret had been lost over time.
Records of a 13th-century event in which "Greek fire" was used by the Saracens against the Crusaders can be read through the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville during the Seventh Crusade. One description of the memoir says "the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded like the thunder of heaven. It looked like a dragon flying through the air. Such a bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that it shed.
In the 19th century, it is reported that an Armenian by the name of Kavafian approached the government of the Ottoman Empire with a new type of Greek fire he claimed to have developed. Kavafian refused to reveal its composition when asked by the government, insisting that he be placed in command of its use during naval engagements. Not long after this, he was poisoned by imperial authorities, without their ever having found out his secret. As Constantine Porphyrogennetos' warnings show, the ingredients and the processes of manufacture and deployment of Greek fire were carefully guarded military secrets.
So strict was the secrecy that the composition of Greek fire was lost forever and remains a source of speculation. Despite this almost exclusive focus, however, Greek fire is best understood as a complete weapon system of many components, all of which were needed to operate together to render it effective. The information available on Greek fire is exclusively indirect, based on references in the Byzantine military manuals and a number of secondary historical sources such as Anna Komnene and Western European chroniclers, which are often inaccurate.
In her Alexiad , Anna Komnene provides a description of an incendiary weapon, which was used by the Byzantine garrison of Dyrrhachium in against the Normans. It is often regarded as an at least partial "recipe" for Greek fire: . This fire is made by the following arts. From the pine and the certain such evergreen trees inflammable resin is collected.
This is rubbed with sulfur and put into tubes of reed, and is blown by men using it with violent and continuous breath. Then in this manner it meets the fire on the tip and catches light and falls like a fiery whirlwind on the faces of the enemies. At the same time, the reports by Western chroniclers of the famed ignis graecus are largely unreliable, since they apply the name to any and all sorts of incendiary substances. In attempting to reconstruct the Greek fire system, the concrete evidence, as it emerges from the contemporary literary references, provides the following characteristics:.
The first and, for a long time, most popular theory regarding the composition of Greek fire held that its chief ingredient was saltpeter , making it an early form of gunpowder. A second view, based on the fact that Greek fire was inextinguishable by water some sources suggest that water intensified the flames suggested that its destructive power was the result of the explosive reaction between water and quicklime. Although quicklime was certainly known and used by the Byzantines and the Arabs in warfare, the theory is refuted by literary and empirical evidence.
A quicklime-based substance would have to come in contact with water to ignite, while Emperor Leo's Tactica indicate that Greek fire was often poured directly on the decks of enemy ships, although admittedly, decks were kept wet due to lack of sealants. Likewise, Leo describes the use of grenades, which further reinforces the view that contact with water was not necessary for the substance's ignition.
Zenghelis pointed out that, based on experiments, the actual result of the water—quicklime reaction would be negligible in the open sea. However, extensive experiments with it also failed to reproduce the described intensity of Greek fire. Consequently, although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be entirely excluded, they were not the primary ingredient.
The Byzantines had easy access to crude oil from the naturally occurring wells around the Black Sea e. Although the text contains some inaccuracies, it clearly identifies the main component as naphtha. A 12th century treatise prepared by Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi for Saladin records an Arab version of Greek fire, called naft , which also had a petroleum base, with sulfur and various resins added. Any direct relation with the Byzantine formula is unlikely. The Byzantine military manuals also mention that jars chytrai or tzykalia filled with Greek fire and caltrops wrapped with tow and soaked in the substance were thrown by catapults, while pivoting cranes gerania were employed to pour it upon enemy ships.
Anna Komnene gives this account of beast-shaped Greek fire projectors being mounted to the bow of warships: . As he [the Emperor Alexios I ] knew that the Pisans were skilled in sea warfare and dreaded a battle with them, on the prow of each ship he had a head fixed of a lion or other land-animal, made in brass or iron with the mouth open and then gilded over, so that their mere aspect was terrifying.
And the fire which was to be directed against the enemy through tubes he made to pass through the mouths of the beasts, so that it seemed as if the lions and the other similar monsters were vomiting the fire. As they came out of the boulders onto the open tundra, his gaze roved in the way of an experienced hunter who knows how to read the land for signs of game: broken stalks of grass, prints sunk into the ground, a carcass stripped to the bone, fresh scat.
No matter how she tried to focus, her thoughts kept swirling back to her grievance. It wasn't fair that Grandmother protected Baishya while she got stuck with a half-crippled orc who mocked her and didn't even belong to the clan. Just because Grandmother said he was one of them now didn't make it true. She kicked a rock onto a shallow puddle. The rock cracked the skin of ice on the water and sank out of sight. He glanced her way. Better not to choke on words that should be loosed like arrows. What kind of answers do dead things have, except for signs that tell us how they were killed?
It's better to let the dead go and concentrate on the hunt. Maybe not better for us who must serve them rather than rule ourselves as we once did. But the thought of turning him over to Atarka grated. He wasn't wrong for pointing out that the rule of the dragonlords was harsh and uncompromising, that it made the people more like servants than proud hunters.
She did not want to become one of those spineless tale-tellers who scraped and wheedled in Ayagor to try to win the favor of Atarka, as if the dragon cared anything for her mortal subjects except that they brought her meat and more meat. But that is not why, young one. Many ways to fight, even if my tribe does not recognize their worth. Unlike the humans, he needed no gloves because the tough skin of his hands withstood the worst cold. A network of thin scars wove a harsh pattern across the back of each hand, the mark of no claw she had ever seen.
Maybe it was just how orcs got old, like age spots on the hands of wizened elders kept alive by their sentimental children. Atarka rules us now, not the dragonclaw, not a khan. Even though we don't like it, that's just how it is. He gestured across his throat, cutting her off. Humiliated by his high-handedness toward her—Yasova's granddaughter! If only she were a dragon. She would burn him. Burn him.
But he hadn't been reacting to her words. His tongue licked the air. His back stiffened. He stuck the staff into a loop along his back and tugged free both swords with a swift motion whose efficiency impressed her. Made of brass, they were the most valuable objects he possessed, although they did not have nearly as sharp a cutting edge as the obsidian weapons used by the rest of the tribe.
A vast darkness sped toward them, monstrous and silent. Only one creature possessed such a frightening spread of spiky, glowing antlers. Naiva sprinted back toward the boulders, but although she was young and fleet, she was not a dragonlord. Atarka's huge form passed over her in a wash of shadow and heat.
The dragon slammed down to earth right at the edge of the boulders.https://alophlotarto.tk/1709.php
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The ground shook. Naiva stumbled, catching herself on her forward hand, then leaped back up and kept running. But it was too late. The dragonlord had caught Grandmother and the others a spear's toss away from the outermost boulders and placed herself between them and the safety of the rocks. Naiva slowed to a walk. She knew better than to move quickly. Atarka might look ungainly but nothing moved faster than the dragonlord when her ire was roused. The dragon's growl rolled as loudly as the avalanche that had torn away half the snow field on Eternal Ice.
With a long, hot hiss, she reached out and closed her claws around Darka. Grandmother strode forward and tapped her spear on the dirt three times, demanding to be seen. Never would she bow. Never would she cringe. For eighteen years my people have brought you meat in honor of our agreement. I have something better and more substantial for you than a skinny ainok. The great eyes blinked. Sour scorching breath gusted over them. He was my favorite.
Naiva doubted that any of the broodlings were Atarka's favorite but the dragon was a wily, greedy beast. They did not kill him. It fell out of sight but close to the spot where, Naiva knew, the carcass of the broodling lay. His death sickened her, but they all faced death every day. At least his had come quickly. Grandmother did not move, keeping herself between the dragon and Darka's kinsman, Rakhan. But as I was saying before you wasted the meat of my ainok, we have killed you something better.
One of Ojutai's kin killed your broodling and fed on its innards. We avenged your broodling's death by killing the outsider.
Duel in the Ministry Atrium
A dragon for your next feast! Atarka raised her head and tested the air. The pungent odor of the tempest still lingered, woven in with the smell of grass, of dirt, of drying blood and old rock. Grandmother gestured for the others to remain behind and started walking, alone, toward the distant scatter of boulders where the broodling had deposited the dead Ojutai dragon. Atarka slammed a foreclaw down on the ground in front of the old woman. I will eat all if I am not satisfied. Naiva kept her back rigid and her gaze ahead; every child was taught never to challenge a dragon by looking them directly in the eyes but also never to cringe submissively or run away.
It was better to die than to cringe. She let the others pass, exchanging a glance with Baishya. Her twin hesitated, making ready to fall back with her, but Naiva gestured for her to go ahead. Only when everyone else had gone ahead did she fall in at the end of the line. Nothing but air separated her from Atarka. The dragonlord paced behind them, each footfall an earthquake. When the dragon exhaled, sparks swirled past her body. It was so hard not to glance behind, not that a look would save her.
One swipe, one blast, and she'd be dead, obliterated, but she wanted to do as Grandmother would do. She wanted to prove herself worthy of being Yasova Dragonclaw's granddaughter: undaunted, a living shield between danger and the tribe. Her sense of the world around her expanded: each step might be her last, each intake of breath her final measure, each heartbeat the end. Tae Jin glancing back at her; Baishya's shallow breathing; Rakhan's stifled grief; the other hunters silent and alert, ready for anything even if that anything was the death that awaited all in the end.
But Atarka let them live, or maybe she had crueler sports in mind to play with her hostages. They lived on her sufferance. The dragonlords were more powerful than the old ways, so what was the point of cherishing the ancestors when they had been crushed and defeated? If they had been worthy, surely they would have won.
Unexpectedly, Atarka leaped upward and with a howl of glee flew in a quick hop over them to drop down beside the body of the Ojutai dragon. The slender dragon was badly torn up after the titanic battle, but they all braced themselves as Atarka snuffled around the body and inhaled a taste of his congealed blood. Would she realize no human weapons had cut the body? She whipped her tail back and forth to force the hunting party up against a boulder, trapping them there. Thinking of their mother, Naiva placed herself in front of Baishya, but the dragon's gaze fell not on the inheritor of their mother's shamanic gifts but on Tae Jin.
Fortunately, the mended tunic covered his ghostfire tattoo, but his facial features and shaved head marked him as different from the other humans. Tae Jin took a step forward, lifting his arms, palms up, and bringing his forearms together in the gesture that would birth the ghostfire blade in his hands. Do not begin that which you cannot end. As he obediently lowered his arms to his side, she returned her attention to the dragonlord. What use for a brave warrior is it to serve a pompous, ice-breathing windbag when he can hunt in the service of a true dragon like you?
Atarka rumbled, her head swaying mesmerically back and forth as she considered first the carcass and then the slight young man. Tae Jin took a step forward. For example, I can tell you many stories. They are not tasty like meat. But consider this. Ojutai himself sent his own favored broodling to hunt down the man. He did not wish the man to leave his domain and serve another, greater dragonlord. You win a victory over Ojutai by keeping this man alive in your tribe when Ojutai wants him dead. Atarka's cruel laughter washed over them like an icy bath.
Tell a story while I feast. Then I decide. As the great dragon began ripping into the smaller dragon's cooling flesh, Tae Jin began to speak. A very, very long time ago, there ruled a king of great beneficence, greater than any other king in all the land. This king was a dragon of particular wisdom and strength. Once called the least of his siblings, Nicol had traveled the continent of his birth with his brother Ugin to discover the truth of the world.
But alas, the truth was harsh. The world was harsh. Violence and murder erupted even in the most orderly of humanoid realms, even when there was plenty of space for all where vegetation grew lushly and beasts roamed in abundance. Troubled and distraught by this revelation, the young dragon journeyed to the mountain of his birth with his brother. He wasn't sure what he sought but hoped to discover enlightenment.
A far more terrible prospect greeted him when at last he reached the ancient peak. The humans who lived below the bright radiance of the birth mountain had elevated a killer as their chief, and his heirs were also killers. Atarka raised her head, sinew and flesh dripping from her jaws, and fixed a hot, golden gaze upon Tae Jin.
The air snapped with anticipation. He had her attention now, and that was not a good thing. He rubbed at his eyes, shook his head as if to clear it, and muttered, "That isn't the story I meant to tell. Let me try again. With vile sorcery the chief and his heirs preyed upon dragons, caring nothing for the noble superiority of the magnificent ones. These feeble humans fed on the blood and bone of those greater than themselves, hoping to steal that strength.
With spear and sorcery, the chief crushed his subjects under his heel. Those who pleased and flattered him prospered, and those who were caught whispering treason under their breath died. Those who could not fight labored hungrily in the fields to feed him. The healthy and strong were given spears and whips with which to thrash the rebellious and the stranger into submission. As the years passed, the chief came to rule more people and extend his sway over more of the land. The greedy prospered, and the weak groaned under the burden of their endless toil.
But dragons do not suffer such indignities for long.
Such an affront must be answered. When the young dragon arrived at the birth mountain and saw the injustice and abuse being meted out to the vulnerable, he knew he must act. It is true his brother was not as bold; he caviled; he hesitated. But to do nothing to avenge the death of one's kin is the same as killing them yourself.
Outnumbered and unable to match the cruel sorcery of the humans, the young dragon outwitted the humans instead. With matchless cunning, he set the heirs against each other so that they fought one against the next until all lost the war for succession. In the course of the war, his brother was swept away into nothingness by a blast of human sorcery, their own claw of revenge.
But the dragon triumphed.
Dragons always triumph for that is their nature, to rise above all. In place of the brutal chief, the young dragon was acclaimed as savior of the realm and offered the throne. Those who had once worshiped the drinker of dragon's blood now bowed before the dragon. He ruled according to the precepts he had discussed at length with his brother, for they were ever eager to understand the world's scope and heart.
He knew that he could best honor the memory of his beloved brother by acting as he would have done, as he would have urged his brother to do. So it was that he reigned justly and fairly, with order and peace, for many generations. Where is the blood and the shattered bone? Victarion's Iron Fleet of over ninety ships splits into three squadrons and sets sail for Meereen.
With him aboard Iron Victory is "the dusky woman ", a gift of Euron's. She is comely but mute. On the journey, Victarion loses nearly half his ships, though he also gains some ships back by capturing and seizing several trading vessels and their cargo. Victarion's wounded hand continues to trouble him, and he suspects that Kerwin , the maester that Euron sent to accompany him, is poisoning him. During the voyage, a red priest of R'hllor named Moqorro is discovered clinging to wreckage out at sea. The crew wants him killed, but Moqorro convinces Victarion to allow him to treat his wounded hand.
Behind closed doors, Moqorro apparently uses magic on the lord captain; when Victarion emerges from his cabin, his hand is charred and blackened. Moqorro, like Melisandre , can see the future in the flames, and uses the magic to aid Victarion in his quest. For instance, Victarion orders his crew to kill Kerwin, as Moqorro had a vision that the maester's death would bring the ship good winds.
Victarion makes offerings to both the Drowned God and R'hllor. Moqorro also alerts Victarion that he has seen Daenerys married in the flames, but Victarion is unconcerned by this, stating "she would not be the first woman I made a widow.
Magic in Harry Potter - Wikipedia
Words are wind, and the only good wind is that which fills our sails. When Balon was wed, it was me he sent to Harlaw to bring him back his bride. I led his longships into many a battle, and never lost but one. The first time Balon took a crown, it was me sailed into Lannisport to singe the lion's tail. The second time, it was me he sent to skin the Young Wolf should he come howling home. All you'll get from me is more of what you got from Balon. A wolf is not a a kraken. What the kraken grasps it does not lose, be it longship or leviathan.
Wizards may be well and good, but blood and steel win wars. There is no wine so sweet as wine taken from a foe.
One day I shall drink your wine, Crow's Eye , and take from you all that you hold dear. I beat her to death with mine own hands, but the Crow's Eye killed her when he shoved himself inside her. I had no choice. Euron : It is a fearsome thing to sail beyond Valyria. Victarion : I could sail the Iron Fleet to hell if need be.
Related Battle For Magic: Hand of Fire
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0.49750131368... | 1 | In both cases, the rebel fleets were defeated by the Constantinopolitan Imperial Fleet through the use of Greek fire. The importance placed on Greek fire during the Empire's struggle against the Arabs would lead to its discovery being ascribed to divine intervention. The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos r. This, however, was apparently not enough to allow their enemies to copy it see below. Greek fire continued to be mentioned during the 12th century, and Anna Komnene gives a vivid description of its use in a naval battle against the Pisans in This might be because of the general disarmament of the Empire in the 20 years leading up to the sacking, or because the Byzantines had lost access to the areas where the primary ingredients were to be found, or even perhaps because the secret had been lost over time.
Records of a 13th-century event in which "Greek fire" was used by the Saracens against the Crusaders can be read through the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville during the Seventh Crusade. One description of the memoir says "the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded like the thunder of heaven. It looked like a dragon flying through the air. Such a bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that it shed.
In the 19th century, it is reported that an Armenian by the name of Kavafian approached the government of the Ottoman Empire with a new type of Greek fire he claimed to have developed. Kavafian refused to reveal its composition when asked by the government, insisting that he be placed in command of its use during naval engagements. Not long after this, he was poisoned by imperial authorities, without their ever having found out his secret. As Constantine Porphyrogennetos' warnings show, the ingredients and the processes of manufacture and deployment of Greek fire were carefully guarded military secrets.
So strict was the secrecy that the composition of Greek fire was lost forever and remains a source of speculation. Despite this almost exclusive focus, however, Greek fire is best understood as a complete weapon system of many components, all of which were needed to operate together to render it effective. The information available on Greek fire is exclusively indirect, based on references in the Byzantine military manuals and a number of secondary historical sources such as Anna Komnene and Western European chroniclers, which are often inaccurate.
In her Alexiad , Anna Komnene provides a description of an incendiary weapon, which was used by the Byzantine garrison of Dyrrhachium in against the Normans. It is often regarded as an at least partial "recipe" for Greek fire: . This fire is made by the following arts. From the pine and the certain such evergreen trees inflammable resin is collected.
This is rubbed with sulfur and put into tubes of reed, and is blown by men using it with violent and continuous breath. Then in this manner it meets the fire on the tip and catches light and falls like a fiery whirlwind on the faces of the enemies. At the same time, the reports by Western chroniclers of the famed ignis graecus are largely unreliable, since they apply the name to any and all sorts of incendiary substances. In attempting to reconstruct the Greek fire system, the concrete evidence, as it emerges from the contemporary literary references, provides the following characteristics:.
The first and, for a long time, most popular theory regarding the composition of Greek fire held that its chief ingredient was saltpeter , making it an early form of gunpowder. A second view, based on the fact that Greek fire was inextinguishable by water some sources suggest that water intensified the flames suggested that its destructive power was the result of the explosive reaction between water and quicklime. Although quicklime was certainly known and used by the Byzantines and the Arabs in warfare, the theory is refuted by literary and empirical evidence.
A quicklime-based substance would have to come in contact with water to ignite, while Emperor Leo's Tactica indicate that Greek fire was often poured directly on the decks of enemy ships, although admittedly, decks were kept wet due to lack of sealants. Likewise, Leo describes the use of grenades, which further reinforces the view that contact with water was not necessary for the substance's ignition.
Zenghelis pointed out that, based on experiments, the actual result of the water—quicklime reaction would be negligible in the open sea. However, extensive experiments with it also failed to reproduce the described intensity of Greek fire. Consequently, although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be entirely excluded, they were not the primary ingredient.
The Byzantines had easy access to crude oil from the naturally occurring wells around the Black Sea e. Although the text contains some inaccuracies, it clearly identifies the main component as naphtha. A 12th century treatise prepared by Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi for Saladin records an Arab version of Greek fire, called naft , which also had a petroleum base, with sulfur and various resins added. Any direct relation with the Byzantine formula is unlikely. The Byzantine military manuals also mention that jars chytrai or tzykalia filled with Greek fire and caltrops wrapped with tow and soaked in the substance were thrown by catapults, while pivoting cranes gerania were employed to pour it upon enemy ships.
Anna Komnene gives this account of beast-shaped Greek fire projectors being mounted to the bow of warships: . As he [the Emperor Alexios I ] knew that the Pisans were skilled in sea warfare and dreaded a battle with them, on the prow of each ship he had a head fixed of a lion or other land-animal, made in brass or iron with the mouth open and then gilded over, so that their mere aspect was terrifying.
And the fire which was to be directed against the enemy through tubes he made to pass through the mouths of the beasts, so that it seemed as if the lions and the other similar monsters were vomiting the fire. As they came out of the boulders onto the open tundra, his gaze roved in the way of an experienced hunter who knows how to read the land for signs of game: broken stalks of grass, prints sunk into the ground, a carcass stripped to the bone, fresh scat.
No matter how she tried to focus, her thoughts kept swirling back to her grievance. It wasn't fair that Grandmother protected Baishya while she got stuck with a half-crippled orc who mocked her and didn't even belong to the clan. Just because Grandmother said he was one of them now didn't make it true. She kicked a rock onto a shallow puddle. The rock cracked the skin of ice on the water and sank out of sight. He glanced her way. Better not to choke on words that should be loosed like arrows. What kind of answers do dead things have, except for signs that tell us how they were killed?
It's better to let the dead go and concentrate on the hunt. Maybe not better for us who must serve them rather than rule ourselves as we once did. But the thought of turning him over to Atarka grated. He wasn't wrong for pointing out that the rule of the dragonlords was harsh and uncompromising, that it made the people more like servants than proud hunters.
She did not want to become one of those spineless tale-tellers who scraped and wheedled in Ayagor to try to win the favor of Atarka, as if the dragon cared anything for her mortal subjects except that they brought her meat and more meat. But that is not why, young one. Many ways to fight, even if my tribe does not recognize their worth. Unlike the humans, he needed no gloves because the tough skin of his hands withstood the worst cold. A network of thin scars wove a harsh pattern across the back of each hand, the mark of no claw she had ever seen.
Maybe it was just how orcs got old, like age spots on the hands of wizened elders kept alive by their sentimental children. Atarka rules us now, not the dragonclaw, not a khan. Even though we don't like it, that's just how it is. He gestured across his throat, cutting her off. Humiliated by his high-handedness toward her—Yasova's granddaughter! If only she were a dragon. She would burn him. Burn him.
But he hadn't been reacting to her words. His tongue licked the air. His back stiffened. He stuck the staff into a loop along his back and tugged free both swords with a swift motion whose efficiency impressed her. Made of brass, they were the most valuable objects he possessed, although they did not have nearly as sharp a cutting edge as the obsidian weapons used by the rest of the tribe.
A vast darkness sped toward them, monstrous and silent. Only one creature possessed such a frightening spread of spiky, glowing antlers. Naiva sprinted back toward the boulders, but although she was young and fleet, she was not a dragonlord. Atarka's huge form passed over her in a wash of shadow and heat.
The dragon slammed down to earth right at the edge of the boulders.https://alophlotarto.tk/1709.php
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The ground shook. Naiva stumbled, catching herself on her forward hand, then leaped back up and kept running. But it was too late. The dragonlord had caught Grandmother and the others a spear's toss away from the outermost boulders and placed herself between them and the safety of the rocks. Naiva slowed to a walk. She knew better than to move quickly. Atarka might look ungainly but nothing moved faster than the dragonlord when her ire was roused. The dragon's growl rolled as loudly as the avalanche that had torn away half the snow field on Eternal Ice.
With a long, hot hiss, she reached out and closed her claws around Darka. Grandmother strode forward and tapped her spear on the dirt three times, demanding to be seen. Never would she bow. Never would she cringe. For eighteen years my people have brought you meat in honor of our agreement. I have something better and more substantial for you than a skinny ainok. The great eyes blinked. Sour scorching breath gusted over them. He was my favorite.
Naiva doubted that any of the broodlings were Atarka's favorite but the dragon was a wily, greedy beast. They did not kill him. It fell out of sight but close to the spot where, Naiva knew, the carcass of the broodling lay. His death sickened her, but they all faced death every day. At least his had come quickly. Grandmother did not move, keeping herself between the dragon and Darka's kinsman, Rakhan. But as I was saying before you wasted the meat of my ainok, we have killed you something better.
One of Ojutai's kin killed your broodling and fed on its innards. We avenged your broodling's death by killing the outsider.
Duel in the Ministry Atrium
A dragon for your next feast! Atarka raised her head and tested the air. The pungent odor of the tempest still lingered, woven in with the smell of grass, of dirt, of drying blood and old rock. Grandmother gestured for the others to remain behind and started walking, alone, toward the distant scatter of boulders where the broodling had deposited the dead Ojutai dragon. Atarka slammed a foreclaw down on the ground in front of the old woman. I will eat all if I am not satisfied. Naiva kept her back rigid and her gaze ahead; every child was taught never to challenge a dragon by looking them directly in the eyes but also never to cringe submissively or run away.
It was better to die than to cringe. She let the others pass, exchanging a glance with Baishya. Her twin hesitated, making ready to fall back with her, but Naiva gestured for her to go ahead. Only when everyone else had gone ahead did she fall in at the end of the line. Nothing but air separated her from Atarka. The dragonlord paced behind them, each footfall an earthquake. When the dragon exhaled, sparks swirled past her body. It was so hard not to glance behind, not that a look would save her.
One swipe, one blast, and she'd be dead, obliterated, but she wanted to do as Grandmother would do. She wanted to prove herself worthy of being Yasova Dragonclaw's granddaughter: undaunted, a living shield between danger and the tribe. Her sense of the world around her expanded: each step might be her last, each intake of breath her final measure, each heartbeat the end. Tae Jin glancing back at her; Baishya's shallow breathing; Rakhan's stifled grief; the other hunters silent and alert, ready for anything even if that anything was the death that awaited all in the end.
But Atarka let them live, or maybe she had crueler sports in mind to play with her hostages. They lived on her sufferance. The dragonlords were more powerful than the old ways, so what was the point of cherishing the ancestors when they had been crushed and defeated? If they had been worthy, surely they would have won.
Unexpectedly, Atarka leaped upward and with a howl of glee flew in a quick hop over them to drop down beside the body of the Ojutai dragon. The slender dragon was badly torn up after the titanic battle, but they all braced themselves as Atarka snuffled around the body and inhaled a taste of his congealed blood. Would she realize no human weapons had cut the body? She whipped her tail back and forth to force the hunting party up against a boulder, trapping them there. Thinking of their mother, Naiva placed herself in front of Baishya, but the dragon's gaze fell not on the inheritor of their mother's shamanic gifts but on Tae Jin.
Fortunately, the mended tunic covered his ghostfire tattoo, but his facial features and shaved head marked him as different from the other humans. Tae Jin took a step forward, lifting his arms, palms up, and bringing his forearms together in the gesture that would birth the ghostfire blade in his hands. Do not begin that which you cannot end. As he obediently lowered his arms to his side, she returned her attention to the dragonlord. What use for a brave warrior is it to serve a pompous, ice-breathing windbag when he can hunt in the service of a true dragon like you?
Atarka rumbled, her head swaying mesmerically back and forth as she considered first the carcass and then the slight young man. Tae Jin took a step forward. For example, I can tell you many stories. They are not tasty like meat. But consider this. Ojutai himself sent his own favored broodling to hunt down the man. He did not wish the man to leave his domain and serve another, greater dragonlord. You win a victory over Ojutai by keeping this man alive in your tribe when Ojutai wants him dead. Atarka's cruel laughter washed over them like an icy bath.
Tell a story while I feast. Then I decide. As the great dragon began ripping into the smaller dragon's cooling flesh, Tae Jin began to speak. A very, very long time ago, there ruled a king of great beneficence, greater than any other king in all the land. This king was a dragon of particular wisdom and strength. Once called the least of his siblings, Nicol had traveled the continent of his birth with his brother Ugin to discover the truth of the world.
But alas, the truth was harsh. The world was harsh. Violence and murder erupted even in the most orderly of humanoid realms, even when there was plenty of space for all where vegetation grew lushly and beasts roamed in abundance. Troubled and distraught by this revelation, the young dragon journeyed to the mountain of his birth with his brother. He wasn't sure what he sought but hoped to discover enlightenment.
A far more terrible prospect greeted him when at last he reached the ancient peak. The humans who lived below the bright radiance of the birth mountain had elevated a killer as their chief, and his heirs were also killers. Atarka raised her head, sinew and flesh dripping from her jaws, and fixed a hot, golden gaze upon Tae Jin.
The air snapped with anticipation. He had her attention now, and that was not a good thing. He rubbed at his eyes, shook his head as if to clear it, and muttered, "That isn't the story I meant to tell. Let me try again. With vile sorcery the chief and his heirs preyed upon dragons, caring nothing for the noble superiority of the magnificent ones. These feeble humans fed on the blood and bone of those greater than themselves, hoping to steal that strength.
With spear and sorcery, the chief crushed his subjects under his heel. Those who pleased and flattered him prospered, and those who were caught whispering treason under their breath died. Those who could not fight labored hungrily in the fields to feed him. The healthy and strong were given spears and whips with which to thrash the rebellious and the stranger into submission. As the years passed, the chief came to rule more people and extend his sway over more of the land. The greedy prospered, and the weak groaned under the burden of their endless toil.
But dragons do not suffer such indignities for long.
Such an affront must be answered. When the young dragon arrived at the birth mountain and saw the injustice and abuse being meted out to the vulnerable, he knew he must act. It is true his brother was not as bold; he caviled; he hesitated. But to do nothing to avenge the death of one's kin is the same as killing them yourself.
Outnumbered and unable to match the cruel sorcery of the humans, the young dragon outwitted the humans instead. With matchless cunning, he set the heirs against each other so that they fought one against the next until all lost the war for succession. In the course of the war, his brother was swept away into nothingness by a blast of human sorcery, their own claw of revenge.
But the dragon triumphed.
Dragons always triumph for that is their nature, to rise above all. In place of the brutal chief, the young dragon was acclaimed as savior of the realm and offered the throne. Those who had once worshiped the drinker of dragon's blood now bowed before the dragon. He ruled according to the precepts he had discussed at length with his brother, for they were ever eager to understand the world's scope and heart.
He knew that he could best honor the memory of his beloved brother by acting as he would have done, as he would have urged his brother to do. So it was that he reigned justly and fairly, with order and peace, for many generations. Where is the blood and the shattered bone? Victarion's Iron Fleet of over ninety ships splits into three squadrons and sets sail for Meereen.
With him aboard Iron Victory is "the dusky woman ", a gift of Euron's. She is comely but mute. On the journey, Victarion loses nearly half his ships, though he also gains some ships back by capturing and seizing several trading vessels and their cargo. Victarion's wounded hand continues to trouble him, and he suspects that Kerwin , the maester that Euron sent to accompany him, is poisoning him. During the voyage, a red priest of R'hllor named Moqorro is discovered clinging to wreckage out at sea. The crew wants him killed, but Moqorro convinces Victarion to allow him to treat his wounded hand.
Behind closed doors, Moqorro apparently uses magic on the lord captain; when Victarion emerges from his cabin, his hand is charred and blackened. Moqorro, like Melisandre , can see the future in the flames, and uses the magic to aid Victarion in his quest. For instance, Victarion orders his crew to kill Kerwin, as Moqorro had a vision that the maester's death would bring the ship good winds.
Victarion makes offerings to both the Drowned God and R'hllor. Moqorro also alerts Victarion that he has seen Daenerys married in the flames, but Victarion is unconcerned by this, stating "she would not be the first woman I made a widow.
Magic in Harry Potter - Wikipedia
Words are wind, and the only good wind is that which fills our sails. When Balon was wed, it was me he sent to Harlaw to bring him back his bride. I led his longships into many a battle, and never lost but one. The first time Balon took a crown, it was me sailed into Lannisport to singe the lion's tail. The second time, it was me he sent to skin the Young Wolf should he come howling home. All you'll get from me is more of what you got from Balon. A wolf is not a a kraken. What the kraken grasps it does not lose, be it longship or leviathan.
Wizards may be well and good, but blood and steel win wars. There is no wine so sweet as wine taken from a foe.
One day I shall drink your wine, Crow's Eye , and take from you all that you hold dear. I beat her to death with mine own hands, but the Crow's Eye killed her when he shoved himself inside her. I had no choice. Euron : It is a fearsome thing to sail beyond Valyria. Victarion : I could sail the Iron Fleet to hell if need be.
Related Battle For Magic: Hand of Fire
Copyright 2019 - All Right Reserved | 4,692 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is May 4, 1925. A great crowd of men, women, and children huddle together around the lanterns of their guides as they walk through a dark, stone hall beneath the earth. Somewhere under the arches, music begins to play as young men test their banjos and mandolins in the hallowed space. However, despite the arches and columns supporting the great stone roof, the place that they tour is no cathedral. It is not a cave, either. It is a reservoir, built underground and covered by 14 acres of concrete and dirt. The 4,000 people that will be ushered through the darkness this day will be some of the last to see the inside of this place. On July 1st of this same year, the plant and reservoir will be officially opened, and the reservoir will be filled with over a hundred million gallons of fresh, clear water. That water will then flow from the reservoir to the people that need it, all over Cuyahoga County. But, until June 7th, young and old alike will be able to stalk through what some have called a “temple”, and a modern marvel of engineering.
Part of the reason that the reservoir was such an attraction was its sheer size and the amount of material that went into its construction. The Baldwin Reservoir measures roughly 1,035 feet long by 551 feet wide by 39 feet high. Each half of the reservoir’s roof is 500 square feet and is held up by 1,104 arched panels. Each of these panels is about 20 square feet. The panels are themselves supported 1,196 concrete columns that are about 35 feet high and 30 inches in diameter. The reason that the roof is divided in half is because the reservoir itself is also divided. A wall splits the reservoir into two basins, which are fed water from the plant by flumes set 21 feet above the reservoir floor. The attached filtration plant covers an area of 268,000 square feet and was constructed in a Palladian style, according to the designs of architect Herman Kregelius. The front entrance is covered by bronze doors that are 8 feet tall, with a 27-foot-tall glass arch surrounding the doors. This arch, combined with the windows set a few feet apart close to the ceiling, allow in plenty of natural light to brighten up the plant during the day. The plant and reservoir were completed in 1925 at the cost of $5 million, the equivalent of several tens of millions of dollars today.
However, the reservoir and filtration plant have been more than just an attraction to see or a big cost to the city. They have also been a source of safe drinking water for thousands of people. Prior to the construction of the reservoir, three quarters of Cuyahoga County’s population lived in a low-service zone. For most of Cleveland, and the surrounding county, water was something that had to be rationed, and something that oozed out of the tap. It was often filthy and filled with random bits of debris and waste that had coated the pipes over the years. However, when the plant and reservoir were finished, and hooked up to a nearby pumping station, all of those people suddenly had fresh, clear water bursting out from their pipes whenever they turned on the tap. People could drink their fill, water their lawns, and bathe regularly, without fear of contracting any diseases or being poisoned by industrial runoff. And they could get this from their hookups at home, with no more need to go to contaminated neighborhood wells and pumps.
The true value of safe drinking water cannot be overstated. In the year 1900, more than twenty years before the reservoir was completed, 54 out of every 100,000 people in Cleveland died from typhoid fever. In 1915, four years after the city began disinfecting its water, that rate had dropped to 8 out every 100,000. By 1920, the total rate was less than 4 per 100,000. Most of those cases that still occurred were centered in low-service districts, where water quality and availability were lower. When the reservoir was completed, and its attached filtration plant was put into action, the rate of typhoid-related deaths went down to near zero.
Today, the Baldwin Reservoir and Baldwin Filtration plant are practically invisible and tend to stay out of the news. All that one can see, looking from beyond the fence along Woodhill Road, is a long stretch of lawn that extends to a line of hedges and trees, and some walkways leading up to the filtration plant and administration building. However, beneath that lawn is one of the world’s largest covered reservoirs, and one of the biggest water supplies in the city of Cleveland. Despite its invisibility, the Baldwin Reservoir has left a large impact on the city, its people, and its history. One that is still felt today, every time that someone fills a glass from their tap. | <urn:uuid:5208a42b-9e07-4b17-824b-ec3d8fcb3e3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/890 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00501.warc.gz | en | 0.983708 | 1,016 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.070912413299... | 10 | It is May 4, 1925. A great crowd of men, women, and children huddle together around the lanterns of their guides as they walk through a dark, stone hall beneath the earth. Somewhere under the arches, music begins to play as young men test their banjos and mandolins in the hallowed space. However, despite the arches and columns supporting the great stone roof, the place that they tour is no cathedral. It is not a cave, either. It is a reservoir, built underground and covered by 14 acres of concrete and dirt. The 4,000 people that will be ushered through the darkness this day will be some of the last to see the inside of this place. On July 1st of this same year, the plant and reservoir will be officially opened, and the reservoir will be filled with over a hundred million gallons of fresh, clear water. That water will then flow from the reservoir to the people that need it, all over Cuyahoga County. But, until June 7th, young and old alike will be able to stalk through what some have called a “temple”, and a modern marvel of engineering.
Part of the reason that the reservoir was such an attraction was its sheer size and the amount of material that went into its construction. The Baldwin Reservoir measures roughly 1,035 feet long by 551 feet wide by 39 feet high. Each half of the reservoir’s roof is 500 square feet and is held up by 1,104 arched panels. Each of these panels is about 20 square feet. The panels are themselves supported 1,196 concrete columns that are about 35 feet high and 30 inches in diameter. The reason that the roof is divided in half is because the reservoir itself is also divided. A wall splits the reservoir into two basins, which are fed water from the plant by flumes set 21 feet above the reservoir floor. The attached filtration plant covers an area of 268,000 square feet and was constructed in a Palladian style, according to the designs of architect Herman Kregelius. The front entrance is covered by bronze doors that are 8 feet tall, with a 27-foot-tall glass arch surrounding the doors. This arch, combined with the windows set a few feet apart close to the ceiling, allow in plenty of natural light to brighten up the plant during the day. The plant and reservoir were completed in 1925 at the cost of $5 million, the equivalent of several tens of millions of dollars today.
However, the reservoir and filtration plant have been more than just an attraction to see or a big cost to the city. They have also been a source of safe drinking water for thousands of people. Prior to the construction of the reservoir, three quarters of Cuyahoga County’s population lived in a low-service zone. For most of Cleveland, and the surrounding county, water was something that had to be rationed, and something that oozed out of the tap. It was often filthy and filled with random bits of debris and waste that had coated the pipes over the years. However, when the plant and reservoir were finished, and hooked up to a nearby pumping station, all of those people suddenly had fresh, clear water bursting out from their pipes whenever they turned on the tap. People could drink their fill, water their lawns, and bathe regularly, without fear of contracting any diseases or being poisoned by industrial runoff. And they could get this from their hookups at home, with no more need to go to contaminated neighborhood wells and pumps.
The true value of safe drinking water cannot be overstated. In the year 1900, more than twenty years before the reservoir was completed, 54 out of every 100,000 people in Cleveland died from typhoid fever. In 1915, four years after the city began disinfecting its water, that rate had dropped to 8 out every 100,000. By 1920, the total rate was less than 4 per 100,000. Most of those cases that still occurred were centered in low-service districts, where water quality and availability were lower. When the reservoir was completed, and its attached filtration plant was put into action, the rate of typhoid-related deaths went down to near zero.
Today, the Baldwin Reservoir and Baldwin Filtration plant are practically invisible and tend to stay out of the news. All that one can see, looking from beyond the fence along Woodhill Road, is a long stretch of lawn that extends to a line of hedges and trees, and some walkways leading up to the filtration plant and administration building. However, beneath that lawn is one of the world’s largest covered reservoirs, and one of the biggest water supplies in the city of Cleveland. Despite its invisibility, the Baldwin Reservoir has left a large impact on the city, its people, and its history. One that is still felt today, every time that someone fills a glass from their tap. | 1,077 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The story goes that a comet shot out of the sky and hit a mountain top in Tennessee. A baby boy tumbled out of the comet and that baby was Davy Crockett. Davy could carry lightning in his fingers and slide down rainbows.
- Davy (David) Crockett was born in Tennessee, United States in 1786.
- His father, John, fought in the Revolutionary War. While John was away fighting, his parents were killed in an Indian uprising. His brother was taken captive in the uprising and held for 17 years!
- Life didn’t get easier for John after the war. He had a hard time making a living. He tried farming and floundered, and he built a grain mill that was destroyed in a flood. Later, he owned a tavern on a stage coach route.
- To make ends meet, John sent twelve-year-old Davy to work for a cattle rancher. Young Davy accompanied the rancher on a 400-mile trip to Virginia. Davy worked hard and he was paid well, but he missed home.
- Upon his return to home, his father put him in school. Davy beat up a bully that was picking on him and started skipping school to avoid further fights. When his father found out, he prepared to give Davy a whipping. Davy decided it was time to leave home and ran away.
- David spent the next few years working cattle drives and helping farmers. He went home and worked briefly to help his father pay off some debts.
- Davy married Polly Finley and they had three children. After Polly died, Davy married Elizabeth Patton, a widow who had two children. Together, Davy and Elizabeth had three more children.
- Davy spent several years fighting in the army, first in the Creek War and then the War of 1812. He had several businesses and started dabbling in politics. First he was justice of the peace and lieutenant colonel.
- In 1821, Davy won a seat in the Tennessee General Assembly. Later, he spent several years in the House of Representatives in Washington. One of his main priorities was helping impoverished people.
- He published a book about his life; plays were later performed about him. By this point, his rough and tough, swaggering ways had made him very popular. He liked to exaggerate about his life, telling tall folk tales. Other people started repeating the stories and making them even bigger.
- In 1835, Davy went off to help fight for Texas independence. When he arrived in Little Rock, Arkansas, he was met by crowds of people and newspaper writers. The town put on a dinner in his honor.
- At the battle of the Alamo, Davy, along with the other American soldiers there, was killed by Mexican troops. Their bodies were burned under a grove of trees.
Questions and Answers
Question: Why did Davy Crockett’s life story become so exaggerated?
Answer: The American frontier was rugged and harsh. Homesteaders had to muster all the strength and courage they could. One reason for these early tall tales might have been to lift homesteaders up. After Davy’s death at the Alamo, his fame grew along with the stories. Songs have been written about him, and a movie was even made detailing his adventures.
Cite This Page
You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples:
MLA Style Citation
Declan, Tobin. " All Amazing Facts about Davy Crockett ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 24 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/davy-crockett/ >.
APA Style Citation
Tobin, Declan. (2020). All Amazing Facts about Davy Crockett. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from https://easyscienceforkids.com/davy-crockett/
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0.19954200088977814... | 1 | The story goes that a comet shot out of the sky and hit a mountain top in Tennessee. A baby boy tumbled out of the comet and that baby was Davy Crockett. Davy could carry lightning in his fingers and slide down rainbows.
- Davy (David) Crockett was born in Tennessee, United States in 1786.
- His father, John, fought in the Revolutionary War. While John was away fighting, his parents were killed in an Indian uprising. His brother was taken captive in the uprising and held for 17 years!
- Life didn’t get easier for John after the war. He had a hard time making a living. He tried farming and floundered, and he built a grain mill that was destroyed in a flood. Later, he owned a tavern on a stage coach route.
- To make ends meet, John sent twelve-year-old Davy to work for a cattle rancher. Young Davy accompanied the rancher on a 400-mile trip to Virginia. Davy worked hard and he was paid well, but he missed home.
- Upon his return to home, his father put him in school. Davy beat up a bully that was picking on him and started skipping school to avoid further fights. When his father found out, he prepared to give Davy a whipping. Davy decided it was time to leave home and ran away.
- David spent the next few years working cattle drives and helping farmers. He went home and worked briefly to help his father pay off some debts.
- Davy married Polly Finley and they had three children. After Polly died, Davy married Elizabeth Patton, a widow who had two children. Together, Davy and Elizabeth had three more children.
- Davy spent several years fighting in the army, first in the Creek War and then the War of 1812. He had several businesses and started dabbling in politics. First he was justice of the peace and lieutenant colonel.
- In 1821, Davy won a seat in the Tennessee General Assembly. Later, he spent several years in the House of Representatives in Washington. One of his main priorities was helping impoverished people.
- He published a book about his life; plays were later performed about him. By this point, his rough and tough, swaggering ways had made him very popular. He liked to exaggerate about his life, telling tall folk tales. Other people started repeating the stories and making them even bigger.
- In 1835, Davy went off to help fight for Texas independence. When he arrived in Little Rock, Arkansas, he was met by crowds of people and newspaper writers. The town put on a dinner in his honor.
- At the battle of the Alamo, Davy, along with the other American soldiers there, was killed by Mexican troops. Their bodies were burned under a grove of trees.
Questions and Answers
Question: Why did Davy Crockett’s life story become so exaggerated?
Answer: The American frontier was rugged and harsh. Homesteaders had to muster all the strength and courage they could. One reason for these early tall tales might have been to lift homesteaders up. After Davy’s death at the Alamo, his fame grew along with the stories. Songs have been written about him, and a movie was even made detailing his adventures.
Cite This Page
You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples:
MLA Style Citation
Declan, Tobin. " All Amazing Facts about Davy Crockett ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 24 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/davy-crockett/ >.
APA Style Citation
Tobin, Declan. (2020). All Amazing Facts about Davy Crockett. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from https://easyscienceforkids.com/davy-crockett/
Sponsored Links : | 826 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edward Jenner, FRS FRCPE (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English physician and scientist who was the pioneer of smallpox vaccine, the world's first vaccine. The terms "vaccine" and "vaccination" are derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1796 in the long title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae known as the Cow Pox, in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox.Jenner is often called "the father of immunology", and his work is said to have "saved more lives than the work of any other human". In Jenner's time, smallpox killed around 10 percent of the population, with the number as high as 20 percent in towns and cities where infection spread more easily. In 1821 he was appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley and justice of the peace. A member of the Royal Society, in the field of zoology he was the first person to describe the brood parasitism of the cuckoo. In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons. | <urn:uuid:c54f865a-7fa3-4ee7-9601-ace427d3690a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thegreatestbooks.org/authors/6499 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00334.warc.gz | en | 0.986225 | 257 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.13364766538143158... | 7 | Edward Jenner, FRS FRCPE (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English physician and scientist who was the pioneer of smallpox vaccine, the world's first vaccine. The terms "vaccine" and "vaccination" are derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1796 in the long title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae known as the Cow Pox, in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox.Jenner is often called "the father of immunology", and his work is said to have "saved more lives than the work of any other human". In Jenner's time, smallpox killed around 10 percent of the population, with the number as high as 20 percent in towns and cities where infection spread more easily. In 1821 he was appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley and justice of the peace. A member of the Royal Society, in the field of zoology he was the first person to describe the brood parasitism of the cuckoo. In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons. | 291 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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