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Asked in Books and LiteratureMythologyLibraries and Library History
How did books evolve?
October 31, 2014 1:19PM
In very ancient times people kept track of their live-stock using pebbles.(Easier to count then the actual duck or sheep or cattle themselves.) It was easier to keep such pebbles in a bag or a cup for later reference. It has been suggested that one day an unfired clay cup was being used and the person using it found that the pebbles stuck (rather conveniently) to the sides, making sorting easier. From there the cup became a flat slab of clay (easier to get your hands around) and the impression that the pebbles made in the wet clay made a permanent record of the transaction of the day.
The pebbles became obsolete as it was found that a stylus could be used to make the impressions just as easily. The first books therefore were ledgers.
As hieroglyphics were invented to keep track of the different types of inventory and of the people associated with transactions, stories became possible to record.
The Egyptians replace clay with papyrus (much easier to carry around) and of course could be rolled-up. These were the first scrolls. A scroll however has to be rolled out beginning to end and people found that a pile of short scrolls were easier to reference than a single large, long one, so they actually began cutting scrolls up into shorter lengths (shudder) and affixing all pieces to only one post. This was the earliest 'spine' of books.
From here I'm sure how you can see further incremental improvements were made.
All these stages (except the wet clay cup) have been recorded as being in use as the more advanced portions of the world observed the more primitive portions. There are still today 'rancher' who keep track of their livestock using pebbles. | <urn:uuid:2b1805e8-ebf0-48f1-abe8-bf902281a159> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.answers.com/Q/How_did_books_evolve | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.981798 | 392 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.187682539224... | 1 | Asked in Books and LiteratureMythologyLibraries and Library History
How did books evolve?
October 31, 2014 1:19PM
In very ancient times people kept track of their live-stock using pebbles.(Easier to count then the actual duck or sheep or cattle themselves.) It was easier to keep such pebbles in a bag or a cup for later reference. It has been suggested that one day an unfired clay cup was being used and the person using it found that the pebbles stuck (rather conveniently) to the sides, making sorting easier. From there the cup became a flat slab of clay (easier to get your hands around) and the impression that the pebbles made in the wet clay made a permanent record of the transaction of the day.
The pebbles became obsolete as it was found that a stylus could be used to make the impressions just as easily. The first books therefore were ledgers.
As hieroglyphics were invented to keep track of the different types of inventory and of the people associated with transactions, stories became possible to record.
The Egyptians replace clay with papyrus (much easier to carry around) and of course could be rolled-up. These were the first scrolls. A scroll however has to be rolled out beginning to end and people found that a pile of short scrolls were easier to reference than a single large, long one, so they actually began cutting scrolls up into shorter lengths (shudder) and affixing all pieces to only one post. This was the earliest 'spine' of books.
From here I'm sure how you can see further incremental improvements were made.
All these stages (except the wet clay cup) have been recorded as being in use as the more advanced portions of the world observed the more primitive portions. There are still today 'rancher' who keep track of their livestock using pebbles. | 392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first scrambler phones were invented prior to the Second World War to secure voice transmission for commercial use. You can think of a scrambler as an encryption device for analogue signals – an analogue signal is a continuously varying, smooth signal, whilst a digital signal has discrete values.
Standard digital encryption works by applying mathematical functions to the digital data to produce codes. Scrambling works by taking an analogue waveform and modifying the frequencies in a way that makes it incomprehensible. The wave is then unscrambled, a process that transforms the wave back to its original form.
This scrambler phone, which later became known as the Secraphone, was developed in the UK in the late 1930s by the General Post Office (GPO).
The Secraphone consists of two parts. Firstly, the scrambler – originally called a frequency changer – constructed using valve technology. The second part was a handset which, traditionally for scrambler phones, had a green or lime green handpiece. The handset was based on a standard handset in use at the time and was normally placed on a desk with the scrambler under the desk or in a different room.
To operate the phone, the call was initiated in the normal way. In the case of the Secraphone, which had no dialling capability, this would have been through a switchboard operator. Once the call was set up, both parties pressed their ‘Secret’ button. Anyone listening in on the line would now hear unintelligible noise.
If the switchboard operator tried to attract the attention of the Secraphone callers, they would hear the operator as unintelligible and would need to press their ‘Engage For Secret’ button to hear the operator while holding the secret call.
The scrambler worked using a technique known as ‘Frequency Domain Scrambling’. Essentially, the telephone signal was inverted around a chosen frequency, so that the high frequencies become low and vice versa.
However, this type of scrambler was really only secure against the casual eavesdropper such as a telephone engineer or switchboard operator. It was easy to break as it was only necessary to find the inversion frequency and re-invert to unscramble the signal.
In fact, the frequencies were not changed much by inversion so that an experienced listener was often able to get a sense of the message without unscrambling.
The scrambler was used by Winston Churchill during the early part of the Second World War to communicate with the government and the military.
The Bell Labs A-3 Scrambler
In the early 1940s, a scrambling system known as the Bell Labs A-3 scrambler was used in transatlantic communications including those between Churchill and Franklin D Roosevelt, President of the United States, during the Second World War.
The A-3 used the same technology as the Secraphone but was more complex with the signal being split into 5 bands, each of which could be plain or inverted every 15-20 seconds.
Unfortunately, at least one German engineer had worked at Bell Labs before the war and was, therefore, able to develop equipment that could decode the conversations in real-time.
Both the US and Britain were aware that calls were being monitored by the enemy and introduced a system of censorship. Before each call, a censor would explain the ‘rules’ of the call to both parties and make a shorthand transcription of the call. At the same time, the censor would listen for any potential breaches of security regulations such as military details, food supplies, bomb damage, and immediately disconnect the call.
Ruth Ive was a telephone operator and acted as one of the censors for Churchill’s calls. In her book ‘The Woman who censored Churchill’ she recalls how she had to disconnect one of Churchill’s calls as he was about to describe a daytime V2 rocket attack on a London Street market, resulting in dozens of casualties.
Callers were not allowed to identify themselves by name, however, the German interpreters quickly recognised key callers such as Roosevelt and Churchill, even though they referred to themselves as Mr. Smith and Mr. White.
Although the Allies were able to break German text encryption systems, such as Enigma, and had superior text encryption systems that were not broken by the Germans, the opposite is true for voice communications where the Germans were superior. From the autumn of 1941 to July 1943, when a new scrambler system known as SIGSALY was introduced, the Germans were able to intercept, decrypt and listen to almost every word spoken through the A3 encryption system.
SIGSALY (the word is made up rather than an acronym) was also known as ‘The Green Hornet’ because of the buzzing sound of the signal. It was developed by Bell Labs and introduced in 1943 for scrambling the highest levels of secure communication. Alan Turing was also involved in the design, validating the security of the system.
SIGSALY worked by first digitising the speech signal and then encrypting the signal by adding in a digitised random noise signal which acted as a key. The random noise was generated using electronic valves and stored on a phonograph record.
Each record was duplicated – one for each end of the conversation – and was capable of holding 12 minutes of noise or key information. The system also included a synchroniser to ensure that both ends of the system remained in synchronisation.
SIGSALY was based on valve technology and was huge – weighing 55 tons, taking up 2500 square feet of space and requiring 30,000 watts of power. Because of the enormous amount of heat generated, air conditioning was required. It was far too bulky to be stored anywhere in Whitehall and was, therefore, situated in the basement of Selfridges.
SIGSALY technology employed many technological ‘firsts’ and was in operation until 1946. During this time, there is no record of any conversations being broken.
Discover more about the remarkable world of codebreaking, ciphers and secret communications in Top Secret: From Ciphers to Cyber Security our must-see, free exhibition. | <urn:uuid:f049ff05-7be2-44e5-b5e3-0d60fc33459e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.sciencemuseum.org.uk/scrambled-phones/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.981719 | 1,266 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.1936672031... | 2 | The first scrambler phones were invented prior to the Second World War to secure voice transmission for commercial use. You can think of a scrambler as an encryption device for analogue signals – an analogue signal is a continuously varying, smooth signal, whilst a digital signal has discrete values.
Standard digital encryption works by applying mathematical functions to the digital data to produce codes. Scrambling works by taking an analogue waveform and modifying the frequencies in a way that makes it incomprehensible. The wave is then unscrambled, a process that transforms the wave back to its original form.
This scrambler phone, which later became known as the Secraphone, was developed in the UK in the late 1930s by the General Post Office (GPO).
The Secraphone consists of two parts. Firstly, the scrambler – originally called a frequency changer – constructed using valve technology. The second part was a handset which, traditionally for scrambler phones, had a green or lime green handpiece. The handset was based on a standard handset in use at the time and was normally placed on a desk with the scrambler under the desk or in a different room.
To operate the phone, the call was initiated in the normal way. In the case of the Secraphone, which had no dialling capability, this would have been through a switchboard operator. Once the call was set up, both parties pressed their ‘Secret’ button. Anyone listening in on the line would now hear unintelligible noise.
If the switchboard operator tried to attract the attention of the Secraphone callers, they would hear the operator as unintelligible and would need to press their ‘Engage For Secret’ button to hear the operator while holding the secret call.
The scrambler worked using a technique known as ‘Frequency Domain Scrambling’. Essentially, the telephone signal was inverted around a chosen frequency, so that the high frequencies become low and vice versa.
However, this type of scrambler was really only secure against the casual eavesdropper such as a telephone engineer or switchboard operator. It was easy to break as it was only necessary to find the inversion frequency and re-invert to unscramble the signal.
In fact, the frequencies were not changed much by inversion so that an experienced listener was often able to get a sense of the message without unscrambling.
The scrambler was used by Winston Churchill during the early part of the Second World War to communicate with the government and the military.
The Bell Labs A-3 Scrambler
In the early 1940s, a scrambling system known as the Bell Labs A-3 scrambler was used in transatlantic communications including those between Churchill and Franklin D Roosevelt, President of the United States, during the Second World War.
The A-3 used the same technology as the Secraphone but was more complex with the signal being split into 5 bands, each of which could be plain or inverted every 15-20 seconds.
Unfortunately, at least one German engineer had worked at Bell Labs before the war and was, therefore, able to develop equipment that could decode the conversations in real-time.
Both the US and Britain were aware that calls were being monitored by the enemy and introduced a system of censorship. Before each call, a censor would explain the ‘rules’ of the call to both parties and make a shorthand transcription of the call. At the same time, the censor would listen for any potential breaches of security regulations such as military details, food supplies, bomb damage, and immediately disconnect the call.
Ruth Ive was a telephone operator and acted as one of the censors for Churchill’s calls. In her book ‘The Woman who censored Churchill’ she recalls how she had to disconnect one of Churchill’s calls as he was about to describe a daytime V2 rocket attack on a London Street market, resulting in dozens of casualties.
Callers were not allowed to identify themselves by name, however, the German interpreters quickly recognised key callers such as Roosevelt and Churchill, even though they referred to themselves as Mr. Smith and Mr. White.
Although the Allies were able to break German text encryption systems, such as Enigma, and had superior text encryption systems that were not broken by the Germans, the opposite is true for voice communications where the Germans were superior. From the autumn of 1941 to July 1943, when a new scrambler system known as SIGSALY was introduced, the Germans were able to intercept, decrypt and listen to almost every word spoken through the A3 encryption system.
SIGSALY (the word is made up rather than an acronym) was also known as ‘The Green Hornet’ because of the buzzing sound of the signal. It was developed by Bell Labs and introduced in 1943 for scrambling the highest levels of secure communication. Alan Turing was also involved in the design, validating the security of the system.
SIGSALY worked by first digitising the speech signal and then encrypting the signal by adding in a digitised random noise signal which acted as a key. The random noise was generated using electronic valves and stored on a phonograph record.
Each record was duplicated – one for each end of the conversation – and was capable of holding 12 minutes of noise or key information. The system also included a synchroniser to ensure that both ends of the system remained in synchronisation.
SIGSALY was based on valve technology and was huge – weighing 55 tons, taking up 2500 square feet of space and requiring 30,000 watts of power. Because of the enormous amount of heat generated, air conditioning was required. It was far too bulky to be stored anywhere in Whitehall and was, therefore, situated in the basement of Selfridges.
SIGSALY technology employed many technological ‘firsts’ and was in operation until 1946. During this time, there is no record of any conversations being broken.
Discover more about the remarkable world of codebreaking, ciphers and secret communications in Top Secret: From Ciphers to Cyber Security our must-see, free exhibition. | 1,256 | ENGLISH | 1 |
His full name was Gaius Julius Caesar. Caesar was born in the year BC. Julius Caesar was a brilliant military general. Caesar formed and alliance with Pompey and Crassus, gaining support from the public in opposition to the Roman Senate.
Though some of the most powerful noble families were patrician, patrician blood was no longer a political advantage; it was actually a handicap, since a patrician was debarred from holding the paraconstitutional but powerful office of tribune of the plebs.
The Julii Caesares traced their lineage back to the goddess Venusbut the family was not snobbish or conservative-minded. It was also not rich or influential or even distinguished. This was a difficult task for even the ablest and most gifted noble unless he was backed by substantial family wealth and influence.
One of the perquisites of the praetorship and the consulship was the government of a provincewhich gave ample opportunity for plunder.
Military manpower was supplied by the Roman peasantry. This class had been partly dispossessed by an economic revolution following on the devastation caused by the Second Punic War. The Roman governing class had consequently come to be hated and discredited at home and abroad.
From bce onward there had been a series of alternate revolutionary and counter-revolutionary paroxysms. It was evident that the misgovernment of the Roman state and the Greco-Roman world by the Roman nobility could not continue indefinitely and it was fairly clear that the most probable alternative was some form of military dictatorship backed by dispossessed Italian peasants who had turned to long-term military service.
The traditional competition among members of the Roman nobility for office and the spoils of office was thus threatening to turn into a desperate race for seizing autocratic power.
The Julii Caesares did not seem to be in the running. Whoever had been consul in this critical year would have had to initiate such legislation, whatever his personal political predilections.
There is evidence, however, that the Julii Caesares, though patricians, had already committed themselves to the antinobility party. An aunt of the future dictator had married Gaius Mariusa self-made man novus homo who had forced his way up to the summit by his military ability and had made the momentous innovation of recruiting his armies from the dispossessed peasants.
The day was July 12 or 13; the traditional and perhaps most probable year is bce; but if this date is correct, Caesar must have held each of his offices two years in advance of the legal minimum age. His father, Gaius Caesar, died when Caesar was but 16; his mother, Aurelia, was a notable woman, and it seems certain that he owed much to her.
In spite of the inadequacy of his resources, Caesar seems to have chosen a political career as a matter of course.
From the beginning, he probably privately aimed at winning office, not just for the sake of the honours but in order to achieve the power to put the misgoverned Roman state and Greco-Roman world into better order in accordance with ideas of his own.
It is improbable that Caesar deliberately sought monarchical power until after he had crossed the Rubicon in 49 bce, though sufficient power to impose his will, as he was determined to do, proved to mean monarchical power.
In 83 bce Lucius Cornelius Sulla returned to Italy from the East and led the successful counter-revolution of 83—82 bce; Sulla then ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia. Caesar refused and came close to losing not only his property such as it was but his life as well.
He found it advisable to remove himself from Italy and to do military service, first in the province of Asia and then in Cilicia. His first target, Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, was defended by Quintus Hortensiusthe leading advocate of the day, and was acquitted by the extortion-court jury, composed exclusively of senators.
Caesar then went to Rhodes to study oratory under a famous professor, Molon. En route he was captured by pirates one of the symptoms of the anarchy into which the Roman nobility had allowed the Mediterranean world to fall.
Caesar raised his ransom, raised a naval forcecaptured his captors, and had them crucified—all this as a private individual holding no public office. In his absence from Rome, Caesar was made a member of the politico-ecclesiastical college of pontifices ; and on his return he gained one of the elective military tribuneships.
In 69 or 68 bce Caesar was elected quaestor the first rung on the Roman political ladder. In public funeral orations in their honour, Caesar found opportunities for praising Cinna and Marius.Watch video · Julius Caesar (c.
July 12 or 13, BC to March 15, 44 BC) was a politically adept and popular leader of the Roman Republic who significantly transformed what became known as . One Pan Lemon Parmesan Chicken and Asparagus: lightly breaded garlicky lemon parmesan chicken and asparagus all cooked on ONE pan.
Oct 27, · Gaius Julius Caesar, one of the world’s greatest military leaders, was born into a senatorial, patrician family and was the nephew of another famous Roman general, Marius.
Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of Caesarism, a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of .
Julius Caesar is known to have been involved with three other women in his lifetime. The first was Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, with whom he had a son called Caesarion.
Cleopatra and Julius Caesar could not ever get married because she was Egyptian, and he was Roman, and under Roman law, only Roman citizens could get married to each other. Feb 14, · This American Civil War Full History Documentary Film Full Length Non-Stop for over 8 hours - Duration: Deep Archive Documentary , views. | <urn:uuid:f62b4ed4-935e-4178-96f0-9a4334303b58> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://xakejebywyriwav.regardbouddhiste.com/juliu-caesar-46838iw.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.986893 | 1,289 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.1657198071479... | 2 | His full name was Gaius Julius Caesar. Caesar was born in the year BC. Julius Caesar was a brilliant military general. Caesar formed and alliance with Pompey and Crassus, gaining support from the public in opposition to the Roman Senate.
Though some of the most powerful noble families were patrician, patrician blood was no longer a political advantage; it was actually a handicap, since a patrician was debarred from holding the paraconstitutional but powerful office of tribune of the plebs.
The Julii Caesares traced their lineage back to the goddess Venusbut the family was not snobbish or conservative-minded. It was also not rich or influential or even distinguished. This was a difficult task for even the ablest and most gifted noble unless he was backed by substantial family wealth and influence.
One of the perquisites of the praetorship and the consulship was the government of a provincewhich gave ample opportunity for plunder.
Military manpower was supplied by the Roman peasantry. This class had been partly dispossessed by an economic revolution following on the devastation caused by the Second Punic War. The Roman governing class had consequently come to be hated and discredited at home and abroad.
From bce onward there had been a series of alternate revolutionary and counter-revolutionary paroxysms. It was evident that the misgovernment of the Roman state and the Greco-Roman world by the Roman nobility could not continue indefinitely and it was fairly clear that the most probable alternative was some form of military dictatorship backed by dispossessed Italian peasants who had turned to long-term military service.
The traditional competition among members of the Roman nobility for office and the spoils of office was thus threatening to turn into a desperate race for seizing autocratic power.
The Julii Caesares did not seem to be in the running. Whoever had been consul in this critical year would have had to initiate such legislation, whatever his personal political predilections.
There is evidence, however, that the Julii Caesares, though patricians, had already committed themselves to the antinobility party. An aunt of the future dictator had married Gaius Mariusa self-made man novus homo who had forced his way up to the summit by his military ability and had made the momentous innovation of recruiting his armies from the dispossessed peasants.
The day was July 12 or 13; the traditional and perhaps most probable year is bce; but if this date is correct, Caesar must have held each of his offices two years in advance of the legal minimum age. His father, Gaius Caesar, died when Caesar was but 16; his mother, Aurelia, was a notable woman, and it seems certain that he owed much to her.
In spite of the inadequacy of his resources, Caesar seems to have chosen a political career as a matter of course.
From the beginning, he probably privately aimed at winning office, not just for the sake of the honours but in order to achieve the power to put the misgoverned Roman state and Greco-Roman world into better order in accordance with ideas of his own.
It is improbable that Caesar deliberately sought monarchical power until after he had crossed the Rubicon in 49 bce, though sufficient power to impose his will, as he was determined to do, proved to mean monarchical power.
In 83 bce Lucius Cornelius Sulla returned to Italy from the East and led the successful counter-revolution of 83—82 bce; Sulla then ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia. Caesar refused and came close to losing not only his property such as it was but his life as well.
He found it advisable to remove himself from Italy and to do military service, first in the province of Asia and then in Cilicia. His first target, Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, was defended by Quintus Hortensiusthe leading advocate of the day, and was acquitted by the extortion-court jury, composed exclusively of senators.
Caesar then went to Rhodes to study oratory under a famous professor, Molon. En route he was captured by pirates one of the symptoms of the anarchy into which the Roman nobility had allowed the Mediterranean world to fall.
Caesar raised his ransom, raised a naval forcecaptured his captors, and had them crucified—all this as a private individual holding no public office. In his absence from Rome, Caesar was made a member of the politico-ecclesiastical college of pontifices ; and on his return he gained one of the elective military tribuneships.
In 69 or 68 bce Caesar was elected quaestor the first rung on the Roman political ladder. In public funeral orations in their honour, Caesar found opportunities for praising Cinna and Marius.Watch video · Julius Caesar (c.
July 12 or 13, BC to March 15, 44 BC) was a politically adept and popular leader of the Roman Republic who significantly transformed what became known as . One Pan Lemon Parmesan Chicken and Asparagus: lightly breaded garlicky lemon parmesan chicken and asparagus all cooked on ONE pan.
Oct 27, · Gaius Julius Caesar, one of the world’s greatest military leaders, was born into a senatorial, patrician family and was the nephew of another famous Roman general, Marius.
Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of Caesarism, a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of .
Julius Caesar is known to have been involved with three other women in his lifetime. The first was Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, with whom he had a son called Caesarion.
Cleopatra and Julius Caesar could not ever get married because she was Egyptian, and he was Roman, and under Roman law, only Roman citizens could get married to each other. Feb 14, · This American Civil War Full History Documentary Film Full Length Non-Stop for over 8 hours - Duration: Deep Archive Documentary , views. | 1,284 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The World War I started in July 1914. It was mainly brought by assassination of Austria Franz Ferdinand and his wife that happened on 28th June 1914. Gavrirol Princip, a Bosnia revolutionary, killed them. Some factors triggered the war to continue for a while. Such factors as, stalemate conflicts among nation, well organized military, strong alliances among nation, imperialism, nationalism among people of the same state and state crisis (Garland, 1997).
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Over the years, the state that were considered powerhouse crushed over colonial issues. These brought tensions throughout the continent. Thus, change in balance of power in the Europe. The crises that lead to war were conflict of Austria- Hungary over Balkans territory with Serbia and Russia. This made countries that formed alliances against each other start the war.
Balkans war that was won by the Serbia lead them to increase their territories, Austria were very irritated ad said that they would wage a preventive war to weaken the Serbia or otherwise destroy them. This was meant to help Austria preserve dual monarchy, which was held by the Serbian in their Balkan territory. Serbia had made treaty with the Bulgaria after winning Balkan wars and had expanded up to Ottoman Empire and in Bulgaria (Howard, 1997). Thus, preventive war was declared in 1912 by Austria for they termed Serbia to be unfriendly state and had increased its powers unacceptably. Austria approached German for support but German refused.
Russia was humiliated by lack of ability to support Serbia in the first Balkan war in 1908 and thus announced great reconstruction of their military. In reaction to Russian move, German said that they would support Austria in its mission to fight for their power. This was announced by German foreign secretary Gotlieb Von Jagow to Reichstag on 28th of November 1912. Britain was so much irritated by that move. They said that if German helps Austria to fight Russia or France, they would not have any alternative than waging war to Reich.
The tension was heightened and it was certain that war would erupt any time. On eighth of December in Berlin, German Imperial Council converged to discuss the issue in an informal meeting. The council discussed their importance now that the German army and Navy leaders were invited.
Wilhelm II was not for the principle of British balance of power and termed it as idiocy. He urged the Austria to attack Serbia as early as possible before the German complete its arms modernization. The Austria agreed on that opinion that they termed it as professional and wanted to attack immediately.
Wilhelm II with Army leadership agreed that war was to be staged soon. However, Admiral Tirpitz disagreed with them. He sighted inefficiency in the Army due to uncompleted U-boat base and Kiel Canal s the major drawbacks yet they were very important to the army during the fight ( Howard, 1997).
He proposed the postponement of the fight for one year and a half. Though Moltke was not for this idea, he later agreed reluctantly after Wilhelm sided with Tirpitz. The completion of the canal was to be in 1914.
Russia great military program brought a lot of fear in the German army. They insisted on preventive war against Russia sooner. They feared German would become stronger and would be very difficult to deal with them. The problem was even worse because of the financial crisis that German was experiencing. German state gives Reich government low power for taxation. This means that the situation would lead to Germany being bankrupt if they engage themselves in war. Therefore, Moltke always advocated for war and the sooner the war would start the better.
Raymond Poincare was elected as French president and assumed the office in 1913. He wanted to improve the relationship with German. Nevertheless, the Reich government lacked interests and announced war to destroy France. France had disadvantage of having smaller economy and population. This made France to accept that they cannot beat Germany.
In 1914, Serbia government was torn between two leaderships. First, one was headed by Nikola Pasic and the other one by Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic who was chief of Military Intelligence. It leads to Russia minister in Belgrade to intervene making Pasic government to be restored. Serbia was almost bankrupt after suffering from Balkan war calamity thus needed peace. In this political confusion, powerful members of Serbia military divide trained and armed three students from Bosnia and sent them to Austria – Hungary for assassination mission. The student went to Austria and killed Franz Ferdinand and his wife. This triggered the First World War that started in July 1914 (Lieven, 1983).
Though this assassination made the First World War to start, its origin was more than that. They involved politics of the states, economics of the country, alliances and counterbalancing of the European power. There are long-term causes that made the war to continue up to 1918.
Nationalism was one of them. This means one being strong and supports one’s country right and interest. For example, Vienna congress was held to solve problems in Europe after napoleon went to exile in Elba. Delegates from the winning allies that were Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia made a decision making a new Europe leaving Germany and Italy to fall apart. What followed was strong nationalism that reunited Italy in 1861 while German was reunited in 1871 ten years down the line. The Franco - Prussia war lead to fight between France and Germany. It came about because France was in pursuit to recover their lost terrritory. Different nationalist group also felt that they need freedom thus took large area of Austria – Hungary and Serbia making it their home.
Militarism was another major problem in Europe that leads to extended First World War. Army was given high profile across the whole continent. In between 1870 to 1914, the German and France army had doubled. German and Britain at the same time were competing in mastery of the sea. The Britain country made a battleship that was very effective in exploring the sea. It leads to German introducing theirs. They even planned to attack France through Belgium if Russia attacks them. It leads to continued war propagation along the European region.
Alliance was made among nation. These were agreement that united countries so that they help each other in time of need. These made ally countries to join in time of war if any of the country declares one.
Such alliances as dual alliance were made in 1881 by German and Austria – Hungary to protect them from Russia. The other one was Austria- Serbia alliance in 1882 that was meant to stop Russia from gaining control over Serbia. These alliances among others were formed and ganged against states hence continued war.
The war had to go on for a while due to imperialism. This is where by a country rules over another country and take land into its possession. This makes such country to subject the other to its rule. Britain by 1900 had a very big empire that had gone to five continents while France had great control in Africa. This was mostly triggered by rise in industrialization in those countries and they were looking for market of their products. This caused rivalry between Germany and both Britain and France. They were all scrambling for colonies thus such rivalry-fuelled war more.
There were also crises that lead to more hatred among nations. In 1904 Britain gave morocco to France to reign over it but morocco wanted their freedom in 1905. German supported morocco to gain their independence and war almost arose but a conference avoided it. It leads to France retaining its control in Morocco, while German was persuaded to get some part of France in Congo.
Bosnian crisis was another cause of heighten tension and prolonged war. In 1908, Turkish province of Bosnia was taken by Austria – Hungary. Serbia were filled with fury because they knew that the region were theirs. German allied to Austria – Hungary while Russia allied with Serbia and war was avoided when Russia stepped aside. However, the same lead to Balkan war in 1911 to 1912 when Balkan states drove Turkey out the area. These states fought over the control of the region. Austria – Hungary intervened and forced Serbia to surrender some its acquisitions. This brought a lot of tension thus prolonged war (Lieven, 1983).
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0.536820888519... | 1 | The World War I started in July 1914. It was mainly brought by assassination of Austria Franz Ferdinand and his wife that happened on 28th June 1914. Gavrirol Princip, a Bosnia revolutionary, killed them. Some factors triggered the war to continue for a while. Such factors as, stalemate conflicts among nation, well organized military, strong alliances among nation, imperialism, nationalism among people of the same state and state crisis (Garland, 1997).
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Over the years, the state that were considered powerhouse crushed over colonial issues. These brought tensions throughout the continent. Thus, change in balance of power in the Europe. The crises that lead to war were conflict of Austria- Hungary over Balkans territory with Serbia and Russia. This made countries that formed alliances against each other start the war.
Balkans war that was won by the Serbia lead them to increase their territories, Austria were very irritated ad said that they would wage a preventive war to weaken the Serbia or otherwise destroy them. This was meant to help Austria preserve dual monarchy, which was held by the Serbian in their Balkan territory. Serbia had made treaty with the Bulgaria after winning Balkan wars and had expanded up to Ottoman Empire and in Bulgaria (Howard, 1997). Thus, preventive war was declared in 1912 by Austria for they termed Serbia to be unfriendly state and had increased its powers unacceptably. Austria approached German for support but German refused.
Russia was humiliated by lack of ability to support Serbia in the first Balkan war in 1908 and thus announced great reconstruction of their military. In reaction to Russian move, German said that they would support Austria in its mission to fight for their power. This was announced by German foreign secretary Gotlieb Von Jagow to Reichstag on 28th of November 1912. Britain was so much irritated by that move. They said that if German helps Austria to fight Russia or France, they would not have any alternative than waging war to Reich.
The tension was heightened and it was certain that war would erupt any time. On eighth of December in Berlin, German Imperial Council converged to discuss the issue in an informal meeting. The council discussed their importance now that the German army and Navy leaders were invited.
Wilhelm II was not for the principle of British balance of power and termed it as idiocy. He urged the Austria to attack Serbia as early as possible before the German complete its arms modernization. The Austria agreed on that opinion that they termed it as professional and wanted to attack immediately.
Wilhelm II with Army leadership agreed that war was to be staged soon. However, Admiral Tirpitz disagreed with them. He sighted inefficiency in the Army due to uncompleted U-boat base and Kiel Canal s the major drawbacks yet they were very important to the army during the fight ( Howard, 1997).
He proposed the postponement of the fight for one year and a half. Though Moltke was not for this idea, he later agreed reluctantly after Wilhelm sided with Tirpitz. The completion of the canal was to be in 1914.
Russia great military program brought a lot of fear in the German army. They insisted on preventive war against Russia sooner. They feared German would become stronger and would be very difficult to deal with them. The problem was even worse because of the financial crisis that German was experiencing. German state gives Reich government low power for taxation. This means that the situation would lead to Germany being bankrupt if they engage themselves in war. Therefore, Moltke always advocated for war and the sooner the war would start the better.
Raymond Poincare was elected as French president and assumed the office in 1913. He wanted to improve the relationship with German. Nevertheless, the Reich government lacked interests and announced war to destroy France. France had disadvantage of having smaller economy and population. This made France to accept that they cannot beat Germany.
In 1914, Serbia government was torn between two leaderships. First, one was headed by Nikola Pasic and the other one by Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic who was chief of Military Intelligence. It leads to Russia minister in Belgrade to intervene making Pasic government to be restored. Serbia was almost bankrupt after suffering from Balkan war calamity thus needed peace. In this political confusion, powerful members of Serbia military divide trained and armed three students from Bosnia and sent them to Austria – Hungary for assassination mission. The student went to Austria and killed Franz Ferdinand and his wife. This triggered the First World War that started in July 1914 (Lieven, 1983).
Though this assassination made the First World War to start, its origin was more than that. They involved politics of the states, economics of the country, alliances and counterbalancing of the European power. There are long-term causes that made the war to continue up to 1918.
Nationalism was one of them. This means one being strong and supports one’s country right and interest. For example, Vienna congress was held to solve problems in Europe after napoleon went to exile in Elba. Delegates from the winning allies that were Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia made a decision making a new Europe leaving Germany and Italy to fall apart. What followed was strong nationalism that reunited Italy in 1861 while German was reunited in 1871 ten years down the line. The Franco - Prussia war lead to fight between France and Germany. It came about because France was in pursuit to recover their lost terrritory. Different nationalist group also felt that they need freedom thus took large area of Austria – Hungary and Serbia making it their home.
Militarism was another major problem in Europe that leads to extended First World War. Army was given high profile across the whole continent. In between 1870 to 1914, the German and France army had doubled. German and Britain at the same time were competing in mastery of the sea. The Britain country made a battleship that was very effective in exploring the sea. It leads to German introducing theirs. They even planned to attack France through Belgium if Russia attacks them. It leads to continued war propagation along the European region.
Alliance was made among nation. These were agreement that united countries so that they help each other in time of need. These made ally countries to join in time of war if any of the country declares one.
Such alliances as dual alliance were made in 1881 by German and Austria – Hungary to protect them from Russia. The other one was Austria- Serbia alliance in 1882 that was meant to stop Russia from gaining control over Serbia. These alliances among others were formed and ganged against states hence continued war.
The war had to go on for a while due to imperialism. This is where by a country rules over another country and take land into its possession. This makes such country to subject the other to its rule. Britain by 1900 had a very big empire that had gone to five continents while France had great control in Africa. This was mostly triggered by rise in industrialization in those countries and they were looking for market of their products. This caused rivalry between Germany and both Britain and France. They were all scrambling for colonies thus such rivalry-fuelled war more.
There were also crises that lead to more hatred among nations. In 1904 Britain gave morocco to France to reign over it but morocco wanted their freedom in 1905. German supported morocco to gain their independence and war almost arose but a conference avoided it. It leads to France retaining its control in Morocco, while German was persuaded to get some part of France in Congo.
Bosnian crisis was another cause of heighten tension and prolonged war. In 1908, Turkish province of Bosnia was taken by Austria – Hungary. Serbia were filled with fury because they knew that the region were theirs. German allied to Austria – Hungary while Russia allied with Serbia and war was avoided when Russia stepped aside. However, the same lead to Balkan war in 1911 to 1912 when Balkan states drove Turkey out the area. These states fought over the control of the region. Austria – Hungary intervened and forced Serbia to surrender some its acquisitions. This brought a lot of tension thus prolonged war (Lieven, 1983).
Most popular orders | 1,796 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is the relevance of Greek tragedy for today’s audience?
The play was written in 415BC after a time of plague and drought in Athens. So when the play opens with Oedipus searching for an end to the drought – in vain- the audience would then immediately recognise the situation, and indeed relate to it. The play was a political work, and today thousands of years later, the human condition has not changed. We still have leaders of powerful countries believing that their policies are always right, ruling with an arrogance and paranoia that leads them to attack and attempt to crush anything that does not fall in line with their doctrine. The play is in some ways about the corruption of power over the human condition. Oedipus after saving Thebes begins to believe he was sent by God and that he has the right to rule and thus attacks people who have helped him. Once he has power he does not want to relish it. Many of today’s leaders suffer the same faults. The reason why these plays will always be relevant is because even if we have developed (techno | <urn:uuid:951dc4dc-69cb-4a91-b7ab-f307181967f3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.experts123.com/q/what-is-the-relevance-of-greek-tragedy-for-todays-audience.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.985141 | 223 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.3718022108078003... | 1 | What is the relevance of Greek tragedy for today’s audience?
The play was written in 415BC after a time of plague and drought in Athens. So when the play opens with Oedipus searching for an end to the drought – in vain- the audience would then immediately recognise the situation, and indeed relate to it. The play was a political work, and today thousands of years later, the human condition has not changed. We still have leaders of powerful countries believing that their policies are always right, ruling with an arrogance and paranoia that leads them to attack and attempt to crush anything that does not fall in line with their doctrine. The play is in some ways about the corruption of power over the human condition. Oedipus after saving Thebes begins to believe he was sent by God and that he has the right to rule and thus attacks people who have helped him. Once he has power he does not want to relish it. Many of today’s leaders suffer the same faults. The reason why these plays will always be relevant is because even if we have developed (techno | 221 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pointers have long set the bar for pointing dog performance, and they’ve had lots of practice. Pointing dogs have been seen in 16th century paintings, and certainly, their introduction into England is ascertained to have occurred about 1700. As ubiquitous as the breed seems to be in our images of pheasant hunting, the earliest Pointers didn’t hunt birds. In fact, they were present before wing shooting. Early Pointers were partners in hare coursing. A Pointer was sent to locate and “point out” a hare, and when that happened, Greyhounds were released as the hare bolted. Later, advances in gun design made the shooting of flying birds possible, and that’s when Pointers really stood out.
The English Pointer is still a “bird hunting machine,” but after visiting a few Pointer forums on the Internet, we found that some hunters still shoot rabbits over their Pointers, and indeed, their Pointers will point one out in the field. Pointer owners who hunt, what say you? | <urn:uuid:d391d6b9-70a3-458c-9441-93ad179f815c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nationalpurebreddogday.com/it-wasnt-a-bird/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00365.warc.gz | en | 0.987181 | 224 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | Pointers have long set the bar for pointing dog performance, and they’ve had lots of practice. Pointing dogs have been seen in 16th century paintings, and certainly, their introduction into England is ascertained to have occurred about 1700. As ubiquitous as the breed seems to be in our images of pheasant hunting, the earliest Pointers didn’t hunt birds. In fact, they were present before wing shooting. Early Pointers were partners in hare coursing. A Pointer was sent to locate and “point out” a hare, and when that happened, Greyhounds were released as the hare bolted. Later, advances in gun design made the shooting of flying birds possible, and that’s when Pointers really stood out.
The English Pointer is still a “bird hunting machine,” but after visiting a few Pointer forums on the Internet, we found that some hunters still shoot rabbits over their Pointers, and indeed, their Pointers will point one out in the field. Pointer owners who hunt, what say you? | 213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first public health hospital in the United States exists as a haunting shadow of its former self. Paint peels from the walls, and a floor trod upon by more than one million immigrants lies buried beneath grime and debris.
The Ellis Island Immigrant hospital is built on two human-made islands constructed from leftover land excavated for the Lexington Avenue subway line. The islands have since been connected, but were originally separated by a ferry basin because of a belief that germs couldn’t travel across a body of water.
One island held the general hospital, which consisted of four operating rooms, a womens’ ward, a pediatric ward, a maternity ward, and a psychiatric ward. The general hospital also held a state-of-the-art laundry room equipped to process thousands of pieces of clothes a day.
The other island held the contagious disease hospital, built in a pavilion style proposed by Red Cross inspiration Florence Nightingale, which meant patients with different diseases were kept in separate wards. Small standing rooms connected to many of the quarantined wards let nurses and doctors examine patients without actually entering their rooms.
The hospital was a bleak place for some of the immigrants who arrived there, as variety of diseases or perceived deficiencies meant deportation. If a child was found to have favus, a fungal disease of the scalp, they were either outright deported or required to spend at least a year in the hospital undergoing treatment most immigrant families couldn’t afford. Children were often abandoned, or families split up so they could be accompanied home by a parent. This could be the last time siblings or spouses saw each other, as family members were often sent back to home countries in turmoil.
On the other hand, many people found the fresh start they were looking for on Ellis Island. More than 10,000 patients from 75 different countries were treated over the course of a single year at the hospital. Red Cross volunteers visited with a focus on making the place more comfortable and enjoyable for the immigrant children. Pregnant, single women were taken care of at maternity wards until they had given birth, and many of the 350 children born at the hospital were named after the doctors and nurses who worked there.
The hospital shut down in 1930 after a slow decline due to tightening immigration restrictions. In 1954, the islands were officially abandoned by the Coast Guard and declared “excess federal property.” Today, limited tours are available through government partner Save Ellis Island.
In 2014, French artist JR took centuries-old photographs of immigrants at Ellis Island and pasted them to certain walls and windows of the hospital. The photos are a haunting reminder of the people that passed through the island years ago. | <urn:uuid:d1891ee0-5302-47f5-9a50-b2690a252684> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/ellis-island-immigrant-hospital | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00257.warc.gz | en | 0.980354 | 549 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.54929518699646,... | 1 | The first public health hospital in the United States exists as a haunting shadow of its former self. Paint peels from the walls, and a floor trod upon by more than one million immigrants lies buried beneath grime and debris.
The Ellis Island Immigrant hospital is built on two human-made islands constructed from leftover land excavated for the Lexington Avenue subway line. The islands have since been connected, but were originally separated by a ferry basin because of a belief that germs couldn’t travel across a body of water.
One island held the general hospital, which consisted of four operating rooms, a womens’ ward, a pediatric ward, a maternity ward, and a psychiatric ward. The general hospital also held a state-of-the-art laundry room equipped to process thousands of pieces of clothes a day.
The other island held the contagious disease hospital, built in a pavilion style proposed by Red Cross inspiration Florence Nightingale, which meant patients with different diseases were kept in separate wards. Small standing rooms connected to many of the quarantined wards let nurses and doctors examine patients without actually entering their rooms.
The hospital was a bleak place for some of the immigrants who arrived there, as variety of diseases or perceived deficiencies meant deportation. If a child was found to have favus, a fungal disease of the scalp, they were either outright deported or required to spend at least a year in the hospital undergoing treatment most immigrant families couldn’t afford. Children were often abandoned, or families split up so they could be accompanied home by a parent. This could be the last time siblings or spouses saw each other, as family members were often sent back to home countries in turmoil.
On the other hand, many people found the fresh start they were looking for on Ellis Island. More than 10,000 patients from 75 different countries were treated over the course of a single year at the hospital. Red Cross volunteers visited with a focus on making the place more comfortable and enjoyable for the immigrant children. Pregnant, single women were taken care of at maternity wards until they had given birth, and many of the 350 children born at the hospital were named after the doctors and nurses who worked there.
The hospital shut down in 1930 after a slow decline due to tightening immigration restrictions. In 1954, the islands were officially abandoned by the Coast Guard and declared “excess federal property.” Today, limited tours are available through government partner Save Ellis Island.
In 2014, French artist JR took centuries-old photographs of immigrants at Ellis Island and pasted them to certain walls and windows of the hospital. The photos are a haunting reminder of the people that passed through the island years ago. | 547 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Town:Quebec City, Quebec
Year of creation:2008
- Rider(s):O'Higgins, Bernardo
(1778–1842) was a Chilean independence leader who, together with José de San Martin, freed Chile from Spanish rule in the Chilean War of Independence. He is seen as one of Chile‘s founding fathers. O’Higgins was the illegitimate son of the later Viceroy of Peru, who was concerned about his education, but whom he never met in person. At seventeen Bernardo O’Higgins was sent to London to complete his studies. There he became acquainted with the American ideas of independence. Having returned in Chile he became a member of the anti-Royalist camp of the independence movement. This camp was deeply split along lines of patronage and personality, by political beliefs, and by geography. The Carrera family having already seized power supported a specifically Chilean nationalism, as opposed to the broader Latin American focus of the other group, which included O’Higgins and José de San Martín. Defeated by the Spanish troops in 1814 O’Higgins went in exile in Argentina. There he met José de San Martin and together with him he returned to Chile in 1817 to defeat the royalist army in three battles. San Martín was offered the position of power in Chile, but he declined, in order to continue the fight for independence in the rest of South America. O’Higgins accepted the position instead, and became the leader of an independent Chile.
Carrera was imprisoned to prevent his involvement in Chilean affairs and executed under questionable circumstances in 1821. For six years, O’Higgins was a largely successful leader, and his government initially functioned well. In time, however, O’Higgins began to alienate important political groupings within the still-fragile Chilean nation. Powerful large landowners resisted his radical and liberal reform proposals, such as the establishment of democracy and abolition of titles of nobility. O’Higgins was deposed by a conservative coup in 1823 and lived in exile for the rest of his life near Lima in Peru.
Home | O’Higgins, Bernardo | <urn:uuid:75547390-1bb0-4b7f-aa3f-77f46cf855d2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://equestrianstatue.org/o-higgins-bernardo-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00333.warc.gz | en | 0.980218 | 454 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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Year of creation:2008
- Rider(s):O'Higgins, Bernardo
(1778–1842) was a Chilean independence leader who, together with José de San Martin, freed Chile from Spanish rule in the Chilean War of Independence. He is seen as one of Chile‘s founding fathers. O’Higgins was the illegitimate son of the later Viceroy of Peru, who was concerned about his education, but whom he never met in person. At seventeen Bernardo O’Higgins was sent to London to complete his studies. There he became acquainted with the American ideas of independence. Having returned in Chile he became a member of the anti-Royalist camp of the independence movement. This camp was deeply split along lines of patronage and personality, by political beliefs, and by geography. The Carrera family having already seized power supported a specifically Chilean nationalism, as opposed to the broader Latin American focus of the other group, which included O’Higgins and José de San Martín. Defeated by the Spanish troops in 1814 O’Higgins went in exile in Argentina. There he met José de San Martin and together with him he returned to Chile in 1817 to defeat the royalist army in three battles. San Martín was offered the position of power in Chile, but he declined, in order to continue the fight for independence in the rest of South America. O’Higgins accepted the position instead, and became the leader of an independent Chile.
Carrera was imprisoned to prevent his involvement in Chilean affairs and executed under questionable circumstances in 1821. For six years, O’Higgins was a largely successful leader, and his government initially functioned well. In time, however, O’Higgins began to alienate important political groupings within the still-fragile Chilean nation. Powerful large landowners resisted his radical and liberal reform proposals, such as the establishment of democracy and abolition of titles of nobility. O’Higgins was deposed by a conservative coup in 1823 and lived in exile for the rest of his life near Lima in Peru.
Home | O’Higgins, Bernardo | 464 | ENGLISH | 1 |
19 July 64c.e Great fire of Rome used by Emperor Nero to scapegoat Messianic Jews #otdimjh
In a hot July summer of 64 A.D., a fire broke out near the Capena Gate (the marketplace near the Circus Maximus) and spread quickly across the entire Circus, and finally it was completely out of control, the fire destroyed nearly half of Rome.
The Roman historian Tacitus records the event:
“First, the fire swept violently over the level spaces. Then it climbed the hills-but returned to ravage the lower ground again. It outstripped every counter-measure. . . Terrified, shrieking women, helpless old and young, people intent on their own safety, people unselfishly supporting invalids or waiting for them, fugitives and lingerers alike–all heightened the confusion.”
As the fire blaze out of control some citizens tried every measure to put out the flames. It is told that the citizens were stopped. Also some of the mob lit torches and threw them into the flames to feed the fire. Tacitus make an interesting note about these arsonists who had claimed “they acted under orders. Perhaps they had … or they may just have wanted to plunder unhampered.”
Nero heard the news from his Palace at Antium and rushed to Rome just in time to see the Palatine Palace in flames. His newly built mansion, the Domus Transitoria, was nothing but a pile of smoldering ashes. Nero immediately organized a team of firefighters and provided shelter for the panic stricken people who had been left homeless. The fire burned for nine days, leaving 10 out of its 14 regions in ruins, with the loss of many lives.
Nero decided that he would place the blame on scapegoats, because there was a dangerous rumor that Nero himself had ordered the fire in order to vandalize the capital city, and to free up space for his new building plans. It is recorded that later he indeed take advantage of the situation and begin planning and building his Golden House. His scapegoats were none other than the Christians, who were already being accused in one way or another within Roman pagan society. This was officially the time that the active persecution of the Christian Church began. At some point soon after it became a crime to bear the name “Christian” and the suppression of the church became state policy. This persecution would last, off and on, for almost three centuries.
Prayer and Reflection: The fire was in all likelihood used by Nero to further his own building projects, but the Christians who were blamed for it were Jewish believers in Jesus – a fact often unacknowledged in Church history. The beginnings of Christian involvement in Roman history shows the phenomena of persecution, stereotyping and victimization, tactics that Christians themselves were later to apply to the Jewish communities in their midst.
Brief overview of the events surrounding the Great Fire of Rome
Jewish Rebellion and Christian Identity, to Masada (73 CE)
Roman authorities viewed the spread of Judaism as a threat to Rome. Jewish businessmen aroused the resentment of their non-Jewish competitors. Jews were scorned for refusing to burn incense before the emperor’s statue – worse than Americans refusing to salute their flag. Jews, including the followers of Jesus, aroused suspicion by their inclination to keep to themselves. They appeared to others as haters of the world outside their own circle. They were disliked for their quarrelsome denunciations of gods other than Yahweh, and they were often the targets of mockery and violence. The emperor Claudius (who ruled in the years 41 to 54) moved to curtail the spread of Judaism in Rome. He denied Jews there the right to meet outside of their synagogues. And in 49, following a disturbance involving Jews, Claudius (as described in Acts 18:2 in the New Testament) expelled Jews from the city of Rome. But elsewhere in the empire, Claudius defended the rights and privileges that had been conferred upon Jews and other minorities, except for Druids, who were viewed as a threat to the empire’s well-being.
Following Emperor Claudius to the rule of Nero, in the year 64 persecution of followers of Jesus came with a Great Fire in Rome that raged for many days. It almost destroyed the entire city and was horrendous enough to seem like Armageddon had arrived. Historians do not know how the fire started. The Roman historian Tacitus, years later after Nero was dead, did not mind accusing Nero of starting the fire, although he had no hard evidence that Nero had. The fire may have been an accident – the overturning of one of the barbecue-like stoves (a brazier) that people used inside their homes, or by an oil lamp. But one historian, Gerhard Baudy, by the year 2002, had put together observations with which to speculate that a few Christians may have started the fire. There were Christians who equated Rome with evil and would have believed they were doing the Lord’s work by setting fire to Rome. Baudy knows of vengeful texts circulated in the poor districts of Rome predicting Rome being burned to the ground by a raging inferno. A constant theme among these Christians in Rome, according to Baudy, was that such a fire was prophesied. And Baudy speaks of some of the Christians willing to help the prophesy along by doing the Lord’s work. Rome’s great fire started on a prophetic day for these Christians: July 19, 64 CE, the day that the dog star, Sirius, rises. If the Christians did not start the fire, Baudy speculates, they may have lit additional fires to add to the conflagration to help the prophesies.
With Christians seeing the Great Fire as the beginning of the fulfillment of their expectations that the world would be destroyed by fire, reports of their joyous dancing, looks of glee and shouts of hallelujahs would have attracted suspicion. And Christians were an easy target because they were still thought of as Jews. Suspicions of arson arose not because evidence of arson had been found but because people were inclined to believe that disaster was the work of some kind of malevolence. An official investigation concluded that the fire had been started by Jewish fanatics. This put the Jewish community in Rome in danger, and Jewish leaders in Rome may have tried to avert this danger by describing to authorities the difference between themselves and the Christians. The leaders of Jews in Rome could reach the emperor, Nero, through his new wife, Sabina Poppaea. Nero learned of the separate identity of those Jews who were followers of Jesus, and he put blame on them for the fire.
Nero had some Christians executed in the usual way of executing criminals: putting them in the arena against gladiators or wild animals, or as was commonly done to those convicted of arson, having them burned to death. It was around this time that the apostles Peter and Paul vanished. | <urn:uuid:3525b1fa-ae41-4282-af1d-5422aa5cb701> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jewinthepew.org/2016/07/19/19-july-64c-e-rome-burns-otdimjh/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.98366 | 1,444 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.451395720243454,... | 7 | 19 July 64c.e Great fire of Rome used by Emperor Nero to scapegoat Messianic Jews #otdimjh
In a hot July summer of 64 A.D., a fire broke out near the Capena Gate (the marketplace near the Circus Maximus) and spread quickly across the entire Circus, and finally it was completely out of control, the fire destroyed nearly half of Rome.
The Roman historian Tacitus records the event:
“First, the fire swept violently over the level spaces. Then it climbed the hills-but returned to ravage the lower ground again. It outstripped every counter-measure. . . Terrified, shrieking women, helpless old and young, people intent on their own safety, people unselfishly supporting invalids or waiting for them, fugitives and lingerers alike–all heightened the confusion.”
As the fire blaze out of control some citizens tried every measure to put out the flames. It is told that the citizens were stopped. Also some of the mob lit torches and threw them into the flames to feed the fire. Tacitus make an interesting note about these arsonists who had claimed “they acted under orders. Perhaps they had … or they may just have wanted to plunder unhampered.”
Nero heard the news from his Palace at Antium and rushed to Rome just in time to see the Palatine Palace in flames. His newly built mansion, the Domus Transitoria, was nothing but a pile of smoldering ashes. Nero immediately organized a team of firefighters and provided shelter for the panic stricken people who had been left homeless. The fire burned for nine days, leaving 10 out of its 14 regions in ruins, with the loss of many lives.
Nero decided that he would place the blame on scapegoats, because there was a dangerous rumor that Nero himself had ordered the fire in order to vandalize the capital city, and to free up space for his new building plans. It is recorded that later he indeed take advantage of the situation and begin planning and building his Golden House. His scapegoats were none other than the Christians, who were already being accused in one way or another within Roman pagan society. This was officially the time that the active persecution of the Christian Church began. At some point soon after it became a crime to bear the name “Christian” and the suppression of the church became state policy. This persecution would last, off and on, for almost three centuries.
Prayer and Reflection: The fire was in all likelihood used by Nero to further his own building projects, but the Christians who were blamed for it were Jewish believers in Jesus – a fact often unacknowledged in Church history. The beginnings of Christian involvement in Roman history shows the phenomena of persecution, stereotyping and victimization, tactics that Christians themselves were later to apply to the Jewish communities in their midst.
Brief overview of the events surrounding the Great Fire of Rome
Jewish Rebellion and Christian Identity, to Masada (73 CE)
Roman authorities viewed the spread of Judaism as a threat to Rome. Jewish businessmen aroused the resentment of their non-Jewish competitors. Jews were scorned for refusing to burn incense before the emperor’s statue – worse than Americans refusing to salute their flag. Jews, including the followers of Jesus, aroused suspicion by their inclination to keep to themselves. They appeared to others as haters of the world outside their own circle. They were disliked for their quarrelsome denunciations of gods other than Yahweh, and they were often the targets of mockery and violence. The emperor Claudius (who ruled in the years 41 to 54) moved to curtail the spread of Judaism in Rome. He denied Jews there the right to meet outside of their synagogues. And in 49, following a disturbance involving Jews, Claudius (as described in Acts 18:2 in the New Testament) expelled Jews from the city of Rome. But elsewhere in the empire, Claudius defended the rights and privileges that had been conferred upon Jews and other minorities, except for Druids, who were viewed as a threat to the empire’s well-being.
Following Emperor Claudius to the rule of Nero, in the year 64 persecution of followers of Jesus came with a Great Fire in Rome that raged for many days. It almost destroyed the entire city and was horrendous enough to seem like Armageddon had arrived. Historians do not know how the fire started. The Roman historian Tacitus, years later after Nero was dead, did not mind accusing Nero of starting the fire, although he had no hard evidence that Nero had. The fire may have been an accident – the overturning of one of the barbecue-like stoves (a brazier) that people used inside their homes, or by an oil lamp. But one historian, Gerhard Baudy, by the year 2002, had put together observations with which to speculate that a few Christians may have started the fire. There were Christians who equated Rome with evil and would have believed they were doing the Lord’s work by setting fire to Rome. Baudy knows of vengeful texts circulated in the poor districts of Rome predicting Rome being burned to the ground by a raging inferno. A constant theme among these Christians in Rome, according to Baudy, was that such a fire was prophesied. And Baudy speaks of some of the Christians willing to help the prophesy along by doing the Lord’s work. Rome’s great fire started on a prophetic day for these Christians: July 19, 64 CE, the day that the dog star, Sirius, rises. If the Christians did not start the fire, Baudy speculates, they may have lit additional fires to add to the conflagration to help the prophesies.
With Christians seeing the Great Fire as the beginning of the fulfillment of their expectations that the world would be destroyed by fire, reports of their joyous dancing, looks of glee and shouts of hallelujahs would have attracted suspicion. And Christians were an easy target because they were still thought of as Jews. Suspicions of arson arose not because evidence of arson had been found but because people were inclined to believe that disaster was the work of some kind of malevolence. An official investigation concluded that the fire had been started by Jewish fanatics. This put the Jewish community in Rome in danger, and Jewish leaders in Rome may have tried to avert this danger by describing to authorities the difference between themselves and the Christians. The leaders of Jews in Rome could reach the emperor, Nero, through his new wife, Sabina Poppaea. Nero learned of the separate identity of those Jews who were followers of Jesus, and he put blame on them for the fire.
Nero had some Christians executed in the usual way of executing criminals: putting them in the arena against gladiators or wild animals, or as was commonly done to those convicted of arson, having them burned to death. It was around this time that the apostles Peter and Paul vanished. | 1,449 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Before the Europeans came to California, the Coast Miwok people were the inhabitants of what we now call Marin and southern Sonoma Counties. They knew and blended with this bountiful land for thousands of years, developing a rich economy based on gathering, fishing and hunting. Village communities of 75 to several hundred people developed in sheltered places near fresh water and plentiful food. "Kule Loklo" (meaning "Valley of the Bear") is a recreated interpretive village. The current structures are built and maintained by tribal and non-tribal volunteers and include a roundhouse, sweathouse, and several traditional dwellings.
Coast Miwok life was intricately woven into the changing seasons. In the late spring, young greens of Indian lettuce, nettle and clover were gathered and fire-hardened digging sticks were used to reach deep-set roots and bulbs. In the summer, sun ripened grasses and flower seeds were gathered by hitting the ripened seed with a beater basket and letting them fall directly into a collecting basket. Fall was the season for collecting a variety of nuts, including acorns (stored in a granary for year-round consumption), buckeye, hazel and bay, all of which were important sources of food come winter. Tule was cut and dried for kotcas (houses), boats, and mats, and gray willow for baskets and traps. The ocean provided food year-round, including crab, clams, mussels, abalone, limpets and oysters. Cleaned of meat, the shells were also fully utilized. Abalone shells were made into beautiful ornaments. The Washington clam was one of the most important shells; these were ground into circular, flat disk beads with a hole drilled in the middle. Strings of these beads were the main trade item (money) and were used extensively through Northern California.
By the early 1800s many natives were being displaced, killed or died from any number of new dieases passed on by Europeans. By 1958, the federal government "terminated" the recognition of Coast Miwok people as well as many other tribes. It took nearly 40 years for the Coast Miwok to once again become a federally recognized tribe. Legislation was signed in December 2000 by President Clinton granting the Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria, formerly known as the Federated Coast Miwok, full rights and privileges afforded federally recognized tribes. Currently there are almost 500 members registered with the tribe.
- Our bookstores and visitor centers carry several books about the Coast Miwok.
- Visitors can participate in a Kule Loklo Open House and Workday. Typically held on the second Saturday of each month. Please call Carlo Arreglo to confirm when the next date is scheduled - by phone 415-464-5146 or by email. | <urn:uuid:b61c5591-5d4c-4093-8cdc-704c8d2a5a73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ptreyes.org/activities/kule-loklo-coast-miwok-cultural-exhibit | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00158.warc.gz | en | 0.983824 | 584 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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-0.0434189587... | 11 | Before the Europeans came to California, the Coast Miwok people were the inhabitants of what we now call Marin and southern Sonoma Counties. They knew and blended with this bountiful land for thousands of years, developing a rich economy based on gathering, fishing and hunting. Village communities of 75 to several hundred people developed in sheltered places near fresh water and plentiful food. "Kule Loklo" (meaning "Valley of the Bear") is a recreated interpretive village. The current structures are built and maintained by tribal and non-tribal volunteers and include a roundhouse, sweathouse, and several traditional dwellings.
Coast Miwok life was intricately woven into the changing seasons. In the late spring, young greens of Indian lettuce, nettle and clover were gathered and fire-hardened digging sticks were used to reach deep-set roots and bulbs. In the summer, sun ripened grasses and flower seeds were gathered by hitting the ripened seed with a beater basket and letting them fall directly into a collecting basket. Fall was the season for collecting a variety of nuts, including acorns (stored in a granary for year-round consumption), buckeye, hazel and bay, all of which were important sources of food come winter. Tule was cut and dried for kotcas (houses), boats, and mats, and gray willow for baskets and traps. The ocean provided food year-round, including crab, clams, mussels, abalone, limpets and oysters. Cleaned of meat, the shells were also fully utilized. Abalone shells were made into beautiful ornaments. The Washington clam was one of the most important shells; these were ground into circular, flat disk beads with a hole drilled in the middle. Strings of these beads were the main trade item (money) and were used extensively through Northern California.
By the early 1800s many natives were being displaced, killed or died from any number of new dieases passed on by Europeans. By 1958, the federal government "terminated" the recognition of Coast Miwok people as well as many other tribes. It took nearly 40 years for the Coast Miwok to once again become a federally recognized tribe. Legislation was signed in December 2000 by President Clinton granting the Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria, formerly known as the Federated Coast Miwok, full rights and privileges afforded federally recognized tribes. Currently there are almost 500 members registered with the tribe.
- Our bookstores and visitor centers carry several books about the Coast Miwok.
- Visitors can participate in a Kule Loklo Open House and Workday. Typically held on the second Saturday of each month. Please call Carlo Arreglo to confirm when the next date is scheduled - by phone 415-464-5146 or by email. | 592 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gallia Belgica, which means "Belgian Gaul" in Latin, was a Roman province. Different parts of it are in several countries today, including Belgium, Luxembourg, a big part of northern France, and part of the Rhineland in Germany, which is the part of Germany west of the Rhine River.
The people who lived in Gallia Belgica were called the Belgae. They were a group of tribes within the bigger country called Gaul, which covered all of modern France. According to Julius Caesar, the Belgae were different from the other Gauls. He said that the border between Belgica and the main Celtic part of Gaul was the Marne and the Seine rivers and that the border with Germania was the Rhine river. It is no longer certain what language or languages were spoken in Gallia Belgica, but historians know there was an influence of both Celtic and Germanic languages.
The area was conquered in 57 BC by Julius Caesar. Emperor Diocletian changed the Gaulish provinces around 300 AD. He split Belgica into two provinces: Belgica Prima and Belgica Secunda. Belgica Prima had Treveri (Trier) as its main city and was the eastern part. The border between Belgica Prima and Belgica Secunda was along the River Meuse.
In 406 AD, the Vandals, Burgundians and other tribes crossed the Rhine. They defeated the Gaulish forces. Belgica Secunda became in the 5th century the center of Clovis' Merovingian kingdom and during the 8th century the heart of the Carolingian Empire. | <urn:uuid:c5a3e94d-673a-4900-b33b-25460a9be626> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallia_Belgica | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00460.warc.gz | en | 0.982701 | 334 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.1124780029058456... | 3 | Gallia Belgica, which means "Belgian Gaul" in Latin, was a Roman province. Different parts of it are in several countries today, including Belgium, Luxembourg, a big part of northern France, and part of the Rhineland in Germany, which is the part of Germany west of the Rhine River.
The people who lived in Gallia Belgica were called the Belgae. They were a group of tribes within the bigger country called Gaul, which covered all of modern France. According to Julius Caesar, the Belgae were different from the other Gauls. He said that the border between Belgica and the main Celtic part of Gaul was the Marne and the Seine rivers and that the border with Germania was the Rhine river. It is no longer certain what language or languages were spoken in Gallia Belgica, but historians know there was an influence of both Celtic and Germanic languages.
The area was conquered in 57 BC by Julius Caesar. Emperor Diocletian changed the Gaulish provinces around 300 AD. He split Belgica into two provinces: Belgica Prima and Belgica Secunda. Belgica Prima had Treveri (Trier) as its main city and was the eastern part. The border between Belgica Prima and Belgica Secunda was along the River Meuse.
In 406 AD, the Vandals, Burgundians and other tribes crossed the Rhine. They defeated the Gaulish forces. Belgica Secunda became in the 5th century the center of Clovis' Merovingian kingdom and during the 8th century the heart of the Carolingian Empire. | 342 | ENGLISH | 1 |
began before his birth, during the Zhou Dynasty.Confucianism by Jesuit missionaries who were visiting there. However, the fundamental principles of Confucius was developed in China by Master Kong in 551-479 BC, who was given the name Confucianism
To Confucius, the main objective of being an educator was to teach people to live with integrity. Through his teachings, he strove to resurrect the traditional values of benevolence, propriety and ritual in Chinese society.
Born into a noble family thatlived near the Himalayas(Nepal)
The Basic Teachings of Buddha which are core to Buddhism are: • The Three Universal Truths; • The Four Noble Truths; and • The Noble Eightfold Path.
Daoism (Taoism) was created by Laozi in the sixth century BCE. Daoism was created during the Period of Warring States after the fall of the Zhou dynasty. Along with Confucianism and Legalism, it became on of the three schools of learning created during this period. ... It was written by the Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi.
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0.176922038197... | 1 | began before his birth, during the Zhou Dynasty.Confucianism by Jesuit missionaries who were visiting there. However, the fundamental principles of Confucius was developed in China by Master Kong in 551-479 BC, who was given the name Confucianism
To Confucius, the main objective of being an educator was to teach people to live with integrity. Through his teachings, he strove to resurrect the traditional values of benevolence, propriety and ritual in Chinese society.
Born into a noble family thatlived near the Himalayas(Nepal)
The Basic Teachings of Buddha which are core to Buddhism are: • The Three Universal Truths; • The Four Noble Truths; and • The Noble Eightfold Path.
Daoism (Taoism) was created by Laozi in the sixth century BCE. Daoism was created during the Period of Warring States after the fall of the Zhou dynasty. Along with Confucianism and Legalism, it became on of the three schools of learning created during this period. ... It was written by the Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi.
Laozi teaches that people should follow the naturalorder of life Believes that universal force called Dao (“theway”) guides all things | 260 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lighting in ancient Greece was lit by daylight and the dramas were frequently designed to take advantage of the position of the sun. There were sites specifically placed to gain the best effects of the natural light. Most plays could begin in the morning and last until the evening, so there was no need for artificial lights. The history of Greek lighting would then evolve to use mirrors with the sun’s light to alter the lighting for their plays. If they wanted to establish any type of moods then there would be an intermission until the time of day. Parabolic mirrors were also used in helping to reflect moon light for performances in the evening.
The 15th century invented oil lamps. These lamps were mounted in crude hoops or chandeliers, which were hoisted aloft on pulleys to hang in dripping splendour. It was Sabastiano Serlio who then added ‘colored liquid’ to the oil lamps in 1545, introducing color and more variety to stage lighting. The 16th and17th centuries introduced dimming of candles by using metal cylinders lowered onto them. The twisted wicks had to be constantly trimmed during the performance.
Chandeliers with candles where used in several places on the stage for illumination, this distribution or placement of the candle light chandeliers allowed for more dramatic lighting This process was a manual process and took a lot of stage heads to make this possible. This would affect the audience by not being able to see at night, or the weather could affect the audience(it being too cold or hot). It was in the middle of the 18th century when the kerosene lamp with a wick was the biggest improvement to the oil lamp. Near the end of the 18th century, the Scottish engineer William Murdock developed a practical method to distill gas from coal for illumination. For the first time, to add to the realism of the play, the auditorium lights could be darkened. Elaborate central control systems were devised. It affected the audience by heat, offensive vapors, and the serious fire hazard of the open flame.
Protective The sharpness produced by the small point source made possible the creation of realistic effects, such as sunlight and moonlight, and moving effects, such as clouds, water, and fire. The sharpness produced by the small point source made possible the creation of realistic effects, such as sunlight and moonlight, and moving effects, such as clouds, water, and fire. codes were soon established that necessitated the use of guards, screens, and glass chimneys. It was not until 1880 when a true electrical system was introduced by Edison. | <urn:uuid:144429f1-e0b4-41c8-9fc3-5290db113149> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tooly.io/theatrical-lighting-in-ancient-greece/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00168.warc.gz | en | 0.980129 | 532 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.438104331493... | 1 | Lighting in ancient Greece was lit by daylight and the dramas were frequently designed to take advantage of the position of the sun. There were sites specifically placed to gain the best effects of the natural light. Most plays could begin in the morning and last until the evening, so there was no need for artificial lights. The history of Greek lighting would then evolve to use mirrors with the sun’s light to alter the lighting for their plays. If they wanted to establish any type of moods then there would be an intermission until the time of day. Parabolic mirrors were also used in helping to reflect moon light for performances in the evening.
The 15th century invented oil lamps. These lamps were mounted in crude hoops or chandeliers, which were hoisted aloft on pulleys to hang in dripping splendour. It was Sabastiano Serlio who then added ‘colored liquid’ to the oil lamps in 1545, introducing color and more variety to stage lighting. The 16th and17th centuries introduced dimming of candles by using metal cylinders lowered onto them. The twisted wicks had to be constantly trimmed during the performance.
Chandeliers with candles where used in several places on the stage for illumination, this distribution or placement of the candle light chandeliers allowed for more dramatic lighting This process was a manual process and took a lot of stage heads to make this possible. This would affect the audience by not being able to see at night, or the weather could affect the audience(it being too cold or hot). It was in the middle of the 18th century when the kerosene lamp with a wick was the biggest improvement to the oil lamp. Near the end of the 18th century, the Scottish engineer William Murdock developed a practical method to distill gas from coal for illumination. For the first time, to add to the realism of the play, the auditorium lights could be darkened. Elaborate central control systems were devised. It affected the audience by heat, offensive vapors, and the serious fire hazard of the open flame.
Protective The sharpness produced by the small point source made possible the creation of realistic effects, such as sunlight and moonlight, and moving effects, such as clouds, water, and fire. The sharpness produced by the small point source made possible the creation of realistic effects, such as sunlight and moonlight, and moving effects, such as clouds, water, and fire. codes were soon established that necessitated the use of guards, screens, and glass chimneys. It was not until 1880 when a true electrical system was introduced by Edison. | 543 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Over time, the world has seen many outstanding musicians, and so much fantastic music. Each highly remembered composer or musician changed the way we think and see the world. They give us new ideas, and music is a wonderful way to convey moods and emotions. Each also slightly changed music itself. Handel was one of the greatest of these people. He was a superior composer who largely influenced and expanded music.
George Frideric Handel was born in Germany, but found his future in England as a composer. Stanley states that: “Handel was by training and temperament a composer… Like Mozart he possessed in the highest degree the supreme attributes of the musical dramatist” (105-106). The surprising thing is Handel was not raised to be a musician. His father had wanted Handel to become a lawyer. He graduated Halle in law, 1702, to satisfy his father’s wish. He did this even though he was intent on music (Lang 20). One day years before, when his father brought him to visit the courts, a duke heard him playing the organ and asked his father to train him in music. Handel’s father still wanted him to study law, but now young Handel started getting different ideas. After graduating, he traveled to Italy and studied music for a while. After learning what he could from Italian music, Handel left in search of a place where he could expand his music (Lang 106). He soon found England to be what he needed. There he could grow into a musician. He had the people and resources to become a virtuoso.
Handel was able to write amazing things with his music and was able to reach multiple kinds of people through his music.
The lifelong habit of improvisation was linked with Handel’s method of composition. He was a rapid worker. While his meticulous dating of autographs indicates that nearly all his major works were committed to paper within an astonishingly short amount of time (the three weeks spent on Messiah is the most famous of many examples), he undoubtedly worked out ideas in advance, both in his head and in sketches; a number of the latter survive, and they sometimes show a single idea subjected to repeated polishing almost to the manner of Beethoven. (Stanley 104)
He was able to write compositions in relatively short amounts of time. He would just keep going over his pieces until they became the masterpieces everyone knew him for. “Handel’s mature style is empirical and eclectic. His creative personality was so strong that he was able to assimilate what he wanted from whatever tradition he met, without awkwardness or incongruity, and to comprehend the new without abandoning the old” (Stanley 104). This ability to write in different cultures and to use both new and old techniques immensely helped Handel to reach all types of people. He was greatly loved by those who heard his music, and was an appreciated musician in many cultures. He could write for the different cultures and different age ranges, covering all genres and styles. George Frederic... | <urn:uuid:f0404923-3b77-4657-b117-3806e6bddb37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/handelian-influence-on-music | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.990935 | 635 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.0610983595252037... | 1 | Over time, the world has seen many outstanding musicians, and so much fantastic music. Each highly remembered composer or musician changed the way we think and see the world. They give us new ideas, and music is a wonderful way to convey moods and emotions. Each also slightly changed music itself. Handel was one of the greatest of these people. He was a superior composer who largely influenced and expanded music.
George Frideric Handel was born in Germany, but found his future in England as a composer. Stanley states that: “Handel was by training and temperament a composer… Like Mozart he possessed in the highest degree the supreme attributes of the musical dramatist” (105-106). The surprising thing is Handel was not raised to be a musician. His father had wanted Handel to become a lawyer. He graduated Halle in law, 1702, to satisfy his father’s wish. He did this even though he was intent on music (Lang 20). One day years before, when his father brought him to visit the courts, a duke heard him playing the organ and asked his father to train him in music. Handel’s father still wanted him to study law, but now young Handel started getting different ideas. After graduating, he traveled to Italy and studied music for a while. After learning what he could from Italian music, Handel left in search of a place where he could expand his music (Lang 106). He soon found England to be what he needed. There he could grow into a musician. He had the people and resources to become a virtuoso.
Handel was able to write amazing things with his music and was able to reach multiple kinds of people through his music.
The lifelong habit of improvisation was linked with Handel’s method of composition. He was a rapid worker. While his meticulous dating of autographs indicates that nearly all his major works were committed to paper within an astonishingly short amount of time (the three weeks spent on Messiah is the most famous of many examples), he undoubtedly worked out ideas in advance, both in his head and in sketches; a number of the latter survive, and they sometimes show a single idea subjected to repeated polishing almost to the manner of Beethoven. (Stanley 104)
He was able to write compositions in relatively short amounts of time. He would just keep going over his pieces until they became the masterpieces everyone knew him for. “Handel’s mature style is empirical and eclectic. His creative personality was so strong that he was able to assimilate what he wanted from whatever tradition he met, without awkwardness or incongruity, and to comprehend the new without abandoning the old” (Stanley 104). This ability to write in different cultures and to use both new and old techniques immensely helped Handel to reach all types of people. He was greatly loved by those who heard his music, and was an appreciated musician in many cultures. He could write for the different cultures and different age ranges, covering all genres and styles. George Frederic... | 630 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Chinese paddlefish — one of the world’s largest freshwater fish — has officially been declared extinct after surviving some 150 million years.
The giant species, which measured as long as 23 feet and weighed as much as 1,100 pounds, has been killed off by overfishing and dam construction, according to research published in the Science of the Total Environment’s March issue.
“It’s very sad,” Zeb Hogan, a fish biologist at the University of Nevada, Reno, told National Geographic. “It’s the definitive loss of a very unique and extraordinary animal, with no hope of recovery.”
In the 1970s, 25 tons of paddlefish, which sported a long, spear-like nose and populated the Yangtze River and sometimes the East China Sea, were being harvested annually, according to Science of the Total Environment.
But the construction of the Gezhouba Dam sped up their demise. The structure blocked access to upstream, where paddlefish would spawn, and downstream, where feeding grounds were.
Research concluded that paddlefish became functionally extinct by 1993, meaning they were no long reproducing, and likely became extinct sometime between 2005 and 2010.
The last paddlefish was seen in 2003 when researchers attached a tracking tag to one that was accidentally captured near Yibin in south-central China, Nat Geo said. The signal, however, was lost after the fish’s release.
The Chinese paddlefish’s only remaining relative is the American paddlefish, found in the Mississippi River. Both are related to the sturgeon family, which is also threatened by extinction.
Researchers said 140 other types of fish historically reported in the Yangtze River were not found, meaning most of them are endangered.
Hogan warned that the extinction of the paddlefish could spell trouble for species of its kind.
“This is the first of these very large freshwater fish to go and many are at risk,” Hogan said. “The concern is that more will go extinct, but the hope is that we can reverse their decline before it’s too late.” | <urn:uuid:218ff513-6e8b-49ee-8181-f12e9b7de41e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nypost.com/2020/01/09/chinese-paddlefish-extinct-after-surviving-150-million-years/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00417.warc.gz | en | 0.983198 | 444 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.2570956051349... | 3 | The Chinese paddlefish — one of the world’s largest freshwater fish — has officially been declared extinct after surviving some 150 million years.
The giant species, which measured as long as 23 feet and weighed as much as 1,100 pounds, has been killed off by overfishing and dam construction, according to research published in the Science of the Total Environment’s March issue.
“It’s very sad,” Zeb Hogan, a fish biologist at the University of Nevada, Reno, told National Geographic. “It’s the definitive loss of a very unique and extraordinary animal, with no hope of recovery.”
In the 1970s, 25 tons of paddlefish, which sported a long, spear-like nose and populated the Yangtze River and sometimes the East China Sea, were being harvested annually, according to Science of the Total Environment.
But the construction of the Gezhouba Dam sped up their demise. The structure blocked access to upstream, where paddlefish would spawn, and downstream, where feeding grounds were.
Research concluded that paddlefish became functionally extinct by 1993, meaning they were no long reproducing, and likely became extinct sometime between 2005 and 2010.
The last paddlefish was seen in 2003 when researchers attached a tracking tag to one that was accidentally captured near Yibin in south-central China, Nat Geo said. The signal, however, was lost after the fish’s release.
The Chinese paddlefish’s only remaining relative is the American paddlefish, found in the Mississippi River. Both are related to the sturgeon family, which is also threatened by extinction.
Researchers said 140 other types of fish historically reported in the Yangtze River were not found, meaning most of them are endangered.
Hogan warned that the extinction of the paddlefish could spell trouble for species of its kind.
“This is the first of these very large freshwater fish to go and many are at risk,” Hogan said. “The concern is that more will go extinct, but the hope is that we can reverse their decline before it’s too late.” | 437 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For many of us, life before air conditioning is something quite hard to imagine, since this amazing modern invention has been around for more than a century. However, it is always interesting and beneficial to take the time to think about what life was like before AC units were widely available. People in the 1800s and early 1900s had to come up with effective and accessible ways to stay cool, especially during the hot months of summer. Some popular cooling options included public water fountains, huge ice blocks, high ceilings, front porches, and napping under the trees.
Public Water Fountains
If you have ever seen a fountain and wondered why were they even built in the first place, we might have the answer you were looking for. Life before air conditioning required towns and cities to provide their inhabitants with different ways to stay cool during the summer. Public water fountains were installed so that people could drink water and stay hydrated, as well as submerging their heads and stay cool.
Storing Huge Ice Blocks
Before air conditioning, another way people would prepare for the hot months of summer was by harvesting ice blocks during the winter and keeping them until the warm months arrived. Since refrigeration was not available yet, people would store ice blocks taken from frozen lakes in naturally cool buildings, also known as ice-houses. Since every winter was a bit different, ice blocks weren’t a reliable commodity, as some years would be colder than others.
Buildings with High Ceilings
Even before the concept of sustainability became a trend, architects would find solutions to keep buildings cool through smart design. Designing houses and buildings with high ceilings was how people could enjoy life before air conditioning during hot weather. Since hot air rises, it would escape through windows built near the ceilings, allowing cool air to flow naturally.
Fresh Front Porches
Another solution architects provided was incorporating front porches onto houses in order to allow homeowners to have a fresh outdoor space within their property. During the evening, people would sit outside their homes and enjoy the fresh air. Eventually, front porches became great places to socialize and spend time with friends and family, giving them the chance to cool off after a long, hot day.
Naps Under the Trees
Life before air conditioning might sound difficult, but lacking these systems also allowed people to enjoy life in other ways. In order to stay fresh and cool off during summer, people would take naps under the shades of trees. This also gave them the opportunity to go out, spend time outdoors, practice a sport, spend time with their friends, and then relax and cool off by napping in the shade. | <urn:uuid:2f8dd25c-c759-42aa-be49-a214caf1fafa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://zerohvacandrefrigeration.com/life-before-air-conditioning-how-people-stayed-cool/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00187.warc.gz | en | 0.987542 | 539 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.1494739353656768... | 12 | For many of us, life before air conditioning is something quite hard to imagine, since this amazing modern invention has been around for more than a century. However, it is always interesting and beneficial to take the time to think about what life was like before AC units were widely available. People in the 1800s and early 1900s had to come up with effective and accessible ways to stay cool, especially during the hot months of summer. Some popular cooling options included public water fountains, huge ice blocks, high ceilings, front porches, and napping under the trees.
Public Water Fountains
If you have ever seen a fountain and wondered why were they even built in the first place, we might have the answer you were looking for. Life before air conditioning required towns and cities to provide their inhabitants with different ways to stay cool during the summer. Public water fountains were installed so that people could drink water and stay hydrated, as well as submerging their heads and stay cool.
Storing Huge Ice Blocks
Before air conditioning, another way people would prepare for the hot months of summer was by harvesting ice blocks during the winter and keeping them until the warm months arrived. Since refrigeration was not available yet, people would store ice blocks taken from frozen lakes in naturally cool buildings, also known as ice-houses. Since every winter was a bit different, ice blocks weren’t a reliable commodity, as some years would be colder than others.
Buildings with High Ceilings
Even before the concept of sustainability became a trend, architects would find solutions to keep buildings cool through smart design. Designing houses and buildings with high ceilings was how people could enjoy life before air conditioning during hot weather. Since hot air rises, it would escape through windows built near the ceilings, allowing cool air to flow naturally.
Fresh Front Porches
Another solution architects provided was incorporating front porches onto houses in order to allow homeowners to have a fresh outdoor space within their property. During the evening, people would sit outside their homes and enjoy the fresh air. Eventually, front porches became great places to socialize and spend time with friends and family, giving them the chance to cool off after a long, hot day.
Naps Under the Trees
Life before air conditioning might sound difficult, but lacking these systems also allowed people to enjoy life in other ways. In order to stay fresh and cool off during summer, people would take naps under the shades of trees. This also gave them the opportunity to go out, spend time outdoors, practice a sport, spend time with their friends, and then relax and cool off by napping in the shade. | 538 | ENGLISH | 1 |
January is resolution month; February is friendship. How can we help kids learn friendship skills? What are some basic and important ones? Taking turns is one of the earliest.
We all know the importance of social skills for success at school and beyond. Some of them are so common that we do not think how critical they really are. On any day, as adults, we take turns constantly. Every time we have a conversation with someone we are taking turns. Every relationship is based on give and take.
From early on, we help babies learn about taking turns. We talk to the baby and wait for any sound as a reply. Rolling a ball back and forth is another way to support learning about taking turns. As children grow, there are more opportunities and experiences.
Besides letting others have a turn, kids also need to learn how to make sure they get a turn. Although most kids have the words, “I want a turn,” pretty clearly, it helps to add a few. “I want a turn. Tell me when you are done,” is often more effective. The other person is less likely to say no and feels recognized. We can model this for our kids by using the words when appropriate and coaching them to say the words when playing with others.
If you are using something and your child wants it, you can also say, “I’m not finished my turn. Please wait.” Kids are usually fine with this. They have been able to communicate their message and know they have been heard. Of course, there may be some negotiation afterwards if kids think someone is taking too long.
Reading books and telling stories is another way to help kids learn friendship skills. There are lots of games for practicing taking turns, such as Hopscotch, Throw and Catch, Hide and Seek, card games, board games, and more. Would you like a turn? | <urn:uuid:bd6b7ef0-41b2-47a0-b2b8-5b16f1566990> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://123kindergarten.com/2017/02/03/help-kids-learn-friendship-skills-turns/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.981112 | 391 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.26116096973419... | 13 | January is resolution month; February is friendship. How can we help kids learn friendship skills? What are some basic and important ones? Taking turns is one of the earliest.
We all know the importance of social skills for success at school and beyond. Some of them are so common that we do not think how critical they really are. On any day, as adults, we take turns constantly. Every time we have a conversation with someone we are taking turns. Every relationship is based on give and take.
From early on, we help babies learn about taking turns. We talk to the baby and wait for any sound as a reply. Rolling a ball back and forth is another way to support learning about taking turns. As children grow, there are more opportunities and experiences.
Besides letting others have a turn, kids also need to learn how to make sure they get a turn. Although most kids have the words, “I want a turn,” pretty clearly, it helps to add a few. “I want a turn. Tell me when you are done,” is often more effective. The other person is less likely to say no and feels recognized. We can model this for our kids by using the words when appropriate and coaching them to say the words when playing with others.
If you are using something and your child wants it, you can also say, “I’m not finished my turn. Please wait.” Kids are usually fine with this. They have been able to communicate their message and know they have been heard. Of course, there may be some negotiation afterwards if kids think someone is taking too long.
Reading books and telling stories is another way to help kids learn friendship skills. There are lots of games for practicing taking turns, such as Hopscotch, Throw and Catch, Hide and Seek, card games, board games, and more. Would you like a turn? | 374 | ENGLISH | 1 |
United States Exploring Expedition
The United States Exploring Expedition was an exploring and surveying expedition of the Pacific Ocean and surrounding lands conducted by the United States from 1838 to 1842. The original appointed commanding officer was Commodore Thomas ap Catesby Jones. Funding for the original expedition was requested by President John Quincy Adams in 1828, however, Congress would not implement funding until eight years later. In May 1836 the oceanic exploration voyage was finally authorized by Congress and created by President Andrew Jackson. The expedition is sometimes called the ""U.S. Ex. Ex."" for short, or the ""Wilkes Expedition"" in honor of its next appointed commanding officer, United States Navy Lieutenant Charles Wilkes. The expedition was of major importance to the growth of science in the United States, in particular the then-young field of oceanography. During the event, armed conflict between Pacific islanders and the expedition was common and dozens of natives were killed in action, as well as a few Americans. | <urn:uuid:b7e57b9e-475d-4c4e-94ce-7332fa39713f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studyres.com/concepts/10879/united-states-exploring-expedition | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.981073 | 201 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.37485045194625... | 3 | United States Exploring Expedition
The United States Exploring Expedition was an exploring and surveying expedition of the Pacific Ocean and surrounding lands conducted by the United States from 1838 to 1842. The original appointed commanding officer was Commodore Thomas ap Catesby Jones. Funding for the original expedition was requested by President John Quincy Adams in 1828, however, Congress would not implement funding until eight years later. In May 1836 the oceanic exploration voyage was finally authorized by Congress and created by President Andrew Jackson. The expedition is sometimes called the ""U.S. Ex. Ex."" for short, or the ""Wilkes Expedition"" in honor of its next appointed commanding officer, United States Navy Lieutenant Charles Wilkes. The expedition was of major importance to the growth of science in the United States, in particular the then-young field of oceanography. During the event, armed conflict between Pacific islanders and the expedition was common and dozens of natives were killed in action, as well as a few Americans. | 213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Concentration Camps Concentration Camps were a big part of the Holocaust. My first topic is the concentration camp Dachau. Then I will talk about another concentration camp called Bergen-Belsen. After that, I will tell you about the concentration camp Treblinka.
The main goal of the Holocaust was the extermination of every single Jew in Europe. Of course, this included children as well.
The purpose was almost fulfilled.
Out of about eight million Jews living in Europe afterabout six million of them were killed. As a term, Holocaust has normally been used to describe the fate of the Jews. Most of the Jewish killings were done by mobile death squads and in concentration camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka, Belzec, and Majdanek.
The nazi's most effective way of killing people was in specially made gas chambers, into which the victims were packed wall to wall. Auschwitz concentration camp, arrival of Hungarian Rows of bodies fill the yard of Lager Nor Yellow badge Star of David called "Judenstern".
After the bodies were gassed, they were moved to nearby furnaces to be burned. Children were no exception to these conditions and dealt with the horrible pains of being separated from their parents, the fears of hiding, and being thrown out of public schools.
Jewish children who were victims of the Holocaust experienced more suffering than any other group of people during World War Two. The children waived goodbye to their parents, were put on trains, and then sent to England by Ferries.
There was nearly ten thousand children of the 'kindertransport.- Auschwitz Auschwitz, located thirty-seven miles west of Krakow, was the first concentration camp where Jewish people worked to death, or were automatically killed.
This camp, compared to all the other camps, tortured the most people. At the camp there was a place called the "Black Wall," this was where the people were executed. History Background. The ideology of Nazism brought together elements of antisemitism, racial hygiene, and eugenics, and combined them with pan-Germanism and territorial expansionism with the goal of obtaining more Lebensraum (living space) for the Germanic people.
Immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany, acts of violence perpetrated against Jews became ubiquitous. On May 26, , the largest and most horrifying concentration camp was established. Estimated around three million Jewish people died in the concentration camp, all thanks to Adolf Auschwitz-Birkenau.
Auschwitz was the largest concentration camp out of the 20, created. Hitler.
Auschwitz concentration camp was a network of concentration and extermination camps built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II.
Auschwitz is considered by the most the most inhumane concentration camp in world war two. At the beginning of , Auschwitz was created, and it was under the rules of the SS (Concentration Camp). Auschwitz was the largest concentration camp during World War II, where over a million people died.
Jews were treated horribly, and many were . Concentration Camps were a big part of the Holocaust. At first, it was a extermination camp for Jewish people and political prisoners. Then it became a full-time concentration camp for prisoners.
The most notorious concentration camp ever was Auschwitz-Birkenau. Auschwitz was opened in . | <urn:uuid:d8c01c15-be9b-4e89-b501-854be821d87c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kudusopymu.pfmlures.com/jewish-concentration-camp-auschwits-essay-18815oj.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00088.warc.gz | en | 0.983263 | 688 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.61956787109375... | 1 | Concentration Camps Concentration Camps were a big part of the Holocaust. My first topic is the concentration camp Dachau. Then I will talk about another concentration camp called Bergen-Belsen. After that, I will tell you about the concentration camp Treblinka.
The main goal of the Holocaust was the extermination of every single Jew in Europe. Of course, this included children as well.
The purpose was almost fulfilled.
Out of about eight million Jews living in Europe afterabout six million of them were killed. As a term, Holocaust has normally been used to describe the fate of the Jews. Most of the Jewish killings were done by mobile death squads and in concentration camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka, Belzec, and Majdanek.
The nazi's most effective way of killing people was in specially made gas chambers, into which the victims were packed wall to wall. Auschwitz concentration camp, arrival of Hungarian Rows of bodies fill the yard of Lager Nor Yellow badge Star of David called "Judenstern".
After the bodies were gassed, they were moved to nearby furnaces to be burned. Children were no exception to these conditions and dealt with the horrible pains of being separated from their parents, the fears of hiding, and being thrown out of public schools.
Jewish children who were victims of the Holocaust experienced more suffering than any other group of people during World War Two. The children waived goodbye to their parents, were put on trains, and then sent to England by Ferries.
There was nearly ten thousand children of the 'kindertransport.- Auschwitz Auschwitz, located thirty-seven miles west of Krakow, was the first concentration camp where Jewish people worked to death, or were automatically killed.
This camp, compared to all the other camps, tortured the most people. At the camp there was a place called the "Black Wall," this was where the people were executed. History Background. The ideology of Nazism brought together elements of antisemitism, racial hygiene, and eugenics, and combined them with pan-Germanism and territorial expansionism with the goal of obtaining more Lebensraum (living space) for the Germanic people.
Immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany, acts of violence perpetrated against Jews became ubiquitous. On May 26, , the largest and most horrifying concentration camp was established. Estimated around three million Jewish people died in the concentration camp, all thanks to Adolf Auschwitz-Birkenau.
Auschwitz was the largest concentration camp out of the 20, created. Hitler.
Auschwitz concentration camp was a network of concentration and extermination camps built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II.
Auschwitz is considered by the most the most inhumane concentration camp in world war two. At the beginning of , Auschwitz was created, and it was under the rules of the SS (Concentration Camp). Auschwitz was the largest concentration camp during World War II, where over a million people died.
Jews were treated horribly, and many were . Concentration Camps were a big part of the Holocaust. At first, it was a extermination camp for Jewish people and political prisoners. Then it became a full-time concentration camp for prisoners.
The most notorious concentration camp ever was Auschwitz-Birkenau. Auschwitz was opened in . | 674 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Government in Ancient Egypt
The position of pharaoh of ancient Egypt was the most critical element of Egyptian government. Pharaohs had many responsibilities in the activities of ancient Egypt's economy and religion. Because of this, a pharaoh's influence could make or break Egypt's prosperity. But a pharaoh could not do everything on his own and needed the help of a bureaucratic hierarchy to help him govern. The vizier, who answered directly to the pharaoh, was at the head of this bureaucratic government. Various government departments staffed by scribes answered to the vizier. The pharaoh also employed the services of courtiers to help him with day-to-day activities. Egyptian law established and enforced by this system of government kept order throughout the nation.
The pharaoh's position was similar to that of a king. The pharaoh was responsible for maintaining ma'at, or harmony, throughout his country. All pharaohs were considered to be the only representative of the divine gods among humans. As a god among men, the pharaoh played an important role as a religious leader in ancient Egypt. By the time of the New Kingdom, the Egyptian subjects were not allowed to address the pharaoh directly. Instead, they used the word "per aa," meaning "Great Palace." In English the word is pronounced "pharaoh."
The pharaoh was responsible for priestly duties and all domestic and foreign political affairs. The pharaoh could decide when the nation would fight, how the nation's riches would be spent, how Egyptians would be taxed, and more. Though it was impossible for the pharaoh to do everything, the position held an immense amount of power.
One of the most important methods that the pharaohs used to rule Egypt was by travelling throughout the realm. Powerful pharaohs knew that they could maintain stability throughout the country by exerting a presence among the people. Most pharaohs sailed up and down the Nile, stopping along the way to visit individual towns. These inspections ensured that the bureaucracy was running smoothly.
The proof of the pharaoh's power can be seen throughout Egypt's history. Typically, when a strong pharaoh reigned, Egypt flourished. For example, Rameses II of the 19th Dynasty was a strong pharaoh. He used military might and diplomacy to bring about peace with Egypt's enemies, the Hittites. Weak kings sometimes led to economic and political collapse within Egypt. The succession of only a few weak kings brought about the downfall of the Old Kingdom and the chaos of the First Intermediate Period.
The pharaoh could not possibly handle all of the political and spiritual affairs of his nation, so he enlisted the help of an organized bureaucracy. The pharaoh appointed most of the important members so that he could keep control over his government. During the Old Kingdom, most of these officials were chosen from the pharaoh's family. By the Middle Kingdom, when the bureaucracy was more developed, the officials were chosen from the class of educated scribes and courtiers.
The vizier was the pharaoh's right-hand-man. The vizier's duty was to act on behalf of the pharaoh. The vizier did not have the freedom to create his own policy. Instead, his decisions were supposed to be based on the pharaoh's policy.
Part of the vizier's job was to stay current with the agricultural production of the nation. To do this, he read reports pertaining to things like the Nile's inundation levels and livestock censuses. Using this information, he made daily reports to the pharaoh on how Egypt was fairing. The vizier also presided over the second highest court of appeals in Egypt.
By the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian bureaucracy had become so organized that two viziers were needed to help the pharaoh. One vizier ruled over Upper Egypt and lived in Thebes. The other vizier ruled over Lower Egypt and lived in Memphis. This division helped the pharaohs control the growing nation.
The Egyptian bureaucratic system included several levels of government, with a number of governmental departments that were established below the vizier. These departments focused on economic and political areas in the Egyptian government. They included the treasury, granary, royal works, cattle, and foreign affairs. Each department was manned by a number of officials and scribes.
Scribes, who knew the complex writing system of hieroglyphics, were important in the Egyptian bureaucracy. They recorded statistics and acted as the economists and record keepers of ancient Egypt. For example, scribes in all regions wrote down the amount of rainfall during a given time period so that they could predict the flood levels of the Nile River. This prediction helped farmers plan their crops. They also kept track of how much tax, paid in grain and other raw materials, each Egyptian owed and paid to the government.
Egypt was divided into nomes, or provinces. Nomarchs were powerful land-owning men who ruled over these provinces. Like the pharaoh, they had religious, as well as political, responsibilities. Mayors and other local government officials governed towns and answered to the nomarch.
Courtiers were personal assistants to the pharaoh. Individuals in this position assisted the pharaoh in his numerous day-to-day responsibilities. Some of these courtiers were members of his family. By the Middle Kingdom, many of the courtiers were men who had worked their way up the social ladder through ambition and education.
Courtiers had various functions. Some were in charge of the pharaoh's personal effects, like clothing and make-up, while others were responsible for the construction and maintenance of buildings and temples throughout Egypt.
Egyptian Law and Justice
No scholar has ever found evidence of the existence of a compiled list of the laws made by the Egyptians. This has made the modern-day understanding of Egyptian law limited. Historians have turned to the court records left by this ancient civilization to learn about the Egyptian code of law. One of the most important laws of the land was a prohibition against tomb robbing.
The Medjay enforced Egyptian law. The Medjay began as a Nubian tribe that worked for Egypt as mercenaries who fought for the pharaoh. Eventually, this group evolved into a policing force within Egypt. The group deterred crime, arrested criminals and maintained peace.
Legal and land disputes were settled in local courts, and those involved always defended themselves. Lawyers did not represent individuals. During a case, individuals would use evidence and written statements to prove their cases to a panel of judges. The judges were made up of important figures from the locality. These judges worked together to decide the outcome of a case.
Decisions made in local courts could be appealed to the Court of Listeners. An even higher court existed in both Upper and Lower Egypt, and was headed by the vizier. However, the last and final judge in Egypt's most important cases was always the pharaoh.
By Sara Ann McGill
Copyright of Egyptian Government is the property of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.
Pasted from <http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=5&hid=103&sid=19a5a87a-5111-411c-a228-2d9e336d353c%40sessionmgr2&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d> | <urn:uuid:2b84284c-e630-485b-a6d9-526c98b90c00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essaydocs.org/ancient-egypts-economy-and-religion-because-of-this-a-pharaohs.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.980673 | 1,555 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.11783020198345184... | 1 | |Government in Ancient Egypt
The position of pharaoh of ancient Egypt was the most critical element of Egyptian government. Pharaohs had many responsibilities in the activities of ancient Egypt's economy and religion. Because of this, a pharaoh's influence could make or break Egypt's prosperity. But a pharaoh could not do everything on his own and needed the help of a bureaucratic hierarchy to help him govern. The vizier, who answered directly to the pharaoh, was at the head of this bureaucratic government. Various government departments staffed by scribes answered to the vizier. The pharaoh also employed the services of courtiers to help him with day-to-day activities. Egyptian law established and enforced by this system of government kept order throughout the nation.
The pharaoh's position was similar to that of a king. The pharaoh was responsible for maintaining ma'at, or harmony, throughout his country. All pharaohs were considered to be the only representative of the divine gods among humans. As a god among men, the pharaoh played an important role as a religious leader in ancient Egypt. By the time of the New Kingdom, the Egyptian subjects were not allowed to address the pharaoh directly. Instead, they used the word "per aa," meaning "Great Palace." In English the word is pronounced "pharaoh."
The pharaoh was responsible for priestly duties and all domestic and foreign political affairs. The pharaoh could decide when the nation would fight, how the nation's riches would be spent, how Egyptians would be taxed, and more. Though it was impossible for the pharaoh to do everything, the position held an immense amount of power.
One of the most important methods that the pharaohs used to rule Egypt was by travelling throughout the realm. Powerful pharaohs knew that they could maintain stability throughout the country by exerting a presence among the people. Most pharaohs sailed up and down the Nile, stopping along the way to visit individual towns. These inspections ensured that the bureaucracy was running smoothly.
The proof of the pharaoh's power can be seen throughout Egypt's history. Typically, when a strong pharaoh reigned, Egypt flourished. For example, Rameses II of the 19th Dynasty was a strong pharaoh. He used military might and diplomacy to bring about peace with Egypt's enemies, the Hittites. Weak kings sometimes led to economic and political collapse within Egypt. The succession of only a few weak kings brought about the downfall of the Old Kingdom and the chaos of the First Intermediate Period.
The pharaoh could not possibly handle all of the political and spiritual affairs of his nation, so he enlisted the help of an organized bureaucracy. The pharaoh appointed most of the important members so that he could keep control over his government. During the Old Kingdom, most of these officials were chosen from the pharaoh's family. By the Middle Kingdom, when the bureaucracy was more developed, the officials were chosen from the class of educated scribes and courtiers.
The vizier was the pharaoh's right-hand-man. The vizier's duty was to act on behalf of the pharaoh. The vizier did not have the freedom to create his own policy. Instead, his decisions were supposed to be based on the pharaoh's policy.
Part of the vizier's job was to stay current with the agricultural production of the nation. To do this, he read reports pertaining to things like the Nile's inundation levels and livestock censuses. Using this information, he made daily reports to the pharaoh on how Egypt was fairing. The vizier also presided over the second highest court of appeals in Egypt.
By the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian bureaucracy had become so organized that two viziers were needed to help the pharaoh. One vizier ruled over Upper Egypt and lived in Thebes. The other vizier ruled over Lower Egypt and lived in Memphis. This division helped the pharaohs control the growing nation.
The Egyptian bureaucratic system included several levels of government, with a number of governmental departments that were established below the vizier. These departments focused on economic and political areas in the Egyptian government. They included the treasury, granary, royal works, cattle, and foreign affairs. Each department was manned by a number of officials and scribes.
Scribes, who knew the complex writing system of hieroglyphics, were important in the Egyptian bureaucracy. They recorded statistics and acted as the economists and record keepers of ancient Egypt. For example, scribes in all regions wrote down the amount of rainfall during a given time period so that they could predict the flood levels of the Nile River. This prediction helped farmers plan their crops. They also kept track of how much tax, paid in grain and other raw materials, each Egyptian owed and paid to the government.
Egypt was divided into nomes, or provinces. Nomarchs were powerful land-owning men who ruled over these provinces. Like the pharaoh, they had religious, as well as political, responsibilities. Mayors and other local government officials governed towns and answered to the nomarch.
Courtiers were personal assistants to the pharaoh. Individuals in this position assisted the pharaoh in his numerous day-to-day responsibilities. Some of these courtiers were members of his family. By the Middle Kingdom, many of the courtiers were men who had worked their way up the social ladder through ambition and education.
Courtiers had various functions. Some were in charge of the pharaoh's personal effects, like clothing and make-up, while others were responsible for the construction and maintenance of buildings and temples throughout Egypt.
Egyptian Law and Justice
No scholar has ever found evidence of the existence of a compiled list of the laws made by the Egyptians. This has made the modern-day understanding of Egyptian law limited. Historians have turned to the court records left by this ancient civilization to learn about the Egyptian code of law. One of the most important laws of the land was a prohibition against tomb robbing.
The Medjay enforced Egyptian law. The Medjay began as a Nubian tribe that worked for Egypt as mercenaries who fought for the pharaoh. Eventually, this group evolved into a policing force within Egypt. The group deterred crime, arrested criminals and maintained peace.
Legal and land disputes were settled in local courts, and those involved always defended themselves. Lawyers did not represent individuals. During a case, individuals would use evidence and written statements to prove their cases to a panel of judges. The judges were made up of important figures from the locality. These judges worked together to decide the outcome of a case.
Decisions made in local courts could be appealed to the Court of Listeners. An even higher court existed in both Upper and Lower Egypt, and was headed by the vizier. However, the last and final judge in Egypt's most important cases was always the pharaoh.
By Sara Ann McGill
Copyright of Egyptian Government is the property of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.
Pasted from <http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=5&hid=103&sid=19a5a87a-5111-411c-a228-2d9e336d353c%40sessionmgr2&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d> | 1,544 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About Caen Castle
The Château de Caen is a Norman built around 1060 by William the Conqueror. His son Henry I then built the Saint George's church, a keep and a large hall for the ducal Court.
Caen Castle, along with all of Normandy, was recaptured by the French Crown in 1204. Philip II reinforced the fortifications. The castle saw several engagements during the Hundred Years' War. The keep was pulled down in 1793 during the French Revolution, by order of the National Convention.
The castle, which was used as a barracks during World War II, was bombed in 1944 and seriously damaged.
Today, the castle serves as a museum that houses the Museum of Fine Arts of Caen, the Museum of Normandy and the Exchequer of Normandy.
Based on Wikipedia content that has been reviewed, edited and republished. | <urn:uuid:f0136ea3-cef4-4b93-8861-6a83545b92bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.triphistoric.com/historic-sites/caen-castle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.980939 | 182 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.47818052... | 2 | About Caen Castle
The Château de Caen is a Norman built around 1060 by William the Conqueror. His son Henry I then built the Saint George's church, a keep and a large hall for the ducal Court.
Caen Castle, along with all of Normandy, was recaptured by the French Crown in 1204. Philip II reinforced the fortifications. The castle saw several engagements during the Hundred Years' War. The keep was pulled down in 1793 during the French Revolution, by order of the National Convention.
The castle, which was used as a barracks during World War II, was bombed in 1944 and seriously damaged.
Today, the castle serves as a museum that houses the Museum of Fine Arts of Caen, the Museum of Normandy and the Exchequer of Normandy.
Based on Wikipedia content that has been reviewed, edited and republished. | 194 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One-Syllable Word Writing Exercise Examples
Many creative writing teachers have their students practice one-syllable writing exercises. The students are asked to craft a paragraph using only one-syllable words. As a training device, this monosyllabic drill is useful for young writers to sharpen their skills. At the same time, though, it introduces them to the overarching idea that informs this exercise, that being spare can be incredibly effective in connecting with an audience.
Simple Words Can Speak Volumes
The best real-world example of this notion is Donald Trump, a person who has become known for his terse speaking (and Tweeting) style. He began driving this point home better than anyone before he even became the 45th President of the United States. In October 2015, "The Boston Globe" famously broke down the speeches of 19 different presidential candidates. The paper determined that Trump uses simple words that can be understood by a fourth-grader, according to a Flesch-Kincaid readability test.
Shortly after that piece was published, Evan Puschack, a YouTube personality who hosts a weekly web series called Nerdwriter, took a deeper dive into Trump's discourse. Puschack analyzed Trump's appearance on Jimmy Kimmel in December 2015, which came in the wake of his call for a "total and complete shutdown of Muslims entering the United States."
Puschack examined the minute-long response that then-candidate Trump offered up to Kimmel, who had asked him pointedly if it was "un-American and wrong to discriminate against people based on their religion." Puschak discovered that 78% of the words Trump responded with were one-syllable. Out of 220 words, 172 of them were one syllable. The takeaway: More uncomplicated sentiments have greater resonance with a broader audience. While it can be fun to finesse flowery text, readers respond better when you cut to the chase.
Try Your Hand at Streamlining Your Thoughts
As a writer, when you're limited to relying strictly on basic, monosyllabic words, the constraints cause you to come up with more creative uses of language. Naturally, any word limit also results in tighter, more thoughtful writing. Alas, though, the task is harder than it sounds. Give it a try. The charter is straightforward: Write a paragraph using only words with one-syllable. Write about anything you choose but make sure to keep the word count to 100 words or less.
The One-Syllable Writing Exercise in Action
In 2013, a writer named Eric John Baker put this postulation to the test by posting a piece of flash fiction on his blog that he wrote exclusively using one-syllable words. As you'll see from the excerpt below, his writing has an immediacy that makes it easy to read.
I know she saw me. I heard the noise, turned, and our eyes locked. Her teeth were bared, like a dog’s.
She meant to hit me.
In court, Barb tells the judge I “ran out.” She says she could not stop in time. Blah blah blah. It was pure chance she hit me, of all the scum on Earth, she says. Or, she tells the judge, it was guilt. That is, I ran out in the street to snuff it on a car hood from guilt for what I did to Gail, and by pure luck it was her car hood.
A sampling of writing students tried a similar exercise. After putting together paragraphs using monosyllabic words, a few students shared their observations. "I thought I’d give this a shot," wrote one student named Steve, whose paragraph is pasted below. "It was fun, you have to rephrase things, and it warps it to sound like poetry, but interesting nonetheless." Another student named Jude weighed in and said, "I went just a couple words over and just can’t find ones I’m willing to take out I’m not sure if it’s coherent: it’s really restrictive to just use one-syllable words. I had no idea!"
In a town on the edge of a wood, a small boy stood in front of a shop. At the shop, they were to hand out free treats, which he felt a great need for.
Once he got one, he ate it in haste.
May I please have one more? asked the small boy when he was done.
No, said a girl.
But I am not full, the boy said in a sad voice.
She frowned and with a nod of her head, gave her okay. The small boy filled with joy and with a laugh, held out his hand.
We need to not lose our minds as we go forth in style. Do not look back on change, see no loss, dream with eyes wide open. To attain that which is most high one, must fall, let it not be you or I, and let us rise and grow to rise above it all. Come to the Zen, stay calm and push the bad to the side, come straight through to the core and be at peace, stay at peace and be the one. Find your self do not lose yourself, and know, now that you are found, you were lost even when you did not know.
"Dear God," she wrote, "I have been good all my life. I lived in a way I thought you would want. Be it man or beast, I treat all with love. But I ask, is life how it should be? And," she went on, "Why did you leave?" She paused on the next words. "Did you leave me?" she asked in her head, "or did I leave you?" She threw the note and pen to the hard floor and cried. "Who left who? Do I have a soul? Is this life all there is?"
She feared the truth she knew.
The man showed great care and love for those near to him. Though he held all the world, he kept no thing as his. What he had he gave to all, and he gave all that he had. Life, he held not dear. His fear was not for things that fade, neither in death nor pain, but for the love of his dad he moaned and groaned in his heart. Do not leave me! Though he knew the void was not in vain, for the great love had for all he would gain. Head raised up high to the sky, with gasps of breath, he cried and cried, Why have you left me? To where have you gone?
When the sun hung so low first thing, the day could not be good. They flinch when it strikes their eyes, wish for shade and cool black night.
"Did you hear it?" said in low tones. A strange echo, all through the hours the sun hung high. Day-to-day life stays the same, but the sound is changed.
The sun’s not set for three days.
Dry land asks with a raspy gasp, "why?"
The beasts and birds don’t see, but you can just sort of breathe. Heat.
Her will is done. in the first dark since, the sky let out a sea of rain. We dance, we sing, we praise her grace.
John left school and went to sea. He had a good mate who taught him how to tie knots and things. His first trip was to Caen in France and he had a few drinks of wine in a bar and sang a song which was nice. On the way back to the boat he fell off the kerb and broke his wrist. It hurt a lot when the nurse put it in a splint. A man took him back to the boat where his boss told him never to drink wine in France as he thought it was crap!
The boy sat on the dock and wept.
He cried for the loss of love. A tear in his heart so big it seemed too much to bear.
He glanced up at the fish in the lake and wished to be with them. To be free with them for a few days is all he asked for. To not think about the life he must face. He would not go back to the house. Not back to the home where he knew her. Where her bones would be lain. Not back to the house where his mom had died.
He had been out of jail for two weeks when he took the small girl from her yard. He cut her hair to look like a boy. She was found at a car wash the next day. She was not hurt, she was fine. She went home with her mom and dad and all was joy. God heard all the pleas for her.
The cops found out that he was a thief and had shot a man to death, then took the girl. When the cops caught up with him, he put a gun to his head and “BAM.” Dead.
The last time I saw him he was my hero. Now he was just a man. He was still my dad, but not my friend. His power over me was gone. I did not seek his favor and that fact made each of us wary of the other. The old rules and words did not work, my way or no way. Now he sought me out and it was too late for me to come home to his way. The path of my life has been about my way and on my road to peace with him.
She’d grasped hold of it last night. It had been spot on. But in a flash, it was gone to who knows where. It should have been dealt with when she thought of it then. But now it will have to wait, ‘cause it’s just not there. Where did it go, that flash in the night? To a dark space in her brain, to a blank slate in her mind, or to the void in her soul? She does not know where they go or how to call them back, these thoughts that fly in and out of her head. | <urn:uuid:3c597918-221b-4c62-94df-930ff3ccbf45> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thebalancecareers.com/one-syllable-word-writing-exercise-examples-1277745 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00257.warc.gz | en | 0.98911 | 2,117 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.2289267182... | 6 | One-Syllable Word Writing Exercise Examples
Many creative writing teachers have their students practice one-syllable writing exercises. The students are asked to craft a paragraph using only one-syllable words. As a training device, this monosyllabic drill is useful for young writers to sharpen their skills. At the same time, though, it introduces them to the overarching idea that informs this exercise, that being spare can be incredibly effective in connecting with an audience.
Simple Words Can Speak Volumes
The best real-world example of this notion is Donald Trump, a person who has become known for his terse speaking (and Tweeting) style. He began driving this point home better than anyone before he even became the 45th President of the United States. In October 2015, "The Boston Globe" famously broke down the speeches of 19 different presidential candidates. The paper determined that Trump uses simple words that can be understood by a fourth-grader, according to a Flesch-Kincaid readability test.
Shortly after that piece was published, Evan Puschack, a YouTube personality who hosts a weekly web series called Nerdwriter, took a deeper dive into Trump's discourse. Puschack analyzed Trump's appearance on Jimmy Kimmel in December 2015, which came in the wake of his call for a "total and complete shutdown of Muslims entering the United States."
Puschack examined the minute-long response that then-candidate Trump offered up to Kimmel, who had asked him pointedly if it was "un-American and wrong to discriminate against people based on their religion." Puschak discovered that 78% of the words Trump responded with were one-syllable. Out of 220 words, 172 of them were one syllable. The takeaway: More uncomplicated sentiments have greater resonance with a broader audience. While it can be fun to finesse flowery text, readers respond better when you cut to the chase.
Try Your Hand at Streamlining Your Thoughts
As a writer, when you're limited to relying strictly on basic, monosyllabic words, the constraints cause you to come up with more creative uses of language. Naturally, any word limit also results in tighter, more thoughtful writing. Alas, though, the task is harder than it sounds. Give it a try. The charter is straightforward: Write a paragraph using only words with one-syllable. Write about anything you choose but make sure to keep the word count to 100 words or less.
The One-Syllable Writing Exercise in Action
In 2013, a writer named Eric John Baker put this postulation to the test by posting a piece of flash fiction on his blog that he wrote exclusively using one-syllable words. As you'll see from the excerpt below, his writing has an immediacy that makes it easy to read.
I know she saw me. I heard the noise, turned, and our eyes locked. Her teeth were bared, like a dog’s.
She meant to hit me.
In court, Barb tells the judge I “ran out.” She says she could not stop in time. Blah blah blah. It was pure chance she hit me, of all the scum on Earth, she says. Or, she tells the judge, it was guilt. That is, I ran out in the street to snuff it on a car hood from guilt for what I did to Gail, and by pure luck it was her car hood.
A sampling of writing students tried a similar exercise. After putting together paragraphs using monosyllabic words, a few students shared their observations. "I thought I’d give this a shot," wrote one student named Steve, whose paragraph is pasted below. "It was fun, you have to rephrase things, and it warps it to sound like poetry, but interesting nonetheless." Another student named Jude weighed in and said, "I went just a couple words over and just can’t find ones I’m willing to take out I’m not sure if it’s coherent: it’s really restrictive to just use one-syllable words. I had no idea!"
In a town on the edge of a wood, a small boy stood in front of a shop. At the shop, they were to hand out free treats, which he felt a great need for.
Once he got one, he ate it in haste.
May I please have one more? asked the small boy when he was done.
No, said a girl.
But I am not full, the boy said in a sad voice.
She frowned and with a nod of her head, gave her okay. The small boy filled with joy and with a laugh, held out his hand.
We need to not lose our minds as we go forth in style. Do not look back on change, see no loss, dream with eyes wide open. To attain that which is most high one, must fall, let it not be you or I, and let us rise and grow to rise above it all. Come to the Zen, stay calm and push the bad to the side, come straight through to the core and be at peace, stay at peace and be the one. Find your self do not lose yourself, and know, now that you are found, you were lost even when you did not know.
"Dear God," she wrote, "I have been good all my life. I lived in a way I thought you would want. Be it man or beast, I treat all with love. But I ask, is life how it should be? And," she went on, "Why did you leave?" She paused on the next words. "Did you leave me?" she asked in her head, "or did I leave you?" She threw the note and pen to the hard floor and cried. "Who left who? Do I have a soul? Is this life all there is?"
She feared the truth she knew.
The man showed great care and love for those near to him. Though he held all the world, he kept no thing as his. What he had he gave to all, and he gave all that he had. Life, he held not dear. His fear was not for things that fade, neither in death nor pain, but for the love of his dad he moaned and groaned in his heart. Do not leave me! Though he knew the void was not in vain, for the great love had for all he would gain. Head raised up high to the sky, with gasps of breath, he cried and cried, Why have you left me? To where have you gone?
When the sun hung so low first thing, the day could not be good. They flinch when it strikes their eyes, wish for shade and cool black night.
"Did you hear it?" said in low tones. A strange echo, all through the hours the sun hung high. Day-to-day life stays the same, but the sound is changed.
The sun’s not set for three days.
Dry land asks with a raspy gasp, "why?"
The beasts and birds don’t see, but you can just sort of breathe. Heat.
Her will is done. in the first dark since, the sky let out a sea of rain. We dance, we sing, we praise her grace.
John left school and went to sea. He had a good mate who taught him how to tie knots and things. His first trip was to Caen in France and he had a few drinks of wine in a bar and sang a song which was nice. On the way back to the boat he fell off the kerb and broke his wrist. It hurt a lot when the nurse put it in a splint. A man took him back to the boat where his boss told him never to drink wine in France as he thought it was crap!
The boy sat on the dock and wept.
He cried for the loss of love. A tear in his heart so big it seemed too much to bear.
He glanced up at the fish in the lake and wished to be with them. To be free with them for a few days is all he asked for. To not think about the life he must face. He would not go back to the house. Not back to the home where he knew her. Where her bones would be lain. Not back to the house where his mom had died.
He had been out of jail for two weeks when he took the small girl from her yard. He cut her hair to look like a boy. She was found at a car wash the next day. She was not hurt, she was fine. She went home with her mom and dad and all was joy. God heard all the pleas for her.
The cops found out that he was a thief and had shot a man to death, then took the girl. When the cops caught up with him, he put a gun to his head and “BAM.” Dead.
The last time I saw him he was my hero. Now he was just a man. He was still my dad, but not my friend. His power over me was gone. I did not seek his favor and that fact made each of us wary of the other. The old rules and words did not work, my way or no way. Now he sought me out and it was too late for me to come home to his way. The path of my life has been about my way and on my road to peace with him.
She’d grasped hold of it last night. It had been spot on. But in a flash, it was gone to who knows where. It should have been dealt with when she thought of it then. But now it will have to wait, ‘cause it’s just not there. Where did it go, that flash in the night? To a dark space in her brain, to a blank slate in her mind, or to the void in her soul? She does not know where they go or how to call them back, these thoughts that fly in and out of her head. | 2,059 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (968 words)
Writing, reading and literature in all its shapes and forms is an efficient way to confine the struggles and hardships that come while fighting for equality. The novel, The Book of Negroes, written by Lawrence Hill deals with the struggles of African Americans and how they deal with prejudice and discrimination within their society. Racism has a negative effect on the life of Aminata which results in her loss of freedom, lowered her self-esteem, and left her feeling powerless against others.
Aminata’s freedom was lost when Americans started treating her ruthlessly and in a different manner than others. As a helpless woman, Aminata was unable to do anything about the matter. When her white owner gives her food and she states, “I would sooner die than eat pork” (Hill, 105). Although knowing that eating pork is forbidden in Aminata’s culture, her white owner still gives her pork to eat without any other choices or substitutes. Aminata feels like she cannot do anything without her owner torturing her.
She feels dependent on others because the Toubabs commands her: “There is no water. No food. No breaks to pee” (116). Aminata could not even go to the washroom without having the Toubabs permission.
She needs their consent to drink water and eat food. Aminata gets treated like a slave because of the color of her skin and feels that she has lost all the freedoms that come with being a human. Aminata was always fond of studying and being free to do as she please, but she does not feel independent when she dreams “I would be the only woman, and one of the only people in my entire village, to be able to read Qur’an and to write Arabic script” (22). When Aminata lived with her parents she dreamed of having a bright future. However now she feels like as though all her dreams have been shattered and she cannot achieve any of her goals. Consequently, by the need of freedom Aminata has a hard time feeling worthy of herself.
Racism is renowned for lowering the self-esteem of any targeted group or person, in this case Aminata pride was hurt due to the matter of other peoples prejudices. Aminata lacks self-confidence, she believes that she was born a slave and always will be a slave when her friend Chekura affirms that, “any nigger in you at all, then you is a slave as clear as day” (134). This makes Aminata feel like she was a slave from day one and that was her sole purpose in life. She does not feel secure about her self-worth and believes that blacks are meant to be treated like slaves. Furthermore, the white owners show their right over Aminata by abusing her physically to dehumanize her. “I screamed as I have never screamed before, I did not recognize myself, I had no clothes, no beauty, no hair, and no womanhood” (178).
Aminata feels like she deserves this treatment as she is an African. The whites abusive and harmful behavior towards her and her fellow black skins makes her feel low of her. In addition, Aminata will always feel worthless because of the way she grew up and lived, this treatment will be embedded in her thinking. Aminata is used to all the indecency that is shown towards her and that is revealed when she says, “I was tied at the hands and yoked by the neck… but I felt no pain at all” (22). Aminata cannot feel the throbbing anymore because she gets beaten every day and is used to the pain now. She believes that she is worth of this pain because she is black. Thus, due to physical abuse and dehumanization towards Aminata, her self-esteem is extremely low and she sees herself as a worthless individual.
Aminata’s owner physically abused her due because of the fact that she was lower in Social status and her owners had more power over her. The Americans called Aminata names like, “the crazy big mouthed African” (175) to show that she was simply a crazy African nothing more. This has a negative impact on Aminata due to her lack of power, as seen when her friend exclaims, “you call a white man white, he beat you black and blue” (129). Africans were not allowed to call a white man ‘white’ because they are seen as powerful whereas Africans are not considered humans because they are slaves.
Americans could call them niggers but Africans has no right to call the Americans white displaying that Americans are in more supremacy compared to Africans. Aminata gets abused daily, her owners abuse her physically, and this can be seen when her owner tore her clothes off and said, “Your clothes he tore them off and threw them down. We have a law “niggers don’t dress grand” (176). This shows that Aminata is not allowed to dress according to her own wishes because she is an African. Hence, Aminata’s feeling of powerlessness, and the Americans physical abuse towards her affected her to feel in a negative way about herself.
As one can see, racism can have a huge impact on the targeted group or person; it can cause one to feel in negatively about them. As demonstrated in Lawrence Hill’s novel, Racism can have a negative effect on a person which can result in loss of freedom, lowered self-esteem, and feelings of powerlessness. American owners’ abuse towards Aminata has left her to behave in a way which she cannot see herself as a normal human being as she was shown from the beginning that all Africans are born as slaves and should be treated as such. Discrimination is the result of narrow mindedness as one cannot accept another as an equal and cannot overcome or mentality get past another persons’ physical appearance.
Cite this page
The Book of Negroes – Racism. (2016, Sep 11). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-book-of-negroes-racism-essay | <urn:uuid:65fd08e5-342d-4562-a644-e6ddc74550d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/the-book-of-negroes-racism-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.98191 | 1,276 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.045340050011873245... | 1 | Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (968 words)
Writing, reading and literature in all its shapes and forms is an efficient way to confine the struggles and hardships that come while fighting for equality. The novel, The Book of Negroes, written by Lawrence Hill deals with the struggles of African Americans and how they deal with prejudice and discrimination within their society. Racism has a negative effect on the life of Aminata which results in her loss of freedom, lowered her self-esteem, and left her feeling powerless against others.
Aminata’s freedom was lost when Americans started treating her ruthlessly and in a different manner than others. As a helpless woman, Aminata was unable to do anything about the matter. When her white owner gives her food and she states, “I would sooner die than eat pork” (Hill, 105). Although knowing that eating pork is forbidden in Aminata’s culture, her white owner still gives her pork to eat without any other choices or substitutes. Aminata feels like she cannot do anything without her owner torturing her.
She feels dependent on others because the Toubabs commands her: “There is no water. No food. No breaks to pee” (116). Aminata could not even go to the washroom without having the Toubabs permission.
She needs their consent to drink water and eat food. Aminata gets treated like a slave because of the color of her skin and feels that she has lost all the freedoms that come with being a human. Aminata was always fond of studying and being free to do as she please, but she does not feel independent when she dreams “I would be the only woman, and one of the only people in my entire village, to be able to read Qur’an and to write Arabic script” (22). When Aminata lived with her parents she dreamed of having a bright future. However now she feels like as though all her dreams have been shattered and she cannot achieve any of her goals. Consequently, by the need of freedom Aminata has a hard time feeling worthy of herself.
Racism is renowned for lowering the self-esteem of any targeted group or person, in this case Aminata pride was hurt due to the matter of other peoples prejudices. Aminata lacks self-confidence, she believes that she was born a slave and always will be a slave when her friend Chekura affirms that, “any nigger in you at all, then you is a slave as clear as day” (134). This makes Aminata feel like she was a slave from day one and that was her sole purpose in life. She does not feel secure about her self-worth and believes that blacks are meant to be treated like slaves. Furthermore, the white owners show their right over Aminata by abusing her physically to dehumanize her. “I screamed as I have never screamed before, I did not recognize myself, I had no clothes, no beauty, no hair, and no womanhood” (178).
Aminata feels like she deserves this treatment as she is an African. The whites abusive and harmful behavior towards her and her fellow black skins makes her feel low of her. In addition, Aminata will always feel worthless because of the way she grew up and lived, this treatment will be embedded in her thinking. Aminata is used to all the indecency that is shown towards her and that is revealed when she says, “I was tied at the hands and yoked by the neck… but I felt no pain at all” (22). Aminata cannot feel the throbbing anymore because she gets beaten every day and is used to the pain now. She believes that she is worth of this pain because she is black. Thus, due to physical abuse and dehumanization towards Aminata, her self-esteem is extremely low and she sees herself as a worthless individual.
Aminata’s owner physically abused her due because of the fact that she was lower in Social status and her owners had more power over her. The Americans called Aminata names like, “the crazy big mouthed African” (175) to show that she was simply a crazy African nothing more. This has a negative impact on Aminata due to her lack of power, as seen when her friend exclaims, “you call a white man white, he beat you black and blue” (129). Africans were not allowed to call a white man ‘white’ because they are seen as powerful whereas Africans are not considered humans because they are slaves.
Americans could call them niggers but Africans has no right to call the Americans white displaying that Americans are in more supremacy compared to Africans. Aminata gets abused daily, her owners abuse her physically, and this can be seen when her owner tore her clothes off and said, “Your clothes he tore them off and threw them down. We have a law “niggers don’t dress grand” (176). This shows that Aminata is not allowed to dress according to her own wishes because she is an African. Hence, Aminata’s feeling of powerlessness, and the Americans physical abuse towards her affected her to feel in a negative way about herself.
As one can see, racism can have a huge impact on the targeted group or person; it can cause one to feel in negatively about them. As demonstrated in Lawrence Hill’s novel, Racism can have a negative effect on a person which can result in loss of freedom, lowered self-esteem, and feelings of powerlessness. American owners’ abuse towards Aminata has left her to behave in a way which she cannot see herself as a normal human being as she was shown from the beginning that all Africans are born as slaves and should be treated as such. Discrimination is the result of narrow mindedness as one cannot accept another as an equal and cannot overcome or mentality get past another persons’ physical appearance.
Cite this page
The Book of Negroes – Racism. (2016, Sep 11). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-book-of-negroes-racism-essay | 1,268 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The decade of the turbulent sixties, and especially years from 1964 to 1969, were the times of very traumatic issues that affected the general population and the government. The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was mainly dealing with discrimination and segregation of the Negroes in the United States. Though the Negroes of the time constituted the most discussed social group, there were also several religious factions, women, and other categories of citizens that were discriminated against and segregated.
The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was aimed at providing equal rights in all American institutions like education, religion and politics. The Negroes of this time were also fighting for equal rights and de-segregation. The Negro race wanted to be better educated so they could have more opportunities to improve their standing in the communities they lived in; they also wanted to transcend from working as slaves and low paying jobs to becoming doctors and lawyers. The movement also gave the Negro race a better chance to express their ideas in a more direct way.
This movement gave the Negro race more freedom, but also involved a lot of compromises they had to make, and some thought that they had to make too many, and the white race did not have to make much. They wanted to communicate what happened to them in all aspects of living as Americans. They wanted to be treated fairly, but the Whites still thought that they were better and would not let them move forward no matter how hard they tried. This group fought hard for their wishes, and though now the struggle is on hold, for some people even today it still exists.
Institutions were Important
Buy The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 essay paper online
All the institutions during this time were important even though some politicians did not think so for the African-American contemporaries. The main institutions that were affected by this movement were educational, religious and socio-political ones. The movement was started by The President of the United States for he was trying to bring about a more peaceful nation. LBJ had to come up with ideas to promote safety for everyone. At this time in history there were many different factions that did not want these types of people to live better than them.
Race and Rights
Race and rights were what the Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was about and how Johnson could get this to fit into his Great Society. The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was a program that was led by several people such as Martin Luther King Jr., Medgar Evers, Robert Kennedy and many others. The movement started from John F. Kennedy in 1963: when the President was not able to address the racial issues of the time, he understood that getting over issues like segregation started, which led to the creation of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and start of the relevant movement.
The first event which started a fight for civil rights occurred when four black freshmen sat down at a lunch counter and demanded to be served; this was a breach of segregation laws of the time. It was the one actions that started the rebellions and the sit-in movements. The Blacks wanted access to public places and the same rights and freedoms as white people. They thought if they could not and would not be served, then nobody could be served, and the trouble began. This movement also aspired to put to rest the Jim Crow Laws.
The CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) program started. It meant that blacks and whites could work together to show that they could get along. In Alabama, business was declining due to the segregation laws. Robert Kennedy was the one who called for a cooling off period till a problem in Mississippi called for law enforcement of the federal laws that were in practice in that state. Federal troops were needed to keep the peace. The federal government’s help came too late, and it meant that the blacks’ impatience was increased and more violence was ensued, even though Martin Luther King Jr. tried to teach the Blacks that violence was not the answer. Institutions at that time were very important for both Whites and Blacks. They all needed the same things to believe in, and another institution was the NAACP which went into the schools and churches to teach what needed to be done according to a non-violent attitude. The leader who believed in all this was Martin Luther King Jr., and his main viewpoint was to stay away from all forms of violence and to use the media which was another institution used to help further the case for desegregation and discrimination. Every time violence was used to demonstrate against these issues, they made sure the media could report it and see how it may or may not help. Sometimes the media just caused more problems. The media was supposed to show people that they had a sense of justice and morality. King believed in democracy, he knew that nothing would change to the world till television exposed what was happening. He also knew that blacks had to show violence in order to try and get things done.
King expressed this in his famous speech “I Had a Dream”, and when he delivered it on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial he never thought that even more violence would occur. This would lead him in the near future to the Birmingham Jail where he would write “Letter From Birmingham Jail”. King said African-American citizens would reach out goal of America in peace, but under the cameras of television they must use violence the way the police would use dogs, tear gas, cattle prods and clubs to render their point to the nation. However, King was an adherent of non-violent demonstrations. After this was accomplished King had the idea to try and persuade non-Southerner Americans who saw what was going on that the federal government could get involved into finding solutions on the segregation issues.
The Civil Rights Movement’s legitimate goals which were non-violent, but implied several radical racist initiatives that were sought by Malcolm X, Muhammad, and even Farrakhan in the future. These three violent leaders along with J. Edgar Hoover believed in the saying “This coffee is black, which means it’s too strong. . .You integrate it with cream you make it weak”. With constant observation there was still a threat to public order. With King’s non-violent movement and the radical movements of the time that was occurring, on July 2, 1964 Congress passed the Civil Rights Act. “This act was and is to say that no one could ever again legally deny black citizens access to the institutions of the United States without being liable to criminal and civil persecution” (Schweikart)
Black Americans were now allowed in all public accommodations, for example, transportation services and restaurants. Black Americans could not be discriminated based on race while employing. The EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) was established. At the very time King began the movement to start registering black voters in the South. The Voting Rights Act was passed, and the Black majorities in many districts began to send representatives to Congress.
Even with the progress of getting The Civil Rights Act of 1964 all across the nation, all sorts of violent opposition broke out and were televised. This is the way people had to learn that change takes time and had to work together. At this time Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael, and H. Rap Brown blamed “white oppression” and the “white middlemen” for what was happening in the communities. Now the Blacks were starting to form organizations like The Black Panthers with leaders like Huey Newton and Eldridge Cleaver. More violence occurred and President Johnson and his administration reacted by creating one of the strongest bureaucracies and making Black Americans truly dependent on governmental help.
Johnson constructed a massive framework of new federal programs like Job Corps, VISTA (Volunteers In Service To America), and the Head Start programs. These programs were to improve the health, welfare and education of low income families and families with no male family head. Some of these programs made Black Americans feel like they were still slaves to a certain point in this modern society. From the start the law cases like Plessy vs. Ferguson and the case of Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka brought the subject of segregation to light, and a fight for civil rights began. President Johnson wrote his speech “We Shall Overcome», he did want equal rights for Black Americans and wanted all citizens of the time to come together and work together. In his speech “The American Promise” he believed all people should have the same rights and follow the morals taught by parents. This was a true battle for Johnson who had to use all his political skills to get the Civil Rights Act passed. This act had to survive an 83 day filibuster by the Senate, and Johnson used his connections and lobbied for what he believed in to get this act approved.
While dealing with the Civil Rights Movement and promoting the Civil Rights Act of 1964, President Johnson and various institutions that make up the country were very important. Again, all people needed to work together. At this time it was a period of discussion on a lot of issues. There were verbal and physical outbursts, and this was the way people were trying to make many drastic changes in how the nation learned to live with each other. People had to learn to be fair and show understanding of the issues that were affecting them. All the similarities and differences of the races were to be considered. There were other people than the Black Americans who had to overcome discrimination and segregation. People needed the organizations that were framed through this act, even though there is still a lot of violence and many steps backward were made. The Americans just wanted to understand where they all came from and did what they thought was best.
The Civil Rights Movement and its’ activists were sensitive to religious freedom and included a limited but important exemption for religious institutions into the law; now state and local laws contain these religious exemptions. Discrimination is the term now used to force religious groups and individuals to follow secular social norms. This movement was mainly to ban only actual discrimination, but with the modern law which was an attempt to ensure that no member of a protected group is subjected to “hostile work, educational environments or even public venues.” Various laws were written, so people can follow certain behavior codes in all these settings. Reading various speeches of Martin Luther King Jr., LBJ and even those of Malcolm X one can feel the tension of the period they were written in. When one reads Johnson’s ‘We Shall Overcome’ speech, one can hear the chanting of people saying the phrase over and over again. The readers become a part of the struggle. They can see all the hard work that all the parties, black and white, had done since Kennedy first started what he was trying to do back in 1963.
When one reads or even listens to Kings’ “I Have A Dream” and his “Letter From Birmingham Jail”, one can sense the angst that he was going through and the feeling of excitement of what was occurring at that moment in history. Both Johnson and King wanted understanding between the races, even though there were so many differences in ideas. Still, all the violence that happened is even at times occurring today. All that violence had to happen so that the understanding they wanted would appear. Johnson wanted to help people at the political level, and King wanted to help people at the social and religious levels.
The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was a way to bring an end to the protests and human dissatisfaction that were arising. This movement was mainly designed in order for people to be a part of the world with improved human rights. In the end, this act helps everyone despite race or sexual orientation. All human beings strive for acceptance for their own ideas whether young or old, black or white, Catholic or Protestant. Without this act people would not want to be activists and make the others think and bring ideas and problems to light leading to their understanding. The Black Americans needed to see themselves as really existing in this world and be able to share their ideas without fear of persecution. This movement tried to do this; it just takes a lot of it time to please everyone.
Contributions of LBJ and King
The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 were all about bargaining and compromising between LBJ and King and all the others figures (private and public) involved. In order to facilitate compromise and bargaining the federal government, state and local governments had to cooperate to determine how this worked in the communities especially for the Black Americans. In the public sector there were many meetings and debates between the senators and representatives; they appealed to the president to discuss the pros and cons of this issue. In the private sector there were many demonstrations and speakers on behalf of the common people. The federal, state and local governments had to decide how to handle problems when they arrived. When violence broke out, they had to decide when to refer to the police or the federal government and the National Guard. All this was necessary to make sure that the main goal of peace between the races would prevail in educational, social, economic and political arenas. LBJ was a teacher, and all he wanted to do was to help people get along. Martin Luther King Jr. and even Malcolm X also wanted to get along, but even they could face eye to eye even within their own groups, for they were both killed for what they believed in.
Both King and X were interested in how the spiritual aspects were involved and how the federal government could help them by allowing to state what they believed in out on the streets. However, while the federal government was filibustering on this issue, this was when the bulk of the violence would break out. Even though there were still some negative offshoots of various programs developed by LBJ, King, Malcolm X and all their separate followers, some violent and some not, this is where compromise was to enter the picture. During this time people did not have the patience to wait for all the talks to end; they wanted action, and this is how the demonstrations were formed and, generally, this is how the violence emerges. This movement was a lesson on how leadership is formed for pros and cons of whatever issue is to be discussed.
The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was also about empowerment not just for the Black Americans, but for anyone who was feeling the pressure of discrimination and segregation. People are still learning how to combat this issue even today. There is a tendency to act before thinking and it usually breeds violence ensues. People look towards the future, instead, it is needed to look and study the past to keep the memories and improve what Kennedy and Johnson and King started through their writings and legislation. The citizens must strive for change and move forward for improving the living standards. People are still linked to each other and comprise one world. Governments have to provide the proper educational, social, political and economic growth for the citizens to live without discriminating or segregating anybody. Again, people must always try to work together, and that is what the Civil Rights Movement and Act was all about.
This Movement was concerned with freedom of expression and the right to what the United States Constitution said everybody should have, and that is the right to Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness. The leaders of this time knew this, and that was what they were trying to do to keep this country happy.
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0.22628155350... | 1 | The decade of the turbulent sixties, and especially years from 1964 to 1969, were the times of very traumatic issues that affected the general population and the government. The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was mainly dealing with discrimination and segregation of the Negroes in the United States. Though the Negroes of the time constituted the most discussed social group, there were also several religious factions, women, and other categories of citizens that were discriminated against and segregated.
The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was aimed at providing equal rights in all American institutions like education, religion and politics. The Negroes of this time were also fighting for equal rights and de-segregation. The Negro race wanted to be better educated so they could have more opportunities to improve their standing in the communities they lived in; they also wanted to transcend from working as slaves and low paying jobs to becoming doctors and lawyers. The movement also gave the Negro race a better chance to express their ideas in a more direct way.
This movement gave the Negro race more freedom, but also involved a lot of compromises they had to make, and some thought that they had to make too many, and the white race did not have to make much. They wanted to communicate what happened to them in all aspects of living as Americans. They wanted to be treated fairly, but the Whites still thought that they were better and would not let them move forward no matter how hard they tried. This group fought hard for their wishes, and though now the struggle is on hold, for some people even today it still exists.
Institutions were Important
Buy The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 essay paper online
All the institutions during this time were important even though some politicians did not think so for the African-American contemporaries. The main institutions that were affected by this movement were educational, religious and socio-political ones. The movement was started by The President of the United States for he was trying to bring about a more peaceful nation. LBJ had to come up with ideas to promote safety for everyone. At this time in history there were many different factions that did not want these types of people to live better than them.
Race and Rights
Race and rights were what the Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was about and how Johnson could get this to fit into his Great Society. The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was a program that was led by several people such as Martin Luther King Jr., Medgar Evers, Robert Kennedy and many others. The movement started from John F. Kennedy in 1963: when the President was not able to address the racial issues of the time, he understood that getting over issues like segregation started, which led to the creation of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and start of the relevant movement.
The first event which started a fight for civil rights occurred when four black freshmen sat down at a lunch counter and demanded to be served; this was a breach of segregation laws of the time. It was the one actions that started the rebellions and the sit-in movements. The Blacks wanted access to public places and the same rights and freedoms as white people. They thought if they could not and would not be served, then nobody could be served, and the trouble began. This movement also aspired to put to rest the Jim Crow Laws.
The CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) program started. It meant that blacks and whites could work together to show that they could get along. In Alabama, business was declining due to the segregation laws. Robert Kennedy was the one who called for a cooling off period till a problem in Mississippi called for law enforcement of the federal laws that were in practice in that state. Federal troops were needed to keep the peace. The federal government’s help came too late, and it meant that the blacks’ impatience was increased and more violence was ensued, even though Martin Luther King Jr. tried to teach the Blacks that violence was not the answer. Institutions at that time were very important for both Whites and Blacks. They all needed the same things to believe in, and another institution was the NAACP which went into the schools and churches to teach what needed to be done according to a non-violent attitude. The leader who believed in all this was Martin Luther King Jr., and his main viewpoint was to stay away from all forms of violence and to use the media which was another institution used to help further the case for desegregation and discrimination. Every time violence was used to demonstrate against these issues, they made sure the media could report it and see how it may or may not help. Sometimes the media just caused more problems. The media was supposed to show people that they had a sense of justice and morality. King believed in democracy, he knew that nothing would change to the world till television exposed what was happening. He also knew that blacks had to show violence in order to try and get things done.
King expressed this in his famous speech “I Had a Dream”, and when he delivered it on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial he never thought that even more violence would occur. This would lead him in the near future to the Birmingham Jail where he would write “Letter From Birmingham Jail”. King said African-American citizens would reach out goal of America in peace, but under the cameras of television they must use violence the way the police would use dogs, tear gas, cattle prods and clubs to render their point to the nation. However, King was an adherent of non-violent demonstrations. After this was accomplished King had the idea to try and persuade non-Southerner Americans who saw what was going on that the federal government could get involved into finding solutions on the segregation issues.
The Civil Rights Movement’s legitimate goals which were non-violent, but implied several radical racist initiatives that were sought by Malcolm X, Muhammad, and even Farrakhan in the future. These three violent leaders along with J. Edgar Hoover believed in the saying “This coffee is black, which means it’s too strong. . .You integrate it with cream you make it weak”. With constant observation there was still a threat to public order. With King’s non-violent movement and the radical movements of the time that was occurring, on July 2, 1964 Congress passed the Civil Rights Act. “This act was and is to say that no one could ever again legally deny black citizens access to the institutions of the United States without being liable to criminal and civil persecution” (Schweikart)
Black Americans were now allowed in all public accommodations, for example, transportation services and restaurants. Black Americans could not be discriminated based on race while employing. The EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) was established. At the very time King began the movement to start registering black voters in the South. The Voting Rights Act was passed, and the Black majorities in many districts began to send representatives to Congress.
Even with the progress of getting The Civil Rights Act of 1964 all across the nation, all sorts of violent opposition broke out and were televised. This is the way people had to learn that change takes time and had to work together. At this time Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael, and H. Rap Brown blamed “white oppression” and the “white middlemen” for what was happening in the communities. Now the Blacks were starting to form organizations like The Black Panthers with leaders like Huey Newton and Eldridge Cleaver. More violence occurred and President Johnson and his administration reacted by creating one of the strongest bureaucracies and making Black Americans truly dependent on governmental help.
Johnson constructed a massive framework of new federal programs like Job Corps, VISTA (Volunteers In Service To America), and the Head Start programs. These programs were to improve the health, welfare and education of low income families and families with no male family head. Some of these programs made Black Americans feel like they were still slaves to a certain point in this modern society. From the start the law cases like Plessy vs. Ferguson and the case of Brown vs. The Board of Education of Topeka brought the subject of segregation to light, and a fight for civil rights began. President Johnson wrote his speech “We Shall Overcome», he did want equal rights for Black Americans and wanted all citizens of the time to come together and work together. In his speech “The American Promise” he believed all people should have the same rights and follow the morals taught by parents. This was a true battle for Johnson who had to use all his political skills to get the Civil Rights Act passed. This act had to survive an 83 day filibuster by the Senate, and Johnson used his connections and lobbied for what he believed in to get this act approved.
While dealing with the Civil Rights Movement and promoting the Civil Rights Act of 1964, President Johnson and various institutions that make up the country were very important. Again, all people needed to work together. At this time it was a period of discussion on a lot of issues. There were verbal and physical outbursts, and this was the way people were trying to make many drastic changes in how the nation learned to live with each other. People had to learn to be fair and show understanding of the issues that were affecting them. All the similarities and differences of the races were to be considered. There were other people than the Black Americans who had to overcome discrimination and segregation. People needed the organizations that were framed through this act, even though there is still a lot of violence and many steps backward were made. The Americans just wanted to understand where they all came from and did what they thought was best.
The Civil Rights Movement and its’ activists were sensitive to religious freedom and included a limited but important exemption for religious institutions into the law; now state and local laws contain these religious exemptions. Discrimination is the term now used to force religious groups and individuals to follow secular social norms. This movement was mainly to ban only actual discrimination, but with the modern law which was an attempt to ensure that no member of a protected group is subjected to “hostile work, educational environments or even public venues.” Various laws were written, so people can follow certain behavior codes in all these settings. Reading various speeches of Martin Luther King Jr., LBJ and even those of Malcolm X one can feel the tension of the period they were written in. When one reads Johnson’s ‘We Shall Overcome’ speech, one can hear the chanting of people saying the phrase over and over again. The readers become a part of the struggle. They can see all the hard work that all the parties, black and white, had done since Kennedy first started what he was trying to do back in 1963.
When one reads or even listens to Kings’ “I Have A Dream” and his “Letter From Birmingham Jail”, one can sense the angst that he was going through and the feeling of excitement of what was occurring at that moment in history. Both Johnson and King wanted understanding between the races, even though there were so many differences in ideas. Still, all the violence that happened is even at times occurring today. All that violence had to happen so that the understanding they wanted would appear. Johnson wanted to help people at the political level, and King wanted to help people at the social and religious levels.
The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was a way to bring an end to the protests and human dissatisfaction that were arising. This movement was mainly designed in order for people to be a part of the world with improved human rights. In the end, this act helps everyone despite race or sexual orientation. All human beings strive for acceptance for their own ideas whether young or old, black or white, Catholic or Protestant. Without this act people would not want to be activists and make the others think and bring ideas and problems to light leading to their understanding. The Black Americans needed to see themselves as really existing in this world and be able to share their ideas without fear of persecution. This movement tried to do this; it just takes a lot of it time to please everyone.
Contributions of LBJ and King
The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 were all about bargaining and compromising between LBJ and King and all the others figures (private and public) involved. In order to facilitate compromise and bargaining the federal government, state and local governments had to cooperate to determine how this worked in the communities especially for the Black Americans. In the public sector there were many meetings and debates between the senators and representatives; they appealed to the president to discuss the pros and cons of this issue. In the private sector there were many demonstrations and speakers on behalf of the common people. The federal, state and local governments had to decide how to handle problems when they arrived. When violence broke out, they had to decide when to refer to the police or the federal government and the National Guard. All this was necessary to make sure that the main goal of peace between the races would prevail in educational, social, economic and political arenas. LBJ was a teacher, and all he wanted to do was to help people get along. Martin Luther King Jr. and even Malcolm X also wanted to get along, but even they could face eye to eye even within their own groups, for they were both killed for what they believed in.
Both King and X were interested in how the spiritual aspects were involved and how the federal government could help them by allowing to state what they believed in out on the streets. However, while the federal government was filibustering on this issue, this was when the bulk of the violence would break out. Even though there were still some negative offshoots of various programs developed by LBJ, King, Malcolm X and all their separate followers, some violent and some not, this is where compromise was to enter the picture. During this time people did not have the patience to wait for all the talks to end; they wanted action, and this is how the demonstrations were formed and, generally, this is how the violence emerges. This movement was a lesson on how leadership is formed for pros and cons of whatever issue is to be discussed.
The Civil Rights Movement of 1964 was also about empowerment not just for the Black Americans, but for anyone who was feeling the pressure of discrimination and segregation. People are still learning how to combat this issue even today. There is a tendency to act before thinking and it usually breeds violence ensues. People look towards the future, instead, it is needed to look and study the past to keep the memories and improve what Kennedy and Johnson and King started through their writings and legislation. The citizens must strive for change and move forward for improving the living standards. People are still linked to each other and comprise one world. Governments have to provide the proper educational, social, political and economic growth for the citizens to live without discriminating or segregating anybody. Again, people must always try to work together, and that is what the Civil Rights Movement and Act was all about.
This Movement was concerned with freedom of expression and the right to what the United States Constitution said everybody should have, and that is the right to Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness. The leaders of this time knew this, and that was what they were trying to do to keep this country happy.
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Most popular orders | 3,225 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ulysses, the Latin equivalent of the Greek Odysseus, was the king of Ithaca, a Greek island. He was married to Penelope and they had a son named Telemachus. He was one of the Greek leaders in the Trojan War. The Greeks fought the Trojans for ten years, but Ulysses came up with a plan to burn down Troy and save Helen, the wife of Melanos, the Spartan king. He had the Greek army build a wooden horse that he and nineteen other soldiers could fit in. All of the Greek warships left the shores of Troy and left the horse behind. The Trojans thought that it was a gift from the Greeks, so the people of Troy brought it through the gates of the city. Late that night, Ulysses and the nineteen soldiers snuck out of the wooden horse and let the newly arrived Greek army through the gates. The Greeks burned down Troy and saved Helen, but Ulysses still had a long journey ahead of him.
Ulysses and his men set sail for Ithaca. After a few weeks of sailing, Ulysses and his men ran out of food. They landed on an island, to look for food and water. They found a whole cave full of food, but they soon found out that the food belonged to a one-eyed giant called a cyclops. Ulysses and his men tricked the cyclops and escaped with the food. Unfortunately for Ulysses, the cyclops was a son of Neptune, the God of the Sea.
Once again, Ulysses' men ran out of food, so they landed on another island. The sailors divided into two groups, Ulysses and some of the crew stayed with the ship, while the others went to look for food. The next morning, one of the "food-searchers" came running bck to the boat. The sailor told Ulysses of a sorceress named Circe who had turned the other crew members into hogs. At once, Ulysses ran with the sailor to Circe's palace, but on the way, Mercury came with a gift from one of the gods. It was a magical flower that would act a shield on Ulysses from Circe's magic. Ulysses met with Circe. Circe tried to use her magic on him, but it didn't work, so she gave in and turned the back into humans. Plus, she warned Ulysses of the dangers to come. With lots of food, Ulysses and his men left the island.
Thanks to Circe, Ulysses overcame the next dangers. He overcame the dooming song of the Sirens by plugging the ears of he and his crew. The sailors came upon the six-headed monster called Scylla. Though all of his crew were eaten by Scylla, Ulysses escaped, only to be washed ashore by a storm where a princess found him and took him to her father. The king gave Ulysses his fastest ship to use to sail home with. When, Ulysses reached Ithaca, he deceived the men that wanted to marry his wife, and killed them. Ulysses finally reclaimed his throne.
This object is part of "Scan The World". Scan the World is a non-profit initiative introduced by MyMiniFactory, through which we are creating a digital archive of fully 3D printable sculptures, artworks and landmarks from across the globe for the public to access for free. Scan the World is an open source, community effort, if you have interesting items around you and would like to contribute, email firstname.lastname@example.org to find out how you can help. | <urn:uuid:991ab7a1-33c0-49ca-96b7-617079fab964> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.myminifactory.com/object/3d-print-ulysses-at-the-palace-of-versailles-france-11661 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.984324 | 762 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.5577272176742554,... | 1 | Ulysses, the Latin equivalent of the Greek Odysseus, was the king of Ithaca, a Greek island. He was married to Penelope and they had a son named Telemachus. He was one of the Greek leaders in the Trojan War. The Greeks fought the Trojans for ten years, but Ulysses came up with a plan to burn down Troy and save Helen, the wife of Melanos, the Spartan king. He had the Greek army build a wooden horse that he and nineteen other soldiers could fit in. All of the Greek warships left the shores of Troy and left the horse behind. The Trojans thought that it was a gift from the Greeks, so the people of Troy brought it through the gates of the city. Late that night, Ulysses and the nineteen soldiers snuck out of the wooden horse and let the newly arrived Greek army through the gates. The Greeks burned down Troy and saved Helen, but Ulysses still had a long journey ahead of him.
Ulysses and his men set sail for Ithaca. After a few weeks of sailing, Ulysses and his men ran out of food. They landed on an island, to look for food and water. They found a whole cave full of food, but they soon found out that the food belonged to a one-eyed giant called a cyclops. Ulysses and his men tricked the cyclops and escaped with the food. Unfortunately for Ulysses, the cyclops was a son of Neptune, the God of the Sea.
Once again, Ulysses' men ran out of food, so they landed on another island. The sailors divided into two groups, Ulysses and some of the crew stayed with the ship, while the others went to look for food. The next morning, one of the "food-searchers" came running bck to the boat. The sailor told Ulysses of a sorceress named Circe who had turned the other crew members into hogs. At once, Ulysses ran with the sailor to Circe's palace, but on the way, Mercury came with a gift from one of the gods. It was a magical flower that would act a shield on Ulysses from Circe's magic. Ulysses met with Circe. Circe tried to use her magic on him, but it didn't work, so she gave in and turned the back into humans. Plus, she warned Ulysses of the dangers to come. With lots of food, Ulysses and his men left the island.
Thanks to Circe, Ulysses overcame the next dangers. He overcame the dooming song of the Sirens by plugging the ears of he and his crew. The sailors came upon the six-headed monster called Scylla. Though all of his crew were eaten by Scylla, Ulysses escaped, only to be washed ashore by a storm where a princess found him and took him to her father. The king gave Ulysses his fastest ship to use to sail home with. When, Ulysses reached Ithaca, he deceived the men that wanted to marry his wife, and killed them. Ulysses finally reclaimed his throne.
This object is part of "Scan The World". Scan the World is a non-profit initiative introduced by MyMiniFactory, through which we are creating a digital archive of fully 3D printable sculptures, artworks and landmarks from across the globe for the public to access for free. Scan the World is an open source, community effort, if you have interesting items around you and would like to contribute, email firstname.lastname@example.org to find out how you can help. | 778 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The grammar point being taught was how to use "to have ~ " and "had ~ " in sentences. So for the activity, I made up a bunch of slips of paper in three categories: S, V (with the grammar point), and O. (For example, in the S category there would be words such as "Tom," "Sally," They," and so on. V would be "to have met," "had eaten," "had been asleep," etc. O would be "restaurant," "the President," "Alaska"...)
I divided the students into three groups as equal as possible, and then each group picked slips of paper from a single category. Groups with more students were given S and O, because it's easier to combine those. Once they had their words, the students had to find *at least* one student from each of the other categories, and the three (or four, if there was an extra S or O) had to get together and make a correct sentence using all of their words in some fashion. The strategy involved was finding students from the right categories who had words that would make sense together.
Once the students understood what they were supposed to be doing, they had a real blast. They came up with some really great sentences. For example (key words in bold): "Sally is happy to have met the President during the earthquake" and "Tom and I had been sleeping before Orlando Bloom came here." Other benefits were that it got the students up and moving around and active, plus they had to interact with *everyone* in the class to try to make good sentence-worthy teams rather than just sticking with their usual group of friends. (Playing the activity twice in a row--or more--mixes them up even further.)
There was one problem that I hadn't even really been aware of until it was explained to me afterward. During the free-talk period at the beginning of the class, I went around asking the students something they "had done" before they came to this high school (which was their homework assignment, so they all had an answer ready). One girl said that she had learned a particular Asian language. Since part of the free-talk session is to get them to be able to respond to common questions, I probed further with "Why did you study that language?" The girl promptly clammed up, until the other teacher suggested "Because it was interesting?"
I thought it was just a case that the girl couldn't think of how to answer in English or was embarrassed, which happens a lot. My team teacher told me after school, however, that the girl is actually that nationality, and she didn't want to say in front of the whole class that she isn't Japanese. I wondered why she went out of her way to use that as her answer if she didn't want to talk about it, but maybe she simply didn't expect anyone other than the teacher to hear it when she did her homework. Anyway, I was taken by surprise that I had touched on such a serious issue by accident.
Another event today was that we had an earthquake drill. First we all practiced ducking under desks when the alarm sounded. Then we all evacuated to the courtyard, where the fire department had set up a special truck whose interior is designed to simulate earthquakes. It's set up like a typical kitchen/dining room. They took volunteers four at a time to sit at the table and experience an earthquake, teaching them how to take cover under the table and wait for tremors to die down before trying to turn off the stove and such. ...What I found interesting was that, in the meantime, a number of the teachers occupied themselves by pulling weeds. They had pulled a heaping wheelbarrow full by the time the demonstration ended.
After I got home, my proficiency test application form was delivered. I filled it out and rushed it to the post office before they closed. On the way back, I celebrated by stopping at a kaitenzushi (revolving sushi) restaurant for supper. I love these places because the vegetarian sushi is always the cheapest. I can stuff myself for $4-5. (Of course, I don't eat much to begin with.) | <urn:uuid:d2e79a7a-3d99-4eba-adce-55f67612c432> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://spacealien-vamp.livejournal.com/14050.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00390.warc.gz | en | 0.993394 | 868 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.19453567266464... | 1 | The grammar point being taught was how to use "to have ~ " and "had ~ " in sentences. So for the activity, I made up a bunch of slips of paper in three categories: S, V (with the grammar point), and O. (For example, in the S category there would be words such as "Tom," "Sally," They," and so on. V would be "to have met," "had eaten," "had been asleep," etc. O would be "restaurant," "the President," "Alaska"...)
I divided the students into three groups as equal as possible, and then each group picked slips of paper from a single category. Groups with more students were given S and O, because it's easier to combine those. Once they had their words, the students had to find *at least* one student from each of the other categories, and the three (or four, if there was an extra S or O) had to get together and make a correct sentence using all of their words in some fashion. The strategy involved was finding students from the right categories who had words that would make sense together.
Once the students understood what they were supposed to be doing, they had a real blast. They came up with some really great sentences. For example (key words in bold): "Sally is happy to have met the President during the earthquake" and "Tom and I had been sleeping before Orlando Bloom came here." Other benefits were that it got the students up and moving around and active, plus they had to interact with *everyone* in the class to try to make good sentence-worthy teams rather than just sticking with their usual group of friends. (Playing the activity twice in a row--or more--mixes them up even further.)
There was one problem that I hadn't even really been aware of until it was explained to me afterward. During the free-talk period at the beginning of the class, I went around asking the students something they "had done" before they came to this high school (which was their homework assignment, so they all had an answer ready). One girl said that she had learned a particular Asian language. Since part of the free-talk session is to get them to be able to respond to common questions, I probed further with "Why did you study that language?" The girl promptly clammed up, until the other teacher suggested "Because it was interesting?"
I thought it was just a case that the girl couldn't think of how to answer in English or was embarrassed, which happens a lot. My team teacher told me after school, however, that the girl is actually that nationality, and she didn't want to say in front of the whole class that she isn't Japanese. I wondered why she went out of her way to use that as her answer if she didn't want to talk about it, but maybe she simply didn't expect anyone other than the teacher to hear it when she did her homework. Anyway, I was taken by surprise that I had touched on such a serious issue by accident.
Another event today was that we had an earthquake drill. First we all practiced ducking under desks when the alarm sounded. Then we all evacuated to the courtyard, where the fire department had set up a special truck whose interior is designed to simulate earthquakes. It's set up like a typical kitchen/dining room. They took volunteers four at a time to sit at the table and experience an earthquake, teaching them how to take cover under the table and wait for tremors to die down before trying to turn off the stove and such. ...What I found interesting was that, in the meantime, a number of the teachers occupied themselves by pulling weeds. They had pulled a heaping wheelbarrow full by the time the demonstration ended.
After I got home, my proficiency test application form was delivered. I filled it out and rushed it to the post office before they closed. On the way back, I celebrated by stopping at a kaitenzushi (revolving sushi) restaurant for supper. I love these places because the vegetarian sushi is always the cheapest. I can stuff myself for $4-5. (Of course, I don't eat much to begin with.) | 855 | ENGLISH | 1 |
CONSERVATIONISTS OFTEN worry about the introduction of wild animals and plants to parts of the world where they did not evolve. These aliens can indeed do significant harm. But some settle down and fit comfortably into their new homes. Such is the case of the Egyptian mongoose, which is native to north Africa, but is also found in Spain and Portugal. It has, though, no pre-human fossil record in Iberia, and would be incapable of swimming across the Strait of Gibraltar. So the evidence points to it having been carried there by human agency. The question is, by whom?
Like cats, mongooses were venerated in ancient Egypt for their habit of hunting troublesome rodents—with the bonus that, unlike cats, they would also take on snakes. They are frequently depicted in art as avatars of Ra, the sun god, in his battles with the serpent deity Apep. This role as pest controllers resulted in mongooses being tamed (though, again like cats, never truly domesticated) as companions in the home.
Until recently, the oldest known mongoose remains in Iberia dated from the Middle Ages, so the smart money was on the animals having been brought there sometime after 711AD, during the Islamic conquest of the peninsula, when the armies of the Umayyads crossed the strait from what is now Morocco. But this is now known to be wrong. A study just published in Science of Nature by Cleia Detry of the University of Lisbon describes two sets of mongoose remains which long predate the Umayyads.
One was dug up in western Spain and the other in Portugal. Carbon dating suggests both animals were alive during the first century AD, when Iberia was under Roman control (making them more or less contemporary with the mosaic below, buried in Pompeii in 79AD by an eruption of Vesuvius). That coincidence of age apart, though, the specimens could not be more different.
The Spanish animal was an adult when it died, and was interred in a pit alongside 40 dogs and three human beings. The bones of the canines suggest they were lapdogs. That a mongoose was included with these pets indicates it was also viewed as a pet of some sort. As for the pit, a funerary seal makes it clear that it was built for ceremonial burials.
The Portuguese specimen, in contrast, is a juvenile that appears to have died in a burrow. This suggests it was a wild animal. Whether it had escaped, or was part of a population that had been living in the wild for years is unclear.
It looks likely, therefore, that it was the Romans who brought the mongoose to Europe. But there is another possibility. Before Rome annexed them in 201BC, parts of Iberia were controlled by the Carthaginians, a north African people. This is, admittedly, more than two centuries before the animals Dr Detry has been studying were alive. But, given the scarcity of mongoose remains in Iberia, that is not such a great gap. It may thus have been the Carthaginians—presumably familiar with tame mongooses—who were responsible. Hannibal Barca, the Carthaginian commander in the second Punic war against Rome, which resulted in Iberia’s loss, is famous for bringing war elephants to Europe. Perhaps he brought mongooses as well, for pest control while making camp.
This article appeared in the Science and technology section of the print edition under the headline "How the mongoose got to Spain" | <urn:uuid:129e06fa-55b0-4f1f-af4e-a3647a06661b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2018/10/20/how-the-mongoose-got-to-spain?cid1=cust/ddnew/email/n/n/20181019n/owned/n/n/ddnew/n/n/n/nE/Daily_Dispatch/email&etear=dailydispatch&utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Daily_Dispatch&utm_term=20181019 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00291.warc.gz | en | 0.984313 | 742 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | CONSERVATIONISTS OFTEN worry about the introduction of wild animals and plants to parts of the world where they did not evolve. These aliens can indeed do significant harm. But some settle down and fit comfortably into their new homes. Such is the case of the Egyptian mongoose, which is native to north Africa, but is also found in Spain and Portugal. It has, though, no pre-human fossil record in Iberia, and would be incapable of swimming across the Strait of Gibraltar. So the evidence points to it having been carried there by human agency. The question is, by whom?
Like cats, mongooses were venerated in ancient Egypt for their habit of hunting troublesome rodents—with the bonus that, unlike cats, they would also take on snakes. They are frequently depicted in art as avatars of Ra, the sun god, in his battles with the serpent deity Apep. This role as pest controllers resulted in mongooses being tamed (though, again like cats, never truly domesticated) as companions in the home.
Until recently, the oldest known mongoose remains in Iberia dated from the Middle Ages, so the smart money was on the animals having been brought there sometime after 711AD, during the Islamic conquest of the peninsula, when the armies of the Umayyads crossed the strait from what is now Morocco. But this is now known to be wrong. A study just published in Science of Nature by Cleia Detry of the University of Lisbon describes two sets of mongoose remains which long predate the Umayyads.
One was dug up in western Spain and the other in Portugal. Carbon dating suggests both animals were alive during the first century AD, when Iberia was under Roman control (making them more or less contemporary with the mosaic below, buried in Pompeii in 79AD by an eruption of Vesuvius). That coincidence of age apart, though, the specimens could not be more different.
The Spanish animal was an adult when it died, and was interred in a pit alongside 40 dogs and three human beings. The bones of the canines suggest they were lapdogs. That a mongoose was included with these pets indicates it was also viewed as a pet of some sort. As for the pit, a funerary seal makes it clear that it was built for ceremonial burials.
The Portuguese specimen, in contrast, is a juvenile that appears to have died in a burrow. This suggests it was a wild animal. Whether it had escaped, or was part of a population that had been living in the wild for years is unclear.
It looks likely, therefore, that it was the Romans who brought the mongoose to Europe. But there is another possibility. Before Rome annexed them in 201BC, parts of Iberia were controlled by the Carthaginians, a north African people. This is, admittedly, more than two centuries before the animals Dr Detry has been studying were alive. But, given the scarcity of mongoose remains in Iberia, that is not such a great gap. It may thus have been the Carthaginians—presumably familiar with tame mongooses—who were responsible. Hannibal Barca, the Carthaginian commander in the second Punic war against Rome, which resulted in Iberia’s loss, is famous for bringing war elephants to Europe. Perhaps he brought mongooses as well, for pest control while making camp.
This article appeared in the Science and technology section of the print edition under the headline "How the mongoose got to Spain" | 726 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last Updated: 1181 viewswith
The Path Less Travelled
You’ll have read that the Velvet Revolution started on International Students Day i.e. November 17th 1989 but, it started well before that. Actually you have to go back 50 years to understand that the students were protesting on an anniversary and go back another 20 years to explain why they were protesting at all. So lets set the record straight.
The first thing that happened was the formation of Czechoslovakia when Independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire is declared on October 28th 1918. What does this mean? it means that students claimed that day, October 28th, as a day of protest and were marching in the streets for years to come.
What about November 17th?
Up until 1939 the students were having their protests on October 28th but in 1939 they were generally protesting about the invasion of the city by Nazi forces. Students clashed with the German army and several were shot. One of them, Jan Opletal, was mortally injured and died on November 11th. His funeral was held on November 15th and thousands of people attended with many of these people calling for revenge against Jan Opletal’s killers. The Reichsprotektor (top Nazi in the city) was Reinhard Heydrich. He ordered three things. 1) Closure of all colleges and universities in Prague, 2) Deportation of 1200 students away from Prague and 3) The execution of seven students and a professor. Post war Czechoslovakia will approach the League of Nations and request that the day of the executions, November 17th, be classified as International Students Day. This was granted.
So now you have found out why November 17th is International Students Day, you’ll understand that post World War 2 that students now switch their protest day from October 28th to November 17th and will continue to protest every year up to and including November 17th 1989.
This is a time of Gorbachev. Annual protests since the 1950s that have regularly been banned or harshly dealt with are still continuing but throughout 1989 have gone on without the usual level of oppression and brutality. It’s November 17th 1989 and as usual, a group of around 250 students are protesting but really the only intention is to finish their protest on Wenceslas Square. 300 metres from Wenceslas Square they are stopped at a line containing police and security services. The students realise that they will not be able to finish the protest on the square and begin to argue their case. This is shortly followed by street fighting at which point the trigger of the Velvet Revolution occurs. It was reported on the radio that a student had been beaten to death in this fighting.
Lets not get all political about it. Lets not even suggest that the events in Berlin of the previous ten days had anything to do with it. On November 17th 1989, the inhabitants of Prague understood one clear fact. That on the 50th Anniversary of the execution of the students at the hands of the Nazis in 1939, another student had apparently given his life for freedom. The first 20,000 people on the streets were young and full of energy. Their parents had been the same in 1968 but this time something was different. It was clear that the military was not going to get involved so the people needed only to deal with the police and the hated security services. The rank-and-file police switch sides immediately ignoring orders from their command. The security services isolated and without support simply melt away and the protest culminates a mere three days later on November 20th with half a million people on the streets. What happened to the student who had been beaten to death? Well that was the mystery as it seems that nobody involved in the fighting saw anybody killed and nobody could quite remember how the story started or who had allowed it to be broadcast on the radio.
What happened next?
The saviour of the Velvet Revolution was not a single person. An effective but loosely held together opposition called the Civic Forum had enough talent and tenacity to get through the worst of it. The Communist government fell, the Communist President stayed in office long enough to call a new Presidential election resulting in Vaclav Havel being sworn in on December 28th 1989.
The lead up to the Velvet Revolution and the exact point of the original security line that blocked the path of the students is shown during the Prague City Walking Tour at Livingpraguetours. | <urn:uuid:af1bf4f9-5d20-4dee-acb1-d0531483c2a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://livingprague.com/politics-and-history/velvet-revolution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.984749 | 911 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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The Path Less Travelled
You’ll have read that the Velvet Revolution started on International Students Day i.e. November 17th 1989 but, it started well before that. Actually you have to go back 50 years to understand that the students were protesting on an anniversary and go back another 20 years to explain why they were protesting at all. So lets set the record straight.
The first thing that happened was the formation of Czechoslovakia when Independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire is declared on October 28th 1918. What does this mean? it means that students claimed that day, October 28th, as a day of protest and were marching in the streets for years to come.
What about November 17th?
Up until 1939 the students were having their protests on October 28th but in 1939 they were generally protesting about the invasion of the city by Nazi forces. Students clashed with the German army and several were shot. One of them, Jan Opletal, was mortally injured and died on November 11th. His funeral was held on November 15th and thousands of people attended with many of these people calling for revenge against Jan Opletal’s killers. The Reichsprotektor (top Nazi in the city) was Reinhard Heydrich. He ordered three things. 1) Closure of all colleges and universities in Prague, 2) Deportation of 1200 students away from Prague and 3) The execution of seven students and a professor. Post war Czechoslovakia will approach the League of Nations and request that the day of the executions, November 17th, be classified as International Students Day. This was granted.
So now you have found out why November 17th is International Students Day, you’ll understand that post World War 2 that students now switch their protest day from October 28th to November 17th and will continue to protest every year up to and including November 17th 1989.
This is a time of Gorbachev. Annual protests since the 1950s that have regularly been banned or harshly dealt with are still continuing but throughout 1989 have gone on without the usual level of oppression and brutality. It’s November 17th 1989 and as usual, a group of around 250 students are protesting but really the only intention is to finish their protest on Wenceslas Square. 300 metres from Wenceslas Square they are stopped at a line containing police and security services. The students realise that they will not be able to finish the protest on the square and begin to argue their case. This is shortly followed by street fighting at which point the trigger of the Velvet Revolution occurs. It was reported on the radio that a student had been beaten to death in this fighting.
Lets not get all political about it. Lets not even suggest that the events in Berlin of the previous ten days had anything to do with it. On November 17th 1989, the inhabitants of Prague understood one clear fact. That on the 50th Anniversary of the execution of the students at the hands of the Nazis in 1939, another student had apparently given his life for freedom. The first 20,000 people on the streets were young and full of energy. Their parents had been the same in 1968 but this time something was different. It was clear that the military was not going to get involved so the people needed only to deal with the police and the hated security services. The rank-and-file police switch sides immediately ignoring orders from their command. The security services isolated and without support simply melt away and the protest culminates a mere three days later on November 20th with half a million people on the streets. What happened to the student who had been beaten to death? Well that was the mystery as it seems that nobody involved in the fighting saw anybody killed and nobody could quite remember how the story started or who had allowed it to be broadcast on the radio.
What happened next?
The saviour of the Velvet Revolution was not a single person. An effective but loosely held together opposition called the Civic Forum had enough talent and tenacity to get through the worst of it. The Communist government fell, the Communist President stayed in office long enough to call a new Presidential election resulting in Vaclav Havel being sworn in on December 28th 1989.
The lead up to the Velvet Revolution and the exact point of the original security line that blocked the path of the students is shown during the Prague City Walking Tour at Livingpraguetours. | 1,001 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This page lists the known kings of Lydia, both legendary and historical. Lydia was an ancient kingdom in western Anatolia during the first millennium BC. It may have originated as a country in the second millennium BC and was possibly called Maeonia at one time, given that Herodotus says the people were called Maeonians before they became known as Lydians. Herodotus and other sources refer to three dynasties: the Maeoniae, Heracleidae (Heraclids) and Mermnadae. The first two are legendary, though later members of the Heraclid dynasty are at least semi-legendary. The Mermnadae are historical.
The earliest Maeonian or Lydian king mentioned by Herodotus is Manes who was the father of Atys. There was a severe famine during the reign of Atys and half of the citizens, led by Atys' son Tyrrhenus, emigrated to Italy as the Tyrrhenians. Other sources, such as Strabo, name Tmolus and his son Tantalus as kings of the region about the same time, supposedly ruling from the land about Mount Sipylus, but it is asserted that these two were the same people as Manes and Atys, especially as Omphale is a member of both families.
The known legendary kings are:
Herodotus says that Lydus gave his name to the country and its people. The line of Lydus continued through an unstated number of generations until they, as Herodotus says, "turned over the management of affairs to the Heraclids". He adds that the Heraclids in Lydia were the descendants of Heracles and a slave-girl belonging to Iardanus; the line was from Heracles through Alcaeus, Belus and Ninus to Agron who was the first Heraclid king of Lydia.
Herodotus says the Heraclids ruled Lydia for 505 years through 22 generations with son succeeding father all down the line from Agron to Candaules. While Candaules was the last of the Heraclids to reign at Sardis, Herodotus says Agron was the first and thereby implies that Sardis was already the capital of Lydia in Maeonian times. Candaules died c.687 BC and so the 505-year span stated by Herodotus suggests c.1192 BC for Agron's accession.
The known Heraclid kings are:
Although this dynasty is historical, the dates for it have never been determined with certainty. The traditional dates are derived from Herodotus, who gives some reign-lengths, but these have been questioned by modern scholars on the basis of synchronisms with Assyrian history. The name of the dynasty (Gk. ) may be attested in Lydian transmission as - m?imna-. Etymologically, it possibly contains the Carian word mno- 'son' or 'descendant', which would then represent an argument for the Carian origin of the Mermnad clan.
There were five kings, all historical figures, in the Mermnad line:
Gyges died in battle c.652, fighting against the Cimmerians, and was succeeded by Ardys. The most successful king was Alyattes, under whom Lydia reached its peak of power and prosperity. Croesus was defeated by Cyrus the Great at the battles of Pteria and Thymbra. Cyrus annexed Lydia after the Siege of Sardis which ended in early 546 BC, but the fate of Croesus himself is uncertain. | <urn:uuid:3ccd9871-143a-4d26-bff7-1d8a00898741> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Kings_of_Lydia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00403.warc.gz | en | 0.980737 | 745 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2694834... | 1 | This page lists the known kings of Lydia, both legendary and historical. Lydia was an ancient kingdom in western Anatolia during the first millennium BC. It may have originated as a country in the second millennium BC and was possibly called Maeonia at one time, given that Herodotus says the people were called Maeonians before they became known as Lydians. Herodotus and other sources refer to three dynasties: the Maeoniae, Heracleidae (Heraclids) and Mermnadae. The first two are legendary, though later members of the Heraclid dynasty are at least semi-legendary. The Mermnadae are historical.
The earliest Maeonian or Lydian king mentioned by Herodotus is Manes who was the father of Atys. There was a severe famine during the reign of Atys and half of the citizens, led by Atys' son Tyrrhenus, emigrated to Italy as the Tyrrhenians. Other sources, such as Strabo, name Tmolus and his son Tantalus as kings of the region about the same time, supposedly ruling from the land about Mount Sipylus, but it is asserted that these two were the same people as Manes and Atys, especially as Omphale is a member of both families.
The known legendary kings are:
Herodotus says that Lydus gave his name to the country and its people. The line of Lydus continued through an unstated number of generations until they, as Herodotus says, "turned over the management of affairs to the Heraclids". He adds that the Heraclids in Lydia were the descendants of Heracles and a slave-girl belonging to Iardanus; the line was from Heracles through Alcaeus, Belus and Ninus to Agron who was the first Heraclid king of Lydia.
Herodotus says the Heraclids ruled Lydia for 505 years through 22 generations with son succeeding father all down the line from Agron to Candaules. While Candaules was the last of the Heraclids to reign at Sardis, Herodotus says Agron was the first and thereby implies that Sardis was already the capital of Lydia in Maeonian times. Candaules died c.687 BC and so the 505-year span stated by Herodotus suggests c.1192 BC for Agron's accession.
The known Heraclid kings are:
Although this dynasty is historical, the dates for it have never been determined with certainty. The traditional dates are derived from Herodotus, who gives some reign-lengths, but these have been questioned by modern scholars on the basis of synchronisms with Assyrian history. The name of the dynasty (Gk. ) may be attested in Lydian transmission as - m?imna-. Etymologically, it possibly contains the Carian word mno- 'son' or 'descendant', which would then represent an argument for the Carian origin of the Mermnad clan.
There were five kings, all historical figures, in the Mermnad line:
Gyges died in battle c.652, fighting against the Cimmerians, and was succeeded by Ardys. The most successful king was Alyattes, under whom Lydia reached its peak of power and prosperity. Croesus was defeated by Cyrus the Great at the battles of Pteria and Thymbra. Cyrus annexed Lydia after the Siege of Sardis which ended in early 546 BC, but the fate of Croesus himself is uncertain. | 756 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although he is known for capturing a variety of historically significant events with a camera, Alexander Gardner is most remembered for his Civil War photography. At the start of the war, there were very few photographers who took portraits of soldiers before they left for the battlefield, so his services were in high demand. And, for a time, this is what he did. However, it wasn't long before he was tasked with taking his skills to the field, where he staged American Civil War photos – a fact that went uncovered for over a century.
The Battle of Antietam really boosted Alexander Gardner's Civil War photography. His images made a huge impact on those who had not seen the ravages of war firsthand, introducing them to the horrors of the battlefield. Following the Battle of Gettysburg, the Civil War staged photo became part of his repertoire. Gardner wasn't trying to deceive the American public with his fake photographs, though he knew the public had a hunger for sensational images; he was trying to educate them. As a result, he moved bodies, added props, and and made minor adjustments to make the battlefield scenes more compelling. Moreover, in Gardner's defense, he wasn't the first war photographer to stage corpses on the battlefield. The first-ever war photographer to capture images of corpses, Felice Beato, started that grand old tradition himself.
Alexander Gardner, a Scottish immigrant, started taking photographs in the United States in the mid-1850s. When the Civil War started in 1861, he was tasked with taking portraits of soldiers before they left for the front lines. He shifted gears after his mentor, Mathew Brady, saw the battle at Manassas, Virginia. Brady asked 20 photographers to document the war in person. Gardner and others were sent into the field with cameras and portable darkrooms.
General George McClellan made Gardner an honorary captain in November 1861. This allowed the photographer to get close access to the battlefield following the Battle of Antietam, which is known as the bloodiest single day in American history (over 22,000 Union and Confederate soldiers were killed, wounded, or missing in action). Gardner documented the aftermath on September 19, 1862, and was the first of Brady's apprentices to take photos of corpses on the battlefield.
During the late 1850s and early 1860s, photography was just starting to pick up momentum in the United States. Then, when the Civil War broke out, Americans were able to see the effects of battle through shocking images. Gardner had a penchant for the dramatic and wanted to make sure Americans saw the reality of war. If he was unable to get the perfect shot, he would rearrange the bodies and sometimes insert objects into the scenes to make them more interesting.
Two days following the Battle of Gettysburg (July 5, 1863), Gardner and his assistant Timothy O'Sullivan arrived at the battlefield where many bodies had yet to be buried. The pair spent several days documenting the slaughter. On July 6, Gardner photographed a Confederate soldier in the infamous "Devil's Den." Unsatisfied with the image, he and his partner decided they could create a more compelling image. They moved a soldier's body 40 yards over into a spot they thought would have been the perfect place for the sharpshooter to set his sight on the enemy.
Gardner's manipulated photos of the sharpshooters at Gettysburg were some of the most memorable and moving images to come out of the Civil War. Gardner put them in his book, Photographic Sketch Book of the Civil War. The photographer included some details about the soldier, writing that he died slowly and remembered his family before taking his last breath. Gardner claimed that four months following the battle, the body and his gun were in the exact same spot. Scholars didn't question the authenticity of the photos for more than 100 years. | <urn:uuid:35b77c2d-43d5-4a20-8eaf-a100969adc79> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ranker.com/list/staged-photos-north-vs-south/nicky-benson?ref=lzyrltdlstszerg_rr | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00511.warc.gz | en | 0.985715 | 778 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.7425394058227... | 1 | Although he is known for capturing a variety of historically significant events with a camera, Alexander Gardner is most remembered for his Civil War photography. At the start of the war, there were very few photographers who took portraits of soldiers before they left for the battlefield, so his services were in high demand. And, for a time, this is what he did. However, it wasn't long before he was tasked with taking his skills to the field, where he staged American Civil War photos – a fact that went uncovered for over a century.
The Battle of Antietam really boosted Alexander Gardner's Civil War photography. His images made a huge impact on those who had not seen the ravages of war firsthand, introducing them to the horrors of the battlefield. Following the Battle of Gettysburg, the Civil War staged photo became part of his repertoire. Gardner wasn't trying to deceive the American public with his fake photographs, though he knew the public had a hunger for sensational images; he was trying to educate them. As a result, he moved bodies, added props, and and made minor adjustments to make the battlefield scenes more compelling. Moreover, in Gardner's defense, he wasn't the first war photographer to stage corpses on the battlefield. The first-ever war photographer to capture images of corpses, Felice Beato, started that grand old tradition himself.
Alexander Gardner, a Scottish immigrant, started taking photographs in the United States in the mid-1850s. When the Civil War started in 1861, he was tasked with taking portraits of soldiers before they left for the front lines. He shifted gears after his mentor, Mathew Brady, saw the battle at Manassas, Virginia. Brady asked 20 photographers to document the war in person. Gardner and others were sent into the field with cameras and portable darkrooms.
General George McClellan made Gardner an honorary captain in November 1861. This allowed the photographer to get close access to the battlefield following the Battle of Antietam, which is known as the bloodiest single day in American history (over 22,000 Union and Confederate soldiers were killed, wounded, or missing in action). Gardner documented the aftermath on September 19, 1862, and was the first of Brady's apprentices to take photos of corpses on the battlefield.
During the late 1850s and early 1860s, photography was just starting to pick up momentum in the United States. Then, when the Civil War broke out, Americans were able to see the effects of battle through shocking images. Gardner had a penchant for the dramatic and wanted to make sure Americans saw the reality of war. If he was unable to get the perfect shot, he would rearrange the bodies and sometimes insert objects into the scenes to make them more interesting.
Two days following the Battle of Gettysburg (July 5, 1863), Gardner and his assistant Timothy O'Sullivan arrived at the battlefield where many bodies had yet to be buried. The pair spent several days documenting the slaughter. On July 6, Gardner photographed a Confederate soldier in the infamous "Devil's Den." Unsatisfied with the image, he and his partner decided they could create a more compelling image. They moved a soldier's body 40 yards over into a spot they thought would have been the perfect place for the sharpshooter to set his sight on the enemy.
Gardner's manipulated photos of the sharpshooters at Gettysburg were some of the most memorable and moving images to come out of the Civil War. Gardner put them in his book, Photographic Sketch Book of the Civil War. The photographer included some details about the soldier, writing that he died slowly and remembered his family before taking his last breath. Gardner claimed that four months following the battle, the body and his gun were in the exact same spot. Scholars didn't question the authenticity of the photos for more than 100 years. | 815 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It's been discovered at a baby swimming class in Iceland that months-old children are capable of standing on their own. Previous literature and studies have shown that children can stand without support beginning at nine-months-old but, "with some training, children can stand much sooner than that," said Hermundur Sigmundsson of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology.
These babies are learning how to stand at a 12-week swimming course in Iceland where Snorri Magnusson has them practice standing on his hand twice a week. Out of the 12 children who participated, 11 of them were able to stand without assistance for at least 15 seconds by the end of the classes. The outlying baby also managed to stand for about eight seconds.
"On average, the children were 4.3 months old when they learned to stand without support," Sigmundsson said. "The youngest was only 3.6 months old."
The babies "warmed-up" with their parents and an instructor who led them in song. Mom and Dad then slowly moved their children around the pool. Next, the instructor helped the babies somersault on a floating mattress and practiced assisted diving. They then moved on to working on balancing and standing within their instructor's hand.
According to the research, babies don't forget what they're learning as they're experiencing new things, and practice really does make perfect. Once the babies learned how to stand, they were able to repeat the skill afterward. The fact that these infants are able to stand so early is especially remarkable because the younger a baby is, the greater the gap between their "center of mass" (or CoM), and "base of support" (BoS), which is the great difference between their large heads and short, small feet.
"The results are sensational compared to what we normally expect of children at this age," Sigmundsson said. "Children can do more than we think." | <urn:uuid:d67e7bdc-e50b-4236-8fc3-3b7187810e2a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/babies-iceland-standing-4-months-old-article-1.3198837 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00130.warc.gz | en | 0.982183 | 398 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.33113... | 1 | It's been discovered at a baby swimming class in Iceland that months-old children are capable of standing on their own. Previous literature and studies have shown that children can stand without support beginning at nine-months-old but, "with some training, children can stand much sooner than that," said Hermundur Sigmundsson of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology.
These babies are learning how to stand at a 12-week swimming course in Iceland where Snorri Magnusson has them practice standing on his hand twice a week. Out of the 12 children who participated, 11 of them were able to stand without assistance for at least 15 seconds by the end of the classes. The outlying baby also managed to stand for about eight seconds.
"On average, the children were 4.3 months old when they learned to stand without support," Sigmundsson said. "The youngest was only 3.6 months old."
The babies "warmed-up" with their parents and an instructor who led them in song. Mom and Dad then slowly moved their children around the pool. Next, the instructor helped the babies somersault on a floating mattress and practiced assisted diving. They then moved on to working on balancing and standing within their instructor's hand.
According to the research, babies don't forget what they're learning as they're experiencing new things, and practice really does make perfect. Once the babies learned how to stand, they were able to repeat the skill afterward. The fact that these infants are able to stand so early is especially remarkable because the younger a baby is, the greater the gap between their "center of mass" (or CoM), and "base of support" (BoS), which is the great difference between their large heads and short, small feet.
"The results are sensational compared to what we normally expect of children at this age," Sigmundsson said. "Children can do more than we think." | 396 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On February 7, 1776, John Stump was one of the earliest recruits to join the 8th Virginia. He was recruited by Captain Abel Westfall or one of his lieutenants to join their new company of Virginia provincial soldiers. The company was one of ten that would make up the 8th Virginia Regiment. John was probably the son of Michael Stump, a German who had changed his name from Hans Stumpff.
John marched with the regiment to South Carolina in the summer of 1776 and was present for the Battle of Sullivan's Island. The joy of that victory was followed by a summer and fall of intense suffering. The soldiers of the 8th fell victims to malaria--a mosquito-born illness these men from the mountains were ill-prepared for. After a planned invasion of British Florida was called off, they sat sick in camp at Sunbury, Georgia--a few of them dying nearly every day.
When winter came and the malarial season ended, they hobbled back to Virginia. In the spring, those who were healthy enough marched off to join Washington's "Grand Camp" in New Jersey. They walked north, crossing the Potomac at Harper's Ferry through Maryland into Pennsylvania before heading east through York, Lancaster, and Philadelphia. John Stump, however, couldn't make it much past Harper's Ferry. Muster rolls for the rest of the year report that he was "left sick in Maryland." After this, there is no further (discovered) record of him being alive.
It could have been malaria, smallpox, or another disease--but John Stump probably died somewhere near Frederick, Maryland. This was the fate of many 8th Virginia soldiers. Disease was the primary killer of the war, and no regiment was hit harder by it than the 8th Virginia.
The frontier cabin built by Michael Stump will be open for tours late this month. Records have not been found to prove it, but this is probably the cabin John Stump grew up in. Presumably, it was there that he shook his father's hand and kissed his mother's cheek before marching of to war, never to return. Current owners John and Beverly Buhl will open their doors during Hardy County Heritage Weekend, September 26 and 27. View their website for more information.
is researching the history of the Revolutionary War's 8th Virginia Regiment. Its ten companies formed on the frontier, from the Cumberland Gap to Pittsburgh.
© 2015-2020 Gabriel Neville | <urn:uuid:644459cd-e83d-4f68-86e1-3bfa967a3b5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.8thvirginia.com/blog/a-chance-to-visit-an-8th-virginia-homestead | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.982219 | 505 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.33035978674... | 11 | On February 7, 1776, John Stump was one of the earliest recruits to join the 8th Virginia. He was recruited by Captain Abel Westfall or one of his lieutenants to join their new company of Virginia provincial soldiers. The company was one of ten that would make up the 8th Virginia Regiment. John was probably the son of Michael Stump, a German who had changed his name from Hans Stumpff.
John marched with the regiment to South Carolina in the summer of 1776 and was present for the Battle of Sullivan's Island. The joy of that victory was followed by a summer and fall of intense suffering. The soldiers of the 8th fell victims to malaria--a mosquito-born illness these men from the mountains were ill-prepared for. After a planned invasion of British Florida was called off, they sat sick in camp at Sunbury, Georgia--a few of them dying nearly every day.
When winter came and the malarial season ended, they hobbled back to Virginia. In the spring, those who were healthy enough marched off to join Washington's "Grand Camp" in New Jersey. They walked north, crossing the Potomac at Harper's Ferry through Maryland into Pennsylvania before heading east through York, Lancaster, and Philadelphia. John Stump, however, couldn't make it much past Harper's Ferry. Muster rolls for the rest of the year report that he was "left sick in Maryland." After this, there is no further (discovered) record of him being alive.
It could have been malaria, smallpox, or another disease--but John Stump probably died somewhere near Frederick, Maryland. This was the fate of many 8th Virginia soldiers. Disease was the primary killer of the war, and no regiment was hit harder by it than the 8th Virginia.
The frontier cabin built by Michael Stump will be open for tours late this month. Records have not been found to prove it, but this is probably the cabin John Stump grew up in. Presumably, it was there that he shook his father's hand and kissed his mother's cheek before marching of to war, never to return. Current owners John and Beverly Buhl will open their doors during Hardy County Heritage Weekend, September 26 and 27. View their website for more information.
is researching the history of the Revolutionary War's 8th Virginia Regiment. Its ten companies formed on the frontier, from the Cumberland Gap to Pittsburgh.
© 2015-2020 Gabriel Neville | 522 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The notion that industrialization stands for a way out for individuals with low income has been a controversial issue for several years. The supporters of the ideas base their argument on the fact that the industry does not only reduce underemployment and unemployment problems, but also strive to better the social and economic welfare of people. These solid arguments have sparked the imaginations of people in action as well as leadership roles at all levels, ranging from the insignificant local community to the whole nation at large. Osborne and Bertrand perpetuates that for any given community, the industrial effects are prone to impact significantly, either positively or negatively. While the positive side is concerned with the betterment of human life, the negative impact of industries may be detrimental to the people as well as the environment they inhabit. Such impacts are global and revolve around environmental, cultural, political and economic issues. The study reported here is an effort of determining and evaluating the industrial impacts on local communities from a cultural, social and political point of view (1-2).
Buy Industrial Impact on Local Communities essay paper online
Following the industrial revolution way back in the eighteenth century, the social setting of the community has changed immensely. Prior to this renaissance, majority of individuals stayed in villages which were very small and from where they engaged themselves in activities such as farming and crafts work (Gospel and Palmer 14). They worked and lived as families and everything was manually conducted. It is estimated that, before the emergence of industries 75% of the population in the United States were residing in upcountry taking part in cultivation. However, when industries came into the limelight the mode of livelihood changed. One such drastic change involved the introduction of new laws that left several people stranded. This automatically forced them to go look for jobs in the newly built industries. In order to secure a job in an industry one had to move close to them thus many had to move and stay in towns. It is therefore quite conspicuous that one of the social effects originating from industries is the effect on the family with respect to living styles and displacement (23).
In addition, industries are prone to cause a disruption of the cultural setting of the society. In many societies, it was the work of the man to provide for his family. The family in this case is the woman and the children. The women in the traditional setting were known to remain at home and look after the family. On the coming of industries, the cultural setting was drastically changed. Many women and children started working in the industries. The reason why many industries preferred to have women and children employees is because they were easy to manage and they could easily accept taking little salaries. In addition, they could easily be manipulated to work for many hours without being added anything on the top (38).
Socially, not everything that originates from the industries is negative. Several households have benefited from an elevated standard of living. The industries has provided the workers with opportunity to earn lucrative salaries instead of depending on convectional economic activities such farming and herding of cattle. Several studies carried out have revealed that with the emergence of industries the poverty rate has drastically reduced. In addition, child labor - related cases have substantially condensed due to industrial related government policies (Cipolla, 30).
Industrialization has impacted the political arena positively through the upsurge of workers union formed to advocate for better collective bargaining packages as well as the right of workers. When workers are annoyed at their employers due to little wages and harsh working conditions, it is the obligation of the union to ensure that employees' rights have been observed. For instance, there might be a case where qualified and experienced employees are laid off and replaced with inexperienced ones. If not well taken care of, the government comes in to protect its citizen and the situation can even be politicized to look very serious. These political effects of industries on the society can sometimes lead to most of the workers loosing their jobs or serving prison sentences due to the damages which are caused by workers anytime there is violence in industries (33).
Furthermore, the existence of industries has propagated the enactment of several policies concerned with workers welfare. Originally, when the industries were being set up, workers used to work for long period of time. This made the government realize the essence of putting up policies that governs such issues. For example, in Britain, many workers organized strikes due to poor working conditions, and the authority had to come on board and address the issue. This foresaw the implementation of the first act which reduced the number of working hours in a day for fifteen to twelve. Along the same line is that people were not allowed to work at night. The industries were also required to provide education to their employees' children. In addition, the enacted acts also required that all industries had to provide proper ventilation to allow good working conditions (48).
According to O'Brien & Quinault, industries affect the culture of many societies in several ways. For instance, workers residing up country where social there are no scarcities in social amenities such as housing are forced to dramatically change their way of living. In the African context, you will experience that a man and his wife culturally expected to have his own house separate from the children. This is meant to portray some respect as well as according privacy to the head of the house. However, such privacy and seclusion is often withdrawn when the families move from upcountry to industrialized areas - where housing is scarce - in search of employment, thereby neglecting what used to be the norm. The man and his family are forced to squeeze in the small houses which do not offer privacy (222).
Traditionally, the man was regarded as the sole bread-winner to the family. This implied that women had to stay back at home, performing daily house chores as well as looking after the children. Currently, women are competing for job opportunities with their male counterparts all due to the emergence and upsurge of industries. The prevalent, increased cost of living has compelled women towards seeking for employment so that they can contribute towards family upkeep. This meant that women had to stop being the traditional wife and turn into the professional career woman. Women are now employed in industries and their performance is far much better than expected, to an extent that they are even a threat to men serving at the same capacity as they are. Rivalries are now prevalent as women fight for managerial positions just like men. Therefore the aspect of industrialization worked out perfectly to fight this archaic as well as outdate culture.
The living conditions throughout the Industrialization process varied from the magnificence of the homes to the owners to the nastiness of the livelihood of the employees. Unfortunate people live in very small houses in cramped streets. In these homes, toilet facilities are shared, while sewers are left open, thereby exposing individual to the risk of damp. There is also a prevalent risk of spreading disease through the supply of contaminated water. On the other hand not everyone lives in house like this. Industries have led to the creation of elites in the society, as well as the larger middle class made up of professionals such as doctors and lawyers. However, large numbers of the working class have died from diseases scattering through the confined living conditions.
Socially, something which is also evident in our society today is intermarriages which emanated from the industries. Many single people have moved from rural areas to urban areas in search of employment. As a result of mingling in the industries during working hours, relationships started which led to marriage (233).
Politically, the industries triggered the need for people to do away with the traditional settings of governance. This may be attributed to the new things that came with industries in regard to working conditions and wages. For industries to offer their workers with good working conditions and better salaries there was needed to have a government in place to do all that. With that being put into consideration, the traditional form of governments found in the societies could not manage to do that. A more powerful government was formed to cater for that. With the coming of a more reformed government, the rights of the workers were protected. The industries were provided with policies to govern their operations. This would not have been possible with the traditional setting (Cipolla 323).
Social evils in the society such as corruption may be traced back to the industrial revolution period. With many people coming from the village to look for jobs in the industries, corruption cases went up. The case would have been different if the industries were not there. Corrupt officials in the industries were demanding for bribes for one to secure a job there. This became extremely difficult especially for those people who did not have money and were experiencing such for the first time. In some situations, some officials were asking for sexual advances from the women who came looking for jobs and appeared desperate. They would take advantage of that, and the women would eventually risk losing the opportunity and go back to the rural area where there was no job. These nasty behaviors of corruption would eventually spread in the society resulting to a very immoral society. This was a negative implication which emanated from the coming of industries.
According to Foster, crime rate within the industrialized areas is as a result of several unemployed people who moved migrated into the region with job prospects in their minds. Due to existence of high labor turnover most of these people ended up being unemployed. Staying in town mean they have to meet the bills of paying rent, food and other things. Most of them resulted to being criminals while most women opted to being commercial sex workers in order to earn a living. This is unmistakably a negative impact directly linked to the emergence of industries. This has led to the existence of sexually transmitted diseases, predominantly; HIV/AIDS and eventual death. The children left behind as orphans do not have a choice rather than turn into beggars and street children. Street children end up forming street families and gangs which are responsible for many crimes and mugging in the cities. (Foster 225).
The coming of industries has sparked population growth due to improved living conditions. Due to this many governments have realized the need to initiate laws that would restrict people from giving birth to certain limits. Such policies affected many families who stated practicing family planning (227).
Nevertheless, the emergence of industries, foresaw the development of new political ideologies known as communism and capitalism. Some people hold on to the ideology of capitalism which advocates for individual ownership of wealth without the interference of the authority in question. This aspect led to the evolution of individual owned industries and supported the idea of capitalism in the society. On the other hand, there were those who supported communism system of governance. The ideology supported the idea of individuals not owning any property but instead belonged to the society.
The idea was not supported by many governments because they felt it would have an impact on the economy of not only the country, but also the world at large. The rich in the society were fighting for political power to get an opportunity to control the government. The ideology of communism was later defeated and many countries took for the capitalism. This saved many industries from collapsing and the society on the other hand remained intact. This was a negative impact on the society which was being held on the balance (232).
In conclusion, the above are the political, social and cultural impacts which emanated from the evolution of industries. The effects highlighted in this essay are still being felt to date. With more industries coming in the limelight, more impacts are still being seen on the society.
Related Free Economics Essays
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:4197d85f-fb63-4d0c-82f0-e9f5e7c5300d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/economics/industrial-impact-on-local-communities.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.981873 | 2,341 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.053642403334379196... | 1 | The notion that industrialization stands for a way out for individuals with low income has been a controversial issue for several years. The supporters of the ideas base their argument on the fact that the industry does not only reduce underemployment and unemployment problems, but also strive to better the social and economic welfare of people. These solid arguments have sparked the imaginations of people in action as well as leadership roles at all levels, ranging from the insignificant local community to the whole nation at large. Osborne and Bertrand perpetuates that for any given community, the industrial effects are prone to impact significantly, either positively or negatively. While the positive side is concerned with the betterment of human life, the negative impact of industries may be detrimental to the people as well as the environment they inhabit. Such impacts are global and revolve around environmental, cultural, political and economic issues. The study reported here is an effort of determining and evaluating the industrial impacts on local communities from a cultural, social and political point of view (1-2).
Buy Industrial Impact on Local Communities essay paper online
Following the industrial revolution way back in the eighteenth century, the social setting of the community has changed immensely. Prior to this renaissance, majority of individuals stayed in villages which were very small and from where they engaged themselves in activities such as farming and crafts work (Gospel and Palmer 14). They worked and lived as families and everything was manually conducted. It is estimated that, before the emergence of industries 75% of the population in the United States were residing in upcountry taking part in cultivation. However, when industries came into the limelight the mode of livelihood changed. One such drastic change involved the introduction of new laws that left several people stranded. This automatically forced them to go look for jobs in the newly built industries. In order to secure a job in an industry one had to move close to them thus many had to move and stay in towns. It is therefore quite conspicuous that one of the social effects originating from industries is the effect on the family with respect to living styles and displacement (23).
In addition, industries are prone to cause a disruption of the cultural setting of the society. In many societies, it was the work of the man to provide for his family. The family in this case is the woman and the children. The women in the traditional setting were known to remain at home and look after the family. On the coming of industries, the cultural setting was drastically changed. Many women and children started working in the industries. The reason why many industries preferred to have women and children employees is because they were easy to manage and they could easily accept taking little salaries. In addition, they could easily be manipulated to work for many hours without being added anything on the top (38).
Socially, not everything that originates from the industries is negative. Several households have benefited from an elevated standard of living. The industries has provided the workers with opportunity to earn lucrative salaries instead of depending on convectional economic activities such farming and herding of cattle. Several studies carried out have revealed that with the emergence of industries the poverty rate has drastically reduced. In addition, child labor - related cases have substantially condensed due to industrial related government policies (Cipolla, 30).
Industrialization has impacted the political arena positively through the upsurge of workers union formed to advocate for better collective bargaining packages as well as the right of workers. When workers are annoyed at their employers due to little wages and harsh working conditions, it is the obligation of the union to ensure that employees' rights have been observed. For instance, there might be a case where qualified and experienced employees are laid off and replaced with inexperienced ones. If not well taken care of, the government comes in to protect its citizen and the situation can even be politicized to look very serious. These political effects of industries on the society can sometimes lead to most of the workers loosing their jobs or serving prison sentences due to the damages which are caused by workers anytime there is violence in industries (33).
Furthermore, the existence of industries has propagated the enactment of several policies concerned with workers welfare. Originally, when the industries were being set up, workers used to work for long period of time. This made the government realize the essence of putting up policies that governs such issues. For example, in Britain, many workers organized strikes due to poor working conditions, and the authority had to come on board and address the issue. This foresaw the implementation of the first act which reduced the number of working hours in a day for fifteen to twelve. Along the same line is that people were not allowed to work at night. The industries were also required to provide education to their employees' children. In addition, the enacted acts also required that all industries had to provide proper ventilation to allow good working conditions (48).
According to O'Brien & Quinault, industries affect the culture of many societies in several ways. For instance, workers residing up country where social there are no scarcities in social amenities such as housing are forced to dramatically change their way of living. In the African context, you will experience that a man and his wife culturally expected to have his own house separate from the children. This is meant to portray some respect as well as according privacy to the head of the house. However, such privacy and seclusion is often withdrawn when the families move from upcountry to industrialized areas - where housing is scarce - in search of employment, thereby neglecting what used to be the norm. The man and his family are forced to squeeze in the small houses which do not offer privacy (222).
Traditionally, the man was regarded as the sole bread-winner to the family. This implied that women had to stay back at home, performing daily house chores as well as looking after the children. Currently, women are competing for job opportunities with their male counterparts all due to the emergence and upsurge of industries. The prevalent, increased cost of living has compelled women towards seeking for employment so that they can contribute towards family upkeep. This meant that women had to stop being the traditional wife and turn into the professional career woman. Women are now employed in industries and their performance is far much better than expected, to an extent that they are even a threat to men serving at the same capacity as they are. Rivalries are now prevalent as women fight for managerial positions just like men. Therefore the aspect of industrialization worked out perfectly to fight this archaic as well as outdate culture.
The living conditions throughout the Industrialization process varied from the magnificence of the homes to the owners to the nastiness of the livelihood of the employees. Unfortunate people live in very small houses in cramped streets. In these homes, toilet facilities are shared, while sewers are left open, thereby exposing individual to the risk of damp. There is also a prevalent risk of spreading disease through the supply of contaminated water. On the other hand not everyone lives in house like this. Industries have led to the creation of elites in the society, as well as the larger middle class made up of professionals such as doctors and lawyers. However, large numbers of the working class have died from diseases scattering through the confined living conditions.
Socially, something which is also evident in our society today is intermarriages which emanated from the industries. Many single people have moved from rural areas to urban areas in search of employment. As a result of mingling in the industries during working hours, relationships started which led to marriage (233).
Politically, the industries triggered the need for people to do away with the traditional settings of governance. This may be attributed to the new things that came with industries in regard to working conditions and wages. For industries to offer their workers with good working conditions and better salaries there was needed to have a government in place to do all that. With that being put into consideration, the traditional form of governments found in the societies could not manage to do that. A more powerful government was formed to cater for that. With the coming of a more reformed government, the rights of the workers were protected. The industries were provided with policies to govern their operations. This would not have been possible with the traditional setting (Cipolla 323).
Social evils in the society such as corruption may be traced back to the industrial revolution period. With many people coming from the village to look for jobs in the industries, corruption cases went up. The case would have been different if the industries were not there. Corrupt officials in the industries were demanding for bribes for one to secure a job there. This became extremely difficult especially for those people who did not have money and were experiencing such for the first time. In some situations, some officials were asking for sexual advances from the women who came looking for jobs and appeared desperate. They would take advantage of that, and the women would eventually risk losing the opportunity and go back to the rural area where there was no job. These nasty behaviors of corruption would eventually spread in the society resulting to a very immoral society. This was a negative implication which emanated from the coming of industries.
According to Foster, crime rate within the industrialized areas is as a result of several unemployed people who moved migrated into the region with job prospects in their minds. Due to existence of high labor turnover most of these people ended up being unemployed. Staying in town mean they have to meet the bills of paying rent, food and other things. Most of them resulted to being criminals while most women opted to being commercial sex workers in order to earn a living. This is unmistakably a negative impact directly linked to the emergence of industries. This has led to the existence of sexually transmitted diseases, predominantly; HIV/AIDS and eventual death. The children left behind as orphans do not have a choice rather than turn into beggars and street children. Street children end up forming street families and gangs which are responsible for many crimes and mugging in the cities. (Foster 225).
The coming of industries has sparked population growth due to improved living conditions. Due to this many governments have realized the need to initiate laws that would restrict people from giving birth to certain limits. Such policies affected many families who stated practicing family planning (227).
Nevertheless, the emergence of industries, foresaw the development of new political ideologies known as communism and capitalism. Some people hold on to the ideology of capitalism which advocates for individual ownership of wealth without the interference of the authority in question. This aspect led to the evolution of individual owned industries and supported the idea of capitalism in the society. On the other hand, there were those who supported communism system of governance. The ideology supported the idea of individuals not owning any property but instead belonged to the society.
The idea was not supported by many governments because they felt it would have an impact on the economy of not only the country, but also the world at large. The rich in the society were fighting for political power to get an opportunity to control the government. The ideology of communism was later defeated and many countries took for the capitalism. This saved many industries from collapsing and the society on the other hand remained intact. This was a negative impact on the society which was being held on the balance (232).
In conclusion, the above are the political, social and cultural impacts which emanated from the evolution of industries. The effects highlighted in this essay are still being felt to date. With more industries coming in the limelight, more impacts are still being seen on the society.
Related Free Economics Essays
Most popular orders | 2,341 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Owen Jarus - Heritage Key
Where is Atlantis ? Ever since Plato mentioned the existence of the fabled island-city in the 4th century BC, archaeologists, historians and adventurers have spent much time and ink trying to chase down its origins.
“Now in this island of Atlantis there was a great and wonderful empire which had rule over the whole island and several others, as well as over parts of the continent, and, besides these, subjected the parts of Libya within the columns of Heracles as far as Egypt, and of Europe as far as Tyrrhenia.” – From Plato’s Timaeus – Translation by Benjamin Jowett
One of the suggested locations of Atlantis is the island of Crete, just off the Greek coast.
In around 2000 BC it was home to the Minoans. Sir Arthur Evans, one of the first people to excavate the civilization, named the Bronze Age civilization after King Minos, a mythical king who is said to have ruled from Crete in ancient times.
Most of what we know about the Minoans comes from the architecture and artefacts they left behind.
While they were a literate people, the script they produced, which archaeologists call Linear A, remains un-deciphered.
The Minoans did not rise in isolation. In circa 2000 BC the Egyptians were re-unifying into their Middle Kingdom period. At the same time, in Mesopotamia, the Assyrians were growing into a massive state.
If Atlantis was indeed the city of the Minoans, then Plato had a really inflated idea of their military prowess.
There is little evidence that the Minoans controlled more territory than Crete and some nearby islands.
They never conquered Egypt or controlled large sections of Europe, as the people of Atlantis are said to have done.
In fact, Sir Arthur Evans was unimpressed by the lack of Minoan fortifications and deduced that they were a peaceful people who lived in a sort of “pax Minoica.”
Today we know that they were interested in military affairs. There are fortifications on Crete, including some just-discovered walls at Gournia. | <urn:uuid:677ece90-37c3-4bda-bde7-598a2eb4db92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.oceantreasures.org/blog/do/tag/minoans/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.983645 | 453 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.49249795079... | 2 | By Owen Jarus - Heritage Key
Where is Atlantis ? Ever since Plato mentioned the existence of the fabled island-city in the 4th century BC, archaeologists, historians and adventurers have spent much time and ink trying to chase down its origins.
“Now in this island of Atlantis there was a great and wonderful empire which had rule over the whole island and several others, as well as over parts of the continent, and, besides these, subjected the parts of Libya within the columns of Heracles as far as Egypt, and of Europe as far as Tyrrhenia.” – From Plato’s Timaeus – Translation by Benjamin Jowett
One of the suggested locations of Atlantis is the island of Crete, just off the Greek coast.
In around 2000 BC it was home to the Minoans. Sir Arthur Evans, one of the first people to excavate the civilization, named the Bronze Age civilization after King Minos, a mythical king who is said to have ruled from Crete in ancient times.
Most of what we know about the Minoans comes from the architecture and artefacts they left behind.
While they were a literate people, the script they produced, which archaeologists call Linear A, remains un-deciphered.
The Minoans did not rise in isolation. In circa 2000 BC the Egyptians were re-unifying into their Middle Kingdom period. At the same time, in Mesopotamia, the Assyrians were growing into a massive state.
If Atlantis was indeed the city of the Minoans, then Plato had a really inflated idea of their military prowess.
There is little evidence that the Minoans controlled more territory than Crete and some nearby islands.
They never conquered Egypt or controlled large sections of Europe, as the people of Atlantis are said to have done.
In fact, Sir Arthur Evans was unimpressed by the lack of Minoan fortifications and deduced that they were a peaceful people who lived in a sort of “pax Minoica.”
Today we know that they were interested in military affairs. There are fortifications on Crete, including some just-discovered walls at Gournia. | 445 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Europe 69 AD: Year of the Four Emperors: Vitellius
Having gained victory over Otho (April 69), Vitellius became emperor, but his reign was soon challenged in the east, where many had supported Otho. In July the legions in Egypt, Judea, and Syria rose up under the leadership of the general Vespasian—who had been suppressing the Jewish revolt—and prepared to march on Italy.
16 Apr–21 Dec 69 AD Principate of Vitellius▲
Following the defeat of Otho in April 69 AD, Vitellius made his way to Rome with his Rhine legions and assumed the position of emperor. Although he initiated a few long-lasting reforms and attempted to rally public support by imitating the still-popular Nero, his rule was viewed with distrust by the Syrian and Danube legions, who soon rallied behind Vespasian and invaded Italy. Facing defeat, Vitellius attempted to abdicate but was stopped by his supporters, leading to his ultimate defeat and execution in December.
1–11 Jul 69 AD Flavian Revolt▲
The legions of the east were distrustful of the influence the Rhine legions had over Vitellius, especially as many of the Danube legions had supported Otho. By mid-69 AD conspirators in the east had persuaded the 59-year-old general Titus Flavius Vespasian—at the time engaged in suppressing the Jewish revolt—to make a bid for the throne. On 1 July Vespasian was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria, traveling to Judea and Syria to receive oaths of allegiance over the next ten days. | <urn:uuid:6f778681-228e-4e98-ba63-54b8a5f42272> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://omniatlas.com/maps/europe/690715/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.986981 | 350 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.077930413186... | 10 | Europe 69 AD: Year of the Four Emperors: Vitellius
Having gained victory over Otho (April 69), Vitellius became emperor, but his reign was soon challenged in the east, where many had supported Otho. In July the legions in Egypt, Judea, and Syria rose up under the leadership of the general Vespasian—who had been suppressing the Jewish revolt—and prepared to march on Italy.
16 Apr–21 Dec 69 AD Principate of Vitellius▲
Following the defeat of Otho in April 69 AD, Vitellius made his way to Rome with his Rhine legions and assumed the position of emperor. Although he initiated a few long-lasting reforms and attempted to rally public support by imitating the still-popular Nero, his rule was viewed with distrust by the Syrian and Danube legions, who soon rallied behind Vespasian and invaded Italy. Facing defeat, Vitellius attempted to abdicate but was stopped by his supporters, leading to his ultimate defeat and execution in December.
1–11 Jul 69 AD Flavian Revolt▲
The legions of the east were distrustful of the influence the Rhine legions had over Vitellius, especially as many of the Danube legions had supported Otho. By mid-69 AD conspirators in the east had persuaded the 59-year-old general Titus Flavius Vespasian—at the time engaged in suppressing the Jewish revolt—to make a bid for the throne. On 1 July Vespasian was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria, traveling to Judea and Syria to receive oaths of allegiance over the next ten days. | 357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Even though the Founders surely intended that Congress hold a great deal of power over the judicial branch, in reality the basic organization of federal courts has remained basically the same throughout U.S. history. Congress has created new courts and reorganized others, and the system has grown increasingly complex. The courts have a great deal of independence, however, and they have established the judicial branch as a strong coequal to Congress and the president.
Search Results (2800)
This website gives you the opportunity see the world through different people all over the world on a variety of topics. Watch videos, see lesson plans about global issues and looking at it from a lense of focus on 100 people.
The Declaration of Independence was a product of the Second Continental Congress. Two earlier intercolonial conferences had occurred, each building important keystones of colonial unity. The Stamp Act Congress and the First Continental Congress brought the delegates from differing colonies to agreement on a message to send to the king. Each successive Congress brought greater participation. Each time the representatives met, they were more accustomed to compromise. As times grew more desperate, the people at home became more and more willing to trust their national leaders.
Japan's location just off the fringe of continental Asia made it an ideal place for its unique culture to develop. The islands are situated close enough to China and Korea to benefit from the cultural and technological innovations of those great civilizations, but far enough removed across perilous seas to resist significant political and military domination from the two powers.
Since ancient times, Japanese philosophers have pondered basic, unanswerable questions about their natural environment. The early Japanese believed that the world around them was inhabited by gods and spirits, from streaks of mist obscuring jagged mountain peaks to water cascading over secluded waterfalls. Almost every aspect of Japan's stunning natural beauty evoked a sense of awe and wonder among its people.
"No taxation without representation!" was the cry. The colonists were not merely griping about the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act. They intended to place actions behind their words. One thing was clear no colony acting alone could effectively convey a message to the king and Parliament. The appeals to Parliament by the individual legislatures had been ignored. It was James Otis who suggested an intercolonial conference to agree on a united course of action. With that, the Stamp Act Congress convened in New York in October 1765.
With all the technological innovations coming from modern Japan, it's easy to forget that even they had a Stone Age.
They were the ones who were not afraid. They knew instinctively that talk and politics alone would not bring an end to British tyranny. They were willing to resort to extralegal means if necessary to end this series of injustices. They were American patriots northern and southern, young and old, male and female. They were the Sons and Daughters of Liberty.
Volumes and volumes of written work was emerging in the American colonies on the subject of British policies. Apart from major documents and publications, much writing had been produced as letters, pamphlets, and newspaper editorials. The arguments set forth in this way were at times very convincing. American patriots of the 1770s did not have modern means of communication at their disposal. To spread the power of the written word from town to town and colony to colony, Committees of Correspondence were established.
Being a warrior in feudal Japan was more than just a job. It was a way of life. The collapse of aristocratic rule ushered in a new age of chaos appropriately called the Warring States period (c.1400-1600) in which military might dictated who governed and who followed.
In the summer that followed Parliament's attempt to punish Boston, sentiment for the patriot cause increased dramatically. The printing presses at the Committees of Correspondence were churning out volumes.
For the first time in centuries, Japan was relatively peaceful. The strict political and social policies of Ieyasu and subsequent shoguns ushered in a golden age of economic and cultural prosperity.
Times had taken a sharp turn for the worse. Lexington and Concord had changed everything. When the Redcoats fired into the Boston crowd in 1775, the benefit of the doubt was granted. Now the professional imperial army was attempting to arrest patriot leaders, and minutemen had been killed in their defense. In May 1775, with Redcoats once again storming Boston, the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia.
Americans could not break their ties with Britain easily. Despite all the recent hardships, the majority of colonists since birth were reared to believe that England was to be loved and its monarch revered. Yet there were the terrible injustices the colonists could not forget. Americans were divided against themselves. Arguments for independence were growing. Thomas Paine would provide the extra push.
The moment had finally come. Far too much bad blood existed between the colonial leaders and the crown to consider a return to the past. More and more colonists felt deprived by the British not only of their money and their civil liberties, but their lives as well. Bloodshed had begun over a year ago and there seemed little chance of a ceasefire. The radical wing of the Continental Congress was gaining strength with each passing day. It was time for a formal break with mother England. It was time to declare independence.
In the 1500s, when Spanish conquistadors appeared, two vast empires, those of the Aztecs and the Incas, dominated Central and South America. Both possessed divine kings, both were fractured by internal dissent, and both quickly succumbed to the Spanish onslaught. The physical remains of all these cultures lay dormant for centuries, until science and curiosity demanded their exploration.
How could the Americans ever hope defeat the mighty British Empire in a military conflict? Americans faced seemingly impossible obstacles. When the guns fired at Lexington and Concord in 1775, there was not yet even a Continental Army. Those battles were fought by local militias. Few Americans had any military experience, and there was no method of training, supplying, or paying an army.
The British seemed unbeatable. During the previous 100 years, the British had enjoyed triumph after triumph over nations as powerful as France and Spain. At first glance, the odds were clearly against the Americans. A closer look provides insight into how the underdogs emerged victorious. | <urn:uuid:4d05d248-67d6-424b-9811-590148b2c47b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.oercommons.org/browse?f.general_subject=history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00373.warc.gz | en | 0.980852 | 1,283 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | Even though the Founders surely intended that Congress hold a great deal of power over the judicial branch, in reality the basic organization of federal courts has remained basically the same throughout U.S. history. Congress has created new courts and reorganized others, and the system has grown increasingly complex. The courts have a great deal of independence, however, and they have established the judicial branch as a strong coequal to Congress and the president.
Search Results (2800)
This website gives you the opportunity see the world through different people all over the world on a variety of topics. Watch videos, see lesson plans about global issues and looking at it from a lense of focus on 100 people.
The Declaration of Independence was a product of the Second Continental Congress. Two earlier intercolonial conferences had occurred, each building important keystones of colonial unity. The Stamp Act Congress and the First Continental Congress brought the delegates from differing colonies to agreement on a message to send to the king. Each successive Congress brought greater participation. Each time the representatives met, they were more accustomed to compromise. As times grew more desperate, the people at home became more and more willing to trust their national leaders.
Japan's location just off the fringe of continental Asia made it an ideal place for its unique culture to develop. The islands are situated close enough to China and Korea to benefit from the cultural and technological innovations of those great civilizations, but far enough removed across perilous seas to resist significant political and military domination from the two powers.
Since ancient times, Japanese philosophers have pondered basic, unanswerable questions about their natural environment. The early Japanese believed that the world around them was inhabited by gods and spirits, from streaks of mist obscuring jagged mountain peaks to water cascading over secluded waterfalls. Almost every aspect of Japan's stunning natural beauty evoked a sense of awe and wonder among its people.
"No taxation without representation!" was the cry. The colonists were not merely griping about the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act. They intended to place actions behind their words. One thing was clear no colony acting alone could effectively convey a message to the king and Parliament. The appeals to Parliament by the individual legislatures had been ignored. It was James Otis who suggested an intercolonial conference to agree on a united course of action. With that, the Stamp Act Congress convened in New York in October 1765.
With all the technological innovations coming from modern Japan, it's easy to forget that even they had a Stone Age.
They were the ones who were not afraid. They knew instinctively that talk and politics alone would not bring an end to British tyranny. They were willing to resort to extralegal means if necessary to end this series of injustices. They were American patriots northern and southern, young and old, male and female. They were the Sons and Daughters of Liberty.
Volumes and volumes of written work was emerging in the American colonies on the subject of British policies. Apart from major documents and publications, much writing had been produced as letters, pamphlets, and newspaper editorials. The arguments set forth in this way were at times very convincing. American patriots of the 1770s did not have modern means of communication at their disposal. To spread the power of the written word from town to town and colony to colony, Committees of Correspondence were established.
Being a warrior in feudal Japan was more than just a job. It was a way of life. The collapse of aristocratic rule ushered in a new age of chaos appropriately called the Warring States period (c.1400-1600) in which military might dictated who governed and who followed.
In the summer that followed Parliament's attempt to punish Boston, sentiment for the patriot cause increased dramatically. The printing presses at the Committees of Correspondence were churning out volumes.
For the first time in centuries, Japan was relatively peaceful. The strict political and social policies of Ieyasu and subsequent shoguns ushered in a golden age of economic and cultural prosperity.
Times had taken a sharp turn for the worse. Lexington and Concord had changed everything. When the Redcoats fired into the Boston crowd in 1775, the benefit of the doubt was granted. Now the professional imperial army was attempting to arrest patriot leaders, and minutemen had been killed in their defense. In May 1775, with Redcoats once again storming Boston, the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia.
Americans could not break their ties with Britain easily. Despite all the recent hardships, the majority of colonists since birth were reared to believe that England was to be loved and its monarch revered. Yet there were the terrible injustices the colonists could not forget. Americans were divided against themselves. Arguments for independence were growing. Thomas Paine would provide the extra push.
The moment had finally come. Far too much bad blood existed between the colonial leaders and the crown to consider a return to the past. More and more colonists felt deprived by the British not only of their money and their civil liberties, but their lives as well. Bloodshed had begun over a year ago and there seemed little chance of a ceasefire. The radical wing of the Continental Congress was gaining strength with each passing day. It was time for a formal break with mother England. It was time to declare independence.
In the 1500s, when Spanish conquistadors appeared, two vast empires, those of the Aztecs and the Incas, dominated Central and South America. Both possessed divine kings, both were fractured by internal dissent, and both quickly succumbed to the Spanish onslaught. The physical remains of all these cultures lay dormant for centuries, until science and curiosity demanded their exploration.
How could the Americans ever hope defeat the mighty British Empire in a military conflict? Americans faced seemingly impossible obstacles. When the guns fired at Lexington and Concord in 1775, there was not yet even a Continental Army. Those battles were fought by local militias. Few Americans had any military experience, and there was no method of training, supplying, or paying an army.
The British seemed unbeatable. During the previous 100 years, the British had enjoyed triumph after triumph over nations as powerful as France and Spain. At first glance, the odds were clearly against the Americans. A closer look provides insight into how the underdogs emerged victorious. | 1,305 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To the Aboriginal people who live in the Central, Northern and East Kimberley region, including Mitchell Plateau and King Edward River areas of Western Australia, the Wandjina art figures provide deep and meaningful connections with their heritage and culture. The Wandjina has for many years appeared on bark coolamons which were used for food gathering and for cradles for newborn babes, ceremonial boomerangs and shields and a myriad of symbolic artefacts - the Wandjina is part of the lives of the tribes who have for many many years lived and hunted and survived in the country of the Wandjina rock art.
In Aboriginal culture, the Wandjina is the Rain Spirit of the Wunambul, Wororra and Ngarinyin language people, the controller of the "Seasons", the bringer of rain which equals water which equals "life". The Earth is hot it breathes; the Earth it breathes, steam blows up, and gives clouds to give rain. Rain gives fruit, and everything grows - the trees and the grass to feed other things, kangaroos and birds - everything. With the completion of their earthly tasks, each of the Wandjina has turned into a rockface image. Through these images Wandjina spirits continue to live.
The Wandjina figures are strange, majestic creatures; usually painted against a white background. An oval band encircles the face, except for a break at the chin, and from the outer edge of the head, lines radiate out. They are often shown wearing a headband; eyes and nose form one unit; with lashes encircling both eyes, and they are rarely given a mouth. The body, when there is one, is filled with parallel stripes down the arms and legs. Long lines coming out from the hair are the feathers which Wandjinas wore and the lightning which they control. Wandjina ceremonies to ensure the timely beginning of the monsoon wet season and sufficient rainfall are held during December and January, following which the rains usually begin. The figures are generally drawn surrounded by the totemic beings and creatures associated with them, on which they depend for sustenance, and these caves and rock shelters become a focus of tribal religion and ritual action.
Aboriginal culture teaches that if the Wandjina are offended they will take their revenge by calling up lightning to strike the offender dead, or rain to flood the land and drown the people, or the cyclone with its winds to devastate the country. These are the powers which the Wandjinas can use. Aboriginal culture teaches it is possible for new life to emanate from the figures adorning the cave walls, to re-enter the physical world as unborn children. These caves are sites to which local Aborigines have a deeply spiritual attachment.
These Wandjina are seen to have considerable powers and the Aborigines are careful to observe a certain amount of protocol when they approach the paintings, fearing that if they do not, the spirits might take their revenge. This protocol normally consists of calling out to the Wandjinas from several metres' distance, to tell them a party is approaching and will not harm the paintings. Visitors are required to walked past small fires to be "smoked" before visiting Wandjina sites. This is not only to let the spirits know that "strangers" are visiting, but also so that the Wandjina's "strong spirit" would not follow visitors home.
Although the paintings represent the bodies of the dead Wandjinas, the Aborigines believe the spirits of the Wandjinas live on in much the same way as they believe the spirits of human beings continue to exist after their death.
The most widely known Aboriginal story from the Kimberley refers to a mythical being. In this legend, Wandjina collaborated to fight against human Aboriginal groups and, in the process, kill many of them. The story is one of cause and effect and is told here in an abridged version. Two children were playing with the bird, Tumbi, who they thought was a honeysucker. However, it was really an owl. They did not see the difference in the eyes and thought the bird was unimportant. The children maimed and blinded the bird. They mocked him by throwing him into the air and telling him to fly, but he could not and fell back to earth.
Tumbi was not just an ordinary bird, he was the owl, the son of a Wandjina. This is why he was able to disappear and go up to Inanunga, the Wandjina in the sky, to complain. The news flew to all the Wandjina who determined to punish the people. A Wandjina named Wodjin called all the Wandjina from throughout the country together, and the owl who had been maimed incited them to revenge. However, they did not know where to find the people, and the lizards and animals which they sent to scout around for them refused to tell where the people were. The animals were sorry for the people, and tried to hide them, knowing that the Wandjina would kill them in revenge for the bad deeds.
But the Wandjina saw the people on a wide flat near the spring at Tunbai. They moved to the top of one of the hills which surround this flat and Wodjin, by stroking his beard, was able to bring heavy rain and floods. The Wandjina divided into two parties and attacked in a pincer movement from the top of the hill. Meanwhile, the Brolgas (birds) had been dancing on the wet ground and had turned it into a bog. The Wandjina drove the people into the boggy water, where they drowned. The people tried to fight back, but they were unable to harm the Wandjina. he boys who had injured the bird were very frightened by the fight, the rain and lightning, and escaped to a large boab tree with a split in it, where they decided to hide. But the tree was really a Wandjina and no sooner were the boys inside than it closed on them and crushed them. The Wandjina, having achieved their aim and revenged the injuries done to the owl, were now able to disperse around the country.
The earliest claim to the discovery of Australia by Europeans was made by a French sailor from Normandy named Jean Binot Paulmier De Gonneville, who claimed that, during a two year voyage of discovery with the intent of finding an ocean route from Europe to the East Indies, he landed on the shores of the Southland early in 1504. In his paper on "Early Voyages to Terra Australis," printed in 1861, British Admiral Burney, and the eminent English geographer, Mr. Major, told of De Gonneville's voyage but dismissed his claim, stating instead that the country De Gonneville's described was the island of Madagascar. This opinion has been generally entertained by navigators and historians ever since, though others have argued he landed in Brazil (Brazilians celebrated the 500th anniversary of his arrival on their shores in 2004 at Carnivale), however there is much evidence to suggest that De Gonneville might well have reached Australia's shore, and this includes descriptions of rock art resembling the Wandjina.
After having rounded the Cape of Good Hope he was assailed by tempestuous weather and driven into calm latitudes. After a tedious spell of calm weather, want of water forced him to make for the first land he could sight. The flight of some birds coming from the south caused him to run a course to the southward, and after a few days' sail he landed on the coast of a large territory at the mouth of a wide river. There he remained for six months repairing his vessel and making exploratory excursions into the hinterland, establishing contact and maintaining good relations with the inhabitants during his stay. These included a tribe of light skinned people. He left this great Austral Land, to which he gave the name of "Southern Indies," on 3rd July, 1504, taking with him two of the natives, one of whom was the son of the chief of the people among whom he had resided.
Subsequent discoveries, and a closer scrutiny of the Norman captain's narrative indicate that De Gonneville's "Southern Indies" could be the Australian Continent, and that he may well have landed at the mouth of one of the rivers on the north-western coast, namely the Glenelg or Prince Regent Rivers of North-west Australia. De Gonneville's description of the place of his sojourn fits the description of the area, which is quite different to any other part of Australia.
Lieutenant George Grey explored the Kimberley region in 1838 and his description of the natives, their customs, tribal structure and way of life, is not dissimilar to that described by De Gonneville. Further, Grey discovered a series of caves containing what we now know as the Wandjina figures, that he observed were unlike any currently being drawn by the local natives. Some of these figures resembled nuns with head-dresses and beads, not unlike pictures common throughout contemporary Europe of the Virgin Mary surrounded by other women in an act of worship. Of one, he wrote, "Its head was encircled by bright red rays, something like the rays which one sees proceeding from the sun, when depicted on the sign board of a public house."
Of another, he recorded, "It was the figure of a man, ten feet 6 inches [3.2 metres] in length, clothed from the chin downwards in a red garment, which reached to the wrist and ankles" "... The face and head of the figure were enveloped in a succession of circular bandages or rollers ... these were coloured red, yellow and white: and the eyes were the only features represented on the face. Upon the highest bandage or roller, a series of lines were painted in red ... it was impossible to tell whether they were intended to depict written characters, or some ornament for the head." Grey's writings are an accurate description of a priest dressed in his cassock. Grey also found there the head of an European sculptured in the hard rock, created with instruments that the natives do not possess. The sculpture has never been located by subsequent visitors to the area.
Grey perceived the art in these caves to be a strange mixture of European and Malay art; the former exhibited in the remarkable aureolas which so commonly surround the heads of saints in church windows at the time of De Gonneville; the latter depicted in the dress-like garmet over the body, which resembled the matted clothing of Malay peasants (Malay fishermen were known to have made regular fishing trips to the area).
In the tribal history of Aborigines living in the vicinity of Napier Broome Bay on the far North Eastern coast of Western Australia, is the story of how two Portuguese swivel guns named carronades were taken after a battle with white-skinned invaders dressed in skins like those of turtles and crocodiles, a description of European armour. The tribal elders, using the number of past generations to calculate the passage of time, estimated that the intruders were seen about l550 AD, which coincides with De Gonneville's claimed visit to the South Land.
It is well documented that Aborigines in all parts of Australia, on first meeting white people, commonly mistook them for spirit beings. Their common reaction, like lighting fires and throwing stones, was consistent with their method of driving spirits away. If De Gonneville did land on Australian soil, by the description he gave of his landfall he could have landed nowhere else but at precisely that part of the country visited and similarly described by Grey. The paintings Grey discovered, which today are known as Wandjina, may well relate to De Gonneville and his companions and their practicing of Catholicism during their six month sojourn in the Kimberley region. | <urn:uuid:24db49e9-ab87-4cff-96c8-361f5153a19e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://australiaforeveryone.com.au/aboriginal-wandjina.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00337.warc.gz | en | 0.980248 | 2,467 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.07912901043891907... | 2 | To the Aboriginal people who live in the Central, Northern and East Kimberley region, including Mitchell Plateau and King Edward River areas of Western Australia, the Wandjina art figures provide deep and meaningful connections with their heritage and culture. The Wandjina has for many years appeared on bark coolamons which were used for food gathering and for cradles for newborn babes, ceremonial boomerangs and shields and a myriad of symbolic artefacts - the Wandjina is part of the lives of the tribes who have for many many years lived and hunted and survived in the country of the Wandjina rock art.
In Aboriginal culture, the Wandjina is the Rain Spirit of the Wunambul, Wororra and Ngarinyin language people, the controller of the "Seasons", the bringer of rain which equals water which equals "life". The Earth is hot it breathes; the Earth it breathes, steam blows up, and gives clouds to give rain. Rain gives fruit, and everything grows - the trees and the grass to feed other things, kangaroos and birds - everything. With the completion of their earthly tasks, each of the Wandjina has turned into a rockface image. Through these images Wandjina spirits continue to live.
The Wandjina figures are strange, majestic creatures; usually painted against a white background. An oval band encircles the face, except for a break at the chin, and from the outer edge of the head, lines radiate out. They are often shown wearing a headband; eyes and nose form one unit; with lashes encircling both eyes, and they are rarely given a mouth. The body, when there is one, is filled with parallel stripes down the arms and legs. Long lines coming out from the hair are the feathers which Wandjinas wore and the lightning which they control. Wandjina ceremonies to ensure the timely beginning of the monsoon wet season and sufficient rainfall are held during December and January, following which the rains usually begin. The figures are generally drawn surrounded by the totemic beings and creatures associated with them, on which they depend for sustenance, and these caves and rock shelters become a focus of tribal religion and ritual action.
Aboriginal culture teaches that if the Wandjina are offended they will take their revenge by calling up lightning to strike the offender dead, or rain to flood the land and drown the people, or the cyclone with its winds to devastate the country. These are the powers which the Wandjinas can use. Aboriginal culture teaches it is possible for new life to emanate from the figures adorning the cave walls, to re-enter the physical world as unborn children. These caves are sites to which local Aborigines have a deeply spiritual attachment.
These Wandjina are seen to have considerable powers and the Aborigines are careful to observe a certain amount of protocol when they approach the paintings, fearing that if they do not, the spirits might take their revenge. This protocol normally consists of calling out to the Wandjinas from several metres' distance, to tell them a party is approaching and will not harm the paintings. Visitors are required to walked past small fires to be "smoked" before visiting Wandjina sites. This is not only to let the spirits know that "strangers" are visiting, but also so that the Wandjina's "strong spirit" would not follow visitors home.
Although the paintings represent the bodies of the dead Wandjinas, the Aborigines believe the spirits of the Wandjinas live on in much the same way as they believe the spirits of human beings continue to exist after their death.
The most widely known Aboriginal story from the Kimberley refers to a mythical being. In this legend, Wandjina collaborated to fight against human Aboriginal groups and, in the process, kill many of them. The story is one of cause and effect and is told here in an abridged version. Two children were playing with the bird, Tumbi, who they thought was a honeysucker. However, it was really an owl. They did not see the difference in the eyes and thought the bird was unimportant. The children maimed and blinded the bird. They mocked him by throwing him into the air and telling him to fly, but he could not and fell back to earth.
Tumbi was not just an ordinary bird, he was the owl, the son of a Wandjina. This is why he was able to disappear and go up to Inanunga, the Wandjina in the sky, to complain. The news flew to all the Wandjina who determined to punish the people. A Wandjina named Wodjin called all the Wandjina from throughout the country together, and the owl who had been maimed incited them to revenge. However, they did not know where to find the people, and the lizards and animals which they sent to scout around for them refused to tell where the people were. The animals were sorry for the people, and tried to hide them, knowing that the Wandjina would kill them in revenge for the bad deeds.
But the Wandjina saw the people on a wide flat near the spring at Tunbai. They moved to the top of one of the hills which surround this flat and Wodjin, by stroking his beard, was able to bring heavy rain and floods. The Wandjina divided into two parties and attacked in a pincer movement from the top of the hill. Meanwhile, the Brolgas (birds) had been dancing on the wet ground and had turned it into a bog. The Wandjina drove the people into the boggy water, where they drowned. The people tried to fight back, but they were unable to harm the Wandjina. he boys who had injured the bird were very frightened by the fight, the rain and lightning, and escaped to a large boab tree with a split in it, where they decided to hide. But the tree was really a Wandjina and no sooner were the boys inside than it closed on them and crushed them. The Wandjina, having achieved their aim and revenged the injuries done to the owl, were now able to disperse around the country.
The earliest claim to the discovery of Australia by Europeans was made by a French sailor from Normandy named Jean Binot Paulmier De Gonneville, who claimed that, during a two year voyage of discovery with the intent of finding an ocean route from Europe to the East Indies, he landed on the shores of the Southland early in 1504. In his paper on "Early Voyages to Terra Australis," printed in 1861, British Admiral Burney, and the eminent English geographer, Mr. Major, told of De Gonneville's voyage but dismissed his claim, stating instead that the country De Gonneville's described was the island of Madagascar. This opinion has been generally entertained by navigators and historians ever since, though others have argued he landed in Brazil (Brazilians celebrated the 500th anniversary of his arrival on their shores in 2004 at Carnivale), however there is much evidence to suggest that De Gonneville might well have reached Australia's shore, and this includes descriptions of rock art resembling the Wandjina.
After having rounded the Cape of Good Hope he was assailed by tempestuous weather and driven into calm latitudes. After a tedious spell of calm weather, want of water forced him to make for the first land he could sight. The flight of some birds coming from the south caused him to run a course to the southward, and after a few days' sail he landed on the coast of a large territory at the mouth of a wide river. There he remained for six months repairing his vessel and making exploratory excursions into the hinterland, establishing contact and maintaining good relations with the inhabitants during his stay. These included a tribe of light skinned people. He left this great Austral Land, to which he gave the name of "Southern Indies," on 3rd July, 1504, taking with him two of the natives, one of whom was the son of the chief of the people among whom he had resided.
Subsequent discoveries, and a closer scrutiny of the Norman captain's narrative indicate that De Gonneville's "Southern Indies" could be the Australian Continent, and that he may well have landed at the mouth of one of the rivers on the north-western coast, namely the Glenelg or Prince Regent Rivers of North-west Australia. De Gonneville's description of the place of his sojourn fits the description of the area, which is quite different to any other part of Australia.
Lieutenant George Grey explored the Kimberley region in 1838 and his description of the natives, their customs, tribal structure and way of life, is not dissimilar to that described by De Gonneville. Further, Grey discovered a series of caves containing what we now know as the Wandjina figures, that he observed were unlike any currently being drawn by the local natives. Some of these figures resembled nuns with head-dresses and beads, not unlike pictures common throughout contemporary Europe of the Virgin Mary surrounded by other women in an act of worship. Of one, he wrote, "Its head was encircled by bright red rays, something like the rays which one sees proceeding from the sun, when depicted on the sign board of a public house."
Of another, he recorded, "It was the figure of a man, ten feet 6 inches [3.2 metres] in length, clothed from the chin downwards in a red garment, which reached to the wrist and ankles" "... The face and head of the figure were enveloped in a succession of circular bandages or rollers ... these were coloured red, yellow and white: and the eyes were the only features represented on the face. Upon the highest bandage or roller, a series of lines were painted in red ... it was impossible to tell whether they were intended to depict written characters, or some ornament for the head." Grey's writings are an accurate description of a priest dressed in his cassock. Grey also found there the head of an European sculptured in the hard rock, created with instruments that the natives do not possess. The sculpture has never been located by subsequent visitors to the area.
Grey perceived the art in these caves to be a strange mixture of European and Malay art; the former exhibited in the remarkable aureolas which so commonly surround the heads of saints in church windows at the time of De Gonneville; the latter depicted in the dress-like garmet over the body, which resembled the matted clothing of Malay peasants (Malay fishermen were known to have made regular fishing trips to the area).
In the tribal history of Aborigines living in the vicinity of Napier Broome Bay on the far North Eastern coast of Western Australia, is the story of how two Portuguese swivel guns named carronades were taken after a battle with white-skinned invaders dressed in skins like those of turtles and crocodiles, a description of European armour. The tribal elders, using the number of past generations to calculate the passage of time, estimated that the intruders were seen about l550 AD, which coincides with De Gonneville's claimed visit to the South Land.
It is well documented that Aborigines in all parts of Australia, on first meeting white people, commonly mistook them for spirit beings. Their common reaction, like lighting fires and throwing stones, was consistent with their method of driving spirits away. If De Gonneville did land on Australian soil, by the description he gave of his landfall he could have landed nowhere else but at precisely that part of the country visited and similarly described by Grey. The paintings Grey discovered, which today are known as Wandjina, may well relate to De Gonneville and his companions and their practicing of Catholicism during their six month sojourn in the Kimberley region. | 2,466 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Packaging isn’t a new phenomenon. Hence have always used it in some form or another. It’s part of being human. We have always needed some form of packaging to transport, store and protect items.
The history of packaging begins with things that were easily accessible including leaves, gourds, animal skins and hollowed out logs. However as we have advanced though our packaging has become more and more sophisticated. This is particularly the case since the industrial revolution. We’ve put together a timeline with some major packaging materials including the elements that were developed to create them.
To begin the history of packaging, the first man made package was produced in Ancient Egypt. These were glass water pots. The first glass items were also found in Egypt. These date back as far as 2500BC.
Glass blowing was invented by the Syrians in the 1st Century BC. However by the middle ages Venice had become the major centre for glass making. From there the art of glass making spread all over the world.
America’s glass bottle and glass jar industry began in the early 1600’s in Jamestown when settlers built the first glass melting furnace.
Today glass has many uses in packaging including medicines,jams, spirits, liquids and other high valued goods.
Find out more about the history of glass here.
Metal has been used for all kinds of things for a very long time. But the first metal used for packaging was tin. The process of tin plating was invented in Bohemia in the 1,200’s.
This process was brought to England in 1667 by Andrew Yarranton and Ambrose Crowley. Then it was improved by iron masters including Philip Foley.
The first packaging items made from tin were tinplate boxes. They were first sold in the Bristol Channel in 1725. Over the next 100 years they became very popular.
Learn more about the history of metal packaging here.
Tinned food was introduced as a way of preserving food in the early 1800’s after Napoleon was looking for a way to preserve food for his soldiers.
The first cannery was established in London by Englishmen Bryan Donkin and John Hall. Once again, this tinned food was produced for the British Navey.
Tins began to replace glass for drinks in the 1960’s. First it was used for alcohol, but this soon moved to soft drinks. Then tin was replaced by Aluminum. That’s because it was cheaper and lighter.
Finally, Aluminum foil was developed in 1954.
The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035. A Persian traveller visiting Egypt noted that many things were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.
However paper was invented long before that. The Chinese developed the art of paper making. Cellulose fibres were extracted from plants and formed into paper. Over time this paper began to be used for transporting food. It didn’t arrive in England until 1310.
Before paper mills were established, paper was made out of parchment and rags. The problem was that these things were in limited supply and expensive.
Paper lends itself perfectly to printing. However until the end of the 18th century, the only methods available were limited. Lithography was invented in Munich by Alois Senfelder. This process brought greater flexibility and creativity to packaging design as a result.
The effect of the Industrial Revolution on the History of Packaging
The Industrial Revolution brought great change to many things. things that had once been done by hand could now be done by machines as a result. Hence, more product could be made quickly. Furthermore, this lead to a greater need for packaging. Hence, bins for storage and transportation. Bags, primary packaging materials and in-store packaging were also necessary.
Bags & Boxes in the History of Packaging
The first corrugated cardboard box was developed in 1817. Similarly, in 1817 Thomas Gilpin used a cylinder machine for making paperboards and other forms of paper used in packaging. Furthermore, the paper bag machine was developed in 1844. Hence paper was further pushed as a packaging material.
Corrugated paper received a British patent in 1856. As a result, this special form of paper was used as a liner for tall hats.
Railroads Role in the History of Packaging
Railroads began to be developed form the 1860’s to the 1880’s. As a result, he second wave of the Industrial Revolution hit at this time. Hence, trade suddenly flourished. However materials and processes were still expensive at this time. Similarly, producing packaging was very labour intensive. As a result, packaging was mainly seen as a way of storage. Hence, it was reserved for only high value goods. Items like jewellery, gift items, shoes and premium foods were the kinds of things packaged for sale.
Up until this point, all of our packaging materiel was made from natural resourses. Certainly, natural resources were in limited supply. As a result packaging was expensive to make. However the next stage in our packaging history was going to change all of that.
Plastic’s role in the History of Packaging
Plastic is our newest packaging material. There were a range of plastic materials developed in the 1800’s. However these weren’t suitable for packaging.
The first true plastic was created in 1862 by Englishman Alexander Parks. He called his product Parkesine. As a result he won a bronze medal for his achievement. However his product wasn’t initially successful. As a result his company was taken over by Daniel Spill. After that Spill renamed the plastic Xylonite.
Another inventor, John Wesley Hyatt invented a similar product shortly after. He named his product Celluloid, and this product did take off.
End to the Reliance on Natural Resources
The discovery of plastic was a monumental thing at this time. Certainly we no longer had to rely on natural resources to make packaging among other things. It was now possible to make substitute products synthetically. Another benefit recognized at this time was that plastic was recyclable. Once used, it could be melted down, and re-used again.
After Celluloid, PVC was created. Furthermore Bakelite, and then Cellophane were developed. Therefore we have several more great inventions.
Frozen Food in the History of Packaging
A man by the name of Clarence Birdseye learned the technique of food-freezing from the Inuit. Unfortunately no suitable packaging for his product was available at this time. Most noteworthy is that cellophane wasn’t moisture-proof. As a result Birdseye needed something moisture-proof and printable.
Hale Charch was employed by the company DuPont to develop moisture-proof cellophane. Finally he managed to achieve this. However it took him three years. As a result Hale Charch is the reason that we are able to enjoy frozen food today.
Adhesive tape and then plastic wrap were developed in the 1930’s. Similarly, by the end of the decade, Polystyrene hit the market.
The years preceding World War II brought a climate of increased industry. As a result there were many tremendous advances in synthetics. These innovations included the invention of vinyl, ethylene, and acrylic. Furthermore, the U.S. government massively invested in building industrial infrastructure for this new sector. As Hence these innovations lead to the discovery of Nylon, Teflon, Polystyrene, and Polyethylene, each of which transformed several industries and heralded the rise of the Plastic Age in years to follow.
Plastic Bottles in the History of Packaging
The first plastic bottle appeared in 1946. This was a deodorant that needed a package. It soon became evident that plastic bottles wouldn’t break, leak or spill even if they were dropped. Consequently, plastic bottles were seen to have a great advantage.
Plastic bottles were first made of PET in 1977. This innovation quickly overtook the market for packaging liquid. Due to plastic bottles being strong, non-toxic and 100% recyclable this innovation quickly overtook the market for packaging liquid.
Blister Packs in the History of Packaging
Blister packs were first used for the pharmaceutical industry in the 1960’s. First of all, contraceptive tablets were packaged in them. As a result, the idea of molding plastic to hold a product for sale quickly caught on. Consequently all kinds of items would soon be packaged in blister packs. Furthermore, in 1978 the clamshell blister pack was patented in the U.S by inventor Thomas Jake Lunsford.
Into the Future of Packaging
So within the styles of packaging available to us today we have great flexibility and variety. Furthermore, packaging is available in a wide range of materials and styles. Maybe now what we do with the packaging once we’ve finished with it is our challenge.
Remember that once plastic was seen as a benefit because it is so recyclable. It doesn’t strain our natural resources. On the other hand, we aren’t recycling enough of it. Perhaps this needs to be our next objective: To find ways of re-using this new resource of plastic to meet the growing needs of our communities. | <urn:uuid:a50af320-a57a-44ad-b03c-d856c8e18322> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shilohplastics.com.au/history-of-packaging/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00526.warc.gz | en | 0.982625 | 1,927 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.096810869872... | 9 | Packaging isn’t a new phenomenon. Hence have always used it in some form or another. It’s part of being human. We have always needed some form of packaging to transport, store and protect items.
The history of packaging begins with things that were easily accessible including leaves, gourds, animal skins and hollowed out logs. However as we have advanced though our packaging has become more and more sophisticated. This is particularly the case since the industrial revolution. We’ve put together a timeline with some major packaging materials including the elements that were developed to create them.
To begin the history of packaging, the first man made package was produced in Ancient Egypt. These were glass water pots. The first glass items were also found in Egypt. These date back as far as 2500BC.
Glass blowing was invented by the Syrians in the 1st Century BC. However by the middle ages Venice had become the major centre for glass making. From there the art of glass making spread all over the world.
America’s glass bottle and glass jar industry began in the early 1600’s in Jamestown when settlers built the first glass melting furnace.
Today glass has many uses in packaging including medicines,jams, spirits, liquids and other high valued goods.
Find out more about the history of glass here.
Metal has been used for all kinds of things for a very long time. But the first metal used for packaging was tin. The process of tin plating was invented in Bohemia in the 1,200’s.
This process was brought to England in 1667 by Andrew Yarranton and Ambrose Crowley. Then it was improved by iron masters including Philip Foley.
The first packaging items made from tin were tinplate boxes. They were first sold in the Bristol Channel in 1725. Over the next 100 years they became very popular.
Learn more about the history of metal packaging here.
Tinned food was introduced as a way of preserving food in the early 1800’s after Napoleon was looking for a way to preserve food for his soldiers.
The first cannery was established in London by Englishmen Bryan Donkin and John Hall. Once again, this tinned food was produced for the British Navey.
Tins began to replace glass for drinks in the 1960’s. First it was used for alcohol, but this soon moved to soft drinks. Then tin was replaced by Aluminum. That’s because it was cheaper and lighter.
Finally, Aluminum foil was developed in 1954.
The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035. A Persian traveller visiting Egypt noted that many things were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.
However paper was invented long before that. The Chinese developed the art of paper making. Cellulose fibres were extracted from plants and formed into paper. Over time this paper began to be used for transporting food. It didn’t arrive in England until 1310.
Before paper mills were established, paper was made out of parchment and rags. The problem was that these things were in limited supply and expensive.
Paper lends itself perfectly to printing. However until the end of the 18th century, the only methods available were limited. Lithography was invented in Munich by Alois Senfelder. This process brought greater flexibility and creativity to packaging design as a result.
The effect of the Industrial Revolution on the History of Packaging
The Industrial Revolution brought great change to many things. things that had once been done by hand could now be done by machines as a result. Hence, more product could be made quickly. Furthermore, this lead to a greater need for packaging. Hence, bins for storage and transportation. Bags, primary packaging materials and in-store packaging were also necessary.
Bags & Boxes in the History of Packaging
The first corrugated cardboard box was developed in 1817. Similarly, in 1817 Thomas Gilpin used a cylinder machine for making paperboards and other forms of paper used in packaging. Furthermore, the paper bag machine was developed in 1844. Hence paper was further pushed as a packaging material.
Corrugated paper received a British patent in 1856. As a result, this special form of paper was used as a liner for tall hats.
Railroads Role in the History of Packaging
Railroads began to be developed form the 1860’s to the 1880’s. As a result, he second wave of the Industrial Revolution hit at this time. Hence, trade suddenly flourished. However materials and processes were still expensive at this time. Similarly, producing packaging was very labour intensive. As a result, packaging was mainly seen as a way of storage. Hence, it was reserved for only high value goods. Items like jewellery, gift items, shoes and premium foods were the kinds of things packaged for sale.
Up until this point, all of our packaging materiel was made from natural resourses. Certainly, natural resources were in limited supply. As a result packaging was expensive to make. However the next stage in our packaging history was going to change all of that.
Plastic’s role in the History of Packaging
Plastic is our newest packaging material. There were a range of plastic materials developed in the 1800’s. However these weren’t suitable for packaging.
The first true plastic was created in 1862 by Englishman Alexander Parks. He called his product Parkesine. As a result he won a bronze medal for his achievement. However his product wasn’t initially successful. As a result his company was taken over by Daniel Spill. After that Spill renamed the plastic Xylonite.
Another inventor, John Wesley Hyatt invented a similar product shortly after. He named his product Celluloid, and this product did take off.
End to the Reliance on Natural Resources
The discovery of plastic was a monumental thing at this time. Certainly we no longer had to rely on natural resources to make packaging among other things. It was now possible to make substitute products synthetically. Another benefit recognized at this time was that plastic was recyclable. Once used, it could be melted down, and re-used again.
After Celluloid, PVC was created. Furthermore Bakelite, and then Cellophane were developed. Therefore we have several more great inventions.
Frozen Food in the History of Packaging
A man by the name of Clarence Birdseye learned the technique of food-freezing from the Inuit. Unfortunately no suitable packaging for his product was available at this time. Most noteworthy is that cellophane wasn’t moisture-proof. As a result Birdseye needed something moisture-proof and printable.
Hale Charch was employed by the company DuPont to develop moisture-proof cellophane. Finally he managed to achieve this. However it took him three years. As a result Hale Charch is the reason that we are able to enjoy frozen food today.
Adhesive tape and then plastic wrap were developed in the 1930’s. Similarly, by the end of the decade, Polystyrene hit the market.
The years preceding World War II brought a climate of increased industry. As a result there were many tremendous advances in synthetics. These innovations included the invention of vinyl, ethylene, and acrylic. Furthermore, the U.S. government massively invested in building industrial infrastructure for this new sector. As Hence these innovations lead to the discovery of Nylon, Teflon, Polystyrene, and Polyethylene, each of which transformed several industries and heralded the rise of the Plastic Age in years to follow.
Plastic Bottles in the History of Packaging
The first plastic bottle appeared in 1946. This was a deodorant that needed a package. It soon became evident that plastic bottles wouldn’t break, leak or spill even if they were dropped. Consequently, plastic bottles were seen to have a great advantage.
Plastic bottles were first made of PET in 1977. This innovation quickly overtook the market for packaging liquid. Due to plastic bottles being strong, non-toxic and 100% recyclable this innovation quickly overtook the market for packaging liquid.
Blister Packs in the History of Packaging
Blister packs were first used for the pharmaceutical industry in the 1960’s. First of all, contraceptive tablets were packaged in them. As a result, the idea of molding plastic to hold a product for sale quickly caught on. Consequently all kinds of items would soon be packaged in blister packs. Furthermore, in 1978 the clamshell blister pack was patented in the U.S by inventor Thomas Jake Lunsford.
Into the Future of Packaging
So within the styles of packaging available to us today we have great flexibility and variety. Furthermore, packaging is available in a wide range of materials and styles. Maybe now what we do with the packaging once we’ve finished with it is our challenge.
Remember that once plastic was seen as a benefit because it is so recyclable. It doesn’t strain our natural resources. On the other hand, we aren’t recycling enough of it. Perhaps this needs to be our next objective: To find ways of re-using this new resource of plastic to meet the growing needs of our communities. | 1,909 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Second World War (1939-1945) is one of the most tragic events in human history. Sixty million people – the majority civilians – lost their lives in the conflict. Europe was left a barren land.
But during this terrifying time, while their towns were bombarded and people were dying all around them, women still worried about looking good.
It may sound silly to you, but a swipe of lipstick or a touch of hair dye for them was a way to retain their humanity, dignity and femininity, to put on a brave face, to boost their morale as well as that of the soldiers, and have some fun, even if only for a little while.
Cosmetics in Europe during World War II
During the war cosmetics were expensive and hard to find. That’s because everything, including the ingredients used to make them, were used mostly for war efforts. The little left over for civilian life was rationed.
Back then, even taking a bath or washing your hair wasn’t easy. You would have only a few inches of water available, which certainly weren’t enough to fill a bathtub. Shampoo (if you were lucky enough to get it) was rationed. Soap was another luxury during the war and most of the time, people washed themselves using only that little bit of water they could get.
Because everything was scarce, women had to be creative and resourceful: if they wanted to dye their hair they could only use vegetable dyes and if they wanted to shave but didn’t have a razor, they’d use a soapy pumice stone instead.
As for hair, it was usually wrapped in scarfs or hairnets which served two purposes. It would hide a bad hair day (after all, not everyone had shampoo, remember?) and, if the women had a job (and many did as they had to do the jobs men left behind when they went to fight) it’d avoid their locks from getting tangled in machinery.
Cosmetics in the USA during World War II
The situation was better in America. The USA also participated in the war, but the main battlegrounds that suffered the most devastation were Europe and Asia.
Cosmetics were more easily available in the US, but not that popular at this time. Many women had relatives fighting abroad and weren’t in the mood for excess, celebration, or showing off their wealth.
They also had to pick up the jobs men had left behind. To retain their femininity and boost their morale, women put on makeup. They went for a subdued, natural look that was sophisticated and glamorous.
On the eyes, a touch of natural eyeshadows in brown and grey tones, a line of eyeliner and a dash of mascara. The brows were thick, perfectly arched and defined with an eyebrow pencil.
On the face, women applied a dark but warm foundation and, on top of it, a powder that was actually lighter than their skintone. This would give skin a rosy glow.
They used natural pink shades on the cheeks while the nails were painted in lots of different colours, from pinks to reds and mauves, to greens and blues. And what about the lips? Red lipstick was all the rage and was considered a natural look back then!
Thank Elizabeth Arden for making a red lip popular. She was invited to create a makeup kit for the American Marine Corps Women’s Reserve with the aim was to boost their morale. Arden created a red lipstick that matched their uniforms.
It was also during this time that companies started to realize how popular camouflage products (back then used on wounded soldiers) could be. They are now known as concealers and widely used by women (and men) worldwide.
After the end of the war, cosmetics became less expensive and easily available everywhere. Women finally had the money to buy what they wanted and the beauty industry soared.
Even if nowadays the recession and economic crisis mean most of us can’t spend as much money as we’d like or were used to on cosmetics and other trifles, just thinking about what our grandmothers went through and, even today, what’s happening in other parts of the world where people are affected by natural disasters, wars and poverty, just puts everything in perspective, doesn’t it? We’re so lucky and can’t often appreciate it!
Take The Guesswork Out Of Skincare Shopping
Get access to the “Pro Skincare Library” for exclusive skincare routine “cheat sheets” and tricks to help you navigate the beauty aisles jungle like a pro and immediately know what to pick off the shelves to achieve the gorgeous skin of your dreams - even when you’re drowning in an endless sea of skincare products. | <urn:uuid:72392aa3-a19d-46e8-ad7f-029688bb66fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.beautifulwithbrains.com/beauty-history-women-and-cosmetics-during-world-war-ii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00140.warc.gz | en | 0.984442 | 1,002 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.574177503585... | 1 | The Second World War (1939-1945) is one of the most tragic events in human history. Sixty million people – the majority civilians – lost their lives in the conflict. Europe was left a barren land.
But during this terrifying time, while their towns were bombarded and people were dying all around them, women still worried about looking good.
It may sound silly to you, but a swipe of lipstick or a touch of hair dye for them was a way to retain their humanity, dignity and femininity, to put on a brave face, to boost their morale as well as that of the soldiers, and have some fun, even if only for a little while.
Cosmetics in Europe during World War II
During the war cosmetics were expensive and hard to find. That’s because everything, including the ingredients used to make them, were used mostly for war efforts. The little left over for civilian life was rationed.
Back then, even taking a bath or washing your hair wasn’t easy. You would have only a few inches of water available, which certainly weren’t enough to fill a bathtub. Shampoo (if you were lucky enough to get it) was rationed. Soap was another luxury during the war and most of the time, people washed themselves using only that little bit of water they could get.
Because everything was scarce, women had to be creative and resourceful: if they wanted to dye their hair they could only use vegetable dyes and if they wanted to shave but didn’t have a razor, they’d use a soapy pumice stone instead.
As for hair, it was usually wrapped in scarfs or hairnets which served two purposes. It would hide a bad hair day (after all, not everyone had shampoo, remember?) and, if the women had a job (and many did as they had to do the jobs men left behind when they went to fight) it’d avoid their locks from getting tangled in machinery.
Cosmetics in the USA during World War II
The situation was better in America. The USA also participated in the war, but the main battlegrounds that suffered the most devastation were Europe and Asia.
Cosmetics were more easily available in the US, but not that popular at this time. Many women had relatives fighting abroad and weren’t in the mood for excess, celebration, or showing off their wealth.
They also had to pick up the jobs men had left behind. To retain their femininity and boost their morale, women put on makeup. They went for a subdued, natural look that was sophisticated and glamorous.
On the eyes, a touch of natural eyeshadows in brown and grey tones, a line of eyeliner and a dash of mascara. The brows were thick, perfectly arched and defined with an eyebrow pencil.
On the face, women applied a dark but warm foundation and, on top of it, a powder that was actually lighter than their skintone. This would give skin a rosy glow.
They used natural pink shades on the cheeks while the nails were painted in lots of different colours, from pinks to reds and mauves, to greens and blues. And what about the lips? Red lipstick was all the rage and was considered a natural look back then!
Thank Elizabeth Arden for making a red lip popular. She was invited to create a makeup kit for the American Marine Corps Women’s Reserve with the aim was to boost their morale. Arden created a red lipstick that matched their uniforms.
It was also during this time that companies started to realize how popular camouflage products (back then used on wounded soldiers) could be. They are now known as concealers and widely used by women (and men) worldwide.
After the end of the war, cosmetics became less expensive and easily available everywhere. Women finally had the money to buy what they wanted and the beauty industry soared.
Even if nowadays the recession and economic crisis mean most of us can’t spend as much money as we’d like or were used to on cosmetics and other trifles, just thinking about what our grandmothers went through and, even today, what’s happening in other parts of the world where people are affected by natural disasters, wars and poverty, just puts everything in perspective, doesn’t it? We’re so lucky and can’t often appreciate it!
Take The Guesswork Out Of Skincare Shopping
Get access to the “Pro Skincare Library” for exclusive skincare routine “cheat sheets” and tricks to help you navigate the beauty aisles jungle like a pro and immediately know what to pick off the shelves to achieve the gorgeous skin of your dreams - even when you’re drowning in an endless sea of skincare products. | 947 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The British army’s retreat from Burma to India in 1941 was its longest in geographical terms. Many thought that the geography of Burma made a land assault all but impossible but the Japanese disproved this theory and in the face of this onslaught the only alternate open to General Alexander was to retreat and reorganise his forces in India.
The first attacks against the Burma Army started in December 1941. Commanded by General Hutton, the army lost the battle for Rangoon and lost control of the Burma Road to China. By February 1942, it became clear that the British forces in Burma were not going to stop the Japanese and between March and May 1942 a retreat took place of these forces, which included remnants of the Chinese Army, under the command of General Alexander. Delaying the Japanese advance towards India until May was vital as that was the month in which the monsoon was expected and few believed that the Japanese could continue their advance in the monsoon.
Burma was vital to the Allies war effort. It contained the only viable route through which the US could supply the Chinese in their fight against the Japanese. Churchill and Roosevelt both believed that it was vital to supply the Chinese. If the Chinese could maintain their fight against the Japanese, then the might of the Japanese army was split. If the fight in China faltered, then the Japanese had the opportunity to transfer a lot more men to the various campaigns in both Asia and the Pacific.
When Burma was invaded, her defences were small and dispersed. This was the result of the belief held by many senior military figures that an attack on Burma’s eastern border was all but impossible. In August 1940, the Chiefs-of-Staff reviewed the situation and concluded that such an invasion “was a comparatively remote threat”. As a result only 2 battalions of British troops were stationed there along with 4 battalions of the Burma Rifles. Nine battalions of the Burmese Military Police guarded the border but they were also used for internal security, so their presence was dispersed throughout the country.
When Japan attacked, the two British battalions stationed in Burma were the 1st Battalion Gloucestershire Regiment and the 2nd King’s Own Yorkshire Light Infantry. However, men from both battalions had been sent to India and to the UK for a variety of reasons and neither battalion was capable of fielding its full compliment of men.
The RAF was also very weak in Burma. Only the 67 (Fighter) Squadron existed with 16 Buffalo aircraft. The four principal airfields were at Victoria Point, Tavoy, Moulmein and Mergui. These were vital as refuelling points for aircraft flying on to Singapore. The RAF was supported by one squadron of AVG (American Volunteer Group) who flew Tomahawk P-40’s.
Communication between the air bases was poor. There was only one radio-direction finding set that could be used and the Burma Observation Corps had no wireless and had to rely on an inefficient telephone and telegraph system. Therefore, the aircraft that did exist in Burma were very exposed to an attack.
The Chinese Nationalists offered two whole armies for the defence of Burma but Wavell only accepted one division from the 6th Army. This offended the Chinese led by Chiang Kai-Shek but there was little they could do about it. However, Wavell’s decision not to accept help almost certainly stemmed from his “long-established contempt for the Japanese soldier which was a ‘thing’ with him from which he never deviated” (Brigadier Sir John Smyth).
Rangoon was first bombed on December 23rd 1941. The docks were badly damaged and the authorities had great difficulty in getting the port to function.
The Japanese Southern Army attacked Burma on January 15th 1942. By January 30th, it had reached Moulmein. Vital air bases swiftly fell to the Japanese.
Overall command for the Burma front was with General Wavell as commander of Allied troops in Southeast Asia. However, he was based 2,000 miles away in Java. His lack of understanding as to what was going on is best shown by a telegraph sent to General Hutton in Rangoon:
“I have every confidence in judgement and fighting spirit of you and Smyth, but bear in mind that continual withdrawal, as experience in Malaya showed, is most damaging to morale of troops, especially Indian troops. Time can often be gained as effectively and less expensively, by bold counter-offensive. This especially so against Japanese.”
The telegram was sent in reply to a request to withdraw troops to a position that Hutton felt was easier to defend. Hutton, after a short delay, ignored this and ordered a withdrawal across the River Sittang on February 19th. This withdrawal barely altered the final outcome and Rangoon fell to the Japanese on March 8th – though the British had already left the city.
Those who remained could not go south or east as the Japanese held these areas and the terrain would have made movement very difficult. West of Rangoon was the Bay of Bengal and the shipping did not exist in the region that could cope with so men. Therefore, they could only move north towards the Indian border. Thus began the longest retreat in the history of the British Army.
The Japanese had effective control of the air thus making any form of aerial supply very difficult and dangerous. Much movement on the ground was done at night for the same reason.
The Japanese started a major attack against the British on April 1st near Prome, some 200 miles north of Rangoon. On April 2nd, the Japanese commander, General Iida, established his headquarters at Toungoo deep in the heart of Burma. Here they found that the bridge over the River Sittang had not been destroyed so that gave the Japanese an advantage with regards to moving their men and equipment.
As the Japanese pressed on, General Alexander, who had replaced Hutton, decided that the British, Burmese and Chinese armies had to make a stand, which they did near Mandalay. Fierce fighting held up the Japanese but it could not alter the final outcome. General Alexander made the decision on April 26th to withdraw all men to India.
Staging points were made along the route to ensure that fuel and water was available. Burcorps started their withdrawal immediately despite the obvious logistical problems such a withdrawal posed. On April 29thAlexander held a meeting with his commanders at Shwebo. Here on April 30th he received the news that the Japanese had rushed forward their advance and had taken the town of Monywa, less than 50 miles to the west of Shwebo – effectively a day away. What Alexander hoped would be a controlled retreat based on a strict timetable became anything but this.
On May 15th, it started to rain hard. For the British and their allies this was a mixed blessing. It brought further discomfort to the troops but it also greatly hindered the advance of the Japanese who relied on transport to advance their men at speed – something they could not do if the roads/tracks were churned up.
“On the last day of the retreat I watched the rear-guard march into India. All of them, British, Indian and Ghurkha were gaunt and ragged as scarecrows. Yet, as they trudged behind their surviving officers in groups pitifully small, they still carried their arms and kept their ranks. They might look like scarecrows but they looked like soldiers too. They did not expect to be treated like heroes, but they did expect to be met as soldiers, who, even if defeated, were by no means disgraced.”
The five-and-a-half month campaign in Burma led to a 1000-mile retreat. The British suffered 10,036 casualties of which 3,670 were killed. The Burmese Army lost a further 3,400 men killed and wounded.
The RAF had lost 116 aircraft, 65 being lost in combat.
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0.6843963861465... | 5 | The British army’s retreat from Burma to India in 1941 was its longest in geographical terms. Many thought that the geography of Burma made a land assault all but impossible but the Japanese disproved this theory and in the face of this onslaught the only alternate open to General Alexander was to retreat and reorganise his forces in India.
The first attacks against the Burma Army started in December 1941. Commanded by General Hutton, the army lost the battle for Rangoon and lost control of the Burma Road to China. By February 1942, it became clear that the British forces in Burma were not going to stop the Japanese and between March and May 1942 a retreat took place of these forces, which included remnants of the Chinese Army, under the command of General Alexander. Delaying the Japanese advance towards India until May was vital as that was the month in which the monsoon was expected and few believed that the Japanese could continue their advance in the monsoon.
Burma was vital to the Allies war effort. It contained the only viable route through which the US could supply the Chinese in their fight against the Japanese. Churchill and Roosevelt both believed that it was vital to supply the Chinese. If the Chinese could maintain their fight against the Japanese, then the might of the Japanese army was split. If the fight in China faltered, then the Japanese had the opportunity to transfer a lot more men to the various campaigns in both Asia and the Pacific.
When Burma was invaded, her defences were small and dispersed. This was the result of the belief held by many senior military figures that an attack on Burma’s eastern border was all but impossible. In August 1940, the Chiefs-of-Staff reviewed the situation and concluded that such an invasion “was a comparatively remote threat”. As a result only 2 battalions of British troops were stationed there along with 4 battalions of the Burma Rifles. Nine battalions of the Burmese Military Police guarded the border but they were also used for internal security, so their presence was dispersed throughout the country.
When Japan attacked, the two British battalions stationed in Burma were the 1st Battalion Gloucestershire Regiment and the 2nd King’s Own Yorkshire Light Infantry. However, men from both battalions had been sent to India and to the UK for a variety of reasons and neither battalion was capable of fielding its full compliment of men.
The RAF was also very weak in Burma. Only the 67 (Fighter) Squadron existed with 16 Buffalo aircraft. The four principal airfields were at Victoria Point, Tavoy, Moulmein and Mergui. These were vital as refuelling points for aircraft flying on to Singapore. The RAF was supported by one squadron of AVG (American Volunteer Group) who flew Tomahawk P-40’s.
Communication between the air bases was poor. There was only one radio-direction finding set that could be used and the Burma Observation Corps had no wireless and had to rely on an inefficient telephone and telegraph system. Therefore, the aircraft that did exist in Burma were very exposed to an attack.
The Chinese Nationalists offered two whole armies for the defence of Burma but Wavell only accepted one division from the 6th Army. This offended the Chinese led by Chiang Kai-Shek but there was little they could do about it. However, Wavell’s decision not to accept help almost certainly stemmed from his “long-established contempt for the Japanese soldier which was a ‘thing’ with him from which he never deviated” (Brigadier Sir John Smyth).
Rangoon was first bombed on December 23rd 1941. The docks were badly damaged and the authorities had great difficulty in getting the port to function.
The Japanese Southern Army attacked Burma on January 15th 1942. By January 30th, it had reached Moulmein. Vital air bases swiftly fell to the Japanese.
Overall command for the Burma front was with General Wavell as commander of Allied troops in Southeast Asia. However, he was based 2,000 miles away in Java. His lack of understanding as to what was going on is best shown by a telegraph sent to General Hutton in Rangoon:
“I have every confidence in judgement and fighting spirit of you and Smyth, but bear in mind that continual withdrawal, as experience in Malaya showed, is most damaging to morale of troops, especially Indian troops. Time can often be gained as effectively and less expensively, by bold counter-offensive. This especially so against Japanese.”
The telegram was sent in reply to a request to withdraw troops to a position that Hutton felt was easier to defend. Hutton, after a short delay, ignored this and ordered a withdrawal across the River Sittang on February 19th. This withdrawal barely altered the final outcome and Rangoon fell to the Japanese on March 8th – though the British had already left the city.
Those who remained could not go south or east as the Japanese held these areas and the terrain would have made movement very difficult. West of Rangoon was the Bay of Bengal and the shipping did not exist in the region that could cope with so men. Therefore, they could only move north towards the Indian border. Thus began the longest retreat in the history of the British Army.
The Japanese had effective control of the air thus making any form of aerial supply very difficult and dangerous. Much movement on the ground was done at night for the same reason.
The Japanese started a major attack against the British on April 1st near Prome, some 200 miles north of Rangoon. On April 2nd, the Japanese commander, General Iida, established his headquarters at Toungoo deep in the heart of Burma. Here they found that the bridge over the River Sittang had not been destroyed so that gave the Japanese an advantage with regards to moving their men and equipment.
As the Japanese pressed on, General Alexander, who had replaced Hutton, decided that the British, Burmese and Chinese armies had to make a stand, which they did near Mandalay. Fierce fighting held up the Japanese but it could not alter the final outcome. General Alexander made the decision on April 26th to withdraw all men to India.
Staging points were made along the route to ensure that fuel and water was available. Burcorps started their withdrawal immediately despite the obvious logistical problems such a withdrawal posed. On April 29thAlexander held a meeting with his commanders at Shwebo. Here on April 30th he received the news that the Japanese had rushed forward their advance and had taken the town of Monywa, less than 50 miles to the west of Shwebo – effectively a day away. What Alexander hoped would be a controlled retreat based on a strict timetable became anything but this.
On May 15th, it started to rain hard. For the British and their allies this was a mixed blessing. It brought further discomfort to the troops but it also greatly hindered the advance of the Japanese who relied on transport to advance their men at speed – something they could not do if the roads/tracks were churned up.
“On the last day of the retreat I watched the rear-guard march into India. All of them, British, Indian and Ghurkha were gaunt and ragged as scarecrows. Yet, as they trudged behind their surviving officers in groups pitifully small, they still carried their arms and kept their ranks. They might look like scarecrows but they looked like soldiers too. They did not expect to be treated like heroes, but they did expect to be met as soldiers, who, even if defeated, were by no means disgraced.”
The five-and-a-half month campaign in Burma led to a 1000-mile retreat. The British suffered 10,036 casualties of which 3,670 were killed. The Burmese Army lost a further 3,400 men killed and wounded.
The RAF had lost 116 aircraft, 65 being lost in combat.
- Burma played a significant part in World War Two for the British Army. It was in Burma, that Orde Wingate and the Chindits found fame… | 1,722 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Upton Sinclair?
Upton Sinclair was an American writer whose involvement with socialism led to a writing assignment about the plight of workers in the meatpacking industry, eventually resulting in the best-selling novel The Jungle (1906). Although many of his later works and bids for political office were unsuccessful, Sinclair earned a Pulitzer Prize in 1943 for Dragon's Teeth.
Between Two Worlds
Sinclair was born in a small row house in Baltimore, Maryland, on September 20, 1878. From birth, he was exposed to dichotomies that would have a profound effect on his young mind and greatly influence his thinking later in life. The only child of an alcoholic liquor salesman and a puritanical, strong-willed mother, he was raised on the edge of poverty but was also exposed to the privileges of the upper class through visits with his mother’s wealthy family.
When Sinclair was 10 years old, his father moved the family from Baltimore to New York City. By this time, Sinclair had already begun to develop a keen intellect and was a voracious reader, consuming the works of Shakespeare and Percy Bysshe Shelley at every waking moment. At age 14, he attended the City College of New York and started selling children’s stories and humor pieces to magazines. After graduating in 1897, he enrolled at Columbia University to continue his studies and, using a pseudonym, wrote dime novels to support himself.
Having completed his schooling at age 20, Sinclair made the decision to become a serious novelist while working as a freelance journalist to make ends meet. In 1900, he also began a family, marrying Meta Fuller, with whom he would have a son, David, the following year.
Though their marriage would ultimately prove to be an unhappy one, it did inspire Sinclair’s first novel, Springtime and Harvest (1901), which, after receiving numerous rejections, Sinclair published himself. Over the next few years, he would write several more novels—based on topics ranging from Wall Street to the Civil War to autobiography—but all were more or less failures.
Ultimately, it would be Sinclair’s political convictions that would lead to his first literary success and the one for which he is most known. The contempt he had developed for the upper class as a youth had led Sinclair to socialism in 1903, and in 1904 he was sent to Chicago by the socialist newspaper Appeal to Reason to write an exposé on the mistreatment of workers in the meatpacking industry. After spending several weeks conducting undercover research on his subject matter, Sinclair threw himself into the manuscript that would become The Jungle.
Initially rejected by publishers, in 1906 the novel was finally released by Doubleday to great public acclaim—and shock. Despite Sinclair’s intention to reveal the plight of laborers at the meatpacking plants, his vivid descriptions of the cruelty to animals and unsanitary conditions there caused a great public outcry and ultimately changed the way people shopped for food.
Upon its release, Sinclair enlisted his fellow writer and friend Jack London to help publicize his book and assist in getting his message across to the masses. The Jungle became a massive bestseller and was translated into 17 languages within months of its release. Among its readers was President Theodore Roosevelt, who—despite his aversion to Sinclair’s politics—invited Sinclair to the White House and ordered an inspection of the meatpacking industry. As a result, the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act were both passed in 1906.
From Politics to Pulitzer
Fame and fortune would not derail Sinclair from his political convictions; in fact, they only served to deepen them and enable him to embark on personal projects such as Helicon Hall, a utopian co-op he constructed in New Jersey in 1906 with royalties received from The Jungle. The building burned down less than a year later, and Sinclair was forced to abandon his plans, suspecting that he had been targeted because of his socialist politics.
Sinclair published numerous works over the following decade, including the novels The Metropolis (1908) and King Coal (1917), and the education critique The Goose-Step (1923). But the author’s persistent focus on ideology often did little to help sales, and most of his fiction during this period was commercially unsuccessful.
By the early 1920s, Sinclair had divorced Meta, remarried a woman named Mary Kimbrough and moved to Southern California, where he continued both his literary and political pursuits. He founded the California chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union, and as a candidate for the Socialist Party, he launched unsuccessful bids for Congress. His novels from this period fared far better than his political ventures, with 1927’s Oil! (about the Teapot Dome scandal) and 1928’s Boston (about the Sacco and Vanzetti case) both receiving favorable reviews. Eighty years after it appeared in print, Oil! would be made into the Academy Award-winning film There Will Be Blood.
With the onset of the Great Depression, Sinclair intensified his political activities. He organized the End Poverty in California (EPIC) movement, a public-works program that was the basis for his 1934 run as the Democratic Party’s candidate for governor of California. Despite vehement opposition from the political establishment, both within the Democratic Party and beyond, Sinclair was defeated by a relatively small margin, taking 37 percent of the vote in a three-candidate race. He celebrated his loss by publishing a work titled I, Candidate for Governor: And How I Got Licked in 1935.
In 1940, Sinclair published the historical novel World’s End. It was first of what would be 11 books in the “Lanny Budd” series, named for the protagonist who somehow manages to be present at all of the most significant world events in the early 20th century. The 1942 installment in the series, Dragon’s Teeth, which explores the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in Germany, earned Sinclair the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction the following year.
Later Years and Death
Sinclair continued his tireless and prolific output into the second half of the century, but by the early 1960s, he had turned his attention to Mary, who was in poor health following a stroke. She passed away in 1961, and two years later, at age 83, Sinclair married for a third time, to Mary Willis.
Several years later, his own health caused him to move to a nursing home in Bound Brook, New Jersey. He died on November 25, 1968, at the age of 90, having written more than 90 books, 30 plays and countless other works of journalism.
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... | 4 | Who Was Upton Sinclair?
Upton Sinclair was an American writer whose involvement with socialism led to a writing assignment about the plight of workers in the meatpacking industry, eventually resulting in the best-selling novel The Jungle (1906). Although many of his later works and bids for political office were unsuccessful, Sinclair earned a Pulitzer Prize in 1943 for Dragon's Teeth.
Between Two Worlds
Sinclair was born in a small row house in Baltimore, Maryland, on September 20, 1878. From birth, he was exposed to dichotomies that would have a profound effect on his young mind and greatly influence his thinking later in life. The only child of an alcoholic liquor salesman and a puritanical, strong-willed mother, he was raised on the edge of poverty but was also exposed to the privileges of the upper class through visits with his mother’s wealthy family.
When Sinclair was 10 years old, his father moved the family from Baltimore to New York City. By this time, Sinclair had already begun to develop a keen intellect and was a voracious reader, consuming the works of Shakespeare and Percy Bysshe Shelley at every waking moment. At age 14, he attended the City College of New York and started selling children’s stories and humor pieces to magazines. After graduating in 1897, he enrolled at Columbia University to continue his studies and, using a pseudonym, wrote dime novels to support himself.
Having completed his schooling at age 20, Sinclair made the decision to become a serious novelist while working as a freelance journalist to make ends meet. In 1900, he also began a family, marrying Meta Fuller, with whom he would have a son, David, the following year.
Though their marriage would ultimately prove to be an unhappy one, it did inspire Sinclair’s first novel, Springtime and Harvest (1901), which, after receiving numerous rejections, Sinclair published himself. Over the next few years, he would write several more novels—based on topics ranging from Wall Street to the Civil War to autobiography—but all were more or less failures.
Ultimately, it would be Sinclair’s political convictions that would lead to his first literary success and the one for which he is most known. The contempt he had developed for the upper class as a youth had led Sinclair to socialism in 1903, and in 1904 he was sent to Chicago by the socialist newspaper Appeal to Reason to write an exposé on the mistreatment of workers in the meatpacking industry. After spending several weeks conducting undercover research on his subject matter, Sinclair threw himself into the manuscript that would become The Jungle.
Initially rejected by publishers, in 1906 the novel was finally released by Doubleday to great public acclaim—and shock. Despite Sinclair’s intention to reveal the plight of laborers at the meatpacking plants, his vivid descriptions of the cruelty to animals and unsanitary conditions there caused a great public outcry and ultimately changed the way people shopped for food.
Upon its release, Sinclair enlisted his fellow writer and friend Jack London to help publicize his book and assist in getting his message across to the masses. The Jungle became a massive bestseller and was translated into 17 languages within months of its release. Among its readers was President Theodore Roosevelt, who—despite his aversion to Sinclair’s politics—invited Sinclair to the White House and ordered an inspection of the meatpacking industry. As a result, the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act were both passed in 1906.
From Politics to Pulitzer
Fame and fortune would not derail Sinclair from his political convictions; in fact, they only served to deepen them and enable him to embark on personal projects such as Helicon Hall, a utopian co-op he constructed in New Jersey in 1906 with royalties received from The Jungle. The building burned down less than a year later, and Sinclair was forced to abandon his plans, suspecting that he had been targeted because of his socialist politics.
Sinclair published numerous works over the following decade, including the novels The Metropolis (1908) and King Coal (1917), and the education critique The Goose-Step (1923). But the author’s persistent focus on ideology often did little to help sales, and most of his fiction during this period was commercially unsuccessful.
By the early 1920s, Sinclair had divorced Meta, remarried a woman named Mary Kimbrough and moved to Southern California, where he continued both his literary and political pursuits. He founded the California chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union, and as a candidate for the Socialist Party, he launched unsuccessful bids for Congress. His novels from this period fared far better than his political ventures, with 1927’s Oil! (about the Teapot Dome scandal) and 1928’s Boston (about the Sacco and Vanzetti case) both receiving favorable reviews. Eighty years after it appeared in print, Oil! would be made into the Academy Award-winning film There Will Be Blood.
With the onset of the Great Depression, Sinclair intensified his political activities. He organized the End Poverty in California (EPIC) movement, a public-works program that was the basis for his 1934 run as the Democratic Party’s candidate for governor of California. Despite vehement opposition from the political establishment, both within the Democratic Party and beyond, Sinclair was defeated by a relatively small margin, taking 37 percent of the vote in a three-candidate race. He celebrated his loss by publishing a work titled I, Candidate for Governor: And How I Got Licked in 1935.
In 1940, Sinclair published the historical novel World’s End. It was first of what would be 11 books in the “Lanny Budd” series, named for the protagonist who somehow manages to be present at all of the most significant world events in the early 20th century. The 1942 installment in the series, Dragon’s Teeth, which explores the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in Germany, earned Sinclair the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction the following year.
Later Years and Death
Sinclair continued his tireless and prolific output into the second half of the century, but by the early 1960s, he had turned his attention to Mary, who was in poor health following a stroke. She passed away in 1961, and two years later, at age 83, Sinclair married for a third time, to Mary Willis.
Several years later, his own health caused him to move to a nursing home in Bound Brook, New Jersey. He died on November 25, 1968, at the age of 90, having written more than 90 books, 30 plays and countless other works of journalism.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 1,442 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This species has never been seen alive before. Image Credit: NOAA / oceanexplorergov / YouTube
Scientists have filmed an extremely rare type of fish more than 2,500ft below the surface of the sea.
Captured on camera by the NOAA's Okeanos Explorer vessel during an expedition to the Northern Mariana Islands, the eel-like fish is around 10cm long and looks almost ethereal in its appearance.
"I am sure that this is an Aphyonid and I am sure that this is the first time a fish of this family has ever been seen alive," said Dr Bruce Mundy. "This is really an unusual sighting."
The discovery was made as part of an ongoing endeavour to learn as much as possible about the extreme depths of the world's oceans where countless unidentified species live out their lives in secluded habitats that often seem as alien as some of the environments found on other planets.
"One thing is certain – this was indeed an exciting find that highlights, once again, how much we still have to learn about our vast, and unexplored, ocean," the team wrote. | <urn:uuid:d55f1019-e2dc-4c1d-98a0-1b9950101304> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.unexplained-mysteries.com/news/296392/ghost-fish-spotted-alive-for-the-first-time | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00321.warc.gz | en | 0.982564 | 228 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3364088237285... | 3 | This species has never been seen alive before. Image Credit: NOAA / oceanexplorergov / YouTube
Scientists have filmed an extremely rare type of fish more than 2,500ft below the surface of the sea.
Captured on camera by the NOAA's Okeanos Explorer vessel during an expedition to the Northern Mariana Islands, the eel-like fish is around 10cm long and looks almost ethereal in its appearance.
"I am sure that this is an Aphyonid and I am sure that this is the first time a fish of this family has ever been seen alive," said Dr Bruce Mundy. "This is really an unusual sighting."
The discovery was made as part of an ongoing endeavour to learn as much as possible about the extreme depths of the world's oceans where countless unidentified species live out their lives in secluded habitats that often seem as alien as some of the environments found on other planets.
"One thing is certain – this was indeed an exciting find that highlights, once again, how much we still have to learn about our vast, and unexplored, ocean," the team wrote. | 227 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In order for us to better understand Tiberius and the legacy he left behind, it is necessary to review his life from all facets and angles. This includes Tiberius at a young age, and as he was growing up. Tiberius Claudius Nero was born on 16 November 42 B.C. to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. The exact date that he was born can be attributed to the writing of the historian Suetonius. Due to such massive connections of his parents to wealthy and integrated Roman houses, from birth Tiberius was set on a political life. However when Tiberius was only two years old in the year of 39BC after the old republic system of Rome using the Senate and Magistrates was toppled by the ambitious Octavian (Augustus), and an autocratic rule was established. This led to his mother Livia divorcing his paternal father Tiberius Claudius Nero and marrying Augustus. This made Tiberius the stepson of the future ruler of Rome and the most powerful man around.
After this bit of action, Tiberius’ childhood was relatively uneventful until the death of his paternal father in 32BC. At this point he made his first public appearance at the funeral of his father and read his eulogy for all to hear. After this is when Tiberius really started stepping into the limelight. In 31BC after the battle of Actium, Augustus had shown himself to be the ruler of the Roman Empire. This made Tiberius the son to the head of state. Therefore in 29BC he took part in Augustus’ triumph for the Actium campaign and sat next to Augustus in his triumphal chariot. Two years after this Tiberius was considered a man and Augustus led him into the forum as he donned the gown of manhood. Three years after that, at the age of 17, he became a quaestor and was given the option of standing for a praetorship or consulship five years before legally allowed by the law. Now that he was in the political game, he was sent by Augustus east to the Parthians in 20BC. These were the same Parthians who had captured several of the Roman eagles, and Tiberius oversaw their journey back to Rome. Upon arriving in Rome from the East, he was granted praetorian rank and in 13 BC he was named consul. It was around this time also that we was happily married to Vipsania Agrippina the daughter of Augustus’s right-hand man, Vipsanius Agrippa. With Vipsania, Tiberius produced a son named Drusus.
In 12BC Augustus’s right hand man Agrippa died and Augustus forced an unwilling Tiberius to marry his widow Julia, and divorce his
current wife Vipsania. This marriage was not a happy one, for Tiberius’ heart belonged to Vipsania and he was completely banned from seeing her. Never the less, Tiberius’ life kept marching forward and so did his duties and place in the state. He became an important general for the state and was elected consul again in 7BC and was granted tribunician power in 6BC. In principle he was the new heir to the Augustian throne after Agrippa died. However without warning in 6BC he announced a complete withdrawal from public life and decided to self exile himself to Rhodes.
This came as a huge shock to Augustus and he did a complete about face against Tiberius. He no longer considered him the heir and instead turned to others below him. Eventually Tiberius realized the folly of this journey to Rhodes and requested passage back to Rome. Augustus denied this passage every time. When Tiberius’ powers ran out in 1 BC they were not renewed. However in AD 2 a ship came to Rhodes with news for Tiberius. The next successor Lucius Caesar had passed away by an illness. Thus Tiberius returned to Rome as a back up option in the list of heirs.
Following this however the next heir in line Gaius Caesar died of a wound sustained at a siege. Augustus was devastated, as his perfectly laid out plan of succession was ruined. Henceforth he called Tiberius out of private life and adopted him fully as his son, with the stipulation that he adopt Germanicus, his nephew, as his son. This was another attempt by Augustus to have a new line of heirs in case of disaster, and one that would have his own blood flowing through them. Now with Tiberius as the clear successor, he also received grants of proconsular power and tribunician power, and in AD 13 his proconsular power was made co-extensive with Augustus. This made them in effect co-rulers so that when Augustus finally died on 19 August A.D. 14, no one could question Tiberius’ ascension to sole ruler. | <urn:uuid:99cab2aa-ac49-4c48-997c-b385692e87bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sites.psu.edu/cams101tiberius/tiberius-claudius-nero/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00339.warc.gz | en | 0.98971 | 1,025 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.378066003... | 2 | In order for us to better understand Tiberius and the legacy he left behind, it is necessary to review his life from all facets and angles. This includes Tiberius at a young age, and as he was growing up. Tiberius Claudius Nero was born on 16 November 42 B.C. to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. The exact date that he was born can be attributed to the writing of the historian Suetonius. Due to such massive connections of his parents to wealthy and integrated Roman houses, from birth Tiberius was set on a political life. However when Tiberius was only two years old in the year of 39BC after the old republic system of Rome using the Senate and Magistrates was toppled by the ambitious Octavian (Augustus), and an autocratic rule was established. This led to his mother Livia divorcing his paternal father Tiberius Claudius Nero and marrying Augustus. This made Tiberius the stepson of the future ruler of Rome and the most powerful man around.
After this bit of action, Tiberius’ childhood was relatively uneventful until the death of his paternal father in 32BC. At this point he made his first public appearance at the funeral of his father and read his eulogy for all to hear. After this is when Tiberius really started stepping into the limelight. In 31BC after the battle of Actium, Augustus had shown himself to be the ruler of the Roman Empire. This made Tiberius the son to the head of state. Therefore in 29BC he took part in Augustus’ triumph for the Actium campaign and sat next to Augustus in his triumphal chariot. Two years after this Tiberius was considered a man and Augustus led him into the forum as he donned the gown of manhood. Three years after that, at the age of 17, he became a quaestor and was given the option of standing for a praetorship or consulship five years before legally allowed by the law. Now that he was in the political game, he was sent by Augustus east to the Parthians in 20BC. These were the same Parthians who had captured several of the Roman eagles, and Tiberius oversaw their journey back to Rome. Upon arriving in Rome from the East, he was granted praetorian rank and in 13 BC he was named consul. It was around this time also that we was happily married to Vipsania Agrippina the daughter of Augustus’s right-hand man, Vipsanius Agrippa. With Vipsania, Tiberius produced a son named Drusus.
In 12BC Augustus’s right hand man Agrippa died and Augustus forced an unwilling Tiberius to marry his widow Julia, and divorce his
current wife Vipsania. This marriage was not a happy one, for Tiberius’ heart belonged to Vipsania and he was completely banned from seeing her. Never the less, Tiberius’ life kept marching forward and so did his duties and place in the state. He became an important general for the state and was elected consul again in 7BC and was granted tribunician power in 6BC. In principle he was the new heir to the Augustian throne after Agrippa died. However without warning in 6BC he announced a complete withdrawal from public life and decided to self exile himself to Rhodes.
This came as a huge shock to Augustus and he did a complete about face against Tiberius. He no longer considered him the heir and instead turned to others below him. Eventually Tiberius realized the folly of this journey to Rhodes and requested passage back to Rome. Augustus denied this passage every time. When Tiberius’ powers ran out in 1 BC they were not renewed. However in AD 2 a ship came to Rhodes with news for Tiberius. The next successor Lucius Caesar had passed away by an illness. Thus Tiberius returned to Rome as a back up option in the list of heirs.
Following this however the next heir in line Gaius Caesar died of a wound sustained at a siege. Augustus was devastated, as his perfectly laid out plan of succession was ruined. Henceforth he called Tiberius out of private life and adopted him fully as his son, with the stipulation that he adopt Germanicus, his nephew, as his son. This was another attempt by Augustus to have a new line of heirs in case of disaster, and one that would have his own blood flowing through them. Now with Tiberius as the clear successor, he also received grants of proconsular power and tribunician power, and in AD 13 his proconsular power was made co-extensive with Augustus. This made them in effect co-rulers so that when Augustus finally died on 19 August A.D. 14, no one could question Tiberius’ ascension to sole ruler. | 1,051 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bankruptcy has been around for over four hundred years. However, what we assume to be bankruptcy, the elimination of debts, is not what bankruptcy started out as or was intended to become.
The word bankruptcy comes from bancus, the tradesman’s counter, and ruptus, broken, denoting one whose place of business was broken or gone. Under pre-English bankruptcy laws, Rome, under the Casears had debt collection laws, a practice of appointing trustees after the market-place bench was either broken or removed as a declaration of a merchant’s bankruptcy. The trustee auctioned off the property of the bankrupt to the bidder who would pay the most to creditors. The trustee was appointed by the creditors or by a magistrate if creditors could not agree. The trustee was called the “curator bonorum” meaning “protector” or”caretaker” of the property which he held for the benefit of the creditors.
The first English bankruptcy law was passed in England in 1570 during the rein of Henry VIII. It is the foundation of the American bankruptcy laws. While some historians claim a statute passed in 1542 was the first bankruptcy law, it was not. The 1542 statute was designed to prevent frauds on creditors. Under that statute the debtor was summoned to appear before a Chancellor and on the demand of the creditor, to be examined under oath, and if the debtor failed to surrender his possessions to pay his debt, off to debtors’ prison he went.
In 1570 the first real bankruptcy statute was approved. It was necessary since the debtors’ prisons were at capacity and this incarceration was creating a national problem in England. Under the English 1705 Statute of Anne bankruptcy act, uncooperative debtors could be executed. It is estimated that five were executed under this law.
Early bankruptcy certainly had some provisions that would be considered unusual under today’s bankruptcy law. For example:
- Only a creditor could commence a bankruptcy case against the debtor.
- Citizens were imprisoned for debts and individuals could not file for bankruptcy.
- Only a merchant could be a debtor.
- Bankruptcy was not for individual debtors but as relief for creditors from the debtors.
- During bankruptcy, assets were seized, sold and distributed to creditors but that did not stop the collection of remaining monies owed. There was no discharge of obligation for the remaining debts. Collection efforts continued after the sale of all of the debtor’s property.
- Bankruptcy was not something that you did but rather something that you were. An act of bankruptcy was a form of conduct that occurred when a debtor was avoiding repaying debts owed.
- Bankruptcy commissioners (trustees) could break into your home and seize assets which could be sold to satisfy the debt.
- Debtors could have an ear cut off or have an ear nailed, while still attached, to a pillory in a public place.
Since early American law followed English law closely there is no doubt that the process of bankruptcy was known during the first days of American colonization. During the first session of Congress, in 1790, there was even a proposal that a general system of Bankruptcy in the United States should be considered. In spite of the agreement for a need for such a process the argument was made that before we develop a process of discharging debts we should first develop a banking system. Good idea. Members were aware that our country’s Constitution required a bankruptcy act but there was no rush to enact it.
During the next ten years before a federal bankruptcy law finally passed, the individual states maintained laws about debtor and creditor relations.
Most people assume today that America was in a rush to pass bankruptcy laws to allow its citizens the ease of discharging their financial obligations. America was interested in passing bankruptcy legislation to protect merchants and creditors who otherwise would have little ability to enforce or collect debts. It was understood that bankruptcy fostered the growth of commerce and not the avoidance of debt.
Bankruptcy laws were desired in early America because as was noted during the first session of Congress England had “had enjoyed a degree of tranquility and domestic happiness unknown for a century before” under their bankruptcy act.
America closely adopted bankruptcy laws in 1800 that closely resembled the then current 1732 English bankruptcy laws. Under this law only creditors could commence against a debtor who had committed an act of bankruptcy. Before a discharge of debts, which occurred after the liquidation and distribution of the debtors assets, proof that the debtor had been cooperative and that two-thirds of the creditors agreed to the plan had to be presented.
The new law also permitted the debtor to receive a small allowance out of the estate and modest exemptions were also permitted.
Since the 1800 act allowed for the discharge of obligations by prominent speculators like Robert Morris and since it was believed that the bankruptcy act did little to assist merchants because only small amounts were recovered, the law was repealed in 1803.
Now that the federal bankruptcy law was no longer in effect, the states went back to establishing their own insolvency laws.
A federal bankruptcy law was passed again in 1841 following the economic depression of 1837. Relief was desired and Congress finally acted. The 1841 act created the first opportunity for debtors to file bankruptcy instead of being filed against by their creditors. The new law proved to be unsuitable again and was accused of being outside of the intent of the framers of the Constitution. Many debtors received discharges from their debts and creditors received very little. Well, back to the drawing board again. The law was repealed in 1843.
After the repeal of the bankruptcy act in 1843 the United States experienced a significant economic upturn. There was little demand for a new bankruptcy bill during this time. However, the devastation caused by the American Civil War created a demand that a bankruptcy law be enacted again. It wasn’t until 1867 that federal bankruptcy legislation emerged again. Guess what? It was repealed in 1878 because the act was accused of being too unwieldy, too expensive, created long delays, and resulted in little repayment to creditors.
Merchant out of business. Store in Georgetown, Colorado around 1870 has a
“Bankrupt Sale” sign in front window. From Western History/Genealogy
Department, Denver Public Library
Following a national economic panic in 1893, Congress started working again on a new bankruptcy act, much of which remains in effect today. The Bankruptcy Act of 1898 brought us the modern era of liberal debtor treatment. One commentator of the time suggested Congress went too far in favoring debtors. He reminded them that bankruptcy was primarily a “commercial regulation,” not a general debtor “jubilee” as provided in the Bible. The Bible contains provisions for a forgiveness of debts by creditors and return of land to the original owners. This jubilee year occurred every fifty years. While it is often assumed that today’s voluntary bankruptcy and the biblical jubilee are similar, they are not. Voluntary bankruptcy is for many, an avoidance of their rightful obligations. The biblical jubilee was a voluntary forgiveness of debts by creditors.
In 1938, Congress overhauled the bankruptcy law and created the Chapter 13 plan. Another major overhaul took place in 1978. One feature of the act was the hope that more people would use the Chapter 13 provisions and repay their creditors over a multi-year period. Congress did consider making Chapter 13 mandatory for all filers but later allowed it to be voluntary. In the end Congress simply weakened Chapter 13 protections and made Chapter 7, total discharge of debts, more attractive.
1939 — Farmer meets with a committee of his creditors to avoid bankruptcy. | <urn:uuid:aad6b75f-8be2-404d-97bb-fb57b720a90f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://getoutofdebt.org/14398/the-history-of-credit-debt-bankruptcy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00505.warc.gz | en | 0.982081 | 1,590 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.188666045665... | 3 | Bankruptcy has been around for over four hundred years. However, what we assume to be bankruptcy, the elimination of debts, is not what bankruptcy started out as or was intended to become.
The word bankruptcy comes from bancus, the tradesman’s counter, and ruptus, broken, denoting one whose place of business was broken or gone. Under pre-English bankruptcy laws, Rome, under the Casears had debt collection laws, a practice of appointing trustees after the market-place bench was either broken or removed as a declaration of a merchant’s bankruptcy. The trustee auctioned off the property of the bankrupt to the bidder who would pay the most to creditors. The trustee was appointed by the creditors or by a magistrate if creditors could not agree. The trustee was called the “curator bonorum” meaning “protector” or”caretaker” of the property which he held for the benefit of the creditors.
The first English bankruptcy law was passed in England in 1570 during the rein of Henry VIII. It is the foundation of the American bankruptcy laws. While some historians claim a statute passed in 1542 was the first bankruptcy law, it was not. The 1542 statute was designed to prevent frauds on creditors. Under that statute the debtor was summoned to appear before a Chancellor and on the demand of the creditor, to be examined under oath, and if the debtor failed to surrender his possessions to pay his debt, off to debtors’ prison he went.
In 1570 the first real bankruptcy statute was approved. It was necessary since the debtors’ prisons were at capacity and this incarceration was creating a national problem in England. Under the English 1705 Statute of Anne bankruptcy act, uncooperative debtors could be executed. It is estimated that five were executed under this law.
Early bankruptcy certainly had some provisions that would be considered unusual under today’s bankruptcy law. For example:
- Only a creditor could commence a bankruptcy case against the debtor.
- Citizens were imprisoned for debts and individuals could not file for bankruptcy.
- Only a merchant could be a debtor.
- Bankruptcy was not for individual debtors but as relief for creditors from the debtors.
- During bankruptcy, assets were seized, sold and distributed to creditors but that did not stop the collection of remaining monies owed. There was no discharge of obligation for the remaining debts. Collection efforts continued after the sale of all of the debtor’s property.
- Bankruptcy was not something that you did but rather something that you were. An act of bankruptcy was a form of conduct that occurred when a debtor was avoiding repaying debts owed.
- Bankruptcy commissioners (trustees) could break into your home and seize assets which could be sold to satisfy the debt.
- Debtors could have an ear cut off or have an ear nailed, while still attached, to a pillory in a public place.
Since early American law followed English law closely there is no doubt that the process of bankruptcy was known during the first days of American colonization. During the first session of Congress, in 1790, there was even a proposal that a general system of Bankruptcy in the United States should be considered. In spite of the agreement for a need for such a process the argument was made that before we develop a process of discharging debts we should first develop a banking system. Good idea. Members were aware that our country’s Constitution required a bankruptcy act but there was no rush to enact it.
During the next ten years before a federal bankruptcy law finally passed, the individual states maintained laws about debtor and creditor relations.
Most people assume today that America was in a rush to pass bankruptcy laws to allow its citizens the ease of discharging their financial obligations. America was interested in passing bankruptcy legislation to protect merchants and creditors who otherwise would have little ability to enforce or collect debts. It was understood that bankruptcy fostered the growth of commerce and not the avoidance of debt.
Bankruptcy laws were desired in early America because as was noted during the first session of Congress England had “had enjoyed a degree of tranquility and domestic happiness unknown for a century before” under their bankruptcy act.
America closely adopted bankruptcy laws in 1800 that closely resembled the then current 1732 English bankruptcy laws. Under this law only creditors could commence against a debtor who had committed an act of bankruptcy. Before a discharge of debts, which occurred after the liquidation and distribution of the debtors assets, proof that the debtor had been cooperative and that two-thirds of the creditors agreed to the plan had to be presented.
The new law also permitted the debtor to receive a small allowance out of the estate and modest exemptions were also permitted.
Since the 1800 act allowed for the discharge of obligations by prominent speculators like Robert Morris and since it was believed that the bankruptcy act did little to assist merchants because only small amounts were recovered, the law was repealed in 1803.
Now that the federal bankruptcy law was no longer in effect, the states went back to establishing their own insolvency laws.
A federal bankruptcy law was passed again in 1841 following the economic depression of 1837. Relief was desired and Congress finally acted. The 1841 act created the first opportunity for debtors to file bankruptcy instead of being filed against by their creditors. The new law proved to be unsuitable again and was accused of being outside of the intent of the framers of the Constitution. Many debtors received discharges from their debts and creditors received very little. Well, back to the drawing board again. The law was repealed in 1843.
After the repeal of the bankruptcy act in 1843 the United States experienced a significant economic upturn. There was little demand for a new bankruptcy bill during this time. However, the devastation caused by the American Civil War created a demand that a bankruptcy law be enacted again. It wasn’t until 1867 that federal bankruptcy legislation emerged again. Guess what? It was repealed in 1878 because the act was accused of being too unwieldy, too expensive, created long delays, and resulted in little repayment to creditors.
Merchant out of business. Store in Georgetown, Colorado around 1870 has a
“Bankrupt Sale” sign in front window. From Western History/Genealogy
Department, Denver Public Library
Following a national economic panic in 1893, Congress started working again on a new bankruptcy act, much of which remains in effect today. The Bankruptcy Act of 1898 brought us the modern era of liberal debtor treatment. One commentator of the time suggested Congress went too far in favoring debtors. He reminded them that bankruptcy was primarily a “commercial regulation,” not a general debtor “jubilee” as provided in the Bible. The Bible contains provisions for a forgiveness of debts by creditors and return of land to the original owners. This jubilee year occurred every fifty years. While it is often assumed that today’s voluntary bankruptcy and the biblical jubilee are similar, they are not. Voluntary bankruptcy is for many, an avoidance of their rightful obligations. The biblical jubilee was a voluntary forgiveness of debts by creditors.
In 1938, Congress overhauled the bankruptcy law and created the Chapter 13 plan. Another major overhaul took place in 1978. One feature of the act was the hope that more people would use the Chapter 13 provisions and repay their creditors over a multi-year period. Congress did consider making Chapter 13 mandatory for all filers but later allowed it to be voluntary. In the end Congress simply weakened Chapter 13 protections and made Chapter 7, total discharge of debts, more attractive.
1939 — Farmer meets with a committee of his creditors to avoid bankruptcy. | 1,605 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The technique known today as “Schwalm Whitework” (see also: Typical characteristics of Schwalm Whitework) originated around the beginning of the 19th century.
The original designs show densely filled borders comprised mostly of large motifs such as hearts, tulips, circles and baskets or flowerpots. These motifs were embroidered with very different drawn-thread work patterns. The outlines of the motifs, the stems and the tendrils were stitched in Coral Knots. Open areas between the large motifs were filled with small leaves, small flowers and tendrils.
Those borders were usually worked with Four-Sided Hem stitch or Peahole Hem stitch. However, a finish of Needlewoven Hems and sometimes an additional small border was also common. | <urn:uuid:3eb04882-596b-45eb-9a6a-caaddb2b19be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.luzine-happel.de/?page_id=91&lang=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.980938 | 161 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.08245749771595001,
0.4953050315... | 7 | The technique known today as “Schwalm Whitework” (see also: Typical characteristics of Schwalm Whitework) originated around the beginning of the 19th century.
The original designs show densely filled borders comprised mostly of large motifs such as hearts, tulips, circles and baskets or flowerpots. These motifs were embroidered with very different drawn-thread work patterns. The outlines of the motifs, the stems and the tendrils were stitched in Coral Knots. Open areas between the large motifs were filled with small leaves, small flowers and tendrils.
Those borders were usually worked with Four-Sided Hem stitch or Peahole Hem stitch. However, a finish of Needlewoven Hems and sometimes an additional small border was also common. | 150 | ENGLISH | 1 |
– Thomas Fuller was an enslaved African math genius
– He became known as the ”Virginia Calculator” because of his special gift
Thomas Fuller was taken away from his birth country during the scramble for slaves, sold as a slave and was sent off to Colonial America in 1724 at age 14.
Despite not being able to read or write, the Virginia Calculator was especially gifted with the ability to give accurate and speedy calculation and for many years, impressed the colonizers.
Fuller’s unique ability enabled him to solve complex math problems in his head.
According to Face2Face Africa, anti-slavery campaigners who noticed his special talent made sure to sell the narrative that Blacks were not inferior to Whites.
Fuller’s talent was much needed, especially at a time when Blacks were considered inferior to Whites.
His skills came from experimental applications around the farm such as counting the hairs on a cow’s tail.
According to Face2Face Africa, when Fuller was 70 years old, he met a businessman who had come with other associates from Pennsylvania just to know more about him.
Fuller was quizzed about how many seconds were in a year and a half, how many seconds had a man lived who is 70 years, 17 days and 12 hours old?
When he correctly answered 47,304,000 and 2,210,500,800, respectively, in less than two minutes each time, one of the men raised an objection, saying his own calculations were much smaller.
Fuller quickly responded, ”(Stop), Massa, you forget de leap year”.
After taking into consideration the leap year in their calculations, they agreed with Fuller. They later submitted Fuller’s computational abilities to the Abolitionist.
Fuller died at 80 on the Cox farm near Alexandria, Virginia in 1790. | <urn:uuid:24e88e1a-5b6b-4495-9bc9-d931f97915c4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ujamaalive.africa/history/enslaved-african-math-god-that-stunned-white-people-with-his-intellect/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.987087 | 382 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.2313853353261947... | 3 | – Thomas Fuller was an enslaved African math genius
– He became known as the ”Virginia Calculator” because of his special gift
Thomas Fuller was taken away from his birth country during the scramble for slaves, sold as a slave and was sent off to Colonial America in 1724 at age 14.
Despite not being able to read or write, the Virginia Calculator was especially gifted with the ability to give accurate and speedy calculation and for many years, impressed the colonizers.
Fuller’s unique ability enabled him to solve complex math problems in his head.
According to Face2Face Africa, anti-slavery campaigners who noticed his special talent made sure to sell the narrative that Blacks were not inferior to Whites.
Fuller’s talent was much needed, especially at a time when Blacks were considered inferior to Whites.
His skills came from experimental applications around the farm such as counting the hairs on a cow’s tail.
According to Face2Face Africa, when Fuller was 70 years old, he met a businessman who had come with other associates from Pennsylvania just to know more about him.
Fuller was quizzed about how many seconds were in a year and a half, how many seconds had a man lived who is 70 years, 17 days and 12 hours old?
When he correctly answered 47,304,000 and 2,210,500,800, respectively, in less than two minutes each time, one of the men raised an objection, saying his own calculations were much smaller.
Fuller quickly responded, ”(Stop), Massa, you forget de leap year”.
After taking into consideration the leap year in their calculations, they agreed with Fuller. They later submitted Fuller’s computational abilities to the Abolitionist.
Fuller died at 80 on the Cox farm near Alexandria, Virginia in 1790. | 390 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When the fur trade came to the western coast of Canada, it was not at the hands of Britain and France. It was the Russians that made the first journey and built a trade economy along the Pacific Northwest coast. Eventually, Britain made their claim by means of Captain Cook and occupied the territory. When gold was discovered in the Fraser River, it drew the interest of settlers from both America and even the far east. China’s bloodiest civil war led many to leave their homes in the hopes of settling in the new world at the time. However, we will learn that despite the sacrifices these immigrants made in building the railroad, they received a cool welcome and were often despised by others because they were different.
Digital British Columbia History
54 Pages to Smash!
- Peoples of the Pacific Northwest
- To Russia with Fur
- The Spanish Claim & The British Move In
- Gold Rush
- A Railway to Unity
- The Qing Dynasty
- The Head Tax
- The British Columbia Coat of Arms | <urn:uuid:bb6d6186-c36b-4f61-93d2-a41356ca7da0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thegreatcanadianadventure.ca/product-page/digital-british-columbia-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00397.warc.gz | en | 0.983075 | 205 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.194886535406112... | 5 | When the fur trade came to the western coast of Canada, it was not at the hands of Britain and France. It was the Russians that made the first journey and built a trade economy along the Pacific Northwest coast. Eventually, Britain made their claim by means of Captain Cook and occupied the territory. When gold was discovered in the Fraser River, it drew the interest of settlers from both America and even the far east. China’s bloodiest civil war led many to leave their homes in the hopes of settling in the new world at the time. However, we will learn that despite the sacrifices these immigrants made in building the railroad, they received a cool welcome and were often despised by others because they were different.
Digital British Columbia History
54 Pages to Smash!
- Peoples of the Pacific Northwest
- To Russia with Fur
- The Spanish Claim & The British Move In
- Gold Rush
- A Railway to Unity
- The Qing Dynasty
- The Head Tax
- The British Columbia Coat of Arms | 203 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Cherry Sokoloski
Help NFN Grow
On this date in 1920, most women in the United States were still not allowed to vote. But they didn’t have much longer to wait. On Aug. 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment granting women the right to vote was finally ratified by the 36th state, Tennessee – by one vote. And, that happened only because one legislator read a note that his mother had put in his pocket, and changed his vote from nay to yea.
When the next election was held in November of 1920, one-third of all citizens who went to the polls were women.
The 19th Amendment was also called the Susan B. Anthony Amendment, honoring one of the pioneers of the movement.
The women’s suffrage movement has a history that is complicated and fascinating, and to mark the centennial of women’s right to vote, the North Forty News will publish one article per month in 2020 on aspects of the movement that we hope you will find interesting and inspiring – and perhaps surprising.
In learning about the movement, one conclusion is easy to draw: the suffragists were a bold, brave and tenacious lot. The early suffragists never made it to the polling booth. It took a second generation of activists – and more than 70 years – for women to enjoy that right. Along the bumpy road, suffragists were scorned, spit at and tortured in prison.
The Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 is often considered the beginning of the women’s suffrage movement, but the ideas that fed the movement were developed long before that. There are many examples, and here’s an interesting one: In 1776, Abigail Adams, wife of our second president John Adams, challenged her husband to consider women’s rights when forming the new nation. However, the idea of women’s equality failed to gain traction with the founding fathers.
In fact, the establishment of the United States marked a serious setback for women. While women of property had voted in the American colonies, the new Constitution allowed the states to determine who voted. Gradually, each state passed laws denying women the vote.
Other social reform movements
Early women suffragists got their start in other social reform efforts, notably the temperance and anti-slavery movements. They also developed their speaking and writing skills while working in those movements.
Women championed temperance because they had seen women and children beaten by drunken husbands and fathers – while laws of the time supported the men. They worked for abolition because many saw a parallel between slaves and women: both were treated with contempt by white men. And, they abhorred the sexual victimization of black women by their white masters.
Some feminists became paid traveling speakers for these two causes, even though public speaking by women was frowned upon. In the course of their work, they became more aware of discrimination against their sex.
For instance: In 1840, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott and other women attended an anti-slavery convention in London. The women were forced to sit in the gallery behind a curtain, with no opportunity to speak or vote. This insult provided the momentum for Stanton and Mott to begin planning the first women’s rights convention, which was held in Seneca Falls eight years later. Women also formed their own anti-slavery society.
When it came to women’s rights, feminists in the mid-19th century had many complaints. They spoke out concerning property discrimination (once women married, their property transferred to their husbands), marital rape and battering, divorce laws, equal pay for equal work, reproductive rights and the right to have custody of their children.
They also decried the lack of access to higher education. Oberlin College was the first to admit women, in 1837. One of its first female students was suffragist Lucy Stone, who earned her own tuition because her father did not believe in higher education for women.
Eventually, many women came to believe that the only way to win equality in all these areas was through the right to vote. Some even refused to pay taxes because they believed it was not fair to pay taxes when they could not participate in the nation’s democracy.
Why did it take so long to win the vote?
Women who demanded the right to vote were considered radical and heretical. They challenged the existing hierarchies of society, including those in religious institutions, and their ideas were seen as threats. Interestingly, while the suffragists were supported by many men, they were also opposed by some of their fellow women.
Future articles in the North Forty News will feature some of the brave suffragists and also some of the movement’s challenges. We hope you will enjoy this glimpse into an important part of our history, and that it will serve as inspiration to women who are still fighting for equality today.
Cherry Sokoloski is dedicating this series of articles to her mother, Burnette Young, who was born in 1920 and has always stood up for the rights and well-being of women. Burnie is celebrating the suffrage centennial this year – as well as her own. | <urn:uuid:9fe669ab-1773-478a-9ef8-c48b0a45fb0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://northfortynews.com/womens-suffrage-movement-its-the-centennial-year/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00501.warc.gz | en | 0.987672 | 1,089 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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Help NFN Grow
On this date in 1920, most women in the United States were still not allowed to vote. But they didn’t have much longer to wait. On Aug. 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment granting women the right to vote was finally ratified by the 36th state, Tennessee – by one vote. And, that happened only because one legislator read a note that his mother had put in his pocket, and changed his vote from nay to yea.
When the next election was held in November of 1920, one-third of all citizens who went to the polls were women.
The 19th Amendment was also called the Susan B. Anthony Amendment, honoring one of the pioneers of the movement.
The women’s suffrage movement has a history that is complicated and fascinating, and to mark the centennial of women’s right to vote, the North Forty News will publish one article per month in 2020 on aspects of the movement that we hope you will find interesting and inspiring – and perhaps surprising.
In learning about the movement, one conclusion is easy to draw: the suffragists were a bold, brave and tenacious lot. The early suffragists never made it to the polling booth. It took a second generation of activists – and more than 70 years – for women to enjoy that right. Along the bumpy road, suffragists were scorned, spit at and tortured in prison.
The Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 is often considered the beginning of the women’s suffrage movement, but the ideas that fed the movement were developed long before that. There are many examples, and here’s an interesting one: In 1776, Abigail Adams, wife of our second president John Adams, challenged her husband to consider women’s rights when forming the new nation. However, the idea of women’s equality failed to gain traction with the founding fathers.
In fact, the establishment of the United States marked a serious setback for women. While women of property had voted in the American colonies, the new Constitution allowed the states to determine who voted. Gradually, each state passed laws denying women the vote.
Other social reform movements
Early women suffragists got their start in other social reform efforts, notably the temperance and anti-slavery movements. They also developed their speaking and writing skills while working in those movements.
Women championed temperance because they had seen women and children beaten by drunken husbands and fathers – while laws of the time supported the men. They worked for abolition because many saw a parallel between slaves and women: both were treated with contempt by white men. And, they abhorred the sexual victimization of black women by their white masters.
Some feminists became paid traveling speakers for these two causes, even though public speaking by women was frowned upon. In the course of their work, they became more aware of discrimination against their sex.
For instance: In 1840, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott and other women attended an anti-slavery convention in London. The women were forced to sit in the gallery behind a curtain, with no opportunity to speak or vote. This insult provided the momentum for Stanton and Mott to begin planning the first women’s rights convention, which was held in Seneca Falls eight years later. Women also formed their own anti-slavery society.
When it came to women’s rights, feminists in the mid-19th century had many complaints. They spoke out concerning property discrimination (once women married, their property transferred to their husbands), marital rape and battering, divorce laws, equal pay for equal work, reproductive rights and the right to have custody of their children.
They also decried the lack of access to higher education. Oberlin College was the first to admit women, in 1837. One of its first female students was suffragist Lucy Stone, who earned her own tuition because her father did not believe in higher education for women.
Eventually, many women came to believe that the only way to win equality in all these areas was through the right to vote. Some even refused to pay taxes because they believed it was not fair to pay taxes when they could not participate in the nation’s democracy.
Why did it take so long to win the vote?
Women who demanded the right to vote were considered radical and heretical. They challenged the existing hierarchies of society, including those in religious institutions, and their ideas were seen as threats. Interestingly, while the suffragists were supported by many men, they were also opposed by some of their fellow women.
Future articles in the North Forty News will feature some of the brave suffragists and also some of the movement’s challenges. We hope you will enjoy this glimpse into an important part of our history, and that it will serve as inspiration to women who are still fighting for equality today.
Cherry Sokoloski is dedicating this series of articles to her mother, Burnette Young, who was born in 1920 and has always stood up for the rights and well-being of women. Burnie is celebrating the suffrage centennial this year – as well as her own. | 1,089 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The idea of the modern botanic garden dates from the Renaissance, but it is possible that gardens which resembled them existed long before. Certainly plants valued for their medicinal properties were collected, grown, and studied in gardens in many parts of the world. Chinese tradition says that the emperor Shen Nung experimented to find the medicinal properties of plants as early as the twenty-seventh century BCE. But since no writing existed at the time and his materia medica Shen Nung Pen Ts'ao Ching dates only from the seventh century CE, the possibility of a garden somewhat like a botanic garden in ancient China is only that, a possibility.
The systematic garden developed by the Greek scholar Theophrastus (372-288 BCE) is much better documented. The author of two major works on plants and botany Historia de Plantis (History of Plants or Inquiring into Plants) and De Causis Plantarums (The Causes of Plants), he was a trusted associate of Aristotle, who bequeathed to him his library, garden, and the leadership of his school. Among the students was Alexander the Great who appears to have sent back plants from his campaigns through Central Asia, which were then planted in Theophrastus's garden.
Other illustrious gardens featuring plants gathered for study were established in pre-Spanish-conquest Mexico. The Mexican emperor Montezuma's garden brought together plants from tropical regions as well as Mexico's highlands. Hernando Cortez was impressed by them when he and his men overran Mexico in the 1520s. He described the great gardens he found there as unlike anything known in Europe at the time.
Things would soon change, however, in part because of the plants brought back to Europe by explorers like Cortez.
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:4d93bf92-0366-4cc8-a32e-081f8e5b8363> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ecologycenter.us/population-dynamics-2/the-gardens-of-the-ancients.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.980483 | 366 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.34767472... | 1 | The idea of the modern botanic garden dates from the Renaissance, but it is possible that gardens which resembled them existed long before. Certainly plants valued for their medicinal properties were collected, grown, and studied in gardens in many parts of the world. Chinese tradition says that the emperor Shen Nung experimented to find the medicinal properties of plants as early as the twenty-seventh century BCE. But since no writing existed at the time and his materia medica Shen Nung Pen Ts'ao Ching dates only from the seventh century CE, the possibility of a garden somewhat like a botanic garden in ancient China is only that, a possibility.
The systematic garden developed by the Greek scholar Theophrastus (372-288 BCE) is much better documented. The author of two major works on plants and botany Historia de Plantis (History of Plants or Inquiring into Plants) and De Causis Plantarums (The Causes of Plants), he was a trusted associate of Aristotle, who bequeathed to him his library, garden, and the leadership of his school. Among the students was Alexander the Great who appears to have sent back plants from his campaigns through Central Asia, which were then planted in Theophrastus's garden.
Other illustrious gardens featuring plants gathered for study were established in pre-Spanish-conquest Mexico. The Mexican emperor Montezuma's garden brought together plants from tropical regions as well as Mexico's highlands. Hernando Cortez was impressed by them when he and his men overran Mexico in the 1520s. He described the great gardens he found there as unlike anything known in Europe at the time.
Things would soon change, however, in part because of the plants brought back to Europe by explorers like Cortez.
Was this article helpful? | 369 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dunk (c. 1861 – March 30, 1917), a tuskless, male Asian Elephant possibly from Ceylon, was the first elephant to reside at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. He was given to the National Zoo on April 30, 1891 by James E. Cooper, owner and manager of the Adam Forepaugh Circus.
When Dunk first arrived at the National Zoo, he had no shelter and was tied to a tree with his companion Gold Dust to prevent him from wandering. Once a day, both elephants were walked to Rock Creek to swim. A temporary structure, known as the Octagonal House, was eventually built for the elephants. Construction on a permanent, brick elephant house, designed by Hornblower & Marshall, began in September 1902 and was completed in January 1903.
Dunk was ill throughout the winter of 1917. On March 30, 1917, after Dunk broke his shoulder in a fall, keeper William Blackburne euthanized him by shooting.
Despite a famous ill-temper, Dunk was popular with the children of Washington, D.C. To commemorate his memory, they raised money for a plaque, which remains in the elephant house at the National Zoo today. | <urn:uuid:44ad91d6-3292-443d-a617-bf8d57265c0b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Dunk-%28elephant%29 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00101.warc.gz | en | 0.989867 | 246 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.27204272150... | 1 | Dunk (c. 1861 – March 30, 1917), a tuskless, male Asian Elephant possibly from Ceylon, was the first elephant to reside at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. He was given to the National Zoo on April 30, 1891 by James E. Cooper, owner and manager of the Adam Forepaugh Circus.
When Dunk first arrived at the National Zoo, he had no shelter and was tied to a tree with his companion Gold Dust to prevent him from wandering. Once a day, both elephants were walked to Rock Creek to swim. A temporary structure, known as the Octagonal House, was eventually built for the elephants. Construction on a permanent, brick elephant house, designed by Hornblower & Marshall, began in September 1902 and was completed in January 1903.
Dunk was ill throughout the winter of 1917. On March 30, 1917, after Dunk broke his shoulder in a fall, keeper William Blackburne euthanized him by shooting.
Despite a famous ill-temper, Dunk was popular with the children of Washington, D.C. To commemorate his memory, they raised money for a plaque, which remains in the elephant house at the National Zoo today. | 275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“While the holy city was inhabited in unbroken peace, the laws were strictly observed. This was due to the piety of the high priest Onias and his hatred of wickedness. It came about that the kings themselves honored the place and glorified the temple with the finest presents. Even King Seleucus of Asia defrayed from his own revenues all the expenses connected with the service of the sacrifices.”
This author reminds us of the good old days when things were peaceful in Jerusalem. The Mosaic laws were strictly observed because the good pious high priest, Onias III was in charge from 199-175 BCE. He hated wickedness. In fact, the Seleucid dynasty of kings honored this Second Jerusalem Temple with many presents, especially the Asian King Seleucus IV (186-175 BCE). Everything was wonderful because this king sent money to defray the expenses of the Temple in Jerusalem. 175 BCE seems to be the turning point here. Before that, everyone was happy.
“When King Antiochus heard these reports, he was greatly angered. He sent for and gathered all the forces of his kingdom, a very strong army. He opened his coffers and gave a year’s pay to his forces. He ordered them to be ready for any need. Then he saw that the money in the treasury was exhausted. The revenues from the country were small because of the dissension and disaster that he had caused in the land by abolishing the laws that had existed from the earliest days. He feared that he might not have such funds as he had before for his expenses and for the gifts which he used to give more lavishly than preceding kings. He was greatly perplexed in mind. He determined to go to Persia. There he could collect the revenues from those regions and thus raise a large fund.”
The Seleucid Syrian King Antiochus IV got angry when he heard these reports about Judas Maccabeus. He wanted a strong army. Thus he paid all the people in the army for a full year so that they would be ready at any moment. However, he soon realized that he did not have as much money as he expected. The revenues were diminishing after he set in motion the new laws of unification that did away with all the local laws. There was a lot of dissension that led to this disaster. He decided that he would go to Persia and get some money from that region there. | <urn:uuid:f2a3217f-b1e9-43f5-b955-05f79d140434> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://efinne1540.wordpress.com/tag/revenues/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00255.warc.gz | en | 0.990887 | 500 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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This author reminds us of the good old days when things were peaceful in Jerusalem. The Mosaic laws were strictly observed because the good pious high priest, Onias III was in charge from 199-175 BCE. He hated wickedness. In fact, the Seleucid dynasty of kings honored this Second Jerusalem Temple with many presents, especially the Asian King Seleucus IV (186-175 BCE). Everything was wonderful because this king sent money to defray the expenses of the Temple in Jerusalem. 175 BCE seems to be the turning point here. Before that, everyone was happy.
“When King Antiochus heard these reports, he was greatly angered. He sent for and gathered all the forces of his kingdom, a very strong army. He opened his coffers and gave a year’s pay to his forces. He ordered them to be ready for any need. Then he saw that the money in the treasury was exhausted. The revenues from the country were small because of the dissension and disaster that he had caused in the land by abolishing the laws that had existed from the earliest days. He feared that he might not have such funds as he had before for his expenses and for the gifts which he used to give more lavishly than preceding kings. He was greatly perplexed in mind. He determined to go to Persia. There he could collect the revenues from those regions and thus raise a large fund.”
The Seleucid Syrian King Antiochus IV got angry when he heard these reports about Judas Maccabeus. He wanted a strong army. Thus he paid all the people in the army for a full year so that they would be ready at any moment. However, he soon realized that he did not have as much money as he expected. The revenues were diminishing after he set in motion the new laws of unification that did away with all the local laws. There was a lot of dissension that led to this disaster. He decided that he would go to Persia and get some money from that region there. | 502 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Macbeth Work 5 Hw
AP Vocabulary and Composition Bell 5
1 October 2014
Macbeth Act five Homework
1 ) From the things you have learned of Malcolm, how long do you see him as an ideal ruler? В Butts his strengths and talk about whether this individual has any significant disadvantages in a brief essay which will also looks at how positive an audience may be about his future regulation. В Malcolm is the rightful king because he was so named by his father, and he would be a good king as they is crafty, intelligent, and he cares about the people. Malcolm is faithful to his people and will not abuse his electrical power. В Malcolm had planned his assault on Macbeth very well and won back the overhead from Macbeth. Malcolm is a rightful california king of Ireland, not only due to his hoheitsvoll blood, but also as a result of his ingenious tactics and good will certainly.
2 . Imagine that Shakespeare had written a death picture for Girl Macbeth. В Discuss (a) what it could have consisted of; (b) what she'd have said or perhaps done in her final field; (c) for what reason you think Shakespeare did not contain this loss of life scene. If Shakespeare could have written a death picture for Girl Macbeth, it might have contained Lady Macbeth killing herself with something dangerous and sharp at her home. I believe this because the doctor in Work 4 mentioned that Mrs. Macbeth must be away from objects that your woman can use to harm very little. In her final scene, she would include explained how come she was taking the steps to kill their self, and that she's feeling accountable for the murders which is willing to committing suicide so as to reduce guilt. Shakespeare did not contain this death scene as it did not connect or had not been as essential to the main topic occurring in the book. Shakespeare will need to have thought that the death landscape wouldn't make sure you James I, so that has been the reason why he did not consist of it.
Standard of Awareness of BSMT Students upon Proper Disposal of Rubbish -------------------- A Thesis ..
The objective of this article is to illustrate a situation coming from practice associated with .. | <urn:uuid:31902d88-2cbd-4b1c-addc-de84c8288544> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scholarship-essay.org/macbeth-take-action-5-hw/10116-macbeth-act-5-hw-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.987386 | 466 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.18372102081775... | 1 | Macbeth Work 5 Hw
AP Vocabulary and Composition Bell 5
1 October 2014
Macbeth Act five Homework
1 ) From the things you have learned of Malcolm, how long do you see him as an ideal ruler? В Butts his strengths and talk about whether this individual has any significant disadvantages in a brief essay which will also looks at how positive an audience may be about his future regulation. В Malcolm is the rightful king because he was so named by his father, and he would be a good king as they is crafty, intelligent, and he cares about the people. Malcolm is faithful to his people and will not abuse his electrical power. В Malcolm had planned his assault on Macbeth very well and won back the overhead from Macbeth. Malcolm is a rightful california king of Ireland, not only due to his hoheitsvoll blood, but also as a result of his ingenious tactics and good will certainly.
2 . Imagine that Shakespeare had written a death picture for Girl Macbeth. В Discuss (a) what it could have consisted of; (b) what she'd have said or perhaps done in her final field; (c) for what reason you think Shakespeare did not contain this loss of life scene. If Shakespeare could have written a death picture for Girl Macbeth, it might have contained Lady Macbeth killing herself with something dangerous and sharp at her home. I believe this because the doctor in Work 4 mentioned that Mrs. Macbeth must be away from objects that your woman can use to harm very little. In her final scene, she would include explained how come she was taking the steps to kill their self, and that she's feeling accountable for the murders which is willing to committing suicide so as to reduce guilt. Shakespeare did not contain this death scene as it did not connect or had not been as essential to the main topic occurring in the book. Shakespeare will need to have thought that the death landscape wouldn't make sure you James I, so that has been the reason why he did not consist of it.
Standard of Awareness of BSMT Students upon Proper Disposal of Rubbish -------------------- A Thesis ..
The objective of this article is to illustrate a situation coming from practice associated with .. | 450 | ENGLISH | 1 |
CBSE Notes Class 6 History Chapter 3 – In the Earliest Cities, describes the story of the Harappa civilization and Harappan cities. The chapter ends with the mystery of how the Harappa civilization got destroyed. Go through the notes to know the complete story of the Harappa.
The story of Harappa
Harappa was one of the oldest cities in the subcontinent, which archaeologists found 80 years ago. This was the first city to be discovered. All other cities where buildings similar to Harappa were found, were described as Harappan.
What was special about Harappan cities?
These cities were divided into 2 or more parts.
- Citadel: The part to the west which was smaller but higher was called the citadel.
- Lower town: The part to the east was larger but lower was called the lower town.
The walls of baked brick were built around each part. The bricks were so well baked that they have lasted for thousands of years. The bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern and that made the walls strong. In some cities, special buildings were constructed on the citadel. For example, in Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath, was built in this area. Some cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal had elaborate storehouses.
Houses, drains and streets
Most houses had a separate bathing area and some had wells to supply water. Many cities had covered drains. Each drain had a gentle slope so that water could flow through it. Drains in houses were connected to streets and smaller drains which ultimately led into bigger ones. All three i.e; houses, drains and streets were planned and built at the same time.
Life in the city
Harappan city was a very busy place.
- Rulers were the people who planned the construction of special buildings in the city. Rulers sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones, and other things that they wanted.
- Scribes were the people who knew how to write and help in preparing the seals and perhaps write on other materials that have not survived.
- There were men and women, crafts persons who used to make all kinds of things.
- Many terracotta toys have been found in Harappan cities which shows that children must have played with these.
New crafts in the city
- Most of the objects that were made and found in Harappan cities were of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver.
- Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels.
- Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
- The Harappans made seals out of stone which were rectangular in shape and have an animal carved on them.
- The Harappans also made pots with beautiful black designs
- Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro.
- Archaeologists have also found spindle whorls, made of terracotta and faience which were used to spin thread.
- Many of the things that were produced at Harappan were probably the work of specialists.
In search of raw materials
Raw materials are substances that are either found naturally or produced by farmers or herders. Raw materials are processed to produce finished goods. The raw materials that the Harappans used were available locally. Whereas many items such as copper, tin, gold, silver and precious stones were brought from distant places.
- The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and from Oman in West Asia.
- Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, had been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran.
- Gold had been brought from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.
Food for people in the cities
People living in the countryside grew crops and reared animals. The Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard.
- The plough was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds.
- Water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were growing.
- Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo. In the dry summer months large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in search of grass and water.
- People also collected fruits like ber, caught fish and hunted wild animals like the antelope.
A closer look – Harappan towns in Gujarat
The city of Dholavira was located on Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch.
- This city has freshwater and fertile soil.
- Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways.
- There was also a large open area in the settlement, where public ceremonies were held.
- Large letters of the Harappan script were carved out of white stone and inlaid in wood.
The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat.
- The raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available in the city.
- There was also a store house in the city.
- Workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half made beads, tools for bead making, and finished beads have all been found here.
The mystery of the end
Around 3900 years ago we find the beginning of a major change. People stopped living in many of the cities. Writing, seals and weights were no longer used. Raw materials brought from long distances became rare. In Mohenjodaro, we find that garbage piled up on the streets, the drainage system broke down, and new, less impressive houses were built, even over the streets.
Why did all this happen?
We are not sure. Some scholars suggest that the rivers dried up. Others suggest that there was deforestation. In some areas there were floods. But none of these reasons can explain the end of all the cities. It appears as if the rulers lost control. Sites in Sind and west Punjab (present-day Pakistan) were abandoned, while many people moved into newer, smaller settlements to the east and the south.
We hope you have found CBSE Notes Class 6 History Chapter 3 helpful for your exam preparation. Keep learning and stay tuned for more updates on CBSE and NCERT. | <urn:uuid:6bbb9e68-4175-40b5-b08f-1a60a357e665> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://byjus.com/cbse-notes/class-6-social-science-history-chapter-3-in-the-earliest-cities/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00207.warc.gz | en | 0.986724 | 1,367 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.289669... | 2 | CBSE Notes Class 6 History Chapter 3 – In the Earliest Cities, describes the story of the Harappa civilization and Harappan cities. The chapter ends with the mystery of how the Harappa civilization got destroyed. Go through the notes to know the complete story of the Harappa.
The story of Harappa
Harappa was one of the oldest cities in the subcontinent, which archaeologists found 80 years ago. This was the first city to be discovered. All other cities where buildings similar to Harappa were found, were described as Harappan.
What was special about Harappan cities?
These cities were divided into 2 or more parts.
- Citadel: The part to the west which was smaller but higher was called the citadel.
- Lower town: The part to the east was larger but lower was called the lower town.
The walls of baked brick were built around each part. The bricks were so well baked that they have lasted for thousands of years. The bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern and that made the walls strong. In some cities, special buildings were constructed on the citadel. For example, in Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath, was built in this area. Some cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Lothal had elaborate storehouses.
Houses, drains and streets
Most houses had a separate bathing area and some had wells to supply water. Many cities had covered drains. Each drain had a gentle slope so that water could flow through it. Drains in houses were connected to streets and smaller drains which ultimately led into bigger ones. All three i.e; houses, drains and streets were planned and built at the same time.
Life in the city
Harappan city was a very busy place.
- Rulers were the people who planned the construction of special buildings in the city. Rulers sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones, and other things that they wanted.
- Scribes were the people who knew how to write and help in preparing the seals and perhaps write on other materials that have not survived.
- There were men and women, crafts persons who used to make all kinds of things.
- Many terracotta toys have been found in Harappan cities which shows that children must have played with these.
New crafts in the city
- Most of the objects that were made and found in Harappan cities were of stone, shell and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver.
- Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels.
- Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
- The Harappans made seals out of stone which were rectangular in shape and have an animal carved on them.
- The Harappans also made pots with beautiful black designs
- Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro.
- Archaeologists have also found spindle whorls, made of terracotta and faience which were used to spin thread.
- Many of the things that were produced at Harappan were probably the work of specialists.
In search of raw materials
Raw materials are substances that are either found naturally or produced by farmers or herders. Raw materials are processed to produce finished goods. The raw materials that the Harappans used were available locally. Whereas many items such as copper, tin, gold, silver and precious stones were brought from distant places.
- The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and from Oman in West Asia.
- Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, had been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran.
- Gold had been brought from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.
Food for people in the cities
People living in the countryside grew crops and reared animals. The Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard.
- The plough was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds.
- Water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were growing.
- Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo. In the dry summer months large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in search of grass and water.
- People also collected fruits like ber, caught fish and hunted wild animals like the antelope.
A closer look – Harappan towns in Gujarat
The city of Dholavira was located on Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch.
- This city has freshwater and fertile soil.
- Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each part was surrounded with massive stone walls, with entrances through gateways.
- There was also a large open area in the settlement, where public ceremonies were held.
- Large letters of the Harappan script were carved out of white stone and inlaid in wood.
The city of Lothal stood beside a tributary of the Sabarmati, in Gujarat, close to the Gulf of Khambat.
- The raw materials such as semi-precious stones were easily available in the city.
- There was also a store house in the city.
- Workshop for making beads: pieces of stone, half made beads, tools for bead making, and finished beads have all been found here.
The mystery of the end
Around 3900 years ago we find the beginning of a major change. People stopped living in many of the cities. Writing, seals and weights were no longer used. Raw materials brought from long distances became rare. In Mohenjodaro, we find that garbage piled up on the streets, the drainage system broke down, and new, less impressive houses were built, even over the streets.
Why did all this happen?
We are not sure. Some scholars suggest that the rivers dried up. Others suggest that there was deforestation. In some areas there were floods. But none of these reasons can explain the end of all the cities. It appears as if the rulers lost control. Sites in Sind and west Punjab (present-day Pakistan) were abandoned, while many people moved into newer, smaller settlements to the east and the south.
We hope you have found CBSE Notes Class 6 History Chapter 3 helpful for your exam preparation. Keep learning and stay tuned for more updates on CBSE and NCERT. | 1,321 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lessons of Segregation
Gina has a Master’s degree, lives in her own home, and has enjoyed moving up the corporate ladder in a variety of positions. When she was a child, her parents followed conventional wisdom and placed Gina in a residential “crippled children’s” school. She saw her family only once a month, and grew up surrounded by children with orthopedic disabilities, along with therapists, special educators, and doctors. She ultimately became accustomed to this “placement”—to the point that this sheltered, artificial setting seemed the norm, and life in the real world seemed strange. This school had high expectations for students, so Gina received an academic education that enabled her to move on to college.
Outwardly successful, 42-year-old Gina struggles daily with the demons of segregation. Spending her formative years (ages 5-18) in a special, segregated environment caused deep wounds that have never healed, and they’re reopened regularly. When faced with any difficulties at work or with family, Gina automatically believes she’s at fault, incompetent, and unworthy; and she feels she doesn’t belong. Being segregated taught her that she didn’t belong—because of her disability, she wasn’t “good enough.” As an adult, this deeply-rooted emotional pain is almost too much to bear, and has created more difficulties for Gina than her disability. She’s currently in counseling, hoping to exorcise the demons that haunt her daily.
Brad has learned other lessons from segregation. He grew up at home with his family, but he never attended the same schools as his brother and sister. At age three, he was put on the special ed bus for the 45-minute ride to the special ed preschool. In later years, he never knew what grade he was in—a common occurrence when children with disabilities of various ages are grouped in the same special ed ungraded classroom. Click here to continue.
Where are our values, ethics, and morals? How can we look into the face of a person with a disability and tell him he doesn’t belong, and that a characteristic we call a disability is a valid justification for segregation?
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0.6031150817871094... | 2 | Lessons of Segregation
Gina has a Master’s degree, lives in her own home, and has enjoyed moving up the corporate ladder in a variety of positions. When she was a child, her parents followed conventional wisdom and placed Gina in a residential “crippled children’s” school. She saw her family only once a month, and grew up surrounded by children with orthopedic disabilities, along with therapists, special educators, and doctors. She ultimately became accustomed to this “placement”—to the point that this sheltered, artificial setting seemed the norm, and life in the real world seemed strange. This school had high expectations for students, so Gina received an academic education that enabled her to move on to college.
Outwardly successful, 42-year-old Gina struggles daily with the demons of segregation. Spending her formative years (ages 5-18) in a special, segregated environment caused deep wounds that have never healed, and they’re reopened regularly. When faced with any difficulties at work or with family, Gina automatically believes she’s at fault, incompetent, and unworthy; and she feels she doesn’t belong. Being segregated taught her that she didn’t belong—because of her disability, she wasn’t “good enough.” As an adult, this deeply-rooted emotional pain is almost too much to bear, and has created more difficulties for Gina than her disability. She’s currently in counseling, hoping to exorcise the demons that haunt her daily.
Brad has learned other lessons from segregation. He grew up at home with his family, but he never attended the same schools as his brother and sister. At age three, he was put on the special ed bus for the 45-minute ride to the special ed preschool. In later years, he never knew what grade he was in—a common occurrence when children with disabilities of various ages are grouped in the same special ed ungraded classroom. Click here to continue.
Where are our values, ethics, and morals? How can we look into the face of a person with a disability and tell him he doesn’t belong, and that a characteristic we call a disability is a valid justification for segregation?
New Ways of Thinking and Revolutionary Common Sense | 446 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why the penalty shoot-out was introduced and how it has changed the game for good
If you are a fan of the England national team, you would know what a penalty kick is. You may not know how it is taken appropriately, but you will definitely know what it is.
The point is that, everyone who follows football knows what a penalty is because it has been a part of the game since the time we have started watching it, and many, many years before that as well.
But no matter how workaday the humble penalty may appear to us today, it wasn’t always the case. Like many rules and regulations of the sport, the penalty too was ‘added on’ and not a part of the sport from the very beginning.
Why was the rule enforced?
The penalty kick was invented in the year, 1890 by an Irish footballer by the name of William McGann. McGann was a goalkeeper himself, who played for Milford FC in the very first season of the Irish league.
However, it was a member of the Irish Football Association who was pivotal in making the idea of a penalty kick one of the laws of the game. Defenders were finding it easy to stop oncoming attackers from scoring a goal by fouling them close to the goal – the 12-yard area which we now know as the penalty box. The proposition to make the penalty kick a law was to prevent this very dirty trick used by defenders. The proposition was accepted, and it became a part of the rules as Rule number 13. in 1891. The law read:
“If any player shall intentionally trip or hold an opposing player, or deliberately handle the ball within twelve yards from his own goal line, the referee shall, on appeal, award the opposing side a penalty kick, to be taken from any point 12 yards from the goal line, under the following conditions: All players, with the exception of the player taking the penalty kick and the goalkeeper, shall stand behind the ball and at least six yards from it; the ball shall be in play when the kick is taken. A goal may be scored from a penalty kick.”
How the rule has evolved over the years
When the penalty rule was just introduced, the kick could be taken from anywhere along a line, parallel to the goal and 12 yards away from it. It was only in 1902 when the penalty spot was introduced and it is still used today. In 1937, the D-line was introduced which forced the players other than the spot kick taker to stand behind the D. Up until then, players could stand anywhere they liked on the penalty line which often made it confusing and harder for the goalkeeper to concentrate.
Another important altercation which was made to the rule was that of the goalkeeper not allowing moving off his line. This was not always the case, and was changed thanks to a certain Willie Foulkes.
Foulkes used to play for Sheffield United before his transfer to Chelsea in 1905. He had already won a reputation as a brilliant shot stopper when it came to the spot kick. But what was interesting was the way he used to save penalties.
Foulkes was an imposing figure at 6 feet 3 inches, and weighing around 330 pounds. He absolutely hated it when a penalty was rewarded against his team. To stop the kick taker from scoring, he would often charge down his line to intimidate him. Apparently, this ploy of his was mightily successful which is why the authorities introduced the rule for goalies wherein it was mandatory for them to remain on their line.
Foulkes was also responsible for the development of a widely used footballing jargon. After Chelsea, Foulkes moved on to Bradford City. While playing Accrington Stanley, Foulkes damaged his jersey and could not find a suitable sized replacement. A sheet was obtained from a nearby house which he wrapped around himself. Foulkes then went on for the whole match without diving and still winning the match 1-0, and hence the phrase, “to keep a clean sheet” was born.
Origin of penalty shoot-outs
Whenever we see a tied game in football these days in a match which needs a definite winner, we see the match advance to extra time. However, we hope to see it advance all the way to a penalty shoot-out (unless the team you support is terrible at it) because it is so thrilling to witness.
In the past, tied games used to be decided by either a coin toss or a replay. But coin tosses are unfair as it is attributed solely to luck, and replays take more time, are physically more taxing on players and also costs more to the organizers. A penalty shoot-out therefore is a great way to combat these difficulties while obtaining a fair result too.
The idea of the modern day shootout is credited to Israeli, Yosef Dagan who gave the proposition after seeing his national team crash out of the 1968 Olympic quarter finals due to drawing of lots. The Israeli FA, with backing by the Malaysian FA’s referee committee led the move for its adoption by FIFA. After some discussions, the International Football Association Board (IFAB) although “not entirely satisfied”, adopted the proposal on 27 June, 1970.
Development of penalty shootouts
In England the first ever penalty shoot-out was won by who other but Manchester United? It was against Hull City during the semi-final clash of the Watney Cup in 1970. The first player to take a kick was George Best, and the first to miss was Denis Law. Ian McKechnie, who saved Law's kick, was also the first goalkeeper to take a spot kick.
The first ever European Cup shoot-out was between Everton F.C. and Borussia Monchengladbach, with Everton winning 4–3.
As for major international tournaments, the first shoot-out was in the 1976 European Championship final between West German and Czechoslovakia. UEFA had made the provision of a replay two days later, but both the teams decided to opt for a shoot-out instead, which resulted in a 5-3 win for Czechoslovakia.
The first penalty shoot-out in the World Cup was on 9 January 1977, in the first round of African qualifying, when Tunisia beat Morocco. The first shoot-out in the finals tournament was in 1982, when West Germany beat France in the semi-final. If the 1982 final had been drawn, penalties would not have applied unless the replay was also drawn; from 1986, penalties were scheduled after the final as for the earlier knockout rounds.
Do penalty-shootouts favour the attacker?
The purists of the game however, were not happy with the introduction of this revolutionizing idea of a shoot-out. Football according to them was a free flowing game which is quickly resumed if there is a foul or the ball goes out of play. A penalty easily takes a minute or so out of the game on an average – something the purists could not tolerate.
As for shoot-outs, surely there should be a better way to decide games? By 1994, the shoot-out decided the World Cup finals itself, and by 1998, 3 more teams were knocked out courtesy this new rule. But if there has ever been an alternative to it, FIFA has been unable to find it, and we still carry on with the shoot-outs.
Penalties are also looked upon as largely favouring the player attempting to score rather than the goalie. A scorer is likely to score 76% of the times on an average. Even ice hockey which has the most similar penalty taking style as football has an average scoring chance of a meagre 40%. That’s why it’s more than fair to say that this rule has skewed the game slightly in favour of the attacker. The changing definitions of what is a foul and what is not makes life even harder for defenders. While a double studded challenge was regulation a few decades ago, the same results in an immediate red card more often than not in today’s times.
Having said all this though, the penalty has still been a welcome addition to the sport and has taken many malpractices on the field out of the picture. There are criticisms and controversies, but then that is the case with almost every rule in every sport.
Penalties and penalty shoot-outs have become such an integral part of the game these days that it is close to impossible to imagine it without them. It brings more balance and fairness to the game by eliminating certain ambiguities that were prevalent in the past. Not to mention the drama and the adrenaline rush it adds too.
Imagine how different the Italy vs. France 2006 World Cup finals would have been if not for the penalty shoot-outs. Or the Manchester United vs. Chelsea thriller in the European Cup finals of 2008 which is still talked about so much(Video below). Or even the iconic Ivory Coast vs. Ghana (probably also because of Gervinho’s expressions or lack thereof) penalty shoot-out in the AFCON this year which went down to the very end.
Think of the thousands of penalty decisions during the 90 minutes of a game too. So many matches and tournaments could have had different results had this rule not been in place. The game is much richer thanks to this rule, and let’s not forget the chance it gives us to scream in anticipation or revolt when a player goes down in the box.
Published 29 Mar 2015, 12:38 IST | <urn:uuid:2279d98f-73c5-4b78-99cd-93d1aa446b29> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/the-history-of-penalties-and-penalty-shoot-outs | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00188.warc.gz | en | 0.98508 | 1,947 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.163911417126... | 1 | Why the penalty shoot-out was introduced and how it has changed the game for good
If you are a fan of the England national team, you would know what a penalty kick is. You may not know how it is taken appropriately, but you will definitely know what it is.
The point is that, everyone who follows football knows what a penalty is because it has been a part of the game since the time we have started watching it, and many, many years before that as well.
But no matter how workaday the humble penalty may appear to us today, it wasn’t always the case. Like many rules and regulations of the sport, the penalty too was ‘added on’ and not a part of the sport from the very beginning.
Why was the rule enforced?
The penalty kick was invented in the year, 1890 by an Irish footballer by the name of William McGann. McGann was a goalkeeper himself, who played for Milford FC in the very first season of the Irish league.
However, it was a member of the Irish Football Association who was pivotal in making the idea of a penalty kick one of the laws of the game. Defenders were finding it easy to stop oncoming attackers from scoring a goal by fouling them close to the goal – the 12-yard area which we now know as the penalty box. The proposition to make the penalty kick a law was to prevent this very dirty trick used by defenders. The proposition was accepted, and it became a part of the rules as Rule number 13. in 1891. The law read:
“If any player shall intentionally trip or hold an opposing player, or deliberately handle the ball within twelve yards from his own goal line, the referee shall, on appeal, award the opposing side a penalty kick, to be taken from any point 12 yards from the goal line, under the following conditions: All players, with the exception of the player taking the penalty kick and the goalkeeper, shall stand behind the ball and at least six yards from it; the ball shall be in play when the kick is taken. A goal may be scored from a penalty kick.”
How the rule has evolved over the years
When the penalty rule was just introduced, the kick could be taken from anywhere along a line, parallel to the goal and 12 yards away from it. It was only in 1902 when the penalty spot was introduced and it is still used today. In 1937, the D-line was introduced which forced the players other than the spot kick taker to stand behind the D. Up until then, players could stand anywhere they liked on the penalty line which often made it confusing and harder for the goalkeeper to concentrate.
Another important altercation which was made to the rule was that of the goalkeeper not allowing moving off his line. This was not always the case, and was changed thanks to a certain Willie Foulkes.
Foulkes used to play for Sheffield United before his transfer to Chelsea in 1905. He had already won a reputation as a brilliant shot stopper when it came to the spot kick. But what was interesting was the way he used to save penalties.
Foulkes was an imposing figure at 6 feet 3 inches, and weighing around 330 pounds. He absolutely hated it when a penalty was rewarded against his team. To stop the kick taker from scoring, he would often charge down his line to intimidate him. Apparently, this ploy of his was mightily successful which is why the authorities introduced the rule for goalies wherein it was mandatory for them to remain on their line.
Foulkes was also responsible for the development of a widely used footballing jargon. After Chelsea, Foulkes moved on to Bradford City. While playing Accrington Stanley, Foulkes damaged his jersey and could not find a suitable sized replacement. A sheet was obtained from a nearby house which he wrapped around himself. Foulkes then went on for the whole match without diving and still winning the match 1-0, and hence the phrase, “to keep a clean sheet” was born.
Origin of penalty shoot-outs
Whenever we see a tied game in football these days in a match which needs a definite winner, we see the match advance to extra time. However, we hope to see it advance all the way to a penalty shoot-out (unless the team you support is terrible at it) because it is so thrilling to witness.
In the past, tied games used to be decided by either a coin toss or a replay. But coin tosses are unfair as it is attributed solely to luck, and replays take more time, are physically more taxing on players and also costs more to the organizers. A penalty shoot-out therefore is a great way to combat these difficulties while obtaining a fair result too.
The idea of the modern day shootout is credited to Israeli, Yosef Dagan who gave the proposition after seeing his national team crash out of the 1968 Olympic quarter finals due to drawing of lots. The Israeli FA, with backing by the Malaysian FA’s referee committee led the move for its adoption by FIFA. After some discussions, the International Football Association Board (IFAB) although “not entirely satisfied”, adopted the proposal on 27 June, 1970.
Development of penalty shootouts
In England the first ever penalty shoot-out was won by who other but Manchester United? It was against Hull City during the semi-final clash of the Watney Cup in 1970. The first player to take a kick was George Best, and the first to miss was Denis Law. Ian McKechnie, who saved Law's kick, was also the first goalkeeper to take a spot kick.
The first ever European Cup shoot-out was between Everton F.C. and Borussia Monchengladbach, with Everton winning 4–3.
As for major international tournaments, the first shoot-out was in the 1976 European Championship final between West German and Czechoslovakia. UEFA had made the provision of a replay two days later, but both the teams decided to opt for a shoot-out instead, which resulted in a 5-3 win for Czechoslovakia.
The first penalty shoot-out in the World Cup was on 9 January 1977, in the first round of African qualifying, when Tunisia beat Morocco. The first shoot-out in the finals tournament was in 1982, when West Germany beat France in the semi-final. If the 1982 final had been drawn, penalties would not have applied unless the replay was also drawn; from 1986, penalties were scheduled after the final as for the earlier knockout rounds.
Do penalty-shootouts favour the attacker?
The purists of the game however, were not happy with the introduction of this revolutionizing idea of a shoot-out. Football according to them was a free flowing game which is quickly resumed if there is a foul or the ball goes out of play. A penalty easily takes a minute or so out of the game on an average – something the purists could not tolerate.
As for shoot-outs, surely there should be a better way to decide games? By 1994, the shoot-out decided the World Cup finals itself, and by 1998, 3 more teams were knocked out courtesy this new rule. But if there has ever been an alternative to it, FIFA has been unable to find it, and we still carry on with the shoot-outs.
Penalties are also looked upon as largely favouring the player attempting to score rather than the goalie. A scorer is likely to score 76% of the times on an average. Even ice hockey which has the most similar penalty taking style as football has an average scoring chance of a meagre 40%. That’s why it’s more than fair to say that this rule has skewed the game slightly in favour of the attacker. The changing definitions of what is a foul and what is not makes life even harder for defenders. While a double studded challenge was regulation a few decades ago, the same results in an immediate red card more often than not in today’s times.
Having said all this though, the penalty has still been a welcome addition to the sport and has taken many malpractices on the field out of the picture. There are criticisms and controversies, but then that is the case with almost every rule in every sport.
Penalties and penalty shoot-outs have become such an integral part of the game these days that it is close to impossible to imagine it without them. It brings more balance and fairness to the game by eliminating certain ambiguities that were prevalent in the past. Not to mention the drama and the adrenaline rush it adds too.
Imagine how different the Italy vs. France 2006 World Cup finals would have been if not for the penalty shoot-outs. Or the Manchester United vs. Chelsea thriller in the European Cup finals of 2008 which is still talked about so much(Video below). Or even the iconic Ivory Coast vs. Ghana (probably also because of Gervinho’s expressions or lack thereof) penalty shoot-out in the AFCON this year which went down to the very end.
Think of the thousands of penalty decisions during the 90 minutes of a game too. So many matches and tournaments could have had different results had this rule not been in place. The game is much richer thanks to this rule, and let’s not forget the chance it gives us to scream in anticipation or revolt when a player goes down in the box.
Published 29 Mar 2015, 12:38 IST | 1,981 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day 800 years ago, King John was compelled to sign the Magna Charta, formally accepting a limit to his prerogative to ravage everything in England. But the ink on his signature was barely dry before he brought in foreign forces and tried to wipe out the barons who had compelled him to sign the Charta.
The English almost lost their newly-recognized rights within months of the signing because they were not sufficiently suspicious of the King.
As David Hume noted in his magisterial History of England,
The ravenous and barbarous mercenaries, incited by a cruel and enraged prince, were let loose against the estates, tenants, manors, houses, parks of the barons, and spread devastation over the face of the kingdom.
Nothing was to be seen but the flames of villages and castles reduced to ashes, the consternation and misery of the inhabitants, tortures exercised by the soldiery to make them reveal their concealed treasures.
Few people recall that Pope Innocent speedily sought to annul the charter and formally absolved King John of any obligation to obey Magna Charta. English liberties received a boost from the death of King John less than a year after Runnymede.
The real lesson of Magna Charta is that solemn pledges do not make tyrants trustworthy. Similarly, American presidents are required to pledge upon taking office that “I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully… preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.”
At this point, that oath does little more than spur cheers from high school civics teachers. It has been more than 40 years since any president paid a serious price for trampling the law — and presidents have a prerogative to trample constitutional rights as long as they periodically proclaim their devotion to democracy.
In the final realm, Magna Charta was simply a political promise — and it would only be honored insofar as private courage, resolution, and weaponry compelled sovereigns to limit their abuses.
For an excellent analysis of why the heritage of Magna Charta did not prove a panacea in this nation, see Anthony Gregory’s The Power of Habeas Corpus in America.
Here’s David Hume’s account of what happened after Magna Charta was signed, copied from the excellent Liberty Fund online version of Hume’s history:
John seemed to submit passively to all these regulations, however injurious to majesty: He sent writs to all the sheriffs, ordering them to constrain every one to swear obedience to the twenty-five barons. He dismissed all his foreign forces: He pretended, that his government was thenceforth to run in a new tenor, and be more indulgent to the liberty and independance of his people.
But he only dissembled, till he should find a favourable opportunity for annulling all his concessions. The injuries and indignities, which he had formerly suffered from the pope and the king of France, as they came from equals or superiors, seemed to make but small impression on him: But the sense of this perpetual and total subjection under his own rebellious vassals, sunk deep in his mind, and he was determined, at all hazards, to throw off so ignominious a slavery.
He grew sullen, silent, and reserved: He shunned the society of his courtiers and nobles: He retired into the Isle of Wight, as if desirous of hiding his shame and confusion; but in this retreat he meditated the most fatal vengeance against all his enemies.
He secretly sent abroad his emissaries to inlist foreign soldiers, and to invite the rapacious Brabançons into his service, by the prospect of sharing the spoils of England, and reaping the forfeitures of so many opulent barons, who had incurred the guilt of rebellion, by rising in arms against him. And he dispatched a messenger to Rome, in order to lay before the pope the Great Charter, which he had been compelled to sign, and to complain, before that tribunal, of the violence, which had been imposed upon him.
Innocent, considering himself as feudal lord of the kingdom, was incensed at the temerity of the barons, who, though they pretended to appeal to his authority, had dared, without waiting for his consent, to impose such terms on a prince, who, by resigning to the Roman pontiff his crown and independance, had placed himself immediately under the papal protection.
He issued, therefore, a bull, in which, from the plenitude of his apostolic power, and from the authority, which God had committed to him, to build and destroy kingdoms, to plant and overthrow, he annulled and abrogated the whole charter, as unjust in itself, as obtained by compulsion, and as derogatory to the dignity of the apostolic see.
He prohibited the barons from exacting the observance of it: He even prohibited the king himself from paying any regard to it: He absolved him and his subjects from all oaths, which they had been constrained to take to that purpose: And he pronounced a general sentence of excommunication against every one, who should persevere in maintaining such treasonable and iniquitous pretensions.
The king, as his foreign forces arrived along with this bull, now ventured to take off the mask; and, under sanction of the pope’s decree, recalled all the liberties which he had granted to his subjects, and which he had solemnly sworn to observe. But the spiritual weapon was found upon trial to carry less force with it, than he had reason from his own experience to apprehend.
The primate refused to obey the pope in publishing the sentence of excommunication against the barons; and though he was cited to Rome, that he might attend a general council, there assembled, and was suspended, on account of his disobedience to the pope, and his secret correspondence with the king’s enemies.
Though a new and particular sentence of excommunication was pronounced by name against the principal barons; John still found, that his nobility and people, and even his clergy, adhered to the defence of their liberties, and to their combination against him: The sword of his foreign mercenaries was all he had to trust to for restoring his authority.
The barons, after obtaining the Great Charter, seem to have been lulled into a fatal security, and to have taken no rational measures, in case of the introduction of a foreign force, for reassembling their armies. The king was from the first master of the field; and immediately laid siege to the castle of Rochester, which was obstinately defended by William de Albiney, at the head of a hundred and forty knights with their retainers, but was at last reduced by famine.
… The ravenous and barbarous mercenaries, incited by a cruel and enraged prince, were let loose against the estates, tenants, manors, houses, parks of the barons, and spread devastation over the face of the kingdom. Nothing was to be seen but the flames of villages and castles reduced to ashes, the consternation and misery of the inhabitants, tortures exercised by the soldiery to make them reveal their concealed treasures, and reprizals no less barbarous, committed by the barons and their partizans on the royal demesnes, and on the estates of such as still adhered to the crown.
Read the rest of Hume’s account here. | <urn:uuid:5554d6c6-a790-4c3e-ab1a-3129a16dba98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fee.org/articles/king-john-tried-to-butcher-the-authors-of-magna-carta/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.983923 | 1,550 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.0915706157684... | 6 | On this day 800 years ago, King John was compelled to sign the Magna Charta, formally accepting a limit to his prerogative to ravage everything in England. But the ink on his signature was barely dry before he brought in foreign forces and tried to wipe out the barons who had compelled him to sign the Charta.
The English almost lost their newly-recognized rights within months of the signing because they were not sufficiently suspicious of the King.
As David Hume noted in his magisterial History of England,
The ravenous and barbarous mercenaries, incited by a cruel and enraged prince, were let loose against the estates, tenants, manors, houses, parks of the barons, and spread devastation over the face of the kingdom.
Nothing was to be seen but the flames of villages and castles reduced to ashes, the consternation and misery of the inhabitants, tortures exercised by the soldiery to make them reveal their concealed treasures.
Few people recall that Pope Innocent speedily sought to annul the charter and formally absolved King John of any obligation to obey Magna Charta. English liberties received a boost from the death of King John less than a year after Runnymede.
The real lesson of Magna Charta is that solemn pledges do not make tyrants trustworthy. Similarly, American presidents are required to pledge upon taking office that “I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully… preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.”
At this point, that oath does little more than spur cheers from high school civics teachers. It has been more than 40 years since any president paid a serious price for trampling the law — and presidents have a prerogative to trample constitutional rights as long as they periodically proclaim their devotion to democracy.
In the final realm, Magna Charta was simply a political promise — and it would only be honored insofar as private courage, resolution, and weaponry compelled sovereigns to limit their abuses.
For an excellent analysis of why the heritage of Magna Charta did not prove a panacea in this nation, see Anthony Gregory’s The Power of Habeas Corpus in America.
Here’s David Hume’s account of what happened after Magna Charta was signed, copied from the excellent Liberty Fund online version of Hume’s history:
John seemed to submit passively to all these regulations, however injurious to majesty: He sent writs to all the sheriffs, ordering them to constrain every one to swear obedience to the twenty-five barons. He dismissed all his foreign forces: He pretended, that his government was thenceforth to run in a new tenor, and be more indulgent to the liberty and independance of his people.
But he only dissembled, till he should find a favourable opportunity for annulling all his concessions. The injuries and indignities, which he had formerly suffered from the pope and the king of France, as they came from equals or superiors, seemed to make but small impression on him: But the sense of this perpetual and total subjection under his own rebellious vassals, sunk deep in his mind, and he was determined, at all hazards, to throw off so ignominious a slavery.
He grew sullen, silent, and reserved: He shunned the society of his courtiers and nobles: He retired into the Isle of Wight, as if desirous of hiding his shame and confusion; but in this retreat he meditated the most fatal vengeance against all his enemies.
He secretly sent abroad his emissaries to inlist foreign soldiers, and to invite the rapacious Brabançons into his service, by the prospect of sharing the spoils of England, and reaping the forfeitures of so many opulent barons, who had incurred the guilt of rebellion, by rising in arms against him. And he dispatched a messenger to Rome, in order to lay before the pope the Great Charter, which he had been compelled to sign, and to complain, before that tribunal, of the violence, which had been imposed upon him.
Innocent, considering himself as feudal lord of the kingdom, was incensed at the temerity of the barons, who, though they pretended to appeal to his authority, had dared, without waiting for his consent, to impose such terms on a prince, who, by resigning to the Roman pontiff his crown and independance, had placed himself immediately under the papal protection.
He issued, therefore, a bull, in which, from the plenitude of his apostolic power, and from the authority, which God had committed to him, to build and destroy kingdoms, to plant and overthrow, he annulled and abrogated the whole charter, as unjust in itself, as obtained by compulsion, and as derogatory to the dignity of the apostolic see.
He prohibited the barons from exacting the observance of it: He even prohibited the king himself from paying any regard to it: He absolved him and his subjects from all oaths, which they had been constrained to take to that purpose: And he pronounced a general sentence of excommunication against every one, who should persevere in maintaining such treasonable and iniquitous pretensions.
The king, as his foreign forces arrived along with this bull, now ventured to take off the mask; and, under sanction of the pope’s decree, recalled all the liberties which he had granted to his subjects, and which he had solemnly sworn to observe. But the spiritual weapon was found upon trial to carry less force with it, than he had reason from his own experience to apprehend.
The primate refused to obey the pope in publishing the sentence of excommunication against the barons; and though he was cited to Rome, that he might attend a general council, there assembled, and was suspended, on account of his disobedience to the pope, and his secret correspondence with the king’s enemies.
Though a new and particular sentence of excommunication was pronounced by name against the principal barons; John still found, that his nobility and people, and even his clergy, adhered to the defence of their liberties, and to their combination against him: The sword of his foreign mercenaries was all he had to trust to for restoring his authority.
The barons, after obtaining the Great Charter, seem to have been lulled into a fatal security, and to have taken no rational measures, in case of the introduction of a foreign force, for reassembling their armies. The king was from the first master of the field; and immediately laid siege to the castle of Rochester, which was obstinately defended by William de Albiney, at the head of a hundred and forty knights with their retainers, but was at last reduced by famine.
… The ravenous and barbarous mercenaries, incited by a cruel and enraged prince, were let loose against the estates, tenants, manors, houses, parks of the barons, and spread devastation over the face of the kingdom. Nothing was to be seen but the flames of villages and castles reduced to ashes, the consternation and misery of the inhabitants, tortures exercised by the soldiery to make them reveal their concealed treasures, and reprizals no less barbarous, committed by the barons and their partizans on the royal demesnes, and on the estates of such as still adhered to the crown.
Read the rest of Hume’s account here. | 1,530 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Regardless of how it may sound today, slavery as stated in the Texas declaration was thought to beneficial to Africans on American soil. Slaveholders usually grew up with slaves in their household and recognized them as members of an extended family. Contrary to the fanciful image provided by "Uncle Tom's Cabin", the number of slaves in a majority of households remained small, usually five to seven. Their relationship was more personal rather than business in nature.
After the war, Confederate veterans remembered working in the fields alongside slaves, each man doing the same kind of work. During the war, Confederate soldiers writing home often conveyed personal greetings to slaves at home, speaking of each one by name.
You may not have intended to suggest antebellum Southern hostility towards African slaves, but words to that effect apeared in your post. The racial conflict which Abraham Lincoln predicted following emancipation did arise in almost every state in which former slaves lived. However, in Southern states hostility arose as a result of the struggle to control local government. Former slaves were viewed as proxies for the Yankees, who left the South following Reconstruction. Hostility to and violence against former slaves in other parts of the United States were primarily caused by competition for labor and perceived racial differences. | <urn:uuid:2ba38a84-d08b-4b43-98b6-875ef0fa7783> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.history-sites.com/cgi-bin/bbs62x/nvcwmb/webbbs_config.pl?md=read;id=62955 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.983589 | 248 | 4.5625 | 5 | [
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0.20886638760566711... | 3 | Regardless of how it may sound today, slavery as stated in the Texas declaration was thought to beneficial to Africans on American soil. Slaveholders usually grew up with slaves in their household and recognized them as members of an extended family. Contrary to the fanciful image provided by "Uncle Tom's Cabin", the number of slaves in a majority of households remained small, usually five to seven. Their relationship was more personal rather than business in nature.
After the war, Confederate veterans remembered working in the fields alongside slaves, each man doing the same kind of work. During the war, Confederate soldiers writing home often conveyed personal greetings to slaves at home, speaking of each one by name.
You may not have intended to suggest antebellum Southern hostility towards African slaves, but words to that effect apeared in your post. The racial conflict which Abraham Lincoln predicted following emancipation did arise in almost every state in which former slaves lived. However, in Southern states hostility arose as a result of the struggle to control local government. Former slaves were viewed as proxies for the Yankees, who left the South following Reconstruction. Hostility to and violence against former slaves in other parts of the United States were primarily caused by competition for labor and perceived racial differences. | 248 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Struggling Planter in a Young Nation (1804-1812):
Debt, bankruptcy, failure! All of these words likely entered Andrew Jackson's mind in 1804. Because of trade restrictions resulting from a war between Britain and France, the economy of the United States dried up. For Westerners like Jackson, the restrictions meant higher prices, less cash, and more debt, Jackson had gone into debt buying land that he hoped to sell later for profit, but because of the poor economy, people were afraid to buy. Jackson's debts forced him to sell his valuable riverfront farm and buy the largely undeveloped Hermitage.
He used his profits to pay his debts and immediately began shaping The Hermitage into a productive cotton farm. In addition, Jackson and his business partners founded a general store, tavern, boatyard, and horse breeding and racing operations at nearby Clover Bottom in 1805. After two years, Clover Bottom proved unprofitable so Jackson sold his interests and focused his moneymaking efforts on agricultural production at The Hermitage.
While Jackson struggled with debts, his political and social standing also fell. Jackson had enjoyed success as a politician, and served as Tennessee's Congressman, Senator, and Major General of the Tennessee Militia. In 1804, Jackson's friends suggested that President Jefferson make him governor of the Louisiana Territory, but Jefferson passed over his nomination. Two years later, Jackson unwittingly entangled himself in Aaron Burr's political intrigues. At the same time, Jackson's sense of honor led him to a series of disputes that included street fights and challenges to duels. He settled nearly all of these peacefully, except one. In May 1806, Jackson killed Charles Dickinson in a duel over a horse race, while he himself took a bullet in the chest but survived. For many in Tennessee, Jackson's star was falling and he had earned a reputation as hot tempered. Jackson spent his first years at The Hermitage retreating from public life, not only escaping debt but also rebuilding his name.
In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson purchased Louisiana from France, doubling the territory of the United States. Jackson saw Louisiana as a great opportunity for him to solve his money woes by becoming governor. In the summer of 1804, Jackson learned that Jefferson had picked another man. Out of choices and needing cash, he started selling property including his farm.
Jackson and his business partners sold a wide variety of goods at the Clover Bottom store. They imported most merchandise from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New Orleans providing customers with current fashions and products.
Andrew Jackson knew Charles Dickerson was a better marksman, so he decided to allow Dickinson to shoot first and if he lived, he could take deliberate aim at him. Dickinson wounded Jackson in the chest, but he stayed on his feet and fatally shot his foe. The whole affair shocked Nashville as many thought the disagreement between the two men petty and both should have risen above it. Ultimately, it earned Jackson a reputation as a violent man. When he ran for president, his opponents used it against him in prints and broadsides.
Aaron Burr served as Vice-President of the U.S. under Jefferson, but in 1804, he killed rival Alexander Hamilton in a duel. He tried to recoup his position by traveling west. His precise intentions were unclear but President Jefferson became convinced he was attempting to form a new country in Texas or the Louisiana Purchase. Andrew Jackson became involved with Burr by selling him boats and entertaining him at The Hermitage. Although acquitted after being arrested and tried for treason, Burr was disgraced and association with Burr did not help Jackson's reputation.
Jackson found another means of making money by building a cotton gin and press and ginning his neighbors' cotton for a fee. | <urn:uuid:4a68cf4c-7674-4bd5-8578-a176a3ce6c56> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bguthriephotos.com/graphlib.nsf/popIdentShow?OpenForm&FileName=HERMIT_070124_384.JPG&FileLink=/Graphlib/GraphData7.nsf/Images/2007_TN_Hermitage_0640/$File/HERMIT_070124_384.JPG | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.984188 | 766 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.18621811... | 2 | A Struggling Planter in a Young Nation (1804-1812):
Debt, bankruptcy, failure! All of these words likely entered Andrew Jackson's mind in 1804. Because of trade restrictions resulting from a war between Britain and France, the economy of the United States dried up. For Westerners like Jackson, the restrictions meant higher prices, less cash, and more debt, Jackson had gone into debt buying land that he hoped to sell later for profit, but because of the poor economy, people were afraid to buy. Jackson's debts forced him to sell his valuable riverfront farm and buy the largely undeveloped Hermitage.
He used his profits to pay his debts and immediately began shaping The Hermitage into a productive cotton farm. In addition, Jackson and his business partners founded a general store, tavern, boatyard, and horse breeding and racing operations at nearby Clover Bottom in 1805. After two years, Clover Bottom proved unprofitable so Jackson sold his interests and focused his moneymaking efforts on agricultural production at The Hermitage.
While Jackson struggled with debts, his political and social standing also fell. Jackson had enjoyed success as a politician, and served as Tennessee's Congressman, Senator, and Major General of the Tennessee Militia. In 1804, Jackson's friends suggested that President Jefferson make him governor of the Louisiana Territory, but Jefferson passed over his nomination. Two years later, Jackson unwittingly entangled himself in Aaron Burr's political intrigues. At the same time, Jackson's sense of honor led him to a series of disputes that included street fights and challenges to duels. He settled nearly all of these peacefully, except one. In May 1806, Jackson killed Charles Dickinson in a duel over a horse race, while he himself took a bullet in the chest but survived. For many in Tennessee, Jackson's star was falling and he had earned a reputation as hot tempered. Jackson spent his first years at The Hermitage retreating from public life, not only escaping debt but also rebuilding his name.
In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson purchased Louisiana from France, doubling the territory of the United States. Jackson saw Louisiana as a great opportunity for him to solve his money woes by becoming governor. In the summer of 1804, Jackson learned that Jefferson had picked another man. Out of choices and needing cash, he started selling property including his farm.
Jackson and his business partners sold a wide variety of goods at the Clover Bottom store. They imported most merchandise from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New Orleans providing customers with current fashions and products.
Andrew Jackson knew Charles Dickerson was a better marksman, so he decided to allow Dickinson to shoot first and if he lived, he could take deliberate aim at him. Dickinson wounded Jackson in the chest, but he stayed on his feet and fatally shot his foe. The whole affair shocked Nashville as many thought the disagreement between the two men petty and both should have risen above it. Ultimately, it earned Jackson a reputation as a violent man. When he ran for president, his opponents used it against him in prints and broadsides.
Aaron Burr served as Vice-President of the U.S. under Jefferson, but in 1804, he killed rival Alexander Hamilton in a duel. He tried to recoup his position by traveling west. His precise intentions were unclear but President Jefferson became convinced he was attempting to form a new country in Texas or the Louisiana Purchase. Andrew Jackson became involved with Burr by selling him boats and entertaining him at The Hermitage. Although acquitted after being arrested and tried for treason, Burr was disgraced and association with Burr did not help Jackson's reputation.
Jackson found another means of making money by building a cotton gin and press and ginning his neighbors' cotton for a fee. | 786 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1.Christopher Columbus was the one who let the Spanish exploration and also with the help of Juan Ponce de Leon. Juan Ponce de Leon invaded many places and those places are what would now become south, central, and North America. In order to get supplies the columbian exchanged was formed.If other country’s needed supplies, then they would get it from other places such as animals and plants. That is also how diseases spread and caused may people to be sick in the process. Many people were interested in new experiences that they were so eager to push beyond Europe. The Europeans longed for the luxuries of the Far East for their silks, pepper. And spices. Many buildings were made in Spain’s New World they had over 70,000 buildings.One of which was the Pyramid temple. Many people wanted to find gold in the New world. They had captured Montezuma and used him to get Aztec gold and silver and also where it is being mined. They would have slaves mine the gold and silver for them. New world later on got affected by the settlers and their interactions that it caused a lot of violence. Which later on made massive declines in indigenous populations. 2.Christoper Columbus was the one who started the columbine exchange in the Americas in 1492. What the Columbine exchange, was it was the trading of goods between the Old World and the Ne World. The old world would give the new world Wheat, sugar, rice and coffee for agriculture use. As for livestock they would give horses, cows, and pigs. The long-term consequences were it caused diseases to spread which the Natives had never been exposed to.Such as smallpox,measles, and typhus. The ways that the Europeans and Native Americans are similar in Colonial North America is that they both grew crops and cultivate the lands. However they were a little different as the Native Americans were more of a powerful empire and that they were hunters and gatherer bands. While the Europeans were more of a mixture of equivalent kingdoms such as duchies, and republics who were struggling to reach out to the rest of the world. 4.How the warfare between Europeans and Native Americans differ was that Native Americans was based on their infantry. They used weapons such as bows, arrows, and spears. While on the other hand the Europeans would have much stronger firearms and horses. Europe and Native American were friendly at first then they started to get into some conflict. After that the Europeans would continue to move onto the Native American land and would cheat them in trade. 5. How war is fought is now we have hi-technology such as bombs, missiles that can do massive damages to other country’s. We also have special vehicles and guns that are very harmful and dangerous. Wars are fought to sometimes gain land or as a scare tactic. It is not the same in the way the Europeans and the Native Americans conducts wars. They didn’t have all these hi-technology as we do and had to do everything by hand. They were very brave when it came to war, even though they didn’t have high tech weapons like we do now. Back then they used old guns now those guns have been far more improved since that time. | <urn:uuid:70c0ddfe-853a-44b6-90fb-ac2569df0e18> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://michiganboergoat.org/1-christopher-the-natives-had-never-been-exposed-to-such-as/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00229.warc.gz | en | 0.991682 | 664 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.16356258094310... | 2 | 1.Christopher Columbus was the one who let the Spanish exploration and also with the help of Juan Ponce de Leon. Juan Ponce de Leon invaded many places and those places are what would now become south, central, and North America. In order to get supplies the columbian exchanged was formed.If other country’s needed supplies, then they would get it from other places such as animals and plants. That is also how diseases spread and caused may people to be sick in the process. Many people were interested in new experiences that they were so eager to push beyond Europe. The Europeans longed for the luxuries of the Far East for their silks, pepper. And spices. Many buildings were made in Spain’s New World they had over 70,000 buildings.One of which was the Pyramid temple. Many people wanted to find gold in the New world. They had captured Montezuma and used him to get Aztec gold and silver and also where it is being mined. They would have slaves mine the gold and silver for them. New world later on got affected by the settlers and their interactions that it caused a lot of violence. Which later on made massive declines in indigenous populations. 2.Christoper Columbus was the one who started the columbine exchange in the Americas in 1492. What the Columbine exchange, was it was the trading of goods between the Old World and the Ne World. The old world would give the new world Wheat, sugar, rice and coffee for agriculture use. As for livestock they would give horses, cows, and pigs. The long-term consequences were it caused diseases to spread which the Natives had never been exposed to.Such as smallpox,measles, and typhus. The ways that the Europeans and Native Americans are similar in Colonial North America is that they both grew crops and cultivate the lands. However they were a little different as the Native Americans were more of a powerful empire and that they were hunters and gatherer bands. While the Europeans were more of a mixture of equivalent kingdoms such as duchies, and republics who were struggling to reach out to the rest of the world. 4.How the warfare between Europeans and Native Americans differ was that Native Americans was based on their infantry. They used weapons such as bows, arrows, and spears. While on the other hand the Europeans would have much stronger firearms and horses. Europe and Native American were friendly at first then they started to get into some conflict. After that the Europeans would continue to move onto the Native American land and would cheat them in trade. 5. How war is fought is now we have hi-technology such as bombs, missiles that can do massive damages to other country’s. We also have special vehicles and guns that are very harmful and dangerous. Wars are fought to sometimes gain land or as a scare tactic. It is not the same in the way the Europeans and the Native Americans conducts wars. They didn’t have all these hi-technology as we do and had to do everything by hand. They were very brave when it came to war, even though they didn’t have high tech weapons like we do now. Back then they used old guns now those guns have been far more improved since that time. | 661 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is a witness? Definition of witness. Information about witness as a law term.
Witness; in law, a person called upon to give relevant testimony under oath, as in a court of justice, with respect to something he has seen, heard, or otherwise observed. It is generally held that a witness is competent to testify if he is of sufficient age and intellect to understand and communicate what he has observed and to appreciate the significance of an oath.
A witness, either in a civil or criminal case, may be compelled to attend court when required by law. He is commonly summoned by a subpoena, and if he does not attend when properly called and lacks sufficient excuse for his absence, he may be punished for contempt by fine or imprisonment. In addition, he may be liable for damages suffered by the party who subpoenaed him.
A witness is exempt from civil arrest while in attendance at court, but not from arrest on a criminal charge. He usually testifies orally in open court, but sometimes his testimony is taken in writing before a commissioner or some other legal official.
Formerly many objections against the competency of witnesses were allowed, but many of these have been removed by legislation. In the absence of statutes to the contrary, a wife is usually not a competent witness against her husband in either a civil or criminal case, or a husband against his wife.
Generally a witness cannot be compelled to give evidence in which he may incriminate himself, and the accused in a criminal case cannot be called as a witness for the prosecution to give evidence against himself. In most jurisdictions, confidential communications between an attorney and his client or between a doctor and his patient are privileged, and the attorney or doctor cannot testify as to those communications unless the client or patient waives the privilege. | <urn:uuid:2c9d6954-2d65-4a6c-b3f8-c07105d65658> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.what333.com/definition-of-witness/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00182.warc.gz | en | 0.984243 | 359 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.3631794... | 6 | What is a witness? Definition of witness. Information about witness as a law term.
Witness; in law, a person called upon to give relevant testimony under oath, as in a court of justice, with respect to something he has seen, heard, or otherwise observed. It is generally held that a witness is competent to testify if he is of sufficient age and intellect to understand and communicate what he has observed and to appreciate the significance of an oath.
A witness, either in a civil or criminal case, may be compelled to attend court when required by law. He is commonly summoned by a subpoena, and if he does not attend when properly called and lacks sufficient excuse for his absence, he may be punished for contempt by fine or imprisonment. In addition, he may be liable for damages suffered by the party who subpoenaed him.
A witness is exempt from civil arrest while in attendance at court, but not from arrest on a criminal charge. He usually testifies orally in open court, but sometimes his testimony is taken in writing before a commissioner or some other legal official.
Formerly many objections against the competency of witnesses were allowed, but many of these have been removed by legislation. In the absence of statutes to the contrary, a wife is usually not a competent witness against her husband in either a civil or criminal case, or a husband against his wife.
Generally a witness cannot be compelled to give evidence in which he may incriminate himself, and the accused in a criminal case cannot be called as a witness for the prosecution to give evidence against himself. In most jurisdictions, confidential communications between an attorney and his client or between a doctor and his patient are privileged, and the attorney or doctor cannot testify as to those communications unless the client or patient waives the privilege. | 354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About Cornish, Maine
The Cornish area was on the path of the Pequawket Trail. The word “Pequawket” is believed to mean “sandy land”. The Almouchiquois (Sokokis) Indians traveled the trail seasonally between Biddeford Pool on the ocean and the Mount Washington Valley in search of food. The Sokokis were members of the highly respected Tortoise Clan of the eastern Algonquins. During the 1600s French fur traders bartered with the Indians, exchanging highly prized fur pelts for blankets, beads and other handicrafts made by the tribe. The French traders respected the Native Americans and the trade arrangements worked well. The Sokokis Indians living in the area were led by a chief named Captain Sandy (also called Captain Sunday).
The first white settler in the Cornish area was a fur trader named Francis Small, who operated a small trading post. He became fast, trusting friends with Captain Sandy.
In the mid-1600s the British entered the scene and upset the balance of trade enjoyed between the French and the Indians. The British were less compassionate with the Indians. The so-called Indians Wars erupted because the Indians perceived that they were being taken advantage of by the British and complained about the manner in which they were being treated. The Massachusetts-based British regarded the Indians as savages and responded to the grumbling by marching on a Sokokis fortification, which was located just across the river in Hiram, at the meeting place of the Saco and Great Ossipee Rivers. Finding no Indians there, the British burned it to the ground and proceeded to another Indian fort on Ossipee Lake in New Hampshire. Where they took a couple of prisoners and headed back to Massachusetts.
Some members of Captain Sandy’s Sokokis tribe sought to take their revenge by torching Francis Small’s home. Captain Sandy was helpless to prevent the conflagration, but he did warn his friend and Small fled to the Kittery settlement near Portsmouth. Regretting the unfortunate loss that Small had suffered, Captain Sandy decided to trade a large tract of land with Francis Small. Cornish was part of the tract of land.
During the 1700s, the village that grew up was first called Francisborough, then Cornishville. The town center was originally located on the High Road and the town was incorporated as Cornish in 1794. A stage route was established along Main Street arrived in 1846. Handsome Victorian and Colonial homes were built along Main and Maple Streets and, between the years 1850 and 1860, teams of 80 oxen moved many homes down from the High Road to where the town center is today. It took 160 oxen to haul one house over the icy Saco River from the banks of Baldwin.
Because much of the history of early Cornish was lost in a fire, all of what you read in this column was gleaned from the works of authors and researchers Addie Small, Dr. William Teg, G.T. Ridlon Sr., Michael Chaney, and the Cornish Historical Society. | <urn:uuid:57091b16-a6ec-44dc-951f-3d9e61ca5187> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cornish-maine.org/about-cornish | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00043.warc.gz | en | 0.982782 | 643 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.262547433376... | 7 | About Cornish, Maine
The Cornish area was on the path of the Pequawket Trail. The word “Pequawket” is believed to mean “sandy land”. The Almouchiquois (Sokokis) Indians traveled the trail seasonally between Biddeford Pool on the ocean and the Mount Washington Valley in search of food. The Sokokis were members of the highly respected Tortoise Clan of the eastern Algonquins. During the 1600s French fur traders bartered with the Indians, exchanging highly prized fur pelts for blankets, beads and other handicrafts made by the tribe. The French traders respected the Native Americans and the trade arrangements worked well. The Sokokis Indians living in the area were led by a chief named Captain Sandy (also called Captain Sunday).
The first white settler in the Cornish area was a fur trader named Francis Small, who operated a small trading post. He became fast, trusting friends with Captain Sandy.
In the mid-1600s the British entered the scene and upset the balance of trade enjoyed between the French and the Indians. The British were less compassionate with the Indians. The so-called Indians Wars erupted because the Indians perceived that they were being taken advantage of by the British and complained about the manner in which they were being treated. The Massachusetts-based British regarded the Indians as savages and responded to the grumbling by marching on a Sokokis fortification, which was located just across the river in Hiram, at the meeting place of the Saco and Great Ossipee Rivers. Finding no Indians there, the British burned it to the ground and proceeded to another Indian fort on Ossipee Lake in New Hampshire. Where they took a couple of prisoners and headed back to Massachusetts.
Some members of Captain Sandy’s Sokokis tribe sought to take their revenge by torching Francis Small’s home. Captain Sandy was helpless to prevent the conflagration, but he did warn his friend and Small fled to the Kittery settlement near Portsmouth. Regretting the unfortunate loss that Small had suffered, Captain Sandy decided to trade a large tract of land with Francis Small. Cornish was part of the tract of land.
During the 1700s, the village that grew up was first called Francisborough, then Cornishville. The town center was originally located on the High Road and the town was incorporated as Cornish in 1794. A stage route was established along Main Street arrived in 1846. Handsome Victorian and Colonial homes were built along Main and Maple Streets and, between the years 1850 and 1860, teams of 80 oxen moved many homes down from the High Road to where the town center is today. It took 160 oxen to haul one house over the icy Saco River from the banks of Baldwin.
Because much of the history of early Cornish was lost in a fire, all of what you read in this column was gleaned from the works of authors and researchers Addie Small, Dr. William Teg, G.T. Ridlon Sr., Michael Chaney, and the Cornish Historical Society. | 659 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Athens and Sparta are the most well- known city-states of Ancient Greece. Sparta was known for its military might and prowess, as well as its equality. Women were able to receive an education, have property, and as girls were trained in group exercises and agility. (Beckman, 2016, 116). The source of power for Sparta was found in the military, where boys enroll at eighteen years of age and they serve for ten years in the military. According to History.com, their training starts at seven years of age, where the boy is taken from his mother and lived in a Spartan training camp.
This training intensifies as the boy grows older, then enrolls into the military when he reaches eighteen years of age. (History.com). One thing that Sparta had that the other city-states didn’t was order and discipline. By law, a father could beat his son for misconduct. Sparta also had a goal to have fit and disciplined citizens to keep the barbarians at bay. While the Spartans were more disciplined and materialistic, Athens was more democratic, and introduced the concept of voting to the Western world. (History.com) Athens was also the oldest city-state in Ancient Greece. Free men were able to hold positions in the Assembly and the council and were able to vote. Both were denied to women and slaves, since women were considered legal property to their fathers and later their husbands, and slaves were property of their masters. (Beckman,2016, 123).
While both Athens and Sparta faced a formidable foe in the Persian empire, one fell while the other stood. I think Sparta is superior, because of its military might, equality and its ability to keep Persia at bay. Sparta was well known for their military might, and are studied in history books for their feats in the present day. The reasons why they had such a good military were: 1). They spent all their time training, and 2). They disciplined their youth. Youth in Sparta grew up learning about order and discipline, through military training and rules enforced by beatings. The second reason why Sparta is superior is equality. Unlike Athens, women were able to own their own property as well as learn to read and write in addition to their domestic duties.
This helped them contribute to society, as well as guard their homes when the men went off to war. Another reason why Sparta was so successful was that Sparta had an equal community. Men fought wars while women did domestic chores and raised children, but no gender was considered more superior or more important in Spartan society. The last reason is the most important: they withstood the Persian Empire. According to Beckman, Athens had the will and drive to fight but didn’t have the army or the resources to defend their home. It was Sparta who was the stronghold in the Persian war, holding off the Persian military at Thermopylae for three days. (Beckman, 2016, 125-126). This helped Greece defeat the Persians, causing Persia to fully retreat from Greece, leading to Greece winning the Persian war. This is why Sparta is more superior than Athens, and the most powerful city-state of Ancient Greece. | <urn:uuid:b07243db-b864-4075-b29a-1a69b0e6832e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tooly.io/athens-vs-sparta-who-is-superior/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.991981 | 659 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.4616461396217... | 1 | Athens and Sparta are the most well- known city-states of Ancient Greece. Sparta was known for its military might and prowess, as well as its equality. Women were able to receive an education, have property, and as girls were trained in group exercises and agility. (Beckman, 2016, 116). The source of power for Sparta was found in the military, where boys enroll at eighteen years of age and they serve for ten years in the military. According to History.com, their training starts at seven years of age, where the boy is taken from his mother and lived in a Spartan training camp.
This training intensifies as the boy grows older, then enrolls into the military when he reaches eighteen years of age. (History.com). One thing that Sparta had that the other city-states didn’t was order and discipline. By law, a father could beat his son for misconduct. Sparta also had a goal to have fit and disciplined citizens to keep the barbarians at bay. While the Spartans were more disciplined and materialistic, Athens was more democratic, and introduced the concept of voting to the Western world. (History.com) Athens was also the oldest city-state in Ancient Greece. Free men were able to hold positions in the Assembly and the council and were able to vote. Both were denied to women and slaves, since women were considered legal property to their fathers and later their husbands, and slaves were property of their masters. (Beckman,2016, 123).
While both Athens and Sparta faced a formidable foe in the Persian empire, one fell while the other stood. I think Sparta is superior, because of its military might, equality and its ability to keep Persia at bay. Sparta was well known for their military might, and are studied in history books for their feats in the present day. The reasons why they had such a good military were: 1). They spent all their time training, and 2). They disciplined their youth. Youth in Sparta grew up learning about order and discipline, through military training and rules enforced by beatings. The second reason why Sparta is superior is equality. Unlike Athens, women were able to own their own property as well as learn to read and write in addition to their domestic duties.
This helped them contribute to society, as well as guard their homes when the men went off to war. Another reason why Sparta was so successful was that Sparta had an equal community. Men fought wars while women did domestic chores and raised children, but no gender was considered more superior or more important in Spartan society. The last reason is the most important: they withstood the Persian Empire. According to Beckman, Athens had the will and drive to fight but didn’t have the army or the resources to defend their home. It was Sparta who was the stronghold in the Persian war, holding off the Persian military at Thermopylae for three days. (Beckman, 2016, 125-126). This helped Greece defeat the Persians, causing Persia to fully retreat from Greece, leading to Greece winning the Persian war. This is why Sparta is more superior than Athens, and the most powerful city-state of Ancient Greece. | 675 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Eight hundred years before Marco Polo's birth, some of the people of North Italy had fled before the Attila to the muddy islands of the Adriatic and founded Venice upon them. Since then the little settlement had become the most wealthy and powerful city of Europe . Venice was the queen of the Adriatic and her merchants were princes. They had vessels to bring the costly wares of the East to their wharves; they had warships to protect their rich cargoes from the pirates of the Mediterranean ; they carried on wars. At the time when Marco Polo returned from Cathay they were at war with Genoa (Gen'-o-a).
The two cities were fighting for the trade of the world. In a great naval battle the Venetians were completely defeated. Marco Polo was in the battle and with many of his countrymen was captured by the enemy. For a year he was confined in a Genoese prison. One of his fellow-prisoners was a skillful penman and Marco dictated to him an account of his experiences in China , Japan , and other Eastern countries. This account was carefully written out. Copies of the manuscript exist to this day. One of these is in a library in Paris . It was carried into France in the year 1307. Another copy is preserved in the city of Berne . It is said that the book was translated into many languages, so that people in all parts of Europe learned about Marco's adventures. About a hundred and seventy-five years after the book was written, the famous Genoese, Christopher Columbus, planned his voyage across the Atlantic . It is believed that he had read Marco's description of Java, Sumatra and other East India Islands, which he thought he had reached when he discovered Haiti (Hai'-ti) and Cuba. So Marco Polo may have suggested to Columbus the voyage which led to the discovery of America . | <urn:uuid:af709762-93f4-4555-8467-cc992fb00ad4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/88/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00353.warc.gz | en | 0.990579 | 386 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.5436320900917053... | 1 | Eight hundred years before Marco Polo's birth, some of the people of North Italy had fled before the Attila to the muddy islands of the Adriatic and founded Venice upon them. Since then the little settlement had become the most wealthy and powerful city of Europe . Venice was the queen of the Adriatic and her merchants were princes. They had vessels to bring the costly wares of the East to their wharves; they had warships to protect their rich cargoes from the pirates of the Mediterranean ; they carried on wars. At the time when Marco Polo returned from Cathay they were at war with Genoa (Gen'-o-a).
The two cities were fighting for the trade of the world. In a great naval battle the Venetians were completely defeated. Marco Polo was in the battle and with many of his countrymen was captured by the enemy. For a year he was confined in a Genoese prison. One of his fellow-prisoners was a skillful penman and Marco dictated to him an account of his experiences in China , Japan , and other Eastern countries. This account was carefully written out. Copies of the manuscript exist to this day. One of these is in a library in Paris . It was carried into France in the year 1307. Another copy is preserved in the city of Berne . It is said that the book was translated into many languages, so that people in all parts of Europe learned about Marco's adventures. About a hundred and seventy-five years after the book was written, the famous Genoese, Christopher Columbus, planned his voyage across the Atlantic . It is believed that he had read Marco's description of Java, Sumatra and other East India Islands, which he thought he had reached when he discovered Haiti (Hai'-ti) and Cuba. So Marco Polo may have suggested to Columbus the voyage which led to the discovery of America . | 384 | ENGLISH | 1 |
STEP 1: LISTEN TO THE AUDIO
STEP 2: STUDY VOCABULARY
Our class went on an overnight field trip. We raised enough money to visit a national park. Since it was a few hours away, we stayed in a lodge by the park. Before we planned this trip, each student was required to get a parent's signature for permission. Every student was allowed to attend. Our teacher requested several chaperones. She said either parent could sign up. My mother wanted to go, but she was sick. She attended every field trip each year. My father had to work, so neither parent was able to go. I was sad about it, but I understood their situations. We had three girls and a female chaperone in my room. The boys had male chaperones on another floor. There were two sets of bunkbeds in each room. We could sleep on either top or bottom. I chose the bottom because I'm afraid of heights. I also don't like climbing up ladders. My friends know about my fear, so they didn't mind either way. In the morning, we had to get ready to ride the bus to the park. There were two bathrooms on each floor. We were allowed to use either bathroom to shower. Before we left the lodge, my teacher checked every room to make sure we didn't leave anything behind. We had a great time during this field trip. We learned a lot about the natural habitat of the park.
Watch a slide show of all the vocabulary words in this lesson.
If you would like more vocabulary practice, go to the vocabulary flashcard page and study each word separately. After studying the vocabulary, practice speaking in the next ESL study session. | <urn:uuid:14aa5b26-e9cf-4237-b55c-5cccb5c404fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://skesl.com/esl/lesson/overnight-field-trip | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00448.warc.gz | en | 0.988568 | 354 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4599617123603... | 3 | STEP 1: LISTEN TO THE AUDIO
STEP 2: STUDY VOCABULARY
Our class went on an overnight field trip. We raised enough money to visit a national park. Since it was a few hours away, we stayed in a lodge by the park. Before we planned this trip, each student was required to get a parent's signature for permission. Every student was allowed to attend. Our teacher requested several chaperones. She said either parent could sign up. My mother wanted to go, but she was sick. She attended every field trip each year. My father had to work, so neither parent was able to go. I was sad about it, but I understood their situations. We had three girls and a female chaperone in my room. The boys had male chaperones on another floor. There were two sets of bunkbeds in each room. We could sleep on either top or bottom. I chose the bottom because I'm afraid of heights. I also don't like climbing up ladders. My friends know about my fear, so they didn't mind either way. In the morning, we had to get ready to ride the bus to the park. There were two bathrooms on each floor. We were allowed to use either bathroom to shower. Before we left the lodge, my teacher checked every room to make sure we didn't leave anything behind. We had a great time during this field trip. We learned a lot about the natural habitat of the park.
Watch a slide show of all the vocabulary words in this lesson.
If you would like more vocabulary practice, go to the vocabulary flashcard page and study each word separately. After studying the vocabulary, practice speaking in the next ESL study session. | 352 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 1920’s is sometimes referred to as the “Roaring Twenties,” or “The Era of Wonderful Nonsense.” The nonsense this phrase is referring to is the style and boldness of the new kind of rebel: the flapper. In the 1920’s the flappers shocked everyone and set the path for other people who yearned to stand out and be different. The flappers certainly contrasted the generation before them, but that did not happen overnight.
There are many reasons credited as to why flappers started rebelling, but one of the major ones was WWI. The women decided that most of the eligible bachelors were dead or at war, meaning that there were not enough men to go around. When those men had gone off to war, they left their jobs, meaning that someone had to work in their place. Many women were hired, and these women earned wages and could live independently and buy things themselves for the first time. Before then, women were expected to stay at home and care for the house and kids. But because women could work now things were easily obtainable such as cars such as the Ford Model T. Even though some women had to go to work, they still had more free time than previous generations because of new inventions such as vacuum cleaners and refrigerators that made housework easier. With all of this time, Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear through the Ages states: “young women were no longer content . . . styling long masses of hair” (1). The older women still had long hair, thought that women should only work from the home, and others. The flappers and the older generation had many more clashing ideas.
Many things made the older generation disapprove of flappers, especially the notorious parties held in clubs referred to as speakeasies. Women smoked cigarettes, danced the Charleston to jazz music, and drank even though it was illegal at the time. The flappers desired doing unacceptable things, considering the fact that “flappers began drinking cocktails right when it was . . . illegal, nationwide, to manufacture, sell, or transport any alcoholic drink” (Sagert 43). Some of these things were so improper that women were arrested for smoking in public even though smoking was not illegal. Flappers took every chance they could to make things scandalous.
The style of flappers was one of the most controversial things about them. Before the Roaring Twenties, dresses that went above the middle of the calf muscle were unheard of, let alone just-below or just-above the knee. These new dress lengths horrified older generations. Along with the dress, she would wear a “step-in, a single piece of lingerie that took the place of the stiff-boned corset” (Gourley 62). Because of... | <urn:uuid:337dee5f-2f72-411e-97a0-65f34c5bb7db> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-era-of-wonderful-nonsense | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00016.warc.gz | en | 0.986251 | 598 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.008265710435... | 1 | The 1920’s is sometimes referred to as the “Roaring Twenties,” or “The Era of Wonderful Nonsense.” The nonsense this phrase is referring to is the style and boldness of the new kind of rebel: the flapper. In the 1920’s the flappers shocked everyone and set the path for other people who yearned to stand out and be different. The flappers certainly contrasted the generation before them, but that did not happen overnight.
There are many reasons credited as to why flappers started rebelling, but one of the major ones was WWI. The women decided that most of the eligible bachelors were dead or at war, meaning that there were not enough men to go around. When those men had gone off to war, they left their jobs, meaning that someone had to work in their place. Many women were hired, and these women earned wages and could live independently and buy things themselves for the first time. Before then, women were expected to stay at home and care for the house and kids. But because women could work now things were easily obtainable such as cars such as the Ford Model T. Even though some women had to go to work, they still had more free time than previous generations because of new inventions such as vacuum cleaners and refrigerators that made housework easier. With all of this time, Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear through the Ages states: “young women were no longer content . . . styling long masses of hair” (1). The older women still had long hair, thought that women should only work from the home, and others. The flappers and the older generation had many more clashing ideas.
Many things made the older generation disapprove of flappers, especially the notorious parties held in clubs referred to as speakeasies. Women smoked cigarettes, danced the Charleston to jazz music, and drank even though it was illegal at the time. The flappers desired doing unacceptable things, considering the fact that “flappers began drinking cocktails right when it was . . . illegal, nationwide, to manufacture, sell, or transport any alcoholic drink” (Sagert 43). Some of these things were so improper that women were arrested for smoking in public even though smoking was not illegal. Flappers took every chance they could to make things scandalous.
The style of flappers was one of the most controversial things about them. Before the Roaring Twenties, dresses that went above the middle of the calf muscle were unheard of, let alone just-below or just-above the knee. These new dress lengths horrified older generations. Along with the dress, she would wear a “step-in, a single piece of lingerie that took the place of the stiff-boned corset” (Gourley 62). Because of... | 587 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Oskar Schindler was an industrialist and affiliate of the Nazi Party who saved hundreds of Jews during the Holocaust by employing them in ammunition and enamelware factories in Poland and occupied Bohemia and Moravia. As an opportunistic entrepreneur with a hunger for success and wealth, he seemed the unexpected person to become a wartime hero. During the war, Schindler employed more than 1,000 Jews to work on his factories saving them from deportation to concentration camps.
Schindler was born in the Sudetenland (present-day Czech Republic) on April 28, 1908. He was the older of two children. His father Hans Schindler worked in an agricultural company while his mother Louisa was a housewife. He attended a German school where he proved popular among the students and the teachers. He left an opportunity to attend college but instead chose to undertake courses in several technical areas at a trade school. He completed his basic training in 1924 and took up odd jobs. He married Emilie Pelzl in 1928 and soon after was recruited into military service.
He left the military service a year later and joined his father until the business failed during the economic depression of the 1930s. The changing political landscape in Europe and the subsequent rise of Adolf Hitler saw him join the German spy service where he collected intelligence for the Nazis. In 1939, Germany occupied Poland and Schindler moved to Krakow seeking to benefit from the fall of Poland. He engaged in the black market, and within a short period, he amassed enough wealth to bribe German officers. He obtained enamelware and ammunition production facilities previously owned by the Jews. Schindler started with 45 employees, but by 1944, he had 2,000 employees; half of whom were Jews.
Schindler saved hundreds of Jews from being deported to concentration camps in Germany by employing them in his factories. He provided a source of income to thousands at a time when Jews were considered outcasts in the society. He facilitated black-market gift and bribes to top German officers to allow him to keep the Jews in his factories. His junior managers drafted a list of about 1,200 Jews who were considered crucial employees to the company’s operation. The list came to be known as “Schindler's List.”
Schindler’s main challenges came from the Nazi government. It was deemed an act of betrayal to help the Jews, and Schindler had to bribe senior officers in the government and the military continuously. As the Allied forces came closer to liberating Poland, Jew employees began sabotaging ammunitions in the factory. He used his entire wealth bribing officers to save the Jews, and after the war, he had used up all his savings.
Death and Legacy
Towards the end of the war, Schindler was joined by his wife. The couple fled to Argentina to avoid prosecution.He tried establishing several businesses including farming and cement production to no avail. He separated from his wife and moved back to Germany. Schindler died in 1974, and the Jews rallied for his body to be transported to Israel for a decent burial. He was interred in the Catholic cemetery on Mount Zion, Jerusalem. In 1993, the film “Schindler's List” was made in his honor.
About the Author
Victor Kiprop is a writer from Kenya. When he's not writing he spends time watching soccer and documentaries, visiting friends, or working in the farm.
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0.227320030331... | 2 | Oskar Schindler was an industrialist and affiliate of the Nazi Party who saved hundreds of Jews during the Holocaust by employing them in ammunition and enamelware factories in Poland and occupied Bohemia and Moravia. As an opportunistic entrepreneur with a hunger for success and wealth, he seemed the unexpected person to become a wartime hero. During the war, Schindler employed more than 1,000 Jews to work on his factories saving them from deportation to concentration camps.
Schindler was born in the Sudetenland (present-day Czech Republic) on April 28, 1908. He was the older of two children. His father Hans Schindler worked in an agricultural company while his mother Louisa was a housewife. He attended a German school where he proved popular among the students and the teachers. He left an opportunity to attend college but instead chose to undertake courses in several technical areas at a trade school. He completed his basic training in 1924 and took up odd jobs. He married Emilie Pelzl in 1928 and soon after was recruited into military service.
He left the military service a year later and joined his father until the business failed during the economic depression of the 1930s. The changing political landscape in Europe and the subsequent rise of Adolf Hitler saw him join the German spy service where he collected intelligence for the Nazis. In 1939, Germany occupied Poland and Schindler moved to Krakow seeking to benefit from the fall of Poland. He engaged in the black market, and within a short period, he amassed enough wealth to bribe German officers. He obtained enamelware and ammunition production facilities previously owned by the Jews. Schindler started with 45 employees, but by 1944, he had 2,000 employees; half of whom were Jews.
Schindler saved hundreds of Jews from being deported to concentration camps in Germany by employing them in his factories. He provided a source of income to thousands at a time when Jews were considered outcasts in the society. He facilitated black-market gift and bribes to top German officers to allow him to keep the Jews in his factories. His junior managers drafted a list of about 1,200 Jews who were considered crucial employees to the company’s operation. The list came to be known as “Schindler's List.”
Schindler’s main challenges came from the Nazi government. It was deemed an act of betrayal to help the Jews, and Schindler had to bribe senior officers in the government and the military continuously. As the Allied forces came closer to liberating Poland, Jew employees began sabotaging ammunitions in the factory. He used his entire wealth bribing officers to save the Jews, and after the war, he had used up all his savings.
Death and Legacy
Towards the end of the war, Schindler was joined by his wife. The couple fled to Argentina to avoid prosecution.He tried establishing several businesses including farming and cement production to no avail. He separated from his wife and moved back to Germany. Schindler died in 1974, and the Jews rallied for his body to be transported to Israel for a decent burial. He was interred in the Catholic cemetery on Mount Zion, Jerusalem. In 1993, the film “Schindler's List” was made in his honor.
About the Author
Victor Kiprop is a writer from Kenya. When he's not writing he spends time watching soccer and documentaries, visiting friends, or working in the farm.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 765 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During this year’s Gypsy Roma Traveller History Month, historian Rainer Schulze reminds us of the systematic persecution the Roma and Sinti suffered during the period of Nazi rule in Germany and in Nazi-occupied Europe.
Rainer is Professor of Modern European History at the University of Essex and the programmer of the University of Essex’s annual Holocaust Memorial Week. In today's blog, Rainer introduces us to two Roma survivors of the persecution in former Yugoslavia during the Second World War.
Around 15 years ago, the poet and human rights activist Paul Polansky interviewed Roma who lived through the Second World War in various parts of former Yugoslavia. These oral histories document the diversity of the Roma experience of oppression and persecution in south-eastern Europe during this period.
One of those interviewed was Katica Djurdjevich. She was born in 1921 in the small Croatian village of Viri into a Lovari Roma family. She grew up in the traditional Lovari way. Her father travelled with a horse and a wagon through the neighbouring villages selling bits of household goods and helping out on the fields, while her mother was a fortune-teller. Katica married very young and quickly had two children. Her husband Milan Shain was a Kalderash Rom, and she moved to Pitomača in northern Croatia to join his family, where she supported the family’s income by fortune-telling – a skill she had picked up from her mother and her grandmother.
While most Roma in rural Croatia had always been poor and lacked access to education, it was only when the war came to Yugoslavia in 1941, and the Ustaše puppet state of Croatia was set up, that they were subjected to violence and abuse. Ustaše men roamed the countryside forcing Roma to work in the fields. Many Roma women were raped. One night the Ustaše rounded up the Roma of Pitomača and made them play and dance for cheap thrills. Katica remembered being hidden on several occasions by her husband when Ustaše men forcibly entered their house. She was constantly living in fear.
The first to be taken away were Katica’s family in Viri. They were deported to Jasenovac concentration camp where they were murdered. Katica’s husband and uncle were selected for forced labour in Germany because of their physical strength. Then one night towards the end of the war, Katica, her two small children and the remaining members of her husband’s family were also rounded up, put on cattle cars and transported to Jasenovac.
When they reached the camp after eight days, they were informed that they could go home again. Orders had changed and, as ‘non-nomadic Gypsies’, they would no longer be incarcerated. They were sent back to Pitomača in the same cattle cars, but when they arrived they found their houses looted, broken or burnt down by the Ustaše.
Katica’s husband eventually returned home after the end of the war, but there was never any compensation for the forced labour he had to do in Germany, for the persecution the rest of the family suffered in Croatia, or for their loss of property. In fact, almost 50 years later, during the Croatian War of Independence 1991-95, the old fears of the Ustaše returned: ‘The Ustaše Croats hate us: they hate us only because we are Roma.’
Remzedin Durmishevich was born in 1923 in Niš, southern Serbia where his family lived in the Roma neighbourhood. His father worked in the railway workshop, his mother stayed at home raising the four children. When the German army occupied Serbia in 1941, most Roma men from Niš were taken to Crveni Krst concentration camp, where some of them were murdered, while others, including Remzedin, were made to work for the Germans. They had to wear yellow armbands identifying them as Roma.
In 1942, Remzedin was deported to Germany for forced labour, together with his 14-year-old brother, and was made to work in a factory in Osnabrück, north-west Germany. He managed to escape in 1943 with a forged vacation pass and secretly returned to Niš where he found his mother and remaining brother and sister hiding in the ruins of the old Roma settlement. Remzedin joined the communist Partisans fighting against both German troops and the Serbian nationalist Četnik militias. He felt the Partisans did not discriminate against Roma and did not use the term ‘Gypsy’.
Remzedin returned to Niš in 1946 and found a job at the same railway workshop where his father worked. Many of the Roma population of Niš had returned, but life was harsh: ‘Serbs did not want us because we were ‘Roma’.’
These stories show the different ways the Roma were brutalised during the period of the World War Two but, perhaps even more disturbingly, they also point to the continuities of Roma discrimination and anti-Roma racism from the period before the war to the post-war period, right through to the present day. | <urn:uuid:05c44236-77d3-409f-8d37-434f00b80a92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.romatimes.news/index.php/en/categories/politics?start=36 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.989126 | 1,086 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.377760738134... | 1 | During this year’s Gypsy Roma Traveller History Month, historian Rainer Schulze reminds us of the systematic persecution the Roma and Sinti suffered during the period of Nazi rule in Germany and in Nazi-occupied Europe.
Rainer is Professor of Modern European History at the University of Essex and the programmer of the University of Essex’s annual Holocaust Memorial Week. In today's blog, Rainer introduces us to two Roma survivors of the persecution in former Yugoslavia during the Second World War.
Around 15 years ago, the poet and human rights activist Paul Polansky interviewed Roma who lived through the Second World War in various parts of former Yugoslavia. These oral histories document the diversity of the Roma experience of oppression and persecution in south-eastern Europe during this period.
One of those interviewed was Katica Djurdjevich. She was born in 1921 in the small Croatian village of Viri into a Lovari Roma family. She grew up in the traditional Lovari way. Her father travelled with a horse and a wagon through the neighbouring villages selling bits of household goods and helping out on the fields, while her mother was a fortune-teller. Katica married very young and quickly had two children. Her husband Milan Shain was a Kalderash Rom, and she moved to Pitomača in northern Croatia to join his family, where she supported the family’s income by fortune-telling – a skill she had picked up from her mother and her grandmother.
While most Roma in rural Croatia had always been poor and lacked access to education, it was only when the war came to Yugoslavia in 1941, and the Ustaše puppet state of Croatia was set up, that they were subjected to violence and abuse. Ustaše men roamed the countryside forcing Roma to work in the fields. Many Roma women were raped. One night the Ustaše rounded up the Roma of Pitomača and made them play and dance for cheap thrills. Katica remembered being hidden on several occasions by her husband when Ustaše men forcibly entered their house. She was constantly living in fear.
The first to be taken away were Katica’s family in Viri. They were deported to Jasenovac concentration camp where they were murdered. Katica’s husband and uncle were selected for forced labour in Germany because of their physical strength. Then one night towards the end of the war, Katica, her two small children and the remaining members of her husband’s family were also rounded up, put on cattle cars and transported to Jasenovac.
When they reached the camp after eight days, they were informed that they could go home again. Orders had changed and, as ‘non-nomadic Gypsies’, they would no longer be incarcerated. They were sent back to Pitomača in the same cattle cars, but when they arrived they found their houses looted, broken or burnt down by the Ustaše.
Katica’s husband eventually returned home after the end of the war, but there was never any compensation for the forced labour he had to do in Germany, for the persecution the rest of the family suffered in Croatia, or for their loss of property. In fact, almost 50 years later, during the Croatian War of Independence 1991-95, the old fears of the Ustaše returned: ‘The Ustaše Croats hate us: they hate us only because we are Roma.’
Remzedin Durmishevich was born in 1923 in Niš, southern Serbia where his family lived in the Roma neighbourhood. His father worked in the railway workshop, his mother stayed at home raising the four children. When the German army occupied Serbia in 1941, most Roma men from Niš were taken to Crveni Krst concentration camp, where some of them were murdered, while others, including Remzedin, were made to work for the Germans. They had to wear yellow armbands identifying them as Roma.
In 1942, Remzedin was deported to Germany for forced labour, together with his 14-year-old brother, and was made to work in a factory in Osnabrück, north-west Germany. He managed to escape in 1943 with a forged vacation pass and secretly returned to Niš where he found his mother and remaining brother and sister hiding in the ruins of the old Roma settlement. Remzedin joined the communist Partisans fighting against both German troops and the Serbian nationalist Četnik militias. He felt the Partisans did not discriminate against Roma and did not use the term ‘Gypsy’.
Remzedin returned to Niš in 1946 and found a job at the same railway workshop where his father worked. Many of the Roma population of Niš had returned, but life was harsh: ‘Serbs did not want us because we were ‘Roma’.’
These stories show the different ways the Roma were brutalised during the period of the World War Two but, perhaps even more disturbingly, they also point to the continuities of Roma discrimination and anti-Roma racism from the period before the war to the post-war period, right through to the present day. | 1,067 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Kracha’s story of immigration into America is well described in the novel ‘Out of This Furnace’ that was written by Thomas Bell. In this novel, there is a series of related stories of different characters that faced hardships as they tried to migrate to America after the civil war in Europe. The slovak immigrants were faced with hardships in looking for jobs in their new home as they tried to fight the poverty and life hardships. The characters in this novel have relatively similar issues affecting them with the major challenge being poverty. George Kracha is one of the characters in the novel and his journey into becoming an American citizen has been described by Thomas Bell in his writings. George migrated from his original home country Hungary into America in 1881.
On arrival in America, George’s wife dies and he marries Zuska (Bell, 21). On arrival in his new home, he moved to Haven where he was on a mission of securing a job in one of the metal industries. Initially Kracha worked on railroads after which he moved to Western Pennsylvania where he got a job in the steel mills.
Later Kracha quits the tiresome job in the steel mills and decides to run his own business. Kracha starts a meat market which showed good performance to him at the beginning. Due to improper decision making, Kracha’s meat business collapses and he loses everything. The lives led by most of immigrants in America were like that of George Kracha. The immigrants could only get limited job opportunities in the risky areas like in the factories and the steel mills. With all these hard ships, George Kracha does not regret migrating into America because he can enjoy the freedom despite the poor life he leads.
Like other immigrants in the American soil, Kracha is faced with several challenges and leads a poverty life. On arrival in his new home, Kracha faces a housing challenge as he had to start a home of his own. Having moved with his family to America, Kracha had to look for a settlement for his family. With the poor life and no employment, this becomes a major challenge which Kracha had to solve. Kracha decides to look for a job in order to earn a living to settle his family. The first job opportunity was on the railroads where Kracha worked and found it tiresome and with little to take home. The problem of housing remained a challenge to Kracha since the little he got from the long day work on the rails could only serve as food for his family.
Another problem faced by Kracha and his family was the poor living standards due to the low earnings they made. Kracha was initially employed in the railroads where he describes the hardships he faced and the long day work. The long hours in the railroads were not fruitful as Kracha expected when he first secured the job. Kracha continues to describe the discrimination he faced in his new job where the immigrants were forced to work for long hours with low wages. Being one of the immigrants in the job, Kracha describes how they were mistreated by being forced to work and finally given low wages unable to feed their families back at home. This challenged Kracha because he was the only provider in the family. The low wages given to the workers in the railroads was one of the contributors of the poor life led by Kracha and his family. At one time Kracha is found regretting migrating into America with his family.
Racial discrimination was the other major challenge faced by Kracha together with his family. Like other foreigner who found their way into the American soil, Kracha faced discrimination together with his family. The immigrants were highly discriminated in their places of work by the whites. It was very hard for an immigrant to secure a job in the American industries. This was one of the ways through which immigrants got discriminated. Kracha faced such kind of mistreatment when he was in search for a job. The case was even worse for those who got a chance to get a job. The immigrants could only be employed in the risky areas in the industries like in the mines and metal industries. Kracha got his first job on where he was employed on the railroads. The job was not sufficient to feed his family due to the low wages he got after a long day work. This was the major reason for the hardship Kracha’s family faced.
George Kracha’s job in the steel mills was not very unsafe as described by Bell. Kracha explains how the working conditions posed a threat to their health due to the poor working conditions. On the railroads, Kracha was forced to work all day without rest and this posed a great risk to their health. Some of the immigrant workers got ill in the working places mostly in the metal milling factories. Their employers could not compensate them for treatment of illnesses affecting them related to the poor working conditions. This made some of the workers quit their jobs due to the high levels of discrimination they faced in the working places.
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The story of the three generations of the male workers is well composed by Thomas Bell in his novel. The first generation in this story is that of George Kracha who moves with his family into America to look for greener pastures and freedom. The three generations have something in common and that is their area of occupation. George, Mike and Johnny worked at the steel mills in order to earn a living. The second generation is made of George Kracha’s daughter who married Mike Dobrejcak. Mike was a steel worker. Mike also faced the working hardships that Kracha faced in the factory. This made their lives poor due to the low wages they got. The inhuman working conditions in the mills made their lives desperate because of the low wages sometimes unable to meet their basic needs like food. This remained a problem to Mike and his wife Mary, a daughter to Kracha.
The third generation of the male workers came was seen to create a slight difference in the mode of working in the steel mills. This was Dobrejcak generations that aimed at creating a difference in the way the immigrant workers were being handled. According to Bell, this generation was determined to eliminate the human sacrifice that was subjected to the immigrants in the mills. The aim of this generation was to fight for better working conditions and fair wages for all workers in the mines. This would fight the discrimination and the risky working conditions that the immigrants got from their employers. Dobrejcak was after establishing a lasting fair treatment and justice for all the workers in the mills and factories.
The three generations presented in this Thomas Bells’ novel had different attitudes towards the work they did in the steel mills. Kracha did not like the inhuman working conditions given to the immigrants. The low wages paid to Kracha were insufficient to sustain his family. This made the character quit the job in the steel mills and stated his meat business. The meat market worked well for him until one time when it came to collapse due to poor decisions he had made. The next generation, by Mike who had married Kracha’s daughter also showed negative attitude towards the job they did in the steel mills. . Mike states that the working conditions were very poor and inhuman and this was accompanied by low wages the immigrants got.
Thomas Bells’ book is well composed and I would also recommend it to other readers. The novel is lively because the events unfolding in the novel give a clear picture of past real life situations. The book has a well narrated story about the past happenings and makes the reader see the reality of the things happening even in the present world like the migration of people due to war and other calamities.
In conclusion, the treatment given to foreigners in their new land is much different from that of the original inhabitants. The strangers are mostly discriminated and poorly treated. Immigrants in America in the 19th century faced a series of challenges in their struggle to adapt and earn a living for their families. People migrate from their homeland in search for greener pastures. War and political instability in the home country have been noted to be the major contributor to the increasing number of migrants. | <urn:uuid:fdb7175b-4433-4e85-90f1-83ce08c0c043> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://top-papers.com/essays/out-of-this-furnace/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.990385 | 1,665 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.029682043939... | 1 | George Kracha’s story of immigration into America is well described in the novel ‘Out of This Furnace’ that was written by Thomas Bell. In this novel, there is a series of related stories of different characters that faced hardships as they tried to migrate to America after the civil war in Europe. The slovak immigrants were faced with hardships in looking for jobs in their new home as they tried to fight the poverty and life hardships. The characters in this novel have relatively similar issues affecting them with the major challenge being poverty. George Kracha is one of the characters in the novel and his journey into becoming an American citizen has been described by Thomas Bell in his writings. George migrated from his original home country Hungary into America in 1881.
On arrival in America, George’s wife dies and he marries Zuska (Bell, 21). On arrival in his new home, he moved to Haven where he was on a mission of securing a job in one of the metal industries. Initially Kracha worked on railroads after which he moved to Western Pennsylvania where he got a job in the steel mills.
Later Kracha quits the tiresome job in the steel mills and decides to run his own business. Kracha starts a meat market which showed good performance to him at the beginning. Due to improper decision making, Kracha’s meat business collapses and he loses everything. The lives led by most of immigrants in America were like that of George Kracha. The immigrants could only get limited job opportunities in the risky areas like in the factories and the steel mills. With all these hard ships, George Kracha does not regret migrating into America because he can enjoy the freedom despite the poor life he leads.
Like other immigrants in the American soil, Kracha is faced with several challenges and leads a poverty life. On arrival in his new home, Kracha faces a housing challenge as he had to start a home of his own. Having moved with his family to America, Kracha had to look for a settlement for his family. With the poor life and no employment, this becomes a major challenge which Kracha had to solve. Kracha decides to look for a job in order to earn a living to settle his family. The first job opportunity was on the railroads where Kracha worked and found it tiresome and with little to take home. The problem of housing remained a challenge to Kracha since the little he got from the long day work on the rails could only serve as food for his family.
Another problem faced by Kracha and his family was the poor living standards due to the low earnings they made. Kracha was initially employed in the railroads where he describes the hardships he faced and the long day work. The long hours in the railroads were not fruitful as Kracha expected when he first secured the job. Kracha continues to describe the discrimination he faced in his new job where the immigrants were forced to work for long hours with low wages. Being one of the immigrants in the job, Kracha describes how they were mistreated by being forced to work and finally given low wages unable to feed their families back at home. This challenged Kracha because he was the only provider in the family. The low wages given to the workers in the railroads was one of the contributors of the poor life led by Kracha and his family. At one time Kracha is found regretting migrating into America with his family.
Racial discrimination was the other major challenge faced by Kracha together with his family. Like other foreigner who found their way into the American soil, Kracha faced discrimination together with his family. The immigrants were highly discriminated in their places of work by the whites. It was very hard for an immigrant to secure a job in the American industries. This was one of the ways through which immigrants got discriminated. Kracha faced such kind of mistreatment when he was in search for a job. The case was even worse for those who got a chance to get a job. The immigrants could only be employed in the risky areas in the industries like in the mines and metal industries. Kracha got his first job on where he was employed on the railroads. The job was not sufficient to feed his family due to the low wages he got after a long day work. This was the major reason for the hardship Kracha’s family faced.
George Kracha’s job in the steel mills was not very unsafe as described by Bell. Kracha explains how the working conditions posed a threat to their health due to the poor working conditions. On the railroads, Kracha was forced to work all day without rest and this posed a great risk to their health. Some of the immigrant workers got ill in the working places mostly in the metal milling factories. Their employers could not compensate them for treatment of illnesses affecting them related to the poor working conditions. This made some of the workers quit their jobs due to the high levels of discrimination they faced in the working places.
Only the best writers
24/7 Live Support
The story of the three generations of the male workers is well composed by Thomas Bell in his novel. The first generation in this story is that of George Kracha who moves with his family into America to look for greener pastures and freedom. The three generations have something in common and that is their area of occupation. George, Mike and Johnny worked at the steel mills in order to earn a living. The second generation is made of George Kracha’s daughter who married Mike Dobrejcak. Mike was a steel worker. Mike also faced the working hardships that Kracha faced in the factory. This made their lives poor due to the low wages they got. The inhuman working conditions in the mills made their lives desperate because of the low wages sometimes unable to meet their basic needs like food. This remained a problem to Mike and his wife Mary, a daughter to Kracha.
The third generation of the male workers came was seen to create a slight difference in the mode of working in the steel mills. This was Dobrejcak generations that aimed at creating a difference in the way the immigrant workers were being handled. According to Bell, this generation was determined to eliminate the human sacrifice that was subjected to the immigrants in the mills. The aim of this generation was to fight for better working conditions and fair wages for all workers in the mines. This would fight the discrimination and the risky working conditions that the immigrants got from their employers. Dobrejcak was after establishing a lasting fair treatment and justice for all the workers in the mills and factories.
The three generations presented in this Thomas Bells’ novel had different attitudes towards the work they did in the steel mills. Kracha did not like the inhuman working conditions given to the immigrants. The low wages paid to Kracha were insufficient to sustain his family. This made the character quit the job in the steel mills and stated his meat business. The meat market worked well for him until one time when it came to collapse due to poor decisions he had made. The next generation, by Mike who had married Kracha’s daughter also showed negative attitude towards the job they did in the steel mills. . Mike states that the working conditions were very poor and inhuman and this was accompanied by low wages the immigrants got.
Thomas Bells’ book is well composed and I would also recommend it to other readers. The novel is lively because the events unfolding in the novel give a clear picture of past real life situations. The book has a well narrated story about the past happenings and makes the reader see the reality of the things happening even in the present world like the migration of people due to war and other calamities.
In conclusion, the treatment given to foreigners in their new land is much different from that of the original inhabitants. The strangers are mostly discriminated and poorly treated. Immigrants in America in the 19th century faced a series of challenges in their struggle to adapt and earn a living for their families. People migrate from their homeland in search for greener pastures. War and political instability in the home country have been noted to be the major contributor to the increasing number of migrants. | 1,648 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Great Camel Experiment was put into motion in 1856 when thirty-four camels arrived near this location from the Middle East. The use of camels was the idea of US Secretary of War and future Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Davis served in this capacity from 1853 to 1857. Among his early proposals to Congress was a request for funds so that the US Army could acquire and test the integration of camels into supply lines, military campaigns, and exploration. The camels were purchased at Secretary Davis's request by Major Henry C. Wayne. Wayne brought 34 of the animals to the shores of the United States here at Indianola, Texas.
The camels were moved first to San Antonio before a corral (khan) was set up for them at Camp Verde. The experiment would continue over the next five years in three separate expeditions in the southern US. Davis joined the Confederacy in April 1861 which left the camels in the hands of Union leaders who less than enthusiastic about their potential value for the military. Most of the camels were sold at auction, but a few camels were found for many years roaming around Camp Verde. One of the animals were put to use by the Confederate Army as a pack animal and was known by the moniker Douglas the Confederate Camel.
The Great Camel Experiment was not quite the success that Davis anticipated and the use of camels was not a feature of either army during the Civil War. Instead, the shipping of camels from North Africa to the United States became a cover used as a cover by slave traders to evade the ban on the international slave trade in the late 1850s.
The Great Camel Experiment dates back to the 1840s when military leaders first suggested acquiring camels and observing the animal's utility as a pack animal for potential widespread use by the army. Inspired by western expansion and the need for supply lines over an increasingly vast continental empire, Lieutenant George H. Crosman wrote to the War Department of the United States and suggested that camels could be used to cross desert regions with more efficiency. This letter was ignored, but in 1847, Crosman met Major Henry C. Wayne, a fellow camel enthusiast. Wayne also wrote to the War Department but his suggestion met the same response as Crosman had experienced.
Wayne’s interest in camels caught the attention of Jefferson Davis. At that time, Davis was serving as chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs. Davis petitioned in favor of the acquisition of camels for military use unsuccessfully until 1853 when he became Secretary of War. Davis wrote the following in a letter to Congress in 1854:
Congress allotted $30,000 dollars and the use of the naval supply ship, aptly named Supply, to acquire camels for the purpose of discovering their potential to the US Army. Davis appointed Major Wayne as head of the experiment. Davis sailed to the Mediterranean and Egypt and Crimea to consult British officers about their use of camels during the Crimean War. The army acquired camels from the Middle East and Northern Africa before returning to the states. On that voyage home, only one camel perished but others were born during the journey. On May 13, 1856, 34 camels arrived in Indianola, Texas.
After a small holdover in San Antonio, the camels would be housed in a camel corral (khan) in Camp Verde, Texas. It was here that Wayne launched the first of several expeditions that included camels before the start of the Civil War in 1861. Initially, Wayne had a mind to breed the animals, but Davis had other ideas and sent another ship back across the Mediterranean to procure more of the beasts. In a letter to Wayne he wrote:
“The establishment of a breeding farm did not enter into the plans of the department. The object at present is to ascertain whether the animal is adapted to military service and can be economically and usefully employed therein.”1
Three expeditions would mark the Great Camel Experiment. The first would occur in 1857 and was lead by one Edward Fitzgerald Beale, a Brigadier General in the California militia. Beale was initially dismayed with the government’s order to include the animals on his expedition from Arizona to California. He later reported that the animals were much sturdier than he initially assessed. He wrote Secretary of War John B. Floyd, (who had by this time replaced Davis) on July 24, 1857:
“….we have arrived here without an accident and although we have used the camels every day with heavy packs, have fewer sore backs and disabled ones by far than would have been the case traveling with pack mules. On starting I packed nearly seven hundred pounds on each camel, which I fear was too heavy a burden for the commencement of so long a journey; they, however, packed it daily until that weight was reduced by our diurnal use of it as forage for our mules.”1
The second use of camels by the army would take place in the summer of 1859 under US Army lieutenants Edward L. Hartz and William B. Echols. This expedition explored the Big Bend Trail in West Texas. While the expedition was marked by severe hardships, including lack of forage and desert heat, the camels proved more adaptable to than the rest of the livestock. A similar expedition led by Hartz and Echols the following year southwest of Val Verde would be the final use of camels by the War Department. Echols had this to say about the final expedition of the Great Camel Experiment:
“The mules will not fare well, the camels have performed most admirably today. No such march as this could have been made with any security without them”4
Despite successful integration, the start of the Civil War left the camel horde largely forgotten as battles and supply lines utilized mules, horses, and railroads. Some of the animals were auctioned off while others were left to graze around Fort Hudson. Confederate troops in the area reported being somewhat amused but mostly bewildered as they tried to find a use for the animals. The Confederacy attempted to use them in postal delivery, and some were sold to traveling shows such as Ringling Brothers.
One camel was gifted to Colonel W.H. Moore of the 43rd Mississippi infantry and became a token pet for the unit. The men of the 43rd named him Douglas and found him useful as a packhorse. Douglas was noted as having been present at Battles of Iuka and Corinth. On June 27th, 1863, a Union sharpshooter killed Douglas for an unknown reason.
The Great Came Experiment was a technical success, with each expedition proving the hardiness of the animals who could eat desert plants and go without water for up to a week at a time. The Confederacy was unable to capitalize on their usefulness given the nature of the war and the potential use of camels was largely forgotten until the North Africa campaign in World War II. Camels are known for irritability and they often scare horses if left to inexperienced handlers. The experiment failed without a clear need such as a long-range desert mission. In addition, the most enthusiastic supporters, Jefferson Davis and Major Wayne, were focussed on more pressing matters. Wayne served as a Union officer while Davis became the President of the Confederate States of America.
The Great Camel Experiment remains a unique footnote in American history during the Civil War Era with little more than this landmark serving as a reminder of the attempt to use camels. As historian Michael Woods has demonstrated, slave traders began shipping camels to the US after Jefferson Davis's initial order as a cover for their illicit operations.
The marker and camel that stands beside it can be seen from the road and is part of a picnic area in Indianola, Texas. The marker consists of one permanent describing tablet and an accompanying silhouette of a Civil War soldier holding the reigns of a camel. The monument was erected in 2013 by the Texas Historical Commission. This site was selected as an approximation for where the camels disembarked from the US naval ship, Supply. The marker records the name of the ship as the Fashion, but the best sources state that the correct name of the ship was the Supply. | <urn:uuid:523b47d2-f967-4c2d-9784-3f3bd31263bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/75300 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00197.warc.gz | en | 0.980873 | 1,682 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.504995822906494... | 2 | The Great Camel Experiment was put into motion in 1856 when thirty-four camels arrived near this location from the Middle East. The use of camels was the idea of US Secretary of War and future Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Davis served in this capacity from 1853 to 1857. Among his early proposals to Congress was a request for funds so that the US Army could acquire and test the integration of camels into supply lines, military campaigns, and exploration. The camels were purchased at Secretary Davis's request by Major Henry C. Wayne. Wayne brought 34 of the animals to the shores of the United States here at Indianola, Texas.
The camels were moved first to San Antonio before a corral (khan) was set up for them at Camp Verde. The experiment would continue over the next five years in three separate expeditions in the southern US. Davis joined the Confederacy in April 1861 which left the camels in the hands of Union leaders who less than enthusiastic about their potential value for the military. Most of the camels were sold at auction, but a few camels were found for many years roaming around Camp Verde. One of the animals were put to use by the Confederate Army as a pack animal and was known by the moniker Douglas the Confederate Camel.
The Great Camel Experiment was not quite the success that Davis anticipated and the use of camels was not a feature of either army during the Civil War. Instead, the shipping of camels from North Africa to the United States became a cover used as a cover by slave traders to evade the ban on the international slave trade in the late 1850s.
The Great Camel Experiment dates back to the 1840s when military leaders first suggested acquiring camels and observing the animal's utility as a pack animal for potential widespread use by the army. Inspired by western expansion and the need for supply lines over an increasingly vast continental empire, Lieutenant George H. Crosman wrote to the War Department of the United States and suggested that camels could be used to cross desert regions with more efficiency. This letter was ignored, but in 1847, Crosman met Major Henry C. Wayne, a fellow camel enthusiast. Wayne also wrote to the War Department but his suggestion met the same response as Crosman had experienced.
Wayne’s interest in camels caught the attention of Jefferson Davis. At that time, Davis was serving as chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs. Davis petitioned in favor of the acquisition of camels for military use unsuccessfully until 1853 when he became Secretary of War. Davis wrote the following in a letter to Congress in 1854:
Congress allotted $30,000 dollars and the use of the naval supply ship, aptly named Supply, to acquire camels for the purpose of discovering their potential to the US Army. Davis appointed Major Wayne as head of the experiment. Davis sailed to the Mediterranean and Egypt and Crimea to consult British officers about their use of camels during the Crimean War. The army acquired camels from the Middle East and Northern Africa before returning to the states. On that voyage home, only one camel perished but others were born during the journey. On May 13, 1856, 34 camels arrived in Indianola, Texas.
After a small holdover in San Antonio, the camels would be housed in a camel corral (khan) in Camp Verde, Texas. It was here that Wayne launched the first of several expeditions that included camels before the start of the Civil War in 1861. Initially, Wayne had a mind to breed the animals, but Davis had other ideas and sent another ship back across the Mediterranean to procure more of the beasts. In a letter to Wayne he wrote:
“The establishment of a breeding farm did not enter into the plans of the department. The object at present is to ascertain whether the animal is adapted to military service and can be economically and usefully employed therein.”1
Three expeditions would mark the Great Camel Experiment. The first would occur in 1857 and was lead by one Edward Fitzgerald Beale, a Brigadier General in the California militia. Beale was initially dismayed with the government’s order to include the animals on his expedition from Arizona to California. He later reported that the animals were much sturdier than he initially assessed. He wrote Secretary of War John B. Floyd, (who had by this time replaced Davis) on July 24, 1857:
“….we have arrived here without an accident and although we have used the camels every day with heavy packs, have fewer sore backs and disabled ones by far than would have been the case traveling with pack mules. On starting I packed nearly seven hundred pounds on each camel, which I fear was too heavy a burden for the commencement of so long a journey; they, however, packed it daily until that weight was reduced by our diurnal use of it as forage for our mules.”1
The second use of camels by the army would take place in the summer of 1859 under US Army lieutenants Edward L. Hartz and William B. Echols. This expedition explored the Big Bend Trail in West Texas. While the expedition was marked by severe hardships, including lack of forage and desert heat, the camels proved more adaptable to than the rest of the livestock. A similar expedition led by Hartz and Echols the following year southwest of Val Verde would be the final use of camels by the War Department. Echols had this to say about the final expedition of the Great Camel Experiment:
“The mules will not fare well, the camels have performed most admirably today. No such march as this could have been made with any security without them”4
Despite successful integration, the start of the Civil War left the camel horde largely forgotten as battles and supply lines utilized mules, horses, and railroads. Some of the animals were auctioned off while others were left to graze around Fort Hudson. Confederate troops in the area reported being somewhat amused but mostly bewildered as they tried to find a use for the animals. The Confederacy attempted to use them in postal delivery, and some were sold to traveling shows such as Ringling Brothers.
One camel was gifted to Colonel W.H. Moore of the 43rd Mississippi infantry and became a token pet for the unit. The men of the 43rd named him Douglas and found him useful as a packhorse. Douglas was noted as having been present at Battles of Iuka and Corinth. On June 27th, 1863, a Union sharpshooter killed Douglas for an unknown reason.
The Great Came Experiment was a technical success, with each expedition proving the hardiness of the animals who could eat desert plants and go without water for up to a week at a time. The Confederacy was unable to capitalize on their usefulness given the nature of the war and the potential use of camels was largely forgotten until the North Africa campaign in World War II. Camels are known for irritability and they often scare horses if left to inexperienced handlers. The experiment failed without a clear need such as a long-range desert mission. In addition, the most enthusiastic supporters, Jefferson Davis and Major Wayne, were focussed on more pressing matters. Wayne served as a Union officer while Davis became the President of the Confederate States of America.
The Great Camel Experiment remains a unique footnote in American history during the Civil War Era with little more than this landmark serving as a reminder of the attempt to use camels. As historian Michael Woods has demonstrated, slave traders began shipping camels to the US after Jefferson Davis's initial order as a cover for their illicit operations.
The marker and camel that stands beside it can be seen from the road and is part of a picnic area in Indianola, Texas. The marker consists of one permanent describing tablet and an accompanying silhouette of a Civil War soldier holding the reigns of a camel. The monument was erected in 2013 by the Texas Historical Commission. This site was selected as an approximation for where the camels disembarked from the US naval ship, Supply. The marker records the name of the ship as the Fashion, but the best sources state that the correct name of the ship was the Supply. | 1,724 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Octavian Chronicle #12, Suicide-30 BC, tells the whole story
It can be said of Cleopatra that she gained power through her relationship with one great Roman leader (Julius Caesar), maintained it with another great Roman leader (Mark Antony), and lost it because of a third (Octavian).Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, committed suicide on August 12, 30 BC in Alexandria, Egypt. A year prior, Octavian had handed her and Mark Antony a severe defeat in the Sea Battle at Actium off the coast of Greece. In 30 BC, he defeated them again at Alexandria. Mark Antony committed suicide rather than be taken prisoner.
She tried to use her wiles on Octavian, but he would have none of it. Once Cleopatra was convinced all was lost, she too committed suicide. When the word came that she was dead, Octavian and his aides visited her mausoleum to view the body to determine how she died. It was important to him that the Egyptian people not blame him for her death and that they perceive her death as a noble one. He did not want an unnecessary rebellion on his hands. They entered through the heavy doors to investigate.
Just then, Epaphroditus walked in and stood with them. Octavian asked, “Do you see anything different about her?”
With a sad face, he looked the body over. There was silence in the room as everyone watched him. Suddenly, he said, “I don’t see the hairpin she was wearing!”
Pollonius looked at Octavian. “She might’ve had poison on her hairpin all along.”
“That’s a good possibility,” said Octavian.
Gallus came back in and said, “I found what looks like the trail of a large snake in the sand. It was on the side where that opening is.” He pointed up to the top of the mausoleum. “Maybe it got out that way,” he said.
“Look at this,” said Pollonius. “There are two marks here high on her arm under her sleeve. They look like they might’ve come from the fangs of a snake, but they’re so faint it’s hard to believe that they came from a recent bite.”
Octavian leaned down and looked closely. He asked, “Or are they two pinpricks made with a hairpin to look like the bite of a snake? Maybe that’s why they’re so faint.” He turned to Epaphroditus and asked, “What else happened today that was different?”
Epaphroditus wiped the back of his hand across his forehead and said, “I’ve been thinking about this because it did seem a little strange to me. A large basket of figs was delivered here by a farmer. Charmion had made the arrangement.”
Pollonius said, “If she was intent on killing herself, why would Cleopatra order a large basket of figs?”
“Maybe there was a snake hidden in the basket,” said Octavian.
Gallus said, “It would have to have been a large basket if it was a snake of the size that made the tracks in the sand outside the mausoleum.”
“It was a basket that large,” said Epaphroditus, nodding.
They all stood there quietly for a moment until Octavian said, “For our part, we’ll let it be told that she died by the bite of an asp. That way, her people can say that she died as royalty. The snake appears on the statues of Isis, and it’s a symbol of royalty to the Egyptians. If others want to draw another conclusion, it will be less popular than our conclusion, and it won’t last.”
“Are you going to let her be buried beside Antony as she requested?” asked Gallus.
“Yes, and we’ll have Charmion and Iras buried beside her. The eunuch Mardion can be buried in here too. He either took the poison or let himself be bitten by the snake, then jumped in the coffin that was meant for him.”
Octavian took one last look at Cleopatra and said, “Let’s get out of here and get some fresh air.” | <urn:uuid:4cce49ec-0c72-4bdc-870e-9836da1479a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://octavianchronicles.com/excerpts-2/cleopatras-suicide/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00424.warc.gz | en | 0.988276 | 978 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.1535006761550903... | 2 | Octavian Chronicle #12, Suicide-30 BC, tells the whole story
It can be said of Cleopatra that she gained power through her relationship with one great Roman leader (Julius Caesar), maintained it with another great Roman leader (Mark Antony), and lost it because of a third (Octavian).Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, committed suicide on August 12, 30 BC in Alexandria, Egypt. A year prior, Octavian had handed her and Mark Antony a severe defeat in the Sea Battle at Actium off the coast of Greece. In 30 BC, he defeated them again at Alexandria. Mark Antony committed suicide rather than be taken prisoner.
She tried to use her wiles on Octavian, but he would have none of it. Once Cleopatra was convinced all was lost, she too committed suicide. When the word came that she was dead, Octavian and his aides visited her mausoleum to view the body to determine how she died. It was important to him that the Egyptian people not blame him for her death and that they perceive her death as a noble one. He did not want an unnecessary rebellion on his hands. They entered through the heavy doors to investigate.
Just then, Epaphroditus walked in and stood with them. Octavian asked, “Do you see anything different about her?”
With a sad face, he looked the body over. There was silence in the room as everyone watched him. Suddenly, he said, “I don’t see the hairpin she was wearing!”
Pollonius looked at Octavian. “She might’ve had poison on her hairpin all along.”
“That’s a good possibility,” said Octavian.
Gallus came back in and said, “I found what looks like the trail of a large snake in the sand. It was on the side where that opening is.” He pointed up to the top of the mausoleum. “Maybe it got out that way,” he said.
“Look at this,” said Pollonius. “There are two marks here high on her arm under her sleeve. They look like they might’ve come from the fangs of a snake, but they’re so faint it’s hard to believe that they came from a recent bite.”
Octavian leaned down and looked closely. He asked, “Or are they two pinpricks made with a hairpin to look like the bite of a snake? Maybe that’s why they’re so faint.” He turned to Epaphroditus and asked, “What else happened today that was different?”
Epaphroditus wiped the back of his hand across his forehead and said, “I’ve been thinking about this because it did seem a little strange to me. A large basket of figs was delivered here by a farmer. Charmion had made the arrangement.”
Pollonius said, “If she was intent on killing herself, why would Cleopatra order a large basket of figs?”
“Maybe there was a snake hidden in the basket,” said Octavian.
Gallus said, “It would have to have been a large basket if it was a snake of the size that made the tracks in the sand outside the mausoleum.”
“It was a basket that large,” said Epaphroditus, nodding.
They all stood there quietly for a moment until Octavian said, “For our part, we’ll let it be told that she died by the bite of an asp. That way, her people can say that she died as royalty. The snake appears on the statues of Isis, and it’s a symbol of royalty to the Egyptians. If others want to draw another conclusion, it will be less popular than our conclusion, and it won’t last.”
“Are you going to let her be buried beside Antony as she requested?” asked Gallus.
“Yes, and we’ll have Charmion and Iras buried beside her. The eunuch Mardion can be buried in here too. He either took the poison or let himself be bitten by the snake, then jumped in the coffin that was meant for him.”
Octavian took one last look at Cleopatra and said, “Let’s get out of here and get some fresh air.” | 873 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He was born on or before August 13,according to a recent baptism record found by Jean-Marie Germe, French genealogist. The date was carved on numerous monuments dedicated to Champlain and is widely regarded as accurate.
WhatsApp Samuel de Champlain was a prominent French explorer who was the first European to map and describe various places in North America, mostly in present day Canada.
He is famous as the founder of the area which was colonized by France and became known as New France or French North America. Exact year of his birth is not known.
It is most likely around His father and uncle were navigators and hence he had early exposure in the field. He learned to navigate, draw, make nautical charts, and write practical reports.
He began as a caretaker of horses but was soon adept with firearms and even took part in combat. Samuel accompanied his uncle during this journey and had the opportunity to see or hear about Spanish holdings from the Caribbean to Mexico City.
He made an illustrated report of what he learned during the trip and presented it to King Henry. The King rewarded Champlain with an annual pension. Part of his duty was to travel to French ports and during these visits he learned a lot about North America from the fishermen.
They became close friends and Du Pont taught Champlain about navigation in North America and how to deal with the natives there.
He wrote vivid descriptions of the areas he explored becoming the first person to write about the beautiful lakes, Ottawa River and other important areas in North America. He was the de facto Governor of New France till his death in Here he created an area to serve as a fort in which he erected three main wooden buildings, each two stories tall.
This was the very beginning of Quebec City, which is now the capital of the Canadian province of Quebec and occupies more than kilometer squares of area. Habitation Quebec,erected by Samuel de Champlain 7 He mapped Lake Champlain Champlain made good relations with the natives who requested him to help them in their war against the Iroquois, who lived farther south.
While looking for the Iroquois, Champlain became the first European to map a large body of water in the region which was later named Lake Champlain after him. He did encounter the Iroquois and even killed two of their chiefs with a single shot as per his account of the battle.
So, in order to gain access to the court, Champlain married the daughter of a prominent courtier. She was only twelve years old, 31 years younger to Champlain. Several monuments have been established in his memory and many places have been named in his honor including Lake Champlain, Champlain Valley and Champlain Bridge.Samuel de Champlain, (born , Brouage, France—died December 25, , Quebec, New France [now in Quebec, Canada]), French explorer, acknowledged founder of the city of Quebec (), and consolidator of the French colonies in the New World.
Aug 01, · Watch a short biography of French explorer Samuel de Champlain who established the city of Quebec in the northern colony of New France.
#Biography Subscribe. Samuel de Champlain (French: [samɥɛl də ʃɑ̃plɛ̃] born Samuel Champlain; on or before August 13, – December 25, ), known as "The Father of New France", was a French navigator, cartographer, draftsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler.
Just south of the ruins of the mighty French and British fortresses at Crown Point sits one of the most unusual lighthouses of its kind in the r-bridal.comd on an outcropping just below the great bridge also named for the French explorer; the Champlain Memorial Lighthouse still keeps its silent vigil over the narrow passageway between New York and Vermont.
Samuel de Champlain was a prominent French explorer who was the first European to map and describe various places in North America, mostly in present day Canada. He is famous as the founder of the area which was colonized by France and became known as New France or French North America.
Josepha Sherman, Samuel de Champlain, Explorer of the Great Lakes Region and Founder of Quebec (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., ), 7. Sherman, Samuel de Champlain, 7. Harold Faber, Samuel de Champlain, Explorer of Canada (New York: Benchmark Books, ), Here is an indexed listing of biography sites for Explorers - A to Z. This is a companion page for the main Explorers page, one of many 42eXplore projects from EduScapes. A-B. Samuel was an explorer who founded the Canadian city of Quebec. He helped colonize French North America, formerly called New France, and is often called the “Father of New France.” Born in Brouage, Norway around , Champlain learned navigation from his sea captain father.
Samuel de Champlain, a French explorer, discovered Lake Champlain in what is now Canada, and founded the city of Quebec. The people in Quebec today still speak both French and English. "Samuel de Champlain spent much time writing descriptions of the territory and peoples he encountered in the place that is now North America. | <urn:uuid:224d6bd1-b8b3-480e-ab44-3c5051a49ff7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://xizomaqivumaq.r-bridal.com/samuel-de-champlain-explorer-7810xz.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.980156 | 1,102 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.273960590362... | 2 | He was born on or before August 13,according to a recent baptism record found by Jean-Marie Germe, French genealogist. The date was carved on numerous monuments dedicated to Champlain and is widely regarded as accurate.
WhatsApp Samuel de Champlain was a prominent French explorer who was the first European to map and describe various places in North America, mostly in present day Canada.
He is famous as the founder of the area which was colonized by France and became known as New France or French North America. Exact year of his birth is not known.
It is most likely around His father and uncle were navigators and hence he had early exposure in the field. He learned to navigate, draw, make nautical charts, and write practical reports.
He began as a caretaker of horses but was soon adept with firearms and even took part in combat. Samuel accompanied his uncle during this journey and had the opportunity to see or hear about Spanish holdings from the Caribbean to Mexico City.
He made an illustrated report of what he learned during the trip and presented it to King Henry. The King rewarded Champlain with an annual pension. Part of his duty was to travel to French ports and during these visits he learned a lot about North America from the fishermen.
They became close friends and Du Pont taught Champlain about navigation in North America and how to deal with the natives there.
He wrote vivid descriptions of the areas he explored becoming the first person to write about the beautiful lakes, Ottawa River and other important areas in North America. He was the de facto Governor of New France till his death in Here he created an area to serve as a fort in which he erected three main wooden buildings, each two stories tall.
This was the very beginning of Quebec City, which is now the capital of the Canadian province of Quebec and occupies more than kilometer squares of area. Habitation Quebec,erected by Samuel de Champlain 7 He mapped Lake Champlain Champlain made good relations with the natives who requested him to help them in their war against the Iroquois, who lived farther south.
While looking for the Iroquois, Champlain became the first European to map a large body of water in the region which was later named Lake Champlain after him. He did encounter the Iroquois and even killed two of their chiefs with a single shot as per his account of the battle.
So, in order to gain access to the court, Champlain married the daughter of a prominent courtier. She was only twelve years old, 31 years younger to Champlain. Several monuments have been established in his memory and many places have been named in his honor including Lake Champlain, Champlain Valley and Champlain Bridge.Samuel de Champlain, (born , Brouage, France—died December 25, , Quebec, New France [now in Quebec, Canada]), French explorer, acknowledged founder of the city of Quebec (), and consolidator of the French colonies in the New World.
Aug 01, · Watch a short biography of French explorer Samuel de Champlain who established the city of Quebec in the northern colony of New France.
#Biography Subscribe. Samuel de Champlain (French: [samɥɛl də ʃɑ̃plɛ̃] born Samuel Champlain; on or before August 13, – December 25, ), known as "The Father of New France", was a French navigator, cartographer, draftsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler.
Just south of the ruins of the mighty French and British fortresses at Crown Point sits one of the most unusual lighthouses of its kind in the r-bridal.comd on an outcropping just below the great bridge also named for the French explorer; the Champlain Memorial Lighthouse still keeps its silent vigil over the narrow passageway between New York and Vermont.
Samuel de Champlain was a prominent French explorer who was the first European to map and describe various places in North America, mostly in present day Canada. He is famous as the founder of the area which was colonized by France and became known as New France or French North America.
Josepha Sherman, Samuel de Champlain, Explorer of the Great Lakes Region and Founder of Quebec (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., ), 7. Sherman, Samuel de Champlain, 7. Harold Faber, Samuel de Champlain, Explorer of Canada (New York: Benchmark Books, ), Here is an indexed listing of biography sites for Explorers - A to Z. This is a companion page for the main Explorers page, one of many 42eXplore projects from EduScapes. A-B. Samuel was an explorer who founded the Canadian city of Quebec. He helped colonize French North America, formerly called New France, and is often called the “Father of New France.” Born in Brouage, Norway around , Champlain learned navigation from his sea captain father.
Samuel de Champlain, a French explorer, discovered Lake Champlain in what is now Canada, and founded the city of Quebec. The people in Quebec today still speak both French and English. "Samuel de Champlain spent much time writing descriptions of the territory and peoples he encountered in the place that is now North America. | 1,091 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Red Cross was founded by 1859 over these circumstances:
Until the middle of the 19th century, there were no organized and/or well-established army nursing systems for casualties and no safe and protected institutions to accommodate and treat those who were wounded on the battlefield.
(...) Jean-Henri Dunant, in June 1859, (...) arrived in the small town of Solferino on the evening of 24 June after the Battle of Solferino, an engagement in the Austro-Sardinian War. In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were left wounded on the field. Jean-Henri Dunant was shocked by the terrible aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers, and the near-total lack of medical attendance and basic care. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for several days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment and care for the wounded. He took point in organizing an overwhelming level of relief assistance with the local villagers to aid without discrimination.
Also, I have read useful questions (and its answers) such as How did ancient armies keep the route of supplies to their battlefield?.
Still, I wonder: what was the usual aftermath of a battle during the middle ages? How would wounded soldiers proceed afterwards? Was there any group of rivals executing the survivors or were they just left behind? Was part of citizen's duties to go and 'clean' the battlefield once the battle was over? | <urn:uuid:7cb8e5b6-df43-4340-8477-81c5a0cae4e6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/55578/what-was-the-aftermath-of-a-battle-in-the-middle-ages-how-did-wounded-soldiers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00109.warc.gz | en | 0.980298 | 303 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.297200620174407... | 2 | The Red Cross was founded by 1859 over these circumstances:
Until the middle of the 19th century, there were no organized and/or well-established army nursing systems for casualties and no safe and protected institutions to accommodate and treat those who were wounded on the battlefield.
(...) Jean-Henri Dunant, in June 1859, (...) arrived in the small town of Solferino on the evening of 24 June after the Battle of Solferino, an engagement in the Austro-Sardinian War. In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were left wounded on the field. Jean-Henri Dunant was shocked by the terrible aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers, and the near-total lack of medical attendance and basic care. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for several days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment and care for the wounded. He took point in organizing an overwhelming level of relief assistance with the local villagers to aid without discrimination.
Also, I have read useful questions (and its answers) such as How did ancient armies keep the route of supplies to their battlefield?.
Still, I wonder: what was the usual aftermath of a battle during the middle ages? How would wounded soldiers proceed afterwards? Was there any group of rivals executing the survivors or were they just left behind? Was part of citizen's duties to go and 'clean' the battlefield once the battle was over? | 307 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Medieval castle designs have varied from one era of history to another. During the early and middle medieval times, the primary purpose of medieval castles was defence and thus little attention was paid to the aesthetics and design of medieval castles. However, during the late medieval times, the importance of medieval castles for defence gradually declined and more attention was paid to medieval castle designs.
Early Medieval Castle Designs
Before the Norman Conquest of England, during the early medieval times, medieval castles merely consisted of mounds of earth with fortifications for defence. The Normans gave rise to special medieval castle designs called Motte and Bailey Castles. These castles consisted of a large mound of earth and an accompanying flat land area. The mound of earth was generally surrounded by a ditch of water for defence.
Braga Castle This map shows the layout of the design of a medieval castle – Follow link for license details – https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Braga-mapa_mediaval.jpg
Late Medieval Castle Designs
By the late medieval times, medieval castle designs had been drastically altered. Castles were built with large stones and increasing attention was paid to their design. It was also during the late medieval times that concentric medieval castles became popular. These castles consisted of two layers of castle walls which made penetration by an invading army very difficult. The inner wall was higher than the outer wall so that the outer wall could be defended from the inside as well.
Best Medieval Castle Designs
Certain features were common to most medieval castles. These features included barbicans, deep moats, and great halls. Concentric castles were generally considered to have best medieval castle design in terms of defence and safety. However, in terms of aesthetics, best design could vary from castle to castle. Secret passages and stairways were also important components of the best medieval castle designs.
Medieval Castles Designers
Medieval castles were built by men who were known for their architectural prowess and enjoyed success in their profession. One of the most famous builders was Gundulf who came to England after the Norman Conquest and was employed by William the Conqueror to build the castle at Rochester as well as the keep of the Tower of London. Among the other popular medieval castle builders, James of St. George and William Wynford were particularly noteworthy for their skill.
Medieval Castles Design – Strategic Locations
The most important purpose of medieval castles, particularly during the reign of William the Conqueror, was defence. Due to this reason, most of the castles were built at strategic locations in order to foil enemy invasions and ensure a strong hold over the local population. Major castles were built in and around important towns including London, York, Exeter, Cambridge, and others. Other than important towns, castles were also built on important river crossings and crossroads.
Medieval Castle Design Summary
During the transition from middle to late medieval times, several critical changes were brought about in the medieval castle designs and construction strategies. The important transition took place after the Norman Conquest of England. During the middle medieval times, defence was the most important purpose for building of medieval castles while design of medieval castles and their aesthetics became increasingly important during the late medieval times. | <urn:uuid:743df80c-66be-484e-8d86-87c6b5808ba5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-castles/medieval-castle-designs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.982104 | 650 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.18951004743... | 2 | Medieval castle designs have varied from one era of history to another. During the early and middle medieval times, the primary purpose of medieval castles was defence and thus little attention was paid to the aesthetics and design of medieval castles. However, during the late medieval times, the importance of medieval castles for defence gradually declined and more attention was paid to medieval castle designs.
Early Medieval Castle Designs
Before the Norman Conquest of England, during the early medieval times, medieval castles merely consisted of mounds of earth with fortifications for defence. The Normans gave rise to special medieval castle designs called Motte and Bailey Castles. These castles consisted of a large mound of earth and an accompanying flat land area. The mound of earth was generally surrounded by a ditch of water for defence.
Braga Castle This map shows the layout of the design of a medieval castle – Follow link for license details – https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Braga-mapa_mediaval.jpg
Late Medieval Castle Designs
By the late medieval times, medieval castle designs had been drastically altered. Castles were built with large stones and increasing attention was paid to their design. It was also during the late medieval times that concentric medieval castles became popular. These castles consisted of two layers of castle walls which made penetration by an invading army very difficult. The inner wall was higher than the outer wall so that the outer wall could be defended from the inside as well.
Best Medieval Castle Designs
Certain features were common to most medieval castles. These features included barbicans, deep moats, and great halls. Concentric castles were generally considered to have best medieval castle design in terms of defence and safety. However, in terms of aesthetics, best design could vary from castle to castle. Secret passages and stairways were also important components of the best medieval castle designs.
Medieval Castles Designers
Medieval castles were built by men who were known for their architectural prowess and enjoyed success in their profession. One of the most famous builders was Gundulf who came to England after the Norman Conquest and was employed by William the Conqueror to build the castle at Rochester as well as the keep of the Tower of London. Among the other popular medieval castle builders, James of St. George and William Wynford were particularly noteworthy for their skill.
Medieval Castles Design – Strategic Locations
The most important purpose of medieval castles, particularly during the reign of William the Conqueror, was defence. Due to this reason, most of the castles were built at strategic locations in order to foil enemy invasions and ensure a strong hold over the local population. Major castles were built in and around important towns including London, York, Exeter, Cambridge, and others. Other than important towns, castles were also built on important river crossings and crossroads.
Medieval Castle Design Summary
During the transition from middle to late medieval times, several critical changes were brought about in the medieval castle designs and construction strategies. The important transition took place after the Norman Conquest of England. During the middle medieval times, defence was the most important purpose for building of medieval castles while design of medieval castles and their aesthetics became increasingly important during the late medieval times. | 660 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fashion is a big part of history, and the medieval time period is no exception. Just like today, fashion was used in medieval times as an outward display of personality, status and wealth. Here are some interesting facts you may not have known about medieval fashion.
Only for the Wealthy
In medieval times, fashion was very important to the wealthy class. In fact, Sumptuary Laws forbade the lower class from wearing certain colours and fabrics. While it is hard to know the true historic accuracy of movies like ‘Ever After,’ it is very possible that lower class citizens were beaten and even imprisoned for impersonating royalty through dress.
While the lower class dressed in simple gowns (women) and tunics/slacks (men) made of linen or wool, the upper class had much more extravagant tastes. Silk, taffeta, velvet and damask were available to those who could afford it. Brightly coloured fabric was also much more expensive.
The wealthy women of the Middle Ages wore long gowns with trains and sleeves that brushed the floor. These gowns often had lacing along the back or front that allowed the bodice to fit tightly against the body and flare out at the hips. It was common for dresses to be decorated with embroidery along the sleeves and hems. Women wore hats in a variety of shapes, including cones, hearts and even horns. These hats were often adorned with veils.
Men usually wore tights or fitted trousers and a long tunic that was tied at the waist. Very wealthy men could afford jackets made of fine fabric with pleating or skirting along the bottom. The jacket sleeves were often split to allow the undershirt to show through. It was also common for men to wear padded or puffed sleeves. Men wore pointed shoes, and it has been said that the longer the point, the higher the man’s status. Men also wore hats, although they were much simpler than the women’s-they looked much like the modern-day beret. | <urn:uuid:c497f6dc-1324-4ee0-b18b-5abf139fb311> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://newbalance-outlet.org/medieval-fashion-for-the-wealthy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.986217 | 417 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.008363696... | 4 | Fashion is a big part of history, and the medieval time period is no exception. Just like today, fashion was used in medieval times as an outward display of personality, status and wealth. Here are some interesting facts you may not have known about medieval fashion.
Only for the Wealthy
In medieval times, fashion was very important to the wealthy class. In fact, Sumptuary Laws forbade the lower class from wearing certain colours and fabrics. While it is hard to know the true historic accuracy of movies like ‘Ever After,’ it is very possible that lower class citizens were beaten and even imprisoned for impersonating royalty through dress.
While the lower class dressed in simple gowns (women) and tunics/slacks (men) made of linen or wool, the upper class had much more extravagant tastes. Silk, taffeta, velvet and damask were available to those who could afford it. Brightly coloured fabric was also much more expensive.
The wealthy women of the Middle Ages wore long gowns with trains and sleeves that brushed the floor. These gowns often had lacing along the back or front that allowed the bodice to fit tightly against the body and flare out at the hips. It was common for dresses to be decorated with embroidery along the sleeves and hems. Women wore hats in a variety of shapes, including cones, hearts and even horns. These hats were often adorned with veils.
Men usually wore tights or fitted trousers and a long tunic that was tied at the waist. Very wealthy men could afford jackets made of fine fabric with pleating or skirting along the bottom. The jacket sleeves were often split to allow the undershirt to show through. It was also common for men to wear padded or puffed sleeves. Men wore pointed shoes, and it has been said that the longer the point, the higher the man’s status. Men also wore hats, although they were much simpler than the women’s-they looked much like the modern-day beret. | 402 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Colonial societies were often intolerant of indigenous people. As Europeans settled in New Zealand in the 19th century, Māori experienced racism and discrimination. Most Pākehā saw their culture as superior and Māori culture as backward. War, disease and land loss had a hugely negative impact on Māori communities. From 1926 Māori received 25% less than the full rate for old-age and widows’ pensions. There was also discrimination by hotel owners and landlords, and sometimes at swimming pools and cinemas.
Māori activism from the late 1960s led to better treatment from the government. Treaty of Waitangi settlements compensated iwi for some losses, and there was a resurgence of Māori culture and identity.
During the world wars German immigrants were considered to be ‘enemy aliens’. They were imprisoned on Matiu (Somes Island) and Motuihe Island during both wars, along with some Italians and Japanese in the Second World War.
Dalmatians, who worked digging kauri gum, were sometimes seen as illiterate and dirty. They were excluded from certain areas of the gumfields and required to register as enemy aliens during the First World War.
Chinese came to New Zealand in large numbers as gold miners from the 1860s. They were thought to be racially inferior and immoral, and groups campaigned against them. Chinese immigrants had to pay a poll tax of £10, later increased to £100. They were not allowed to receive pensions and could not become citizens.
Indians also experienced racism. In 1926 the White New Zealand League was set up to restrict Asian immigration and rights.
Immigration policies changed in 1986 and 1987 to emphasise skills rather than country of origin. Many more Asians came to New Zealand. Some groups formed to oppose Asian immigration, and the New Zealand First Party campaigned against high levels of immigration and ‘non-traditional’ immigrants.
Pacific people came to New Zealand from the late 1950s to work in factories. But as unemployment grew in the 1970s, there was a backlash against Pacific migrants, who were seen as taking jobs from New Zealanders. The government began deporting people who had overstayed their work permits, and raided the homes of alleged overstayers – usually at dawn, to catch them before they woke. In 1982 the Privy Council ruled that a Samoan who was being prosecuted as an overstayer was actually a New Zealand citizen. This meant that most of Samoa’s population were New Zealand citizens – but the government passed a law to prevent this.
New Zealand has had few examples of anti-Semitism (prejudice against Jews). One political tradition, Social Credit, was hostile to Jews, but it became more liberal by the 1970s. In 2004 Jewish gravestones were attacked in Wellington cemeteries.
From the 1960s some organisations promoted the idea that white people were superior and should remain ‘pure’ (separate from non-whites). Gangs of skinheads modelled themselves on British working-class groups, and some carried out violent racist and anti-gay attacks.
There was some hostility between Catholics and Protestants, mostly in the 19th century and early 20th century. In the early 21st century there was little religious tension, although some Muslim communities were harassed after the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States.
The 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings, in which 51 people were killed, were a shocking break with the long-term trend towards greater religious tolerance. | <urn:uuid:918492e0-6189-43cb-ac10-9bb9e9df0c61> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/mi/ethnic-and-religious-intolerance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.989468 | 721 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.45965725183486... | 16 | Colonial societies were often intolerant of indigenous people. As Europeans settled in New Zealand in the 19th century, Māori experienced racism and discrimination. Most Pākehā saw their culture as superior and Māori culture as backward. War, disease and land loss had a hugely negative impact on Māori communities. From 1926 Māori received 25% less than the full rate for old-age and widows’ pensions. There was also discrimination by hotel owners and landlords, and sometimes at swimming pools and cinemas.
Māori activism from the late 1960s led to better treatment from the government. Treaty of Waitangi settlements compensated iwi for some losses, and there was a resurgence of Māori culture and identity.
During the world wars German immigrants were considered to be ‘enemy aliens’. They were imprisoned on Matiu (Somes Island) and Motuihe Island during both wars, along with some Italians and Japanese in the Second World War.
Dalmatians, who worked digging kauri gum, were sometimes seen as illiterate and dirty. They were excluded from certain areas of the gumfields and required to register as enemy aliens during the First World War.
Chinese came to New Zealand in large numbers as gold miners from the 1860s. They were thought to be racially inferior and immoral, and groups campaigned against them. Chinese immigrants had to pay a poll tax of £10, later increased to £100. They were not allowed to receive pensions and could not become citizens.
Indians also experienced racism. In 1926 the White New Zealand League was set up to restrict Asian immigration and rights.
Immigration policies changed in 1986 and 1987 to emphasise skills rather than country of origin. Many more Asians came to New Zealand. Some groups formed to oppose Asian immigration, and the New Zealand First Party campaigned against high levels of immigration and ‘non-traditional’ immigrants.
Pacific people came to New Zealand from the late 1950s to work in factories. But as unemployment grew in the 1970s, there was a backlash against Pacific migrants, who were seen as taking jobs from New Zealanders. The government began deporting people who had overstayed their work permits, and raided the homes of alleged overstayers – usually at dawn, to catch them before they woke. In 1982 the Privy Council ruled that a Samoan who was being prosecuted as an overstayer was actually a New Zealand citizen. This meant that most of Samoa’s population were New Zealand citizens – but the government passed a law to prevent this.
New Zealand has had few examples of anti-Semitism (prejudice against Jews). One political tradition, Social Credit, was hostile to Jews, but it became more liberal by the 1970s. In 2004 Jewish gravestones were attacked in Wellington cemeteries.
From the 1960s some organisations promoted the idea that white people were superior and should remain ‘pure’ (separate from non-whites). Gangs of skinheads modelled themselves on British working-class groups, and some carried out violent racist and anti-gay attacks.
There was some hostility between Catholics and Protestants, mostly in the 19th century and early 20th century. In the early 21st century there was little religious tension, although some Muslim communities were harassed after the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States.
The 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings, in which 51 people were killed, were a shocking break with the long-term trend towards greater religious tolerance. | 766 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What are the roles of the branches of government in passing and carrying out the laws of the United States.
The three branches of the US federal government have separate powers given to them by the Constitution. This means that each branch plays a different role in passing and carrying out the laws of the United States.
The branch that does the most to pass laws is Congress. Congress is the only body in the US government that has the power to pass laws. However, the executive branch does have some role in this as well. First, the President must generally sign a bill in order for it to become law. He (or someday she) can veto bills in an attempt to prevent them from becoming law. However, passing laws is mainly the province of the legislative branch.
The branch that does the most to carry out the laws is the executive. All of the agencies that carry out laws, from the Internal Revenue Service to the Department of Agriculture, are part of the executive branch. The Congress does have some say in the matter as it sets the budgets for the various departments and can influence how they carry out the laws.
The judicial branch is mainly confined to interpreting the laws. It has no real power to legislate or carry out laws. However, it does get to say what the laws mean, which can be an important part of carrying them out. It can also strike down laws and presidential actions if they are contrary to the Constitution.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:09396a0f-da9d-403b-804d-13caef1e3334> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/separation-power-briefly-explain-rolr-president-422832?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00272.warc.gz | en | 0.981596 | 298 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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-0.04265496879816055,
-0.07714854180812836,... | 3 | What are the roles of the branches of government in passing and carrying out the laws of the United States.
The three branches of the US federal government have separate powers given to them by the Constitution. This means that each branch plays a different role in passing and carrying out the laws of the United States.
The branch that does the most to pass laws is Congress. Congress is the only body in the US government that has the power to pass laws. However, the executive branch does have some role in this as well. First, the President must generally sign a bill in order for it to become law. He (or someday she) can veto bills in an attempt to prevent them from becoming law. However, passing laws is mainly the province of the legislative branch.
The branch that does the most to carry out the laws is the executive. All of the agencies that carry out laws, from the Internal Revenue Service to the Department of Agriculture, are part of the executive branch. The Congress does have some say in the matter as it sets the budgets for the various departments and can influence how they carry out the laws.
The judicial branch is mainly confined to interpreting the laws. It has no real power to legislate or carry out laws. However, it does get to say what the laws mean, which can be an important part of carrying them out. It can also strike down laws and presidential actions if they are contrary to the Constitution.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It’s been over 100 years, but people are still talking about the Great Molasses Flood that struck Boston on January 15, 1919. This tragedy is one that almost seems made up. But it’s a true tale—a tsunami of molasses let loose on the city that caused devastating loss of life and damage to property. How did such a crazy thing happen?
The Flood: Before and After
All seemed well in Boston’s North End but little did anyone know that a gigantic molasses tank operated by the Purity Distilling Company was about to spark a disaster. This tank was massive, standing 50 feet high and 90 feet in diameter. It was designed to hold 2.5 million gallons of molasses, which was enough to fill 3 1/2 Olympic-sized swimming pools, and it was made from steel, a little more than half an inch thick.
While people living and working in the area suspected nothing, there were a few warning signs that disaster was imminent. The tank leaked—and it had leaked for a long time, enough that local neighborhood children knew to bring empty cups and cans to the tank to collect the free molasses that dripped from it. In fact, employees had been concerned that it was a safety hazard, but instead of making repairs, the tank’s owners simply painted the tank the same color as molasses to help hide the leaks. And there were other signs, like ominous creaks and groans whenever new molasses was added to the tank.
People in the area reported hearing a few loud sounds—like machine-gun fire—as the tank’s rivets began popping loose. The tank exploded and set free a tidal wave of molasses that measured between 15 and 25 feet at its highest, and about 165 feet wide. The destructive tide, about 2.3 million gallons of molasses in all, pounded through the neighborhood reaching a maximum speed of 35 MPH.
The damage was catastrophic. When all was said and done, the molasses flood claimed the lives of 21 people, ages ranging between 10 and 78. Two ten-year-old children collecting firewood nearby were swept away by the tide, and some city workers who were outside eating lunch at the time drowned in the flood. Another man, Martin Clougherty, told the Boston Globe in an interview that he was sleeping in his home and woke to find himself in several feet of molasses. About 150 people were injured. The flood trapped animals, too, resulting in the deaths of at least 25 horses.
The flood demolished homes and other buildings as it swept into the Boston Harbor. It also knocked a truck through a fence, damaged a railway, and pushed the local firehouse off its foundation. By today’s reckoning, the flood caused about $100 million in damages.
Rescue Efforts Proved Difficult
The wave itself was just the beginning. Firemen and police officers spent four days wading through waist-deep molasses to rescue people. Worse, the molasses behaved a lot like quicksand. Because molasses is thick and syrupy, new challenges arose as temperatures started to drop. When the spill occurred, temperatures were about 40 degrees, but as night fell, the molasses all over Boston’s North End cooled and thickened, firmly trapping anyone who hadn’t already been rescued. Some experts say that rescue efforts likely would have been much easier if the spill had happened in the height of summer rather than the dead of winter because the molasses wouldn’t have thickened so much.
And then there was the cleanup. All in all, the cleanup took about 80,000 hours of labor. Firefighters at first attempted to wash the molasses away with their hoses, but water proved ineffective—though they discovered that saltwater was more effective at “cutting” the molasses than freshwater, so millions of gallons were pumped in. Cleanup efforts took so long that it was months before the last of the bodies were found. Some have reported that even decades after the cleanup was complete, Boston’s North End still smelled of molasses, particularly on warm days.
What Went Wrong?
Investigations and accusations swirled around the Great Boston Molasses Flood. The company that owned Purity Distilling Company—the U.S. Industrial Alcohol Corporation—said that the disaster was caused by anarchists, who had sabotaged the tank with explosives. In those days, this wasn’t an entirely implausible explanation. Anarchists were known for such things, and in fact, 40 explosions linked to anarchists had been reported in Boston in the year leading up to the Great Molasses Flood.
But after a five-year court battle, it was ruled that anarchists weren’t to blame—only shoddy construction methods. Officials determined that the disaster was in part caused by a supervisor who lacked the training to read blueprints during the tank’s construction. The USIA had never hired certified engineers or architects to check the tank, and substandard construction materials had been used in the tank’s construction, including steel that was too thin and improperly forged.
The temperature was another factor. In the days prior to the tank’s failure, temperatures shifted from about 2 degrees F to 40 degrees. On top of it, the tank had been topped up with warm molasses, which mixed with the cold molasses inside. The temperature increases caused gas to expand within the tank, which led to its collapse. In the end, USIA was ordered to pay about $15 million dollars in today’s money as damages.
And that’s the story of the Great Boston Molasses Flood, a tragedy that reshaped building regulations nationwide. Today, few are aware of the flood or its significance, but if you ever visit Boston’s North End, you’ll find a green plaque on the side of a building where the tank once stood to commemorate this historic disaster. | <urn:uuid:be24b4f1-5499-4dca-a2b7-031dbd37d20d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.farmersalmanac.com/boston-great-molasses-flood-101323?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=boston-great-molasses-flood | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00098.warc.gz | en | 0.981625 | 1,227 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.06688953936100... | 3 | It’s been over 100 years, but people are still talking about the Great Molasses Flood that struck Boston on January 15, 1919. This tragedy is one that almost seems made up. But it’s a true tale—a tsunami of molasses let loose on the city that caused devastating loss of life and damage to property. How did such a crazy thing happen?
The Flood: Before and After
All seemed well in Boston’s North End but little did anyone know that a gigantic molasses tank operated by the Purity Distilling Company was about to spark a disaster. This tank was massive, standing 50 feet high and 90 feet in diameter. It was designed to hold 2.5 million gallons of molasses, which was enough to fill 3 1/2 Olympic-sized swimming pools, and it was made from steel, a little more than half an inch thick.
While people living and working in the area suspected nothing, there were a few warning signs that disaster was imminent. The tank leaked—and it had leaked for a long time, enough that local neighborhood children knew to bring empty cups and cans to the tank to collect the free molasses that dripped from it. In fact, employees had been concerned that it was a safety hazard, but instead of making repairs, the tank’s owners simply painted the tank the same color as molasses to help hide the leaks. And there were other signs, like ominous creaks and groans whenever new molasses was added to the tank.
People in the area reported hearing a few loud sounds—like machine-gun fire—as the tank’s rivets began popping loose. The tank exploded and set free a tidal wave of molasses that measured between 15 and 25 feet at its highest, and about 165 feet wide. The destructive tide, about 2.3 million gallons of molasses in all, pounded through the neighborhood reaching a maximum speed of 35 MPH.
The damage was catastrophic. When all was said and done, the molasses flood claimed the lives of 21 people, ages ranging between 10 and 78. Two ten-year-old children collecting firewood nearby were swept away by the tide, and some city workers who were outside eating lunch at the time drowned in the flood. Another man, Martin Clougherty, told the Boston Globe in an interview that he was sleeping in his home and woke to find himself in several feet of molasses. About 150 people were injured. The flood trapped animals, too, resulting in the deaths of at least 25 horses.
The flood demolished homes and other buildings as it swept into the Boston Harbor. It also knocked a truck through a fence, damaged a railway, and pushed the local firehouse off its foundation. By today’s reckoning, the flood caused about $100 million in damages.
Rescue Efforts Proved Difficult
The wave itself was just the beginning. Firemen and police officers spent four days wading through waist-deep molasses to rescue people. Worse, the molasses behaved a lot like quicksand. Because molasses is thick and syrupy, new challenges arose as temperatures started to drop. When the spill occurred, temperatures were about 40 degrees, but as night fell, the molasses all over Boston’s North End cooled and thickened, firmly trapping anyone who hadn’t already been rescued. Some experts say that rescue efforts likely would have been much easier if the spill had happened in the height of summer rather than the dead of winter because the molasses wouldn’t have thickened so much.
And then there was the cleanup. All in all, the cleanup took about 80,000 hours of labor. Firefighters at first attempted to wash the molasses away with their hoses, but water proved ineffective—though they discovered that saltwater was more effective at “cutting” the molasses than freshwater, so millions of gallons were pumped in. Cleanup efforts took so long that it was months before the last of the bodies were found. Some have reported that even decades after the cleanup was complete, Boston’s North End still smelled of molasses, particularly on warm days.
What Went Wrong?
Investigations and accusations swirled around the Great Boston Molasses Flood. The company that owned Purity Distilling Company—the U.S. Industrial Alcohol Corporation—said that the disaster was caused by anarchists, who had sabotaged the tank with explosives. In those days, this wasn’t an entirely implausible explanation. Anarchists were known for such things, and in fact, 40 explosions linked to anarchists had been reported in Boston in the year leading up to the Great Molasses Flood.
But after a five-year court battle, it was ruled that anarchists weren’t to blame—only shoddy construction methods. Officials determined that the disaster was in part caused by a supervisor who lacked the training to read blueprints during the tank’s construction. The USIA had never hired certified engineers or architects to check the tank, and substandard construction materials had been used in the tank’s construction, including steel that was too thin and improperly forged.
The temperature was another factor. In the days prior to the tank’s failure, temperatures shifted from about 2 degrees F to 40 degrees. On top of it, the tank had been topped up with warm molasses, which mixed with the cold molasses inside. The temperature increases caused gas to expand within the tank, which led to its collapse. In the end, USIA was ordered to pay about $15 million dollars in today’s money as damages.
And that’s the story of the Great Boston Molasses Flood, a tragedy that reshaped building regulations nationwide. Today, few are aware of the flood or its significance, but if you ever visit Boston’s North End, you’ll find a green plaque on the side of a building where the tank once stood to commemorate this historic disaster. | 1,217 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“The Promise,” a legend by Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, takes place in the middle of the thirteenth century, when Ferdinand III was the king of Castile and Leon.
The armies of King Ferdinand were about to attack the Moorish city of Seville, and the lover of Margarita was going to take part in the campaign. Fearing for his life, Margarita began to cry. Her lover, who claimed to be the squire of the count of Gomara, comforted her with a promise. He assured her that after the conquest of Seville, the king would give him some land on the Guadalquivir River. He promised that he would then return for her, and they would then live in this sunny region.
The next day as a crowd watched, the soldiers of Gomara marched forth to war. Margarita, who was present among the spectators, caught sight of her lover. However, he was not the squire of the count. He was the count of Gomara himself. She then knew that she had been deceived. The count had pretended to be a member of the lower classes so that he could persuade Margarita to sin with him. If Margarita had known that he was the count, she would never have believed all the fair promises that he made, because a count hardly ever married a commoner.
The next scene took place in the encampment before Seville. The count of Gomara was in his tent. He had enjoyed a signal triumph that day. However, he looked gloomy, and his faithful squire asked him why.
The count explained that he was continually haunted by a supernatural apparition. When his horse bolted and ran straight toward the enemy, a hand appeared out of nowhere, grabbed hold of the bridle, and led him to safety. This same hand was continually doing things for him. In fact, the count claimed that the hand was resting on his shoulders at that very moment.
The squire could not see the hand, and feared that the count had lost his mind, but he faithfully kept silent about his master’s supposed aberration.
One day a pilgrim was entertaining the soldiers encamped about Seville and selling his wares. As the count listened, the pilgrim sang a song about a maiden who was deceived by a count who pretended that he was a squire. When the girl realized that she had been betrayed, she said: “Woe is me! The count has taken away my honor.” Her brother heard her speak these words, and said to her “You have dishonored us.” The girl pointed out that the count had sworn that he would return. Her brother replied: “If he returns, he will not find you where he was accustomed to meet with you.” As the girl was dying, the wind spoke of the misfortune that befalls those who trust in the promises of men.
The final verse of the song spoke of the burial of the girl. They covered her with earth, but her hand raised itself up from the grave. On her hand was the ring that the count had given her. (The song does not specifically say how the girl died, but I believe it is obvious that she was killed by her brother.)
When the pilgrim had finished the song, the count approached him and asked where he had learned it. He told the count that people were singing it in the villages of Gomara. He explained that an unfortunate girl had been seduced by a powerful man and that the high counsels of God had permitted her hand always to remain in the open air after she had been buried.
In the final scene, the count kneeled down by Margarita’s grave and took hold of her hand. A priest then performed a marriage ceremony. The priest had first received the pope’s permission to perform this unusual rite.
After the ceremony, the hand descended below ground level and remained buried ever after.
This summary is based on the original Spanish tale presented online by Analitica. | <urn:uuid:73c68bf6-b397-4604-a64b-503f8e58ad23> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yakmax.com/a-summary-of-the-promise/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.993745 | 849 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.0876990929245... | 4 | “The Promise,” a legend by Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, takes place in the middle of the thirteenth century, when Ferdinand III was the king of Castile and Leon.
The armies of King Ferdinand were about to attack the Moorish city of Seville, and the lover of Margarita was going to take part in the campaign. Fearing for his life, Margarita began to cry. Her lover, who claimed to be the squire of the count of Gomara, comforted her with a promise. He assured her that after the conquest of Seville, the king would give him some land on the Guadalquivir River. He promised that he would then return for her, and they would then live in this sunny region.
The next day as a crowd watched, the soldiers of Gomara marched forth to war. Margarita, who was present among the spectators, caught sight of her lover. However, he was not the squire of the count. He was the count of Gomara himself. She then knew that she had been deceived. The count had pretended to be a member of the lower classes so that he could persuade Margarita to sin with him. If Margarita had known that he was the count, she would never have believed all the fair promises that he made, because a count hardly ever married a commoner.
The next scene took place in the encampment before Seville. The count of Gomara was in his tent. He had enjoyed a signal triumph that day. However, he looked gloomy, and his faithful squire asked him why.
The count explained that he was continually haunted by a supernatural apparition. When his horse bolted and ran straight toward the enemy, a hand appeared out of nowhere, grabbed hold of the bridle, and led him to safety. This same hand was continually doing things for him. In fact, the count claimed that the hand was resting on his shoulders at that very moment.
The squire could not see the hand, and feared that the count had lost his mind, but he faithfully kept silent about his master’s supposed aberration.
One day a pilgrim was entertaining the soldiers encamped about Seville and selling his wares. As the count listened, the pilgrim sang a song about a maiden who was deceived by a count who pretended that he was a squire. When the girl realized that she had been betrayed, she said: “Woe is me! The count has taken away my honor.” Her brother heard her speak these words, and said to her “You have dishonored us.” The girl pointed out that the count had sworn that he would return. Her brother replied: “If he returns, he will not find you where he was accustomed to meet with you.” As the girl was dying, the wind spoke of the misfortune that befalls those who trust in the promises of men.
The final verse of the song spoke of the burial of the girl. They covered her with earth, but her hand raised itself up from the grave. On her hand was the ring that the count had given her. (The song does not specifically say how the girl died, but I believe it is obvious that she was killed by her brother.)
When the pilgrim had finished the song, the count approached him and asked where he had learned it. He told the count that people were singing it in the villages of Gomara. He explained that an unfortunate girl had been seduced by a powerful man and that the high counsels of God had permitted her hand always to remain in the open air after she had been buried.
In the final scene, the count kneeled down by Margarita’s grave and took hold of her hand. A priest then performed a marriage ceremony. The priest had first received the pope’s permission to perform this unusual rite.
After the ceremony, the hand descended below ground level and remained buried ever after.
This summary is based on the original Spanish tale presented online by Analitica. | 824 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A handwritten manuscript, varying in size and composition, which detailed a shipmaster’s responsibilities for an upcoming voyage. These orders were usually signed by the vessel’s agents or owners. The master master’s signature might also appear, indicating that he had read, and/or received his copy of the document. Notary stamps or customs seals are not present since this was essentially a private agreement between the two parties. Formal instructions were not always necessary, and might depend on the shipmaster’s relationship with his employers, or even his financial interest in the vessel he commanded.
Sailing Orders are occasionally found in maritime collections. They are always important research sources, often providing insight in the broadly defined range of responsibilities that the master of a merchant vessel might assume during his voyage. He could be required to do much more than get his ship quickly and safely from one port to another, frequently buying of selling cargo, and otherwise managing the ship’s business until the voyage was completed.
Illustrated is the Sailing Orders given to Captain Paraclete Homes of the ship HELEN MAR, for a voyage from New York to New Orleans, 1830. He was instructed, in part, to assist in procuring “all the freight in your power and also cabin and steerage passengers.” Upon his arrival at New Orleans, he was to work with assigned agents there to get “return freight for Boston,” oversee its stowage, and pay all the ship’s bills before departure. In return Holmes received 40 dollars per month, plus 5% “passage money” and an extra 5% primage on the total value of the homeward freight. | <urn:uuid:24ed2c59-edf5-41f2-b2f2-10dbc371af8c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://research.mysticseaport.org/item/l006405/l006405-c040/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00415.warc.gz | en | 0.983243 | 350 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.04941179603... | 10 | A handwritten manuscript, varying in size and composition, which detailed a shipmaster’s responsibilities for an upcoming voyage. These orders were usually signed by the vessel’s agents or owners. The master master’s signature might also appear, indicating that he had read, and/or received his copy of the document. Notary stamps or customs seals are not present since this was essentially a private agreement between the two parties. Formal instructions were not always necessary, and might depend on the shipmaster’s relationship with his employers, or even his financial interest in the vessel he commanded.
Sailing Orders are occasionally found in maritime collections. They are always important research sources, often providing insight in the broadly defined range of responsibilities that the master of a merchant vessel might assume during his voyage. He could be required to do much more than get his ship quickly and safely from one port to another, frequently buying of selling cargo, and otherwise managing the ship’s business until the voyage was completed.
Illustrated is the Sailing Orders given to Captain Paraclete Homes of the ship HELEN MAR, for a voyage from New York to New Orleans, 1830. He was instructed, in part, to assist in procuring “all the freight in your power and also cabin and steerage passengers.” Upon his arrival at New Orleans, he was to work with assigned agents there to get “return freight for Boston,” oversee its stowage, and pay all the ship’s bills before departure. In return Holmes received 40 dollars per month, plus 5% “passage money” and an extra 5% primage on the total value of the homeward freight. | 332 | ENGLISH | 1 |
La Malinche, 1501-1529.
“Many Mexicans consider her a traitor who betrayed her own people - to this day calling someone La Malinche is considered an insult. Personally I think she was stuck in between a rock and a hard place and has got a pretty unfair rep. She did what she had to survive.”
Depending on your personal opinion of her, you may know her as ‘Doña Marina’ or ‘La Malinche’. She was a central - and controversial - figure in the success of the Spanish Conquest of the Aztecs. Malinche is the name of treachery and betrayal in Mexico and her image is forever ingrained in the Mexican psyche, as a national Judas… but is this fair judgement of her character?
La Malinche came from a noble family, but following her father’s death, was sold into slavery by her mother. Her mother had remarried another nobleman and given birth to a son. Malinche had become an inconvenient step-child, and was removed to ensure that the couple’s new son would be their only heir. She eventually fell into Spanish hands in April 1519. She was christened, per the custom for concubines at the time, and took the name Marina (which we will use to refer to her hereafter). Her noble background saw the honorific Dõna accompany her new name. She was among twenty slave women given to the Spaniards after they had defeated the Chontal Maya of Potonchán. Of all the concubines, she was viewed as the most gracious beauty and was singled out by the conquistador Hernán Cortés as a gift for the highest born man of the expedition Alonso Hernandez Puertocarrero.
Cortés used Spanish priest and Mayan speaker, Gerónimo de Aguilar, as his main interpreter, but Aguilar could not speak Nahuatl. It was discovered that the noble born Marina spoke both Mayan and Nahuatl - she suddenly became incredibly valuable to Cortés and remained close to him at all times. For some time, Aguilar continued to interpret Mayan to Spanish, but Malinche’s own grasp of Spanish soon reached the level where she could act as Cortés’ sole interpreter. During this time, he took Marina on as his mistress. She would prove to be an important ally to Cortés - when she learned of a plan by natives of Cholula to cooperate with the Aztecs to destroy the small Spanish army, she alerted her master. Pretending to cooperate with her native informants plan, in reality, she had turned the tables on them, facilitating the slaughter of many Cholulans at the hands of Cortés’ men. Depictions of Cortés often portray him with Marina poised at his side. Although they never married, their relationship followed the familiar pattern of marriage among native elite classes - the Nahua wife assisting her husband with his military and diplomatic endeavours.
Marina gave birth to Cortés’ first son Don Martín Cortés around 1523. This child would be named as the first true Mestizo - child of mixed European and indigenous American ancestry. Nothing definite is known of Marina, after the birth of her son. It is estimated that she died in 1529, following the birth of her second child Dõna Maria, the daughter of her later husband, the Spanish hidalgo Juan Jaramillo. Marina’s early death robbed her of the chance to see her children grow up. Throughout their lives, both Don Martín Cortés and Doña María Jaramillo strove to keep a positive memory of their mother alive. The rise of the malinchismo - betrayal your native identity in favour of the new and foreign - would undo their efforts and disregard the circumstances surrounding Marina’s life. Following Mexico’s break from Spain in the early 1800s, the woman whose identity was taken from her as soon as she was sold into slavery, would receive no sympathy for an undoubtedly hard life. She would be remembered simply as Cortés’ mistress - an opportunistic whore who flaunted her sexuality to achieve her own ends.
To learn more about Mexico's history and heritage, why not book a place on one of our Mexico tours? | <urn:uuid:d674e80e-8bad-4c7b-8559-b123875d8337> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.andantetravels.com/blog/womens-history-month-la-malinche/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00310.warc.gz | en | 0.984787 | 894 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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“Many Mexicans consider her a traitor who betrayed her own people - to this day calling someone La Malinche is considered an insult. Personally I think she was stuck in between a rock and a hard place and has got a pretty unfair rep. She did what she had to survive.”
Depending on your personal opinion of her, you may know her as ‘Doña Marina’ or ‘La Malinche’. She was a central - and controversial - figure in the success of the Spanish Conquest of the Aztecs. Malinche is the name of treachery and betrayal in Mexico and her image is forever ingrained in the Mexican psyche, as a national Judas… but is this fair judgement of her character?
La Malinche came from a noble family, but following her father’s death, was sold into slavery by her mother. Her mother had remarried another nobleman and given birth to a son. Malinche had become an inconvenient step-child, and was removed to ensure that the couple’s new son would be their only heir. She eventually fell into Spanish hands in April 1519. She was christened, per the custom for concubines at the time, and took the name Marina (which we will use to refer to her hereafter). Her noble background saw the honorific Dõna accompany her new name. She was among twenty slave women given to the Spaniards after they had defeated the Chontal Maya of Potonchán. Of all the concubines, she was viewed as the most gracious beauty and was singled out by the conquistador Hernán Cortés as a gift for the highest born man of the expedition Alonso Hernandez Puertocarrero.
Cortés used Spanish priest and Mayan speaker, Gerónimo de Aguilar, as his main interpreter, but Aguilar could not speak Nahuatl. It was discovered that the noble born Marina spoke both Mayan and Nahuatl - she suddenly became incredibly valuable to Cortés and remained close to him at all times. For some time, Aguilar continued to interpret Mayan to Spanish, but Malinche’s own grasp of Spanish soon reached the level where she could act as Cortés’ sole interpreter. During this time, he took Marina on as his mistress. She would prove to be an important ally to Cortés - when she learned of a plan by natives of Cholula to cooperate with the Aztecs to destroy the small Spanish army, she alerted her master. Pretending to cooperate with her native informants plan, in reality, she had turned the tables on them, facilitating the slaughter of many Cholulans at the hands of Cortés’ men. Depictions of Cortés often portray him with Marina poised at his side. Although they never married, their relationship followed the familiar pattern of marriage among native elite classes - the Nahua wife assisting her husband with his military and diplomatic endeavours.
Marina gave birth to Cortés’ first son Don Martín Cortés around 1523. This child would be named as the first true Mestizo - child of mixed European and indigenous American ancestry. Nothing definite is known of Marina, after the birth of her son. It is estimated that she died in 1529, following the birth of her second child Dõna Maria, the daughter of her later husband, the Spanish hidalgo Juan Jaramillo. Marina’s early death robbed her of the chance to see her children grow up. Throughout their lives, both Don Martín Cortés and Doña María Jaramillo strove to keep a positive memory of their mother alive. The rise of the malinchismo - betrayal your native identity in favour of the new and foreign - would undo their efforts and disregard the circumstances surrounding Marina’s life. Following Mexico’s break from Spain in the early 1800s, the woman whose identity was taken from her as soon as she was sold into slavery, would receive no sympathy for an undoubtedly hard life. She would be remembered simply as Cortés’ mistress - an opportunistic whore who flaunted her sexuality to achieve her own ends.
To learn more about Mexico's history and heritage, why not book a place on one of our Mexico tours? | 883 | ENGLISH | 1 |
INTRODUCTION The Pomo Tribe has been around for hundreds of years. During the colder weather, the Pomo used blankets made of soft rabbit skin. The Pomo wore aprons and capes on their shoulders. Some of the Native Americans wore nothing.FOODThe Pomo tribes near the coast ate various types of fish, shellfish, seaweed, sea creatures, and deer and elk from the redwood forests. The Pomo tribes also ate acorns, grasshoppers, and even insects such as caterpillars! The Pomo tribes living by the Clear Lake and the Russian Valley also ate fresh water fish. ClothingThe Pomo Native Americans lived in houses where it depends where they live. The Pomo lake and the Russian River Valley had to use dry reeds to make oval-shaped buildings. They made music with handmade whistles, flutes, rattles, and some drums made from hollow redwood tree logs.The Pomo groups closer to the ocean built conical-shaped houses that are covered with many slabs of redwood bark. They used this kind of resource since there were many redwood trees available for them. Things They Made The Pomo men and women wore pretty colored danced clothing.The Pomo used dry tule reeds or bark from a redwood and will trees that are nearby to make their own clothing.Only the more richer Pomo Native Americans would have skirts or robes made from deerskin. During the colder weather, the Pomo used blankets made of soft rabbit skin. The women were knee-length skirts and a cape. The Pomo men wore short aprons and capes on their body. Some of them wear no clothing at all. CONCLUSION The Pomo Tribe did many good things, they hunt fish and made clothes. I think they had a rough life but they did good things for their family to survive. They were clothes made from many animals or they just found a piece of clothing. | <urn:uuid:32489f43-55d6-4f07-9842-2973178e253a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chrisstory.net/introduction-rattles-and-some-drums-made-from-hollow-redwood/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.980326 | 400 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.005241069011390... | 1 | INTRODUCTION The Pomo Tribe has been around for hundreds of years. During the colder weather, the Pomo used blankets made of soft rabbit skin. The Pomo wore aprons and capes on their shoulders. Some of the Native Americans wore nothing.FOODThe Pomo tribes near the coast ate various types of fish, shellfish, seaweed, sea creatures, and deer and elk from the redwood forests. The Pomo tribes also ate acorns, grasshoppers, and even insects such as caterpillars! The Pomo tribes living by the Clear Lake and the Russian Valley also ate fresh water fish. ClothingThe Pomo Native Americans lived in houses where it depends where they live. The Pomo lake and the Russian River Valley had to use dry reeds to make oval-shaped buildings. They made music with handmade whistles, flutes, rattles, and some drums made from hollow redwood tree logs.The Pomo groups closer to the ocean built conical-shaped houses that are covered with many slabs of redwood bark. They used this kind of resource since there were many redwood trees available for them. Things They Made The Pomo men and women wore pretty colored danced clothing.The Pomo used dry tule reeds or bark from a redwood and will trees that are nearby to make their own clothing.Only the more richer Pomo Native Americans would have skirts or robes made from deerskin. During the colder weather, the Pomo used blankets made of soft rabbit skin. The women were knee-length skirts and a cape. The Pomo men wore short aprons and capes on their body. Some of them wear no clothing at all. CONCLUSION The Pomo Tribe did many good things, they hunt fish and made clothes. I think they had a rough life but they did good things for their family to survive. They were clothes made from many animals or they just found a piece of clothing. | 390 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1939 the British people were told by their leaders that they were again going to war with Germany, this time to defend the sovereignty of Poland, however by 1940 Poland had effectively ceased to exist after being defeated and then divided by the Nazis and the Soviets. The invasion of Poland by the forces of the Third Reich led directly to the outbreak of the Second World War, with Britain (and her ally France) obligated by their promises to declare war upon the German invader. None of this need have happened had the terms of the Treaty of Versailles been adhered to by the western allies, had the Poles not sought to expand their territory westward to the river Oder, had they not annexed the city of Danzig and it’s population of 370 000, 97% of whom were Germans and had they halted the forced deportations of thousands of ethnic German families from their ancestral homesteads into the country’s interior. Moreover, in the month before the outbreak of war, 80 000 German refugees were being housed in camps in their fatherland having fled the systematic atrocities that were being ruthlessly carried out by Polish army and police units as well as by civilian mobs. The Polish government, encouraged by their British and French allies, had rejected every compromise that had been offered to them by their German counterparts. Winston Churchill had declared to former German Chancellor, Heinrich Brüning, that his desire, ever since the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, was to crush Germany both economically and militarily. The French Ambassador to Berlin, André Francois-Ponçet, had wished that their foe across the Rhine could be driven from Europe as the Moors had been from Spain. With this knowledge at the forefront of their thinking their Polish ally knew that they could yet again profit from any war with Germany and increase it’s territory, having being left unsatisfied by the agreement at Versailles which already had generously given it possession of the German lands of West Prussia and Upper Silesia. The victorious powers of the Great War had not moderated their hostility toward Germany in the two decades that followed the signing of the armistice and their resistance to compromise and their unwillingness to follow their political and military obligations under the terms of the Treaty demonstrated to Germany their true intentions. War was not averted and by 1940 not only was Poland lost but it’s ally France had surrendered and her armies were all but defeated, other than the 130 000 who managed to escape across the English Channel with the retreating British Expeditionary Force.
From this point the reasons for continuing the war changed. It was now sold to a shocked citizenry that it was a matter of preserving the British Empire from ruthless and relentless German armies intent on conquering all before them. What the British people were not told, was that half the cabinet were willing to accept a generous offer of peace that had been conveyed to them by Adolf Hitler. In fact the ordinary men in the street who were expected to fight to their deaths if necessary, had not been told that there had been any offer of peace at all. As far as Germany was concerned the lands that had been seized from it under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles had now been recaptured and brought back into the fold of the Fatherland, honour had been satisfied and the injustice of the treaty of 1918 undone. There was no threat made to the islands of Britain or to her Empire, indeed Hitler considered the far flung global empire to be a force for good and a civilising influence in the world. He also believed it to be a bulwark against both American and Japanese imperialism, neither of which he relished. Had the colonies of Britain ever been threatened, even by an ally of Germany, the Führer was willing to offer divisions of his own troops in their defence. He sought no reparations for the twelve months of warfare that had come between them, nor would he seek to restrict the size and scope of the Royal Navy, the Royal Air Force nor the British Army. The citizens of the United Kingdom had been sold their second myth of the conflict.
The third and final myth that was offered as a justification for the continuation of the conflict for a further five long and bloody years was not even a known fact until 1944, at which time allied troops discovered the emaciated inmates of the emancipated concentration camps, barely living alongside the skeletal remains of prisoners who had been less fortunate. By this time, Adolf Hitler, the Führer of the Third Reich, had come to be considered by all and sundry to be the Devil himself, the most sadistic and evil man ever to have lived. The point remains, that until the liberation of Bergen-Belsen, Dachau and the other camps, nothing had been known about the atrocities that had occurred there or in the extermination camps located in Poland. Britain did not declare war on Germany because of her enemy’s treatment of it’s own citizens, whether prisoners or otherwise, or because of the treatment of Jews or the Gypsies. The British cabinet did not vote to sacrifice the lives of a generation of it’s finest young men because of gas chambers, the abuse of human rights and non-compliance with the rules of the Geneva Convention. Britain entered into the war, as did France and Poland, because they sought to destroy Germany economically, militarily and politically. They sought to fashion the future of the European continent in a style that suited their tastes. The demonisation of an entire country, it’s population, it’s political class and one man in particular, served this purpose, it did not however, serve the truth. As Churchill himself once said, “the truth is so fragile that it must be protected by a bodyguard of lies.”
To help meet the costs of maintaining this blog and to enable me to continue bringing my work before your eyes.
Long hours of research and writing go into the penning of these articles. Please contribute what you can afford so that my work can continue and will not be for nothing. Eternally grateful, thank you. | <urn:uuid:6d5ed95a-d4c8-4ca0-b740-008742961850> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://twentythirstcenturynet.com/2019/05/31/war-aims-mythology/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00025.warc.gz | en | 0.987911 | 1,246 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.36365687847137... | 8 | In 1939 the British people were told by their leaders that they were again going to war with Germany, this time to defend the sovereignty of Poland, however by 1940 Poland had effectively ceased to exist after being defeated and then divided by the Nazis and the Soviets. The invasion of Poland by the forces of the Third Reich led directly to the outbreak of the Second World War, with Britain (and her ally France) obligated by their promises to declare war upon the German invader. None of this need have happened had the terms of the Treaty of Versailles been adhered to by the western allies, had the Poles not sought to expand their territory westward to the river Oder, had they not annexed the city of Danzig and it’s population of 370 000, 97% of whom were Germans and had they halted the forced deportations of thousands of ethnic German families from their ancestral homesteads into the country’s interior. Moreover, in the month before the outbreak of war, 80 000 German refugees were being housed in camps in their fatherland having fled the systematic atrocities that were being ruthlessly carried out by Polish army and police units as well as by civilian mobs. The Polish government, encouraged by their British and French allies, had rejected every compromise that had been offered to them by their German counterparts. Winston Churchill had declared to former German Chancellor, Heinrich Brüning, that his desire, ever since the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, was to crush Germany both economically and militarily. The French Ambassador to Berlin, André Francois-Ponçet, had wished that their foe across the Rhine could be driven from Europe as the Moors had been from Spain. With this knowledge at the forefront of their thinking their Polish ally knew that they could yet again profit from any war with Germany and increase it’s territory, having being left unsatisfied by the agreement at Versailles which already had generously given it possession of the German lands of West Prussia and Upper Silesia. The victorious powers of the Great War had not moderated their hostility toward Germany in the two decades that followed the signing of the armistice and their resistance to compromise and their unwillingness to follow their political and military obligations under the terms of the Treaty demonstrated to Germany their true intentions. War was not averted and by 1940 not only was Poland lost but it’s ally France had surrendered and her armies were all but defeated, other than the 130 000 who managed to escape across the English Channel with the retreating British Expeditionary Force.
From this point the reasons for continuing the war changed. It was now sold to a shocked citizenry that it was a matter of preserving the British Empire from ruthless and relentless German armies intent on conquering all before them. What the British people were not told, was that half the cabinet were willing to accept a generous offer of peace that had been conveyed to them by Adolf Hitler. In fact the ordinary men in the street who were expected to fight to their deaths if necessary, had not been told that there had been any offer of peace at all. As far as Germany was concerned the lands that had been seized from it under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles had now been recaptured and brought back into the fold of the Fatherland, honour had been satisfied and the injustice of the treaty of 1918 undone. There was no threat made to the islands of Britain or to her Empire, indeed Hitler considered the far flung global empire to be a force for good and a civilising influence in the world. He also believed it to be a bulwark against both American and Japanese imperialism, neither of which he relished. Had the colonies of Britain ever been threatened, even by an ally of Germany, the Führer was willing to offer divisions of his own troops in their defence. He sought no reparations for the twelve months of warfare that had come between them, nor would he seek to restrict the size and scope of the Royal Navy, the Royal Air Force nor the British Army. The citizens of the United Kingdom had been sold their second myth of the conflict.
The third and final myth that was offered as a justification for the continuation of the conflict for a further five long and bloody years was not even a known fact until 1944, at which time allied troops discovered the emaciated inmates of the emancipated concentration camps, barely living alongside the skeletal remains of prisoners who had been less fortunate. By this time, Adolf Hitler, the Führer of the Third Reich, had come to be considered by all and sundry to be the Devil himself, the most sadistic and evil man ever to have lived. The point remains, that until the liberation of Bergen-Belsen, Dachau and the other camps, nothing had been known about the atrocities that had occurred there or in the extermination camps located in Poland. Britain did not declare war on Germany because of her enemy’s treatment of it’s own citizens, whether prisoners or otherwise, or because of the treatment of Jews or the Gypsies. The British cabinet did not vote to sacrifice the lives of a generation of it’s finest young men because of gas chambers, the abuse of human rights and non-compliance with the rules of the Geneva Convention. Britain entered into the war, as did France and Poland, because they sought to destroy Germany economically, militarily and politically. They sought to fashion the future of the European continent in a style that suited their tastes. The demonisation of an entire country, it’s population, it’s political class and one man in particular, served this purpose, it did not however, serve the truth. As Churchill himself once said, “the truth is so fragile that it must be protected by a bodyguard of lies.”
To help meet the costs of maintaining this blog and to enable me to continue bringing my work before your eyes.
Long hours of research and writing go into the penning of these articles. Please contribute what you can afford so that my work can continue and will not be for nothing. Eternally grateful, thank you. | 1,257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Home Religion Religions and Migrations in the Black Sea Region
Making Choices: Religion and Gender
The 1989 re-settlers were not as cordially welcomed by the local Turks as they were by the central authorities. The late 1980s-early 1990s were a period of stagnation in Turkish economy and the influx of so many migrants exacerbated the situation. The 1980s also witnessed intense inner migration from the underdeveloped rural regions in Turkey to the big cities, where re-settlers from Bulgaria chose to stay. Thus, many indigenous and Bulgarian-born Turks had to compete for the limited employment opportunities on the labour market. Re-settlers became indeed a menace for many of the inner migrants because they often surpassed them in educational credentials and professional qualifications, and offered cheaper labour.
There is a general assumption that under state communism the Turkish minority in Bulgaria lagged behind the majority in terms of education. This is, however, only relatively true. Under the impact of the communist policy for compulsory education and in line with the constructed image of the ‘socialist person’ who had good education, most of the grown-up re-settlers had graduated from high school and professional schools, while some, especially from among the urban residents, had college or university degrees. Their level of education was highly evaluated in Turkish society, where many of the newcomers continued with university training. In terms of the level of education re-settlers from Bulgaria were in sharp contrast to their immediate local neighbours. Another distinctive feature of the re-settlers was the equal educational level of men and women.
It was the working migrant women who became the major indicator of the distinction between local population and Bulgaria’s Turks. Their immediate neighbours disapprovingly called the working re-setter women ‘impure’ and excluded them in various ways from everyday social interaction. The negative image which re-settlers had among their local neighbours was depicted also through qualifications like ‘greedy’, ‘materialists’, who are interested only in economic prosperity (see also Parla 2007).
Why was the supposedly economic rivalry between locals and re-settlers dressed first and foremost in religious rhetoric? During their initial years in Turkey, re-settlers had to work hard and often had two jobs in order to make their living in the new place. All grown-up family members worked. Without any property, and starting their life in Turkey from scratch, they had no other choice but to work hard in an attempt to restore the standard of living they enjoyed before migration and to make up for their lost social status. Besides, it was only natural for women to go to work, because that was what they had done before migration, following the communist slogan of gender equality. Moreover, it was often easier for women to get employed in the new surroundings and during the initial years after migration women were the breadwinners in many families. While being busy to provide for the family, re-settlers rarely went to the mosque, or prayed, or publicly expressed any other sign of religiosity. This was again something imported from the society of origin, where being religious had been labelled as being backward and uneducated, and going to the mosque was persecuted. As a result, re-settlers tended to relate mosque attendance with having much free time and saw this practice as typical for elderly, retired people.
What re-settlers and locals had in common was their attachment to family. In Turkey, by the early 1990s the extended family was still the ideal among migrants from rural areas who were living in the big cities (White 2004). Similar was the situation among the Turks in Bulgaria. Those who did not migrate to cities shared houses with their parents. Those who migrated to cities kept close ties with their parents in the countryside, exchanging goods and services on a regular basis. The extended family pattern among the Turks of Bulgaria was preserved even during the mass migration. The huge number of re-settlers could be explained partly by the fact that entire extended families left. In Turkey they also settled together, at least in the beginning, and in many cases the housing arrangements were such that kept them together. Those who could afford separate housing still remained connected by family and kinship networks, even if their parents or siblings had moved back to Bulgaria (Elchinova 2005, 87-110).
Researchers of the family structure among working and lower-middle classes in Turkey invariably assert that even when relocated in urban settings these families remain patriarchal (Hann and Beller-Hann 2001; White 2004; Kejanlioglu and Tas 2009). In such families, the eldest man obtains the biggest authority, and work, spaces and patterns of behaviour are strictly divided along gender lines. Such a family relies on mutual complementarity of male and female roles and is ruled by the prohibition to switch roles. The traditional Turkish family is religious (White 2004, 44) and defined by certain moral categories. Leading among them are the categories of female modesty and purity, and male honour (Hann and Beller-Hann 2001), which are regulated by the principles of seclusion between the sexes and of strict control on women’s sexual behaviour. The patriarchal moral code puts much pressure on women, defining their chastity as the major prerequisite for family honour. From a patriarchal viewpoint, women cannot deal alone with such a responsibility and should rely for protection on the family. This protection has a price, which Deniz Kandiyoti (1988, 286) calls the ‘patriarchal bargain: protection in return to submissiveness and propriety’. Protection is guaranteed within the family and the immediate community, but women are susceptible to harassment when they are in public or go to work. That is why protection includes restriction of public activities and strict adherence to a dress code that covers all signs of femininity in women’s bodies (through the use of the veil and clothes that fully cover the body). Consequently, it is not surprising that according to traditional patriarchal family patterns informed by Islamic morality, working women are to be disapproved of. Such disapproval is evident in the discourses of exclusion against the re-settlers from Bulgaria produced by their immediate neighbours in Turkey.
Re-settler women are so negatively assessed probably because they fail to socialise in the social circle of their neighbours. They share their time mostly between their major spheres of engagement—family, work, the immediate re-settler community. Thus, the two neighbouring communities remain largely unfamiliar to each other, which explains the long-standing attitudes of mutual disapproval and accusation. The label ‘impure’ used against re-settler women does not encourage the local women to try to get closer to the newcomers and invite them to tea or for a chat. Neither do re-settler women invest time into such seemingly idle but socially bonding activities. The rejected re-settler women further distance themselves from the locals, describing them as ‘lazy’ and ‘idle’. Behind the religious and moral fayade they see reluctance to work and instead of piety they see hypocrisy and propensity to gossip. Such readings of one another’s behaviour keep the two groups of neighbours apart.
Traditional patriarchal family arrangements are also familiar to the Turks of Bulgaria. Indeed, in the Bulgarian context Turks and Muslims have become labels for conservative and outdated gender relations. This pattern was seriously shaken by the communist discourse and practice of female emancipation. The change has affected first and foremost women’s public participation. Already by the 1970s, most Muslim women were employed in towns or worked in the collectivised farms in villages (Bates 1994, 210). In the 1960s and 1970s, Muslim women in particular were the target of communist cultural enlightenment, including practices aiming at their education in modern household culture, as well as in fashion and popular culture (Neuburger 2004). This systemic propaganda, along with the spread of a uniform popular socialist supra-culture, led to the visible modernisation and secularisation of Bulgaria’s Turks. The majority of the 1989 re-settlers were active bearers of these modern worldviews and patterns of behaviour.
While in communist Bulgaria Turks had been stigmatised as backward and oppressive with regard to gender relations, after migration they found themselves amidst an entirely different discourse, where they were seen as ‘impure’, ‘immoral’ and ‘irreligious’ because of their improper gender behaviour. Switching between two opposite gender regimes (Parla 2009, 750-767) in the home and host societies was one of the greatest challenges they had to cope with in their attempts towards smooth integration in Turkish society. Gender regime can be defined as a widespread set of rules and norms regarding gender categories and patterns of behaviour, which are produced by different centres of power. In such a perspective, 1989 re-settlers had to comply with more than two overlapping or conflicting gender regimes in Turkey.
These different gender regimes were and still are very much tied down with the understanding of the role of religion in public life. One may argue that the patriarchal and religious evaluation of working women as ‘impure’ was not the most influential understanding of gender roles in Turkish society, especially when having in mind Kemalist ideology. Yet this ideology was not so influential among the working and lower middle classes, who used to be and, to a great extent, still are the immediate local neighbours of the re-settlers from Bulgaria.
The Kemalist gender regime is something in which re-settlers found refuge and legitimation for their own gender patterns. The emancipation of women is the corner stone of Turkish republicanism. Admittedly, the educated professional woman, liberated from the chains of patriarchy, is a central image of the republican iconography (Gole 1997, 86; Kejanlioglu and Tas 2009, 427). This woman is modern, Westernised and publicly active. Whether indeed republicanism managed to liberate women from patriarchy is another matter. Although Kemalism entered and transformed the private sphere, it had not changed the basic values of family life, according to which the most important roles a woman can play were those of a good wife and mother. To these, the secular national ideology added the new valued roles of a good professional and builder of the Republic.
Kemalism brought women out of the homes and made them equal professionals to men. It led to the formation of socially influential layers of educated women and shaped significantly the lifestyles of the educated middle and upper classes. From the outside, its modernising fervour is often considered to have equally affected the entire Turkish society, but in fact it is not quite so. Even though modern Turkey is very much Westernised and the cohorts of female professionals constantly expand, women’s employment is not so popular in all spheres of society. The reported figures about working women in Turkey were not very high at the time when the re-settlers arrived there. Between 1990 and 1997, the official employment rates of urban women in Turkey were under 15 per cent (White 2004, 75). The figures reveal that a lot of women actually lived according to the rules and norms of other, traditional gender regimes, which were deeply affected by religion and patriarchy.
There was yet another gender regime, both modern and Muslim, which gained publicity in the 1990s and was fostered by Islamism. This regime popularised a new image of the Muslim woman, which complied with Islamic teachings but was also adequate in the modern world. Islamism gave primacy to women’s education and encouraged female public activism, including working outside the home and becoming a professional. At the same time, it respected Muslim moral values and gender roles, while rendering them in a new light: women were no longer confined to traditionally defined roles and spaces; the feeling of shame was replaced by a sense of dignity and self-esteem (Kejanlioglu and Tas 2009, 432). Islamism defended women’s right to be modest and pious in public spaces (in opposition with nationalist ideology), as well as to be modern and beautiful despite their religious attachments. Islamism was not only a political movement. It gave birth to an entire popular culture which came to bridge the gap between Kemalism and traditionalism, thus gaining increasing popularity.
Living in an urban milieu, re-settlers have experienced the interaction and contradictions between these three influential gender regimes: traditional patriarchal, Kemalist and Islamist. However, their experience with each of them varies. They have faced most intensely the traditional Muslim attitudes and discourses by virtue of their re-location predominantly in areas populated by people from the lower end of the social ladder in Turkish society. They have been largely excluded by these discourses and they have not tried to change their behaviour in order to turn over the negative attitudes. They feel closer to the secular Kemalist discourses on gender, as these resemble their own background in socialist Bulgaria. But since these discourses are class-specific, only part of the re-settlers have been able to participate in them. Still, for the educated, professional migrant women at least partial socialisation based on these discourses has been available in the workplace. In modes of speech, appearances, views and manners they demonstrate affiliation to the secular, modern understanding of gender.
However, after more than 20 years spent in Turkey, very few re-settler women have developed close relations with local Turks from the middle and upper middle classes. The latter also have problems with the image of the female re-settlers. Their discontent is not expressed in religious terms but in moral ones: women from Bulgaria are described as goodlooking but greedy, too materialistic, very bossy and not supportive of their husbands. Again, as in the case of the lower class representatives, there is a hint about disrupted femininity, about a transgression of gender roles which undermines the balance and creates an unattractive image of the newcomers. Finally, as far as Islamist discourses on gender are concerned, re-settlers have remained at a distance. These discourses are deeply involved with religion, which is outside the immediate interest of the 1989 re-settlers from Bulgaria and their children and grandchildren.
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-0.0499317... | 1 | Home Religion Religions and Migrations in the Black Sea Region
Making Choices: Religion and Gender
The 1989 re-settlers were not as cordially welcomed by the local Turks as they were by the central authorities. The late 1980s-early 1990s were a period of stagnation in Turkish economy and the influx of so many migrants exacerbated the situation. The 1980s also witnessed intense inner migration from the underdeveloped rural regions in Turkey to the big cities, where re-settlers from Bulgaria chose to stay. Thus, many indigenous and Bulgarian-born Turks had to compete for the limited employment opportunities on the labour market. Re-settlers became indeed a menace for many of the inner migrants because they often surpassed them in educational credentials and professional qualifications, and offered cheaper labour.
There is a general assumption that under state communism the Turkish minority in Bulgaria lagged behind the majority in terms of education. This is, however, only relatively true. Under the impact of the communist policy for compulsory education and in line with the constructed image of the ‘socialist person’ who had good education, most of the grown-up re-settlers had graduated from high school and professional schools, while some, especially from among the urban residents, had college or university degrees. Their level of education was highly evaluated in Turkish society, where many of the newcomers continued with university training. In terms of the level of education re-settlers from Bulgaria were in sharp contrast to their immediate local neighbours. Another distinctive feature of the re-settlers was the equal educational level of men and women.
It was the working migrant women who became the major indicator of the distinction between local population and Bulgaria’s Turks. Their immediate neighbours disapprovingly called the working re-setter women ‘impure’ and excluded them in various ways from everyday social interaction. The negative image which re-settlers had among their local neighbours was depicted also through qualifications like ‘greedy’, ‘materialists’, who are interested only in economic prosperity (see also Parla 2007).
Why was the supposedly economic rivalry between locals and re-settlers dressed first and foremost in religious rhetoric? During their initial years in Turkey, re-settlers had to work hard and often had two jobs in order to make their living in the new place. All grown-up family members worked. Without any property, and starting their life in Turkey from scratch, they had no other choice but to work hard in an attempt to restore the standard of living they enjoyed before migration and to make up for their lost social status. Besides, it was only natural for women to go to work, because that was what they had done before migration, following the communist slogan of gender equality. Moreover, it was often easier for women to get employed in the new surroundings and during the initial years after migration women were the breadwinners in many families. While being busy to provide for the family, re-settlers rarely went to the mosque, or prayed, or publicly expressed any other sign of religiosity. This was again something imported from the society of origin, where being religious had been labelled as being backward and uneducated, and going to the mosque was persecuted. As a result, re-settlers tended to relate mosque attendance with having much free time and saw this practice as typical for elderly, retired people.
What re-settlers and locals had in common was their attachment to family. In Turkey, by the early 1990s the extended family was still the ideal among migrants from rural areas who were living in the big cities (White 2004). Similar was the situation among the Turks in Bulgaria. Those who did not migrate to cities shared houses with their parents. Those who migrated to cities kept close ties with their parents in the countryside, exchanging goods and services on a regular basis. The extended family pattern among the Turks of Bulgaria was preserved even during the mass migration. The huge number of re-settlers could be explained partly by the fact that entire extended families left. In Turkey they also settled together, at least in the beginning, and in many cases the housing arrangements were such that kept them together. Those who could afford separate housing still remained connected by family and kinship networks, even if their parents or siblings had moved back to Bulgaria (Elchinova 2005, 87-110).
Researchers of the family structure among working and lower-middle classes in Turkey invariably assert that even when relocated in urban settings these families remain patriarchal (Hann and Beller-Hann 2001; White 2004; Kejanlioglu and Tas 2009). In such families, the eldest man obtains the biggest authority, and work, spaces and patterns of behaviour are strictly divided along gender lines. Such a family relies on mutual complementarity of male and female roles and is ruled by the prohibition to switch roles. The traditional Turkish family is religious (White 2004, 44) and defined by certain moral categories. Leading among them are the categories of female modesty and purity, and male honour (Hann and Beller-Hann 2001), which are regulated by the principles of seclusion between the sexes and of strict control on women’s sexual behaviour. The patriarchal moral code puts much pressure on women, defining their chastity as the major prerequisite for family honour. From a patriarchal viewpoint, women cannot deal alone with such a responsibility and should rely for protection on the family. This protection has a price, which Deniz Kandiyoti (1988, 286) calls the ‘patriarchal bargain: protection in return to submissiveness and propriety’. Protection is guaranteed within the family and the immediate community, but women are susceptible to harassment when they are in public or go to work. That is why protection includes restriction of public activities and strict adherence to a dress code that covers all signs of femininity in women’s bodies (through the use of the veil and clothes that fully cover the body). Consequently, it is not surprising that according to traditional patriarchal family patterns informed by Islamic morality, working women are to be disapproved of. Such disapproval is evident in the discourses of exclusion against the re-settlers from Bulgaria produced by their immediate neighbours in Turkey.
Re-settler women are so negatively assessed probably because they fail to socialise in the social circle of their neighbours. They share their time mostly between their major spheres of engagement—family, work, the immediate re-settler community. Thus, the two neighbouring communities remain largely unfamiliar to each other, which explains the long-standing attitudes of mutual disapproval and accusation. The label ‘impure’ used against re-settler women does not encourage the local women to try to get closer to the newcomers and invite them to tea or for a chat. Neither do re-settler women invest time into such seemingly idle but socially bonding activities. The rejected re-settler women further distance themselves from the locals, describing them as ‘lazy’ and ‘idle’. Behind the religious and moral fayade they see reluctance to work and instead of piety they see hypocrisy and propensity to gossip. Such readings of one another’s behaviour keep the two groups of neighbours apart.
Traditional patriarchal family arrangements are also familiar to the Turks of Bulgaria. Indeed, in the Bulgarian context Turks and Muslims have become labels for conservative and outdated gender relations. This pattern was seriously shaken by the communist discourse and practice of female emancipation. The change has affected first and foremost women’s public participation. Already by the 1970s, most Muslim women were employed in towns or worked in the collectivised farms in villages (Bates 1994, 210). In the 1960s and 1970s, Muslim women in particular were the target of communist cultural enlightenment, including practices aiming at their education in modern household culture, as well as in fashion and popular culture (Neuburger 2004). This systemic propaganda, along with the spread of a uniform popular socialist supra-culture, led to the visible modernisation and secularisation of Bulgaria’s Turks. The majority of the 1989 re-settlers were active bearers of these modern worldviews and patterns of behaviour.
While in communist Bulgaria Turks had been stigmatised as backward and oppressive with regard to gender relations, after migration they found themselves amidst an entirely different discourse, where they were seen as ‘impure’, ‘immoral’ and ‘irreligious’ because of their improper gender behaviour. Switching between two opposite gender regimes (Parla 2009, 750-767) in the home and host societies was one of the greatest challenges they had to cope with in their attempts towards smooth integration in Turkish society. Gender regime can be defined as a widespread set of rules and norms regarding gender categories and patterns of behaviour, which are produced by different centres of power. In such a perspective, 1989 re-settlers had to comply with more than two overlapping or conflicting gender regimes in Turkey.
These different gender regimes were and still are very much tied down with the understanding of the role of religion in public life. One may argue that the patriarchal and religious evaluation of working women as ‘impure’ was not the most influential understanding of gender roles in Turkish society, especially when having in mind Kemalist ideology. Yet this ideology was not so influential among the working and lower middle classes, who used to be and, to a great extent, still are the immediate local neighbours of the re-settlers from Bulgaria.
The Kemalist gender regime is something in which re-settlers found refuge and legitimation for their own gender patterns. The emancipation of women is the corner stone of Turkish republicanism. Admittedly, the educated professional woman, liberated from the chains of patriarchy, is a central image of the republican iconography (Gole 1997, 86; Kejanlioglu and Tas 2009, 427). This woman is modern, Westernised and publicly active. Whether indeed republicanism managed to liberate women from patriarchy is another matter. Although Kemalism entered and transformed the private sphere, it had not changed the basic values of family life, according to which the most important roles a woman can play were those of a good wife and mother. To these, the secular national ideology added the new valued roles of a good professional and builder of the Republic.
Kemalism brought women out of the homes and made them equal professionals to men. It led to the formation of socially influential layers of educated women and shaped significantly the lifestyles of the educated middle and upper classes. From the outside, its modernising fervour is often considered to have equally affected the entire Turkish society, but in fact it is not quite so. Even though modern Turkey is very much Westernised and the cohorts of female professionals constantly expand, women’s employment is not so popular in all spheres of society. The reported figures about working women in Turkey were not very high at the time when the re-settlers arrived there. Between 1990 and 1997, the official employment rates of urban women in Turkey were under 15 per cent (White 2004, 75). The figures reveal that a lot of women actually lived according to the rules and norms of other, traditional gender regimes, which were deeply affected by religion and patriarchy.
There was yet another gender regime, both modern and Muslim, which gained publicity in the 1990s and was fostered by Islamism. This regime popularised a new image of the Muslim woman, which complied with Islamic teachings but was also adequate in the modern world. Islamism gave primacy to women’s education and encouraged female public activism, including working outside the home and becoming a professional. At the same time, it respected Muslim moral values and gender roles, while rendering them in a new light: women were no longer confined to traditionally defined roles and spaces; the feeling of shame was replaced by a sense of dignity and self-esteem (Kejanlioglu and Tas 2009, 432). Islamism defended women’s right to be modest and pious in public spaces (in opposition with nationalist ideology), as well as to be modern and beautiful despite their religious attachments. Islamism was not only a political movement. It gave birth to an entire popular culture which came to bridge the gap between Kemalism and traditionalism, thus gaining increasing popularity.
Living in an urban milieu, re-settlers have experienced the interaction and contradictions between these three influential gender regimes: traditional patriarchal, Kemalist and Islamist. However, their experience with each of them varies. They have faced most intensely the traditional Muslim attitudes and discourses by virtue of their re-location predominantly in areas populated by people from the lower end of the social ladder in Turkish society. They have been largely excluded by these discourses and they have not tried to change their behaviour in order to turn over the negative attitudes. They feel closer to the secular Kemalist discourses on gender, as these resemble their own background in socialist Bulgaria. But since these discourses are class-specific, only part of the re-settlers have been able to participate in them. Still, for the educated, professional migrant women at least partial socialisation based on these discourses has been available in the workplace. In modes of speech, appearances, views and manners they demonstrate affiliation to the secular, modern understanding of gender.
However, after more than 20 years spent in Turkey, very few re-settler women have developed close relations with local Turks from the middle and upper middle classes. The latter also have problems with the image of the female re-settlers. Their discontent is not expressed in religious terms but in moral ones: women from Bulgaria are described as goodlooking but greedy, too materialistic, very bossy and not supportive of their husbands. Again, as in the case of the lower class representatives, there is a hint about disrupted femininity, about a transgression of gender roles which undermines the balance and creates an unattractive image of the newcomers. Finally, as far as Islamist discourses on gender are concerned, re-settlers have remained at a distance. These discourses are deeply involved with religion, which is outside the immediate interest of the 1989 re-settlers from Bulgaria and their children and grandchildren.
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Most of Cheraw's early European settlers were English, Scots, French or Irish. Two of the earliest of these were James Gillespie and Thomas Ellerbe who started a trading center and water mill at the Cheraw Hills around 1740. Welsh Baptists later made their way up river from the Society Hill area. Almost from the beginning African Americans were brought here as slaves. By 1750 Cheraw was one of six places in South Carolina appearing on English maps and was an established village with a growing river trade.
Joseph and Eli Kershaw, who also had business interests in Camden, were granted part of the present town of Cheraw around 1768. Around the same time, the colonial government established St. David’s Parish, with the parish church to be located at Cheraw. The Kershaws formally laid out the street system with broad streets and a Town Green. By 1830, the streets were lined with triple rows of elm trees. Some of the median trees remain, particularly on Third Street, but many were removed at the turn of the century to put in water lines.
The Kershaws called the town "Chatham" after William Pitt, the Earl of Chatham, but this never seemed to have had wide acceptance, and Cheraw or Cheraw Hill continued to be used interchangeably with Chatham. Cheraw has been the official name since the town's incorporation in 1820.
During the Revolution, Cheraw was the center of a terrible civil war. The town was held at various times by both the British and the American partisans, and St. David's church was used by both armies as a hospital. In January of 1781 Gen. Greene's Continentals had a camp of repose just across the river. After the war, the devastation here was so great that it took many years for the area to recover.
Cheraw was at the head of navigable waters on the Great Pee Dee and was thus the shipping center for a wide area. Corn, tobacco, rice and indigo were grown in the more fertile surrounding lands and cattle raising, with the related tanning and curing industries, was a major source of income. Prior to the Confederate War, both the largest cotton market between Georgetown and Wilmington and the largest bank in South Carolina outside of Charleston were located here.
The first bridge across the Pee Dee and the advent of steamship service to Cheraw in the 1820's led to a golden age, and numerous buildings from this period still grace Cheraw's streets. A serious fire destroyed most of the business district in the 1835, but by the end of the 1850's Cheraw was a prosperous, secure town which served as a regional center of business, education, culture and religion.
Citizens of Cheraw played a leading role in South Carolina's secession, and the town became a haven for refugees and a storage place for valuables and military stores during the Confederate War. In March of 1865, Cheraw played unwilling host to more of Gen. William T Sherman's Union troops than any other South Carolina city. They found Cheraw "a pleasant town and an old one with the southern aristocratic bearing", and amazingly they left it that way. Although the business district was destroyed in an accidental explosion, no public buildings or dwellings were burned. However, the county courthouse in Chesterfield was burned and exact dates on many Cheraw buildings are unknown.
Prosperity began to return by 1900 and many fine Victorian and Revival buildings are still in evidence here. Although the Great Depression hit this area hard, it did leave the wonderful legacy of Cheraw State Park and extensive other public lands. Cheraw in the 1960's began to diversify her industrial base, and today Cheraw is a prosperous town that takes pride in preserving her past while planning for the future. | <urn:uuid:3a3d58be-f18d-49a9-99d5-815da1d88b5f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cheraw.com/about_cheraw/town_history/index.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.985831 | 777 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.154008805... | 3 | Most of Cheraw's early European settlers were English, Scots, French or Irish. Two of the earliest of these were James Gillespie and Thomas Ellerbe who started a trading center and water mill at the Cheraw Hills around 1740. Welsh Baptists later made their way up river from the Society Hill area. Almost from the beginning African Americans were brought here as slaves. By 1750 Cheraw was one of six places in South Carolina appearing on English maps and was an established village with a growing river trade.
Joseph and Eli Kershaw, who also had business interests in Camden, were granted part of the present town of Cheraw around 1768. Around the same time, the colonial government established St. David’s Parish, with the parish church to be located at Cheraw. The Kershaws formally laid out the street system with broad streets and a Town Green. By 1830, the streets were lined with triple rows of elm trees. Some of the median trees remain, particularly on Third Street, but many were removed at the turn of the century to put in water lines.
The Kershaws called the town "Chatham" after William Pitt, the Earl of Chatham, but this never seemed to have had wide acceptance, and Cheraw or Cheraw Hill continued to be used interchangeably with Chatham. Cheraw has been the official name since the town's incorporation in 1820.
During the Revolution, Cheraw was the center of a terrible civil war. The town was held at various times by both the British and the American partisans, and St. David's church was used by both armies as a hospital. In January of 1781 Gen. Greene's Continentals had a camp of repose just across the river. After the war, the devastation here was so great that it took many years for the area to recover.
Cheraw was at the head of navigable waters on the Great Pee Dee and was thus the shipping center for a wide area. Corn, tobacco, rice and indigo were grown in the more fertile surrounding lands and cattle raising, with the related tanning and curing industries, was a major source of income. Prior to the Confederate War, both the largest cotton market between Georgetown and Wilmington and the largest bank in South Carolina outside of Charleston were located here.
The first bridge across the Pee Dee and the advent of steamship service to Cheraw in the 1820's led to a golden age, and numerous buildings from this period still grace Cheraw's streets. A serious fire destroyed most of the business district in the 1835, but by the end of the 1850's Cheraw was a prosperous, secure town which served as a regional center of business, education, culture and religion.
Citizens of Cheraw played a leading role in South Carolina's secession, and the town became a haven for refugees and a storage place for valuables and military stores during the Confederate War. In March of 1865, Cheraw played unwilling host to more of Gen. William T Sherman's Union troops than any other South Carolina city. They found Cheraw "a pleasant town and an old one with the southern aristocratic bearing", and amazingly they left it that way. Although the business district was destroyed in an accidental explosion, no public buildings or dwellings were burned. However, the county courthouse in Chesterfield was burned and exact dates on many Cheraw buildings are unknown.
Prosperity began to return by 1900 and many fine Victorian and Revival buildings are still in evidence here. Although the Great Depression hit this area hard, it did leave the wonderful legacy of Cheraw State Park and extensive other public lands. Cheraw in the 1960's began to diversify her industrial base, and today Cheraw is a prosperous town that takes pride in preserving her past while planning for the future. | 810 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reading, writing and comprehension (referred to as RWC later) in both Hindi and English were selected as markers. To gauge reading ability, students were asked to read certain sentences from story books. Writing ability was judged both by making students write sentences on their own as well as by copying sentences from story books. Comprehension ability was decided using a simple shapes book and by taking examples from surrounding nature.
We were in two group of 4 interns. I arrived Devrajkhal Intermediate College on time (9:40). A short meeting with the principal there with two if us. Then the principal there introduced us to the students of classes 6-8.
I was assigned class 6 by our group Manager(Akanchha) for level grading.There were 9 Students in class 6 . Out of which 6 were levelled for bigginers and 3 to movers.The leveling was done on the basis of reading, writing and comprehending the basic books(Chammak and Find half circle). Children were easily able to find the half circle (except 1). Students were fluent in hindi reading and comprehending but very poor in English. They were unable to spell some basic words like Umbrella, Grandmother,House etc.(Spellings of things drawn in the book ‘find half circle’).
Students were very interested in looking at the pictures in the book.
After the level grading we have a short meeting in which we made complete list of students in different levels
AIM- comprehending the abilities of the kids in terms of reading , writing, comprehending and imagination , so as to sort them in different level groups.
PROCESS – I was given to handle and examine std 7. They had in total 9 students out of which only 7 were present. So, i divided them in two group . One group was given a sheet of paper to create anything they like. While , I took the other group with me . i started with one individual in a separate place so as not to intimidate them ,while giving others too , a sheet of paper. The examination started with one liners , hindi – chutki and English – a story about water, and gradually went to some simple story books for hindi – aise jiv jinhe bhula nahi jaa sakta , English
- the adventures of Rusty. I tried examining them on their reading skills, comprehension and reading skills ( writing what they comprehending ). The whole process took us approximately 2 hours.
- We then decided to have approximately 50 mins for each std-( 9:40 – 10:25am for 6th
, 10:25 – 11:15 am for 7th , 11:15 _ 12: 10 pm for std 8th ), 2 interns involved in each slots while the other to engage the other classes in certain activities.
- The 50 min slot was decided to consist of –
- 25 min reading session
- 20 min related activity
- 10 min social awareness
I got two groups to deal with – beginners of std 7 ( 5 students ) and movers of std 8 ( 4 students).
Note From The Project Manager
Recognizing the fact that different cognition levels existed across classes we decided to not tach the tree classes tpgether as envisaged before. We divided our time into three slots. Each slot had a duration of one hour.
Slot 1 – Reading Session Slot 2- Antivity Session
Slot 3- Games related to the books introduced in the reading session
Day 2, 23rd December
Starting with class 6 beginners, They were interested in Hindi poetry so I introduced them ‘Baccho ki subhadra’ . They were interested in looking at the pictures. We did chapter 1 of that book and read all the topics inside.
Then we have a short activity on drawing. They draw the mountains and other things nearby which was not completed at that time. I taught them about sharing things and understand others.
`1st slot – activity period for std 7 and 8
- Word splash game for 15 min – children were arranged in a circle . One had to speak out any word and point to any child child in the group to say another word which starts with the ending letter of his/her word. This process continued in the same
- Played Kabaddi for 10 min to observe more of their behavior and their ties with other students .
- Story Making Game – all children were made to sit in a circle. One student had to make a sentence about a story and it continued in the same way throughout the circle , thus making a complete story at the end
– 2nd slot – session with 7th std. Beginners
- Had a small introductory round dealing with the importance of
- Started with the reading session from hindi book – aise jiv jinhe hum bhul nhi sakte . it comprised working on tgheir reading capabilities , writing practice and comprehensive skills, lsting for 25
- ACTIVITY – made to write English words of 3, 4, 5 letters. It helped wuth their vocabulary. Story making from pictures in the same story we were reading from the text. It was aimed to show them how pictures and story can turn to various conclusions.
- 3rd slot – 8th movers
- It was the first personal meeting with them , so , had a small introductory session with them . there we even talked about the importance of
- The book chosen for them was Vikram And Betal in hindi. So started with a video on the concept and pattern of the whole story. Then proceeded with the text in the same manner as before.
- ACTIVITY – Same as the 7th std
- Sharing and respect session proceeded in the same manner . The only difference was that they had passed the sharing
OBSERVATION – Std . 8 students were quite reserved , be it boy or girl.while std 7 were quite open .
Day 3, 24th December
Started with class 6 beginners with a virtual visit to zoo through book ’chidiya ghar ki sair’. Told them that it’s another reason to read book and we can visit and know about anything without going there. Each student wrote 3-4 lines from each page and concluded full story beautifully. Students there were unable to spell basic words so I checked and taught random words found in the book and from pictures. A short video on sharing and understanding was shown to the kids.
Class 7 movers started with ‘The story about water’. Three out of 4 students were able to form distorted sentence from the pictures in the book. None of them were able to make a perfect sentence. Other one student was given to write three sentences about her school. None of her sentence were correct. She even don’t know the spelling of ‘Devrajkhal’ I corrected their sentences and corrected the words. And told some of the rules of forming sentences. Then the video on sharing was shown to them.
– 1st slot – activity for std. 7 and 8
- Different uses of an object game- students were given an object( like stone, flower, brick,wood,pen ) and they had to write the various uses of that object they can think about.This was aimed at improving their creativity and
- Adjective game- talked about the meaning of adjective and asked them to name them if any they know. They were made to write the adjective in hindi, English and make sentences from it in
- Direction Game – made a circle of students. I stood at the centre pointing out to a student and directing them to do a job. The process then included activity of siiting when directed to stand and vice
2nd slot – reading session with std 7 beginners
- Continued with the same story and completed chapter 1 of aise jiv jinhe hum bhul nhi sakte. They were given homework to change the ending of the
- ACTIVITY – students had to find the specified difficult hindi word from the story we just read following which they had to write the word and its meaning with the usage in a sentence related with the story. It ensured if they followed the text or not. My observation tells that this made them more interested in the
- Screening of 2 min video on the topic of sharing and respect, followed by 2-3 min interaction with the kids on the
– 3rd slot – reading session with std 8 movers.
- Started with the fir st story from vikram Baital and completed it (leaving out the answer given by vikram at the end for them to speculate and write and bring the next )
- ACTIVITY – same as std
- Screening of the video on sharing followed by an interaction on the OBSERVATION – Std 8 boys opened up quite a much but not the girls
Day 4 , 25th December
The day started with shower of questions (General Knowledge type) from the students They asked some important dates and facts to us. We told them about Christmas and Santa.We played secret Santa🎅. in which we prepared some chits with students name, and the students have to pick a chit and bring something for that particular person.
Students along with interns made greeting card with a Christmas painting and inside a letter to Santa. We had a small moment of dance then we distributed some chocolates.
Day 5, 26th December
Students of class 6 and 7 (all) read their half read stories in ‘chutki’, ‘aise jeev jinhe hm bhul nhi skte’. Then I started with a comics type story in a ‘Chakmak book’ It was about a boy who saw dog at his uncle’s home and then gains knowledge about dogs from Library and then convinces his parents to bring a pet dog to his home. The story gives knowledge
In next 45 minutes we played calculation race and word game. And other students were given to write things with left hand by shubha di.
1st slot – activity time for std. 7 and 8
- Mathematics Race – divided then children into random groups . we had a race which could only start after kids solving the given maths
- Skip Maths Game – made a queue and each student had to say numbers skipping either 2,3,4 digits. The level was increased when they had to do backward counting with skipping
2nd slot – reading session with 8 th std flyer
- Continued reading do bailo ki katha. Homework was given to speculate and write the further story.
Word Game was played at the end, in which we can make new words by using one alphabet at a time with alternate chances.
3rd slot – reading session of std 8 beginners and movers
- Started with checking their homework and their perception on the story related to vikram baital.
- Started with the next chapter in the book vikram
OBSERVATION – girls of std. 8 were now opening . the word game interested them too much , they seemed to have played an unique game. Also, when asked if interested to read English next, only a few were comfortable .
Day 6, 27th December
I started with an article in the chakmak book ‘prithwi kab bani thi’, we studied it all. half of the students (girls) went for hygiene session with Rekha ma’am. meanwhile we(boys of class 6) talk about ‘Good Touch and Bad Touch’ then they watch a video on same. Meanwhile Girls of class 6 were taught about good touch and Bad touch then they watched the video. Due to short of time I taught about Good touch and Bad touch to class 7 just after an introduction to that article in chakmak about when was the earth created. And then they watched the video.
After that A small session of yoga with Rekha ma’am. She also accompanied me while teaching Children.
1st slot – activity for std 7 and 8
- Name, Place, Thing, Animal
- Word scramble game- on animals for std . 7 and on adjectives for std. 8
- Session on hygiene attended by all girls by Rekha Mam , yoga 2nd slot – activity for std 6 and 8-
- Name , place , thing, animal
- Word scramble game – std 8 continued while std 6 were also given scramble on
- Postcard writing session – they had to write a letter related to the story they have recently been taught. They could either address it as themselves to any character or as character
to another character , etc.
3rd slot – session with std 8
- Discussion on good and bad touch – talking about its difference , the private body parts and the process of act in such situations and the people we can share the experience
- Screening of the video KOMAL on good and bad touch followed by interaction on the
OBSERVATION – children were quite surprised to know about good and bad touch but none accepted having such bad experience
Day 7,28th December
- Creative writing competition – continuing with the starting line – jungle me ek neela janwar rehta tha. Kyuki woh ajeeb dikhta tha , isiliye usse koi dosti nhi karta tha., they had to mahe an original story with a suitable title and
Observation – we observed how their writing and imaginative capabilities have positively changed.
- Painting competition – they had to make something creative , painting or something else depicting best , the story they just
- Kon banega crayonpati – it was a quiz relating to general questions about world and india, mathematics and the story they had read in the past 5 days so as to check if the story is still stuck with them .
- Title giving farewell session – the farewell was to give a positive title to each child based on their greatest abilities. The children were very enthusiastic about it and cheered for others too. This was aimed to leave them with a positive and good image of themselves which would keep them enough motivated to not leave things just till
- Meeting with teachers and the Principal of the school- we were getting their observations and feedbacks on our working mechanism and
Chaubtakhal Detailed Report
The winter internship program for the school in Chaubattakhal comprised of 4 interns managing a group of 42 children in 6th to 8th standards. As with any other set of children, the normal distribution is the best representation of the children’s abilities, which was decided after level grading.However, for the sake of simplicity, bar chart is used to depict data below.
1. Day 0 – December 21,2017
This was the first day of interaction with the students. As nothing was taught and this was more of an ice breaking session, it’s labelled as Day 0. Children were asked whether they liked stories. Response was mild, which can be attributed to shy nature of kids interacting with new people for the first time.
Students in Devrajkhal school appeared quiet and unresponsive. Students in Chaubattakhal school appeared more inclined towards talking to each other. 4 interns were allocated to each school.
Day 1, 22rd December
The level grading day. School attendance registers were used to list. 42 students were listed. With 2 students absent, 2 interns were allocated to grade students in 4 levels. Efforts were made by 1 intern to keep all students engaged when they were not being graded.This was done using field activities and drawings. Remaining 1 intern was responsible for overall conduct of the session.
Level grading method:
Reading, writing and comprehension (referred to as RWC later) in both Hindi and English were selected as markers. To gauge reading ability, students were asked to read certain sentences from story books. Writing ability was judged both by making students write sentences on their own as well as by copying sentences from story books.
Comprehension ability was decided using a simple shapes book and by taking examples from surrounding nature.
Children warmed up to the interns as the interaction time increased. Children were seen to be eager to take part in level grading as they wished to partake in the field activities thereafter.
Way of conduct of field activities (by Sheetal) on this day is appreciated as it meant handling a large group of children (35-38 at any instance).
Output of level grading
Names of the levels are more indicative than absolute. L0 indicates students with least understanding and relatively worst reaction to stimulus. L5 indicates advanced level of understanding and best response to stimulus.
L3 and L4 lie in between these 2 extremes. L4 consists of students with relatively better RWC in Hindi. L3 students displayed any one or maximum two RWC capabilities.
(Inputs by Sheetal) While two interns were involved in level grading of the kids, (on the basis of Reading, Writing and Comprehension abilities in both Hindi and English),two of us engaged the other kids. Since only 2 kids were graded at a particular instance,we had around 38 kids and performed ice breaking activities.
SHOOT : Similar to Splash, the kids stood in a circle and I was in the center. I would shoot a kid and the two kids adjacent to the target had to sit shouting a word with the same initial as their name.
SKIP COUNTING : Counting skipping one and eventually two numbers.
EAT/DRINK OR THROW : Kids had to very quickly make gestures of eating /drinking if the thing told is eatable else act like throwing it away. Say for Eg bread is to eaten and stone is to be thrown.
ALPHABET / WORD GAME : Kids were divided in three groups. Like the Atlas/Antakshari , each group had to name a place, animal or thing (in English) starting by the last alphabet of the word said by the former team.
KNOW UTTARAKHAND : Children were seated in three teams, each team was asked to share few special things about Uttarakhand.
Towards the end, the kids were asked to tell about how the house system (red, blue, green, yellow) works in the school, after whom they have been named, which is leading etc
When asked to perform something, a girl told a story followed by two girls who sang a song.
Kids were excited for field activities and liked to stay outdoors. They participated actively.
Note From The Project Manager
After the level grading it was felt that the students of different classes could be taught with each other. The cognition levels of children were found to be similarvacross classes and hence there were four groups made namely Level 0, Level 3, Level 4 and Level 5.
Day 2, 23th December
For L5, the motive was to introduce English/Hindi text which is of relatively higher level than others. The Temple Tiger and Man Eaters of Kumaon was chosen as the reference book.
Children found it relatable too because of the big cat habitat in the surrounding areas of kids’ habitat.Day started with showing a 10-minute National Geographic documentary on big cats. However, the English commentary bored them after 6 minutes and I decided to discontinue it. Asked them to list big cats where they made some elementary mistakes. Introduced Jim Corbett and made them read first few sentences from the book.
Children were seen having difficulty reading relatively difficult English words such as superstition, knoll, exemplified etc. While focusing on these words, I helped them write correct spelling and each one of the 3 students gradually made sentences from those words. During this, it occurred to me that I can introduce HOMOPHONES to them and the children liked the idea. They started making homophones (similar sounding words with different spelling/meanings/both) starting with tail;tale. This led to homework where I asked them to think of 2 more pairs of homophones for Day 3 discussion.
The day started with discussing the homework where the children exceeded expectations by writing 12-15 homophone pairs compared to 2 that were asked.
The story of Temple Tiger was narrated in Hindi and the 2 students were asked to write the story they heard. They chose to write in Hindi. Next, they translated the Hindi writing in English where it was observed that English sentence construction was an issue. Sentences were corrected and the day ended with rope skipping as an entertainment activity. However, learning was incorporated into this activity by asking students to count the number of times they had skipped the rope and subtracting the number from 100. This had to be done orally and quickly.
Books used — Chhutak, Natak book, A world of trees, chakmak, Aise jeev jinhe bhulaya nhi ja sakta.
Group of 16 students (one student was absent). Started by introducing Kitaab, our plan for the coming week followed by an activity.
WEAVING TALE: The kids did not create a very logical and progressive story. It was very basic and after repeatedly telling them, there was slight progression noticed. The weaved tale was a small tale with a happy ending .
The story was then written down by the children and were collected.
INTRODUCTION OF THE BOOK : VIKRAM BETAL – Introduced the book Vikram Betal with a 5 min video of the same. The kids enjoyed the video, could understand it fairly well.. Post the discussion of the video, we read the first story that Betal tells Vikram.The kids were given chances to read aloud and asked them to narrate what they understood. I read and explained the things that were unclear.
We could complete half of the story.
Day3, 24th December
The day started with a review of sentences written on Day3. Today’s focus was on writing correct English sentences. Parts of speech were introduced to students. They knew the definition of noun (memorized) but could not apply it. Effort was made to help them in application.New parts of speech such as adjective and adverb were introduced. The concept of adverb proved to be abstract for them and they were seen struggling with pointing out adverbs in the sen
GIVE A TITLE : Asked the kids to give a title to their story.
After hearing all titles, I asked if they could try writing the same story in English. Few were reluctant, however, all the students tried to write. Sentence construction in English was a major problem.
We then continued the story of Vikram Betal in the same way as the previous day. The end i.e moral/ the question asked by Betal wasn’t read and the kids were told to think for an answer.
ACTIVITY, SHARING : Randomly, unevenly distributed 40 chits of paper among the 13 students present and asked them to create some sort of balance and left them without answering any further questions.
On returning it was found the kids had taken 3 chits each and the one remaining chit was tore into 13 very small parts so that everyone could get one.
The kids had good logical ability and also understood the message of sharing.
Post the activity, children started telling what Vikram might have answered.
Day 4, 25th December
Children enthusiastically chose to come to interact with Kitaab interns despite the Christmas holiday. Further parts of speech were introduced to them and concepts of helping verbs was introduced. At the end of the day, children could identify noun, pronoun, verbs, adjectives and adverbs in a complex English sentence. However, this was not perfect and they will need daily practice to understand these concepts.
After this, Christmas day activities took over and children wrote confessions and sang Christmas carols as a team. The confessions were checked and morals were discussed with the students of all levels.Then whole levels gathered & we asked them about the Christmas day & why we are celebrating it. Then we enjoyed this day with students, we sang Christmas song & also danced on this song
(Two kids from the other school had come to attend this session because they had heard about it from their friends)
Children were excited and enthusiastically wished Merry Christmas. Explained what confession meant followed by CHRISTMAS CONFESSIONS :Distributed chits of paper and asked the kids to confess something writing their name. Jumbled the chits and redistributed it among the group. Each kid then read aloud the confession on the chit they had and the name of the person who had written it.
The confessions were cute and were mostly for friends at school.
PICTURE STORY : The kids made a drawing depicting a story.
After this, students of all the levels were assembled together and we sang aloud Christmas carols.
Day 5,26th December
Got 2 new students without level grading because they were absent from level grading day. So I did their grading. One was come to my level & second one went to level 0. To improve their writing skill, I told them to write a story & read it within the group. Then students wanted to read Natak book , so we read book with acting. Then gave them a puzzle based on English words & they did very well in puzzle. After that students played shoot game. In this game one student has to tell one word & then he has to shoot someone & then this new student has to tell a word. If he will tell then the game will be on but if he won’t then he would be elemenated.Four students played very well & long time. Then our next activity was ‘racing with math’. In this activity,they have to run ,then solve the math question & have to come at the starting point with their solution. Thee did very well. At the remaining few minutes students learnt ‘hand paper crafting’ by their extra activities teacher.
Day 6, 27th December
Introduced them a puzzle based in the names of the animals & told them to solve it . They did well except finding one difficult word. And also randomly they found somewhere in the puzzle the word ‘GST’. Then described about GST a little bit. After that divided the whe level 3 within two groups & played word game. In this game one team has to give a word to their opponent team & opponent team has to tell the meaning of that word . If they will unable to give answer,then will loose their one point. Then have to discuss about sharing,so distributed colours to them randomly & told them to share it equally & they did it perfectly. At the last of this activity told them the importance of sharing & also we discussed about good & bad manners.
Then at the last have to discuss with them about good touch & bad touch as decided by our team. As this is a sensitive issue,so started with some general social issues & tried to link it with my purpose & then told them about this topic a little bit because have to just give them a basic idea & main thing them with the help of a video.
Day 7, 28th December
As it was our last day,so we managed a meeting with teachers. The purpose of this meeting was that to inform them that where we think , teachers have to work on the students. Also we wanted feedback from them,in that way we will work on that weak area & make more effective our club.
After meeting,our competition started. First competition was ‘Creative story writing’ & we just gave them few starting sentences of the story & then they had to make their own story & finally when I read their stories, they were awesome. Their thinking abilities were very good. Then our next competition was drawing competition. Really they made pretty well drawing. One was mind blowing. After that quiz competition.
Then we showed them the video on good and bad touch & discussed about it with them. At the end we distributed prizes to winners. And also gave pencils who didn’t win any competition to encourage them. That was our last activity with the students & too emotional moment. Again we met to the teachers & thanks for their overwhelming support.
Session on Respect and Sharing
The interns at both schools had a session on respect and sharing with the children. The interns had a discussion on the same followed by a small video.
Session on Good Touch and Bad Touch
Understanding the sensitivity of the issue the interns were breidef about how to deal with the issue and how to introduce it ti kids. The idea was to strike a balance between being subtle and not beating around the bush at the same time. The interns at both schools had a 30 minute dicusssion with the kids which was followed by a video. This was done in small groups so that the kids don’t feel hesitant and shy.
Visit By Mr Dimri
Mr. Pradeep Dimri visited both the schools at chaubtakhal and Devrajkahl and assessed the reading levelmof kids. He also encouraged them to always strive for the good things in life.
Career Counseling Session
We conducted career counseling session in two schools which were in vicinity. The response we received was lukewarm. Our interns encouraged the students to ask questions and think about their lives ahead
This time in Chaubtakhal the plan was to have an intensive readership program . The interns dedicated almost 30-35 minutes to reading sessions Children were sorted into three groups beginners movers and flyers in Devrajkhal and were sorted into four different levels in Chaubtakhal namely Level O, Level 3 , Level 4 and Level 5 on the basis of their reading writing and comprehension in Hindi and English. The decision to sort students into groups using books of varying difficulty levels turned out to be very fruitful as we were able to narrow down problem areas during reading be it difficult words or enunciation errors.
The children actively took interest in the activities that the interns conducted. The storytelling sessions were quite a hit. The interns would end the story of the day on a cliff hanger and then ask the students to predict the end. The responses they received were positive.
The children were also asked to make a separate notebook for their drawings, stories, summaries anything that they did during the course of this 7 day readership program.
There is no library in both the schools. The children were very keen on reading books but they have no place to go to. Library development program could be envisaged as during the interaction principals of both schools were more than willing.
Students are hesitant in asking questions and mock other classmates if they happen to ask anyghing. Students have a lot of caliber and are very sharp minded but need a little more motivation. Emphasis is required on reading and concept building
All the interns have noticed that the children laugh at their peers when the latter has been asked something or when someone raises a question. They must be made to understand that mocking others is wrong and that there is nothing wrong in asking questions or making mistakes
Visual mode Of communication
All the interns had observed that the students seemed to understand better and grasp what was being said more easily when any visual mode of communication was used. So the teachers could try and incorporate more videos, short movies, etc based on what is being taught in the classroom in order to make learning more fun and easier for the students.
Overall the response that we received from the teachers and the students was very warm and cooperative and we would like to thank Mr Sudhir Sundiyal and Mr Jaypraksh and the rest of the staff for their kind hospitality and guidance throughout the tenure of this internship.
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0.3115949034690857... | 1 | Reading, writing and comprehension (referred to as RWC later) in both Hindi and English were selected as markers. To gauge reading ability, students were asked to read certain sentences from story books. Writing ability was judged both by making students write sentences on their own as well as by copying sentences from story books. Comprehension ability was decided using a simple shapes book and by taking examples from surrounding nature.
We were in two group of 4 interns. I arrived Devrajkhal Intermediate College on time (9:40). A short meeting with the principal there with two if us. Then the principal there introduced us to the students of classes 6-8.
I was assigned class 6 by our group Manager(Akanchha) for level grading.There were 9 Students in class 6 . Out of which 6 were levelled for bigginers and 3 to movers.The leveling was done on the basis of reading, writing and comprehending the basic books(Chammak and Find half circle). Children were easily able to find the half circle (except 1). Students were fluent in hindi reading and comprehending but very poor in English. They were unable to spell some basic words like Umbrella, Grandmother,House etc.(Spellings of things drawn in the book ‘find half circle’).
Students were very interested in looking at the pictures in the book.
After the level grading we have a short meeting in which we made complete list of students in different levels
AIM- comprehending the abilities of the kids in terms of reading , writing, comprehending and imagination , so as to sort them in different level groups.
PROCESS – I was given to handle and examine std 7. They had in total 9 students out of which only 7 were present. So, i divided them in two group . One group was given a sheet of paper to create anything they like. While , I took the other group with me . i started with one individual in a separate place so as not to intimidate them ,while giving others too , a sheet of paper. The examination started with one liners , hindi – chutki and English – a story about water, and gradually went to some simple story books for hindi – aise jiv jinhe bhula nahi jaa sakta , English
- the adventures of Rusty. I tried examining them on their reading skills, comprehension and reading skills ( writing what they comprehending ). The whole process took us approximately 2 hours.
- We then decided to have approximately 50 mins for each std-( 9:40 – 10:25am for 6th
, 10:25 – 11:15 am for 7th , 11:15 _ 12: 10 pm for std 8th ), 2 interns involved in each slots while the other to engage the other classes in certain activities.
- The 50 min slot was decided to consist of –
- 25 min reading session
- 20 min related activity
- 10 min social awareness
I got two groups to deal with – beginners of std 7 ( 5 students ) and movers of std 8 ( 4 students).
Note From The Project Manager
Recognizing the fact that different cognition levels existed across classes we decided to not tach the tree classes tpgether as envisaged before. We divided our time into three slots. Each slot had a duration of one hour.
Slot 1 – Reading Session Slot 2- Antivity Session
Slot 3- Games related to the books introduced in the reading session
Day 2, 23rd December
Starting with class 6 beginners, They were interested in Hindi poetry so I introduced them ‘Baccho ki subhadra’ . They were interested in looking at the pictures. We did chapter 1 of that book and read all the topics inside.
Then we have a short activity on drawing. They draw the mountains and other things nearby which was not completed at that time. I taught them about sharing things and understand others.
`1st slot – activity period for std 7 and 8
- Word splash game for 15 min – children were arranged in a circle . One had to speak out any word and point to any child child in the group to say another word which starts with the ending letter of his/her word. This process continued in the same
- Played Kabaddi for 10 min to observe more of their behavior and their ties with other students .
- Story Making Game – all children were made to sit in a circle. One student had to make a sentence about a story and it continued in the same way throughout the circle , thus making a complete story at the end
– 2nd slot – session with 7th std. Beginners
- Had a small introductory round dealing with the importance of
- Started with the reading session from hindi book – aise jiv jinhe hum bhul nhi sakte . it comprised working on tgheir reading capabilities , writing practice and comprehensive skills, lsting for 25
- ACTIVITY – made to write English words of 3, 4, 5 letters. It helped wuth their vocabulary. Story making from pictures in the same story we were reading from the text. It was aimed to show them how pictures and story can turn to various conclusions.
- 3rd slot – 8th movers
- It was the first personal meeting with them , so , had a small introductory session with them . there we even talked about the importance of
- The book chosen for them was Vikram And Betal in hindi. So started with a video on the concept and pattern of the whole story. Then proceeded with the text in the same manner as before.
- ACTIVITY – Same as the 7th std
- Sharing and respect session proceeded in the same manner . The only difference was that they had passed the sharing
OBSERVATION – Std . 8 students were quite reserved , be it boy or girl.while std 7 were quite open .
Day 3, 24th December
Started with class 6 beginners with a virtual visit to zoo through book ’chidiya ghar ki sair’. Told them that it’s another reason to read book and we can visit and know about anything without going there. Each student wrote 3-4 lines from each page and concluded full story beautifully. Students there were unable to spell basic words so I checked and taught random words found in the book and from pictures. A short video on sharing and understanding was shown to the kids.
Class 7 movers started with ‘The story about water’. Three out of 4 students were able to form distorted sentence from the pictures in the book. None of them were able to make a perfect sentence. Other one student was given to write three sentences about her school. None of her sentence were correct. She even don’t know the spelling of ‘Devrajkhal’ I corrected their sentences and corrected the words. And told some of the rules of forming sentences. Then the video on sharing was shown to them.
– 1st slot – activity for std. 7 and 8
- Different uses of an object game- students were given an object( like stone, flower, brick,wood,pen ) and they had to write the various uses of that object they can think about.This was aimed at improving their creativity and
- Adjective game- talked about the meaning of adjective and asked them to name them if any they know. They were made to write the adjective in hindi, English and make sentences from it in
- Direction Game – made a circle of students. I stood at the centre pointing out to a student and directing them to do a job. The process then included activity of siiting when directed to stand and vice
2nd slot – reading session with std 7 beginners
- Continued with the same story and completed chapter 1 of aise jiv jinhe hum bhul nhi sakte. They were given homework to change the ending of the
- ACTIVITY – students had to find the specified difficult hindi word from the story we just read following which they had to write the word and its meaning with the usage in a sentence related with the story. It ensured if they followed the text or not. My observation tells that this made them more interested in the
- Screening of 2 min video on the topic of sharing and respect, followed by 2-3 min interaction with the kids on the
– 3rd slot – reading session with std 8 movers.
- Started with the fir st story from vikram Baital and completed it (leaving out the answer given by vikram at the end for them to speculate and write and bring the next )
- ACTIVITY – same as std
- Screening of the video on sharing followed by an interaction on the OBSERVATION – Std 8 boys opened up quite a much but not the girls
Day 4 , 25th December
The day started with shower of questions (General Knowledge type) from the students They asked some important dates and facts to us. We told them about Christmas and Santa.We played secret Santa🎅. in which we prepared some chits with students name, and the students have to pick a chit and bring something for that particular person.
Students along with interns made greeting card with a Christmas painting and inside a letter to Santa. We had a small moment of dance then we distributed some chocolates.
Day 5, 26th December
Students of class 6 and 7 (all) read their half read stories in ‘chutki’, ‘aise jeev jinhe hm bhul nhi skte’. Then I started with a comics type story in a ‘Chakmak book’ It was about a boy who saw dog at his uncle’s home and then gains knowledge about dogs from Library and then convinces his parents to bring a pet dog to his home. The story gives knowledge
In next 45 minutes we played calculation race and word game. And other students were given to write things with left hand by shubha di.
1st slot – activity time for std. 7 and 8
- Mathematics Race – divided then children into random groups . we had a race which could only start after kids solving the given maths
- Skip Maths Game – made a queue and each student had to say numbers skipping either 2,3,4 digits. The level was increased when they had to do backward counting with skipping
2nd slot – reading session with 8 th std flyer
- Continued reading do bailo ki katha. Homework was given to speculate and write the further story.
Word Game was played at the end, in which we can make new words by using one alphabet at a time with alternate chances.
3rd slot – reading session of std 8 beginners and movers
- Started with checking their homework and their perception on the story related to vikram baital.
- Started with the next chapter in the book vikram
OBSERVATION – girls of std. 8 were now opening . the word game interested them too much , they seemed to have played an unique game. Also, when asked if interested to read English next, only a few were comfortable .
Day 6, 27th December
I started with an article in the chakmak book ‘prithwi kab bani thi’, we studied it all. half of the students (girls) went for hygiene session with Rekha ma’am. meanwhile we(boys of class 6) talk about ‘Good Touch and Bad Touch’ then they watch a video on same. Meanwhile Girls of class 6 were taught about good touch and Bad touch then they watched the video. Due to short of time I taught about Good touch and Bad touch to class 7 just after an introduction to that article in chakmak about when was the earth created. And then they watched the video.
After that A small session of yoga with Rekha ma’am. She also accompanied me while teaching Children.
1st slot – activity for std 7 and 8
- Name, Place, Thing, Animal
- Word scramble game- on animals for std . 7 and on adjectives for std. 8
- Session on hygiene attended by all girls by Rekha Mam , yoga 2nd slot – activity for std 6 and 8-
- Name , place , thing, animal
- Word scramble game – std 8 continued while std 6 were also given scramble on
- Postcard writing session – they had to write a letter related to the story they have recently been taught. They could either address it as themselves to any character or as character
to another character , etc.
3rd slot – session with std 8
- Discussion on good and bad touch – talking about its difference , the private body parts and the process of act in such situations and the people we can share the experience
- Screening of the video KOMAL on good and bad touch followed by interaction on the
OBSERVATION – children were quite surprised to know about good and bad touch but none accepted having such bad experience
Day 7,28th December
- Creative writing competition – continuing with the starting line – jungle me ek neela janwar rehta tha. Kyuki woh ajeeb dikhta tha , isiliye usse koi dosti nhi karta tha., they had to mahe an original story with a suitable title and
Observation – we observed how their writing and imaginative capabilities have positively changed.
- Painting competition – they had to make something creative , painting or something else depicting best , the story they just
- Kon banega crayonpati – it was a quiz relating to general questions about world and india, mathematics and the story they had read in the past 5 days so as to check if the story is still stuck with them .
- Title giving farewell session – the farewell was to give a positive title to each child based on their greatest abilities. The children were very enthusiastic about it and cheered for others too. This was aimed to leave them with a positive and good image of themselves which would keep them enough motivated to not leave things just till
- Meeting with teachers and the Principal of the school- we were getting their observations and feedbacks on our working mechanism and
Chaubtakhal Detailed Report
The winter internship program for the school in Chaubattakhal comprised of 4 interns managing a group of 42 children in 6th to 8th standards. As with any other set of children, the normal distribution is the best representation of the children’s abilities, which was decided after level grading.However, for the sake of simplicity, bar chart is used to depict data below.
1. Day 0 – December 21,2017
This was the first day of interaction with the students. As nothing was taught and this was more of an ice breaking session, it’s labelled as Day 0. Children were asked whether they liked stories. Response was mild, which can be attributed to shy nature of kids interacting with new people for the first time.
Students in Devrajkhal school appeared quiet and unresponsive. Students in Chaubattakhal school appeared more inclined towards talking to each other. 4 interns were allocated to each school.
Day 1, 22rd December
The level grading day. School attendance registers were used to list. 42 students were listed. With 2 students absent, 2 interns were allocated to grade students in 4 levels. Efforts were made by 1 intern to keep all students engaged when they were not being graded.This was done using field activities and drawings. Remaining 1 intern was responsible for overall conduct of the session.
Level grading method:
Reading, writing and comprehension (referred to as RWC later) in both Hindi and English were selected as markers. To gauge reading ability, students were asked to read certain sentences from story books. Writing ability was judged both by making students write sentences on their own as well as by copying sentences from story books.
Comprehension ability was decided using a simple shapes book and by taking examples from surrounding nature.
Children warmed up to the interns as the interaction time increased. Children were seen to be eager to take part in level grading as they wished to partake in the field activities thereafter.
Way of conduct of field activities (by Sheetal) on this day is appreciated as it meant handling a large group of children (35-38 at any instance).
Output of level grading
Names of the levels are more indicative than absolute. L0 indicates students with least understanding and relatively worst reaction to stimulus. L5 indicates advanced level of understanding and best response to stimulus.
L3 and L4 lie in between these 2 extremes. L4 consists of students with relatively better RWC in Hindi. L3 students displayed any one or maximum two RWC capabilities.
(Inputs by Sheetal) While two interns were involved in level grading of the kids, (on the basis of Reading, Writing and Comprehension abilities in both Hindi and English),two of us engaged the other kids. Since only 2 kids were graded at a particular instance,we had around 38 kids and performed ice breaking activities.
SHOOT : Similar to Splash, the kids stood in a circle and I was in the center. I would shoot a kid and the two kids adjacent to the target had to sit shouting a word with the same initial as their name.
SKIP COUNTING : Counting skipping one and eventually two numbers.
EAT/DRINK OR THROW : Kids had to very quickly make gestures of eating /drinking if the thing told is eatable else act like throwing it away. Say for Eg bread is to eaten and stone is to be thrown.
ALPHABET / WORD GAME : Kids were divided in three groups. Like the Atlas/Antakshari , each group had to name a place, animal or thing (in English) starting by the last alphabet of the word said by the former team.
KNOW UTTARAKHAND : Children were seated in three teams, each team was asked to share few special things about Uttarakhand.
Towards the end, the kids were asked to tell about how the house system (red, blue, green, yellow) works in the school, after whom they have been named, which is leading etc
When asked to perform something, a girl told a story followed by two girls who sang a song.
Kids were excited for field activities and liked to stay outdoors. They participated actively.
Note From The Project Manager
After the level grading it was felt that the students of different classes could be taught with each other. The cognition levels of children were found to be similarvacross classes and hence there were four groups made namely Level 0, Level 3, Level 4 and Level 5.
Day 2, 23th December
For L5, the motive was to introduce English/Hindi text which is of relatively higher level than others. The Temple Tiger and Man Eaters of Kumaon was chosen as the reference book.
Children found it relatable too because of the big cat habitat in the surrounding areas of kids’ habitat.Day started with showing a 10-minute National Geographic documentary on big cats. However, the English commentary bored them after 6 minutes and I decided to discontinue it. Asked them to list big cats where they made some elementary mistakes. Introduced Jim Corbett and made them read first few sentences from the book.
Children were seen having difficulty reading relatively difficult English words such as superstition, knoll, exemplified etc. While focusing on these words, I helped them write correct spelling and each one of the 3 students gradually made sentences from those words. During this, it occurred to me that I can introduce HOMOPHONES to them and the children liked the idea. They started making homophones (similar sounding words with different spelling/meanings/both) starting with tail;tale. This led to homework where I asked them to think of 2 more pairs of homophones for Day 3 discussion.
The day started with discussing the homework where the children exceeded expectations by writing 12-15 homophone pairs compared to 2 that were asked.
The story of Temple Tiger was narrated in Hindi and the 2 students were asked to write the story they heard. They chose to write in Hindi. Next, they translated the Hindi writing in English where it was observed that English sentence construction was an issue. Sentences were corrected and the day ended with rope skipping as an entertainment activity. However, learning was incorporated into this activity by asking students to count the number of times they had skipped the rope and subtracting the number from 100. This had to be done orally and quickly.
Books used — Chhutak, Natak book, A world of trees, chakmak, Aise jeev jinhe bhulaya nhi ja sakta.
Group of 16 students (one student was absent). Started by introducing Kitaab, our plan for the coming week followed by an activity.
WEAVING TALE: The kids did not create a very logical and progressive story. It was very basic and after repeatedly telling them, there was slight progression noticed. The weaved tale was a small tale with a happy ending .
The story was then written down by the children and were collected.
INTRODUCTION OF THE BOOK : VIKRAM BETAL – Introduced the book Vikram Betal with a 5 min video of the same. The kids enjoyed the video, could understand it fairly well.. Post the discussion of the video, we read the first story that Betal tells Vikram.The kids were given chances to read aloud and asked them to narrate what they understood. I read and explained the things that were unclear.
We could complete half of the story.
Day3, 24th December
The day started with a review of sentences written on Day3. Today’s focus was on writing correct English sentences. Parts of speech were introduced to students. They knew the definition of noun (memorized) but could not apply it. Effort was made to help them in application.New parts of speech such as adjective and adverb were introduced. The concept of adverb proved to be abstract for them and they were seen struggling with pointing out adverbs in the sen
GIVE A TITLE : Asked the kids to give a title to their story.
After hearing all titles, I asked if they could try writing the same story in English. Few were reluctant, however, all the students tried to write. Sentence construction in English was a major problem.
We then continued the story of Vikram Betal in the same way as the previous day. The end i.e moral/ the question asked by Betal wasn’t read and the kids were told to think for an answer.
ACTIVITY, SHARING : Randomly, unevenly distributed 40 chits of paper among the 13 students present and asked them to create some sort of balance and left them without answering any further questions.
On returning it was found the kids had taken 3 chits each and the one remaining chit was tore into 13 very small parts so that everyone could get one.
The kids had good logical ability and also understood the message of sharing.
Post the activity, children started telling what Vikram might have answered.
Day 4, 25th December
Children enthusiastically chose to come to interact with Kitaab interns despite the Christmas holiday. Further parts of speech were introduced to them and concepts of helping verbs was introduced. At the end of the day, children could identify noun, pronoun, verbs, adjectives and adverbs in a complex English sentence. However, this was not perfect and they will need daily practice to understand these concepts.
After this, Christmas day activities took over and children wrote confessions and sang Christmas carols as a team. The confessions were checked and morals were discussed with the students of all levels.Then whole levels gathered & we asked them about the Christmas day & why we are celebrating it. Then we enjoyed this day with students, we sang Christmas song & also danced on this song
(Two kids from the other school had come to attend this session because they had heard about it from their friends)
Children were excited and enthusiastically wished Merry Christmas. Explained what confession meant followed by CHRISTMAS CONFESSIONS :Distributed chits of paper and asked the kids to confess something writing their name. Jumbled the chits and redistributed it among the group. Each kid then read aloud the confession on the chit they had and the name of the person who had written it.
The confessions were cute and were mostly for friends at school.
PICTURE STORY : The kids made a drawing depicting a story.
After this, students of all the levels were assembled together and we sang aloud Christmas carols.
Day 5,26th December
Got 2 new students without level grading because they were absent from level grading day. So I did their grading. One was come to my level & second one went to level 0. To improve their writing skill, I told them to write a story & read it within the group. Then students wanted to read Natak book , so we read book with acting. Then gave them a puzzle based on English words & they did very well in puzzle. After that students played shoot game. In this game one student has to tell one word & then he has to shoot someone & then this new student has to tell a word. If he will tell then the game will be on but if he won’t then he would be elemenated.Four students played very well & long time. Then our next activity was ‘racing with math’. In this activity,they have to run ,then solve the math question & have to come at the starting point with their solution. Thee did very well. At the remaining few minutes students learnt ‘hand paper crafting’ by their extra activities teacher.
Day 6, 27th December
Introduced them a puzzle based in the names of the animals & told them to solve it . They did well except finding one difficult word. And also randomly they found somewhere in the puzzle the word ‘GST’. Then described about GST a little bit. After that divided the whe level 3 within two groups & played word game. In this game one team has to give a word to their opponent team & opponent team has to tell the meaning of that word . If they will unable to give answer,then will loose their one point. Then have to discuss about sharing,so distributed colours to them randomly & told them to share it equally & they did it perfectly. At the last of this activity told them the importance of sharing & also we discussed about good & bad manners.
Then at the last have to discuss with them about good touch & bad touch as decided by our team. As this is a sensitive issue,so started with some general social issues & tried to link it with my purpose & then told them about this topic a little bit because have to just give them a basic idea & main thing them with the help of a video.
Day 7, 28th December
As it was our last day,so we managed a meeting with teachers. The purpose of this meeting was that to inform them that where we think , teachers have to work on the students. Also we wanted feedback from them,in that way we will work on that weak area & make more effective our club.
After meeting,our competition started. First competition was ‘Creative story writing’ & we just gave them few starting sentences of the story & then they had to make their own story & finally when I read their stories, they were awesome. Their thinking abilities were very good. Then our next competition was drawing competition. Really they made pretty well drawing. One was mind blowing. After that quiz competition.
Then we showed them the video on good and bad touch & discussed about it with them. At the end we distributed prizes to winners. And also gave pencils who didn’t win any competition to encourage them. That was our last activity with the students & too emotional moment. Again we met to the teachers & thanks for their overwhelming support.
Session on Respect and Sharing
The interns at both schools had a session on respect and sharing with the children. The interns had a discussion on the same followed by a small video.
Session on Good Touch and Bad Touch
Understanding the sensitivity of the issue the interns were breidef about how to deal with the issue and how to introduce it ti kids. The idea was to strike a balance between being subtle and not beating around the bush at the same time. The interns at both schools had a 30 minute dicusssion with the kids which was followed by a video. This was done in small groups so that the kids don’t feel hesitant and shy.
Visit By Mr Dimri
Mr. Pradeep Dimri visited both the schools at chaubtakhal and Devrajkahl and assessed the reading levelmof kids. He also encouraged them to always strive for the good things in life.
Career Counseling Session
We conducted career counseling session in two schools which were in vicinity. The response we received was lukewarm. Our interns encouraged the students to ask questions and think about their lives ahead
This time in Chaubtakhal the plan was to have an intensive readership program . The interns dedicated almost 30-35 minutes to reading sessions Children were sorted into three groups beginners movers and flyers in Devrajkhal and were sorted into four different levels in Chaubtakhal namely Level O, Level 3 , Level 4 and Level 5 on the basis of their reading writing and comprehension in Hindi and English. The decision to sort students into groups using books of varying difficulty levels turned out to be very fruitful as we were able to narrow down problem areas during reading be it difficult words or enunciation errors.
The children actively took interest in the activities that the interns conducted. The storytelling sessions were quite a hit. The interns would end the story of the day on a cliff hanger and then ask the students to predict the end. The responses they received were positive.
The children were also asked to make a separate notebook for their drawings, stories, summaries anything that they did during the course of this 7 day readership program.
There is no library in both the schools. The children were very keen on reading books but they have no place to go to. Library development program could be envisaged as during the interaction principals of both schools were more than willing.
Students are hesitant in asking questions and mock other classmates if they happen to ask anyghing. Students have a lot of caliber and are very sharp minded but need a little more motivation. Emphasis is required on reading and concept building
All the interns have noticed that the children laugh at their peers when the latter has been asked something or when someone raises a question. They must be made to understand that mocking others is wrong and that there is nothing wrong in asking questions or making mistakes
Visual mode Of communication
All the interns had observed that the students seemed to understand better and grasp what was being said more easily when any visual mode of communication was used. So the teachers could try and incorporate more videos, short movies, etc based on what is being taught in the classroom in order to make learning more fun and easier for the students.
Overall the response that we received from the teachers and the students was very warm and cooperative and we would like to thank Mr Sudhir Sundiyal and Mr Jaypraksh and the rest of the staff for their kind hospitality and guidance throughout the tenure of this internship.
1,296 total views, 2 views today | 6,546 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Society & Lifestyle
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History of Islam in India
A True Monarch: Akbar The Great (1543-1605)
|by Dr. Neria H. Hebbar|
Akbar was only thirteen when his father died of an unfortunate accident in the palace at Delhi. In his haste to rush down the stairs to answer the call for prayer, Humayun slipped and fell to his death. This sudden turn of events left the newly reclaimed Mughal Empire in peril once again. Akbar, who was born during Humayun’s flight from Delhi after his loss to Sher Shah, was in Panjab at the time of his father’s demise. With no other claimants to the throne, Akbar was thrust into the forefront of an empire in jeopardy. Unlike his father and grandfather, Akbar was an Indian by birth. While his father was hiding in the Thar Desert, in a Rajput fort in Umarkot (now in Pakistan), under the protection of Hindus, Akbar was born to Hamida in October 1542. His education had not gone well both because of the stress of a family on the run as well as his inability to learn to read or write, surely because of dyslexia.
Akbar was lucky to have ayram Khan as regent in those early teenage years. Under his tutelage the empire was protected form 1556 to 1560. After Humayun’s sudden death, while Akbar was still in Panjab, Hemu, a wretchedly puny but crafty man, quickly attacked Delhi and the Mughal force took flight. An unlikely adversary, Hemu, who was a chief minister of one of the Sur claimants, had to be driven from Delhi after a major victory in what was called the second battle of Panipat. Hemu riding on an elephant, the ‘Hawai’ (wind), took an arrow in his eye that pierced right through his head. Seeing their leader slump on his great beast the rest of the army scattered in confusion. Hemu was captured and beheaded in front of the young victor, Akbar. After this Delhi would not slip out of Mughal hands for another three centuries.
The loyal Bayram Khan was a Shia Muslim amongst the Sunnis. He fell victim to intrigue and betrayal and was provoked into revolting and then killed. Adham Khan, who is the son of Akbar’s erstwhile nurse stepped in and carried on the business of extending the empire and putting down the insurgency in the neighboring states. The legendary Baz Bahadur, who was the sultan at Malwa was defeated and his lover, the Rajput princess, whom the lovelorn Bahadur had serenaded, committed suicide by drinking poison, in the true Rajput tradition. Adham Khan, by now was corrupted by power and felt the wrath of the nineteen-year-old emperor and was flung headlong from the terrace to meet his maker.
Barely out of his teens, Akbar quickly consolidated power and centralized the administration. Ministers were dispensed with lest they grow ambitious and dissident commanders were dealt with swiftly. Unlike any other Muslim ruler in India, Akbar took keen interest in his subjects and Hindu ascetics, like jogis and sanyasis. He was most tolerant of all Mughal rulers and let his subjects practice their faiths without any fear of persecution. He also encouraged marriages between Hindu Rajputs and Muslims. His first and the most beloved wife (first of thirty-three wives) was the daughter of Kacchwaha Rajput raja of Amber (Kacchawahas built Jaipur later). Raja’s son and grandson became loyal lieutenants of Akbar and were treated as nobles. Rajasthan never again became a thorn on Akbar’s side as it had for all the previous Sultans and Emperors.
Akbar never discriminated between Muslims and Hindus and conferred nobility to many, with equal justice in mind. His only failure was one Udai singh of Mewar, whose son, a prisoner in Akbar’s court escaped and fled south. In 1567 Akbar himself marched south and participated in the siege of Chittor. Udai Singh and his son escaped but Akbar continued his siege and eventually occupied the fort. Udai Singh is the founder of the city of Udaipur with the lovely lake, where later, a Jagat Singh built the renowned palace on the lake. For Akbar defeating Chittor was a matter of honor (izzat) and this win effectively sealed his glory in the history of the Mughals. Historian Abu’l – Fazl in his Akbar-nama, recorded the events of Akbar’s rule.
Akbar also undertook the building of a new capital in Sikri (later called Fatehpur Sikri) and planned to move his capital from Agra to Sikri. Despite being married to many wives he was heirless and propitiated his respects to a member of the Chisti family called Shaikh Salim Chisti of Sikri. The Sufi holy man correctly predicted that the emperor would have three sons. The first male child was born to his Rajput wife and was named Salim (later Jahangir) in honor of Chisti. The fulfilled prophesy of Chisti of Sikri also had an important role in his folly of building a new capital in Fatehpur Sikri. After completing his father Humayun’s tomb, he undertook an ambitious plan to build an extravagant palace and other buildings in the middle of nowhere.
Akbar was a keen student of the various religions of India. Sufism flourished and the Bhakti cult as well as the Jain and Sikh followers of Guru Nanak fascinated Akbar. In his mind he formed an amalgam of various religions like Islam, Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism. He even had Portuguese padres from Goa visit his court to give him a sermon on Christianity. He then sought a religion that encompassed the best elements of the various religions and proposed a new one called Din Ilahi or the Divine Faith. However, he did not vigorously promulgate his new religion and it never gained in popularity, as the tenets were not clearly spelled out. As expected he soon ran afoul with the ulema, who considered his actions blasphemous and a threat to Islam. His half brother Hakim, the governor of Kabul sent a fatwa enjoining all Muslims to revolt. With the help of his Hindu lieutenants Akbar was able to defeat Hakim in Lahore and then made a triumphant entrance into Kabul in 1581. Akbar went on to secure his borders and annex more and more territory. Not only Gujarat, Orissa and Rajasthan were subdued but Kashmir was also conquered. Sindh and Kabul were also under Akbar’s control by 1595. Fatehpur Sikri was having trouble with water supply and Salim, his eldest son was showing signs of restlessness about potential succession. Akbar then chose the security of the fort in Agra, abandoning Fatehpur Sikri. It was during this time that Akbar was busy with extending his empire into Deccan. The assault on Ahmadnagar became confused with the internal threat to Akbar from his son and resulted in a halfhearted attempt and least rewarding of Akbar’s conquests.
Akbar was also an exact contemporary of Elizabeth I of England but was the ruler of far greater number of people in India than the sparse population of England. The population of the subcontinent of India at the end of the sixteenth century is estimated at 140 million people with most of them living in the territory controlled by Akbar, between the Himalayas and the Deccan plateau. Compare this with the population of five million in England and 40 million in Western Europe. Akbar was indeed a true monarch and India with its enormous manpower quickly became rich again.
The benevolent monarch suspended all unjust taxation of non-Muslims. These taxes, called jizya had been collected ever since the Muslim rulers took control of India. Initially the Brahmins and some Buddhists were exempt but later Feroz Shah Tughlaq had made the taxes mandatory for all non-Muslims. Though handicapped with learning disabilities, Akbar appreciated art and music and honored artists, whoever they were. Miniature paintings from his era are considered to be masterpieces and the legendary musician Tansen was his royal singer in his court. Akbar’s reign also began an unprecedented period of political stability in India. A crafty and intelligent minister Birbal is the subject of much folklore.
The emperor’s waning years were mired in sadness. His own son, Prince Salim turned against him. In the year 1600, when Akbar was away, Salim attempted to seize Agra. The father and son reconciled but Salim again declared himself emperor in 1602. Salim murdered the trusted memorialist of Akbar, Abu’l-fazl, when he was sent to Salim to broker a truce between father and son. Akbar finally agreed to have Salim as his successor. However when Akbar died in 1605, perhaps form grief, the question of succession was far from settled. Salim’s son Khusrau was also vying for the throne, supported by the Delhi nobles. The erstwhile history of Muslim rulers with their tendency towards fratricide and patricide was again upon the Mughals.
The filial piety seen for two generations of Mughals would be forgotten and replaced by routine violence prior to each succession. The internal strife, as a result, would be a larger threat to Mughal rule than any external pressure.
|More by : Dr. Neria H. Hebbar|
|Views: 23336 Comments: 14|
Comments on this Article
08/08/2014 12:15 PM
Shashi kanto Das
04/15/2014 05:22 AM
10/14/2013 12:31 PM
Yash vardhan agrawal
10/03/2013 10:04 AM
02/07/2013 22:38 PM
07/20/2012 23:37 PM
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04/08/2012 21:06 PM
03/18/2012 10:52 AM
01/07/2012 17:25 PM
12/31/2011 11:42 AM
manish kumar suman
11/18/2011 07:56 AM
10/04/2011 09:34 AM
07/14/2011 01:58 AM
|Top | History| | <urn:uuid:f7cc29e6-0ee5-4381-800e-a6fea1459dcc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.boloji.com/articles/793/history-of-islam-in-india | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00433.warc.gz | en | 0.98008 | 2,242 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.27755746245... | 1 | Society & Lifestyle
|History||Share This Page|
History of Islam in India
A True Monarch: Akbar The Great (1543-1605)
|by Dr. Neria H. Hebbar|
Akbar was only thirteen when his father died of an unfortunate accident in the palace at Delhi. In his haste to rush down the stairs to answer the call for prayer, Humayun slipped and fell to his death. This sudden turn of events left the newly reclaimed Mughal Empire in peril once again. Akbar, who was born during Humayun’s flight from Delhi after his loss to Sher Shah, was in Panjab at the time of his father’s demise. With no other claimants to the throne, Akbar was thrust into the forefront of an empire in jeopardy. Unlike his father and grandfather, Akbar was an Indian by birth. While his father was hiding in the Thar Desert, in a Rajput fort in Umarkot (now in Pakistan), under the protection of Hindus, Akbar was born to Hamida in October 1542. His education had not gone well both because of the stress of a family on the run as well as his inability to learn to read or write, surely because of dyslexia.
Akbar was lucky to have ayram Khan as regent in those early teenage years. Under his tutelage the empire was protected form 1556 to 1560. After Humayun’s sudden death, while Akbar was still in Panjab, Hemu, a wretchedly puny but crafty man, quickly attacked Delhi and the Mughal force took flight. An unlikely adversary, Hemu, who was a chief minister of one of the Sur claimants, had to be driven from Delhi after a major victory in what was called the second battle of Panipat. Hemu riding on an elephant, the ‘Hawai’ (wind), took an arrow in his eye that pierced right through his head. Seeing their leader slump on his great beast the rest of the army scattered in confusion. Hemu was captured and beheaded in front of the young victor, Akbar. After this Delhi would not slip out of Mughal hands for another three centuries.
The loyal Bayram Khan was a Shia Muslim amongst the Sunnis. He fell victim to intrigue and betrayal and was provoked into revolting and then killed. Adham Khan, who is the son of Akbar’s erstwhile nurse stepped in and carried on the business of extending the empire and putting down the insurgency in the neighboring states. The legendary Baz Bahadur, who was the sultan at Malwa was defeated and his lover, the Rajput princess, whom the lovelorn Bahadur had serenaded, committed suicide by drinking poison, in the true Rajput tradition. Adham Khan, by now was corrupted by power and felt the wrath of the nineteen-year-old emperor and was flung headlong from the terrace to meet his maker.
Barely out of his teens, Akbar quickly consolidated power and centralized the administration. Ministers were dispensed with lest they grow ambitious and dissident commanders were dealt with swiftly. Unlike any other Muslim ruler in India, Akbar took keen interest in his subjects and Hindu ascetics, like jogis and sanyasis. He was most tolerant of all Mughal rulers and let his subjects practice their faiths without any fear of persecution. He also encouraged marriages between Hindu Rajputs and Muslims. His first and the most beloved wife (first of thirty-three wives) was the daughter of Kacchwaha Rajput raja of Amber (Kacchawahas built Jaipur later). Raja’s son and grandson became loyal lieutenants of Akbar and were treated as nobles. Rajasthan never again became a thorn on Akbar’s side as it had for all the previous Sultans and Emperors.
Akbar never discriminated between Muslims and Hindus and conferred nobility to many, with equal justice in mind. His only failure was one Udai singh of Mewar, whose son, a prisoner in Akbar’s court escaped and fled south. In 1567 Akbar himself marched south and participated in the siege of Chittor. Udai Singh and his son escaped but Akbar continued his siege and eventually occupied the fort. Udai Singh is the founder of the city of Udaipur with the lovely lake, where later, a Jagat Singh built the renowned palace on the lake. For Akbar defeating Chittor was a matter of honor (izzat) and this win effectively sealed his glory in the history of the Mughals. Historian Abu’l – Fazl in his Akbar-nama, recorded the events of Akbar’s rule.
Akbar also undertook the building of a new capital in Sikri (later called Fatehpur Sikri) and planned to move his capital from Agra to Sikri. Despite being married to many wives he was heirless and propitiated his respects to a member of the Chisti family called Shaikh Salim Chisti of Sikri. The Sufi holy man correctly predicted that the emperor would have three sons. The first male child was born to his Rajput wife and was named Salim (later Jahangir) in honor of Chisti. The fulfilled prophesy of Chisti of Sikri also had an important role in his folly of building a new capital in Fatehpur Sikri. After completing his father Humayun’s tomb, he undertook an ambitious plan to build an extravagant palace and other buildings in the middle of nowhere.
Akbar was a keen student of the various religions of India. Sufism flourished and the Bhakti cult as well as the Jain and Sikh followers of Guru Nanak fascinated Akbar. In his mind he formed an amalgam of various religions like Islam, Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism. He even had Portuguese padres from Goa visit his court to give him a sermon on Christianity. He then sought a religion that encompassed the best elements of the various religions and proposed a new one called Din Ilahi or the Divine Faith. However, he did not vigorously promulgate his new religion and it never gained in popularity, as the tenets were not clearly spelled out. As expected he soon ran afoul with the ulema, who considered his actions blasphemous and a threat to Islam. His half brother Hakim, the governor of Kabul sent a fatwa enjoining all Muslims to revolt. With the help of his Hindu lieutenants Akbar was able to defeat Hakim in Lahore and then made a triumphant entrance into Kabul in 1581. Akbar went on to secure his borders and annex more and more territory. Not only Gujarat, Orissa and Rajasthan were subdued but Kashmir was also conquered. Sindh and Kabul were also under Akbar’s control by 1595. Fatehpur Sikri was having trouble with water supply and Salim, his eldest son was showing signs of restlessness about potential succession. Akbar then chose the security of the fort in Agra, abandoning Fatehpur Sikri. It was during this time that Akbar was busy with extending his empire into Deccan. The assault on Ahmadnagar became confused with the internal threat to Akbar from his son and resulted in a halfhearted attempt and least rewarding of Akbar’s conquests.
Akbar was also an exact contemporary of Elizabeth I of England but was the ruler of far greater number of people in India than the sparse population of England. The population of the subcontinent of India at the end of the sixteenth century is estimated at 140 million people with most of them living in the territory controlled by Akbar, between the Himalayas and the Deccan plateau. Compare this with the population of five million in England and 40 million in Western Europe. Akbar was indeed a true monarch and India with its enormous manpower quickly became rich again.
The benevolent monarch suspended all unjust taxation of non-Muslims. These taxes, called jizya had been collected ever since the Muslim rulers took control of India. Initially the Brahmins and some Buddhists were exempt but later Feroz Shah Tughlaq had made the taxes mandatory for all non-Muslims. Though handicapped with learning disabilities, Akbar appreciated art and music and honored artists, whoever they were. Miniature paintings from his era are considered to be masterpieces and the legendary musician Tansen was his royal singer in his court. Akbar’s reign also began an unprecedented period of political stability in India. A crafty and intelligent minister Birbal is the subject of much folklore.
The emperor’s waning years were mired in sadness. His own son, Prince Salim turned against him. In the year 1600, when Akbar was away, Salim attempted to seize Agra. The father and son reconciled but Salim again declared himself emperor in 1602. Salim murdered the trusted memorialist of Akbar, Abu’l-fazl, when he was sent to Salim to broker a truce between father and son. Akbar finally agreed to have Salim as his successor. However when Akbar died in 1605, perhaps form grief, the question of succession was far from settled. Salim’s son Khusrau was also vying for the throne, supported by the Delhi nobles. The erstwhile history of Muslim rulers with their tendency towards fratricide and patricide was again upon the Mughals.
The filial piety seen for two generations of Mughals would be forgotten and replaced by routine violence prior to each succession. The internal strife, as a result, would be a larger threat to Mughal rule than any external pressure.
|More by : Dr. Neria H. Hebbar|
|Views: 23336 Comments: 14|
Comments on this Article
08/08/2014 12:15 PM
Shashi kanto Das
04/15/2014 05:22 AM
10/14/2013 12:31 PM
Yash vardhan agrawal
10/03/2013 10:04 AM
02/07/2013 22:38 PM
07/20/2012 23:37 PM
07/08/2012 13:36 PM
04/08/2012 21:06 PM
03/18/2012 10:52 AM
01/07/2012 17:25 PM
12/31/2011 11:42 AM
manish kumar suman
11/18/2011 07:56 AM
10/04/2011 09:34 AM
07/14/2011 01:58 AM
|Top | History| | 2,343 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1858, in the city of Weston, West Virginia, construction began on a Lunatic Asylum that was intended to offer a sanctuary to those with mental illnesses. The General Assembly of Virginia named the hospital “Trans-Allegheny Lunatic Asylum.”
Construction took until 1881 to complete since, in 1861, all work had to be stopped due to the outbreak of the Civil War. In 1862, money was made available to resume construction.
A year later, when West Virginia was admitted as a state, the hospital was renamed the West Virginia Hospital for the Insane. Later, in 1913, the hospital became known simply as the Weston State Hospital.
The building was founded by physician Thomas Storey Kirkbride and was designed in Gothic Revival and Tudor Revival styles. Kirkbride hired Richard Snowden Andrews, an architect from Baltimore, to construct his vision.
Kirkbride’s medical ideas about how to deal with mental illness emphasized the importance of light and fresh air. He also believed that patients would behave better if they had fresh air and the freedom to move around. His particular asylum design and layout became known as the Kirkbride Plan.
The first builders to start construction were prison workers. A little later, experienced masons came from Germany and Ireland to assist.
The main building of the hospital is one of the largest hand-cut stone masonry buildings in the United States and the second-largest in the world (the Kremlin beating it to the title). In 1871, the central tower was built and included a 200-foot (61-meter) high clock. The hospital walls are two and a half feet thick.
Construction might have taken until 1881, but the first patients were brought at the end of 1864. Initially, Kirkbride’s project included a farm, a dairy, a water supply, and a cemetery. He intended the hospital to be self-sufficient.
The original plan was to make the patients feel at home and hasten their recovery. Eventually, the grounds covered 270 hectares, and in 1902, a gas well was drilled in the hospital.
When it was first opened, the hospital could accommodate 250 patients, each of whom would have their own room. Every patient benefitted from light and fresh air from wide windows.
However, despite the restrictions on accomodation, by the 1950s the hospital contained about 2,500 patients in overcrowded conditions.
In the early 1950s, it turned out that the hospital was home to a West Virginia lobotomy project with the aim of reducing the number of patients in asylums. In 1992, The Charleston Gazette reported on the hospital’s poor sanitation as well as its lack of furniture and heating.
Due to overcrowding, hospital staff could not carry out their duties properly. There were also reports of patients being subjected not only to cruel therapies but also to brutal personal treatment by the staff.
In 1986, Governor Arch Moore decided there was the need to build a new psychiatric facility elsewhere in the state. He also intended to transform Weston Hospital into a prison. Construction of the new hospital ended in 1994, and the building was named the William R. Sharpe Jr Hospital.
However, the old Weston Hospital was not converted into a prison but simply closed in 1994 after its patients had been moved to a new hospital. During the next decade of abandonment, the hospital fell in poor repair, even though the main building had been declared a National Historic Site in 1990 before it was closed.
In 2000, a Committee was created to assist in maintaining the building and finding tenants or investors. In 2004, three small museums were opened on the ground floor of the hospital building. These museums were dedicated to military history, toys, and mental health. However, there were violations of fire safety rules, so the museums had to be closed.
In August 2007, Joe Jordan, a businessman and contractor from Morgantown, bought the hospital for $1,500,000 at an auction in West Virginia. Immediately after the purchase, Jordan began restoration work.
By October 2007, he had opened the hospital for tours and other events in order to raise money for its further rehabilitation. When it opened as a tourist destination, the hospital took on its original name again – Trans-Allegheny Lunatic Asylum.
Currently, in addition to various tours and excursions, television shows are periodically filmed in the former hospital. It also served as the basis for Fort Defiance in the video game Fallout 76 from Bethesda Game Studios in 2018.
Despite the tours, most of the facility is still closed to the public, especially some outbuildings which are in extremely poor condition.
Another Article From Us: The Dark Ohio State Mansfield Reformatory Works | <urn:uuid:f3549f51-7727-48fc-b501-8e43b69482fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.abandonedspaces.com/uncategorized/lunatic-asylum.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00210.warc.gz | en | 0.984859 | 971 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.23848897218704... | 9 | In 1858, in the city of Weston, West Virginia, construction began on a Lunatic Asylum that was intended to offer a sanctuary to those with mental illnesses. The General Assembly of Virginia named the hospital “Trans-Allegheny Lunatic Asylum.”
Construction took until 1881 to complete since, in 1861, all work had to be stopped due to the outbreak of the Civil War. In 1862, money was made available to resume construction.
A year later, when West Virginia was admitted as a state, the hospital was renamed the West Virginia Hospital for the Insane. Later, in 1913, the hospital became known simply as the Weston State Hospital.
The building was founded by physician Thomas Storey Kirkbride and was designed in Gothic Revival and Tudor Revival styles. Kirkbride hired Richard Snowden Andrews, an architect from Baltimore, to construct his vision.
Kirkbride’s medical ideas about how to deal with mental illness emphasized the importance of light and fresh air. He also believed that patients would behave better if they had fresh air and the freedom to move around. His particular asylum design and layout became known as the Kirkbride Plan.
The first builders to start construction were prison workers. A little later, experienced masons came from Germany and Ireland to assist.
The main building of the hospital is one of the largest hand-cut stone masonry buildings in the United States and the second-largest in the world (the Kremlin beating it to the title). In 1871, the central tower was built and included a 200-foot (61-meter) high clock. The hospital walls are two and a half feet thick.
Construction might have taken until 1881, but the first patients were brought at the end of 1864. Initially, Kirkbride’s project included a farm, a dairy, a water supply, and a cemetery. He intended the hospital to be self-sufficient.
The original plan was to make the patients feel at home and hasten their recovery. Eventually, the grounds covered 270 hectares, and in 1902, a gas well was drilled in the hospital.
When it was first opened, the hospital could accommodate 250 patients, each of whom would have their own room. Every patient benefitted from light and fresh air from wide windows.
However, despite the restrictions on accomodation, by the 1950s the hospital contained about 2,500 patients in overcrowded conditions.
In the early 1950s, it turned out that the hospital was home to a West Virginia lobotomy project with the aim of reducing the number of patients in asylums. In 1992, The Charleston Gazette reported on the hospital’s poor sanitation as well as its lack of furniture and heating.
Due to overcrowding, hospital staff could not carry out their duties properly. There were also reports of patients being subjected not only to cruel therapies but also to brutal personal treatment by the staff.
In 1986, Governor Arch Moore decided there was the need to build a new psychiatric facility elsewhere in the state. He also intended to transform Weston Hospital into a prison. Construction of the new hospital ended in 1994, and the building was named the William R. Sharpe Jr Hospital.
However, the old Weston Hospital was not converted into a prison but simply closed in 1994 after its patients had been moved to a new hospital. During the next decade of abandonment, the hospital fell in poor repair, even though the main building had been declared a National Historic Site in 1990 before it was closed.
In 2000, a Committee was created to assist in maintaining the building and finding tenants or investors. In 2004, three small museums were opened on the ground floor of the hospital building. These museums were dedicated to military history, toys, and mental health. However, there were violations of fire safety rules, so the museums had to be closed.
In August 2007, Joe Jordan, a businessman and contractor from Morgantown, bought the hospital for $1,500,000 at an auction in West Virginia. Immediately after the purchase, Jordan began restoration work.
By October 2007, he had opened the hospital for tours and other events in order to raise money for its further rehabilitation. When it opened as a tourist destination, the hospital took on its original name again – Trans-Allegheny Lunatic Asylum.
Currently, in addition to various tours and excursions, television shows are periodically filmed in the former hospital. It also served as the basis for Fort Defiance in the video game Fallout 76 from Bethesda Game Studios in 2018.
Despite the tours, most of the facility is still closed to the public, especially some outbuildings which are in extremely poor condition.
Another Article From Us: The Dark Ohio State Mansfield Reformatory Works | 1,041 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In our daily lives we all use expressions, sometimes unconsciously, that have become deeply seated in our culture. Often though, we have no idea where and how these originated from.
Have you ever thought about where the phrase "Achilles Heel" comes from? Or why liars are likened to "The Boy Who Cried Wolf"?
All roads lead to Rome. In Antiquity, the Romans built 50 000 mi (80 000 km) of road to various destinations - from Britannia, through Spain, all the way to North Africa. Some of these survive to this day. But in truth, not all roads lead to Rome.
Read our curious list to learn about the history of some of the most widely used phraseologies that we take for granted, without considering their etymology.
1. Achilles Heel
When we're talking about the Achilles Heel, we mean a person's weak spot. This can be a physical or a mental vulnerability. The phrase comes from deep Antiquity, and more precisely, from Greek mythology and the story of Achilles.
Homer's hero from the Iliad had a weak spot - his heel. When he was a baby, his mother dipped him in the River Styx to grant him superhuman strength. But she did this by holding him by one of his feet, preventing that heel from touching the supernatural waters. It became his only weakness. Consequently, he was shot and killed by prince Paris, whose arrow struck him right in the heel.
2. The Boy Who Cried Wolf
Nowadays we use this expression whenever someone asks for help without really needing it. It originates from one of Aesop's fables.
It tells the story of a shepherd boy who would often get bored when out grazing his sheep. To have a little fun, he would often cry out "Wolf! Wolf, " and get the entire village up in arms. The locals would always rush to his aid but after realizing that he was always lying, stopped responding to his cries. One day, an actual wolf did appear but no one came to the boy's aid and he was eaten by the beast.
3. Between the Hammer and the Anvil
The similar expression "Between Scylla and Charybdis" is an idiom originating from Greek mythology, essentially meaning having to choose between 2 evils. Scylla and Charybdis were mythical sea monsters, representing an unavoidable threat to all passing sailors. In Homer's stories, Odysseus was forced to choose 1 of the 2 monsters to face before he could pass through the strait. He chose Scylla and lost only a few of his sailors.
4. Pandora's Box
Today it's linked to anything that brings us a ton of trouble. In Ancient Greek myths, within the box were locked away all of the diseases and suffering but when the curious Pandora opened it, they spread out all across the world. When she closed it again, all that was left inside was the hope that keeps people going even today.See more | <urn:uuid:af12bf45-29de-41ec-a5c9-1a321ca0df23> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysteries24.com/n4-89122-Popular_Phrases_Given_to_us_by_Antiquity | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00289.warc.gz | en | 0.981985 | 619 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.269847273826... | 3 | In our daily lives we all use expressions, sometimes unconsciously, that have become deeply seated in our culture. Often though, we have no idea where and how these originated from.
Have you ever thought about where the phrase "Achilles Heel" comes from? Or why liars are likened to "The Boy Who Cried Wolf"?
All roads lead to Rome. In Antiquity, the Romans built 50 000 mi (80 000 km) of road to various destinations - from Britannia, through Spain, all the way to North Africa. Some of these survive to this day. But in truth, not all roads lead to Rome.
Read our curious list to learn about the history of some of the most widely used phraseologies that we take for granted, without considering their etymology.
1. Achilles Heel
When we're talking about the Achilles Heel, we mean a person's weak spot. This can be a physical or a mental vulnerability. The phrase comes from deep Antiquity, and more precisely, from Greek mythology and the story of Achilles.
Homer's hero from the Iliad had a weak spot - his heel. When he was a baby, his mother dipped him in the River Styx to grant him superhuman strength. But she did this by holding him by one of his feet, preventing that heel from touching the supernatural waters. It became his only weakness. Consequently, he was shot and killed by prince Paris, whose arrow struck him right in the heel.
2. The Boy Who Cried Wolf
Nowadays we use this expression whenever someone asks for help without really needing it. It originates from one of Aesop's fables.
It tells the story of a shepherd boy who would often get bored when out grazing his sheep. To have a little fun, he would often cry out "Wolf! Wolf, " and get the entire village up in arms. The locals would always rush to his aid but after realizing that he was always lying, stopped responding to his cries. One day, an actual wolf did appear but no one came to the boy's aid and he was eaten by the beast.
3. Between the Hammer and the Anvil
The similar expression "Between Scylla and Charybdis" is an idiom originating from Greek mythology, essentially meaning having to choose between 2 evils. Scylla and Charybdis were mythical sea monsters, representing an unavoidable threat to all passing sailors. In Homer's stories, Odysseus was forced to choose 1 of the 2 monsters to face before he could pass through the strait. He chose Scylla and lost only a few of his sailors.
4. Pandora's Box
Today it's linked to anything that brings us a ton of trouble. In Ancient Greek myths, within the box were locked away all of the diseases and suffering but when the curious Pandora opened it, they spread out all across the world. When she closed it again, all that was left inside was the hope that keeps people going even today.See more | 630 | ENGLISH | 1 |
story talks about a man who goes to the hospi...
story talks about a man who goes to the hospital to seek assistance due to an
illness. The story is used to demonstrate the various concepts or theories of
psychology. The various psychological concepts that manifest themselves in this
story include; Self-perception, the locus of control, optimism bias, false
uniqueness, social comparison, learned helplessness, self-fulfillment prophecy
and attributional difference. The paper tries to explain each one of these
concepts with examples derived from the story to give a clear understanding.
says that people develop attitudes and opinions by observing themselves and
drawing conclusions. The neighbor who talks to Giovanni Corte says on page 3, says
that he has been on the seventh floor for two months, unlike his brother who
went to the fourth floor after to his condition got worse. The neighbor
perceived himself better that his brother and therefore attributed his stay on
the seventh floor to his good health.
of control is the extent to which someone believes he/she has control in
his/her life. Someone with the internal locus of control believes that he or
she has control of what events and the results while someone with the external
locus of control believes outside forces control events and ultimately results.
In page 12 Mr. Giovanni Corte blames the execrable mistake of him being moved
to the last floor “resting place”.
external locus of control is also seen where the doctor comes in Corte’s room
when he is about to be taken to the final floor. The doctor listens to him
attentively and after he is done talking the doctor say he is sorry about the
situation. He, however, says that the situation is not in his control because
the list had been signed and that the orders had to be followed.
bias is the belief that one’s chances of positive effects are high that those
of negative comparing with the peers. In page five Corte realizes that it would
be difficult for the get back to the seventh floor where he belonged with the
“almost-well.” With this attitude that he belonged with the almost-well, he did
not have a chance to think that he might not be well. In the story, it seems
like he had turned a blind eye on the negativity and only saw himself as the
victim of circumstances.
the nurses come to take him to the first floor, he had hopes that he was being
taken back to the third floor. He held on to that lie that the was told and
choose to assume the fact that his body was getting worse where on page 11 it
says that his agitation was only nourishing the disease, the state of continued
weakness continued to affect his vitalities and his temperature was rising. He
could not see himself as sick but held on to thinking that he deserves to b on
the sixth and seventh floor.
uniqueness is when someone tends to overestimate the number of people who share
with him or her, negative attributes and underestimate the number of those who
he/she shares with positive attributes. This concept is seen throughout the
story; the first instance is when Mr. Corte is moved from the seventh floor to
the sixth floor. In his view, he was healthier unlike the other patients I that
floor, he saw himself as only being there for three to four days because he was
just transferred to the floor because more space was needed.
However, this was not the case, and the
doctors did not want to tell him that he was not getting better. In the real
sense, Mr. Corte was only getting worse (Pg.5). Mr. Corte throughout the story
believes that he belongs to either seventh or sixth floor which makes it
difficult for him to realize that instead of his health improving, it was
getting worse considering that he was being transferred from one floor to
another downwards in a very short span of time.
the story, Mr. Corte seems to portray the concept of false uniqueness. He sees
himself as unfairly treated because he is taken a floor below every time he
settles on the floor waiting to go back to the seventh floor. He also sees that
he deserves to be in either seventh or sixth floor.
comparison is when one determines his/her social worth depending on how he/she
stacks up compared to others. This concept is seen when Corte is talking to his
neighbor on the seventh floor, he tries to classify people where he asks on
page 3 about the patients on the fourth floor and tries to compare with those
on the first floor where he is told that the ones on the first floor are the
dying ones. Seeking confirmation, he comments that they are not many on the
first floor. In page 4 he further progresses where he seeks reassurance from
the doctors who reassure him.
helplessness is when someone feels like they do not have control over a
situation bothering them and as a result they give up on looking for ways to
relief themselves of the bother. The concept manifests itself in page 6 where
Mr. Corte realizes that his body had risen, and he was exhausted and had no
strength nor desire to resist the treatment even though it was unfair. He
allowed himself to be taken the floor down without any resistance.
After being taken to the last floor “resting
place” instead of Corte protesting yet he viewed the situation as hideous, he
laughed because he had nothing else to do. From that he seems to have given up
and finally when in the room on page 12 after the thought that climbing back
the ladder would take him years, and he finally rested.
prophecy is when someone makes a prediction, and it unknowingly happens, simply
because he/she knew would happen. In page 4 after being told about the division
of the sanatorium by the neighbor, Corte secretly anticipates for his
unfavorable verdict to move to a floor below that later happens. When lying on the bed on the second floor,
Corte listens intently to the floor below and sometimes he would think he heard
sounds on the floor of dying. In his thinking, he says that they are sounds of
death in action which means at the back of his heard he had some intuition that
the sounds were talking to him since he found all this dispiriting.
differences mean people are trying to attach meaning to our behavior and that
of others. It tries to explain why people behave the way they do. It could be
because of their personality or their traits. The concept is manifested when
the doctor finds the nurses and Corte arguing about them movement whether on
the third floor or the first floor. He listens to Corte’s side of the story,
and he gets angry since Corte’s promises were not fulfilled. Due to the act of
listening to him, Corte views as the doctor reasonable and attentive, and these
leads to him accepting to move to the first floor. If he did not perceive the
doctor as reasonable, the high chances are that he would not accept to move.
not all the concepts of psychology were used in the story, the few that were
used were clear, and it was easy to identify and explain each using various | <urn:uuid:f2884339-2d1f-487d-b1cf-e1f85d325d37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mypaperhub.com/blog-post.php?id_blog_post=898 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.983928 | 1,560 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.33417549729347... | 5 | story talks about a man who goes to the hospi...
story talks about a man who goes to the hospital to seek assistance due to an
illness. The story is used to demonstrate the various concepts or theories of
psychology. The various psychological concepts that manifest themselves in this
story include; Self-perception, the locus of control, optimism bias, false
uniqueness, social comparison, learned helplessness, self-fulfillment prophecy
and attributional difference. The paper tries to explain each one of these
concepts with examples derived from the story to give a clear understanding.
says that people develop attitudes and opinions by observing themselves and
drawing conclusions. The neighbor who talks to Giovanni Corte says on page 3, says
that he has been on the seventh floor for two months, unlike his brother who
went to the fourth floor after to his condition got worse. The neighbor
perceived himself better that his brother and therefore attributed his stay on
the seventh floor to his good health.
of control is the extent to which someone believes he/she has control in
his/her life. Someone with the internal locus of control believes that he or
she has control of what events and the results while someone with the external
locus of control believes outside forces control events and ultimately results.
In page 12 Mr. Giovanni Corte blames the execrable mistake of him being moved
to the last floor “resting place”.
external locus of control is also seen where the doctor comes in Corte’s room
when he is about to be taken to the final floor. The doctor listens to him
attentively and after he is done talking the doctor say he is sorry about the
situation. He, however, says that the situation is not in his control because
the list had been signed and that the orders had to be followed.
bias is the belief that one’s chances of positive effects are high that those
of negative comparing with the peers. In page five Corte realizes that it would
be difficult for the get back to the seventh floor where he belonged with the
“almost-well.” With this attitude that he belonged with the almost-well, he did
not have a chance to think that he might not be well. In the story, it seems
like he had turned a blind eye on the negativity and only saw himself as the
victim of circumstances.
the nurses come to take him to the first floor, he had hopes that he was being
taken back to the third floor. He held on to that lie that the was told and
choose to assume the fact that his body was getting worse where on page 11 it
says that his agitation was only nourishing the disease, the state of continued
weakness continued to affect his vitalities and his temperature was rising. He
could not see himself as sick but held on to thinking that he deserves to b on
the sixth and seventh floor.
uniqueness is when someone tends to overestimate the number of people who share
with him or her, negative attributes and underestimate the number of those who
he/she shares with positive attributes. This concept is seen throughout the
story; the first instance is when Mr. Corte is moved from the seventh floor to
the sixth floor. In his view, he was healthier unlike the other patients I that
floor, he saw himself as only being there for three to four days because he was
just transferred to the floor because more space was needed.
However, this was not the case, and the
doctors did not want to tell him that he was not getting better. In the real
sense, Mr. Corte was only getting worse (Pg.5). Mr. Corte throughout the story
believes that he belongs to either seventh or sixth floor which makes it
difficult for him to realize that instead of his health improving, it was
getting worse considering that he was being transferred from one floor to
another downwards in a very short span of time.
the story, Mr. Corte seems to portray the concept of false uniqueness. He sees
himself as unfairly treated because he is taken a floor below every time he
settles on the floor waiting to go back to the seventh floor. He also sees that
he deserves to be in either seventh or sixth floor.
comparison is when one determines his/her social worth depending on how he/she
stacks up compared to others. This concept is seen when Corte is talking to his
neighbor on the seventh floor, he tries to classify people where he asks on
page 3 about the patients on the fourth floor and tries to compare with those
on the first floor where he is told that the ones on the first floor are the
dying ones. Seeking confirmation, he comments that they are not many on the
first floor. In page 4 he further progresses where he seeks reassurance from
the doctors who reassure him.
helplessness is when someone feels like they do not have control over a
situation bothering them and as a result they give up on looking for ways to
relief themselves of the bother. The concept manifests itself in page 6 where
Mr. Corte realizes that his body had risen, and he was exhausted and had no
strength nor desire to resist the treatment even though it was unfair. He
allowed himself to be taken the floor down without any resistance.
After being taken to the last floor “resting
place” instead of Corte protesting yet he viewed the situation as hideous, he
laughed because he had nothing else to do. From that he seems to have given up
and finally when in the room on page 12 after the thought that climbing back
the ladder would take him years, and he finally rested.
prophecy is when someone makes a prediction, and it unknowingly happens, simply
because he/she knew would happen. In page 4 after being told about the division
of the sanatorium by the neighbor, Corte secretly anticipates for his
unfavorable verdict to move to a floor below that later happens. When lying on the bed on the second floor,
Corte listens intently to the floor below and sometimes he would think he heard
sounds on the floor of dying. In his thinking, he says that they are sounds of
death in action which means at the back of his heard he had some intuition that
the sounds were talking to him since he found all this dispiriting.
differences mean people are trying to attach meaning to our behavior and that
of others. It tries to explain why people behave the way they do. It could be
because of their personality or their traits. The concept is manifested when
the doctor finds the nurses and Corte arguing about them movement whether on
the third floor or the first floor. He listens to Corte’s side of the story,
and he gets angry since Corte’s promises were not fulfilled. Due to the act of
listening to him, Corte views as the doctor reasonable and attentive, and these
leads to him accepting to move to the first floor. If he did not perceive the
doctor as reasonable, the high chances are that he would not accept to move.
not all the concepts of psychology were used in the story, the few that were
used were clear, and it was easy to identify and explain each using various | 1,515 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When you think of whales, you probably imagine huge and glorious animals at sea. However, millions of years ago, whales looked more like an ordinary otter at the zoo, just bigger, and with different behavior.
The Peregocetus pacificus, or “traveling whale that reached the Pacific,” had some unique characteristics that made it different from the modern day whale. It had four legs, very long toes, sharp teeth, a snout, canines, premolars, molars, and possibly fur. It was 13 feet long and weighed around 200 pounds, and had a diet of crustaceans and fish. It was capable of swimming as well as walking on land, but it was not very good at the latter. Even though it was hard for it to be on land, it came out of the water on occasions for things like breeding or giving birth. Unlike its weak ability to travel on land, the traveling whale was a strong ocean swimmer. It swam by pushing back its rear legs and floating smoothly, going up and down with its body from the tail to hip, like a dolphin.
Evidence of the traveling whale was found in Peru’s southern coast, by a group of scientists led by Olivier Lambert, a vertebrate paleontologist at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, in 2011. The discovery included well-preserved bones, most likely around 43 million years old. They found the jaws, legs, part of the spine and tail, pelvis, and the fore and hind legs. It was the first time that evidence of this mammal had been found near the Pacific Ocean. Earlier evidence had been found in multiple areas worldwide, but that led scientists to debate another topic: how did the traveling whale swim across the world?
What scientists can tell is that currents probably carried the whales through the oceans. The path most likely taken by the currents started around India. It continued to North Africa, West Africa, South America, and eventually the Pacific Ocean. Since the whales were forced to stay in water longer than usual, they started to live more aquatic lives. They gained the ability to sleep underwater, but lost others like the ability to walk on land. Along their journeys, they left bones behind that scientists are starting to find.
Whales have evolved to be the glorious sea animals we know today. Luckily, some of their ancient bones were preserved well and scientists are now studying them to give us more interesting information about the whales’ ancestry. Although whales are very different today, they are and always have been special in their own way. | <urn:uuid:6de2d6c2-5f95-4846-9f4d-a7b860d7b9b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://simpsonstreetfreepress.org/science/peregocetuspacificus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00143.warc.gz | en | 0.984182 | 526 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.3044163286685943... | 6 | When you think of whales, you probably imagine huge and glorious animals at sea. However, millions of years ago, whales looked more like an ordinary otter at the zoo, just bigger, and with different behavior.
The Peregocetus pacificus, or “traveling whale that reached the Pacific,” had some unique characteristics that made it different from the modern day whale. It had four legs, very long toes, sharp teeth, a snout, canines, premolars, molars, and possibly fur. It was 13 feet long and weighed around 200 pounds, and had a diet of crustaceans and fish. It was capable of swimming as well as walking on land, but it was not very good at the latter. Even though it was hard for it to be on land, it came out of the water on occasions for things like breeding or giving birth. Unlike its weak ability to travel on land, the traveling whale was a strong ocean swimmer. It swam by pushing back its rear legs and floating smoothly, going up and down with its body from the tail to hip, like a dolphin.
Evidence of the traveling whale was found in Peru’s southern coast, by a group of scientists led by Olivier Lambert, a vertebrate paleontologist at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, in 2011. The discovery included well-preserved bones, most likely around 43 million years old. They found the jaws, legs, part of the spine and tail, pelvis, and the fore and hind legs. It was the first time that evidence of this mammal had been found near the Pacific Ocean. Earlier evidence had been found in multiple areas worldwide, but that led scientists to debate another topic: how did the traveling whale swim across the world?
What scientists can tell is that currents probably carried the whales through the oceans. The path most likely taken by the currents started around India. It continued to North Africa, West Africa, South America, and eventually the Pacific Ocean. Since the whales were forced to stay in water longer than usual, they started to live more aquatic lives. They gained the ability to sleep underwater, but lost others like the ability to walk on land. Along their journeys, they left bones behind that scientists are starting to find.
Whales have evolved to be the glorious sea animals we know today. Luckily, some of their ancient bones were preserved well and scientists are now studying them to give us more interesting information about the whales’ ancestry. Although whales are very different today, they are and always have been special in their own way. | 527 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wikijunior:World War II/The Blitz
The Blitz is the name given to the bombing of Britain by Germany. The Blitz started on 7 September 1940 with the bombing of London, which went on for 57 nights in a row. By the time The Blitz ended in May 1941 more than 43,000 people had been killed. In London more than one million homes had been damaged or completely destroyed. Fortunately, some famous buildings like St Paul's Cathedral and even Buckingham Palace were not destroyed so they remained as symbols of Britain's ability to continue fighting.
Hitler thought that bombing Britain's cities would make Britain give up fighting. It didn't come close to working. The bombing brought people closer together.
Ordinary People Helped OutEdit
The ordinary people of London worked hard to protect their city. Those who couldn't join the army because they were ill or too old could still help. Some joined the Home Guard, others joined the Air Raid Precautions or Auxiliary Fire Service or many of the other groups that were organised. Even Boy Scouts had a role, showing fire engines where the worst fires were.
Children, old people and the ill were evacuated from London to safer parts of the country. In the end nearly a quarter of London's people had left. But nobody was forced to leave and, despite the terrible bombing, many chose to stay.
Air Raid SheltersEdit
For those who stayed in London, they needed to keep safe during air raids. Some people had special air raid shelters - a hole in the ground with a roof - to provide some protection from bombs. Many others sheltered in Tube stations. | <urn:uuid:5b59b83a-4e6c-4cf7-9454-f91650fa01e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:World_War_II/The_Blitz | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00355.warc.gz | en | 0.988522 | 330 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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The Blitz is the name given to the bombing of Britain by Germany. The Blitz started on 7 September 1940 with the bombing of London, which went on for 57 nights in a row. By the time The Blitz ended in May 1941 more than 43,000 people had been killed. In London more than one million homes had been damaged or completely destroyed. Fortunately, some famous buildings like St Paul's Cathedral and even Buckingham Palace were not destroyed so they remained as symbols of Britain's ability to continue fighting.
Hitler thought that bombing Britain's cities would make Britain give up fighting. It didn't come close to working. The bombing brought people closer together.
Ordinary People Helped OutEdit
The ordinary people of London worked hard to protect their city. Those who couldn't join the army because they were ill or too old could still help. Some joined the Home Guard, others joined the Air Raid Precautions or Auxiliary Fire Service or many of the other groups that were organised. Even Boy Scouts had a role, showing fire engines where the worst fires were.
Children, old people and the ill were evacuated from London to safer parts of the country. In the end nearly a quarter of London's people had left. But nobody was forced to leave and, despite the terrible bombing, many chose to stay.
Air Raid SheltersEdit
For those who stayed in London, they needed to keep safe during air raids. Some people had special air raid shelters - a hole in the ground with a roof - to provide some protection from bombs. Many others sheltered in Tube stations. | 341 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of etiquette: the main stages of development
Being in a society, we cannot but obey certain rules and principles, because this is the key to comfortable coexistence with others. Almost every inhabitant of the modern world is familiar with such a word as "etiquette". What does it mean?
The first sources of etiquette
Etiquette (from the French. Etiquette - label, inscription) - these are accepted norms of behavior of people in society, which should be adhered to in order to avoid embarrassing situations and conflicts.
It is believed that the concept of "good manners" arose even in ancient times, when our ancestors began to unite in communities and live in groups. Then it became necessary to develop a set of rules that would help people control their behavior and get along together without resentment and disagreement.
Women respected their husbands-miners, the younger generation was brought up by the most experienced members of the community, people worshiped shamans, healers, gods - all these are the first historical roots that laid the meaning and principles of modern etiquette. Before its appearance and formation, people were disrespectful to each other.
Etiquette in Ancient Egypt
Even before our era, many famous people tried to come up with their most diverse recommendations on how a person should behave at a table.
One of the most popular and famous manuscripts in the III millennium BC, which came to us from the Egyptians, became a collection of special tips called “Teachings of Cochmin”, written to educate people in good manners.
In this collection, tips for fathers were collected and described, recommending to teach their sons the rules of decency and good taste, so that they behave in a proper manner in society and do not tarnish the honor of the family.
Already at that time, the Egyptians considered it necessary to use cutlery during lunch. It was required to eat beautifully, with his mouth closed, without making unpleasant sounds. Such behavior was regarded as one of the main advantages and advantages of a person, and was also an important component of the cultural component.
However, sometimes the requirements for observing the rules of decency reached the point of absurdity. There was even a saying: "Good manners make the king a slave."
Etiquette in Ancient Greece
The Greeks believed that it was necessary to wear beautiful clothes, to behave with family, friends and just acquaintances restrained and calm. It was customary to dine in a circle of close people. To fight only fiercely - not to retreat a single step and not beg for mercy. It was here that the first table and business etiquette was born, special people appeared - ambassadors. They were given documents on two cards folded with each other, which were called "diploma". Hence the concept of "diplomacy".
In Sparta, on the contrary, a sign of good taste was a demonstration of the beauty of their own bodies, so residents were allowed to walk naked. An impeccable reputation demanded dining out.
Age of the Middle Ages
In this dark time for Europe, a decline in development in society began, nevertheless, people still adhered to the rules of good manners.
In the X century BC e. Byzantium bloomed. According to the code of etiquette, the ceremonies here were very beautiful, solemn, magnificent. The task of such an exquisite event was to blind ambassadors from other countries and demonstrate the power and greatest power of the Byzantine Empire.
The first popular teaching on the rules of conduct was the work The Discipline of Clericals, published only in 1204. Its author was P. Alfonso. The teaching was intended specifically for the clergy. Taking this book as a basis, people from other countries - England, Holland, France, Germany and Italy - published their etiquette manuals. Most of these rules were the rules of behavior at the table during meals. Questions on how to conduct small talk, receive guests and arrange events were also highlighted.
A little later, the word etiquette arose. He was introduced into constant use by the well-known Louis XIV - the king of France. He invited guests to his ball and handed out to everyone special cards - “labels”, where the rules of conduct for the holiday were written.
Knights appeared with their code of honor, a huge number of new rituals and ceremonies were created, where initiations took place, took vassal dependence, and entered into an agreement on serving the lord. Then in Europe, a cult of worship of beautiful ladies arose. Knightly tournaments began to be held, where men fought for the chosen one, even if she did not reciprocate.
Also in the Middle Ages arose and to this day there are such rules: a handshake at a meeting, removing a headdress in greeting. Thus, people showed that they did not have weapons in their hands and that they were inclined to peace negotiations.
Land of the Rising Sun
In Japan and China, the rules of good manners were considered the same as the law. Here, attention was paid even to the smallest details: gestures, movements, eyes.
For example, a refusal from a mug of water or a sidelong glance could entail a whole war of clans, which could last for years until one of them was completely destroyed.
Chinese etiquette has more than thirty thousand different ceremonies, ranging from the rules of tea drinking to marriage.
Era of the renaissance
The development of countries is characteristic of this time: their interaction with each other improves, culture flourishes, painting develops, and the technical process steps forward. The concept of the effect of body cleanliness on health is also emerging: people begin to wash their hands before eating.
In the 16th century, table etiquette stepped forward: people began to use forks and knives. The splendor and festivity are replaced by modesty and humility. Knowledge of the rules and norms of etiquette becomes a hallmark of elegance and extravagance.
The history of the development of etiquette in the Russian state
From the Middle Ages to the reign of Peter I, Russian people studied etiquette according to the book of the monk Sylvester "Domostroy", published under Tsar Ivan IV. According to its charter the man was considered the head of the family, which no one dared to argue. He could decide what was good for his loved ones and what was bad, had the right to punish his wife for disobedience and beat the children as educational methods.
European etiquette came to the Russian state during the reign of Emperor Peter I. The artillery and maritime education originally created by the ruler was replaced by a special school where they taught secular manners. One of the most famous was the work on the etiquette "Youth an honest mirror, or Testimony to the everyday routine", written in 1717, which was repeatedly copied.
Unequal marriages between people of various classes were allowed. People now had the right to marry those who were divorced, with disheveled monks and clergymen. Previously, this could not be done.
It was strictly forbidden to marry young people who did not graduate from school, so that they could not leave military service.
The rules and norms of behavior for women and girls were most complicated. Bans haunted the female sex from the cradle. Young girls were strictly forbidden to dine at a party, talk without permission, show their skills in languages or any other field. However, they should have been able to blush shyly at some point, suddenly faint, and smile charmingly. The young lady was forbidden to go out alone or be alone with a man for even a couple of minutes, despite the fact that he could be her good friend or fiancé.
The rules instructed the girl to wear modest clothes, speak and laugh only in a muffled voice. Parents were obliged to monitor what their daughter reads, what kind of acquaintances she makes, and what entertainment she prefers. After marriage, the etiquette rules for the young woman softened a bit. However, she, as before, did not have the right to receive male guests in the absence of her husband, to go out alone to social events. After marriage, the woman tried very carefully to monitor the beauty of her speech and mannerisms.
Events for the upper world at the very beginning of the 19th century included both public and family invitations. Be sure to have been held various balls and masquerades during all three months of winter, because this was the main place for dating between potential wives and husbands. Visits to theaters and exhibitions, fun walks in parks and gardens, roller coaster slides during the holidays - all these diverse entertainments have become more and more common.
In the Soviet Union, such a phrase as "social life" was abolished. People of the upper classes were exterminated, their foundations and customs were ridiculed and distorted to the point of absurdity. Special rudeness in dealing with people began to be considered a sign of the proletariat. At the same time, all sorts of bosses moved away from subordinates. Knowledge and possession of good manners were now in demand only in diplomacy. Solemn events and balls began to organize less and less. The best form of leisure was a feast.
Now, instead of the word “you”, “you” has become more often used to completely eradicate intelligence and show that in the Soviet state everyone is equal and significant to the same extent. Gradually, the rights of men and women began to equalize.
Currently, the concept of "etiquette" includes regularity of rules and norms that have formed at different historical intervals. Each nation was able to make its own amendments to it, which arose as a result of the specific structure of each state.
The homeland of world etiquette is considered the western world. In the 21st century, during a long and careful selection of the results of life experiences of all countries and peoples of the world, the code of etiquette included only the most demanded and the best of them. However, it cannot be considered fully completed. We are developing, society is improving, and everywhere certain rules and norms of behavior are required. Etiquette will be introduced and intensified more complicated further, becoming more complete and significant.
You will learn more about etiquette in the next video. | <urn:uuid:f0e279f6-da29-4410-a6e6-bc7354fe0165> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://zw.beascakesny.com/3606-the-history-of-etiquette-the-main-stages-of-developm.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00299.warc.gz | en | 0.981356 | 2,084 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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Being in a society, we cannot but obey certain rules and principles, because this is the key to comfortable coexistence with others. Almost every inhabitant of the modern world is familiar with such a word as "etiquette". What does it mean?
The first sources of etiquette
Etiquette (from the French. Etiquette - label, inscription) - these are accepted norms of behavior of people in society, which should be adhered to in order to avoid embarrassing situations and conflicts.
It is believed that the concept of "good manners" arose even in ancient times, when our ancestors began to unite in communities and live in groups. Then it became necessary to develop a set of rules that would help people control their behavior and get along together without resentment and disagreement.
Women respected their husbands-miners, the younger generation was brought up by the most experienced members of the community, people worshiped shamans, healers, gods - all these are the first historical roots that laid the meaning and principles of modern etiquette. Before its appearance and formation, people were disrespectful to each other.
Etiquette in Ancient Egypt
Even before our era, many famous people tried to come up with their most diverse recommendations on how a person should behave at a table.
One of the most popular and famous manuscripts in the III millennium BC, which came to us from the Egyptians, became a collection of special tips called “Teachings of Cochmin”, written to educate people in good manners.
In this collection, tips for fathers were collected and described, recommending to teach their sons the rules of decency and good taste, so that they behave in a proper manner in society and do not tarnish the honor of the family.
Already at that time, the Egyptians considered it necessary to use cutlery during lunch. It was required to eat beautifully, with his mouth closed, without making unpleasant sounds. Such behavior was regarded as one of the main advantages and advantages of a person, and was also an important component of the cultural component.
However, sometimes the requirements for observing the rules of decency reached the point of absurdity. There was even a saying: "Good manners make the king a slave."
Etiquette in Ancient Greece
The Greeks believed that it was necessary to wear beautiful clothes, to behave with family, friends and just acquaintances restrained and calm. It was customary to dine in a circle of close people. To fight only fiercely - not to retreat a single step and not beg for mercy. It was here that the first table and business etiquette was born, special people appeared - ambassadors. They were given documents on two cards folded with each other, which were called "diploma". Hence the concept of "diplomacy".
In Sparta, on the contrary, a sign of good taste was a demonstration of the beauty of their own bodies, so residents were allowed to walk naked. An impeccable reputation demanded dining out.
Age of the Middle Ages
In this dark time for Europe, a decline in development in society began, nevertheless, people still adhered to the rules of good manners.
In the X century BC e. Byzantium bloomed. According to the code of etiquette, the ceremonies here were very beautiful, solemn, magnificent. The task of such an exquisite event was to blind ambassadors from other countries and demonstrate the power and greatest power of the Byzantine Empire.
The first popular teaching on the rules of conduct was the work The Discipline of Clericals, published only in 1204. Its author was P. Alfonso. The teaching was intended specifically for the clergy. Taking this book as a basis, people from other countries - England, Holland, France, Germany and Italy - published their etiquette manuals. Most of these rules were the rules of behavior at the table during meals. Questions on how to conduct small talk, receive guests and arrange events were also highlighted.
A little later, the word etiquette arose. He was introduced into constant use by the well-known Louis XIV - the king of France. He invited guests to his ball and handed out to everyone special cards - “labels”, where the rules of conduct for the holiday were written.
Knights appeared with their code of honor, a huge number of new rituals and ceremonies were created, where initiations took place, took vassal dependence, and entered into an agreement on serving the lord. Then in Europe, a cult of worship of beautiful ladies arose. Knightly tournaments began to be held, where men fought for the chosen one, even if she did not reciprocate.
Also in the Middle Ages arose and to this day there are such rules: a handshake at a meeting, removing a headdress in greeting. Thus, people showed that they did not have weapons in their hands and that they were inclined to peace negotiations.
Land of the Rising Sun
In Japan and China, the rules of good manners were considered the same as the law. Here, attention was paid even to the smallest details: gestures, movements, eyes.
For example, a refusal from a mug of water or a sidelong glance could entail a whole war of clans, which could last for years until one of them was completely destroyed.
Chinese etiquette has more than thirty thousand different ceremonies, ranging from the rules of tea drinking to marriage.
Era of the renaissance
The development of countries is characteristic of this time: their interaction with each other improves, culture flourishes, painting develops, and the technical process steps forward. The concept of the effect of body cleanliness on health is also emerging: people begin to wash their hands before eating.
In the 16th century, table etiquette stepped forward: people began to use forks and knives. The splendor and festivity are replaced by modesty and humility. Knowledge of the rules and norms of etiquette becomes a hallmark of elegance and extravagance.
The history of the development of etiquette in the Russian state
From the Middle Ages to the reign of Peter I, Russian people studied etiquette according to the book of the monk Sylvester "Domostroy", published under Tsar Ivan IV. According to its charter the man was considered the head of the family, which no one dared to argue. He could decide what was good for his loved ones and what was bad, had the right to punish his wife for disobedience and beat the children as educational methods.
European etiquette came to the Russian state during the reign of Emperor Peter I. The artillery and maritime education originally created by the ruler was replaced by a special school where they taught secular manners. One of the most famous was the work on the etiquette "Youth an honest mirror, or Testimony to the everyday routine", written in 1717, which was repeatedly copied.
Unequal marriages between people of various classes were allowed. People now had the right to marry those who were divorced, with disheveled monks and clergymen. Previously, this could not be done.
It was strictly forbidden to marry young people who did not graduate from school, so that they could not leave military service.
The rules and norms of behavior for women and girls were most complicated. Bans haunted the female sex from the cradle. Young girls were strictly forbidden to dine at a party, talk without permission, show their skills in languages or any other field. However, they should have been able to blush shyly at some point, suddenly faint, and smile charmingly. The young lady was forbidden to go out alone or be alone with a man for even a couple of minutes, despite the fact that he could be her good friend or fiancé.
The rules instructed the girl to wear modest clothes, speak and laugh only in a muffled voice. Parents were obliged to monitor what their daughter reads, what kind of acquaintances she makes, and what entertainment she prefers. After marriage, the etiquette rules for the young woman softened a bit. However, she, as before, did not have the right to receive male guests in the absence of her husband, to go out alone to social events. After marriage, the woman tried very carefully to monitor the beauty of her speech and mannerisms.
Events for the upper world at the very beginning of the 19th century included both public and family invitations. Be sure to have been held various balls and masquerades during all three months of winter, because this was the main place for dating between potential wives and husbands. Visits to theaters and exhibitions, fun walks in parks and gardens, roller coaster slides during the holidays - all these diverse entertainments have become more and more common.
In the Soviet Union, such a phrase as "social life" was abolished. People of the upper classes were exterminated, their foundations and customs were ridiculed and distorted to the point of absurdity. Special rudeness in dealing with people began to be considered a sign of the proletariat. At the same time, all sorts of bosses moved away from subordinates. Knowledge and possession of good manners were now in demand only in diplomacy. Solemn events and balls began to organize less and less. The best form of leisure was a feast.
Now, instead of the word “you”, “you” has become more often used to completely eradicate intelligence and show that in the Soviet state everyone is equal and significant to the same extent. Gradually, the rights of men and women began to equalize.
Currently, the concept of "etiquette" includes regularity of rules and norms that have formed at different historical intervals. Each nation was able to make its own amendments to it, which arose as a result of the specific structure of each state.
The homeland of world etiquette is considered the western world. In the 21st century, during a long and careful selection of the results of life experiences of all countries and peoples of the world, the code of etiquette included only the most demanded and the best of them. However, it cannot be considered fully completed. We are developing, society is improving, and everywhere certain rules and norms of behavior are required. Etiquette will be introduced and intensified more complicated further, becoming more complete and significant.
You will learn more about etiquette in the next video. | 2,061 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Harriet Hanson Robinson went to work as a Lowell mill girl when she was 10 years old to help support her family. She grew up to earn fame, if not fortune. She started off writing the mill girls’ magazine, The Lowell Offering, then wrote books and led the woman’s rights movement.
Harriet was able to leave the mills for two years to attend high school, where she studied French, Latin and English grammar. While there she wrote two essays that typified her spirit: “Poverty Not Disgraceful,” was one, while “Indolence and Industry” praised the honest labor of the poor.
Harriet Hanson Robinson
She was born in Boston on Feb. 8, 1825. Her father died suddenly when she was six and her widowed mother struggled to support her four children. A neighbor offered to adopt Harriet, but her mother replied, “No; while I have one meal of victuals a day, I will not part with my children.”
Harriet wondered for years what ‘victuals’ meant.
Her mother tried to run a small store selling candy, food and firewood. The family lived in a room at the back of the store, five of them in one bed. Though friends helped out, she couldn’t make a go of it.
Finally, Harriet’s aunt invited her to come to Lowell, Mass., to run a boardinghouse for mill girls. The giant textile mills then hired Yankee farm girls under a paternalistic system that paid them decently, worked them long hours and supervised their lives closely.
In the early years of the Lowell mills, the mill girls could take advantage of cultural offerings: libraries, concerts, improvement circles and lectures by people like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Harriet recalled how the mill girls would attach poems and hymns to their looms and frames so they could memorize them while they worked.
Working conditions in the mills deteriorated over time, and the mill owners replaced the Yankee mill girls with immigrant families who were exploited and abused. When Harriet Hanson Robinson worked in the mills, though, the mill girls were respected, even admired.
Harriet went to work as a bobbin doffer, removing full bobbins of thread and replacing them with empty ones. It wasn’t hard work, requiring only about 15 minutes of actual labor every hour, and she could read or play during her spare time.
When Harriet was 11, the mill owners raised the mill girls’ boarding charges, which equaled a 12.5 percent pay cut. The mill girls went on strike, or ‘turn out,’ as they called it. In her autobiography, Loom and Spindle, Harriet Hanson Robinson wrote the girls in the upper rooms walked off the job, shutting down the mill.
She wrote, “Then, when the girls in my room stood irresolute, uncertain what to do, asking each other, “Would you?” or “Shall we turn out?” and not one of them having the courage to lead off, I, who began to think they would not go out, after all their talk, became impatient, and started on ahead, saying, with childish bravado, “I don’t care what you do, I am going to turn out, whether any one else does or not”; and I marched out, and was followed by the others.”
Sarah Bagley, an important labor leader in her own right, also took part in the strike.
Not only did the strike fail, but Harriet’s mother lost her job in retaliation for her daughter’s action. Still, Harriet Hanson Robinson wrote years later that it was the proudest moment of her life, and would be exceeded only when women got the right to vote. She didn’t live long enough to see it.
Harriet continued to work in the mills, rising to spinner and drawing-in girl. She fought to attend Lowell High School for two years, then afterward she returned to the mills. She wrote stories and poetry for the Offering, the first magazine in the world written exclusively by women, and which had supporters throughout the country.
One of the best writers, wrote Harriet, was Betsey Guppy Chamberlain, an Indian who published some of the first criticisms of her people’s treatment. Lucy Larcom, another talented writer, also wrote for the Offering.
“The fame of The Lowell Offering caused the mill girls to be considered very desirable for wives,” wrote Harriet. “Young men came from near and far to pick and choose for themselves, and generally with good success.”
At 23 she married William Stevens Robinson, a journalist who strongly opposed slavery. A poem she submitted to his newspaper had first attracted him to her.
His opinions made it hard for him to keep a job and the couple often struggled. They lived for a while in Concord, Mass., where Thoreau occasionally called on them. Harriet thought he shouldn’t have wasted his abilities and suspected his mother had fed him while he stayed in his cabin at Walden.
They moved to Malden, Mass., and had four children, three of whom lived to adulthood. In 1862, William got a good job as clerk of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, which he would hold for 11 years until then-U.S. Rep. Benjamin Butler forced him out.
At 51, Harriet Hanson Robinson became a widow when William died after a long illness. She rented out rooms to support her mother and three daughters and wrote books, including Loom and Spindle, still in print.
By then she joined the suffrage movement. She and her daughter, Harriet Lucy Robinson Shattuck, organized the National Woman Suffrage Association of Massachusetts and helped Julia Ward Howe form the New England Women’s Club. A powerful advocate for women’s rights as a writer and speaker, she testified before the Select Committee on Woman Suffrage in Congress.
Harriet Hanson Robinson lived to be 86. She died at home in Malden on Dec. 22, 1911.
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-0.246432... | 4 | Harriet Hanson Robinson went to work as a Lowell mill girl when she was 10 years old to help support her family. She grew up to earn fame, if not fortune. She started off writing the mill girls’ magazine, The Lowell Offering, then wrote books and led the woman’s rights movement.
Harriet was able to leave the mills for two years to attend high school, where she studied French, Latin and English grammar. While there she wrote two essays that typified her spirit: “Poverty Not Disgraceful,” was one, while “Indolence and Industry” praised the honest labor of the poor.
Harriet Hanson Robinson
She was born in Boston on Feb. 8, 1825. Her father died suddenly when she was six and her widowed mother struggled to support her four children. A neighbor offered to adopt Harriet, but her mother replied, “No; while I have one meal of victuals a day, I will not part with my children.”
Harriet wondered for years what ‘victuals’ meant.
Her mother tried to run a small store selling candy, food and firewood. The family lived in a room at the back of the store, five of them in one bed. Though friends helped out, she couldn’t make a go of it.
Finally, Harriet’s aunt invited her to come to Lowell, Mass., to run a boardinghouse for mill girls. The giant textile mills then hired Yankee farm girls under a paternalistic system that paid them decently, worked them long hours and supervised their lives closely.
In the early years of the Lowell mills, the mill girls could take advantage of cultural offerings: libraries, concerts, improvement circles and lectures by people like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Harriet recalled how the mill girls would attach poems and hymns to their looms and frames so they could memorize them while they worked.
Working conditions in the mills deteriorated over time, and the mill owners replaced the Yankee mill girls with immigrant families who were exploited and abused. When Harriet Hanson Robinson worked in the mills, though, the mill girls were respected, even admired.
Harriet went to work as a bobbin doffer, removing full bobbins of thread and replacing them with empty ones. It wasn’t hard work, requiring only about 15 minutes of actual labor every hour, and she could read or play during her spare time.
When Harriet was 11, the mill owners raised the mill girls’ boarding charges, which equaled a 12.5 percent pay cut. The mill girls went on strike, or ‘turn out,’ as they called it. In her autobiography, Loom and Spindle, Harriet Hanson Robinson wrote the girls in the upper rooms walked off the job, shutting down the mill.
She wrote, “Then, when the girls in my room stood irresolute, uncertain what to do, asking each other, “Would you?” or “Shall we turn out?” and not one of them having the courage to lead off, I, who began to think they would not go out, after all their talk, became impatient, and started on ahead, saying, with childish bravado, “I don’t care what you do, I am going to turn out, whether any one else does or not”; and I marched out, and was followed by the others.”
Sarah Bagley, an important labor leader in her own right, also took part in the strike.
Not only did the strike fail, but Harriet’s mother lost her job in retaliation for her daughter’s action. Still, Harriet Hanson Robinson wrote years later that it was the proudest moment of her life, and would be exceeded only when women got the right to vote. She didn’t live long enough to see it.
Harriet continued to work in the mills, rising to spinner and drawing-in girl. She fought to attend Lowell High School for two years, then afterward she returned to the mills. She wrote stories and poetry for the Offering, the first magazine in the world written exclusively by women, and which had supporters throughout the country.
One of the best writers, wrote Harriet, was Betsey Guppy Chamberlain, an Indian who published some of the first criticisms of her people’s treatment. Lucy Larcom, another talented writer, also wrote for the Offering.
“The fame of The Lowell Offering caused the mill girls to be considered very desirable for wives,” wrote Harriet. “Young men came from near and far to pick and choose for themselves, and generally with good success.”
At 23 she married William Stevens Robinson, a journalist who strongly opposed slavery. A poem she submitted to his newspaper had first attracted him to her.
His opinions made it hard for him to keep a job and the couple often struggled. They lived for a while in Concord, Mass., where Thoreau occasionally called on them. Harriet thought he shouldn’t have wasted his abilities and suspected his mother had fed him while he stayed in his cabin at Walden.
They moved to Malden, Mass., and had four children, three of whom lived to adulthood. In 1862, William got a good job as clerk of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, which he would hold for 11 years until then-U.S. Rep. Benjamin Butler forced him out.
At 51, Harriet Hanson Robinson became a widow when William died after a long illness. She rented out rooms to support her mother and three daughters and wrote books, including Loom and Spindle, still in print.
By then she joined the suffrage movement. She and her daughter, Harriet Lucy Robinson Shattuck, organized the National Woman Suffrage Association of Massachusetts and helped Julia Ward Howe form the New England Women’s Club. A powerful advocate for women’s rights as a writer and speaker, she testified before the Select Committee on Woman Suffrage in Congress.
Harriet Hanson Robinson lived to be 86. She died at home in Malden on Dec. 22, 1911.
This story about Harriet Hanson Robinson was updated in 2019. | 1,259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women played a great role in the war as nurses among other supportive duties in the army. The women who were nurses helped treat those who were wounded and those who had been brought back to base. The army had forbidden women to fight in the war and had given them the role of working as nurses among other duties in the military (Favor, 2004). The women, therefore, ventured into new fields that were different from their household domestic duties. As such, their mindset was changed to pursue other occupations after the war. The north has more women in the military due to the presence of the various industries making weapons.
The nurses in the army stood to their male counterparts and thus serving in the military increased their courage. Some of the women maintained the home front while the men were in battle. They, therefore, undertook the duties of ensuring that the army was well managed. Women in the south were much affected by the war since most of their men were in the war.
Apart from being nurses, the woman fought in the war. They changed their names, masqueraded as men without being noticed, and, therefore, bore arms to fight in the war. Some of the women were caught and kept in prison while others valiantly fought in the war. Mary Owens was one such soldier who disguised herself under the name John Evans. They discovered her identity after she was wounded in the war. The women in the war took various roles like spies and privates and helped in fighting the war though their numbers were not disclosed in the war. The women rejected the Victorian way of life where they were supposed to submit and do domestic chores at their respective homes (DAntonio, 2011).
The nurses thus did not only help in treating the wounded and doing domestic chores but further enlisted in the army secretly to serve their country. After the war, they took on other professions related to nursing. They became doctors in various hospitals while other pursued nursing in the hospitals. Order Unique Answer Now | <urn:uuid:b59f3c06-a97c-4d7f-bd84-dd936fcedd15> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://uniquewritersbay.com/blog/role-women-army-nurses/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00243.warc.gz | en | 0.994057 | 397 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.089120246469... | 1 | Women played a great role in the war as nurses among other supportive duties in the army. The women who were nurses helped treat those who were wounded and those who had been brought back to base. The army had forbidden women to fight in the war and had given them the role of working as nurses among other duties in the military (Favor, 2004). The women, therefore, ventured into new fields that were different from their household domestic duties. As such, their mindset was changed to pursue other occupations after the war. The north has more women in the military due to the presence of the various industries making weapons.
The nurses in the army stood to their male counterparts and thus serving in the military increased their courage. Some of the women maintained the home front while the men were in battle. They, therefore, undertook the duties of ensuring that the army was well managed. Women in the south were much affected by the war since most of their men were in the war.
Apart from being nurses, the woman fought in the war. They changed their names, masqueraded as men without being noticed, and, therefore, bore arms to fight in the war. Some of the women were caught and kept in prison while others valiantly fought in the war. Mary Owens was one such soldier who disguised herself under the name John Evans. They discovered her identity after she was wounded in the war. The women in the war took various roles like spies and privates and helped in fighting the war though their numbers were not disclosed in the war. The women rejected the Victorian way of life where they were supposed to submit and do domestic chores at their respective homes (DAntonio, 2011).
The nurses thus did not only help in treating the wounded and doing domestic chores but further enlisted in the army secretly to serve their country. After the war, they took on other professions related to nursing. They became doctors in various hospitals while other pursued nursing in the hospitals. Order Unique Answer Now | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Guala Bicchieri (c. 1150 – 1227) was an Italian diplomat and papal official, and cardinal. He was the papal legate in England from 1216 to 1218, and took a prominent role in the politics of England during King John’s last years and Henry III’s early minority.
Guala Bicchieri arrived in England in the midst of the baronial rebellion, when rebel barons were attempting to force John from the throne and when the suspension and exile of archbishop Stephen Langton had left the English church without a leader. Bicchieri was a supporter of King John in the struggle against the barons and their candidate for the English crown, Louis of France. As the Pope’s representative, Guala Bicchieri played an important role in stabilizing the English church in the aftermath of this civil war now known as the First Barons’ War. He was instrumental in the reissuing of the Magna Carta.
Guala Bicchieri was from a prominent family in Vercelli in northern Italy, in what is now the Italian region of Piedmont; his father, Manfredo de Bicheriis, was a consul of the city . He was trained for the law but entered the clergy; he is first mentioned in 1187 as a canon in the cathedral of Vercelli. By 1205 he had become a cardinal and had served as a papal legate in northern Italy before being appointed legate to France in 1208. Innocent III named him legate to England in January 1216. His mission was to make peace between the English and the French; the civil war and the threatened invasion by the French—in support of the rebellion—in order to depose John from the English throne, were threatening Innocent’s plan for a crusade. Guala’s position as legate in England was especially influential since the Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton, was absent from the kingdom from September 1215 to May 1218, during which absence Guala Bicchieri, as papal legate, was practically in charge of the English church. Vincent (below) points out six areas in which Bicchieri made an impact upon England: establishing peace between the monarchy and rebels; overseeing Episcopal elections; supervising monastic houses; punishing and replacing rebel clergy; judicial activity, including the appointment of legatine judges delegate; and implementing the legislation of the Fourth Lateran Council.
Guala was mercilessly attacked in a long satirical poem by Gilles de Corbeil.
Guala’s role is of interest to students of English history: he supported John Lackland and then became the protector of John’s minor successor, Henry III; he punished English clerics who supported the French invader, Louis, and removed many of them from their positions.
Guala Bicchieri returned to Italy in 1219 after the final defeat of the English rebel barons and the Treaty of Lambeth. Soon after his return to Italy, he founded the Abbey of St Andrew in Vercelli, his home town. It is named for—and is even architecturally imitative of the Abbey of Saint Andrew in Chesterton, which Bicchieri had been given for his services to the church during the difficult period of the civil war. In 1224, also in Vercelli, he founded Saint Andrew’s hospital.
Of great interest to students of English literature is the fact that the premises of Vercelli Cathedral Museum hold the famed Vercelli Book, one of the few extant manuscripts of early English (Anglo-Saxon) writings. Although there is still much debate as to how the manuscript wound up in Italy, at least some sources (discussed in Krapp, below) give credence to the theory that Guala Bicchieri brought it back with him when he returned from England. Bicchieri died in 1227 and is entombed in St Andrew's Abbey in Vercelli. | <urn:uuid:00844a59-8df2-42bd-b504-fe08f44d0714> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Guala-Bicchieri | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.981103 | 836 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.32825601... | 1 | Guala Bicchieri (c. 1150 – 1227) was an Italian diplomat and papal official, and cardinal. He was the papal legate in England from 1216 to 1218, and took a prominent role in the politics of England during King John’s last years and Henry III’s early minority.
Guala Bicchieri arrived in England in the midst of the baronial rebellion, when rebel barons were attempting to force John from the throne and when the suspension and exile of archbishop Stephen Langton had left the English church without a leader. Bicchieri was a supporter of King John in the struggle against the barons and their candidate for the English crown, Louis of France. As the Pope’s representative, Guala Bicchieri played an important role in stabilizing the English church in the aftermath of this civil war now known as the First Barons’ War. He was instrumental in the reissuing of the Magna Carta.
Guala Bicchieri was from a prominent family in Vercelli in northern Italy, in what is now the Italian region of Piedmont; his father, Manfredo de Bicheriis, was a consul of the city . He was trained for the law but entered the clergy; he is first mentioned in 1187 as a canon in the cathedral of Vercelli. By 1205 he had become a cardinal and had served as a papal legate in northern Italy before being appointed legate to France in 1208. Innocent III named him legate to England in January 1216. His mission was to make peace between the English and the French; the civil war and the threatened invasion by the French—in support of the rebellion—in order to depose John from the English throne, were threatening Innocent’s plan for a crusade. Guala’s position as legate in England was especially influential since the Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton, was absent from the kingdom from September 1215 to May 1218, during which absence Guala Bicchieri, as papal legate, was practically in charge of the English church. Vincent (below) points out six areas in which Bicchieri made an impact upon England: establishing peace between the monarchy and rebels; overseeing Episcopal elections; supervising monastic houses; punishing and replacing rebel clergy; judicial activity, including the appointment of legatine judges delegate; and implementing the legislation of the Fourth Lateran Council.
Guala was mercilessly attacked in a long satirical poem by Gilles de Corbeil.
Guala’s role is of interest to students of English history: he supported John Lackland and then became the protector of John’s minor successor, Henry III; he punished English clerics who supported the French invader, Louis, and removed many of them from their positions.
Guala Bicchieri returned to Italy in 1219 after the final defeat of the English rebel barons and the Treaty of Lambeth. Soon after his return to Italy, he founded the Abbey of St Andrew in Vercelli, his home town. It is named for—and is even architecturally imitative of the Abbey of Saint Andrew in Chesterton, which Bicchieri had been given for his services to the church during the difficult period of the civil war. In 1224, also in Vercelli, he founded Saint Andrew’s hospital.
Of great interest to students of English literature is the fact that the premises of Vercelli Cathedral Museum hold the famed Vercelli Book, one of the few extant manuscripts of early English (Anglo-Saxon) writings. Although there is still much debate as to how the manuscript wound up in Italy, at least some sources (discussed in Krapp, below) give credence to the theory that Guala Bicchieri brought it back with him when he returned from England. Bicchieri died in 1227 and is entombed in St Andrew's Abbey in Vercelli. | 851 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Captain James Cook (1728 – 1779) was a British explorer who made groundbreaking voyages to the Pacific Ocean. He made the first European contact with the Eastern coast of Australia, and he chartered several islands in the Pacific.
“I had the ambition to not only go farther than man had gone before, but to go as far as it was possible to go.”
– Captain James Cook
Short bio James Cook
James Cook was born in the tiny village of Great Ayton, Yorkshire in 1755. From humble beginnings, he went on to become one of the most famous sea explorers of his age. He helped to find new lands and redraw the maps of the time.
He was born into a poor labouring family. He gained some schooling up to the age of 12, showing an aptitude for maths, but at the age of 12, economic necessity meant he had to go and help his father working in the fields.
After five years working as an agricultural labourer, he gained employment in a nearby fishing village of Staithes. Here, he worked as a shop boy for William Sanderson, a local grocer.
After working for a year as a grocer, James Cook gained an apprentice for a Quaker-owned shipping company. It was there that James Cook began learning the arts of navigation and seamanship.
In 1755, he decided to try his luck in joining the Royal Navy. At the time, standards in the Royal Navy were very low. They were characterised by the violent treatment of the men, and low standards of nutrition and health. Death rates amongst sailors was high. This was something that Captain Cook sought to change. When he gained his commission to captain a ship, he maintained goods standards of cleanliness and had exceptionally low rates of disease such as scurvy. He attributed this to his strict regime of cleanliness and sauerkraut.
During the late eighteenth century, there was great interest in surveying unknown lands. After serving in the seven-year war with France, he was commissioned in 1768 by the Royal Society on a scientific expedition to the Pacific.
This was the start of his travels around the oceans of the world. He helped to chart the coasts of New Zealand and Australia. He visited many unknown islands – witnessing human sacrifices in Tahiti amongst other things.
He was appointed to Commander and met King George III. He later went on to navigate around Antarctica and the Northwest Passage between Russia and Alaska.
He was killed by natives in Hawaii over a dispute over a stolen boat. This death was ironic because he sought to maintain good relations with the natives.
He was an explorer of tremendous determination and faith. He helped spread the boundaries of known sea travel and raised standards for the welfare of his men serving under him.
The Rise and Fall of Captain Cook
The Rise and Fall of Captain Cook at Amazon.
Famous English people – Famous English men and women. From Anne Boleyn and Queen Elizabeth I to Henry VIII and Winston Churchill. Includes the great poets – William Shakespeare, William Blake and William Wordsworth.
Famous adventurers and explorers – Famous adventurers and explorers, including: Christopher Colombus, Marco Polo, Roald Amundsen and Neil Armstrong.
Great Briton list – Top 100 famous Britons as voted by a BBC poll. Including Winston Churchill, William Shakespeare, Thomas Cromwell and Queen Elizabeth I. | <urn:uuid:00d28750-c004-411e-9e7c-1e2038457dc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biographyonline.net/adventurers/captain-cook.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.980525 | 696 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.36432284... | 12 | Captain James Cook (1728 – 1779) was a British explorer who made groundbreaking voyages to the Pacific Ocean. He made the first European contact with the Eastern coast of Australia, and he chartered several islands in the Pacific.
“I had the ambition to not only go farther than man had gone before, but to go as far as it was possible to go.”
– Captain James Cook
Short bio James Cook
James Cook was born in the tiny village of Great Ayton, Yorkshire in 1755. From humble beginnings, he went on to become one of the most famous sea explorers of his age. He helped to find new lands and redraw the maps of the time.
He was born into a poor labouring family. He gained some schooling up to the age of 12, showing an aptitude for maths, but at the age of 12, economic necessity meant he had to go and help his father working in the fields.
After five years working as an agricultural labourer, he gained employment in a nearby fishing village of Staithes. Here, he worked as a shop boy for William Sanderson, a local grocer.
After working for a year as a grocer, James Cook gained an apprentice for a Quaker-owned shipping company. It was there that James Cook began learning the arts of navigation and seamanship.
In 1755, he decided to try his luck in joining the Royal Navy. At the time, standards in the Royal Navy were very low. They were characterised by the violent treatment of the men, and low standards of nutrition and health. Death rates amongst sailors was high. This was something that Captain Cook sought to change. When he gained his commission to captain a ship, he maintained goods standards of cleanliness and had exceptionally low rates of disease such as scurvy. He attributed this to his strict regime of cleanliness and sauerkraut.
During the late eighteenth century, there was great interest in surveying unknown lands. After serving in the seven-year war with France, he was commissioned in 1768 by the Royal Society on a scientific expedition to the Pacific.
This was the start of his travels around the oceans of the world. He helped to chart the coasts of New Zealand and Australia. He visited many unknown islands – witnessing human sacrifices in Tahiti amongst other things.
He was appointed to Commander and met King George III. He later went on to navigate around Antarctica and the Northwest Passage between Russia and Alaska.
He was killed by natives in Hawaii over a dispute over a stolen boat. This death was ironic because he sought to maintain good relations with the natives.
He was an explorer of tremendous determination and faith. He helped spread the boundaries of known sea travel and raised standards for the welfare of his men serving under him.
The Rise and Fall of Captain Cook
The Rise and Fall of Captain Cook at Amazon.
Famous English people – Famous English men and women. From Anne Boleyn and Queen Elizabeth I to Henry VIII and Winston Churchill. Includes the great poets – William Shakespeare, William Blake and William Wordsworth.
Famous adventurers and explorers – Famous adventurers and explorers, including: Christopher Colombus, Marco Polo, Roald Amundsen and Neil Armstrong.
Great Briton list – Top 100 famous Britons as voted by a BBC poll. Including Winston Churchill, William Shakespeare, Thomas Cromwell and Queen Elizabeth I. | 701 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Horses & History
Bless The Grooms!
Bless the grooms! Many horse people today know that grooms are first people to the stable in the morning and are usually the last to leave.
By: Horses & History |
The word “groom” first appeared in 1225 in English and actually means boy child or youth. It may stem for the old English root of “groma” which relates to “grow” or from the Old French word “grommet” or servant. Today in the Royal British Household we have such positions as Groom of the Chamber, and Groom of the Robes. In 1667 the word was described as “man servant who attends to horses.”
In Britain the term “stablehand” was used to convey some work stature in the stable, while “stableboy” was the lowest stable employee.
However, no matter the term or definition, in today’s world horse people know that a good groom is first into the stable in the morning, and last to leave. Their tasks include anything and everything from mucking out to braiding, arranging travel and transport for horses, tacking up, grooming, schooling, exercising, and the list is endless. While some grooms are transient, and move about as the wind blows, others become firmly attached to their charges.
In a recent blog about American show jumping superstar, and humanitarian Kathy Kusner, she mentioned that when she was starting out, and making her name decades ago in the southern American states, the rules for black grooms were vastly different than for the white. She said that the black grooms were really seen as second class citizens, and were not allowed access to the food stands or certain areas of the show grounds. “I would go and get food for the boys, and bring it back to them,” she recalled.
Show jumping wasn’t the only horse sport discipline where black grooms were abundant. In the racing world, the inaugural racing of the Kentucky Derby run May 17, 1875 saw thirteen of the fifteen riders as black. A black man Oliver Lewis, won the race, and he was actually trained by another black slave named Ansel Williamson who had honed his horse training skills to perfection. After being freed Williamson eventually opened up his own racing stables.
As time ticked on black jockeys dominated the sport and won fifteen of the first twenty eight runnings of the race. Originally, black slaves were the ones who took care of horses in the southern American states, while Irish and British immigrants managed grooming duties in the north.
Today grooming is a serious business, and a horse may be only as good as his or her groom. There are website dedicated to grooms offering all kinds of tips and tricks to make work faster, easier and more efficient. In the good old days before liniments, fly sprays, and all the mod cons that we consider a daily part of our lives, the old horsemen had to get creative. Many of them were illiterate, but they were innovative when it came to horse care, and many made their own tools that were painted, and marked with their initials. These and other labor saving devices were well guarded; there was no tack shop around the corner where they could dash out and buy another pitchfork or shovel.
As sailors had once dragged their clothes in a bag behind a ship to wash them, so too did the old grooms have to wash horse leg bandages, saddle pads and other equine and stable paraphernalia. However, since real washing machines with agitators didn’t hit the North American households until the 1940’s, and since nobody would have ever dreamed of buying one for the stables, the grooms were on their own. They devised a gizmo that looked much like a toilet plunger, and with a toss of detergent into a bucket of water, the up and down motion of this creation did a good job of cleaning. A fast rinse, and hour or two in the sun, and all was good to go!
Wheel barrows were unheard of so sacking was laid out, filled, and then used to transport manure from stalls out to the back of the barn or stable. Hot water? Electricity? Not back then. One bucket, a brush and an old cloth or stable rubber might be all the grooming tools available.
In the days before horse vans, and trailers, horses were shipped to the race tracks by railcar. The grooms who travelled with the horses often slept beside them and then led their charges from the train station to the track. Meal time was a lean affair, and was often just a handful of horse oats, or an egg or two from some nearby chickens. The pay was lousy too, but if you had a way with horses, could groom or strap them so that they sparkled, knew how to braid a mane to perfection, or could get a horse to focus on the task at hand and settle down, you were a valuable asset to any stable.
One of the most famous grooms was Eddie “Shorty” Sweat. His name will always be associated with the legendary Secretariat who won the Triple Crown in 1973, the first horse to have done that in 25 years. Born in March 30, 1970, Secretariat, also known as “Big Red” died in October 4, 1989. In 1999, ESPN ranked Secretariat the 35th-best athlete of the 20th century, the highest-ranking racehorse on the list. When the horse’s trainer Canadian Lucien Lauren retired, Eddie went to work with Roger Laurin, the son. Roger recalls that, “He was a nice, quiet person. I don’t think I ever saw Eddie annoyed. He wasn’t the kind to fight horses. His thing was to try to win them over with kindness.”
Was he an exceptional groom?
“I think history bears that out,” Laurin said. “I don’t think anybody won as many stakes races as Eddie.”
Eddie Sweat talked horse all the days of his life but his family says that “Big Red” was his favourite. He knew the horse inside out, and being the superstar that he was, the horse had a personality and attitude to match. But Eddie was dedicated to his charge and knew just how to handle the racing superstar. In 1972 and 73, sportswriter William Nack spent hours at the Laurin stables watching Eddie Sweat working with horses. The American public was fascinated, and after Riva Ridge won the Derby in 1972 and Secretariat won it in 1973, Sweat took pride in being the first groom to have worked on two back to back Derby winners. He was featured in Jet magazine and Ebony.
Canadian Lawrence Scanlan wrote, The Horse God Built: The Untold Story of Secretariat, the World’s Greatest Racehorse about the amazing relationship between Sweat and Secretariat. “I wonder how many (people) listen to their animals,” Scanlan asks at one point in the book, “in the way, say, Eddie Sweat listened to Secretariat. Listened with his ears, his heart, in his bones.” Sweat died in April 1998 at the age of 59 from leukemia, but his legacy with his famous horse lives on.
Today’s grooms can take programs and courses for a Horse Groom Training Certificates that span many weeks whether for show horses, or racing stables. However, most horse owners, and seasoned grooms alike will agree that proficiency with horses doesn’t come with a graduation ceremony, cap and gown. Getting to know horses along with their ailments, personalities and quirks, how to do a task smarter and faster, time saving strategies, grooming secrets along with the myriad of other required jobs comes from dealing with horses and being immersed in them day in and day out.
Eddie Sweat was known for his sayings. Perhaps he sums up the work of a good groom with this: “Show’em that you’re tryin’ to help’em. Lov’em. Talk to’em.” | <urn:uuid:cb7a4469-374d-4245-a648-5b2efd2af358> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://horse-canada.com/horses-and-history/bless-the-grooms/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00022.warc.gz | en | 0.98303 | 1,723 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.2196490466594... | 1 | Horses & History
Bless The Grooms!
Bless the grooms! Many horse people today know that grooms are first people to the stable in the morning and are usually the last to leave.
By: Horses & History |
The word “groom” first appeared in 1225 in English and actually means boy child or youth. It may stem for the old English root of “groma” which relates to “grow” or from the Old French word “grommet” or servant. Today in the Royal British Household we have such positions as Groom of the Chamber, and Groom of the Robes. In 1667 the word was described as “man servant who attends to horses.”
In Britain the term “stablehand” was used to convey some work stature in the stable, while “stableboy” was the lowest stable employee.
However, no matter the term or definition, in today’s world horse people know that a good groom is first into the stable in the morning, and last to leave. Their tasks include anything and everything from mucking out to braiding, arranging travel and transport for horses, tacking up, grooming, schooling, exercising, and the list is endless. While some grooms are transient, and move about as the wind blows, others become firmly attached to their charges.
In a recent blog about American show jumping superstar, and humanitarian Kathy Kusner, she mentioned that when she was starting out, and making her name decades ago in the southern American states, the rules for black grooms were vastly different than for the white. She said that the black grooms were really seen as second class citizens, and were not allowed access to the food stands or certain areas of the show grounds. “I would go and get food for the boys, and bring it back to them,” she recalled.
Show jumping wasn’t the only horse sport discipline where black grooms were abundant. In the racing world, the inaugural racing of the Kentucky Derby run May 17, 1875 saw thirteen of the fifteen riders as black. A black man Oliver Lewis, won the race, and he was actually trained by another black slave named Ansel Williamson who had honed his horse training skills to perfection. After being freed Williamson eventually opened up his own racing stables.
As time ticked on black jockeys dominated the sport and won fifteen of the first twenty eight runnings of the race. Originally, black slaves were the ones who took care of horses in the southern American states, while Irish and British immigrants managed grooming duties in the north.
Today grooming is a serious business, and a horse may be only as good as his or her groom. There are website dedicated to grooms offering all kinds of tips and tricks to make work faster, easier and more efficient. In the good old days before liniments, fly sprays, and all the mod cons that we consider a daily part of our lives, the old horsemen had to get creative. Many of them were illiterate, but they were innovative when it came to horse care, and many made their own tools that were painted, and marked with their initials. These and other labor saving devices were well guarded; there was no tack shop around the corner where they could dash out and buy another pitchfork or shovel.
As sailors had once dragged their clothes in a bag behind a ship to wash them, so too did the old grooms have to wash horse leg bandages, saddle pads and other equine and stable paraphernalia. However, since real washing machines with agitators didn’t hit the North American households until the 1940’s, and since nobody would have ever dreamed of buying one for the stables, the grooms were on their own. They devised a gizmo that looked much like a toilet plunger, and with a toss of detergent into a bucket of water, the up and down motion of this creation did a good job of cleaning. A fast rinse, and hour or two in the sun, and all was good to go!
Wheel barrows were unheard of so sacking was laid out, filled, and then used to transport manure from stalls out to the back of the barn or stable. Hot water? Electricity? Not back then. One bucket, a brush and an old cloth or stable rubber might be all the grooming tools available.
In the days before horse vans, and trailers, horses were shipped to the race tracks by railcar. The grooms who travelled with the horses often slept beside them and then led their charges from the train station to the track. Meal time was a lean affair, and was often just a handful of horse oats, or an egg or two from some nearby chickens. The pay was lousy too, but if you had a way with horses, could groom or strap them so that they sparkled, knew how to braid a mane to perfection, or could get a horse to focus on the task at hand and settle down, you were a valuable asset to any stable.
One of the most famous grooms was Eddie “Shorty” Sweat. His name will always be associated with the legendary Secretariat who won the Triple Crown in 1973, the first horse to have done that in 25 years. Born in March 30, 1970, Secretariat, also known as “Big Red” died in October 4, 1989. In 1999, ESPN ranked Secretariat the 35th-best athlete of the 20th century, the highest-ranking racehorse on the list. When the horse’s trainer Canadian Lucien Lauren retired, Eddie went to work with Roger Laurin, the son. Roger recalls that, “He was a nice, quiet person. I don’t think I ever saw Eddie annoyed. He wasn’t the kind to fight horses. His thing was to try to win them over with kindness.”
Was he an exceptional groom?
“I think history bears that out,” Laurin said. “I don’t think anybody won as many stakes races as Eddie.”
Eddie Sweat talked horse all the days of his life but his family says that “Big Red” was his favourite. He knew the horse inside out, and being the superstar that he was, the horse had a personality and attitude to match. But Eddie was dedicated to his charge and knew just how to handle the racing superstar. In 1972 and 73, sportswriter William Nack spent hours at the Laurin stables watching Eddie Sweat working with horses. The American public was fascinated, and after Riva Ridge won the Derby in 1972 and Secretariat won it in 1973, Sweat took pride in being the first groom to have worked on two back to back Derby winners. He was featured in Jet magazine and Ebony.
Canadian Lawrence Scanlan wrote, The Horse God Built: The Untold Story of Secretariat, the World’s Greatest Racehorse about the amazing relationship between Sweat and Secretariat. “I wonder how many (people) listen to their animals,” Scanlan asks at one point in the book, “in the way, say, Eddie Sweat listened to Secretariat. Listened with his ears, his heart, in his bones.” Sweat died in April 1998 at the age of 59 from leukemia, but his legacy with his famous horse lives on.
Today’s grooms can take programs and courses for a Horse Groom Training Certificates that span many weeks whether for show horses, or racing stables. However, most horse owners, and seasoned grooms alike will agree that proficiency with horses doesn’t come with a graduation ceremony, cap and gown. Getting to know horses along with their ailments, personalities and quirks, how to do a task smarter and faster, time saving strategies, grooming secrets along with the myriad of other required jobs comes from dealing with horses and being immersed in them day in and day out.
Eddie Sweat was known for his sayings. Perhaps he sums up the work of a good groom with this: “Show’em that you’re tryin’ to help’em. Lov’em. Talk to’em.” | 1,680 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Recently in our PrepOne Math class, we have been using our workbooks a lot lately. So to try something new for our unit on creating 3D shapes, we implemented a hands-on STEM activity that helped students learn this skill. This teaching method is especially helpful to students who are kinesthetic or tactile learners. It provides them with a better understanding of the points and sides of each shape. Savera, has always done well in Math and she really loves to take part in any hands-on Montessori activities. During this lesson, she created 3D shapes using marshmallows and toothpicks and was able to identify each shape with its points and sides.
Rowntree’s mission is to use differentiated learning to teach our students various concepts and core skills. With this particular activity, students really benefited from the lesson because they were actively involved in joining sides and points of the 3D shape and were able to actively see the shapes come to life.
As today’s teachers, it is our responsibility to identify the various ways our students learn and encourage learning through different methods.
Savera was really excited as this was the first 3D shape she had created independently, without any assistance from her teacher. | <urn:uuid:fd1d97ed-cc20-47b8-9fa8-4d7d7b6d2c0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rowntreemontessori.com/tag/kindergarten/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00195.warc.gz | en | 0.984381 | 252 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.40305840969... | 12 | Recently in our PrepOne Math class, we have been using our workbooks a lot lately. So to try something new for our unit on creating 3D shapes, we implemented a hands-on STEM activity that helped students learn this skill. This teaching method is especially helpful to students who are kinesthetic or tactile learners. It provides them with a better understanding of the points and sides of each shape. Savera, has always done well in Math and she really loves to take part in any hands-on Montessori activities. During this lesson, she created 3D shapes using marshmallows and toothpicks and was able to identify each shape with its points and sides.
Rowntree’s mission is to use differentiated learning to teach our students various concepts and core skills. With this particular activity, students really benefited from the lesson because they were actively involved in joining sides and points of the 3D shape and were able to actively see the shapes come to life.
As today’s teachers, it is our responsibility to identify the various ways our students learn and encourage learning through different methods.
Savera was really excited as this was the first 3D shape she had created independently, without any assistance from her teacher. | 246 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Title: Regina Persisted: An Untold Story
Author: Sandy Eisenberg Sasso
Illustrator: Margeaux Lucas
Publisher: Apples and Honey Press
Intended for Ages: 7-12 years
Jewish Topics: Jewish History, Torah Study, Biblical Women
Additional Topics Mentioned: women’s rights, persistence toward one’s goals, overcoming obstacles (Note that there is a short mention of the Holocaust, and the book’s afterword explains that Rabbi Jonas died in Auschwitz.)
Regina Jonas was the first woman to be ordained as a rabbi, in Germany in 1935 – but her path to the rabbinate was not easy.
From a young age, Regina enjoyed learning and teaching about Judaism. Even as she attended synagogue and holidays with her family, people would tell her that religious leadership was no place for a woman. She studied for her rabbinical exams but was turned away numerous times by her teachers who told her that women could not be rabbis.
But Regina persisted in teaching, especially to groups of women and girls who she inspired with her love of her subject and her love of her students. Finally, her teachers saw how dedicated she was, and she was allowed to take the test to become a rabbi.
- Persistence is a vital quality in a leader, especially for women. Regina had so much working against her, from society’s expectations to people in her own community. She continued studying, teaching, and doing what she loved despite so many around her telling her to stop, to move on, to take on traditional women’s work.
- We can imagine how devastated she must have felt after being rejected by her beloved teachers, who built her up as a teacher but would not allow her to take the final step and become a rabbi. Regina believed that women could serve as rabbis just as well as men, and she fought to make this a reality – a lesson for all of us when we see injustice in the world.
- Regina was inspired by her family to make many of her life choices. Her father was the one who originally inspired her love of learning and who taught her, in a time when most people didn’t teach their daughters. After he died, she continued learning in his name and to preserve his legacy.
She also attends synagogue with her brother and mother, continuing to be connected to the community even after her father’s death. Both her mother and brother supported her journey, and she was deeply connected to them throughout her life.
- Regina’s story ends in tragedy and then is largely forgotten by the wider Jewish world – but her fight and her legacy survive in the form of more than 1,000 female rabbis who serve our Jewish communities today. This book helps us to reclaim her story and understand how her legacy and persistence changed the face of the Jewish world forever.
Jewish Topics for Family Discussion
At the end of this book is a wonderful family discussion guide, written by the author. She asks about dreaming, about not giving up and about finding ways to follow through, even when things get hard. These are great questions to discuss as a family.
- Limmud – Jewish Learning: Regina wanted to become a rabbi because of her great love of Jewish learning. There are so many different ways your family can incorporate that into your lives. Read a summary of the weekly Torah portion together, read books from PJ Library® or other sources about Jewish holidays, or go to events hosted by local synagogues and JCCs in your area to celebrate with other families.
- Women in Judaism: Oftentimes, the stories of women in our tradition are overlooked – and indeed, many people have never heard the story of Regina Jonas, or many other women in our history. Regina talks about the Biblical figures of Esther, Deborah, and Miriam – and there are so many more stories to uncover.
- The Jewish Women’s Archive is a wonderful resource for learning all about Jewish women, from the time of the Bible until today; they even have a lot of additional material on Regina Jonas. See if you can find a Jewish woman whose story your child relates to. For older children, you can discuss with your child why women are often left out of history and how they might incorporate stories of women not just in their Jewish education but in all their schoolwork. | <urn:uuid:17265db8-50e8-4cfd-bf75-d6dff26ab1dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://reformjudaism.org/jewish-life/family/parenting/regina-persisted | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.981686 | 894 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.0561646632850... | 4 | Title: Regina Persisted: An Untold Story
Author: Sandy Eisenberg Sasso
Illustrator: Margeaux Lucas
Publisher: Apples and Honey Press
Intended for Ages: 7-12 years
Jewish Topics: Jewish History, Torah Study, Biblical Women
Additional Topics Mentioned: women’s rights, persistence toward one’s goals, overcoming obstacles (Note that there is a short mention of the Holocaust, and the book’s afterword explains that Rabbi Jonas died in Auschwitz.)
Regina Jonas was the first woman to be ordained as a rabbi, in Germany in 1935 – but her path to the rabbinate was not easy.
From a young age, Regina enjoyed learning and teaching about Judaism. Even as she attended synagogue and holidays with her family, people would tell her that religious leadership was no place for a woman. She studied for her rabbinical exams but was turned away numerous times by her teachers who told her that women could not be rabbis.
But Regina persisted in teaching, especially to groups of women and girls who she inspired with her love of her subject and her love of her students. Finally, her teachers saw how dedicated she was, and she was allowed to take the test to become a rabbi.
- Persistence is a vital quality in a leader, especially for women. Regina had so much working against her, from society’s expectations to people in her own community. She continued studying, teaching, and doing what she loved despite so many around her telling her to stop, to move on, to take on traditional women’s work.
- We can imagine how devastated she must have felt after being rejected by her beloved teachers, who built her up as a teacher but would not allow her to take the final step and become a rabbi. Regina believed that women could serve as rabbis just as well as men, and she fought to make this a reality – a lesson for all of us when we see injustice in the world.
- Regina was inspired by her family to make many of her life choices. Her father was the one who originally inspired her love of learning and who taught her, in a time when most people didn’t teach their daughters. After he died, she continued learning in his name and to preserve his legacy.
She also attends synagogue with her brother and mother, continuing to be connected to the community even after her father’s death. Both her mother and brother supported her journey, and she was deeply connected to them throughout her life.
- Regina’s story ends in tragedy and then is largely forgotten by the wider Jewish world – but her fight and her legacy survive in the form of more than 1,000 female rabbis who serve our Jewish communities today. This book helps us to reclaim her story and understand how her legacy and persistence changed the face of the Jewish world forever.
Jewish Topics for Family Discussion
At the end of this book is a wonderful family discussion guide, written by the author. She asks about dreaming, about not giving up and about finding ways to follow through, even when things get hard. These are great questions to discuss as a family.
- Limmud – Jewish Learning: Regina wanted to become a rabbi because of her great love of Jewish learning. There are so many different ways your family can incorporate that into your lives. Read a summary of the weekly Torah portion together, read books from PJ Library® or other sources about Jewish holidays, or go to events hosted by local synagogues and JCCs in your area to celebrate with other families.
- Women in Judaism: Oftentimes, the stories of women in our tradition are overlooked – and indeed, many people have never heard the story of Regina Jonas, or many other women in our history. Regina talks about the Biblical figures of Esther, Deborah, and Miriam – and there are so many more stories to uncover.
- The Jewish Women’s Archive is a wonderful resource for learning all about Jewish women, from the time of the Bible until today; they even have a lot of additional material on Regina Jonas. See if you can find a Jewish woman whose story your child relates to. For older children, you can discuss with your child why women are often left out of history and how they might incorporate stories of women not just in their Jewish education but in all their schoolwork. | 882 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Students are required to read at least 30 minutes each day 5 days a week. Reading each day helps students to progress in their reading levels, increase their fluency, and build their comprehension skills. Daily Reading is a must! Parents can help their students be successful in reading by discussing what their child has read for the day. This helps the student learn how to dig deeper in their understanding of what they are reading.
Students have a daily reading log, which is part of their homework grade. They are to follow directions completing the log itself, listing the title, identifying the page numbers they have read from their book ( ex. p. 17 - 23), they are to identify the genre of their book by the appropriate code listed in their Readers' Response Notebook, and most of all write a summary about the pages they have read. A summary consists of what was occurring when they began reading that day, what happened in the middle of the reading, and what was happening when they stopped reading for the day. The student should ask him/herself: Who did I read about? What did they do? Why did they do what they did? The Reading Log requires a daily parent signature confirming that the parent knows that the student read either by listening to them read, watching them read, or by questioning them about what they read after the student stopped reading.
Homework will not be expected on evenings of school activities, major tests, or holidays. | <urn:uuid:140f2c28-f42e-4ba1-adc3-551c0709e2fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.alvinisd.net/Page/14562 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.984805 | 292 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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0.4050350189... | 2 | Students are required to read at least 30 minutes each day 5 days a week. Reading each day helps students to progress in their reading levels, increase their fluency, and build their comprehension skills. Daily Reading is a must! Parents can help their students be successful in reading by discussing what their child has read for the day. This helps the student learn how to dig deeper in their understanding of what they are reading.
Students have a daily reading log, which is part of their homework grade. They are to follow directions completing the log itself, listing the title, identifying the page numbers they have read from their book ( ex. p. 17 - 23), they are to identify the genre of their book by the appropriate code listed in their Readers' Response Notebook, and most of all write a summary about the pages they have read. A summary consists of what was occurring when they began reading that day, what happened in the middle of the reading, and what was happening when they stopped reading for the day. The student should ask him/herself: Who did I read about? What did they do? Why did they do what they did? The Reading Log requires a daily parent signature confirming that the parent knows that the student read either by listening to them read, watching them read, or by questioning them about what they read after the student stopped reading.
Homework will not be expected on evenings of school activities, major tests, or holidays. | 296 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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