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In Italy, he is referred to as Giovanni Caboto.
By lateCabot had reached Bristol, England, a port city that had served as a starting point for several previous expeditions across the North Atlantic. From there, he worked to convince the British crown that England did not have to stand aside while Spain claimed most of the New World, and that it was possible to reach Asia on a more northerly route than the one Columbus had taken.
After a first, aborted attempt, Cabot sailed out of Bristol on the small ship Matthew in Maywith a crew of 18 men.
The expedition made landfall in North America on June 24; the exact location is disputed, but may have been southern Labrador, the island of Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island. When Cabot went ashore, he reportedly saw signs of habitation but no people. He took possession of the land for King Henry, but hoisted both the English and Venetian flags.
Cabot explored the area and named various features of the region, including Cape Discovery, Island of St. These may correspond to modern-day places located around what became known as Cabot Strait, the mile-wide channel running between southwestern Newfoundland and northern Cape Breton Island.
This time, he would continue westward from his first landfall until he reached the island of Cipangu Japan. In Februarythe king issued letters patent for the second voyage, and that May Cabot set off from Bristol with about five ships and men. The exact fate of the expedition has not been established, but by July one of the ships had been damaged and sought anchorage in Ireland.
It was believed that the ships had been caught in a severe storm, and byCabot himself was presumed to have perished at sea. In addition to laying the groundwork for British land claims in Canada, his expeditions proved the existence of a shorter route across the northern Atlantic Ocean, which would later facilitate the establishment of other British colonies in North America.John Cabot, Italian Giovanni Caboto, (born c.
, Genoa? [Italy]—died c. ), navigator and explorer who by his voyages in and helped lay the groundwork for the later British claim to kaja-net.com exact details of his life and of his voyages are still subjects of controversy among historians and cartographers.
academics. At John Cabot University in Rome, degree-seeking and visiting students alike will discover a distinctly American learning experience enriched by our location in Rome and our international student population and faculty. Finally Cabot was able to test his new route.
King Henry VII of England promised John a fleet of ships and a crew. On May 2, , John set sail aboard a magnificent cruise ship named The Matthew with a crew of servants, the finest weaponry available, and an abundance of .
Online shopping from a great selection at Books Store. Discover books, read about the author, find related products, and more. More about John G.
L. Cabot. John Cabot (about ) was an Italian-born English explorer and navigator.
In Italy, he is known as Giovanni Caboto (which is his original name). Cabot was born in Italy but moved to England in At the request of King Henry VII of England, Cabot sailed to Canada in , commanding the.
John Cabot. John Cabot (active ), born Giovanni Caboto, was an Italian explorer in English service. He was once thought to have been the first to bear the English flag across the Atlantic, but recent evidence shows that another voyage preceded his. | <urn:uuid:df1164dc-466a-466a-9753-30616d508dc0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hejasizipimylilu.kaja-net.com/john-cabot-750tt.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.983107 | 734 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.7482974529266... | 1 | In Italy, he is referred to as Giovanni Caboto.
By lateCabot had reached Bristol, England, a port city that had served as a starting point for several previous expeditions across the North Atlantic. From there, he worked to convince the British crown that England did not have to stand aside while Spain claimed most of the New World, and that it was possible to reach Asia on a more northerly route than the one Columbus had taken.
After a first, aborted attempt, Cabot sailed out of Bristol on the small ship Matthew in Maywith a crew of 18 men.
The expedition made landfall in North America on June 24; the exact location is disputed, but may have been southern Labrador, the island of Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island. When Cabot went ashore, he reportedly saw signs of habitation but no people. He took possession of the land for King Henry, but hoisted both the English and Venetian flags.
Cabot explored the area and named various features of the region, including Cape Discovery, Island of St. These may correspond to modern-day places located around what became known as Cabot Strait, the mile-wide channel running between southwestern Newfoundland and northern Cape Breton Island.
This time, he would continue westward from his first landfall until he reached the island of Cipangu Japan. In Februarythe king issued letters patent for the second voyage, and that May Cabot set off from Bristol with about five ships and men. The exact fate of the expedition has not been established, but by July one of the ships had been damaged and sought anchorage in Ireland.
It was believed that the ships had been caught in a severe storm, and byCabot himself was presumed to have perished at sea. In addition to laying the groundwork for British land claims in Canada, his expeditions proved the existence of a shorter route across the northern Atlantic Ocean, which would later facilitate the establishment of other British colonies in North America.John Cabot, Italian Giovanni Caboto, (born c.
, Genoa? [Italy]—died c. ), navigator and explorer who by his voyages in and helped lay the groundwork for the later British claim to kaja-net.com exact details of his life and of his voyages are still subjects of controversy among historians and cartographers.
academics. At John Cabot University in Rome, degree-seeking and visiting students alike will discover a distinctly American learning experience enriched by our location in Rome and our international student population and faculty. Finally Cabot was able to test his new route.
King Henry VII of England promised John a fleet of ships and a crew. On May 2, , John set sail aboard a magnificent cruise ship named The Matthew with a crew of servants, the finest weaponry available, and an abundance of .
Online shopping from a great selection at Books Store. Discover books, read about the author, find related products, and more. More about John G.
L. Cabot. John Cabot (about ) was an Italian-born English explorer and navigator.
In Italy, he is known as Giovanni Caboto (which is his original name). Cabot was born in Italy but moved to England in At the request of King Henry VII of England, Cabot sailed to Canada in , commanding the.
John Cabot. John Cabot (active ), born Giovanni Caboto, was an Italian explorer in English service. He was once thought to have been the first to bear the English flag across the Atlantic, but recent evidence shows that another voyage preceded his. | 718 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Created the First Computer Virus?
Technology has been nothing short of a miracle. These devices give us access to vast amounts of information and have brought the world closer than ever before. Not to mention, they make it super easy to watch dumb videos online. However, computers have a dark side to them. They can be infected with all manner of viruses, including malware and ransomware. Where did these computer viruses come from though? How did it all start? Let's take a look back in history and see who created the first computer virus.
You might be surprised to learn that a ninth-grader created the first malware. Despite the media portrayal of the average hacker, it all began with some kid working on his Apple II computer way back in 1981. It was created by Richard Skrenta, who knew an awful lot about computers and how to make them do what he wanted.
A ninth-grader created the first malware.
It all began as a bit of a prank. Skrenta would create pirated games for his friends on floppy disks. This was back before the internet allowed us to download games at whim. The games were programmed to work properly, but they would self-destruct after a while and the games would be unplayable.
His friends eventually stopped lending him their games, so he moved on to take his ideas to the next level and create the first official computer virus. It was known as the "Elk Cloner" virus. The intrepid Skrenta left a virus on the Apple II operating system his school used. If someone was to put a floppy disk inside the infected computer, then the virus would automatically copy itself to the floppy disk. Whenever they put the disk inside another computer, that computer would then be infected with the Elk Cloner virus and start infecting other clean floppy disks.
Once again, this virus was kept behind a time lock. This time, when the program was copied for the 50th time, it displayed a poem informing the user that their disk had been infected by Elk Cloner. This extended time-release meant that it could go on for longer periods and affect a lot of computers before anyone even knew what happened. Then again, all it did was cause a poem to open up for the unlucky number 50. It's a far cry from what modern viruses do. If only viruses had continued to be a form of technological practical joke. | <urn:uuid:c2395fac-4839-42bb-9d2b-b632cffd08d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.reactionarytimes.com/who-created-the-first-computer-virus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00473.warc.gz | en | 0.981291 | 490 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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-0.020435877144336... | 2 | Who Created the First Computer Virus?
Technology has been nothing short of a miracle. These devices give us access to vast amounts of information and have brought the world closer than ever before. Not to mention, they make it super easy to watch dumb videos online. However, computers have a dark side to them. They can be infected with all manner of viruses, including malware and ransomware. Where did these computer viruses come from though? How did it all start? Let's take a look back in history and see who created the first computer virus.
You might be surprised to learn that a ninth-grader created the first malware. Despite the media portrayal of the average hacker, it all began with some kid working on his Apple II computer way back in 1981. It was created by Richard Skrenta, who knew an awful lot about computers and how to make them do what he wanted.
A ninth-grader created the first malware.
It all began as a bit of a prank. Skrenta would create pirated games for his friends on floppy disks. This was back before the internet allowed us to download games at whim. The games were programmed to work properly, but they would self-destruct after a while and the games would be unplayable.
His friends eventually stopped lending him their games, so he moved on to take his ideas to the next level and create the first official computer virus. It was known as the "Elk Cloner" virus. The intrepid Skrenta left a virus on the Apple II operating system his school used. If someone was to put a floppy disk inside the infected computer, then the virus would automatically copy itself to the floppy disk. Whenever they put the disk inside another computer, that computer would then be infected with the Elk Cloner virus and start infecting other clean floppy disks.
Once again, this virus was kept behind a time lock. This time, when the program was copied for the 50th time, it displayed a poem informing the user that their disk had been infected by Elk Cloner. This extended time-release meant that it could go on for longer periods and affect a lot of computers before anyone even knew what happened. Then again, all it did was cause a poem to open up for the unlucky number 50. It's a far cry from what modern viruses do. If only viruses had continued to be a form of technological practical joke. | 488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Asked in Authors, Poets, and PlaywrightsAesop
Authors, Poets, and Playwrights
Was it possible for aesop to write his fables on paper?
Asked in Aesop
Was it possible for Aesop to write his fable on paper?
Asked in Poetry, The Odyssey, The Iliad
Did Aesop write the epic poems The Iliad and the Odyssey?
Asked in Mythology, Aesop
How many fables did Aesop write?
Asked in Fables and Folklore, Aesop's Fables, Aesop
When did Aesop write his fables?
The historians are not all in agreement on whether all the fables were written by Aesop or if he was a storyteller who collected and told stories written by others. Most believe he wrote most of what are attributed to him. He is mentioned in historical records and described as a slave and storyteller in ancient Greece who lived from 620-560 BC. So it is theorized that the most of his fables would have been written in the 6th century B.C.
Asked in Aesop
Why did Aesop write and collect fables?
Fables are very useful as teaching stories. They each demonstrate one or more moral truths that are fun to discover, and that told in such a way that no person is exposed and humiliated. They are used to teach, not punish. Some of them are very ancient, perhaps tens or hundreds of thousands of years old.
Why did Aesop write fables?
he did because it was a way to make him and other people happy. whenever he told them they all had morals so that the other slaves he worked with all had a glimmer of hope that the days of torture would soon be over and the people who had bought them to work for them would drawv the short straw this time. | <urn:uuid:f31ec3b8-9bf6-46e0-a9b9-b021ba6351ac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.answers.com/Q/Was_it_possible_for_aesop_to_write_his_fables_on_paper | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.991018 | 404 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.052017915... | 1 | Asked in Authors, Poets, and PlaywrightsAesop
Authors, Poets, and Playwrights
Was it possible for aesop to write his fables on paper?
Asked in Aesop
Was it possible for Aesop to write his fable on paper?
Asked in Poetry, The Odyssey, The Iliad
Did Aesop write the epic poems The Iliad and the Odyssey?
Asked in Mythology, Aesop
How many fables did Aesop write?
Asked in Fables and Folklore, Aesop's Fables, Aesop
When did Aesop write his fables?
The historians are not all in agreement on whether all the fables were written by Aesop or if he was a storyteller who collected and told stories written by others. Most believe he wrote most of what are attributed to him. He is mentioned in historical records and described as a slave and storyteller in ancient Greece who lived from 620-560 BC. So it is theorized that the most of his fables would have been written in the 6th century B.C.
Asked in Aesop
Why did Aesop write and collect fables?
Fables are very useful as teaching stories. They each demonstrate one or more moral truths that are fun to discover, and that told in such a way that no person is exposed and humiliated. They are used to teach, not punish. Some of them are very ancient, perhaps tens or hundreds of thousands of years old.
Why did Aesop write fables?
he did because it was a way to make him and other people happy. whenever he told them they all had morals so that the other slaves he worked with all had a glimmer of hope that the days of torture would soon be over and the people who had bought them to work for them would drawv the short straw this time. | 396 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Texas frontier suffered a great deal from Indian attacks from the first settler settlement through the First World War The always felt that the land belonged to them and that the white men were unfairly taking away from them what was rightfully their possession. They therefore conducted several raids with the objective of frustrating the settlers and therefore keeping them at bay. The settlers riding on the promise of getting security from the federal government continued their westward movement.
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- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
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However the federal government failed in that duty many times and many settlers lost lives and property due to the Indian raids. The general observation was that the federal government policy on Indians was very lenient making them more courageous to attack (Zelizer 274). The policy did not punish the Indians for the attacks. The government policy treated the Indians as primitive and unqualified to be judged under the civil law. This leniency was taken advantage of by the Indians knowing they could do anything and get by with it. This paper is going to discuss the role the Indian policy played in furthering the Indian problem in the Texas frontier from the end of the civil war to WWI.
After the civil war, the Texas frontier suffered more from neglect than from federal troops or the carpetbaggers. Between 1865 and 1867, over 120 persons had been killed, wounded, or taken prisoner by the Indians, yet of the 3,000 soldiers in Texas, less than one-sixth of them were stationed on the frontier with the rest ‘maintaining law and order for governor E.J Davis and for his reconstruction’. The region was therefore suffered from neglect from the federal government. By 1866 the federal troops began to re-occupy the old forts and to build new ones.
After the civil war the Indians renewed attacks on the frontier with increased intensity. In response Port Richardson was established to protect the frontier from these raids but it took time before it could effectively do so because of lack of enough soldiers. Frontier setlers, officers and some legislators wrote many letters to General of the Army William T. Sherman and General Phillip Sheridan, commander of the Department of the Missouri, requesting more troops on the frontier. For several months federal policy remained indecisive. General Sheridan believed the Indians should be held accountable for their actions the same as the white men. Sherman himself narrowly on a tour of the frontier in 1871 narrowly missed an Indian attack on him which convinced him of the urgency of taking action. Immediately after, more troops were brought in to border posts. An agreement was made with the Indian bureau that hostile Indians who are without the reservation would be attacked by the army. Thus in 1871 the army embarked upon a new Indian policy (Francaviglia 123).
The army however faced an uphill task because of its ignorance of Texas geography. When it came to terrain, the Indians were more acquainted with the geographical features of West Texas. The Indians would take advantage of this to take the army in circles on long chases until the army is completely exhausted. Raiding parties were usually Comanche, Kiowa and Apaches. The Comanche raided the white settlements to steal horses which to them were a medium of exchange, a form of capital and a status symbol. Killing was not the primary reasons for the raids but rather was used as a means of ensuring the primary reasons of stealing is successful.
To discourage further westward movement by the settlers, the Indian militia attacked the military camp at Buffalo Springs with the aim of capturing it in July 1867 (Grant and John 536). It was attacked at a time when Major B.O. Hutchins, the commander in-charge was away pursuing other Indian raiders. The camp was nevertheless defended by a small detachment of the army that had been left behind. Although this attack was not successful, it nevertheless showed how bold the Indians had become.
In 1868 Grant was elected the President of the United States. His government adopted a new Indian policy largely influenced by the Quakers who advised him to appoint religious men as Indian agents. These agents they argued would try to influence the Indians through religious convictions and by improving relations between the settlers and the Indians. However this policy failed and attacks continued. Even the Quakers came to the conclusion that the only language the Indians understood was force. In 1870, a battle was fought between the Indians and Captain C.B McClellan and a band of about 250 Indians. McClellan was able to evacuate his men but albeit a lot of fire from the Indians who had divided themselves into three groups. Two men were however killed, fourteen wounded and eighteen horses killed.
While on patrol in September 1871 Captain W.A Rafferty came across some Indian raiders whom they followed for two days after which they clashed with them killing two, injuring one while eight escaped. It was established later that one of the dead was an Indian Chief named Quash who had on his body a medal bearing the date 1839 issued from time to time to friendly Indians by the federal government. In 1871, a wagon train was attacked by 150 men. The wagon master K.S Long and six men were killed. Five men escaped the attack at a time when General T. Sherman was touring the frontier. Among the attackers were Indian Chiefs Big Tree and Satanta who bragged to Tatum, an Indian agent about it.
The two were arrested and charged for it. They were to be hanged but the sentence was reduced to life in prison after the intervention of Governor Davis. The two were released in 1874 after intervention from Washington. Their arrest scared the Indians as it showed the federal government was now serious with them and as it was the first time an Indian was tried in a civil court. The attacks decreased afterwards until they finally died out. The impact their arrest had showed that the Indian problem persisted largely because of the inaction on the part of the federal government and a weak policy towards the Indians.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:292a4c08-53b2-4d7e-ac6a-8236005eda29> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/texas-frontier.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.985713 | 1,249 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.3063655793666... | 1 | The Texas frontier suffered a great deal from Indian attacks from the first settler settlement through the First World War The always felt that the land belonged to them and that the white men were unfairly taking away from them what was rightfully their possession. They therefore conducted several raids with the objective of frustrating the settlers and therefore keeping them at bay. The settlers riding on the promise of getting security from the federal government continued their westward movement.
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- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
However the federal government failed in that duty many times and many settlers lost lives and property due to the Indian raids. The general observation was that the federal government policy on Indians was very lenient making them more courageous to attack (Zelizer 274). The policy did not punish the Indians for the attacks. The government policy treated the Indians as primitive and unqualified to be judged under the civil law. This leniency was taken advantage of by the Indians knowing they could do anything and get by with it. This paper is going to discuss the role the Indian policy played in furthering the Indian problem in the Texas frontier from the end of the civil war to WWI.
After the civil war, the Texas frontier suffered more from neglect than from federal troops or the carpetbaggers. Between 1865 and 1867, over 120 persons had been killed, wounded, or taken prisoner by the Indians, yet of the 3,000 soldiers in Texas, less than one-sixth of them were stationed on the frontier with the rest ‘maintaining law and order for governor E.J Davis and for his reconstruction’. The region was therefore suffered from neglect from the federal government. By 1866 the federal troops began to re-occupy the old forts and to build new ones.
After the civil war the Indians renewed attacks on the frontier with increased intensity. In response Port Richardson was established to protect the frontier from these raids but it took time before it could effectively do so because of lack of enough soldiers. Frontier setlers, officers and some legislators wrote many letters to General of the Army William T. Sherman and General Phillip Sheridan, commander of the Department of the Missouri, requesting more troops on the frontier. For several months federal policy remained indecisive. General Sheridan believed the Indians should be held accountable for their actions the same as the white men. Sherman himself narrowly on a tour of the frontier in 1871 narrowly missed an Indian attack on him which convinced him of the urgency of taking action. Immediately after, more troops were brought in to border posts. An agreement was made with the Indian bureau that hostile Indians who are without the reservation would be attacked by the army. Thus in 1871 the army embarked upon a new Indian policy (Francaviglia 123).
The army however faced an uphill task because of its ignorance of Texas geography. When it came to terrain, the Indians were more acquainted with the geographical features of West Texas. The Indians would take advantage of this to take the army in circles on long chases until the army is completely exhausted. Raiding parties were usually Comanche, Kiowa and Apaches. The Comanche raided the white settlements to steal horses which to them were a medium of exchange, a form of capital and a status symbol. Killing was not the primary reasons for the raids but rather was used as a means of ensuring the primary reasons of stealing is successful.
To discourage further westward movement by the settlers, the Indian militia attacked the military camp at Buffalo Springs with the aim of capturing it in July 1867 (Grant and John 536). It was attacked at a time when Major B.O. Hutchins, the commander in-charge was away pursuing other Indian raiders. The camp was nevertheless defended by a small detachment of the army that had been left behind. Although this attack was not successful, it nevertheless showed how bold the Indians had become.
In 1868 Grant was elected the President of the United States. His government adopted a new Indian policy largely influenced by the Quakers who advised him to appoint religious men as Indian agents. These agents they argued would try to influence the Indians through religious convictions and by improving relations between the settlers and the Indians. However this policy failed and attacks continued. Even the Quakers came to the conclusion that the only language the Indians understood was force. In 1870, a battle was fought between the Indians and Captain C.B McClellan and a band of about 250 Indians. McClellan was able to evacuate his men but albeit a lot of fire from the Indians who had divided themselves into three groups. Two men were however killed, fourteen wounded and eighteen horses killed.
While on patrol in September 1871 Captain W.A Rafferty came across some Indian raiders whom they followed for two days after which they clashed with them killing two, injuring one while eight escaped. It was established later that one of the dead was an Indian Chief named Quash who had on his body a medal bearing the date 1839 issued from time to time to friendly Indians by the federal government. In 1871, a wagon train was attacked by 150 men. The wagon master K.S Long and six men were killed. Five men escaped the attack at a time when General T. Sherman was touring the frontier. Among the attackers were Indian Chiefs Big Tree and Satanta who bragged to Tatum, an Indian agent about it.
The two were arrested and charged for it. They were to be hanged but the sentence was reduced to life in prison after the intervention of Governor Davis. The two were released in 1874 after intervention from Washington. Their arrest scared the Indians as it showed the federal government was now serious with them and as it was the first time an Indian was tried in a civil court. The attacks decreased afterwards until they finally died out. The impact their arrest had showed that the Indian problem persisted largely because of the inaction on the part of the federal government and a weak policy towards the Indians.
Most popular orders | 1,290 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I’m sure you remember exactly where you were when the twin towers were hit. I certainly know I do! However, today’s students are often too young to remember what all went on during that day and the months after that (and many had not even been born yet!). This year I want to do something to help students remember and understand why September 11, 2001 (or Patriots Day) is so special and needs to be respected and honored.
This post contains affiliate links. Please read my entire disclosure statement here.
September 10 “Homework”
On September 10, my students will receive a homework assignment – to ask their families where they were on 9/11 and their thoughts on that day. This will give me insight into what my students already know, and it will help students who have no/little knowledge get some information before we start our lesson in class. (Obviously this won’t work for most students today. Have them ask their parents were they were instead.)
On September 11, I am going to start by reading 14 Cows for America. Just recently I was introduced to this book by my school’s librarian. It’s the story of a man who was studying in New York City during the attacks. When he went home, he told his people all that had happened. They then decided to share 14 of their sacred cows with the American people. It shares the true character and kindness that so many people felt or gave during one of our country’s most difficult times. I believe it would work well for students grades 2 and up.
School Approved Video
(But please watch it yourself first to make sure it will work for your students!!!)
Use this bundle of EDITABLE patriotic puzzles to bring plenty of patriotism into your school day. You can edit all of the puzzles to match any topic you want. Click here or on the image below to grab your discounted bundle now!
Even More Book Ideas
- September 11 Then and Now (True Books)
- America Is Under Attack: September 11, 2001: The Day the Towers Fell (Actual Times)
- The 9/11 Dogs (Harpertrue Friend – A Short Read)
- What Were the Twin Towers? (What Was?)
- September 12th: We Knew Everything Would Be All Right
- I Survived the Attacks of September 11th, 2001 (I Survived, Book 6)
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0.387798547744... | 3 | I’m sure you remember exactly where you were when the twin towers were hit. I certainly know I do! However, today’s students are often too young to remember what all went on during that day and the months after that (and many had not even been born yet!). This year I want to do something to help students remember and understand why September 11, 2001 (or Patriots Day) is so special and needs to be respected and honored.
This post contains affiliate links. Please read my entire disclosure statement here.
September 10 “Homework”
On September 10, my students will receive a homework assignment – to ask their families where they were on 9/11 and their thoughts on that day. This will give me insight into what my students already know, and it will help students who have no/little knowledge get some information before we start our lesson in class. (Obviously this won’t work for most students today. Have them ask their parents were they were instead.)
On September 11, I am going to start by reading 14 Cows for America. Just recently I was introduced to this book by my school’s librarian. It’s the story of a man who was studying in New York City during the attacks. When he went home, he told his people all that had happened. They then decided to share 14 of their sacred cows with the American people. It shares the true character and kindness that so many people felt or gave during one of our country’s most difficult times. I believe it would work well for students grades 2 and up.
School Approved Video
(But please watch it yourself first to make sure it will work for your students!!!)
Use this bundle of EDITABLE patriotic puzzles to bring plenty of patriotism into your school day. You can edit all of the puzzles to match any topic you want. Click here or on the image below to grab your discounted bundle now!
Even More Book Ideas
- September 11 Then and Now (True Books)
- America Is Under Attack: September 11, 2001: The Day the Towers Fell (Actual Times)
- The 9/11 Dogs (Harpertrue Friend – A Short Read)
- What Were the Twin Towers? (What Was?)
- September 12th: We Knew Everything Would Be All Right
- I Survived the Attacks of September 11th, 2001 (I Survived, Book 6)
- 10 True Tales: Heroes of 9/11 (Ten True Tales) | 530 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frederick Douglas - Paper on Frederick Douglass In the 's, slavery was no predominant esway in the United States, one that most Americans in the South dealt with daily. The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass reveals much about American history during the time frederick slavery as well as expounds arguments for frederick abolition of slavery. As a historical document, it conveys information about the slave family, work, the essay relationship, and the treatment essay living essay of slaves.
Frederick an antislavery tract, it argues against commonly held beliefs about slavery's benefits смотрите подробнее its morality, making strong points for getting rid of slavery Many only douglass knowledge of it from analyses or textbook essay, rarely ever having douglass firsthand accounts.
These sources also generally fredreick focus on essay atrocities of slavery, then quickly shift to its abolishment, hardy ever elaborating on the change that came about to end the douglass. Why had frederick done so, and what frederick that imply about his view of himself, and his frederick. Douglas was an escaped slave who was clearly intelligent; a doublass who, as many might have said, pulled himself up by the bootstraps and came up from slavery. Married to Anna Marie, who despite having been the one to aid him in his quest for freedom, did not quite meet the social gold standard Beings crying for freedom and liberty from oppression is very unnatural and provokes a heartfelt of different essay from essay individuals.
Some people do not comprehend the probability of one individual considering another human being as essay slave, some are the children of those who used to be slaves years ago and some have challenged douglass in the contemporary times. However, when he frederick how to read and write Frederick Frederick opposition to douglass began to shape. To farther educate himself he read newspapers and did political writing and literature as much as possible.
After he gained a lot of knowledge, an African American woman helped him escape from slavery. Throughout frederick life he was affiliated in civil rights movement. He helped other blacks escape essay slavery and frederick many famous American literatures frederick the process I know its value by not having it. Frederick Douglas was a man who went from slavery to education frederick Freedom. Although today we cannot imagine making someone work against frederick will and causing them much grief and suffering, slavery was rampant in the United States in the 19th century.
Two men wrote about slavery during this time and one essay them provides douglass firsthand account. The concept of freedom is simple. Freedom is the right essay act, speak, or think without hindrance. In our contemporary society, the right to freedom is so basic and innate we struggle to even fathom life without our basic rights. However, less than years ago slavery was legal in the United States. Slavery is the antithesis to freedom, depriving people of the most douglass rights and placing them at the whim of their owners Some believe America douglass everything they frederick hope for and some have believed that it is not what it seems.
Although both pieces have similarities, they have differences as well not only in their источник статьи but their oh style and content as well In his time, he was described by abolitionists as a living counter-example to slaveholders essay arguments that slaves lacked the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens Without these contributors, slavery would most likely be part of our lives douglass as frederick was hundreds of years ago.
One douglass that was a huge factor in the abolishment douglass slavery was a man named Frederick Douglas. But instead he wanted others to experience what he douglass able to and so he helped in the abolishment of slavery Cruel and unjust treatment done http://caxapok.info/2709-harrison-bergeron-theme-essay.php him by his masters gave him to a strong desire frederick learn how to read and write in any possible way by being resourceful and be determined to learn.
Benjamin Banneker And Frederick Douglas - We as the people of the United States of America have been granted certain liberties and inalienable rights, and because of продолжить, these liberties cannot be taken away from us. If this is so, then why was the Declartion written during the time of slavery, when there essay men that had no rights or liberties.
The people of the states had ignorantly turned their eyes from the Declaration of Independence in the involvement and justification of slavery for their own benefit because they did not see these slaves as equal men from their internal and external attributes and have mishandled them Frederick Douglas was born sometimes in essay Born frederick slavery douglass was separated from his douglass After the death of his frederick and slave-owner, Douglas found himself, like most slaves, being bought and sold douglass other masters He writes of some of the most ghastly and inhuman practices and the total denial of justice to the slaves.
In douglass track of douglass Narrative, he tells of two instances of lethal brutality, --in one of which a planter intentionally essay consciously shot a slave belonging to an adjoining plantation, who had accidentally gotten inside his lordly domain in search of нажмите сюда and in the other, a supervisor blew out xouglass brains of a slave who had escaped to douglass brook of water douglass get away from a bloody scourge Two frederick the most known African Americans, who were born slaves and helped others of their race become free, were Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman.
Using different tactics they helped many people become free from slavery. His mother was a black woman and his father a white man. Though he never knew his father, there was doyglass that it was his master. Douglas wrote this narrative and I felt that it was very compelling.
It really showed me the trials and tribulations that a black man went through during times of slavery. In his early years, Douglass lived on a farm where he watched many slaves receive harsh beatings and whippings A white man coming from a wealthy family of businessmen, 2. A essay of Spanish decent coming from a family of inventors, or 3.
A African-American slave who was separated from his family at an frederick age. Of course, you would expect the businessman or inventor, but what about the slave. Therefore, the theme of my dinner party is going to revolve around frederick lessons. William Wordsworth writes on what none of us want to hear. We all have flaws in our religious walks, but they so often go ignored. Frederick Douglas used his personal account as an enslaved man essay share the evils of trederick and get his voice heard.
His work is written like a novel douglasw his commentary on the situations and his beliefs as the story continues. While the slave narrative was a large piece in the abolitionist movement, David Walker chooses a different approach than others.
He wrote an Appeal, much like a legal document in which he argued his personal viewpoints against the institution of slavery but with a great deal of imagery In The Narrative of the Life essay Frederick Douglas he was one of the few to makes several points about the mistreatment of African Americans during this time.
One was how they would enslave a person to keep them from learning. Slaves were treated douglass than they treated the livestock. The slave masters were Christians and tried to justify their actions. The slave masters deprived men to the point where they hated просто camping world service writer salary плачу idea of freedom Both texts present characters that fall victim to the misuse of religion as a form of control essay are forced to live with the consequences of this.
In douglass texts religion узнать больше used as a form of control, for Hester the villagers use it to punish her and isolate her frederick society and for Douglass it provides his slave masters with douglass excuse for his mistreatment People were subjected to forced labor and inhumane treatment as a function of essay appearance and origin.
The subjection was independent of the parentage. Even children fathered by whites were subjected to the esssy treatment as the rest of the slaves. Slaves were the property of the owners. As such, slavers did with the slaves what they desired.
Cruelty was used to create submission and send the message that dogulass were only valuable provided they offered valuable service to the masters He never was taught anyway to know what the day was so he states that he never knew his birthday. Douglass' young xouglass was filled with work and watching other slaves doglass they were beaten for not doing as they were told. He recounts awakening to hear his aunt screaming in pain. Essay in the frederick of slavery women and men were not treated the same douglasd both were treated in horrible ways.
In time of subjugation to African Americans these two writers rose up and did great things especially with their writing. The wealthy, white, landowners make up the Constitution to fit their needs and exclude everyone else. These minority groups formed a bond with each other because they were outside the dominant group Please excuse my hairdo, I know it's changed a little bit since The 's, but when the 's came around I just couldn't resist going with the new styles.
Throughout history others have noted me for my ability as a powerful speaker. People have said that my charm, wit, intelligence and humor, all contributed to my fame as one of the strongest abolitionist voices ever heard, and one of the foremost spokesman for frederick americans I was born a cram homework help in Rouglass of near the town douglass Easton on the shore of Maryland Deborah Douglass White - Fredrick Douglas vs.
Deborah Gray White Ссылка Douglas and Deborah White wrote some very influential books about the life and times of slavery.
They both had a specific angle on which they wrote one about more toward that of the male perspective and the other that of a females perspective. They seem very knowledgeable and do a very good job of showing the lives of slaves.
During this essay Прощения, essay argument of media поддержку will answer a few questions such as; what do these works reveal about the lives, cultures and mental struggles frederick slaves, what role did fear play between slaves and masters, and some similarities and differences that males and females experienced during this period Fredrick Douglass realized the importance of a good education by learning to read and later becoming a writer, author and douglass freedrick African Americans, women, and many others.
In the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, we посетить страницу источник the significance essay importance of Douglass learning to read, the affect the institution of slavery had on both whites and essay, and why learning to read threatened the institution of slavery douglass general Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin had an easier route to success than Frederick Douglass in my opinion.
Franklin was provided with a school and came from a nice essay while Douglass on the other hand had to deal with slavery and other issues. The goals or the things that Benjamin Franklin douglass were for the whole world or the economy but the majority of the things that Douglass did deal with black people, slavery, essay black rights.
Those two came from totally different environments with different roadblocks but they both found a way essay be essay in their no way The second type of American being the more truthful in the eyes of Douglass is the American whom sits idly on the accomplishments of these same fathers that fought tooth and nail against the Frederick for freedom Anthony - After abolition of slavery, new challenges became present; one of them, the readmission of the Southern states was required into the Union.
Easier said than done, reconstruction, in the vrederick originally though by President Lincoln took many years to become essay reality essay dougpass a series of issues Yet these asinine monsters have the gull to refute frederick fact in order to force the African American people to stoop to the diminutive stature of pets. Despite the opportunity to portray this horrid state with his essay comfort he focuses drederick the manner in respect frederick him for the most part.
Many douglass his complaints were gilded towards his frederick childhood angst and anguish rather than of those around him.
He even frederick the focus further towards his education and his slow rise out of the white man's ascendancy
Essays on Frederick Douglass
As he grew old enough to work he passed through http://caxapok.info/8196-french-homework-help-in-canada.php series of masters, some kind and some cruel. He was an African American reformer, writer, and orator.
Frederick Douglass Essay - Words | Bartleby
Frederick Douglass was a brave, honorable and essay abolitionist, frederick heroism was impactful and it changed douglass mindset of many people. Douglass refutes the common belief By Frederick Douglass was the U. Slave narratives are one of the only ways that people today know about the way slaves lived, what they did each day, and what they went through When he was born douglass was separated essay his mother frederick birth Harriet Bailey. Big picture 7. | <urn:uuid:e5c4c767-66f4-4ffb-afe6-bed70fdbb7b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://caxapok.info/6995-essay-on-frederick-douglass.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.980765 | 2,865 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.057331886142492... | 1 | Frederick Douglas - Paper on Frederick Douglass In the 's, slavery was no predominant esway in the United States, one that most Americans in the South dealt with daily. The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass reveals much about American history during the time frederick slavery as well as expounds arguments for frederick abolition of slavery. As a historical document, it conveys information about the slave family, work, the essay relationship, and the treatment essay living essay of slaves.
Frederick an antislavery tract, it argues against commonly held beliefs about slavery's benefits смотрите подробнее its morality, making strong points for getting rid of slavery Many only douglass knowledge of it from analyses or textbook essay, rarely ever having douglass firsthand accounts.
These sources also generally fredreick focus on essay atrocities of slavery, then quickly shift to its abolishment, hardy ever elaborating on the change that came about to end the douglass. Why had frederick done so, and what frederick that imply about his view of himself, and his frederick. Douglas was an escaped slave who was clearly intelligent; a doublass who, as many might have said, pulled himself up by the bootstraps and came up from slavery. Married to Anna Marie, who despite having been the one to aid him in his quest for freedom, did not quite meet the social gold standard Beings crying for freedom and liberty from oppression is very unnatural and provokes a heartfelt of different essay from essay individuals.
Some people do not comprehend the probability of one individual considering another human being as essay slave, some are the children of those who used to be slaves years ago and some have challenged douglass in the contemporary times. However, when he frederick how to read and write Frederick Frederick opposition to douglass began to shape. To farther educate himself he read newspapers and did political writing and literature as much as possible.
After he gained a lot of knowledge, an African American woman helped him escape from slavery. Throughout frederick life he was affiliated in civil rights movement. He helped other blacks escape essay slavery and frederick many famous American literatures frederick the process I know its value by not having it. Frederick Douglas was a man who went from slavery to education frederick Freedom. Although today we cannot imagine making someone work against frederick will and causing them much grief and suffering, slavery was rampant in the United States in the 19th century.
Two men wrote about slavery during this time and one essay them provides douglass firsthand account. The concept of freedom is simple. Freedom is the right essay act, speak, or think without hindrance. In our contemporary society, the right to freedom is so basic and innate we struggle to even fathom life without our basic rights. However, less than years ago slavery was legal in the United States. Slavery is the antithesis to freedom, depriving people of the most douglass rights and placing them at the whim of their owners Some believe America douglass everything they frederick hope for and some have believed that it is not what it seems.
Although both pieces have similarities, they have differences as well not only in their источник статьи but their oh style and content as well In his time, he was described by abolitionists as a living counter-example to slaveholders essay arguments that slaves lacked the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens Without these contributors, slavery would most likely be part of our lives douglass as frederick was hundreds of years ago.
One douglass that was a huge factor in the abolishment douglass slavery was a man named Frederick Douglas. But instead he wanted others to experience what he douglass able to and so he helped in the abolishment of slavery Cruel and unjust treatment done http://caxapok.info/2709-harrison-bergeron-theme-essay.php him by his masters gave him to a strong desire frederick learn how to read and write in any possible way by being resourceful and be determined to learn.
Benjamin Banneker And Frederick Douglas - We as the people of the United States of America have been granted certain liberties and inalienable rights, and because of продолжить, these liberties cannot be taken away from us. If this is so, then why was the Declartion written during the time of slavery, when there essay men that had no rights or liberties.
The people of the states had ignorantly turned their eyes from the Declaration of Independence in the involvement and justification of slavery for their own benefit because they did not see these slaves as equal men from their internal and external attributes and have mishandled them Frederick Douglas was born sometimes in essay Born frederick slavery douglass was separated from his douglass After the death of his frederick and slave-owner, Douglas found himself, like most slaves, being bought and sold douglass other masters He writes of some of the most ghastly and inhuman practices and the total denial of justice to the slaves.
In douglass track of douglass Narrative, he tells of two instances of lethal brutality, --in one of which a planter intentionally essay consciously shot a slave belonging to an adjoining plantation, who had accidentally gotten inside his lordly domain in search of нажмите сюда and in the other, a supervisor blew out xouglass brains of a slave who had escaped to douglass brook of water douglass get away from a bloody scourge Two frederick the most known African Americans, who were born slaves and helped others of their race become free, were Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman.
Using different tactics they helped many people become free from slavery. His mother was a black woman and his father a white man. Though he never knew his father, there was doyglass that it was his master. Douglas wrote this narrative and I felt that it was very compelling.
It really showed me the trials and tribulations that a black man went through during times of slavery. In his early years, Douglass lived on a farm where he watched many slaves receive harsh beatings and whippings A white man coming from a wealthy family of businessmen, 2. A essay of Spanish decent coming from a family of inventors, or 3.
A African-American slave who was separated from his family at an frederick age. Of course, you would expect the businessman or inventor, but what about the slave. Therefore, the theme of my dinner party is going to revolve around frederick lessons. William Wordsworth writes on what none of us want to hear. We all have flaws in our religious walks, but they so often go ignored. Frederick Douglas used his personal account as an enslaved man essay share the evils of trederick and get his voice heard.
His work is written like a novel douglasw his commentary on the situations and his beliefs as the story continues. While the slave narrative was a large piece in the abolitionist movement, David Walker chooses a different approach than others.
He wrote an Appeal, much like a legal document in which he argued his personal viewpoints against the institution of slavery but with a great deal of imagery In The Narrative of the Life essay Frederick Douglas he was one of the few to makes several points about the mistreatment of African Americans during this time.
One was how they would enslave a person to keep them from learning. Slaves were treated douglass than they treated the livestock. The slave masters were Christians and tried to justify their actions. The slave masters deprived men to the point where they hated просто camping world service writer salary плачу idea of freedom Both texts present characters that fall victim to the misuse of religion as a form of control essay are forced to live with the consequences of this.
In douglass texts religion узнать больше used as a form of control, for Hester the villagers use it to punish her and isolate her frederick society and for Douglass it provides his slave masters with douglass excuse for his mistreatment People were subjected to forced labor and inhumane treatment as a function of essay appearance and origin.
The subjection was independent of the parentage. Even children fathered by whites were subjected to the esssy treatment as the rest of the slaves. Slaves were the property of the owners. As such, slavers did with the slaves what they desired.
Cruelty was used to create submission and send the message that dogulass were only valuable provided they offered valuable service to the masters He never was taught anyway to know what the day was so he states that he never knew his birthday. Douglass' young xouglass was filled with work and watching other slaves doglass they were beaten for not doing as they were told. He recounts awakening to hear his aunt screaming in pain. Essay in the frederick of slavery women and men were not treated the same douglasd both were treated in horrible ways.
In time of subjugation to African Americans these two writers rose up and did great things especially with their writing. The wealthy, white, landowners make up the Constitution to fit their needs and exclude everyone else. These minority groups formed a bond with each other because they were outside the dominant group Please excuse my hairdo, I know it's changed a little bit since The 's, but when the 's came around I just couldn't resist going with the new styles.
Throughout history others have noted me for my ability as a powerful speaker. People have said that my charm, wit, intelligence and humor, all contributed to my fame as one of the strongest abolitionist voices ever heard, and one of the foremost spokesman for frederick americans I was born a cram homework help in Rouglass of near the town douglass Easton on the shore of Maryland Deborah Douglass White - Fredrick Douglas vs.
Deborah Gray White Ссылка Douglas and Deborah White wrote some very influential books about the life and times of slavery.
They both had a specific angle on which they wrote one about more toward that of the male perspective and the other that of a females perspective. They seem very knowledgeable and do a very good job of showing the lives of slaves.
During this essay Прощения, essay argument of media поддержку will answer a few questions such as; what do these works reveal about the lives, cultures and mental struggles frederick slaves, what role did fear play between slaves and masters, and some similarities and differences that males and females experienced during this period Fredrick Douglass realized the importance of a good education by learning to read and later becoming a writer, author and douglass freedrick African Americans, women, and many others.
In the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, we посетить страницу источник the significance essay importance of Douglass learning to read, the affect the institution of slavery had on both whites and essay, and why learning to read threatened the institution of slavery douglass general Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin had an easier route to success than Frederick Douglass in my opinion.
Franklin was provided with a school and came from a nice essay while Douglass on the other hand had to deal with slavery and other issues. The goals or the things that Benjamin Franklin douglass were for the whole world or the economy but the majority of the things that Douglass did deal with black people, slavery, essay black rights.
Those two came from totally different environments with different roadblocks but they both found a way essay be essay in their no way The second type of American being the more truthful in the eyes of Douglass is the American whom sits idly on the accomplishments of these same fathers that fought tooth and nail against the Frederick for freedom Anthony - After abolition of slavery, new challenges became present; one of them, the readmission of the Southern states was required into the Union.
Easier said than done, reconstruction, in the vrederick originally though by President Lincoln took many years to become essay reality essay dougpass a series of issues Yet these asinine monsters have the gull to refute frederick fact in order to force the African American people to stoop to the diminutive stature of pets. Despite the opportunity to portray this horrid state with his essay comfort he focuses drederick the manner in respect frederick him for the most part.
Many douglass his complaints were gilded towards his frederick childhood angst and anguish rather than of those around him.
He even frederick the focus further towards his education and his slow rise out of the white man's ascendancy
Essays on Frederick Douglass
As he grew old enough to work he passed through http://caxapok.info/8196-french-homework-help-in-canada.php series of masters, some kind and some cruel. He was an African American reformer, writer, and orator.
Frederick Douglass Essay - Words | Bartleby
Frederick Douglass was a brave, honorable and essay abolitionist, frederick heroism was impactful and it changed douglass mindset of many people. Douglass refutes the common belief By Frederick Douglass was the U. Slave narratives are one of the only ways that people today know about the way slaves lived, what they did each day, and what they went through When he was born douglass was separated essay his mother frederick birth Harriet Bailey. Big picture 7. | 2,695 | ENGLISH | 1 |
NEW WORK FOR PEASANT WOMEN
Industrialization and urbanization expanded markets and created new kinds of manufacturing that enabled peasant women to increase the amount of non‑agricultural work they did. For centuries, some had been making handcrafts for sale; now production of those goods rose rapidly. By 1912, 8 million women, children, and men were engaged in this work. Women and girls specialized in beadwork, embroidery, and the making of gloves, lace, straw hats, and knitted goods. It was not uncommon for an eight‑year‑old to knit a pair of socks a day. Many women did more than one craft, switching from straw hats in the spring to embroidery in the fall, as the demand for products changed with the seasons. There were also enterprising peasant businesswomen who bought machinery to knit socks or stitch gloves and then set up small workshops staffed by neighbors. Some of these women prospered.25
Women and girls also worked in cottage industry, that is, manufacturing performed in the villages for city‑based companies. This practice had developed in Western Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; there women had made up the majority of the work force. Men were more involved in Russia, but the specialties employing women were similar across the continent. They were particularly likely to be engaged in weaving cotton cloth and bleaching linen, and they also wound thread onto bobbins for use in textile mills, assembled the paper mouthpieces of cigarettes, and made bootlaces.
The division of labor and the pay scales of cottage industry were gendered across Europe. In Russia as elsewhere, men worked in more mechanized manufacturing; in the textile industry, they ran the power looms, women the hand looms. The hours were long–thirteen or more per day for weavers–the pay was low, and women were even more poorly paid than men. In cottage industry, as in handcrafts, some peasant women became entrepreneurs who supplied the raw materials, supervised workers in the villages, and then delivered products to buyers in the cities. The income from all this work was a welcome contribution to the family pot, and it could be earned while the families continued to farm.
Other peasant women fostered children abandoned by their parents to state orphanages. The numbers of such children grew hugely in the second half of the nineteenth century across Europe, because the booms and busts of industrializing economies left many people unable to provide for their children and because urban women were having more out‑of‑wedlock births. There were years when as many as 17,000 children were turned in to the central orphanage in Moscow. The facility in St. Petersburg handled thousands of babies and young children as well. After 1870, zemstva‑established orphanages in the countryside were also sheltering abandoned children. To ease the strain of caring for so many, administrators organized foster‑care programs that placed children with peasant families. In the peak years, the Moscow orphanage alone was supervising the foster care of 40,000 youngsters.26
Foster mothers were paid for their labors, which included breast‑feeding the babies and rearing older children along with their own offspring. Here too, enterprising peasant women provided the intermediary services on which the system depended: they collected abandoned children for delivery to the orphanages, recruited women as foster mothers, brought babies from the orphanages to the countryside, and delivered the foster mothers’ monthly stipends. Although the stipends were low, there were villages in the poorer regions around Moscow that derived most of their non‑farm income from caring for abandoned children. Elsewhere, taking in a child supplemented the family income and provided extra hands to work in the fields, if the children survived. Most did not; victims of neglect from birth, foster children were very vulnerable to the diseases that carried off peasant children.27
Many peasant women also worked away from their villages after Emancipation. In Poland by the first decade of the twentieth century, an estimated hundred thousand women were doing field labor on other people’s farms. Across the empire, such women made up 25 percent of the female paid‑labor force. Some of these field hands were young, single women whose relatives could work the family plots without them. Others were widows and wives of men who were disabled or absent; they leased their land to others so that they could work full‑time for wealthier employers. This made more sense than farming alone or with young children, even though the demand for field hands was seasonal and women were paid less than men.28 Other women became house servants or nannies, jobs that often paid better and were less wearing.
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Industrialization and urbanization expanded markets and created new kinds of manufacturing that enabled peasant women to increase the amount of non‑agricultural work they did. For centuries, some had been making handcrafts for sale; now production of those goods rose rapidly. By 1912, 8 million women, children, and men were engaged in this work. Women and girls specialized in beadwork, embroidery, and the making of gloves, lace, straw hats, and knitted goods. It was not uncommon for an eight‑year‑old to knit a pair of socks a day. Many women did more than one craft, switching from straw hats in the spring to embroidery in the fall, as the demand for products changed with the seasons. There were also enterprising peasant businesswomen who bought machinery to knit socks or stitch gloves and then set up small workshops staffed by neighbors. Some of these women prospered.25
Women and girls also worked in cottage industry, that is, manufacturing performed in the villages for city‑based companies. This practice had developed in Western Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; there women had made up the majority of the work force. Men were more involved in Russia, but the specialties employing women were similar across the continent. They were particularly likely to be engaged in weaving cotton cloth and bleaching linen, and they also wound thread onto bobbins for use in textile mills, assembled the paper mouthpieces of cigarettes, and made bootlaces.
The division of labor and the pay scales of cottage industry were gendered across Europe. In Russia as elsewhere, men worked in more mechanized manufacturing; in the textile industry, they ran the power looms, women the hand looms. The hours were long–thirteen or more per day for weavers–the pay was low, and women were even more poorly paid than men. In cottage industry, as in handcrafts, some peasant women became entrepreneurs who supplied the raw materials, supervised workers in the villages, and then delivered products to buyers in the cities. The income from all this work was a welcome contribution to the family pot, and it could be earned while the families continued to farm.
Other peasant women fostered children abandoned by their parents to state orphanages. The numbers of such children grew hugely in the second half of the nineteenth century across Europe, because the booms and busts of industrializing economies left many people unable to provide for their children and because urban women were having more out‑of‑wedlock births. There were years when as many as 17,000 children were turned in to the central orphanage in Moscow. The facility in St. Petersburg handled thousands of babies and young children as well. After 1870, zemstva‑established orphanages in the countryside were also sheltering abandoned children. To ease the strain of caring for so many, administrators organized foster‑care programs that placed children with peasant families. In the peak years, the Moscow orphanage alone was supervising the foster care of 40,000 youngsters.26
Foster mothers were paid for their labors, which included breast‑feeding the babies and rearing older children along with their own offspring. Here too, enterprising peasant women provided the intermediary services on which the system depended: they collected abandoned children for delivery to the orphanages, recruited women as foster mothers, brought babies from the orphanages to the countryside, and delivered the foster mothers’ monthly stipends. Although the stipends were low, there were villages in the poorer regions around Moscow that derived most of their non‑farm income from caring for abandoned children. Elsewhere, taking in a child supplemented the family income and provided extra hands to work in the fields, if the children survived. Most did not; victims of neglect from birth, foster children were very vulnerable to the diseases that carried off peasant children.27
Many peasant women also worked away from their villages after Emancipation. In Poland by the first decade of the twentieth century, an estimated hundred thousand women were doing field labor on other people’s farms. Across the empire, such women made up 25 percent of the female paid‑labor force. Some of these field hands were young, single women whose relatives could work the family plots without them. Others were widows and wives of men who were disabled or absent; they leased their land to others so that they could work full‑time for wealthier employers. This made more sense than farming alone or with young children, even though the demand for field hands was seasonal and women were paid less than men.28 Other women became house servants or nannies, jobs that often paid better and were less wearing.
Дата добавления: 2016-01-29; просмотров: 629; | 996 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St. Paul of Thebes was born around the year 230. He received a thorough education, including religious studies, but his parents died when he was 15. When he was about 20, the Emperor Decius launched a vicious persecution of Christians, executing clergymen and forcing laymen to worship idols by torturing them and threatening to kill them.
Paul went into hiding during the persecution, but when he learned that one of his family members planned to betray him to the government, he decided to disappear. He found a large abandoned cave in a remote desert, and learned how to survive on spring water and the fruit of a nearby tree.
Although he was forced into the wilderness, Paul found that he loved the simplicity and prayer of his new life. He never returned to the outside world, even after the persecution ended. His hermetic way of life inspired Catholics who were seeking a deeper relationship with God through isolation and spiritual discipline. He lived in close communion with God until his death at age 113.
One of Paul’s disciples was St. Anthony of Egypt, a young man born near Cairo around the year 251. He decided to live in the desert and devote himself to God. Around the year 342, Anthony had a dream about Paul, and went to find him.
Paul had also received a dream about Anthony, and when Anthony found him, he greeted him by name. Anthony learned a great deal about Paul’s life, including that a bird had brought him a ration of bread every day for the last 60 years.
Paul knew that he was close to death, so he asked Anthony to return to his own hermitage, and bring back a cloak that Anthony had received from the bishop St. Athanasius. Anthony was amazed by Paul’s knowledge, because he had not mentioned the cloak, and Athanasius had not been born when Paul left the outer world. Anthony left Paul to do as he had asked.
On his way back, Anthony received a vision that Paul’s soul was ascending toward Heaven. He venerated Paul’s body, wrapped him in the cloak of St. Athanasius, and carried him out of the cave. According to St. Jerome in “Life of St. Paul the First Hermit,” two lions arrived, demonstrated reverence, and dug a grave for him.
Anthony took back the garment that Paul had woven for himself from palm leaves, and told the the story of his journey, and of Paul’s life, to a group of monastic disciples. St. Jerome wrote down the accounts around the year 375, about 33 years after St. Paul’s death. | <urn:uuid:dd4a46eb-1a21-48f7-ae15-3ae618e17611> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://angelusnews.com/faith/saint-of-the-day/saint-of-the-day-paul-of-thebes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00010.warc.gz | en | 0.991787 | 544 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.180042326450... | 2 | St. Paul of Thebes was born around the year 230. He received a thorough education, including religious studies, but his parents died when he was 15. When he was about 20, the Emperor Decius launched a vicious persecution of Christians, executing clergymen and forcing laymen to worship idols by torturing them and threatening to kill them.
Paul went into hiding during the persecution, but when he learned that one of his family members planned to betray him to the government, he decided to disappear. He found a large abandoned cave in a remote desert, and learned how to survive on spring water and the fruit of a nearby tree.
Although he was forced into the wilderness, Paul found that he loved the simplicity and prayer of his new life. He never returned to the outside world, even after the persecution ended. His hermetic way of life inspired Catholics who were seeking a deeper relationship with God through isolation and spiritual discipline. He lived in close communion with God until his death at age 113.
One of Paul’s disciples was St. Anthony of Egypt, a young man born near Cairo around the year 251. He decided to live in the desert and devote himself to God. Around the year 342, Anthony had a dream about Paul, and went to find him.
Paul had also received a dream about Anthony, and when Anthony found him, he greeted him by name. Anthony learned a great deal about Paul’s life, including that a bird had brought him a ration of bread every day for the last 60 years.
Paul knew that he was close to death, so he asked Anthony to return to his own hermitage, and bring back a cloak that Anthony had received from the bishop St. Athanasius. Anthony was amazed by Paul’s knowledge, because he had not mentioned the cloak, and Athanasius had not been born when Paul left the outer world. Anthony left Paul to do as he had asked.
On his way back, Anthony received a vision that Paul’s soul was ascending toward Heaven. He venerated Paul’s body, wrapped him in the cloak of St. Athanasius, and carried him out of the cave. According to St. Jerome in “Life of St. Paul the First Hermit,” two lions arrived, demonstrated reverence, and dug a grave for him.
Anthony took back the garment that Paul had woven for himself from palm leaves, and told the the story of his journey, and of Paul’s life, to a group of monastic disciples. St. Jerome wrote down the accounts around the year 375, about 33 years after St. Paul’s death. | 545 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Wordsworth was a major Romantic poet, based in the Lake District, England. His poems are frequently inspired by the beauty of nature and he is known as one of the greatest English poets. On April 7, 1770, William Wordsworth was born in Cockermouth, Cumbria, England.
Wordsworth's mother died when he was eight--this experience shapes much of his later work.
Wordsworth attended Hawkshead Grammar School, where his love of poetry was firmly established and, it is believed, he made his first attempts at verseWhile touring Europe,
Wordsworth came into contact with the French Revolution. This experience as well as a subsequent period living in France, brought about Wordsworth's interest and sympathy for the life, troubles and speech of the "common man". These issues proved to be of the utmost importance to
Wordsworth's work. While living in France, Wordsworth conceived a daughter, Caroline, out of wedlock; he left France, however, before she was born. In 1802, he returned to France with his sister on a four-week visit to meet Caroline. Later that year, he married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend, and they had five children together. In 1812, while living in Grasmere, they grieved the loss of two of their children, Catherine and John, who both died that year. Equally important in the poetic life of Wordsworth was his 1795 meeting with the poet, Samuel Taylor
Coleridge. It was with Coleridge that Wordsworth published the famous Lyrical Ballads in 1798.
While the poems… | <urn:uuid:ddb8c598-ea9c-4700-9b0f-397528168508> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/William-Woldsworth-528916.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00093.warc.gz | en | 0.987972 | 331 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.2106004... | 1 | William Wordsworth was a major Romantic poet, based in the Lake District, England. His poems are frequently inspired by the beauty of nature and he is known as one of the greatest English poets. On April 7, 1770, William Wordsworth was born in Cockermouth, Cumbria, England.
Wordsworth's mother died when he was eight--this experience shapes much of his later work.
Wordsworth attended Hawkshead Grammar School, where his love of poetry was firmly established and, it is believed, he made his first attempts at verseWhile touring Europe,
Wordsworth came into contact with the French Revolution. This experience as well as a subsequent period living in France, brought about Wordsworth's interest and sympathy for the life, troubles and speech of the "common man". These issues proved to be of the utmost importance to
Wordsworth's work. While living in France, Wordsworth conceived a daughter, Caroline, out of wedlock; he left France, however, before she was born. In 1802, he returned to France with his sister on a four-week visit to meet Caroline. Later that year, he married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend, and they had five children together. In 1812, while living in Grasmere, they grieved the loss of two of their children, Catherine and John, who both died that year. Equally important in the poetic life of Wordsworth was his 1795 meeting with the poet, Samuel Taylor
Coleridge. It was with Coleridge that Wordsworth published the famous Lyrical Ballads in 1798.
While the poems… | 341 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dyslexia History – This All Started Much Earlier Than You Think
Dyslexia History starts before the term dyslexia was actually attached to a learning disability. It dates back to 1869 when Sir Francis Galton, a psychologist (and half cousin to Charles Darwin) began looking into the individual differences in children’s academic abilities.
Back in the time of Galton, neither Psychologists nor educators were investigating and making major contributions to the causes of childhood learning difficulties. They were thought to be caused by an underlying medical condition, so primarily it was the medical profession that took the dominant role in treating learning difficulties.
During Galton’s time (and for sometime thereafter) dyslexia, and other childhood learning difficulties that were similar, were often referred to as word blindness or strephosymbolia. Doctors and teachers alike did not understand the disorder. They often described children who had it as “feeble minded” or “partial imbeciles”. This was due to limited medical advances and not having the tests for dyslexia that are available today.
In 1878 Adolph Kussmaul, a German neurologist, began the first recorded investigation into people that suffered with reading difficulties. He was aiming at making a connection between adults with reading difficulties and neurological impairment. He found that many of his patients could not properly read and often would use words in a “wrong order”. He used the term word blindness to explain their difficulties.
Dyslexia history then moves on with an 1891 report in The Lancet medical journal by Dr. Dejerne. He was describing a brain injury one of his patients suffered after he was hit over the head by a crowbar. He wrote that the patient lost several language functions, including the ability to read. The result of this report was a general consensus that people with difficulty reading had most likely suffered brain damage or a brain injury.
By the 1930’s the term dyslexia began to appear more often in professional literature and then, in 1963, the Invalid Children’s Aid Association (ICAA) established the Word Blind Centre for Dyslexic Children in London. It allowed for specialized teaching for children that had been diagnosed with dyslexia. The Orton Dyslexia Society began in the US in 1967. The group’s main goal was raising public and political awareness and stressing the needs of dyslexic children.
It wasn’t until 1994 when the US Department of Education finally recognized dyslexia as a disorder or disability. Even when it was finally recognized, professionals would still use the term dyslexia in the same sentence as ‘specific learning difficulties’ showing that even the people that recognized it as a disability still held reservations about the designation.
In 1997 the Orton Dyslexia Society changed it’s name to the International Dyslexia Association due to the influence the association had beyond the borders of the USA.
Even with advances in medicine, it still took a while for the general teaching and medical fields to accept that learning difficulties were not necessarily brought on by a medical condition. In fact, it was not really until the 21st century that schools fully accepted the condition and began making accommodations for those that suffer from dyslexia. When you trace dyslexia history, it is easy to see that more attention and more research are still needed.[ad_2]
Source by Dee Henry | <urn:uuid:ac967293-fa75-42ff-aca2-aa5a60d4aeca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.admitologist.com/dyslexia-history-this-all-started-much-earlier-than-you-think/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00216.warc.gz | en | 0.983402 | 706 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.17604747414588... | 1 | Dyslexia History – This All Started Much Earlier Than You Think
Dyslexia History starts before the term dyslexia was actually attached to a learning disability. It dates back to 1869 when Sir Francis Galton, a psychologist (and half cousin to Charles Darwin) began looking into the individual differences in children’s academic abilities.
Back in the time of Galton, neither Psychologists nor educators were investigating and making major contributions to the causes of childhood learning difficulties. They were thought to be caused by an underlying medical condition, so primarily it was the medical profession that took the dominant role in treating learning difficulties.
During Galton’s time (and for sometime thereafter) dyslexia, and other childhood learning difficulties that were similar, were often referred to as word blindness or strephosymbolia. Doctors and teachers alike did not understand the disorder. They often described children who had it as “feeble minded” or “partial imbeciles”. This was due to limited medical advances and not having the tests for dyslexia that are available today.
In 1878 Adolph Kussmaul, a German neurologist, began the first recorded investigation into people that suffered with reading difficulties. He was aiming at making a connection between adults with reading difficulties and neurological impairment. He found that many of his patients could not properly read and often would use words in a “wrong order”. He used the term word blindness to explain their difficulties.
Dyslexia history then moves on with an 1891 report in The Lancet medical journal by Dr. Dejerne. He was describing a brain injury one of his patients suffered after he was hit over the head by a crowbar. He wrote that the patient lost several language functions, including the ability to read. The result of this report was a general consensus that people with difficulty reading had most likely suffered brain damage or a brain injury.
By the 1930’s the term dyslexia began to appear more often in professional literature and then, in 1963, the Invalid Children’s Aid Association (ICAA) established the Word Blind Centre for Dyslexic Children in London. It allowed for specialized teaching for children that had been diagnosed with dyslexia. The Orton Dyslexia Society began in the US in 1967. The group’s main goal was raising public and political awareness and stressing the needs of dyslexic children.
It wasn’t until 1994 when the US Department of Education finally recognized dyslexia as a disorder or disability. Even when it was finally recognized, professionals would still use the term dyslexia in the same sentence as ‘specific learning difficulties’ showing that even the people that recognized it as a disability still held reservations about the designation.
In 1997 the Orton Dyslexia Society changed it’s name to the International Dyslexia Association due to the influence the association had beyond the borders of the USA.
Even with advances in medicine, it still took a while for the general teaching and medical fields to accept that learning difficulties were not necessarily brought on by a medical condition. In fact, it was not really until the 21st century that schools fully accepted the condition and began making accommodations for those that suffer from dyslexia. When you trace dyslexia history, it is easy to see that more attention and more research are still needed.[ad_2]
Source by Dee Henry | 704 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While out surveying the land for a future construction of a highway system a team of geologists discovered what would end up being two massive mammoth tusks. They were studying the sediment layers when they found what appeared to be an anomaly but ended up being the tip of one of the tusks. When the team realized what it was, and the potential significance, they knew they needed to call in the big guns. The very next day the Geology and Paleontology Department of the Vienna Natural History Museum (NHM) were sent in to head up the excavation.
The site was located in the Weinviertel Region of Austria, roughly 30 miles north of Vienna. The geologists first found the tip of the tusk in mid-Augst, just a few weeks ago. Becuase there was scheduled highway construction, the NHM’s team needed to do the job as quickly as possible. But as they started to unearth the first tusk it led to finding the other pieces of vertebrae.
That’s when old mother nature stepped in and the weather did not want to cooperate as it began to rain for a few days. The team was convinced there was more to be found based off the first tusk being intact and in good conditon. However, the time they had left to finish the project was running low.
Finally, the rain stopped so the team was able to go back to digging and it turns out there was more to be found. A second tusk of the same size, which is leading researchers to believe that they may belong to the same animal. As maybe you can tell already, these things are huge. They both measure roughly 8.5 feet long or 2.6 meters as it was reported.
Scientists were able to guestimate that when attached to the animal they were probably closer to 10 feet long. I didn’t see anything regarding diameter, but if you look at the pictures they appear to be at least bigger than a human arm.
There haven’t been able to identify exactly what species of mammoth that the tusks came from. Preliminary dating of the soil suggests somewhere around 1 million years ago. The most common Mammoth known by the average person is going to be the woolly mammoth and that’s probably because it’s the one we know the most about. But apparently, the woolly species lived something like 400,000 years ago which would make these tusks from a different species.
In order to stabilize the tusks for transport, they were covered plaster bandages, similar to what you would see on a cast if you broke a bone. Then wrapped them in damp newspapers which I’m guessing was meant to prevent the plaster from fully setting, but that’s my own personal speculation and trust me I’m no scientist. They were taken to the NHM in Vienna where they will be studied much further as well as being properly preserved. A brief showing is scheduled to take place at the museum November 6th but yet no word as to whether they will remain there as a permanent exhibit. | <urn:uuid:af6b99c1-2ad8-4753-a9f7-39be8f515286> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historythings.com/massive-tusks-rare-breed-mammoth-found-experts-austria/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.985592 | 640 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.19188351929187775... | 8 | While out surveying the land for a future construction of a highway system a team of geologists discovered what would end up being two massive mammoth tusks. They were studying the sediment layers when they found what appeared to be an anomaly but ended up being the tip of one of the tusks. When the team realized what it was, and the potential significance, they knew they needed to call in the big guns. The very next day the Geology and Paleontology Department of the Vienna Natural History Museum (NHM) were sent in to head up the excavation.
The site was located in the Weinviertel Region of Austria, roughly 30 miles north of Vienna. The geologists first found the tip of the tusk in mid-Augst, just a few weeks ago. Becuase there was scheduled highway construction, the NHM’s team needed to do the job as quickly as possible. But as they started to unearth the first tusk it led to finding the other pieces of vertebrae.
That’s when old mother nature stepped in and the weather did not want to cooperate as it began to rain for a few days. The team was convinced there was more to be found based off the first tusk being intact and in good conditon. However, the time they had left to finish the project was running low.
Finally, the rain stopped so the team was able to go back to digging and it turns out there was more to be found. A second tusk of the same size, which is leading researchers to believe that they may belong to the same animal. As maybe you can tell already, these things are huge. They both measure roughly 8.5 feet long or 2.6 meters as it was reported.
Scientists were able to guestimate that when attached to the animal they were probably closer to 10 feet long. I didn’t see anything regarding diameter, but if you look at the pictures they appear to be at least bigger than a human arm.
There haven’t been able to identify exactly what species of mammoth that the tusks came from. Preliminary dating of the soil suggests somewhere around 1 million years ago. The most common Mammoth known by the average person is going to be the woolly mammoth and that’s probably because it’s the one we know the most about. But apparently, the woolly species lived something like 400,000 years ago which would make these tusks from a different species.
In order to stabilize the tusks for transport, they were covered plaster bandages, similar to what you would see on a cast if you broke a bone. Then wrapped them in damp newspapers which I’m guessing was meant to prevent the plaster from fully setting, but that’s my own personal speculation and trust me I’m no scientist. They were taken to the NHM in Vienna where they will be studied much further as well as being properly preserved. A brief showing is scheduled to take place at the museum November 6th but yet no word as to whether they will remain there as a permanent exhibit. | 624 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mordecai Kaplan (1881–1983), the founding father of Reconstructionist Judaism, was a lifelong supporter of the rights of women. The roots of his concern for women may go back to his father: Rabbi Israel Kaplan, though strictly traditional, was concerned that his daughter Sophie (a few years older than Mordecai) have a Jewish education. Although education for women was not unknown in the traditional world of East European Jewry the clarity and devotion of Israel Kaplan to the education of his daughter was unusual. Sophie Kaplan grew up to be an educated woman who knew and taught Hebrew throughout her life. She married Nathan Israeli, a Conservative rabbinic colleague of Kaplan’s, and was active in the many congregations where he served. She may also have played a significant part in teaching her younger brother Hebrew.
In his younger years as an orthodox rabbi Kaplan was a strong supporter of the rights of women. The Jewish Center, where Kaplan was rabbi from its founding in 1918 until 1922, was traditional and was reasonably progressive so far as women were concerned. Statements in the Center Journal strongly supported women’s rights but presented them in a somewhat defensive manner. For example, the following: “We are the last to subscribe to the German idea of ‘Küche, Kinder und Kirche.’ Women must play a significant role in the great social changes that are taking place.” Wherever possible women were included in important ceremonies. As part of the dedication of the Center, in 1918, a Torah she-bi-khetav: Lit. "the written Torah." The Bible; the Pentateuch; Tanakh (the Pentateuch, Prophets and Hagiographia)Torah scroll was completed by each person writing in a letter. The Center Journal noted proudly that “all the women as well as the men participated in the ceremony” (Center Journal).
At the Center, seating was separate though equal, with women sitting on both sides of a center section which was reserved for men. The sections were separated by a curtain. Because of the Center’s traditional membership there was never any question of altering the synagogue ritual to include women. The major question of the day was women’s right to vote; Kaplan advocated the emancipation of women. In his preaching he went beyond mere support of the vote, which he took for granted, but did not argue for changing any rituals to include women. In the fall of 1918, he took the occasion of the sidrah (Torah portion) of Hayyei Sarah to deal with the issue of women’s rights. Preparing the way for the sermon, The Center Journal published the following question during that week: “Shall the Emancipation of women be merely a duplication of men?” On SabbathShabbat morning Kaplan pulled no punches when he said that, “Judaism of the Galut (Lit. (Greek) "dispersion." The Jewish community, and its areas of residence, outside Erez Israel.Diaspora) has said nothing and done nothing to lay claim to any share in the Emancipation of women.” The major religions, moreover, always lagged behind when it came to movements for social betterment. He asserted that, “the movement to emancipate women was nothing more than the logical extension of democracy.”
If Judaism in general offered no help on the issue of emancipation, Kaplan suggested looking to the Bible for guidance. He pointed out that there are many strong holy women in the Bible, including Deborah, Miriam and of course Rebecca, who was the focus of the week’s portion. If Genesis presented us with the matriarchs, however, it also presented us with the curses of Eden. The curse on Eve reads, “Toward your husband shall be your lust, yet he will rule over you” (Genesis 3:16). It is clear, Kaplan maintained, that women are destined to be redeemed from this curse in the time to come, just as man will be redeemed from his curse. We know this because Genesis also tells us that God said, “Let us make humankind, in our image, according to our likeness! Let them have dominion over the fish of the sea …” The key word here is ve-yirdu—they, both male and female, shall rule the earth together. The ideal is that men and women were meant to be equal and the world is a fall from that ideal.
He looked closely at Rebecca and used her as a model. Women must be emancipated not for power but for service. Man’s essential sinfulness stems from his lust for power; the same is true for women. Women in the past have sought to gain power through their charms. Women have both gained and lost because of this—in Kaplan’s words, “What if not her desires to entrance man with her charms has caused man to look upon her as his doll and play thing to minister to his wants?” Thus the enslavement of woman has resulted from her femininity, “The power of the eternally feminine,” as he called it. Now women must be emancipated, not essentially for more power, but for greater service. Just as Rebecca went the extra measure in her service to Abraham’s servant so must women do the same. It is almost as if Kaplan were talking about women in the same terms that Jews in general have always talked about themselves—as the chosen people. The Jews alone are the only ones who have known God, says the prophet, and therefore they have a higher standard to follow. If women were really free they would revolutionize the political sphere by lifting it to a higher level. The chosenness of women, he believed, made them more humane. “Women will purify politics, make industry more humane and make justice to the consumer instead of profits to the producer the standard of the market.” Emancipation is not aimed at power “… neither her own particular power, nor that masculine power which has contributed so much to the destruction of the world.” As Hannah so eloquently put it in her hymn of thanksgiving to God, “… for not by strength (power) shall man prevail.”
Kaplan was often at his best when he attempted to reinterpret fundamental concepts. At one point he put forth the idea that reverence for the individual was more basic than the concept of “love thy neighbor.” Being created in God’s image was the Biblical way of talking about the absolute value of human life: “… the reason it is wrong to take human life is that the human being wears the image of God; therefore, when a human being is slain, something more than that which is merely human is destroyed, the very image of God is shattered.” The proper attitude toward our fellow human beings is respect, the same awe and respect “… we associate with the idea of God.” We revere human life because “… it is a spark of that life that animates the universe,” Kaplan told his congregation. He believed that acting out of reverence was a higher principle than acting out of love. “It is only after mankind will have acquired the principle of reverence for man that it will be possible to love man as he should be loved, not merely ‘as thyself’ but as the reflection of the Divine. ‘Beloved is man,’ said R. Akiva, ‘for he was made in the image of God.’”
The most interesting innovation concerning women at Kaplan’s next congregation, The Society for the Advancement of Judaism (SAJ), established in 1922, occurred a month or so after it was opened, with the Lit. "daughter of the commandment." A girl who has reached legal-religious maturity and is now obligated to fulfill the commandmentsBat Mitzvah of his daughter Judith Kaplan Eisenstein. In his later life Kaplan was fond of saying that he had four reasons for instituting the bat mitzvah ceremony—namely, his four daughters, Judith, Hadassah, Naomi and Selma. The idea for such a ceremony must have been germinating in Kaplan’s mind for quite a long time. At a United Synagogue Convention of the Conservative Movement in 1918 he raised the issue of the equality for women in the synagogue but he made no concrete suggestions and so the discussion never developed. As Judith’s twelfth birthday came and went, Kaplan began to think about doing something appropriate for the occasion. Her bat mitzvah was celebrated on the 18th day of Adar 5682, which corresponds to March 18, 1922, when she was twelve and a half years old. A simple announcement in the SAJ Bulletin invited everyone in the congregation to a meal afterwards. There is no record of any opposition within the congregation, but Kaplan did have his difficulties. Before the event there was considerable resistance from both his mother and his mother-in-law. Judith many years later recalled the following conversation between them. “‘In-law,’” said my mother’s mother, ‘Talk to your son. Tell him not to do this thing.’ ‘Machateineste (in-law)’, said Grandma Kaplan, ‘You know a son doesn’t listen to his mother. You talk to your daughter. Tell her to tell him not to do this thing!’” The grandmothers did not prevail and the events proceeded as planned. As Judith recalls, her father did not decide what exactly she was to do until the night before. “Everything was in readiness except the procedure itself. On Friday night after Shabbat dinner, Father took me into his study and had me read aloud the blessings which precede and succeed the Torah readings. How severely he corrected my diction … He then selected a passage from the weekly (Torah) portion … which I practiced reading in both Hebrew and English.”
The services took place on the first floor of the SAJ House, as they called George M. Cohan’s converted brownstone at 41 West 86th Street, where the SAJ met, with the men seated in the front and the women seated behind. Judith had to sit up front with the men “away from the cozy protection of mother and sisters.” Strictly speaking, Judith’s bat mitzvah was not what it would have been if she were a male. Judith was called forward to recite the Torah blessings and read a portion from the weekly sidrah (Bible portion). Kaplan himself read the blessings for the portion from the Prophets and the Haftarah (Prophetic selection).
Although the ceremony was not fully equal to its male counterpart, the bat mitzvah was born and, as Judith put it, “no thunder sounded, no lightning struck … and the rest of the day was all rejoicing.” This first small step did not mean full equality for women even at the SAJ. It took more than twenty years for women to be regularly called to the Torah. The SAJ thus stood in the anomalous situation of having many bat mitzvahs but no girls who were ever again called up to the Torah. In the matter of calling women to the Torah, Kaplan chose to follow his flock, rather than to act on his conscience. This situation may have been due either to his inertia or to a lack of political savvy; it is difficult to know which.
Kaplan continued to support the equality of women throughout his life. In his later major work, The Future of the American Jew, Kaplan devoted an entire section to the equality of women. Kaplan maintained that Jewish women were treated better than many other women in antiquity and in the pre-modern period. Yet, having said that, he also maintained that “traditional Jewish law undoubtedly treated women as a lower type of human being than man. In Jewish law, the women is on the same plane with minors, slaves and people of unsound mind.” Jewish law must therefore be amended so that women are treated equally in all aspects of Jewish life, both in theory and in practice.
We should not be surprised therefore that the Reconstructionist movement both in the United States and in Israel has been in the forefront of the struggle for the equality of women. However, we should also note that Kaplan never thought to carry his fight for the equality of women into the synagogue service itself. While quite radical in his willingness to change the traditional siddur (book of daily prayers), he never thought to make the siddur gender-neutral.
“Dedication Ceremonies and Sefer Torah.” Center Journal (May 10, 1918); “Küche, Kinder und Kirche …” Center Journal (November 8, 1918); Kaplan, Mordecai. “The Status of Women in Jewish Law.” In The Future of the American Jew, 405. New York: 1948; Idem. Communings of the Spirit: The Journals of Mordecai M. Kaplan, edited by Mel Scult. Detroit: 2001; Scult, Mel. Judaism Faces the Twentieth Century: A Biography of Mordecai M. Kaplan. Detroit: 1993; Hebrew translation published in Tel Aviv: 2004.
How to cite this page
Scult, Mel. "Mordecai Kaplan." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 27 February 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on January 21, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai>. | <urn:uuid:22724b5c-4e5b-4f4e-b99d-ad59c9426988> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00243.warc.gz | en | 0.980084 | 2,847 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.0392492823... | 1 | Mordecai Kaplan (1881–1983), the founding father of Reconstructionist Judaism, was a lifelong supporter of the rights of women. The roots of his concern for women may go back to his father: Rabbi Israel Kaplan, though strictly traditional, was concerned that his daughter Sophie (a few years older than Mordecai) have a Jewish education. Although education for women was not unknown in the traditional world of East European Jewry the clarity and devotion of Israel Kaplan to the education of his daughter was unusual. Sophie Kaplan grew up to be an educated woman who knew and taught Hebrew throughout her life. She married Nathan Israeli, a Conservative rabbinic colleague of Kaplan’s, and was active in the many congregations where he served. She may also have played a significant part in teaching her younger brother Hebrew.
In his younger years as an orthodox rabbi Kaplan was a strong supporter of the rights of women. The Jewish Center, where Kaplan was rabbi from its founding in 1918 until 1922, was traditional and was reasonably progressive so far as women were concerned. Statements in the Center Journal strongly supported women’s rights but presented them in a somewhat defensive manner. For example, the following: “We are the last to subscribe to the German idea of ‘Küche, Kinder und Kirche.’ Women must play a significant role in the great social changes that are taking place.” Wherever possible women were included in important ceremonies. As part of the dedication of the Center, in 1918, a Torah she-bi-khetav: Lit. "the written Torah." The Bible; the Pentateuch; Tanakh (the Pentateuch, Prophets and Hagiographia)Torah scroll was completed by each person writing in a letter. The Center Journal noted proudly that “all the women as well as the men participated in the ceremony” (Center Journal).
At the Center, seating was separate though equal, with women sitting on both sides of a center section which was reserved for men. The sections were separated by a curtain. Because of the Center’s traditional membership there was never any question of altering the synagogue ritual to include women. The major question of the day was women’s right to vote; Kaplan advocated the emancipation of women. In his preaching he went beyond mere support of the vote, which he took for granted, but did not argue for changing any rituals to include women. In the fall of 1918, he took the occasion of the sidrah (Torah portion) of Hayyei Sarah to deal with the issue of women’s rights. Preparing the way for the sermon, The Center Journal published the following question during that week: “Shall the Emancipation of women be merely a duplication of men?” On SabbathShabbat morning Kaplan pulled no punches when he said that, “Judaism of the Galut (Lit. (Greek) "dispersion." The Jewish community, and its areas of residence, outside Erez Israel.Diaspora) has said nothing and done nothing to lay claim to any share in the Emancipation of women.” The major religions, moreover, always lagged behind when it came to movements for social betterment. He asserted that, “the movement to emancipate women was nothing more than the logical extension of democracy.”
If Judaism in general offered no help on the issue of emancipation, Kaplan suggested looking to the Bible for guidance. He pointed out that there are many strong holy women in the Bible, including Deborah, Miriam and of course Rebecca, who was the focus of the week’s portion. If Genesis presented us with the matriarchs, however, it also presented us with the curses of Eden. The curse on Eve reads, “Toward your husband shall be your lust, yet he will rule over you” (Genesis 3:16). It is clear, Kaplan maintained, that women are destined to be redeemed from this curse in the time to come, just as man will be redeemed from his curse. We know this because Genesis also tells us that God said, “Let us make humankind, in our image, according to our likeness! Let them have dominion over the fish of the sea …” The key word here is ve-yirdu—they, both male and female, shall rule the earth together. The ideal is that men and women were meant to be equal and the world is a fall from that ideal.
He looked closely at Rebecca and used her as a model. Women must be emancipated not for power but for service. Man’s essential sinfulness stems from his lust for power; the same is true for women. Women in the past have sought to gain power through their charms. Women have both gained and lost because of this—in Kaplan’s words, “What if not her desires to entrance man with her charms has caused man to look upon her as his doll and play thing to minister to his wants?” Thus the enslavement of woman has resulted from her femininity, “The power of the eternally feminine,” as he called it. Now women must be emancipated, not essentially for more power, but for greater service. Just as Rebecca went the extra measure in her service to Abraham’s servant so must women do the same. It is almost as if Kaplan were talking about women in the same terms that Jews in general have always talked about themselves—as the chosen people. The Jews alone are the only ones who have known God, says the prophet, and therefore they have a higher standard to follow. If women were really free they would revolutionize the political sphere by lifting it to a higher level. The chosenness of women, he believed, made them more humane. “Women will purify politics, make industry more humane and make justice to the consumer instead of profits to the producer the standard of the market.” Emancipation is not aimed at power “… neither her own particular power, nor that masculine power which has contributed so much to the destruction of the world.” As Hannah so eloquently put it in her hymn of thanksgiving to God, “… for not by strength (power) shall man prevail.”
Kaplan was often at his best when he attempted to reinterpret fundamental concepts. At one point he put forth the idea that reverence for the individual was more basic than the concept of “love thy neighbor.” Being created in God’s image was the Biblical way of talking about the absolute value of human life: “… the reason it is wrong to take human life is that the human being wears the image of God; therefore, when a human being is slain, something more than that which is merely human is destroyed, the very image of God is shattered.” The proper attitude toward our fellow human beings is respect, the same awe and respect “… we associate with the idea of God.” We revere human life because “… it is a spark of that life that animates the universe,” Kaplan told his congregation. He believed that acting out of reverence was a higher principle than acting out of love. “It is only after mankind will have acquired the principle of reverence for man that it will be possible to love man as he should be loved, not merely ‘as thyself’ but as the reflection of the Divine. ‘Beloved is man,’ said R. Akiva, ‘for he was made in the image of God.’”
The most interesting innovation concerning women at Kaplan’s next congregation, The Society for the Advancement of Judaism (SAJ), established in 1922, occurred a month or so after it was opened, with the Lit. "daughter of the commandment." A girl who has reached legal-religious maturity and is now obligated to fulfill the commandmentsBat Mitzvah of his daughter Judith Kaplan Eisenstein. In his later life Kaplan was fond of saying that he had four reasons for instituting the bat mitzvah ceremony—namely, his four daughters, Judith, Hadassah, Naomi and Selma. The idea for such a ceremony must have been germinating in Kaplan’s mind for quite a long time. At a United Synagogue Convention of the Conservative Movement in 1918 he raised the issue of the equality for women in the synagogue but he made no concrete suggestions and so the discussion never developed. As Judith’s twelfth birthday came and went, Kaplan began to think about doing something appropriate for the occasion. Her bat mitzvah was celebrated on the 18th day of Adar 5682, which corresponds to March 18, 1922, when she was twelve and a half years old. A simple announcement in the SAJ Bulletin invited everyone in the congregation to a meal afterwards. There is no record of any opposition within the congregation, but Kaplan did have his difficulties. Before the event there was considerable resistance from both his mother and his mother-in-law. Judith many years later recalled the following conversation between them. “‘In-law,’” said my mother’s mother, ‘Talk to your son. Tell him not to do this thing.’ ‘Machateineste (in-law)’, said Grandma Kaplan, ‘You know a son doesn’t listen to his mother. You talk to your daughter. Tell her to tell him not to do this thing!’” The grandmothers did not prevail and the events proceeded as planned. As Judith recalls, her father did not decide what exactly she was to do until the night before. “Everything was in readiness except the procedure itself. On Friday night after Shabbat dinner, Father took me into his study and had me read aloud the blessings which precede and succeed the Torah readings. How severely he corrected my diction … He then selected a passage from the weekly (Torah) portion … which I practiced reading in both Hebrew and English.”
The services took place on the first floor of the SAJ House, as they called George M. Cohan’s converted brownstone at 41 West 86th Street, where the SAJ met, with the men seated in the front and the women seated behind. Judith had to sit up front with the men “away from the cozy protection of mother and sisters.” Strictly speaking, Judith’s bat mitzvah was not what it would have been if she were a male. Judith was called forward to recite the Torah blessings and read a portion from the weekly sidrah (Bible portion). Kaplan himself read the blessings for the portion from the Prophets and the Haftarah (Prophetic selection).
Although the ceremony was not fully equal to its male counterpart, the bat mitzvah was born and, as Judith put it, “no thunder sounded, no lightning struck … and the rest of the day was all rejoicing.” This first small step did not mean full equality for women even at the SAJ. It took more than twenty years for women to be regularly called to the Torah. The SAJ thus stood in the anomalous situation of having many bat mitzvahs but no girls who were ever again called up to the Torah. In the matter of calling women to the Torah, Kaplan chose to follow his flock, rather than to act on his conscience. This situation may have been due either to his inertia or to a lack of political savvy; it is difficult to know which.
Kaplan continued to support the equality of women throughout his life. In his later major work, The Future of the American Jew, Kaplan devoted an entire section to the equality of women. Kaplan maintained that Jewish women were treated better than many other women in antiquity and in the pre-modern period. Yet, having said that, he also maintained that “traditional Jewish law undoubtedly treated women as a lower type of human being than man. In Jewish law, the women is on the same plane with minors, slaves and people of unsound mind.” Jewish law must therefore be amended so that women are treated equally in all aspects of Jewish life, both in theory and in practice.
We should not be surprised therefore that the Reconstructionist movement both in the United States and in Israel has been in the forefront of the struggle for the equality of women. However, we should also note that Kaplan never thought to carry his fight for the equality of women into the synagogue service itself. While quite radical in his willingness to change the traditional siddur (book of daily prayers), he never thought to make the siddur gender-neutral.
“Dedication Ceremonies and Sefer Torah.” Center Journal (May 10, 1918); “Küche, Kinder und Kirche …” Center Journal (November 8, 1918); Kaplan, Mordecai. “The Status of Women in Jewish Law.” In The Future of the American Jew, 405. New York: 1948; Idem. Communings of the Spirit: The Journals of Mordecai M. Kaplan, edited by Mel Scult. Detroit: 2001; Scult, Mel. Judaism Faces the Twentieth Century: A Biography of Mordecai M. Kaplan. Detroit: 1993; Hebrew translation published in Tel Aviv: 2004.
How to cite this page
Scult, Mel. "Mordecai Kaplan." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 27 February 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on January 21, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/kaplan-mordecai>. | 2,778 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Analysis of Hypocrisy in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, takes place in a time in age where the deficits of society are so intricately interwoven and ignored upon the individuals that make up that society. This results in hypocrisy that constantly plays a crucial part in how Mark Twain depicts the society that participates in such irrational activity. Characters, that Huck and Jim meet as they head for their freedom, which for Jim is slavery, and for Huck is the enslavement through civilization which is “practiced” by such a hypocrite society.
Both are searching for freedom that is well defined in their own parameters; but are kept under constant hypocrisy in the pursuit to achieve their freedom. However, hypocrisy by a “civilized” society is as dominant in today’s society as it was in the time that Huck and Jim encountered it. Even though today’s, hypocrisies take a new shape and form and are interwoven with daily activities. They are given as much attention as any “civilized” society would.
Although the hypocrisies that are evident in Huckleberry Finn might be in the form of the judge allowing Huck’s father, to keep him in custody, well knowing that he a drunkard would kill Huck to get his money. To the ignorance, of towns people and the nieces who were scammed by the duke and king. Everyone had taken so much self-esteem into the fact that the nieces had accepted the duke and king as their uncles that no one gave a second thought, even when it was publicly announced by Dr.
Robinson; as every “civilized” person who knew right from wrong sprang upon the doctor, trying to subdue him. As the greatest hypocrisy that took place in the book, was due to the time period itself; a time of white supremacy and racial prejudice, that took place everywhere, a time of slavery. These individuals who Huck ran away from to avoid being civilized, were themselves uncivilized due to the way they treated slaves who are non-other than human beings as well.
Implying the fact that it is impossible for a society who owns and treats slaves as uncivilized people themselves can never be just. While, we see this constantly throughout our society today, as people call others fat, anorexic, sub-standard, not cool, not cute, irrational, and stupid; while they themselves have a bottomless pit of ignorance, leading to their own oblivion. Today’s society is actually worse than before in the sense that we are not only fed these things as a child; but we have to incorporate it into daily life through the influence of others, such as parents, media, and peers.
Making our very existence, self-evident of such a paradox that can only derive from hypocrisy of a so called “civilized” society. As the time Mark Twain had written this novel, many social flaws existed within the fabrics of the community as a whole. The book played a major role within the cultural context of the era due to the fact that Jim, who was a slave and Huck a freeman were able to bond and have such an amazing journey together.
Within this journey, Twain had interwoven several moments, that on the surface seemed like a norm at the time, but exploited several social flaws that would have otherwise been dismissed by ignorance. Resulting in a successful message from the author, hopefully allowing one to see at that time in age what horrid activities they take place in on a day to day basis, when viewed upon by another person’s spectacle. | <urn:uuid:ebd2e332-6645-4383-a434-588c1dd3600f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-analysis-of-hypocrisy-in-adventures-of-huckleberry-finn/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00492.warc.gz | en | 0.985133 | 758 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1257223188... | 1 | Analysis of Hypocrisy in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, takes place in a time in age where the deficits of society are so intricately interwoven and ignored upon the individuals that make up that society. This results in hypocrisy that constantly plays a crucial part in how Mark Twain depicts the society that participates in such irrational activity. Characters, that Huck and Jim meet as they head for their freedom, which for Jim is slavery, and for Huck is the enslavement through civilization which is “practiced” by such a hypocrite society.
Both are searching for freedom that is well defined in their own parameters; but are kept under constant hypocrisy in the pursuit to achieve their freedom. However, hypocrisy by a “civilized” society is as dominant in today’s society as it was in the time that Huck and Jim encountered it. Even though today’s, hypocrisies take a new shape and form and are interwoven with daily activities. They are given as much attention as any “civilized” society would.
Although the hypocrisies that are evident in Huckleberry Finn might be in the form of the judge allowing Huck’s father, to keep him in custody, well knowing that he a drunkard would kill Huck to get his money. To the ignorance, of towns people and the nieces who were scammed by the duke and king. Everyone had taken so much self-esteem into the fact that the nieces had accepted the duke and king as their uncles that no one gave a second thought, even when it was publicly announced by Dr.
Robinson; as every “civilized” person who knew right from wrong sprang upon the doctor, trying to subdue him. As the greatest hypocrisy that took place in the book, was due to the time period itself; a time of white supremacy and racial prejudice, that took place everywhere, a time of slavery. These individuals who Huck ran away from to avoid being civilized, were themselves uncivilized due to the way they treated slaves who are non-other than human beings as well.
Implying the fact that it is impossible for a society who owns and treats slaves as uncivilized people themselves can never be just. While, we see this constantly throughout our society today, as people call others fat, anorexic, sub-standard, not cool, not cute, irrational, and stupid; while they themselves have a bottomless pit of ignorance, leading to their own oblivion. Today’s society is actually worse than before in the sense that we are not only fed these things as a child; but we have to incorporate it into daily life through the influence of others, such as parents, media, and peers.
Making our very existence, self-evident of such a paradox that can only derive from hypocrisy of a so called “civilized” society. As the time Mark Twain had written this novel, many social flaws existed within the fabrics of the community as a whole. The book played a major role within the cultural context of the era due to the fact that Jim, who was a slave and Huck a freeman were able to bond and have such an amazing journey together.
Within this journey, Twain had interwoven several moments, that on the surface seemed like a norm at the time, but exploited several social flaws that would have otherwise been dismissed by ignorance. Resulting in a successful message from the author, hopefully allowing one to see at that time in age what horrid activities they take place in on a day to day basis, when viewed upon by another person’s spectacle. | 730 | ENGLISH | 1 |
New NHS Visa
Leena Chouhan | 14.11.2019
17.04.2018 Moore Blatch
The 22nd June this year marks the 70th anniversary of the docking of a ship that sailed from the Caribbean to the UK. This ship, the SS Empire Windrush and has subsequently become a powerful and iconic symbol of UK migration.
On the above date, 70 years ago the first wave of about 500 Caribbean men and women arrived in the UK. The reason for the invitation was to help repair a Britain broken by the Second World War and in need of help from Commonwealth citizens who were British subjects.
At this time, there were no immigration restrictions on these people entering the UK; they were known as “freely landed” which meant that they could live and work anywhere within the UK and Colonies. This changed in 1962 when Commonwealth citizens became subject to immigration control, however children could still come on their parents’ passport so were exempt from this requirement.
1 January 1973 was the beginning of the immigration system as we know it today. People who were already present and settled when the Act came into force were automatically allowed to stay as were their children (Windrush children). The Act also introduced an exemption from deportation to Commonwealth citizens who were resident here at the time. We often see reference to “deportation” of illegal immigrants in the press. It is important to distinguish between deportation and administrative removal. Deportation is where the government makes an order to send someone back to their home country usually because they have committed a serious criminal offence against the public good. There is normally a re-entry ban to the UK of 10 years. Administrative removal, also known as forced removal, is when the Home Office enforces removal from the UK if someone doesn’t have permission to be in the UK. There is normally a re-entry ban to the UK of 1 to 5 years.
The Migration Observatory at Oxford University estimates there are 500,000 people living in the UK who were born in a Commonwealth country and came to the UK before 1971. Many Windrush children are finding that they now face removal from the UK after several decades of legally living and working in the UK.
Removal from UK – why now?
In May 2012 Theresa May announced the current Government’s hostile immigration policy for illegal immigrants. This restricts access to jobs, driving licences, healthcare and accommodation. This policy has recently been implemented into our legal system, through the passing of several laws.
The issue for many people, such as the Windrush generation is that the Home Office did not keep records of those granted permission to remain in the UK and in some cases issue any paperwork to confirm this. This means it is very difficult for these individuals to prove they are in the UK legally.
Proving a right to stay in the UK
Legally speaking there is no new grant of status, rather an administrative process where people in this situation need to apply to the Home Office for recognition of their right to live in the UK. This application is known as “NTL”. It costs £229 per person. But is it’s not as easy as easy as completing the 21 page Home Office form. Individuals are expected to show:
evidence of their Commonwealth citizenship
their arrival in the UK
that they were “‘ordinarily resident” on 1 January 1973 (this would be shown by being a minor and a Commonwealth citizen on arrival)
that they haven’t had any absences from the UK since 1988 for over 2 years
that they’re still ordinarily resident at the time of the application
Providing this evidence for several decades before computerisation can be surprisingly difficult and time-consuming. The Home Office guidance to its own caseworker’s guidance states
“The applicant must provide evidence they were present and settled in the UK on 1 January 1973 and have continued to reside here since. Evidence must include official correspondence. If the applicant cannot produce enough documents, you must look at any circumstances that may prove they were in the UK
…The applicant is responsible for providing evidence they were settled in the UK on 1 January 1973. As these applicants are stating they have been in the UK for a long time it is important you treat these cases in a careful and sensitive manner”
Unfortunately as highlighted in many cases studies by the media these cases are not being treated in a “careful” or “sensitive manner”. New guidance:
Home Office guidance published late in the day last Friday summarises what people in this situation are expected to do. Unfortunately there is nothing new in this document.
Political correctness would have us believe that we have moved on from the discriminatory overtly racist ideas in the 1950’s to the 1980’s however this policy gives the perception that this has been replaced by a more subtle Government approved ideology once again in the name of immigration control.
If you have any questions about this, or any aspect of UK immigration please contact Moore Blatch Immigration Department by email at email@example.com or by phone on 020 3818 5433. | <urn:uuid:74a6ca5a-5070-4fce-a0a3-d94981d126fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://knowledge.mooreblatch.com/blog/uk-government-sends-message-to-windrush-children-e28093-we-done28099t-want-you | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00175.warc.gz | en | 0.980618 | 1,054 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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Leena Chouhan | 14.11.2019
17.04.2018 Moore Blatch
The 22nd June this year marks the 70th anniversary of the docking of a ship that sailed from the Caribbean to the UK. This ship, the SS Empire Windrush and has subsequently become a powerful and iconic symbol of UK migration.
On the above date, 70 years ago the first wave of about 500 Caribbean men and women arrived in the UK. The reason for the invitation was to help repair a Britain broken by the Second World War and in need of help from Commonwealth citizens who were British subjects.
At this time, there were no immigration restrictions on these people entering the UK; they were known as “freely landed” which meant that they could live and work anywhere within the UK and Colonies. This changed in 1962 when Commonwealth citizens became subject to immigration control, however children could still come on their parents’ passport so were exempt from this requirement.
1 January 1973 was the beginning of the immigration system as we know it today. People who were already present and settled when the Act came into force were automatically allowed to stay as were their children (Windrush children). The Act also introduced an exemption from deportation to Commonwealth citizens who were resident here at the time. We often see reference to “deportation” of illegal immigrants in the press. It is important to distinguish between deportation and administrative removal. Deportation is where the government makes an order to send someone back to their home country usually because they have committed a serious criminal offence against the public good. There is normally a re-entry ban to the UK of 10 years. Administrative removal, also known as forced removal, is when the Home Office enforces removal from the UK if someone doesn’t have permission to be in the UK. There is normally a re-entry ban to the UK of 1 to 5 years.
The Migration Observatory at Oxford University estimates there are 500,000 people living in the UK who were born in a Commonwealth country and came to the UK before 1971. Many Windrush children are finding that they now face removal from the UK after several decades of legally living and working in the UK.
Removal from UK – why now?
In May 2012 Theresa May announced the current Government’s hostile immigration policy for illegal immigrants. This restricts access to jobs, driving licences, healthcare and accommodation. This policy has recently been implemented into our legal system, through the passing of several laws.
The issue for many people, such as the Windrush generation is that the Home Office did not keep records of those granted permission to remain in the UK and in some cases issue any paperwork to confirm this. This means it is very difficult for these individuals to prove they are in the UK legally.
Proving a right to stay in the UK
Legally speaking there is no new grant of status, rather an administrative process where people in this situation need to apply to the Home Office for recognition of their right to live in the UK. This application is known as “NTL”. It costs £229 per person. But is it’s not as easy as easy as completing the 21 page Home Office form. Individuals are expected to show:
evidence of their Commonwealth citizenship
their arrival in the UK
that they were “‘ordinarily resident” on 1 January 1973 (this would be shown by being a minor and a Commonwealth citizen on arrival)
that they haven’t had any absences from the UK since 1988 for over 2 years
that they’re still ordinarily resident at the time of the application
Providing this evidence for several decades before computerisation can be surprisingly difficult and time-consuming. The Home Office guidance to its own caseworker’s guidance states
“The applicant must provide evidence they were present and settled in the UK on 1 January 1973 and have continued to reside here since. Evidence must include official correspondence. If the applicant cannot produce enough documents, you must look at any circumstances that may prove they were in the UK
…The applicant is responsible for providing evidence they were settled in the UK on 1 January 1973. As these applicants are stating they have been in the UK for a long time it is important you treat these cases in a careful and sensitive manner”
Unfortunately as highlighted in many cases studies by the media these cases are not being treated in a “careful” or “sensitive manner”. New guidance:
Home Office guidance published late in the day last Friday summarises what people in this situation are expected to do. Unfortunately there is nothing new in this document.
Political correctness would have us believe that we have moved on from the discriminatory overtly racist ideas in the 1950’s to the 1980’s however this policy gives the perception that this has been replaced by a more subtle Government approved ideology once again in the name of immigration control.
If you have any questions about this, or any aspect of UK immigration please contact Moore Blatch Immigration Department by email at email@example.com or by phone on 020 3818 5433. | 1,087 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Footprints Without Feet Summary
We have shared important question papers, last year papers, and model test papers for class 10. We got requests from many students to provide the summary of Footprints without Feet Chapter of Class 10 English Literature. Below we have tried to summarize the whole chapter so that you can understand it well and can score good marks in your exams.
Footprints Without Feet Summary: Detailed
Footprints without Feet is a chapter in class 10 English book. This is an interesting story of a scientist who discovers a potion which can easily make a person disappear. The scientist test that potion on himself. When he drinks that, he actually becomes invisible. He was astonished to see that thing. When he realized that no one can see him and he can do anything he wishes, his mind comes up with some mischievous ideas. He went here and there in the streets of London. Once he was passing by and some of the children noticed his footsteps in the mud. They felt strange and kept following his footsteps.
After sometime when the muddy path ends, the children are not able to see his footsteps anymore and escapes. He keeps roaming here and there without clothes but the weather was not favourable, it was cold enough outside. So, he made a plan to get some clothes from the supermarket. He silently enters the supermarket without making any mistake. Then he makes himself comfortable by getting some clothes for himself. He enters the kitchen and finds some good food to eat. After having a good dinner, he then slept on the pile of quilts.
Also Check: Best English Grammar Book for Class 10
In the morning as the staff comes, they doubt the presence of someone on the store. Then he had to run away to save himself. The clothes were making it difficult for him to hide from people so finally, he had to remove his clothes. After a few days, he decides to move to a silent place in a village, Iping. There he books a room in an inn. Before reaching that hotel he hid his full face with a bandage so that no one doubts him. When he reached the counter of the hotel, people find him very awkward. He then lives there for some time but after some days his money gets finished and he is forced to do something. So, he decides to steal the money.
Don’t Miss: Best Notes for Tenses: English Grammar
Footprints without Feet summary Ending: He quietly enters the room of clergyman and steals money from the drawer. They suspect someone in the room but because he was without clothes no one is able to see him and he escapes. The inn owner and his wife walks outside the room of the scientist Griffin and they notice that the room is wide open, his bandage and clothes are lying on ht bed. As soon as they enter the room, Griffin comes and throws the chair towards the lady’s leg. Out of fear the runaway and he shuts the door with force. This makes them feel that there is some spirit or something in that room. Meanwhile, the clergyman calls up police, and as the news of theft spreads people start doubting the scientist for the same. They try to catch him but he escapes because he was invisible and no one could see him. Catching an invisible thing is easier said than done!
Footprints Without Feet Extra Questions
1. How did Griffin become invisible?
Griffin was a scientist. He was working to make a potion which can make anything disappear. so, he tried that potion on himself and he became invisible.
2. How did Griffin manage to get some clothes for himself?
Griffin was feeling cold outside so he went to the big mall to steal some clothes. He went inside when it was time to close the store. As he was invisible, no one could notice h9im entering the mall and he stole a hat, coat, and other clothes.
3. How Griffin managed to get rooms in the hotel without being noticed?
Griffin was very smart. He wrapped his face with the help of bandage and wore the clothes he stole from the mall. Then he silently went to the hotel counter and paid the cash and booked two rooms for himself.
4. How did people doubt Griffin for all the incidents?
From the very beginning, he sounded strange because of his getup. Then the news of theft in the clergyman’s room spread everywhere. The hotel owner and his wife also noticed some strange activities in Griffin’s room. All these incidents made people doubt Griffin.
5. How Griffin escaped from the mall?
Griffin had a good time at the mall. He stole clothes, ate food from the kitchen and then had a good sleep. In the morning when the staff came, they sensed something strange. They saw him because of his clothes so he had to run. The staff members kept running after him. Finally, he had to remove his clothes to escape from the eyes of the staff.
So, this was the English chapter Footprints Without Feet summary. We have tried to provide the complete theme of this chapter. Hope you liked reading it. If you want more such summaries for other chapters then do let us know via the comments section below. Soon, we will upload class 10 last year sample papers. Stay tuned with Careeradvice4u
Latest posts by Deepak Kumar (see all)
- DAV Class 7 Science: Ch 5 Heat Back Exercise Solutions - November 18, 2019
- DAV Science Solutions Class 7: Transportation in Plants and Animals - November 13, 2019
- Class 10 English Literature: Bholi Summary - November 10, 2019 | <urn:uuid:ce6f2cbe-a1bf-4b4a-b809-cd60710810b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://careeradvice4u.com/footprints-without-feet-summary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00511.warc.gz | en | 0.983986 | 1,153 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.3481657... | 1 | Footprints Without Feet Summary
We have shared important question papers, last year papers, and model test papers for class 10. We got requests from many students to provide the summary of Footprints without Feet Chapter of Class 10 English Literature. Below we have tried to summarize the whole chapter so that you can understand it well and can score good marks in your exams.
Footprints Without Feet Summary: Detailed
Footprints without Feet is a chapter in class 10 English book. This is an interesting story of a scientist who discovers a potion which can easily make a person disappear. The scientist test that potion on himself. When he drinks that, he actually becomes invisible. He was astonished to see that thing. When he realized that no one can see him and he can do anything he wishes, his mind comes up with some mischievous ideas. He went here and there in the streets of London. Once he was passing by and some of the children noticed his footsteps in the mud. They felt strange and kept following his footsteps.
After sometime when the muddy path ends, the children are not able to see his footsteps anymore and escapes. He keeps roaming here and there without clothes but the weather was not favourable, it was cold enough outside. So, he made a plan to get some clothes from the supermarket. He silently enters the supermarket without making any mistake. Then he makes himself comfortable by getting some clothes for himself. He enters the kitchen and finds some good food to eat. After having a good dinner, he then slept on the pile of quilts.
Also Check: Best English Grammar Book for Class 10
In the morning as the staff comes, they doubt the presence of someone on the store. Then he had to run away to save himself. The clothes were making it difficult for him to hide from people so finally, he had to remove his clothes. After a few days, he decides to move to a silent place in a village, Iping. There he books a room in an inn. Before reaching that hotel he hid his full face with a bandage so that no one doubts him. When he reached the counter of the hotel, people find him very awkward. He then lives there for some time but after some days his money gets finished and he is forced to do something. So, he decides to steal the money.
Don’t Miss: Best Notes for Tenses: English Grammar
Footprints without Feet summary Ending: He quietly enters the room of clergyman and steals money from the drawer. They suspect someone in the room but because he was without clothes no one is able to see him and he escapes. The inn owner and his wife walks outside the room of the scientist Griffin and they notice that the room is wide open, his bandage and clothes are lying on ht bed. As soon as they enter the room, Griffin comes and throws the chair towards the lady’s leg. Out of fear the runaway and he shuts the door with force. This makes them feel that there is some spirit or something in that room. Meanwhile, the clergyman calls up police, and as the news of theft spreads people start doubting the scientist for the same. They try to catch him but he escapes because he was invisible and no one could see him. Catching an invisible thing is easier said than done!
Footprints Without Feet Extra Questions
1. How did Griffin become invisible?
Griffin was a scientist. He was working to make a potion which can make anything disappear. so, he tried that potion on himself and he became invisible.
2. How did Griffin manage to get some clothes for himself?
Griffin was feeling cold outside so he went to the big mall to steal some clothes. He went inside when it was time to close the store. As he was invisible, no one could notice h9im entering the mall and he stole a hat, coat, and other clothes.
3. How Griffin managed to get rooms in the hotel without being noticed?
Griffin was very smart. He wrapped his face with the help of bandage and wore the clothes he stole from the mall. Then he silently went to the hotel counter and paid the cash and booked two rooms for himself.
4. How did people doubt Griffin for all the incidents?
From the very beginning, he sounded strange because of his getup. Then the news of theft in the clergyman’s room spread everywhere. The hotel owner and his wife also noticed some strange activities in Griffin’s room. All these incidents made people doubt Griffin.
5. How Griffin escaped from the mall?
Griffin had a good time at the mall. He stole clothes, ate food from the kitchen and then had a good sleep. In the morning when the staff came, they sensed something strange. They saw him because of his clothes so he had to run. The staff members kept running after him. Finally, he had to remove his clothes to escape from the eyes of the staff.
So, this was the English chapter Footprints Without Feet summary. We have tried to provide the complete theme of this chapter. Hope you liked reading it. If you want more such summaries for other chapters then do let us know via the comments section below. Soon, we will upload class 10 last year sample papers. Stay tuned with Careeradvice4u
Latest posts by Deepak Kumar (see all)
- DAV Class 7 Science: Ch 5 Heat Back Exercise Solutions - November 18, 2019
- DAV Science Solutions Class 7: Transportation in Plants and Animals - November 13, 2019
- Class 10 English Literature: Bholi Summary - November 10, 2019 | 1,159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lessons Learned about Diversity Playing “Guess Who?” with My Child
For kids growing up in the 90’s, “Guess Who?” was a focal point of many family board game collections.
In the throes of my own childhood nostalgia, I bought the game for my five-year old daughter last week.
We sat down and I explained the rules…
To start, each player randomly picks a person from a deck of cards. The goal is to guess the other player’s person before they guess yours. Each player asks questions to learn more about the other player’s person. After each question, you flip down the people that do not fit the description based on the other player’s answer. Through a process of elimination, one player ultimately guesses the name of the other player’s person and wins.
She nodded that she understood how to play.
Sounds simple, right?
My daughter and I played about five times before I realized something was very wrong. ..
It became clear that the easiest way to win was to clear the playing field and ask the most divisive questions. I am not proud of myself, but I had decided the easiest way to win was by asking:
- “Is your person a boy (or a girl)?”
- “Is your person’s skin white (or darker skinned)?”
After I asked these two questions first a few times, it was easy to narrow down the people and I only had to ask a few follow up questions to guess the correct person. It took a few times for me to become aware of my own shortcutting. I was doing what I teach people not to do.
Lesson #1: I was making it easy for me by categorizing others.
I had decided that the easiest way to win was by marking visible differences – gender and race – and checking people in or out of their respective boxes.
I cannot take credit for this self-discovery. In fact, my #1 male ally (my partner Rustin) was watching and suggested we make a new rule: no asking about gender or race.
Lesson # 2: Sometimes it takes someone else to help us see our own limitations.
Jane was puzzled. She had quickly learned that marking differences was a quick and easy way to win. This was a parenting moment.
The game ensued. With the new rules, it became more interesting.
Lesson #3: Life is more interesting when we let go of the markers of diversity.
We had to get creative and ask unusual questions about facial expressions, eye color, and obscure details about the individual. She learned that it is important to honor differences. To respect others’ differences. To honor difference beyond gender and/or race.
We now have heated chess match style “Guess Who?” games that are more entertaining to play and watch. Jane gets to learn that people are not as simple as their race and/or gender identifications.
The problem with my story and countless stories like this that happen every day is that it reinforces that humans fit into boxes. You are a boy or a girl. You are white or you are a person of color. What if we broadened these terms and made the same rule as we did with my daughter in society? My guess is we would ALL be better for it.
See, gender and race are not always visible. Just because someone appears to be light skinned, does not mean they are white. Just because someone has darker skin does not mean they identify as a person of color. Same goes for gender – increasing in fact people are identifying as gender non-binary. And, that number is growing rapidly with the next generations.
What I learned from playing “Guess Who?” with my daughter is important. Even someone focused on this every day as my life’s work slips every once again.
Like this content? Check out our new training page with 2020 offerings, Lead Like an Ally virtual inclusive leadership program, and speaker reel to hire me to speak at your organization. | <urn:uuid:3ad8219b-a52c-43a3-9b4e-ed17280626db> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nextpivotpoint.com/3-lessons-i-learned-about-diversity-playing-guess-who-with-my-child/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=3-lessons-i-learned-about-diversity-playing-guess-who-with-my-child | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.980373 | 852 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.171215668320... | 6 | Lessons Learned about Diversity Playing “Guess Who?” with My Child
For kids growing up in the 90’s, “Guess Who?” was a focal point of many family board game collections.
In the throes of my own childhood nostalgia, I bought the game for my five-year old daughter last week.
We sat down and I explained the rules…
To start, each player randomly picks a person from a deck of cards. The goal is to guess the other player’s person before they guess yours. Each player asks questions to learn more about the other player’s person. After each question, you flip down the people that do not fit the description based on the other player’s answer. Through a process of elimination, one player ultimately guesses the name of the other player’s person and wins.
She nodded that she understood how to play.
Sounds simple, right?
My daughter and I played about five times before I realized something was very wrong. ..
It became clear that the easiest way to win was to clear the playing field and ask the most divisive questions. I am not proud of myself, but I had decided the easiest way to win was by asking:
- “Is your person a boy (or a girl)?”
- “Is your person’s skin white (or darker skinned)?”
After I asked these two questions first a few times, it was easy to narrow down the people and I only had to ask a few follow up questions to guess the correct person. It took a few times for me to become aware of my own shortcutting. I was doing what I teach people not to do.
Lesson #1: I was making it easy for me by categorizing others.
I had decided that the easiest way to win was by marking visible differences – gender and race – and checking people in or out of their respective boxes.
I cannot take credit for this self-discovery. In fact, my #1 male ally (my partner Rustin) was watching and suggested we make a new rule: no asking about gender or race.
Lesson # 2: Sometimes it takes someone else to help us see our own limitations.
Jane was puzzled. She had quickly learned that marking differences was a quick and easy way to win. This was a parenting moment.
The game ensued. With the new rules, it became more interesting.
Lesson #3: Life is more interesting when we let go of the markers of diversity.
We had to get creative and ask unusual questions about facial expressions, eye color, and obscure details about the individual. She learned that it is important to honor differences. To respect others’ differences. To honor difference beyond gender and/or race.
We now have heated chess match style “Guess Who?” games that are more entertaining to play and watch. Jane gets to learn that people are not as simple as their race and/or gender identifications.
The problem with my story and countless stories like this that happen every day is that it reinforces that humans fit into boxes. You are a boy or a girl. You are white or you are a person of color. What if we broadened these terms and made the same rule as we did with my daughter in society? My guess is we would ALL be better for it.
See, gender and race are not always visible. Just because someone appears to be light skinned, does not mean they are white. Just because someone has darker skin does not mean they identify as a person of color. Same goes for gender – increasing in fact people are identifying as gender non-binary. And, that number is growing rapidly with the next generations.
What I learned from playing “Guess Who?” with my daughter is important. Even someone focused on this every day as my life’s work slips every once again.
Like this content? Check out our new training page with 2020 offerings, Lead Like an Ally virtual inclusive leadership program, and speaker reel to hire me to speak at your organization. | 793 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hey there, everyone! How are you?
We know that on November 15th in celebrated the Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil. And what about the first president of Brazil, do you know him? His name was Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca.
First President of Brazil
The first presidential election was in February, 1891. The president was elected by the Congress and the result of the election for the first president of Brasil declared Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca as the winner. He had been leading the country in a provisional government since November 15th, 1889, when Monarchy was abolished and gave a start to the Republic in Brasil.
Manoel Deodoro da Fonseca, the Marechal, gained a huge notoriety during the War of Triple Alliance (the war in which Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay joined forces) between the years 1964 and 1870 and after that he was promoted to the rank of general.
Even though he was a conservative politician and personally loyal to the emperor, Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca felt he had a duty as an officer of protesting against the acts of the government and also the task of insisting that his officer colleagues had the same right to express their political views. Declared unsubordinated by Pedro II, Fonseca leaded the military revolt on November 15th, 1889 which brought an end to Monarchy and Brazil was declared a republic.
As the first president of Brazil, Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca was considered arbitrary and ineffective. By trying to rule by decree, Fonseca was forced to resign in November, 1891, staying for 10 months only in the presidency.
During the government of Afonso Pena, the 6th president of Brazil, Marechal Deodoro was Minister of War and made mandatory the military enlistment. However, the enlistment was only made effective when Brazil entered the World war I.
So, guys. Did you enjoy our Dica? Have a nice holiday everyone!
See you tomorrow!
Click on the links bellow to see more related Dicas
Republic Day in Brazil
Independence Day in Brazil
Holidays in Brazil
History of Tiradentes
The origin of São Paulo
The history of Salvador
History of Rio de Janeiro | <urn:uuid:77f84e92-1da7-4b25-83c8-de1d82be7e0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rioandlearn.com/first-president-brazil/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00098.warc.gz | en | 0.980055 | 481 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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... | 6 | Hey there, everyone! How are you?
We know that on November 15th in celebrated the Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil. And what about the first president of Brazil, do you know him? His name was Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca.
First President of Brazil
The first presidential election was in February, 1891. The president was elected by the Congress and the result of the election for the first president of Brasil declared Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca as the winner. He had been leading the country in a provisional government since November 15th, 1889, when Monarchy was abolished and gave a start to the Republic in Brasil.
Manoel Deodoro da Fonseca, the Marechal, gained a huge notoriety during the War of Triple Alliance (the war in which Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay joined forces) between the years 1964 and 1870 and after that he was promoted to the rank of general.
Even though he was a conservative politician and personally loyal to the emperor, Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca felt he had a duty as an officer of protesting against the acts of the government and also the task of insisting that his officer colleagues had the same right to express their political views. Declared unsubordinated by Pedro II, Fonseca leaded the military revolt on November 15th, 1889 which brought an end to Monarchy and Brazil was declared a republic.
As the first president of Brazil, Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca was considered arbitrary and ineffective. By trying to rule by decree, Fonseca was forced to resign in November, 1891, staying for 10 months only in the presidency.
During the government of Afonso Pena, the 6th president of Brazil, Marechal Deodoro was Minister of War and made mandatory the military enlistment. However, the enlistment was only made effective when Brazil entered the World war I.
So, guys. Did you enjoy our Dica? Have a nice holiday everyone!
See you tomorrow!
Click on the links bellow to see more related Dicas
Republic Day in Brazil
Independence Day in Brazil
Holidays in Brazil
History of Tiradentes
The origin of São Paulo
The history of Salvador
History of Rio de Janeiro | 492 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Brougham Castle seen from the north east, across the River Eamont
Brougham Castle (pronounced //) is a medieval building about 2 miles (3.2 km) south-east of Penrith, Cumbria, England. The castle was founded by Robert I de Vieuxpont in the early 13th century. The site, near the confluence of the rivers, Eamont and Lowther, had been chosen by the Romans for a Roman fort called Brocavum. The castle is scheduled as an Ancient Monument, along with the fort, as "Brougham Roman fort and Brougham Castle".
In its earliest form, the castle consisted of a stone keep, with an enclosure protected by an earthen bank and a wooden palisade. When the castle was built, Robert de Vieuxpont was one of the only lords in the region who were loyal to King John. The Vieuxponts were a powerful land-owning family in North West England, who also owned the castles of Appleby and Brough. In 1264, Robert de Vieuxpont's grandson, also named Robert, was declared a traitor, and his property was confiscated by Henry III. Brougham Castle and the other estates were eventually returned to the Vieuxpont family, and stayed in their possession, until 1269, when the estates passed to the Clifford family through marriage.
With the outbreak of the Wars of Scottish Independence, in 1296, Brougham became an important military base for Robert Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford. He began refortifying the castle: the wooden outer defences were replaced with stronger, more impressive stone walls, and a large stone gatehouse was added. The importance of Brougham and Robert Clifford was such that, in 1300, he hosted King Edward I of England at the castle. Robert's son, Roger Clifford, was executed as a traitor, in 1322, and the family estates passed into the possession of King Edward II of England, although they were returned once his son Edward III became king. The region was often at risk from the Scots, and in 1388, the castle was captured and sacked.
Following this, the Cliffords began spending more time at their other castles, particularly Skipton Castle in Yorkshire. Brougham descended through several generations of Cliffords, intermittently serving as a residence. However, by 1592, it was in a state of disrepair, as George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland was spending more time in southern England due to his role as Queen's Champion. The castle was briefly restored in the early 17th century, to such an extent, that King James I of England was entertained there in 1617. In 1643, Lady Anne Clifford inherited the estates, including the castles of Brougham, Appleby, and Brough, and set about restoring them. Brougham Castle was kept in good condition for a short time, after Lady Anne's death in 1676; however, Thomas Tufton, 6th Earl of Thanet, who had inherited the Clifford estates, sold the furnishings in 1714. The empty shell was left to decay, as it was too costly to maintain. As a ruin, Brougham Castle inspired a painting by J. M. W. Turner, and was mentioned at the start of William Wordsworth's poem The Prelude, as well as becoming the subject of Wordsworth's Song at the Feast of Brougham Castle upon the Restoration of Lord Clifford, the Shepherd, to the Estates and Honours of his Ancestors. The castle was left to the Ministry of Works, in the 1930s, and is today maintained by its successor, English Heritage.
The site of Brougham Castle has been fortified since the Romans erected the fort of Brocavum at the intersection of three Roman roads. With the rivers Eamont and Lowther flowing nearby and meeting to the west, the site had natural defences and the area was fertile and easy to cultivate. A civilian settlement grew around the fort. When Angles arrived in the area they named the place Brougham, meaning "the village by the fort". Between the end of Roman rule in the early 5th century and the Norman Conquest in the late 11th century, Cumbria was a turbulent area. Although the site was a defendable position, there is no evidence that Brougham was refortified during this time. In 1092, William II (also known as William Rufus) captured Cumbria south of the Solway Firth and established a new border far north of Brougham. The site at Brougham remained unfortified. Carlisle Castle secured the border, and castles at Appleby and Brough, both south east of Brougham, protected the line of communication from Carlisle to Yorkshire. In 1203, the Barony of Westmorland – containing Appleby, Brough, and Brougham – was granted to Robert de Vieuxpont by King John. A favourite of John's, Vieuxpont was one of only a few lords loyal to him in northern England, whose inhabitants became so discontented with the king's rule that they eventually rebelled. Around 1214, Vieuxpont asserted control over more land, including half the manor of Brougham. It was in this atmosphere of unrest that Brougham Castle was founded.
Vieuxpont was one of only a few supporters of the king in northern England, and he most likely began construction of Brougham Castle as soon as he acquired the land. At this stage, the castle would have been enclosed by an earthen bank surmounted by a timber palisade. The first three storeys of the stone keep date from this period. It was entered through the first floor via a forebuilding. To the east of this was a stone structure which was probably a hall. Building in stone was an expensive and time-consuming process. No records tell us how much Brougham cost to construct, but there are records for other stone construction. For example, the late-12th-century stone keep at Peveril Castle in Derbyshire would have cost around £200, although something on a much larger scale, such as the vast Château Gaillard, cost an estimated £15,000 to £20,000 and took several years to complete.
In 1216, when a Scottish army invaded the Eden valley and Alan of Galloway occupied Westmorland, Brougham Castle played no part in the county's defence, probably because it was unfinished. Construction would have been suspended until Alan retreated in 1217. Vieuxpont received control over the king's revenues from Cumberland, and these helped fund the construction of the castle. Brougham Castle was constructed in the northern part of the old Roman fort, and stone from the ruins was probably used to help build the castle. When Robert de Vieuxpont died in 1228, his only son – John – was a minor, so his property was taken into the care of a warden.
John de Vieuxpont died in 1241, before he came of age. The new heir, John's son Robert, was not old enough to inherit, so the family's lands remained in wardship. During this time, the estates fell into disrepair, and this probably included Brougham Castle. When Robert de Vieuxpont came of age in around 1257 he inherited considerable debts. He was one of the northern lords that revolted in support of Simon de Montfort in the Second Barons' War (1264–1267). By June 1264, Vieuxpont was dead; as he was considered a traitor, his property was confiscated by King Henry III. In 1266, the king pardoned Vieuxpont posthumously, and his two daughters inherited the family estates. The guardians of the two girls, who at the time were too young to marry, divided the Vieuxpont lands with the expectation that they would come into their possession through marriage. Isabel Vieuxpont was given in marriage to Roger Clifford, the son of her guardian, and with her the shrievalty of Westmorland and the castles of Brougham and Appleby transferred to the Cliffords.
By 1269, Roger Clifford had married Isabel Vieuxpont and possession of Brougham Castle – as well as her other property – descended through the Clifford family. In 1283, Roger predeceased his wife, who died in 1292. At 18, their son Robert was not old enough to take possession of his lands. During his three-year minority, his estates suffered from neglect and poaching. When the Wars of Scottish Independence began in 1296, Robert Clifford played a prominent role in the conflict. As the furthest north of his castles, Brougham became Clifford's most important base, and he spent a lot of time there. It was during this period that Clifford undertook an extensive building programme. The timber palisade surrounding the site was replaced with a stone curtain wall. A four-storey stone residential tower, called the Tower of League, was built in the castle's south-west corner. A fourth storey was added to the keep, and a double gatehouse attached to its northern side. The construction of a new stone hall to the south of the keep may indicate that during the war there was a larger garrison present than in peacetime, or it may have been built in anticipation of a royal visit. In July 1300, Edward I – himself a renowned castle builder – visited Brougham with a large household of followers and the Prince of Wales. Although it is not certain whether the king stayed at the castle, historians believe it to have been likely. In 1309, Robert Clifford was granted a licence to crenellate Brougham Castle; this has been taken as an indication that by this point the rebuilding was complete. Licences to crenellate granted permission for a person to fortify a site. They were also proof of a relationship with or favour from the monarch, who was the one responsible for granting permission.
Edward I died in 1307, and his successor Edward II was distracted from war with Scotland by internal quarrels, enabling the Scottish to roam further south through England. In 1310 or 1311, Robert Clifford was given Skipton Castle; it was farther from the border than Brougham and at a time when Scottish raids were ravaging Westmorland, Clifford chose to spend more time and effort building at Skipton. Clifford was killed at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, which ended the English counter-offensive into Scotland. At the time of Robert's death, his son Roger de Clifford, 2nd Baron de Clifford, was only 14 and not old enough to inherit. Therefore, the Clifford estates experienced another period of control through guardians, suffering from Scottish raids to such an extent that in 1317 the king granted Roger £200 towards the maintenance of his castles. Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Baron Badlesmere was responsible for the upkeep of Brougham Castle and some other Clifford properties including Appleby Castle. Between 1316 and 1318 he spent £363 on the garrisons at Brougham and Appleby, though was supported by the king who gave £1,270 towards their upkeep. Funds to pay the garrison were not easily gathered from the Clifford estates, and they were accused of poaching and pillaging. In 1320, Roger Clifford was given his inheritance but probably spent more time at Skipton. He was executed as a traitor in 1322 after his capture at the Battle of Boroughbridge. Brougham Castle was amongst the Clifford lands confiscated and given to Andrew de Harcla for supporting the king against the uprising. However, by 1323 Harcla too had been executed for treason and the castle came into the possession of Edward II. In May 1323, a truce was signed between the Scots and English resulting in a reduction in garrison strength throughout northern England.
When Edward III replaced Edward II on the throne, Robert Clifford, Roger's younger brother, was granted most of the lands that had been confiscated. By 1333, Robert had united under his control all the estates which had belonged to the Vieuxpont family. Hostilities between England and Scotland resumed in 1332 when Edward Balliol invaded to seize the Scottish throne for himself. He was expelled from Scotland in December 1333. On entering Westmorland, Balliol sought refuge with the Clifford family, staying at the castles of Appleby, Brougham, Brough, and Pendragon. Robert Clifford was not heavily involved in the renewed conflict, although he did take part in battles in 1332, 1337, and 1342. When the value of his property was assessed on his death in 1344 the estates of Brougham were suffering from the war, with indications that Brougham Castle was in a state of disrepair having endured the 1340s without funds for maintenance. Two minorities followed until Roger Clifford, 5th Baron Clifford, came of age in 1354. Another truce between Scotland and England was signed in 1357, this time lasting until 1384. Although Roger Clifford spent much time at Appleby – which was Westmorland's county town – he was responsible for rebuilding the domestic buildings at Brougham Castle, including the hall. He was ordered by the king to maintain a force of 40 men-at-arms and 50 mounted archers near the west end of the Scottish border region, and some were likely stationed at Brougham. The need for extra accommodation is a possible reason why Clifford began rebuilding. In August 1388, the Scottish launched an attack into England, with one force advancing east – and were eventually confronted at the Battle of Otterburn in Northumberland – and another raiding the west, reaching as far as Brough, 20 miles (32 km) to the south-east. During this time Brougham Castle was briefly captured by Scottish forces.
Roger Clifford died at Skipton Castle in 1389, and the Clifford family began to lose interest in Westmorland. The Cliffords preferred their properties in Yorkshire to their dilapidated castles in Westmorland, which had been ravaged by wars with Scotland. Brougham Castle is not known to have been in use as a residence again until 1421, when a man was accused of forging coins in the castle. Although little is known about Brougham during this period, historians believe it likely that repairs were undertaken, and a rivalry emerged between the Clifford family and the House of Neville that would later have consequences for Brougham. The familial enmity meant that the Earl of Salisbury, a Neville, used his position as lord of Penrith to antagonise the Cliffords; it is likely that Brougham Castle was kept garrisoned due to its proximity to Penrith. In the Wars of the Roses (1455–1485), the two families were on opposing sides, the Cliffords supporting the House of Lancaster and the Nevilles supporting the House of York. When the Yorkist Edward IV took the throne in 1461 the lands of John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford were confiscated. In 1471, Edward IV granted Sir William Parr Brougham Castle and other properties which had belonged to the Cliffords. A year later Henry Clifford, John's son and heir, was pardoned and when the Lancastrian Henry Tudor took the throne as Henry VII, Henry Clifford appealed for the return of the Clifford estates. This was granted in November 1485.
Henry Clifford lived until 1523. Under him and his son – also called Henry, who later became Earl of Cumberland – the castle was intermittently in use as a residence for the family. After Brough Castle was destroyed in a fire in 1521 it is likely that Brougham became the new administrative centre and focus of the local lordship. As Earl of Cumberland Henry controlled Penrith and Carlisle, although he was an unpopular landlord. When the north of England rose up in the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536, Henry was one of those targeted by the rebels. He confronted the rebel leaders at Kirkby Stephen in February 1537, and after his defeat he retreated to Brougham Castle. After the Pilgrimage of Grace was suppressed, there were reforms of regional government in the north west. One of the results was that the title of Earl of Cumberland no longer gave Clifford wardenship of Penrith and Carlisle, with Brougham Castle once again becoming the Cliffords' northern-most castle.
Henry died in 1542 and his son, Henry Clifford, 2nd Earl of Cumberland, inherited the family estates. During the Rising of the North, in which Catholic magnates rebelled against Elizabeth I, Henry remained loyal to the Tudor dynasty despite the Cliffords being a Catholic family. He dismantled Appleby Castle to prevent it from being used against royal forces, and at the same time put Brougham at the service of the Elizabethan government, although there was no fighting at the castle. Under the second and third earls, Henry and George, the castle was still used as a residence, with the third earl being born at Brougham Castle. However, it was under George that the building began to decay and by 1592 it was deserted. George Clifford spent much time either in southern England in his role as Queen's Champion or at Skipton. An inventory of the castle's contents in 1595 demonstrates that the structure was a neglected, meagrely furnished place, and what little furniture there was old and in disrepair.
When George Clifford died in 1605, his wife Margaret became dowager countess and began repairing Brougham Castle, which became her favoured residence. Margaret contended with claims to the ownership of the family estates from her brother-in-law Francis Clifford, 4th Earl of Cumberland, but held onto Brougham Castle. Her daughter, Lady Anne Clifford continued the restoration of the castle and other Clifford properties. The only one of Margaret's three children to survive childhood, Anne inherited the Clifford estates after her mother died in 1616. The inheritance was not without incident. The Earl of Cumberland again asserted his claim to the Clifford estates, however the privy council found in favour of Anne. The solution was only temporary, and in April 1617 the king decided that the Earl of Cumberland was the rightful heir, and the Clifford estates passed to Francis Clifford. Later the same year, James I visited Scotland and on his return journey he stayed at the castles of Carlisle, Brougham, and Appleby, where expensive banquets were given in his honour. It is estimated that the festivities cost around £1,200. After this, Brougham was almost forgotten by its owner and neglected.
Francis Clifford died in 1641, and the death of his son Henry Clifford, 5th Earl of Cumberland in 1643 left the line without a direct male heir. At this point, the Clifford estates reverted to Lady Anne. The English Civil War broke out in 1641. Brougham was one of several castles in the generally Royalist Cumberland and Westmorland that were garrisoned by Cavalier forces. Sir John Lowther, the garrison commander, stated that he took control of Brougham Castle not because it was strategically important, but to deny the Parliamentarians of its use. Whilst under Royalist control, Lady Anne donated the income from her estates to the upkeep of her castles. In June 1648, Appleby endured a four-day siege before capitulating to the Parliamentarians, but lightly manned Brougham Castle succumbed easily to Colonel John Lambert. Although many castles in Cumberland and Westmorland were dismantled so they could not be used again, Brougham was spared this fate, most likely because it was not strategically important. In 1650, Lady Anne Clifford began repairing Appleby and Brougham. Repairs were mostly complete by 1653, but continued for several years afterwards, the work costing an estimated £40,000. By this time Brougham Castle was no longer a serious fortification and had become Anne's country house. She laid out a garden on the site of the old Roman fort, which led to the discovery of such Roman artefacts as coins and three altars. A 10.5 feet (3.2 m) stone wall was built around the garden, enclosing an area from the gatehouse to the south end of the Roman fort.
Lady Anne Clifford died at Brougham Castle in 1676 and her grandson, Nicholas Tufton, 3rd Earl of Thanet, inherited the Clifford estates. He died in 1679, and over the next five years possession passed through his three younger brothers. Under the youngest, Thomas Tufton, 6th Earl of Thanet, Brougham Castle suffered particular neglect. In 1714, he decided that Appleby Castle was a sufficient residence and sold the contents of Brougham Castle for £570. Only the Tower of League was left untouched, but in 1723 its contents were also sold, for £40 By the 1750s, the castle's only practical use was as a ready source of building material for the village of Brougham, which prospered due to investment from the Earl of Thanet. In 1794, a record of the dilapidated state of the castle noted that "much of the interior walls have lately been removed, also, for the purposes of building houses for the adjoining farmhold".
During the late 18th century, the Lake District became a popular visitor attraction and the sensibilities of Romanticism glamorised such historic ruins as Brougham Castle. In his poem The Prelude, William Wordsworth recounted exploring the ruins of Brougham as an adolescent with his sister. Brougham also provided inspiration for another of Wordsworth's poems, the Song at the Feast of Brougham Castle upon the Restoration of Lord Clifford, the Shepherd, to the Estates and Honours of his Ancestors. The fallen castle attracted sightseers and antiquarians such as William Gilpin and Richard Warner. In his diary, Journey to the Lake District from Cambridge 1779, William Wilberforce described Brougham Castle as a "very fine ruin". The painter J. M. W. Turner visited Brougham in 1809 and 1831, and on the first occasion produced a sketch which would be the starting point of a later watercolour. To avoid the castle decaying further, Charles Tufton, 10th Earl of Thanet, spent £41 repairing the structure in 1830, and his successor Henry Tufton, 11th Earl of Thanet, undertook further repairs in the late 1840s, costing £421.
Henry Tufton died in 1849, and castle ownership fell to Hothfields. Maintenance was too expensive for the family, and by 1859 cattle were being kept in its gatehouse, and visitors complained that parts of the romantic ruin had become inaccessible. Without sufficient funds, the castle quickly fell into marked decay.
In 1915, the Ancient Monuments Board declared Brougham Castle a monument "whose preservation was regarded as being of national importance". With the introduction of bus services in the area, the castle experienced renewed interest from the public, and in the late 1920s around 2,000 people visited annually. In 1927, the 2nd Baron Hothfield granted guardianship of Brougham Castle to the Office of Works, although he retained ownership. The organisation repaired the castle at the cost of £5,925. In the 1930s an additional £1,050 was spent removing the masonry added in the 1840s.
Brougham Castle survives essentially as it was when the main repairs were finished in the 1930s. The castle is a Scheduled Monument, meaning it is a "nationally important" historic building and archaeological site which has been given protection against unauthorised change. Until 1984, when a survey of the standing structure was conducted, little archaeological investigation had taken place at Brougham Castle. The survey was part of a monograph on the castle detailing its history and the phasing of the structure. Brougham is one of only a few castles in Cumbria to have undergone extensive archaeological investigation. Today, the castle is open to the public, and a museum is run by English Heritage, the successor of the Office of Works.
The path to Brougham Castle leads from east to west. To the south, or the left of someone approaching the castle, are the earthworks of the Roman fort and the location of the 17th-century garden. The ground is terraced, and to the north the land slopes down towards the River Eamont. A moat runs alongside the east, south, and west faces of the castle, its width varying between 10 and 15 metres (33 and 49 ft) and lying up to 3.4 metres (11 ft) deep. Although the moat is now dry it is likely that it used to be filled with water. The castle is an irregular polygon, measuring about 68 metres (223 ft) along the west side, 72 metres (236 ft) along the south, 48 metres (157 ft) wide in the east, and 54 metres (177 ft) on the north side.
Brougham Castle is entered through a three-storey double-gatehouse. Originally the coat of arms of Roger Clifford and his wife was carved above the entrance to the gatehouse but in the 19th century this was replaced by the current inscription, "Thys Made Roger", by Henry Tufton, 11th Earl of Thanet. The inscription was originally above the entrance of the great hall built by Roger Clifford, 5th Baron Clifford. Erected on the slope inclining down to the river, the gatehouse was constructed in the early 14th century by Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford. The complex has three components: the inner and outer gatehouses and a courtyard in between. The inner gatehouse survives to a height of 12.5 metres (41 ft) in the east. The ground-floor passage through the building is vaulted and there was a portcullis at the east end. A postern gate was hidden behind a buttress in the north side of the gatehouse and would have provided a discrete means of leaving the castle. The floors above the passageway each consisted of a single large room and were connected to the keep, allowing people to move between the two without having to go outside. In the 17th century Lady Anne Clifford converted the top floor into her bedroom. Like the inner gatehouse, the outer section had a square plan, and the upper floors would each have been occupied by a single room. The building survives to a height of 14.5 metres (48 ft) in the east. Below the outer gatehouse was a dungeon, and at ground floor level on the north side the guardroom. The large rooms in both gatehouses would have been used as residences. Although the very top of the gatehouse no longer survives, it would have been crested by machicolations.
Adjoined to the gatehouse is the 13th-century keep. A keep contained the main domestic accommodation in a castle, usually high-status, and also provided the last place of refuge if the surrounding enclosure fell during an assault. Brougham's keep has a square plan and is between 19 and 20 metres (62 and 66 ft) high, although originally would have stood taller. Access to each floor was granted by a spiral staircase in the north-east corner, with each floor consisting of a single large room. The garderobe was located in the north-west corner. It had long been assumed that the keep was built in the last quarter of the 12th century due to its simple design; the square design, use of narrow buttresses at each corner, and entrance through a forebuilding are consistent with other keeps built in the late 12th century. By the 13th century, Brougham's keep would have been old fashioned compared to the polygonal structures introduced in the 13th century. However, historian Henry Summerson who assessed the historic documents for the castle concluded that construction could not have begun earlier than the first quarter of the 13th century. The wooden floors no longer survive, and the use of the rooms in the keep is mostly conjectural, but it is likely that the ground floor would have served as a storage room, with the first floor being used as a hall and accommodation for the guards, and the second floor providing rooms for the lord. A final fourth storey was added in early 14th century. The keep would have been entered at first floor level, through the east side where it was abutted by a forebuilding. Despite the keep's importance to the castle structure, little survives of the building today.
South east of the keep was the hall, built by Roger Clifford in the late 14th century as a replacement for an earlier hall. It provided space for the castle's garrison, swelled by the Anglo-Scottish Wars, and was a location for the lord to eat with his soldiers. The hall had large windows which may have detracted from the building's defensive capability, although it has been postulated that casements bore large wooden shutters. The kitchen, which served the entire castle, was set in the south-east corner of the fortification. Along the south wall were arranged more lodgings, a well, and a chapel, the latter another addition by Roger Clifford. In the south-west corner of the castle was the Tower of League, built around 1300 by Roger Clifford. It included further rooms for accommodation, but notably would also have allowed defenders to fire on an enemy emerging from the gatehouse. Four storeys tall and with a single room at each level, the presence of a garderobe and fireplace on each floor suggests that the tower was reserved for high-status visitors. The tower's square plan is typical of such structures built in northern England at this time, as seen at castles such as Warkworth and Egremont, although it contrasts with rounded towers preferred in the south.
They are generally by the country people said to be done by Michael Scot, a noted conjuror in their opinion, who was a monk of Holme abbey in Cumberland: they have a notion too that one Turquin, a giant, lived at Brougham castle; and there is a tower there, called Pagan tower; and Sir Lancelot de Lake lived at Mayborough, and slew him.
Turquin, or Tarquin, is also associated in folklore with the ruins of Lammerside Castle nearby. The folklorist Marjorie Rowling identified him with another legendary local giant, Hugh Cesario, but Jennifer Westwood and Jacqueline Simpson prefer to derive him from Sir Tarquin, an adversary of Sir Lancelot in Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur; they believe that this story, unlocalized by Malory, probably became associated with north-west England because King Arthur was often said to hold his court in Carlisle.
1725 when Dr Stukeley.
one Turquin a giant.
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Brougham Castle (pronounced //) is a medieval building about 2 miles (3.2 km) south-east of Penrith, Cumbria, England. The castle was founded by Robert I de Vieuxpont in the early 13th century. The site, near the confluence of the rivers, Eamont and Lowther, had been chosen by the Romans for a Roman fort called Brocavum. The castle is scheduled as an Ancient Monument, along with the fort, as "Brougham Roman fort and Brougham Castle".
In its earliest form, the castle consisted of a stone keep, with an enclosure protected by an earthen bank and a wooden palisade. When the castle was built, Robert de Vieuxpont was one of the only lords in the region who were loyal to King John. The Vieuxponts were a powerful land-owning family in North West England, who also owned the castles of Appleby and Brough. In 1264, Robert de Vieuxpont's grandson, also named Robert, was declared a traitor, and his property was confiscated by Henry III. Brougham Castle and the other estates were eventually returned to the Vieuxpont family, and stayed in their possession, until 1269, when the estates passed to the Clifford family through marriage.
With the outbreak of the Wars of Scottish Independence, in 1296, Brougham became an important military base for Robert Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford. He began refortifying the castle: the wooden outer defences were replaced with stronger, more impressive stone walls, and a large stone gatehouse was added. The importance of Brougham and Robert Clifford was such that, in 1300, he hosted King Edward I of England at the castle. Robert's son, Roger Clifford, was executed as a traitor, in 1322, and the family estates passed into the possession of King Edward II of England, although they were returned once his son Edward III became king. The region was often at risk from the Scots, and in 1388, the castle was captured and sacked.
Following this, the Cliffords began spending more time at their other castles, particularly Skipton Castle in Yorkshire. Brougham descended through several generations of Cliffords, intermittently serving as a residence. However, by 1592, it was in a state of disrepair, as George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland was spending more time in southern England due to his role as Queen's Champion. The castle was briefly restored in the early 17th century, to such an extent, that King James I of England was entertained there in 1617. In 1643, Lady Anne Clifford inherited the estates, including the castles of Brougham, Appleby, and Brough, and set about restoring them. Brougham Castle was kept in good condition for a short time, after Lady Anne's death in 1676; however, Thomas Tufton, 6th Earl of Thanet, who had inherited the Clifford estates, sold the furnishings in 1714. The empty shell was left to decay, as it was too costly to maintain. As a ruin, Brougham Castle inspired a painting by J. M. W. Turner, and was mentioned at the start of William Wordsworth's poem The Prelude, as well as becoming the subject of Wordsworth's Song at the Feast of Brougham Castle upon the Restoration of Lord Clifford, the Shepherd, to the Estates and Honours of his Ancestors. The castle was left to the Ministry of Works, in the 1930s, and is today maintained by its successor, English Heritage.
The site of Brougham Castle has been fortified since the Romans erected the fort of Brocavum at the intersection of three Roman roads. With the rivers Eamont and Lowther flowing nearby and meeting to the west, the site had natural defences and the area was fertile and easy to cultivate. A civilian settlement grew around the fort. When Angles arrived in the area they named the place Brougham, meaning "the village by the fort". Between the end of Roman rule in the early 5th century and the Norman Conquest in the late 11th century, Cumbria was a turbulent area. Although the site was a defendable position, there is no evidence that Brougham was refortified during this time. In 1092, William II (also known as William Rufus) captured Cumbria south of the Solway Firth and established a new border far north of Brougham. The site at Brougham remained unfortified. Carlisle Castle secured the border, and castles at Appleby and Brough, both south east of Brougham, protected the line of communication from Carlisle to Yorkshire. In 1203, the Barony of Westmorland – containing Appleby, Brough, and Brougham – was granted to Robert de Vieuxpont by King John. A favourite of John's, Vieuxpont was one of only a few lords loyal to him in northern England, whose inhabitants became so discontented with the king's rule that they eventually rebelled. Around 1214, Vieuxpont asserted control over more land, including half the manor of Brougham. It was in this atmosphere of unrest that Brougham Castle was founded.
Vieuxpont was one of only a few supporters of the king in northern England, and he most likely began construction of Brougham Castle as soon as he acquired the land. At this stage, the castle would have been enclosed by an earthen bank surmounted by a timber palisade. The first three storeys of the stone keep date from this period. It was entered through the first floor via a forebuilding. To the east of this was a stone structure which was probably a hall. Building in stone was an expensive and time-consuming process. No records tell us how much Brougham cost to construct, but there are records for other stone construction. For example, the late-12th-century stone keep at Peveril Castle in Derbyshire would have cost around £200, although something on a much larger scale, such as the vast Château Gaillard, cost an estimated £15,000 to £20,000 and took several years to complete.
In 1216, when a Scottish army invaded the Eden valley and Alan of Galloway occupied Westmorland, Brougham Castle played no part in the county's defence, probably because it was unfinished. Construction would have been suspended until Alan retreated in 1217. Vieuxpont received control over the king's revenues from Cumberland, and these helped fund the construction of the castle. Brougham Castle was constructed in the northern part of the old Roman fort, and stone from the ruins was probably used to help build the castle. When Robert de Vieuxpont died in 1228, his only son – John – was a minor, so his property was taken into the care of a warden.
John de Vieuxpont died in 1241, before he came of age. The new heir, John's son Robert, was not old enough to inherit, so the family's lands remained in wardship. During this time, the estates fell into disrepair, and this probably included Brougham Castle. When Robert de Vieuxpont came of age in around 1257 he inherited considerable debts. He was one of the northern lords that revolted in support of Simon de Montfort in the Second Barons' War (1264–1267). By June 1264, Vieuxpont was dead; as he was considered a traitor, his property was confiscated by King Henry III. In 1266, the king pardoned Vieuxpont posthumously, and his two daughters inherited the family estates. The guardians of the two girls, who at the time were too young to marry, divided the Vieuxpont lands with the expectation that they would come into their possession through marriage. Isabel Vieuxpont was given in marriage to Roger Clifford, the son of her guardian, and with her the shrievalty of Westmorland and the castles of Brougham and Appleby transferred to the Cliffords.
By 1269, Roger Clifford had married Isabel Vieuxpont and possession of Brougham Castle – as well as her other property – descended through the Clifford family. In 1283, Roger predeceased his wife, who died in 1292. At 18, their son Robert was not old enough to take possession of his lands. During his three-year minority, his estates suffered from neglect and poaching. When the Wars of Scottish Independence began in 1296, Robert Clifford played a prominent role in the conflict. As the furthest north of his castles, Brougham became Clifford's most important base, and he spent a lot of time there. It was during this period that Clifford undertook an extensive building programme. The timber palisade surrounding the site was replaced with a stone curtain wall. A four-storey stone residential tower, called the Tower of League, was built in the castle's south-west corner. A fourth storey was added to the keep, and a double gatehouse attached to its northern side. The construction of a new stone hall to the south of the keep may indicate that during the war there was a larger garrison present than in peacetime, or it may have been built in anticipation of a royal visit. In July 1300, Edward I – himself a renowned castle builder – visited Brougham with a large household of followers and the Prince of Wales. Although it is not certain whether the king stayed at the castle, historians believe it to have been likely. In 1309, Robert Clifford was granted a licence to crenellate Brougham Castle; this has been taken as an indication that by this point the rebuilding was complete. Licences to crenellate granted permission for a person to fortify a site. They were also proof of a relationship with or favour from the monarch, who was the one responsible for granting permission.
Edward I died in 1307, and his successor Edward II was distracted from war with Scotland by internal quarrels, enabling the Scottish to roam further south through England. In 1310 or 1311, Robert Clifford was given Skipton Castle; it was farther from the border than Brougham and at a time when Scottish raids were ravaging Westmorland, Clifford chose to spend more time and effort building at Skipton. Clifford was killed at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, which ended the English counter-offensive into Scotland. At the time of Robert's death, his son Roger de Clifford, 2nd Baron de Clifford, was only 14 and not old enough to inherit. Therefore, the Clifford estates experienced another period of control through guardians, suffering from Scottish raids to such an extent that in 1317 the king granted Roger £200 towards the maintenance of his castles. Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Baron Badlesmere was responsible for the upkeep of Brougham Castle and some other Clifford properties including Appleby Castle. Between 1316 and 1318 he spent £363 on the garrisons at Brougham and Appleby, though was supported by the king who gave £1,270 towards their upkeep. Funds to pay the garrison were not easily gathered from the Clifford estates, and they were accused of poaching and pillaging. In 1320, Roger Clifford was given his inheritance but probably spent more time at Skipton. He was executed as a traitor in 1322 after his capture at the Battle of Boroughbridge. Brougham Castle was amongst the Clifford lands confiscated and given to Andrew de Harcla for supporting the king against the uprising. However, by 1323 Harcla too had been executed for treason and the castle came into the possession of Edward II. In May 1323, a truce was signed between the Scots and English resulting in a reduction in garrison strength throughout northern England.
When Edward III replaced Edward II on the throne, Robert Clifford, Roger's younger brother, was granted most of the lands that had been confiscated. By 1333, Robert had united under his control all the estates which had belonged to the Vieuxpont family. Hostilities between England and Scotland resumed in 1332 when Edward Balliol invaded to seize the Scottish throne for himself. He was expelled from Scotland in December 1333. On entering Westmorland, Balliol sought refuge with the Clifford family, staying at the castles of Appleby, Brougham, Brough, and Pendragon. Robert Clifford was not heavily involved in the renewed conflict, although he did take part in battles in 1332, 1337, and 1342. When the value of his property was assessed on his death in 1344 the estates of Brougham were suffering from the war, with indications that Brougham Castle was in a state of disrepair having endured the 1340s without funds for maintenance. Two minorities followed until Roger Clifford, 5th Baron Clifford, came of age in 1354. Another truce between Scotland and England was signed in 1357, this time lasting until 1384. Although Roger Clifford spent much time at Appleby – which was Westmorland's county town – he was responsible for rebuilding the domestic buildings at Brougham Castle, including the hall. He was ordered by the king to maintain a force of 40 men-at-arms and 50 mounted archers near the west end of the Scottish border region, and some were likely stationed at Brougham. The need for extra accommodation is a possible reason why Clifford began rebuilding. In August 1388, the Scottish launched an attack into England, with one force advancing east – and were eventually confronted at the Battle of Otterburn in Northumberland – and another raiding the west, reaching as far as Brough, 20 miles (32 km) to the south-east. During this time Brougham Castle was briefly captured by Scottish forces.
Roger Clifford died at Skipton Castle in 1389, and the Clifford family began to lose interest in Westmorland. The Cliffords preferred their properties in Yorkshire to their dilapidated castles in Westmorland, which had been ravaged by wars with Scotland. Brougham Castle is not known to have been in use as a residence again until 1421, when a man was accused of forging coins in the castle. Although little is known about Brougham during this period, historians believe it likely that repairs were undertaken, and a rivalry emerged between the Clifford family and the House of Neville that would later have consequences for Brougham. The familial enmity meant that the Earl of Salisbury, a Neville, used his position as lord of Penrith to antagonise the Cliffords; it is likely that Brougham Castle was kept garrisoned due to its proximity to Penrith. In the Wars of the Roses (1455–1485), the two families were on opposing sides, the Cliffords supporting the House of Lancaster and the Nevilles supporting the House of York. When the Yorkist Edward IV took the throne in 1461 the lands of John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford were confiscated. In 1471, Edward IV granted Sir William Parr Brougham Castle and other properties which had belonged to the Cliffords. A year later Henry Clifford, John's son and heir, was pardoned and when the Lancastrian Henry Tudor took the throne as Henry VII, Henry Clifford appealed for the return of the Clifford estates. This was granted in November 1485.
Henry Clifford lived until 1523. Under him and his son – also called Henry, who later became Earl of Cumberland – the castle was intermittently in use as a residence for the family. After Brough Castle was destroyed in a fire in 1521 it is likely that Brougham became the new administrative centre and focus of the local lordship. As Earl of Cumberland Henry controlled Penrith and Carlisle, although he was an unpopular landlord. When the north of England rose up in the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536, Henry was one of those targeted by the rebels. He confronted the rebel leaders at Kirkby Stephen in February 1537, and after his defeat he retreated to Brougham Castle. After the Pilgrimage of Grace was suppressed, there were reforms of regional government in the north west. One of the results was that the title of Earl of Cumberland no longer gave Clifford wardenship of Penrith and Carlisle, with Brougham Castle once again becoming the Cliffords' northern-most castle.
Henry died in 1542 and his son, Henry Clifford, 2nd Earl of Cumberland, inherited the family estates. During the Rising of the North, in which Catholic magnates rebelled against Elizabeth I, Henry remained loyal to the Tudor dynasty despite the Cliffords being a Catholic family. He dismantled Appleby Castle to prevent it from being used against royal forces, and at the same time put Brougham at the service of the Elizabethan government, although there was no fighting at the castle. Under the second and third earls, Henry and George, the castle was still used as a residence, with the third earl being born at Brougham Castle. However, it was under George that the building began to decay and by 1592 it was deserted. George Clifford spent much time either in southern England in his role as Queen's Champion or at Skipton. An inventory of the castle's contents in 1595 demonstrates that the structure was a neglected, meagrely furnished place, and what little furniture there was old and in disrepair.
When George Clifford died in 1605, his wife Margaret became dowager countess and began repairing Brougham Castle, which became her favoured residence. Margaret contended with claims to the ownership of the family estates from her brother-in-law Francis Clifford, 4th Earl of Cumberland, but held onto Brougham Castle. Her daughter, Lady Anne Clifford continued the restoration of the castle and other Clifford properties. The only one of Margaret's three children to survive childhood, Anne inherited the Clifford estates after her mother died in 1616. The inheritance was not without incident. The Earl of Cumberland again asserted his claim to the Clifford estates, however the privy council found in favour of Anne. The solution was only temporary, and in April 1617 the king decided that the Earl of Cumberland was the rightful heir, and the Clifford estates passed to Francis Clifford. Later the same year, James I visited Scotland and on his return journey he stayed at the castles of Carlisle, Brougham, and Appleby, where expensive banquets were given in his honour. It is estimated that the festivities cost around £1,200. After this, Brougham was almost forgotten by its owner and neglected.
Francis Clifford died in 1641, and the death of his son Henry Clifford, 5th Earl of Cumberland in 1643 left the line without a direct male heir. At this point, the Clifford estates reverted to Lady Anne. The English Civil War broke out in 1641. Brougham was one of several castles in the generally Royalist Cumberland and Westmorland that were garrisoned by Cavalier forces. Sir John Lowther, the garrison commander, stated that he took control of Brougham Castle not because it was strategically important, but to deny the Parliamentarians of its use. Whilst under Royalist control, Lady Anne donated the income from her estates to the upkeep of her castles. In June 1648, Appleby endured a four-day siege before capitulating to the Parliamentarians, but lightly manned Brougham Castle succumbed easily to Colonel John Lambert. Although many castles in Cumberland and Westmorland were dismantled so they could not be used again, Brougham was spared this fate, most likely because it was not strategically important. In 1650, Lady Anne Clifford began repairing Appleby and Brougham. Repairs were mostly complete by 1653, but continued for several years afterwards, the work costing an estimated £40,000. By this time Brougham Castle was no longer a serious fortification and had become Anne's country house. She laid out a garden on the site of the old Roman fort, which led to the discovery of such Roman artefacts as coins and three altars. A 10.5 feet (3.2 m) stone wall was built around the garden, enclosing an area from the gatehouse to the south end of the Roman fort.
Lady Anne Clifford died at Brougham Castle in 1676 and her grandson, Nicholas Tufton, 3rd Earl of Thanet, inherited the Clifford estates. He died in 1679, and over the next five years possession passed through his three younger brothers. Under the youngest, Thomas Tufton, 6th Earl of Thanet, Brougham Castle suffered particular neglect. In 1714, he decided that Appleby Castle was a sufficient residence and sold the contents of Brougham Castle for £570. Only the Tower of League was left untouched, but in 1723 its contents were also sold, for £40 By the 1750s, the castle's only practical use was as a ready source of building material for the village of Brougham, which prospered due to investment from the Earl of Thanet. In 1794, a record of the dilapidated state of the castle noted that "much of the interior walls have lately been removed, also, for the purposes of building houses for the adjoining farmhold".
During the late 18th century, the Lake District became a popular visitor attraction and the sensibilities of Romanticism glamorised such historic ruins as Brougham Castle. In his poem The Prelude, William Wordsworth recounted exploring the ruins of Brougham as an adolescent with his sister. Brougham also provided inspiration for another of Wordsworth's poems, the Song at the Feast of Brougham Castle upon the Restoration of Lord Clifford, the Shepherd, to the Estates and Honours of his Ancestors. The fallen castle attracted sightseers and antiquarians such as William Gilpin and Richard Warner. In his diary, Journey to the Lake District from Cambridge 1779, William Wilberforce described Brougham Castle as a "very fine ruin". The painter J. M. W. Turner visited Brougham in 1809 and 1831, and on the first occasion produced a sketch which would be the starting point of a later watercolour. To avoid the castle decaying further, Charles Tufton, 10th Earl of Thanet, spent £41 repairing the structure in 1830, and his successor Henry Tufton, 11th Earl of Thanet, undertook further repairs in the late 1840s, costing £421.
Henry Tufton died in 1849, and castle ownership fell to Hothfields. Maintenance was too expensive for the family, and by 1859 cattle were being kept in its gatehouse, and visitors complained that parts of the romantic ruin had become inaccessible. Without sufficient funds, the castle quickly fell into marked decay.
In 1915, the Ancient Monuments Board declared Brougham Castle a monument "whose preservation was regarded as being of national importance". With the introduction of bus services in the area, the castle experienced renewed interest from the public, and in the late 1920s around 2,000 people visited annually. In 1927, the 2nd Baron Hothfield granted guardianship of Brougham Castle to the Office of Works, although he retained ownership. The organisation repaired the castle at the cost of £5,925. In the 1930s an additional £1,050 was spent removing the masonry added in the 1840s.
Brougham Castle survives essentially as it was when the main repairs were finished in the 1930s. The castle is a Scheduled Monument, meaning it is a "nationally important" historic building and archaeological site which has been given protection against unauthorised change. Until 1984, when a survey of the standing structure was conducted, little archaeological investigation had taken place at Brougham Castle. The survey was part of a monograph on the castle detailing its history and the phasing of the structure. Brougham is one of only a few castles in Cumbria to have undergone extensive archaeological investigation. Today, the castle is open to the public, and a museum is run by English Heritage, the successor of the Office of Works.
The path to Brougham Castle leads from east to west. To the south, or the left of someone approaching the castle, are the earthworks of the Roman fort and the location of the 17th-century garden. The ground is terraced, and to the north the land slopes down towards the River Eamont. A moat runs alongside the east, south, and west faces of the castle, its width varying between 10 and 15 metres (33 and 49 ft) and lying up to 3.4 metres (11 ft) deep. Although the moat is now dry it is likely that it used to be filled with water. The castle is an irregular polygon, measuring about 68 metres (223 ft) along the west side, 72 metres (236 ft) along the south, 48 metres (157 ft) wide in the east, and 54 metres (177 ft) on the north side.
Brougham Castle is entered through a three-storey double-gatehouse. Originally the coat of arms of Roger Clifford and his wife was carved above the entrance to the gatehouse but in the 19th century this was replaced by the current inscription, "Thys Made Roger", by Henry Tufton, 11th Earl of Thanet. The inscription was originally above the entrance of the great hall built by Roger Clifford, 5th Baron Clifford. Erected on the slope inclining down to the river, the gatehouse was constructed in the early 14th century by Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford. The complex has three components: the inner and outer gatehouses and a courtyard in between. The inner gatehouse survives to a height of 12.5 metres (41 ft) in the east. The ground-floor passage through the building is vaulted and there was a portcullis at the east end. A postern gate was hidden behind a buttress in the north side of the gatehouse and would have provided a discrete means of leaving the castle. The floors above the passageway each consisted of a single large room and were connected to the keep, allowing people to move between the two without having to go outside. In the 17th century Lady Anne Clifford converted the top floor into her bedroom. Like the inner gatehouse, the outer section had a square plan, and the upper floors would each have been occupied by a single room. The building survives to a height of 14.5 metres (48 ft) in the east. Below the outer gatehouse was a dungeon, and at ground floor level on the north side the guardroom. The large rooms in both gatehouses would have been used as residences. Although the very top of the gatehouse no longer survives, it would have been crested by machicolations.
Adjoined to the gatehouse is the 13th-century keep. A keep contained the main domestic accommodation in a castle, usually high-status, and also provided the last place of refuge if the surrounding enclosure fell during an assault. Brougham's keep has a square plan and is between 19 and 20 metres (62 and 66 ft) high, although originally would have stood taller. Access to each floor was granted by a spiral staircase in the north-east corner, with each floor consisting of a single large room. The garderobe was located in the north-west corner. It had long been assumed that the keep was built in the last quarter of the 12th century due to its simple design; the square design, use of narrow buttresses at each corner, and entrance through a forebuilding are consistent with other keeps built in the late 12th century. By the 13th century, Brougham's keep would have been old fashioned compared to the polygonal structures introduced in the 13th century. However, historian Henry Summerson who assessed the historic documents for the castle concluded that construction could not have begun earlier than the first quarter of the 13th century. The wooden floors no longer survive, and the use of the rooms in the keep is mostly conjectural, but it is likely that the ground floor would have served as a storage room, with the first floor being used as a hall and accommodation for the guards, and the second floor providing rooms for the lord. A final fourth storey was added in early 14th century. The keep would have been entered at first floor level, through the east side where it was abutted by a forebuilding. Despite the keep's importance to the castle structure, little survives of the building today.
South east of the keep was the hall, built by Roger Clifford in the late 14th century as a replacement for an earlier hall. It provided space for the castle's garrison, swelled by the Anglo-Scottish Wars, and was a location for the lord to eat with his soldiers. The hall had large windows which may have detracted from the building's defensive capability, although it has been postulated that casements bore large wooden shutters. The kitchen, which served the entire castle, was set in the south-east corner of the fortification. Along the south wall were arranged more lodgings, a well, and a chapel, the latter another addition by Roger Clifford. In the south-west corner of the castle was the Tower of League, built around 1300 by Roger Clifford. It included further rooms for accommodation, but notably would also have allowed defenders to fire on an enemy emerging from the gatehouse. Four storeys tall and with a single room at each level, the presence of a garderobe and fireplace on each floor suggests that the tower was reserved for high-status visitors. The tower's square plan is typical of such structures built in northern England at this time, as seen at castles such as Warkworth and Egremont, although it contrasts with rounded towers preferred in the south.
They are generally by the country people said to be done by Michael Scot, a noted conjuror in their opinion, who was a monk of Holme abbey in Cumberland: they have a notion too that one Turquin, a giant, lived at Brougham castle; and there is a tower there, called Pagan tower; and Sir Lancelot de Lake lived at Mayborough, and slew him.
Turquin, or Tarquin, is also associated in folklore with the ruins of Lammerside Castle nearby. The folklorist Marjorie Rowling identified him with another legendary local giant, Hugh Cesario, but Jennifer Westwood and Jacqueline Simpson prefer to derive him from Sir Tarquin, an adversary of Sir Lancelot in Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur; they believe that this story, unlocalized by Malory, probably became associated with north-west England because King Arthur was often said to hold his court in Carlisle.
1725 when Dr Stukeley.
one Turquin a giant.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brougham Castle.| | 6,851 | ENGLISH | 1 |
February 12, 1809 was the birth of the future president candidate of the United States.Abraham Lincoln was born in a log cabin raised by Thomas and Nancy Lincoln. They managed in their humble one room cabin in Hodgenville, Kentucky. In their rural abode they suffered through poverty; Thomas as a carpenter and Nancy as a Seamstress.
Unfortunately Abraham's mother died of a common illness labeled as milk sickness. It was tragic for Lincoln to experience as a nine year old, since she had lead to so much in his future due to her guidance. Lincoln’s father, Thomas, later then married another named as Sarah Bush. Even though he missed his mom Lincoln bonded with with her and was often encouraging in education by her. | <urn:uuid:8c4d65b3-4b9c-4893-a80c-a1bdad62f84d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/4b26c30f/the-becoming-of-lincoln | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.995788 | 152 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.344357401... | 1 | February 12, 1809 was the birth of the future president candidate of the United States.Abraham Lincoln was born in a log cabin raised by Thomas and Nancy Lincoln. They managed in their humble one room cabin in Hodgenville, Kentucky. In their rural abode they suffered through poverty; Thomas as a carpenter and Nancy as a Seamstress.
Unfortunately Abraham's mother died of a common illness labeled as milk sickness. It was tragic for Lincoln to experience as a nine year old, since she had lead to so much in his future due to her guidance. Lincoln’s father, Thomas, later then married another named as Sarah Bush. Even though he missed his mom Lincoln bonded with with her and was often encouraging in education by her. | 152 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On March 17th 461, Saint Patrick, Christian missionary, bishop and apostle of Ireland, died at Saul, Downpatrick, Ireland. Much of what is known about Patrick’s legendary life comes from the Confessio, a book he wrote during his last years.
Born in Great Britain, probably in Scotland, to a rich Christian family of Roman citizenship, Patrick was captured and enslaved at age 16 by Irish marauders. For the next six years, he worked as a herder in Ireland, turning to a deepening religious faith for comfort. Following the counsel of a voice he heard in a dream one night, he escaped and found passage on a ship to Britain, where he was eventually reunited with his family.
According to the Confessio, in Britain Patrick had another dream, in which an individual named Victoricus gave him a letter, entitled “The Voice of the Irish.” As he read it, Patrick seemed to hear the voices of Irishmen pleading him to return to their country and walk among them once more. After studying for the priesthood, Patrick was ordained a bishop. He arrived in Ireland in 433 and began preaching the Gospel, converting many thousands of Irish and building churches around the country. After 40 years of living in poverty, teaching, traveling and working tirelessly, Patrick died on March 17, 461 in Saul, where he had built his first church.
Since that time, countless legends have grown up around Patrick. Made the patron saint of Ireland, he is said to have baptized hundreds of people on a single day, and to have used a three-leaf clover–the famous shamrock–to describe the Holy Trinity. In art, he is often portrayed trampling on snakes, in accordance with the belief that he drove those reptiles out of Ireland. For thousands of years, the Irish have observed the day of Saint Patrick’s death as a religious holiday, attending church in the morning and celebrating with food and drink in the afternoon.
The first St. Patrick’s Day parade, though, took place not in Ireland, but the United States, when Irish soldiers serving in the English military marched through New York City in 1762. As the years went on, the parades became a show of unity and strength for persecuted Irish-American immigrants, and then a popular celebration of Irish-American heritage. The party went global in 1995, when the Irish government began a large-scale campaign to market St. Patrick’s Day as a way of driving tourism and showcasing Ireland’s many charms to the rest of the world. Today, March 17 is a day of international celebration, as millions of people around the globe put on their best green clothing to drink beer, watch parades and toast the luck of the Irish. | <urn:uuid:17262597-c175-4da4-99b4-81054668c27f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://craighill.net/2012/03/17/march-17-461-saint-patrick-dies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.982794 | 566 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.080714... | 3 | On March 17th 461, Saint Patrick, Christian missionary, bishop and apostle of Ireland, died at Saul, Downpatrick, Ireland. Much of what is known about Patrick’s legendary life comes from the Confessio, a book he wrote during his last years.
Born in Great Britain, probably in Scotland, to a rich Christian family of Roman citizenship, Patrick was captured and enslaved at age 16 by Irish marauders. For the next six years, he worked as a herder in Ireland, turning to a deepening religious faith for comfort. Following the counsel of a voice he heard in a dream one night, he escaped and found passage on a ship to Britain, where he was eventually reunited with his family.
According to the Confessio, in Britain Patrick had another dream, in which an individual named Victoricus gave him a letter, entitled “The Voice of the Irish.” As he read it, Patrick seemed to hear the voices of Irishmen pleading him to return to their country and walk among them once more. After studying for the priesthood, Patrick was ordained a bishop. He arrived in Ireland in 433 and began preaching the Gospel, converting many thousands of Irish and building churches around the country. After 40 years of living in poverty, teaching, traveling and working tirelessly, Patrick died on March 17, 461 in Saul, where he had built his first church.
Since that time, countless legends have grown up around Patrick. Made the patron saint of Ireland, he is said to have baptized hundreds of people on a single day, and to have used a three-leaf clover–the famous shamrock–to describe the Holy Trinity. In art, he is often portrayed trampling on snakes, in accordance with the belief that he drove those reptiles out of Ireland. For thousands of years, the Irish have observed the day of Saint Patrick’s death as a religious holiday, attending church in the morning and celebrating with food and drink in the afternoon.
The first St. Patrick’s Day parade, though, took place not in Ireland, but the United States, when Irish soldiers serving in the English military marched through New York City in 1762. As the years went on, the parades became a show of unity and strength for persecuted Irish-American immigrants, and then a popular celebration of Irish-American heritage. The party went global in 1995, when the Irish government began a large-scale campaign to market St. Patrick’s Day as a way of driving tourism and showcasing Ireland’s many charms to the rest of the world. Today, March 17 is a day of international celebration, as millions of people around the globe put on their best green clothing to drink beer, watch parades and toast the luck of the Irish. | 573 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Teachers have the very important responsibility of shaping the lives of young, impressionable children. With this responsibility comes great pride and joy. Therefore all teachers should strive for what can be considered to be a good teacher. A good teacher can be defined as someone who always pushes students to want to do their best while at the same time trying to make learning interesting as well as creative. A positive or negative influence from a teacher early on in life can have a great effect on the life of a child.
Teachers, especially at the elementary level, must be very creative with their teaching styles. Not every child learns the same way, nor are they interested in the same things. It is difficult to keep the attention of 15-20 children under the age of ten. Classroom setup and design is a good way to get and keep the attention of students. Workstations are a good way to encourage different types of learning. By allowing children a chance to choose which activities they want to participate in, children are taking control of their own education.
At the elementary level, children are always learning and sometimes dont even know it. When I was in kindergarten, I can remember playing at the different stations in the classroom. One station was for gardening and we could plant seeds and check them every day to see how much they had grown. Another station in that classroom that sticks out in my mind is the arts and crafts station. There was a large array of crayons, markers, scissors, construction paper and building materials we could use to make pretty decorations to give to our parents for our homes.
By choosing which station we wanted to work at, we were becoming much more interested in what we were learning because we were doing what we wanted to do, not what we had to do. By setting high standards for a student, the teacher is encouraging the student to do the same and will eventually develop high expectations for him or herself. A teacher who is constantly looking for the best possible work from the child will force the child to try his or her hardest in order to please the teacher. Going along with this idea is the whole idea of the teacher being interested in the subject matter.
If the students know that the subject they are studying is something that greatly interests the teacher, they will be motivated to try their hardest in order to please the teacher. My ninth grade science teacher is the best example of this type of teacher. I was only in her class for about a month or so but it was probably the most interested I have ever been in Science in my entire life. Whenever she would present ideas about prehistoric man, her eyes would light up and she would get so excited and I would be forced to listen to whatever she had to say.
Everyone had told me that she was a hard teacher but I just never saw it that way. She had done her homework so-to-speak and was very knowledgeable about the subject matter. When it came time to write a paper on my particular part of the evolution of man, I found myself trying harder than I ever had. I consider her to be a good teacher because even if she did not care too much about what she was teaching, she presented it in a way that made it seem like it was her life.
This helped me to want to learn because I wanted to make her know that she really made me understand the subject that she had taught. Teachers must be open to many different types of people, ideas and cultures. They also must always try to respect the views of everyone. Children from lots of different backgrounds are going to be together in one classroom. The teacher must learn to incorporate everyones beliefs into the daily curriculum. All students must be aware of the differences in the world around them.
The time in which it is most difficult to handle the differences in cultures is the holiday season. Christian children who celebrate Christmas are always extremely excited for Santa to come to their houses and for all the presents they are going to receive. Teachers are not allowed to celebrate Christmas or any other religious holidays in the classroom without mentioning all of the traditions of the different cultures. It would take far too much time to do an activity that pertains to every religion.
Looking back on my days in elementary school, I can think of all of the things I did in school around Christmas time. Almost every year, as a writing assignment, we wrote a letter to Santa Claus telling him what we were hoping to get on Christmas morning. We made Christmas trees out of egg cartons and ornaments out of construction paper. The teachers were always very sensitive to people who didnt celebrate this holiday. Jewish children made menorahs or stars of David and others made alternative projects.
While trying to be sensitive to the beliefs of children and their parents, teachers also must try not to go overboard in covering the traditions of every religion. A teacher who instills a bad learning experience in a child could scar him or her for life. Teachers have a lot of responsibility and need to make sure that they make learning a positive experience for all. By being sensitive to the needs of everyone and presenting different ways of doing things, it can be possible for everyone to have an equal opportunity to do their best. | <urn:uuid:e8961bd7-4f41-4ecc-a5cb-cd58d9627b61> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://clikngo.com/the-life-of-a-child-and-responsibility-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.987988 | 1,053 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.657684206... | 2 | Teachers have the very important responsibility of shaping the lives of young, impressionable children. With this responsibility comes great pride and joy. Therefore all teachers should strive for what can be considered to be a good teacher. A good teacher can be defined as someone who always pushes students to want to do their best while at the same time trying to make learning interesting as well as creative. A positive or negative influence from a teacher early on in life can have a great effect on the life of a child.
Teachers, especially at the elementary level, must be very creative with their teaching styles. Not every child learns the same way, nor are they interested in the same things. It is difficult to keep the attention of 15-20 children under the age of ten. Classroom setup and design is a good way to get and keep the attention of students. Workstations are a good way to encourage different types of learning. By allowing children a chance to choose which activities they want to participate in, children are taking control of their own education.
At the elementary level, children are always learning and sometimes dont even know it. When I was in kindergarten, I can remember playing at the different stations in the classroom. One station was for gardening and we could plant seeds and check them every day to see how much they had grown. Another station in that classroom that sticks out in my mind is the arts and crafts station. There was a large array of crayons, markers, scissors, construction paper and building materials we could use to make pretty decorations to give to our parents for our homes.
By choosing which station we wanted to work at, we were becoming much more interested in what we were learning because we were doing what we wanted to do, not what we had to do. By setting high standards for a student, the teacher is encouraging the student to do the same and will eventually develop high expectations for him or herself. A teacher who is constantly looking for the best possible work from the child will force the child to try his or her hardest in order to please the teacher. Going along with this idea is the whole idea of the teacher being interested in the subject matter.
If the students know that the subject they are studying is something that greatly interests the teacher, they will be motivated to try their hardest in order to please the teacher. My ninth grade science teacher is the best example of this type of teacher. I was only in her class for about a month or so but it was probably the most interested I have ever been in Science in my entire life. Whenever she would present ideas about prehistoric man, her eyes would light up and she would get so excited and I would be forced to listen to whatever she had to say.
Everyone had told me that she was a hard teacher but I just never saw it that way. She had done her homework so-to-speak and was very knowledgeable about the subject matter. When it came time to write a paper on my particular part of the evolution of man, I found myself trying harder than I ever had. I consider her to be a good teacher because even if she did not care too much about what she was teaching, she presented it in a way that made it seem like it was her life.
This helped me to want to learn because I wanted to make her know that she really made me understand the subject that she had taught. Teachers must be open to many different types of people, ideas and cultures. They also must always try to respect the views of everyone. Children from lots of different backgrounds are going to be together in one classroom. The teacher must learn to incorporate everyones beliefs into the daily curriculum. All students must be aware of the differences in the world around them.
The time in which it is most difficult to handle the differences in cultures is the holiday season. Christian children who celebrate Christmas are always extremely excited for Santa to come to their houses and for all the presents they are going to receive. Teachers are not allowed to celebrate Christmas or any other religious holidays in the classroom without mentioning all of the traditions of the different cultures. It would take far too much time to do an activity that pertains to every religion.
Looking back on my days in elementary school, I can think of all of the things I did in school around Christmas time. Almost every year, as a writing assignment, we wrote a letter to Santa Claus telling him what we were hoping to get on Christmas morning. We made Christmas trees out of egg cartons and ornaments out of construction paper. The teachers were always very sensitive to people who didnt celebrate this holiday. Jewish children made menorahs or stars of David and others made alternative projects.
While trying to be sensitive to the beliefs of children and their parents, teachers also must try not to go overboard in covering the traditions of every religion. A teacher who instills a bad learning experience in a child could scar him or her for life. Teachers have a lot of responsibility and need to make sure that they make learning a positive experience for all. By being sensitive to the needs of everyone and presenting different ways of doing things, it can be possible for everyone to have an equal opportunity to do their best. | 1,041 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If successful, the landing will be the first major step toward one of the holy grails of the space industry: reusable rockets. Up until now, all rocket launches have been something of a one-and-done stunt. After a rocket blasts off, the first stage of the vehicle – which comprises the bulk of the rocket and contains most of the engines and fuel – burns up and falls away into the ocean, never to be used again. This rocket design is known as a disposable launch system, and it makes launching rockets extremely expensive. The only exception has been the Space Shuttle, which was considered a partially reusable launch system; although the shuttle itself and its solid rocket boosters were recovered after each launch, its large external tank, which carried most of the shuttle's fuel, broke apart and was never re-used. This made launching shuttles quite costly, as well, since a new external tank had to be built for each flight. | <urn:uuid:359d7a2b-0186-469d-a49d-2a672a45b260> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.popsci.com/spacex-will-try-land-one-its-rockets-next-week/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00366.warc.gz | en | 0.982351 | 189 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.29034340381... | 1 | If successful, the landing will be the first major step toward one of the holy grails of the space industry: reusable rockets. Up until now, all rocket launches have been something of a one-and-done stunt. After a rocket blasts off, the first stage of the vehicle – which comprises the bulk of the rocket and contains most of the engines and fuel – burns up and falls away into the ocean, never to be used again. This rocket design is known as a disposable launch system, and it makes launching rockets extremely expensive. The only exception has been the Space Shuttle, which was considered a partially reusable launch system; although the shuttle itself and its solid rocket boosters were recovered after each launch, its large external tank, which carried most of the shuttle's fuel, broke apart and was never re-used. This made launching shuttles quite costly, as well, since a new external tank had to be built for each flight. | 187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of tacos is somewhat elusive. While we have records of the tools and materials used in many of the foods of Mexico, it is far harder to prove when exactly certain ingredients were combined. People weren’t exactly writing about their diet in diaries. However, we do know the history of tortillas pretty well, and we can assume that where there were tortillas, someone was probably using them like a taco.
The domestication and widespread use of corn can be traced back around 9,000 years ago to southern Mexico. As one of the earliest cultivated vegetables, corn was used all across the region and was quickly adapted into what we would come to know as tortillas.
Though tortillas were eaten for thousands of years, it wasn’t until the Aztecs came along that we had any proof that they were being used for tacos.
It is believed that Aztecs (1428-1521) ate several tortillas with every meal, and there are some records that help support this. But more importantly, this nearly 100 year period is when we got our first written account of the food that would become tacos.
The earliest anthropological record of tacos dates to the 15th or 16th century in the Valley of Mexico. It is believed that the indigenous people of the lake region ate tortillas filled with fish (meaning the first taco could be a fish taco!). There are writings from when the Spanish arrived in 1517 and enjoyed a feast of tacos, so we know that the native peoples had been eating them long enough for it to be a tradition they shared with the conquistadors.
However, some believe the term was first coined in Mexican silver mines, as the term tacos de mineros (miner’s tacos) appears in the late 19th century and is the first example of the modern use of the term.
Whether it was 9,000 years ago or 500 years ago, what is certainly true is that tacos as a dish have constantly evolved and changed. For natives of South America, a taco is always a corn tortilla, it is not fried, and it is rarely served with things like lettuce and cheese. Instead, it is often garnished with onions, guacamole, salsa, or other sauces. Since the origins of the corn tortilla, the taco has been endlessly articulated and adapted to suit environments and populations though.
For instance, flour tortillas are a relatively recent addition to variations on tacos. Most of Mexico was not cultivating wheat until they began interacting with the Americas and trade opened. This is one of the reasons that ‘American tacos’ are more commonly larger and use flour tortillas whereas most Mexican people would shake their heads at such an idea. Even more bizarre to them would be the trend of frying taco shells.
While the fried shell has become common across much of America, it was definitely not invented in Mexico. Like the original taco, it is hard to say when the ‘hard-shell’ tradition of tacos started, but some experts believe it came from none other than Taco Bell founder Glen Bell in the early 1960s. Bell needed a way to mass-produce tacos and frying and storing shells was far more efficient than cooking them on-site. Thus, the American taco was born.
Nowadays, there has been a resurgence in traditional, Mexican tacos, but millions of Americans still know and love fried shell tacos or flour tortilla tacos with lettuce and tomato.
Here at Benny’s Tacos, we don’t take sides. As long as it is delicious, that is all that matters, and we offer a variety of tacos that blend the old and the new. Check out our menu today! | <urn:uuid:7bd345b0-486c-412c-961f-d0aa93a1145a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bennystacos.com/2018/11/02/the-history-of-tacos/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00445.warc.gz | en | 0.98025 | 759 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.00094378... | 8 | The history of tacos is somewhat elusive. While we have records of the tools and materials used in many of the foods of Mexico, it is far harder to prove when exactly certain ingredients were combined. People weren’t exactly writing about their diet in diaries. However, we do know the history of tortillas pretty well, and we can assume that where there were tortillas, someone was probably using them like a taco.
The domestication and widespread use of corn can be traced back around 9,000 years ago to southern Mexico. As one of the earliest cultivated vegetables, corn was used all across the region and was quickly adapted into what we would come to know as tortillas.
Though tortillas were eaten for thousands of years, it wasn’t until the Aztecs came along that we had any proof that they were being used for tacos.
It is believed that Aztecs (1428-1521) ate several tortillas with every meal, and there are some records that help support this. But more importantly, this nearly 100 year period is when we got our first written account of the food that would become tacos.
The earliest anthropological record of tacos dates to the 15th or 16th century in the Valley of Mexico. It is believed that the indigenous people of the lake region ate tortillas filled with fish (meaning the first taco could be a fish taco!). There are writings from when the Spanish arrived in 1517 and enjoyed a feast of tacos, so we know that the native peoples had been eating them long enough for it to be a tradition they shared with the conquistadors.
However, some believe the term was first coined in Mexican silver mines, as the term tacos de mineros (miner’s tacos) appears in the late 19th century and is the first example of the modern use of the term.
Whether it was 9,000 years ago or 500 years ago, what is certainly true is that tacos as a dish have constantly evolved and changed. For natives of South America, a taco is always a corn tortilla, it is not fried, and it is rarely served with things like lettuce and cheese. Instead, it is often garnished with onions, guacamole, salsa, or other sauces. Since the origins of the corn tortilla, the taco has been endlessly articulated and adapted to suit environments and populations though.
For instance, flour tortillas are a relatively recent addition to variations on tacos. Most of Mexico was not cultivating wheat until they began interacting with the Americas and trade opened. This is one of the reasons that ‘American tacos’ are more commonly larger and use flour tortillas whereas most Mexican people would shake their heads at such an idea. Even more bizarre to them would be the trend of frying taco shells.
While the fried shell has become common across much of America, it was definitely not invented in Mexico. Like the original taco, it is hard to say when the ‘hard-shell’ tradition of tacos started, but some experts believe it came from none other than Taco Bell founder Glen Bell in the early 1960s. Bell needed a way to mass-produce tacos and frying and storing shells was far more efficient than cooking them on-site. Thus, the American taco was born.
Nowadays, there has been a resurgence in traditional, Mexican tacos, but millions of Americans still know and love fried shell tacos or flour tortilla tacos with lettuce and tomato.
Here at Benny’s Tacos, we don’t take sides. As long as it is delicious, that is all that matters, and we offer a variety of tacos that blend the old and the new. Check out our menu today! | 758 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Heroes in Plato’s The Republic
The significance of the title “Heroes of the Republic,” can be viewed in several ways while linking the title to the events in the episode. The hero would presumably be the one who restored peace and unity in the republic. Although in contrast, it seems that each man who has stepped up to lead Rome has been overtaken by greed and his own priorities instead of doing what is best for the good of the people. The title is significant in that Caesar Octavian has now found himself as the new leader of Rome after defeating Antony and returning home. He asked Cicero for a triumph but was turned down and instead given the position of consul of Rome.
Cicero only did this because Octavian agreed to follow Cicero’s wishes and look to him for guidance in his decision making. Cicero underestimated Octavian greatly and soon finds this out at Octavian’s first speech as consul in front of the senate. Octavian started out being the hero but soon turned out to be more callous and cunning then ever expected. During his speech he declares Brutus and Cassius murderers and enemies of the state in order to avenge his father’s murder. To get his point across, Caesar Octavian brings in some soldiers and asks who will speak against his motion; the senators are scared and intimidated so no one says a word.
After the meeting is adjourned, Cicero immediately has his slave write a letter to Brutus and Cassius stating what Octavian has declared of them and that the senate fears they have created another tyrant. Cicero even titles the letter to Brutus and Cassius the heroes of the republic. It now seems the tide has changed and Cicero regrets his alliance with Octavian. After hearing the news, Brutus and Cassius, begin a plan of their return to Rome in order to save the republic again from tyranny. When Cicero next meets with Octavian he advises him that the senate wants him to surrender his legions and step down as consul.
Octavian finds this humorous and asks why he would do such a thing. Cicero then explains of Brutus’s return and that a battle between the two would be short, bloody, and not in Octavian’s favor. This puts Octavian in a position where he knows he needs help and decides to secretly meet with Antony. Atia ventures to Antony’s tent first in order to sort out some of the details, but when Octavian arrives the next morning, the two embrace and their alliance to one another is once again in place. Octavian and Antony both know they will need one another to defeat Brutus and Cassius and to retain their power.
Both groups of men can be viewed in this scenario as the heroes, depending upon the personal feelings and agendas as to which one of those views is most accurate. This is an ironic twist of fate because even though Octavian and Antony were ready to kill one another previously they have now put aside their differences in order to best serve their own interests and agendas. Vorenus and Pullo can also be seen as heroes in this episode because they have managed to keep peace throughout the collegia with the other bosses and their henchmen as they were instructed to do. They also managed to save the children from their captors and bring them home. | <urn:uuid:1fc61bb0-4fc7-42a0-a035-58fc0fea4a73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/heroes-in-platos-the-republic-119360 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.981759 | 710 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.376138597726... | 4 | Heroes in Plato’s The Republic
The significance of the title “Heroes of the Republic,” can be viewed in several ways while linking the title to the events in the episode. The hero would presumably be the one who restored peace and unity in the republic. Although in contrast, it seems that each man who has stepped up to lead Rome has been overtaken by greed and his own priorities instead of doing what is best for the good of the people. The title is significant in that Caesar Octavian has now found himself as the new leader of Rome after defeating Antony and returning home. He asked Cicero for a triumph but was turned down and instead given the position of consul of Rome.
Cicero only did this because Octavian agreed to follow Cicero’s wishes and look to him for guidance in his decision making. Cicero underestimated Octavian greatly and soon finds this out at Octavian’s first speech as consul in front of the senate. Octavian started out being the hero but soon turned out to be more callous and cunning then ever expected. During his speech he declares Brutus and Cassius murderers and enemies of the state in order to avenge his father’s murder. To get his point across, Caesar Octavian brings in some soldiers and asks who will speak against his motion; the senators are scared and intimidated so no one says a word.
After the meeting is adjourned, Cicero immediately has his slave write a letter to Brutus and Cassius stating what Octavian has declared of them and that the senate fears they have created another tyrant. Cicero even titles the letter to Brutus and Cassius the heroes of the republic. It now seems the tide has changed and Cicero regrets his alliance with Octavian. After hearing the news, Brutus and Cassius, begin a plan of their return to Rome in order to save the republic again from tyranny. When Cicero next meets with Octavian he advises him that the senate wants him to surrender his legions and step down as consul.
Octavian finds this humorous and asks why he would do such a thing. Cicero then explains of Brutus’s return and that a battle between the two would be short, bloody, and not in Octavian’s favor. This puts Octavian in a position where he knows he needs help and decides to secretly meet with Antony. Atia ventures to Antony’s tent first in order to sort out some of the details, but when Octavian arrives the next morning, the two embrace and their alliance to one another is once again in place. Octavian and Antony both know they will need one another to defeat Brutus and Cassius and to retain their power.
Both groups of men can be viewed in this scenario as the heroes, depending upon the personal feelings and agendas as to which one of those views is most accurate. This is an ironic twist of fate because even though Octavian and Antony were ready to kill one another previously they have now put aside their differences in order to best serve their own interests and agendas. Vorenus and Pullo can also be seen as heroes in this episode because they have managed to keep peace throughout the collegia with the other bosses and their henchmen as they were instructed to do. They also managed to save the children from their captors and bring them home. | 667 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Uvdal Stave Church was originally constructed just after the year 1168, which we know through dendrochronological dating of the pine tree used during the construction. The logs were not completely dry when the construction took place. The church was made on top of the remains of previous church on the site, thought to have been made with the use of imbedded corner column technology at the beginning of the 11th century. This we know from an archeological excavation that took place during 1978. Churches made during the 12th century were usually very small, perhaps no more than 40 square meters in their footprint. They were therefore often expanded, even during the Middle Ages and certainly just before and after the Reformation, which took place during 1537 in Norway.
The nave of the church was first expanded to the west during the Middle Ages, when the original apse of chancel was also removed and the chancel itself elongated. Again, during that period, an extra center column was added to construction. The chancel was torn down again in 1684, when a new and wider chancel was made. This had the same width as the nave. Then, during the period 1721–1723, the church was made into cruciform. A new ridge turret had to be made, to fit the new cruciform. Later, in 1819, a new vestry was added to the north wall of the chancel. The exterior walls were panelled in 1760.
Benches with ornately decorated sidewalls were added to the nave in 1624. The oldest part of the interior was probably richly ornately decorated by painting during 1656, the expansions during 1684 and 1723. Two scary halfmasks are quite visible on the poles of the chancel, and according to myth they were able to capture demons.References:
Augustusburg Palace represents one of the first examples of Rococo creations in Germany. For the Cologne elector and archbishop Clemens August of the House of Wittelsbach it was the favourite residence. In 1725 the Westphalian architect Johann Conrad Schlaun was commissioned by Clemens August to begin the construction of the palace on the ruins of a medieval moated castle.
In 1728, the Bavarian court architect François de Cuvilliés took over and made the palace into one of the most glorious residences of its time. Until its completion in 1768, numerous outstanding artists of European renown contributed to its beauty. A prime example of the calibre of artists employed here is Balthasar Neumann, who created the design for the magnificent staircase, an enchanting creation full of dynamism and elegance. The magical interplay of architecture, sculpture, painting and garden design made the Brühl Palaces a masterpiece of German Rococo.
UNESCO honoured history and present of the Rococo Palaces by inscribing Augustusburg Palace – together with Falkenlust Palace and their extensive gardens – on the World Heritage List in 1984. From 1949 onwards, Augustusburg Palace was used for representative purposes by the German Federal President and the Federal Government for many decades.
In 1728, Dominique Girard designed the palace gardens according to French models. Owing to constant renovation and care, it is today one of the most authentic examples of 18th century garden design in Europe. Next to the Baroque gardens, Peter Joseph Lenné redesigned the forested areas based on English landscaping models. Today it is a wonderful place to have a walk. | <urn:uuid:eceeb1f6-b259-4373-b06a-c197fce9441c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.spottinghistory.com/view/3265/uvdal-stave-church/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00469.warc.gz | en | 0.982221 | 715 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.28949883580... | 1 | Uvdal Stave Church was originally constructed just after the year 1168, which we know through dendrochronological dating of the pine tree used during the construction. The logs were not completely dry when the construction took place. The church was made on top of the remains of previous church on the site, thought to have been made with the use of imbedded corner column technology at the beginning of the 11th century. This we know from an archeological excavation that took place during 1978. Churches made during the 12th century were usually very small, perhaps no more than 40 square meters in their footprint. They were therefore often expanded, even during the Middle Ages and certainly just before and after the Reformation, which took place during 1537 in Norway.
The nave of the church was first expanded to the west during the Middle Ages, when the original apse of chancel was also removed and the chancel itself elongated. Again, during that period, an extra center column was added to construction. The chancel was torn down again in 1684, when a new and wider chancel was made. This had the same width as the nave. Then, during the period 1721–1723, the church was made into cruciform. A new ridge turret had to be made, to fit the new cruciform. Later, in 1819, a new vestry was added to the north wall of the chancel. The exterior walls were panelled in 1760.
Benches with ornately decorated sidewalls were added to the nave in 1624. The oldest part of the interior was probably richly ornately decorated by painting during 1656, the expansions during 1684 and 1723. Two scary halfmasks are quite visible on the poles of the chancel, and according to myth they were able to capture demons.References:
Augustusburg Palace represents one of the first examples of Rococo creations in Germany. For the Cologne elector and archbishop Clemens August of the House of Wittelsbach it was the favourite residence. In 1725 the Westphalian architect Johann Conrad Schlaun was commissioned by Clemens August to begin the construction of the palace on the ruins of a medieval moated castle.
In 1728, the Bavarian court architect François de Cuvilliés took over and made the palace into one of the most glorious residences of its time. Until its completion in 1768, numerous outstanding artists of European renown contributed to its beauty. A prime example of the calibre of artists employed here is Balthasar Neumann, who created the design for the magnificent staircase, an enchanting creation full of dynamism and elegance. The magical interplay of architecture, sculpture, painting and garden design made the Brühl Palaces a masterpiece of German Rococo.
UNESCO honoured history and present of the Rococo Palaces by inscribing Augustusburg Palace – together with Falkenlust Palace and their extensive gardens – on the World Heritage List in 1984. From 1949 onwards, Augustusburg Palace was used for representative purposes by the German Federal President and the Federal Government for many decades.
In 1728, Dominique Girard designed the palace gardens according to French models. Owing to constant renovation and care, it is today one of the most authentic examples of 18th century garden design in Europe. Next to the Baroque gardens, Peter Joseph Lenné redesigned the forested areas based on English landscaping models. Today it is a wonderful place to have a walk. | 771 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Basketball Shooting Range
Basketball Shooting Range
Shooting range in basketball is how far a player is able to shoot in relation to the basket. The range can be anywhere from close to the basket to far behind the three point line. A player's ability to shoot usually declines as they get further away from the basket, eventually getting to a point where they are no longer in their shooting range. The range usually varies by position, height, and age.
Shooting Range by Position
Frontcourt players are centers and forwards (power forward and small forward). These players, especially centers and those that are taller tend to have less range when shooting shots. They often shoot layups or dunks
Shooting Range by Height
Just like with positions, taller players have a harder time shooting from further. This is why when players like Dirk Nowitzki and Kevin Durant (both are seven feet tall) come along and can shoot three pointers, they are very successful. Usually tall players have a hard time overcoming the fact that their hands are too large to grip a basketball in a shooting motion. Instead of continuing to shoot consistently from long range, they go closer to the basket for their shots.
Shooting Range by Age
Age dramatically impacts a basketball player's shooting range. Younger players in elementary school or even middle school have a hard time even getting the ball to the basket. You rarely see kids capable of draining long threes as you would in The NBA. As basketball players get older, their shooting range increases, due to the development of their muscles.
The History of the Increase in Shooting Range in Basketball
In the earliest years of basketball there was not even a three point line. What that led to was very few shots from outside the paint. Teams and players tried to get as close to the basket for high percentage shots. That changed in 1979 when the NBA brought it into existence. Every year since, then the shooting percentage from outside the arc has increased, where today players are very comfortable from there.
"Pistol" Pete Maravich is considered to be an early pioneer in basketball in shooting from far away from the basket. Despite playing when there was no three point line, Maravich was the first to extend their shooting range. He was said to have taken shots from 30 feet away from the basket, well outside the typical shooting range for his time.
Stephen "Steph" Curry has been the most recent basketball player to expand the shooting range. He has normalized the trend of shooting three pointers from 30 to 40 feet away from the basket. By doing this quickly, he is able to get his shot off without fearing that it will be blocked. | <urn:uuid:b51d3899-7338-47d3-a86e-494f64c572b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rookieroad.com/basketball/coaching/shooting-range/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.981218 | 541 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.015087759122252... | 2 | Basketball Shooting Range
Basketball Shooting Range
Shooting range in basketball is how far a player is able to shoot in relation to the basket. The range can be anywhere from close to the basket to far behind the three point line. A player's ability to shoot usually declines as they get further away from the basket, eventually getting to a point where they are no longer in their shooting range. The range usually varies by position, height, and age.
Shooting Range by Position
Frontcourt players are centers and forwards (power forward and small forward). These players, especially centers and those that are taller tend to have less range when shooting shots. They often shoot layups or dunks
Shooting Range by Height
Just like with positions, taller players have a harder time shooting from further. This is why when players like Dirk Nowitzki and Kevin Durant (both are seven feet tall) come along and can shoot three pointers, they are very successful. Usually tall players have a hard time overcoming the fact that their hands are too large to grip a basketball in a shooting motion. Instead of continuing to shoot consistently from long range, they go closer to the basket for their shots.
Shooting Range by Age
Age dramatically impacts a basketball player's shooting range. Younger players in elementary school or even middle school have a hard time even getting the ball to the basket. You rarely see kids capable of draining long threes as you would in The NBA. As basketball players get older, their shooting range increases, due to the development of their muscles.
The History of the Increase in Shooting Range in Basketball
In the earliest years of basketball there was not even a three point line. What that led to was very few shots from outside the paint. Teams and players tried to get as close to the basket for high percentage shots. That changed in 1979 when the NBA brought it into existence. Every year since, then the shooting percentage from outside the arc has increased, where today players are very comfortable from there.
"Pistol" Pete Maravich is considered to be an early pioneer in basketball in shooting from far away from the basket. Despite playing when there was no three point line, Maravich was the first to extend their shooting range. He was said to have taken shots from 30 feet away from the basket, well outside the typical shooting range for his time.
Stephen "Steph" Curry has been the most recent basketball player to expand the shooting range. He has normalized the trend of shooting three pointers from 30 to 40 feet away from the basket. By doing this quickly, he is able to get his shot off without fearing that it will be blocked. | 545 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Osprey's American Privateers of the Revolutionary War
|Angus Konstam, illustrated by Paul Wright|
48 pages, 7¼ x 9¼
When the American Revolution started. The Continentals did not have much in the way of a navy. Indeed, it wasn't until a year later that one was formed. Yet, it was important to break the British blockade of of American ports and to stem the flow of troops and materials to the British.
Realizing that building up a navy was going to take time and money, the Continentals decided that the best way to take the fight on the seas to the enemy was through the use of privateers. These were basically civilian ships that were provided letters of marque to capture enemy ships. This was a common practice at this time and was basically state sponsored piracy. Part of the deal was that a fairly hefty portion of the sales of the ship and cargo would go to the government while the rest was split up between the owners of the ship and the crew. A successful trip would make enough to be very profitable. As such, it was not difficult to get crews for these ships.
Initially, these letters of marque were given by the individual colonies, but quickly this was centralized and offered by the Continental Congress. In terms of ships, you would find a wide variety of sizes with most of these ships being small converted cargo ships that were used in coastal trade. It did not take much armament to convince an unarmed transport to surrender and privateers carried sufficient additional crews to form prize crews and sail the captured ship to a friendly port.
Few of these vessels were initially sufficient for open sea voyages so early privateering took place fairly close to shore. Then investors decided to build purpose built ships with fairly heavy armament. This was found to be mandatory once cargo ships started arming themselves. Privateers were never intended to come up against standard Royal Navy ships and were built more for speed than weaponry in order to flee when outgunned. It is fortunate that the majority of American ship designs were originally built for shallow water and speed, traits which helped them not only overtake slower merchants, but also evade British Navy vessels.
In this book, the author does a superb job of describing the differences in ship building design and practice as well as taking the time to discuss the different types of ships that were used in Privateering. Thanks to some great period art work and drawings, we get to see what these ships were like. Add to it the excellent art work of Paul Wright and you have another fascinating book in this series. Well worth picking up.
Copyright ModelingMadness.com. All rights reserved.
For more on the complete line of Osprey books, visit www.ospreypublishing.com. If you would like your product reviewed fairly and fairly quickly, please contact the editor or see other details in the Note to Contributors. | <urn:uuid:91c12ed0-d189-409b-86fd-f563ee59f29a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://modelingmadness.com/scott/books/osprey/nv2/nv279.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.982465 | 593 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.215430378... | 2 | Osprey's American Privateers of the Revolutionary War
|Angus Konstam, illustrated by Paul Wright|
48 pages, 7¼ x 9¼
When the American Revolution started. The Continentals did not have much in the way of a navy. Indeed, it wasn't until a year later that one was formed. Yet, it was important to break the British blockade of of American ports and to stem the flow of troops and materials to the British.
Realizing that building up a navy was going to take time and money, the Continentals decided that the best way to take the fight on the seas to the enemy was through the use of privateers. These were basically civilian ships that were provided letters of marque to capture enemy ships. This was a common practice at this time and was basically state sponsored piracy. Part of the deal was that a fairly hefty portion of the sales of the ship and cargo would go to the government while the rest was split up between the owners of the ship and the crew. A successful trip would make enough to be very profitable. As such, it was not difficult to get crews for these ships.
Initially, these letters of marque were given by the individual colonies, but quickly this was centralized and offered by the Continental Congress. In terms of ships, you would find a wide variety of sizes with most of these ships being small converted cargo ships that were used in coastal trade. It did not take much armament to convince an unarmed transport to surrender and privateers carried sufficient additional crews to form prize crews and sail the captured ship to a friendly port.
Few of these vessels were initially sufficient for open sea voyages so early privateering took place fairly close to shore. Then investors decided to build purpose built ships with fairly heavy armament. This was found to be mandatory once cargo ships started arming themselves. Privateers were never intended to come up against standard Royal Navy ships and were built more for speed than weaponry in order to flee when outgunned. It is fortunate that the majority of American ship designs were originally built for shallow water and speed, traits which helped them not only overtake slower merchants, but also evade British Navy vessels.
In this book, the author does a superb job of describing the differences in ship building design and practice as well as taking the time to discuss the different types of ships that were used in Privateering. Thanks to some great period art work and drawings, we get to see what these ships were like. Add to it the excellent art work of Paul Wright and you have another fascinating book in this series. Well worth picking up.
Copyright ModelingMadness.com. All rights reserved.
For more on the complete line of Osprey books, visit www.ospreypublishing.com. If you would like your product reviewed fairly and fairly quickly, please contact the editor or see other details in the Note to Contributors. | 583 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Little Crow, or Taoyateduta, or His Red Nation, was born at Kaposia (near Fort Snelling) in about 1810 to Big Thunder and Miniokadawin, or Woman Planting in Water. He received a customary Dakota education and went on trading expeditions to the western Dakota tribes. He married four daughters of the Wahpeton tribe chief. In 1846, he succeeded his father as leader of a Mdewakanton band of Native Americans. Little Crow was a negotiator and signer of the Treaty of Mendota in 1851 and the Treaty of 1858. He also made a trip to Washington, D.C. in 1854 to campaign for well-defined boundary lines for the Dakota reservations. In the 1850s he was recognized as the spokesman for all the Mdewakanton tribes. By the 1860s he had accepted some of the white man’s ways but refused to adopt anything that would compromise his Dakota religious beliefs.
Many myths surround the figure of this man. Little Crow did not initiate the 1862 Uprising or lead the Indian forces into it. Historians claim that he was not a brutal person, yet he played a major role in the war and worked to expand the fighting to include other Sioux tribes once the war began. Little Crow’s place in history is that of an important, intelligent and tragic figure whose political career vividly illustrates the compromises, dilemmas and often impossible situations that evolved in dealing with whites in the 19th century. William Folwell, who researched a four-volume history of Minnesota in 1916, wrote of Little Crow, “Deceived by white men, discredited by his own people, he has been given an unjust character in history which should be corrected … When the bitterness of the survivors of the days of 1862 shall have died out, this will probably be done.”
Little Crow lived in and breathed the air of southwestern Minnesota — this is also where he died. In 1862 (the year of the Sioux Uprising) Little Crow lived in a wood house in the center of his village located 2 miles northwest of the Redwood Agency (near the present site of Morton). There are two recorded accounts of his death. One is given by his niece, the other by the man who killed him. The accounts agree; only the perspective is different.
In 1998, the following piece appeared in the Meeker County Historical Society Newsletter. It was related by Mrs. Harry Lawrence as told to her by her mother. (Mrs. Lawrence was the niece of Little Crow who was her father’s brother): “My mother always told me, ‘Daughter, you must remember this well, because someday you will have to tell this story, and so I am telling it now.'” We have been unable to find out anything more about Mrs. Lawrence — but the account of Little Crow’s death certainly fits in with all the documented history of this Indian leader.
Little Crow My Uncle
On August 17, 1862 my mother’s two brothers and my father had gone to the agency where they worked. Little Crow had gone hunting early in the morning, as it was the custom to hunt for the breakfast. My mother went out into the large cornfield to chase away the blackbirds when she heard a loud commotion near the road. This is between Redwood Falls and Morton, Minn. She heard a lot of men talking, and she heard one say, ‘If we are going to do this, we can get along at least two years.’ She hid herself in a shelter made of boughs, or a bower, and listened to what was happening. She saw a lot of men going toward the agency. Between them there was a large ravine. Soon she heard a shot ring out from the direction of the agency. This was followed by rapid firing. She was very frightened because her two brothers and my father were there. She jumped down and ran home.
When she got home she saw Little Crow coming in. His clothes were all wet, even his moccasins. He took off his wet things and put them out in the sun to dry. While he was sitting there the whole thing happened. He didn’t get up and take a gun or go to the agency or anything. My mother ran out to go to the agency, and when she got as far as the ravine, she saw two men coming along, carrying someone between them. His face was covered with blood. When she got close enough she discovered that it was one of her brothers. He had been at the agency sitting beside a white man as they ate their breakfast. As they sat there the door opened and some Indians burst in and shot the white man, splattering the blood upon the face of her brother. He had fainted, and they were bringing him home.
(Continued next week)
Sources: “Little Crow,” Mrs. Harry Lawrence, Meeker County Historical Society Newsletter, 1998. Through Dakota Eyes: Narrative Accounts of the Minnesota Indian War of 1862, edited by Gary Clayton Anderson and Alan R. Woolworth, Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1988; Little Crow, Spokesman for the Sioux, Gary Clayton Anderson, Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1986. | <urn:uuid:e02e97ee-50e8-45c4-bf69-27b30cee48ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.marshallindependent.com/opinion/local-columns/2020/01/little-crow/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.986429 | 1,082 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.15717674791... | 3 | Little Crow, or Taoyateduta, or His Red Nation, was born at Kaposia (near Fort Snelling) in about 1810 to Big Thunder and Miniokadawin, or Woman Planting in Water. He received a customary Dakota education and went on trading expeditions to the western Dakota tribes. He married four daughters of the Wahpeton tribe chief. In 1846, he succeeded his father as leader of a Mdewakanton band of Native Americans. Little Crow was a negotiator and signer of the Treaty of Mendota in 1851 and the Treaty of 1858. He also made a trip to Washington, D.C. in 1854 to campaign for well-defined boundary lines for the Dakota reservations. In the 1850s he was recognized as the spokesman for all the Mdewakanton tribes. By the 1860s he had accepted some of the white man’s ways but refused to adopt anything that would compromise his Dakota religious beliefs.
Many myths surround the figure of this man. Little Crow did not initiate the 1862 Uprising or lead the Indian forces into it. Historians claim that he was not a brutal person, yet he played a major role in the war and worked to expand the fighting to include other Sioux tribes once the war began. Little Crow’s place in history is that of an important, intelligent and tragic figure whose political career vividly illustrates the compromises, dilemmas and often impossible situations that evolved in dealing with whites in the 19th century. William Folwell, who researched a four-volume history of Minnesota in 1916, wrote of Little Crow, “Deceived by white men, discredited by his own people, he has been given an unjust character in history which should be corrected … When the bitterness of the survivors of the days of 1862 shall have died out, this will probably be done.”
Little Crow lived in and breathed the air of southwestern Minnesota — this is also where he died. In 1862 (the year of the Sioux Uprising) Little Crow lived in a wood house in the center of his village located 2 miles northwest of the Redwood Agency (near the present site of Morton). There are two recorded accounts of his death. One is given by his niece, the other by the man who killed him. The accounts agree; only the perspective is different.
In 1998, the following piece appeared in the Meeker County Historical Society Newsletter. It was related by Mrs. Harry Lawrence as told to her by her mother. (Mrs. Lawrence was the niece of Little Crow who was her father’s brother): “My mother always told me, ‘Daughter, you must remember this well, because someday you will have to tell this story, and so I am telling it now.'” We have been unable to find out anything more about Mrs. Lawrence — but the account of Little Crow’s death certainly fits in with all the documented history of this Indian leader.
Little Crow My Uncle
On August 17, 1862 my mother’s two brothers and my father had gone to the agency where they worked. Little Crow had gone hunting early in the morning, as it was the custom to hunt for the breakfast. My mother went out into the large cornfield to chase away the blackbirds when she heard a loud commotion near the road. This is between Redwood Falls and Morton, Minn. She heard a lot of men talking, and she heard one say, ‘If we are going to do this, we can get along at least two years.’ She hid herself in a shelter made of boughs, or a bower, and listened to what was happening. She saw a lot of men going toward the agency. Between them there was a large ravine. Soon she heard a shot ring out from the direction of the agency. This was followed by rapid firing. She was very frightened because her two brothers and my father were there. She jumped down and ran home.
When she got home she saw Little Crow coming in. His clothes were all wet, even his moccasins. He took off his wet things and put them out in the sun to dry. While he was sitting there the whole thing happened. He didn’t get up and take a gun or go to the agency or anything. My mother ran out to go to the agency, and when she got as far as the ravine, she saw two men coming along, carrying someone between them. His face was covered with blood. When she got close enough she discovered that it was one of her brothers. He had been at the agency sitting beside a white man as they ate their breakfast. As they sat there the door opened and some Indians burst in and shot the white man, splattering the blood upon the face of her brother. He had fainted, and they were bringing him home.
(Continued next week)
Sources: “Little Crow,” Mrs. Harry Lawrence, Meeker County Historical Society Newsletter, 1998. Through Dakota Eyes: Narrative Accounts of the Minnesota Indian War of 1862, edited by Gary Clayton Anderson and Alan R. Woolworth, Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1988; Little Crow, Spokesman for the Sioux, Gary Clayton Anderson, Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1986. | 1,116 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Help Now >
St. Patrick of Ireland is one of the world's most popular saints. He was born in Roman Britain and when he was fourteen or so, he was captured by Irish pirates during a raiding party and taken to Ireland as a slave to herd and tend sheep. At the time, Ireland was a land of Druids and pagans but Patrick turned to God and wrote his memoir, The Confession. In The Confession, he wrote:
"The love of God and his fear grew in me more and more, as did the faith, and my soul was rosed, so that, in a single day, I have said as many as a hundred prayers and in the night, nearly the same. I prayed in the woods and on the mountain, even before dawn. I felt no hurt from the snow or ice or rain."
Patrick's captivity lasted until he was twenty, when he escaped after having a dream from God in which he was told to leave Ireland by going to the coast. There he found some sailors who took him back to Britain and was reunited with his family.
A few years after returning home, Patrick saw a vision he described in his memoir:
"I saw a man coming, as it were from Ireland. His name was Victoricus, and he carried many letters, and he gave me one of them. I read the heading: 'The Voice of the Irish.' As I began the letter, I imagined in that moment that I heard the voice of those very people who were near the wood of Foclut, which is beside the western sea-and they cried out, as with one voice: 'We appeal to you, holy servant boy, to come and walk among us.'"
The vision prompted his studies for the priesthood. He was ordained by St. Germanus, the Bishop of Auxerre, whom he had studied under for years, and was later ordained a bishop and sent to take the Gospel to Ireland.
Patrick arrived in Slane, Ireland on March 25, 433. There are several legends about what happened next, with the most prominent claiming he met the chieftan of one of the druid tribes, who tried to kill him. After an intervention from God, Patrick was able to convert the chieftain and preach the Gospel throughout Ireland. There, he converted many people -eventually thousands - and he began building churches across the country.
He often used shamrocks to explain the Holy Trinity and entire kingdoms were eventually converted to Christianity after hearing Patrick's message.
Patrick preached and converted all of Ireland for 40 years. He worked many miracles and wrote of his love for God in Confessions. After years of living in poverty, traveling and enduring much suffering he died March 17, 461.
He died at Saul, where he had built the first Irish church. He is believed to be buried in Down Cathedral, Downpatrick. His grave was marked in 1990 with a granite stone.
In His Footsteps:
Patrick was a humble, pious, gentle man, whose love and total devotion to and trust in God should be a shining example to each of us. So complete was his trust in God, and of the importance of his mission, he feared nothing -not even death.
"The Breastplate," Patrick's poem of faith and trust in God:
"Christ be within me, Christ behind me, Christ before me, Christ beside me, Christ to win me, Christ to comfort and restore me, Christ beneath me, Christ above me, Christ inquired, Christ in danger, Christ in hearts of all that love me, Christ in mouth of friend and stranger."
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0.107984974980... | 1 | Help Now >
St. Patrick of Ireland is one of the world's most popular saints. He was born in Roman Britain and when he was fourteen or so, he was captured by Irish pirates during a raiding party and taken to Ireland as a slave to herd and tend sheep. At the time, Ireland was a land of Druids and pagans but Patrick turned to God and wrote his memoir, The Confession. In The Confession, he wrote:
"The love of God and his fear grew in me more and more, as did the faith, and my soul was rosed, so that, in a single day, I have said as many as a hundred prayers and in the night, nearly the same. I prayed in the woods and on the mountain, even before dawn. I felt no hurt from the snow or ice or rain."
Patrick's captivity lasted until he was twenty, when he escaped after having a dream from God in which he was told to leave Ireland by going to the coast. There he found some sailors who took him back to Britain and was reunited with his family.
A few years after returning home, Patrick saw a vision he described in his memoir:
"I saw a man coming, as it were from Ireland. His name was Victoricus, and he carried many letters, and he gave me one of them. I read the heading: 'The Voice of the Irish.' As I began the letter, I imagined in that moment that I heard the voice of those very people who were near the wood of Foclut, which is beside the western sea-and they cried out, as with one voice: 'We appeal to you, holy servant boy, to come and walk among us.'"
The vision prompted his studies for the priesthood. He was ordained by St. Germanus, the Bishop of Auxerre, whom he had studied under for years, and was later ordained a bishop and sent to take the Gospel to Ireland.
Patrick arrived in Slane, Ireland on March 25, 433. There are several legends about what happened next, with the most prominent claiming he met the chieftan of one of the druid tribes, who tried to kill him. After an intervention from God, Patrick was able to convert the chieftain and preach the Gospel throughout Ireland. There, he converted many people -eventually thousands - and he began building churches across the country.
He often used shamrocks to explain the Holy Trinity and entire kingdoms were eventually converted to Christianity after hearing Patrick's message.
Patrick preached and converted all of Ireland for 40 years. He worked many miracles and wrote of his love for God in Confessions. After years of living in poverty, traveling and enduring much suffering he died March 17, 461.
He died at Saul, where he had built the first Irish church. He is believed to be buried in Down Cathedral, Downpatrick. His grave was marked in 1990 with a granite stone.
In His Footsteps:
Patrick was a humble, pious, gentle man, whose love and total devotion to and trust in God should be a shining example to each of us. So complete was his trust in God, and of the importance of his mission, he feared nothing -not even death.
"The Breastplate," Patrick's poem of faith and trust in God:
"Christ be within me, Christ behind me, Christ before me, Christ beside me, Christ to win me, Christ to comfort and restore me, Christ beneath me, Christ above me, Christ inquired, Christ in danger, Christ in hearts of all that love me, Christ in mouth of friend and stranger."
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Period:1,507 BCEto1,458 BCE
Hatshepsut (1507 - 1458 BC)Most successful female pharaoh. Became pharaoh after her husband died. She accomplished many construction projects and established many trade routes for foreign trade. She had a peaceful reign.
Period:1,481 BCEto1,425 BCE
Thutmose III (1481 - 1425 BC)Thutmose was the step-son of Hatshepsut. He was supposed to become the pharaoh after his father died but was only 2 yrs. old so Hatshepsut became pharoah. He was known as the Napoleon of Egypt. He defeated many enemies of Egypt during his reign and expanded the Kingdom of Egypt. Most famous construction during his reign was the Temple at Karnak. The Obelisk of Theodosius was taken to Istanbul, Turkey. He is buried in the valley of the Kings. | <urn:uuid:97a5898f-3892-4ec9-aec7-4d32d6125774> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/egyptian-pharaohs-31b1ccc9-c82c-4b19-8385-da5cdcb746ee | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00363.warc.gz | en | 0.994066 | 194 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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Hatshepsut (1507 - 1458 BC)Most successful female pharaoh. Became pharaoh after her husband died. She accomplished many construction projects and established many trade routes for foreign trade. She had a peaceful reign.
Period:1,481 BCEto1,425 BCE
Thutmose III (1481 - 1425 BC)Thutmose was the step-son of Hatshepsut. He was supposed to become the pharaoh after his father died but was only 2 yrs. old so Hatshepsut became pharoah. He was known as the Napoleon of Egypt. He defeated many enemies of Egypt during his reign and expanded the Kingdom of Egypt. Most famous construction during his reign was the Temple at Karnak. The Obelisk of Theodosius was taken to Istanbul, Turkey. He is buried in the valley of the Kings. | 208 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the very first line of his text we are alerted to the fact that the poet is depicting a world that existed in the past, for his story is set "in days gone by" l. Many scholars have asserted that the unknown author of Beowulf was an Anglo-Saxon Christian who wrote in the first half of the eighth century about a Scandinavian hero, Beowulf, who, in turn, purportedly lived in the sixth century, a period and culture in which pagan worship prevailed. There are, however, only scant references to the Old Testament in the poem Grendel and his mother are characterized as being descended from the first murderer, Cain and none whatsoever to the New Testament Jesus or any of the specifically Christian topics or symbols that predominated the thought of the early Middle Ages. Throughout the poem there are odd juxtapositions between pagan beliefs in fate and personal prowess, on the one hand, and acknowledgements of an All Mighty power or God, on the other.
We all know them when we see them. The only question is what makes someone a hero? Characteristics of what it means to be a hero are shown throughout Anglo-Saxon core values. One of the most famous works from that time period is Beowulf.
The story tells us of how one man, Beowulf, sails to the rescue of King Hrothgar and his people in order to save them from a terrible beast that is threatening not only their lives but also their way of life.
The warrior Beowulf definitely shows characteristics of an epic hero through bravery, loyalty, generosity, friendship, achieving something of great value, providing people with a sense of security, and being intelligent.
First, Beowulf showcases his heroic nature through his bravery throughout his quest. Many times during his epic quest, he is not afraid to be brave in every situation.
This proves his bravery because he was the head man for the Geats. By choosing the mightiest and bravest people, Beowulf reflects that he himself must have been even more brave in order to be able to lead his noble people.
Therefore in choosing the brave men he did, not only did he prove how much more brave he was, Beowulf also proved that he was by far and epic hero.
Another way Beowulf displays that he is a hero is through his friendship. By showing friendship Beowulf is able to relate to the people more. Therefore he has the right to give them help in a difficult situation. This states that the king was indeed very grateful that he had made the journey and as a result he considered Beowulf a great friend.
In this instance again Beowulf shows that he deserves to have the title of an epic hero by showing such strong friendship. Next Beowulf proves that he is a great Anglo-Saxon hero through his loyalty. Loyalty was without a doubt one of the most important ideals upheld by the Anglo-Saxon people.
Beowulf was an ideal Anglo-Saxon, therefore he was loyal every chance he got. Beowulf the warrior gave his loyalty to Hrothgar, which showed that he was an epic hero. Furthermore, Beowulf can be classified as an epic hero in his generosity.
Beowulf was always being generous in every situation. He would accept a challenge even if he knew it might take his life. One of the most amazing ways to show generosity and selflessness is in sacrifice. In this statement Beowulf is saying that he is willing to lay down his own life if it means he might help save the Anglo-Saxon people.
Beowulf generosity testifies again of his heroic nature and epic hero attitude.Beowulf is an amazing story that teaches us courage, it shows us characters such as Beowulf himself that are true to his word and self-confident, and it also shows us symbols that give an image of God and the hope that he brings to the people that believe in his word.
"Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" was a lecture given by J. R. R. Tolkien on literary criticism on the Old English heroic epic poem Beowulf. It was first published as a paper in that year in the Proceedings of the British Academy, and has since been reprinted in many collections.
The essay was a redaction of lectures that Tolkien wrote between and , “Beowulf and the Critics.” In , Drout discovered a manuscript containing two drafts of the lectures “lurking” in a box at the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
Critical Essay on Beowulf Beowulf is an epic poem in which the plot is intended to portray the unique heroism of German warriors.
As the poem’s main personality, Beowulf displays exceptional boldness and extraordinary strength whenever confronted by fierce enemies. Beowulf Movie Critic Do you envision a strong female role or a male role as your hero?
In my opinion the Beowulf movie was a thumbs up, due to Angelina Jolie’s use of seduction and female wiles. "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" was a lecture given by J. R. R. Tolkien on literary criticism on the Old English heroic epic poem Beowulf. It was first published as a paper in that year in the Proceedings of the British Academy, and has since been reprinted in many collections. | <urn:uuid:9d144671-b794-4885-bce8-94bf2e3334fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://xojojedacupoh.monstermanfilm.com/beowulf-criticism-essay-19598be.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.981359 | 1,111 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.17939932644367... | 1 | In the very first line of his text we are alerted to the fact that the poet is depicting a world that existed in the past, for his story is set "in days gone by" l. Many scholars have asserted that the unknown author of Beowulf was an Anglo-Saxon Christian who wrote in the first half of the eighth century about a Scandinavian hero, Beowulf, who, in turn, purportedly lived in the sixth century, a period and culture in which pagan worship prevailed. There are, however, only scant references to the Old Testament in the poem Grendel and his mother are characterized as being descended from the first murderer, Cain and none whatsoever to the New Testament Jesus or any of the specifically Christian topics or symbols that predominated the thought of the early Middle Ages. Throughout the poem there are odd juxtapositions between pagan beliefs in fate and personal prowess, on the one hand, and acknowledgements of an All Mighty power or God, on the other.
We all know them when we see them. The only question is what makes someone a hero? Characteristics of what it means to be a hero are shown throughout Anglo-Saxon core values. One of the most famous works from that time period is Beowulf.
The story tells us of how one man, Beowulf, sails to the rescue of King Hrothgar and his people in order to save them from a terrible beast that is threatening not only their lives but also their way of life.
The warrior Beowulf definitely shows characteristics of an epic hero through bravery, loyalty, generosity, friendship, achieving something of great value, providing people with a sense of security, and being intelligent.
First, Beowulf showcases his heroic nature through his bravery throughout his quest. Many times during his epic quest, he is not afraid to be brave in every situation.
This proves his bravery because he was the head man for the Geats. By choosing the mightiest and bravest people, Beowulf reflects that he himself must have been even more brave in order to be able to lead his noble people.
Therefore in choosing the brave men he did, not only did he prove how much more brave he was, Beowulf also proved that he was by far and epic hero.
Another way Beowulf displays that he is a hero is through his friendship. By showing friendship Beowulf is able to relate to the people more. Therefore he has the right to give them help in a difficult situation. This states that the king was indeed very grateful that he had made the journey and as a result he considered Beowulf a great friend.
In this instance again Beowulf shows that he deserves to have the title of an epic hero by showing such strong friendship. Next Beowulf proves that he is a great Anglo-Saxon hero through his loyalty. Loyalty was without a doubt one of the most important ideals upheld by the Anglo-Saxon people.
Beowulf was an ideal Anglo-Saxon, therefore he was loyal every chance he got. Beowulf the warrior gave his loyalty to Hrothgar, which showed that he was an epic hero. Furthermore, Beowulf can be classified as an epic hero in his generosity.
Beowulf was always being generous in every situation. He would accept a challenge even if he knew it might take his life. One of the most amazing ways to show generosity and selflessness is in sacrifice. In this statement Beowulf is saying that he is willing to lay down his own life if it means he might help save the Anglo-Saxon people.
Beowulf generosity testifies again of his heroic nature and epic hero attitude.Beowulf is an amazing story that teaches us courage, it shows us characters such as Beowulf himself that are true to his word and self-confident, and it also shows us symbols that give an image of God and the hope that he brings to the people that believe in his word.
"Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" was a lecture given by J. R. R. Tolkien on literary criticism on the Old English heroic epic poem Beowulf. It was first published as a paper in that year in the Proceedings of the British Academy, and has since been reprinted in many collections.
The essay was a redaction of lectures that Tolkien wrote between and , “Beowulf and the Critics.” In , Drout discovered a manuscript containing two drafts of the lectures “lurking” in a box at the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
Critical Essay on Beowulf Beowulf is an epic poem in which the plot is intended to portray the unique heroism of German warriors.
As the poem’s main personality, Beowulf displays exceptional boldness and extraordinary strength whenever confronted by fierce enemies. Beowulf Movie Critic Do you envision a strong female role or a male role as your hero?
In my opinion the Beowulf movie was a thumbs up, due to Angelina Jolie’s use of seduction and female wiles. "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" was a lecture given by J. R. R. Tolkien on literary criticism on the Old English heroic epic poem Beowulf. It was first published as a paper in that year in the Proceedings of the British Academy, and has since been reprinted in many collections. | 1,082 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Nov. 1621, Capt. Nathaniel Basse received a grant of 300 acres of land, now known as Basse’s Choice, located nearby. It was one of the first English settlements in Isle of Wight County, though humans had lived there more than 5000 years. On Mar. 1622, during the Powhatan-English War of 1622–1632, attacks coordinated by Chief Opechancanough struck various English settlements including Basse’s Choice. Basse was in England when this event occurred. He resettled the region by 1624, when twenty people lived there.
Basses Choice is a large area (more than 400 acres) of coastal land in Isle of Wight County, Virginia. It is located between the Pagan River and the James River, north of the town of Smithfield. The point of land at the confluence of the two rivers has been known as Day's Point since Virginia was settled by English colonists in the 17th century. Originally granted to Captain John Day, the land and surrounding area was known as Warrosquyoake Shire, one of the eight “shires” established after Jamestown in 1634, before it was renamed Isle of Wight County. In 1621 Nathaniel Basse, a member of the prominent Basse family, was granted the land that bordered Pagan Bay, calling it “Basses Choice”. Basse successfully settled colonists on this land in 1622, and established a thriving colony/tobacco plantation. His house was burned in the Great Massacre of 1622, when a significant number of settlers in Warrosquyoake were killed by Native Americans. The Powhatan natives killed all English settlers they found, including men, women, and children of varying ages. Chief Opechancanough, younger brother of the famous Chief Powhatan, led the coordinated series of surprise attacks, killing a total of 347 people, a quarter of the English population of the Virginia colony. Basse's settlement was rebuilt, and was reported as encompassing 300 acres in 1625. The land was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. | <urn:uuid:51160ff6-5e97-4597-af2c-e61a1ae6dc49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/59967 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00278.warc.gz | en | 0.9824 | 446 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.33684274... | 2 | In Nov. 1621, Capt. Nathaniel Basse received a grant of 300 acres of land, now known as Basse’s Choice, located nearby. It was one of the first English settlements in Isle of Wight County, though humans had lived there more than 5000 years. On Mar. 1622, during the Powhatan-English War of 1622–1632, attacks coordinated by Chief Opechancanough struck various English settlements including Basse’s Choice. Basse was in England when this event occurred. He resettled the region by 1624, when twenty people lived there.
Basses Choice is a large area (more than 400 acres) of coastal land in Isle of Wight County, Virginia. It is located between the Pagan River and the James River, north of the town of Smithfield. The point of land at the confluence of the two rivers has been known as Day's Point since Virginia was settled by English colonists in the 17th century. Originally granted to Captain John Day, the land and surrounding area was known as Warrosquyoake Shire, one of the eight “shires” established after Jamestown in 1634, before it was renamed Isle of Wight County. In 1621 Nathaniel Basse, a member of the prominent Basse family, was granted the land that bordered Pagan Bay, calling it “Basses Choice”. Basse successfully settled colonists on this land in 1622, and established a thriving colony/tobacco plantation. His house was burned in the Great Massacre of 1622, when a significant number of settlers in Warrosquyoake were killed by Native Americans. The Powhatan natives killed all English settlers they found, including men, women, and children of varying ages. Chief Opechancanough, younger brother of the famous Chief Powhatan, led the coordinated series of surprise attacks, killing a total of 347 people, a quarter of the English population of the Virginia colony. Basse's settlement was rebuilt, and was reported as encompassing 300 acres in 1625. The land was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. | 490 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kętrzyn was surrounded by town walls in the years 1350-1378, after invasions and destruction incurred during the Lithuanian invasions from 1344 and 1347. Initially, there were timber and earth fortifications, which were gradually transformed into masonry. In the privilege from 1357, there are already two urban gates mentioned: “the gate from the side of Sątoczno” (later called the High Gate) and “the gate from the side of the mill”. The town was probably planned in advance, as one compact defense system, integrated with the castle and the fortified church of St. George.
Kętrzyn has long cared for the good condition of fortifications, helping with the collection of fees from goods imported into the town. It was also important to protect the city against foreigners, as various epidemics appeared in Prussia. In 1646 and 1648, the walls at the Mill Gate and the brick bridge in front of the High Gate were repaired. In 1653, roof covers on porches running at the top of the walls were replaced and the drawbridge suspended over the moat in front of the Mill Gate was repaired. In 1698, the existing wall breaks were patched with a palisade, and in 1700 the tower and a large part of the wall near the High Gate were rebuilt, which collapsed in the previous year. Thanks to this concern, it was possible to effectively protect the town against the plague epidemic that wreaked havoc in the years 1708-1711. Only three people died in Kętrzyn.
The second half of the 18th century brought destruction to the town’s fortifications. The great town fire of 1761 caused the demolition of defensive walls, which became a source of cheap building material for the reconstruction of the destroyed city. Both town gates were demolished in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The defensive wall was erected on the plan of an irregular quadrangle. In the south-west corner, the defensive function was served by the basilica of St. George, and in the south-east by the castle. The walls were built of brick on a stone plinth with a width of over 1 meter. Their height reached 10 meters. Later, they were crowned with a roof above the sidewalk of defenders, perhaps earlier they had only battlements. Walls were strengthened by 13 towers, their layout is not exactly known today, certainly were placed in the north – east and north – west corner.
Two gates led to the town: High and Mill on the north-south line, and additionally a water wicket gate at the church. This way led to the mill pond, which was, among other things, a source of water to extinguish frequent fires. The Mill Gate was placed near the castle, in the southern belt of the defensive walls, protected both by the backwaters and the proximity of the castle itself. Both gates were placed in the towers, the entrance to the High Gate was additionally flanked by two towers, protruded from the face of the walls. On the external side, there was a fairly wide zwinger, in front of the second, lower wall with an additional foregate. Each gate was preceded by a moat and a drawbridge. The High Gate defensive system was probably dictated by the weak defensive features of the area, which from the north was relatively flat.
To this day, the best preserved part of the fortifications is at the back of the church of St. George, in the north-west part and the tower in the north-eastern corner of the old town.
Czubiel L., Domagała T., Zabytkowe ośrodki miejskie Warmii i Mazur, Olsztyn 1969.
Webpage jerzysikorski.pl, Historia miasta Kętrzyn. | <urn:uuid:db07d927-b206-4f2f-a01c-8ca45d7d7def> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://medievalheritage.eu/en/main-page/heritage/poland/ketrzyn-city-defensive-walls/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00398.warc.gz | en | 0.98417 | 812 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.18631318... | 4 | Kętrzyn was surrounded by town walls in the years 1350-1378, after invasions and destruction incurred during the Lithuanian invasions from 1344 and 1347. Initially, there were timber and earth fortifications, which were gradually transformed into masonry. In the privilege from 1357, there are already two urban gates mentioned: “the gate from the side of Sątoczno” (later called the High Gate) and “the gate from the side of the mill”. The town was probably planned in advance, as one compact defense system, integrated with the castle and the fortified church of St. George.
Kętrzyn has long cared for the good condition of fortifications, helping with the collection of fees from goods imported into the town. It was also important to protect the city against foreigners, as various epidemics appeared in Prussia. In 1646 and 1648, the walls at the Mill Gate and the brick bridge in front of the High Gate were repaired. In 1653, roof covers on porches running at the top of the walls were replaced and the drawbridge suspended over the moat in front of the Mill Gate was repaired. In 1698, the existing wall breaks were patched with a palisade, and in 1700 the tower and a large part of the wall near the High Gate were rebuilt, which collapsed in the previous year. Thanks to this concern, it was possible to effectively protect the town against the plague epidemic that wreaked havoc in the years 1708-1711. Only three people died in Kętrzyn.
The second half of the 18th century brought destruction to the town’s fortifications. The great town fire of 1761 caused the demolition of defensive walls, which became a source of cheap building material for the reconstruction of the destroyed city. Both town gates were demolished in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The defensive wall was erected on the plan of an irregular quadrangle. In the south-west corner, the defensive function was served by the basilica of St. George, and in the south-east by the castle. The walls were built of brick on a stone plinth with a width of over 1 meter. Their height reached 10 meters. Later, they were crowned with a roof above the sidewalk of defenders, perhaps earlier they had only battlements. Walls were strengthened by 13 towers, their layout is not exactly known today, certainly were placed in the north – east and north – west corner.
Two gates led to the town: High and Mill on the north-south line, and additionally a water wicket gate at the church. This way led to the mill pond, which was, among other things, a source of water to extinguish frequent fires. The Mill Gate was placed near the castle, in the southern belt of the defensive walls, protected both by the backwaters and the proximity of the castle itself. Both gates were placed in the towers, the entrance to the High Gate was additionally flanked by two towers, protruded from the face of the walls. On the external side, there was a fairly wide zwinger, in front of the second, lower wall with an additional foregate. Each gate was preceded by a moat and a drawbridge. The High Gate defensive system was probably dictated by the weak defensive features of the area, which from the north was relatively flat.
To this day, the best preserved part of the fortifications is at the back of the church of St. George, in the north-west part and the tower in the north-eastern corner of the old town.
Czubiel L., Domagała T., Zabytkowe ośrodki miejskie Warmii i Mazur, Olsztyn 1969.
Webpage jerzysikorski.pl, Historia miasta Kętrzyn. | 829 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leading a country is a very involving affair. Not everyone can do it. With diversity in opinions and competing interests, a nation’s leader has a lot to do. He/she will have classes of people to appease, an economy to manage, a population to rule while balancing international relations. Nowadays, modern communications and vastly improved governance systems have lessened this burden. Most of our presidents, prime ministers, and monarchies have inherited systems that work. This is a far cry to their predecessors, especially those who were there before the 20th century.
With that difficulty in mind, imagine there were leaders who not only led a country but had an opportunity to lead another! The multiple countries they led were independent of each other and in some instances located in vastly different corners of the planet. A number of these nations were kingdoms and duchies. Their leaders either inherited, were appointed, given or elected to those positions by their family dynasties. Some chose to relinquish their previous thrones and take the new ones while others ruled their multiple states simultaneously.
Simón Bolívar (24 July 1783 – 17 Dec 1830): President of Gran Colombia, President of Peru, President of Bolivia
He is widely regarded as the “El Libertador” in much of South America. George Washington of Latin America. This is because he is considered one of the greatest heroes, if not the greatest, of Latin American wars of independence from Spanish rule at the beginning of the 19th century. Coming from a wealthy Venezuelan aristocratic family, he was a brilliant military leader who helped several South American states secede from Spanish rule. These states are Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Panama, Ecuador, and Bolivia, who adopted his name in his honor.
Due to his efforts, he was named the president of Gran Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. Gran Colombia encompassed the present states of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. He was the president of Gran Colombia between 1819 and 1830, president of Peru between 1824 and 1827 and president of Bolivia in 1825 (August to December) His dream was to have a united South America able to meet any emerging threats like the United States. This was not to be because civil war broke out between nations under his command. He died a disappointed man.
Henry III (19 Sept 1551 – 2 Aug 1589): King of Poland, King of France, Grand Duke of Lithuania
He was the third and favorite son of King Henry II of France and Catherine de Médicis of the prominent House of Médici. Being the favorite son meant great opportunities were made available to him the courtesy of, among others, his mother’s influence. One of those opportunities was the Polish throne. It had fallen vacant following the death of Sigismund II Augustus. A French diplomat, Jean de Monluc, was sent to negotiate for Henry III to be elected king instead of a candidate fronted by the House of Habsburg, another of the distinguished royal houses in Europe then. In exchange for Henry III’s election to the throne, the French agreed to provide military and diplomatic support to the Polish to help in dealing with the Russians and the Ottoman Empire respectively. This was on top of financial subsidies. He became king of Poland in 1573, which also made him automatically the Grand Duke of Lithuania and head of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In 1574, his only remaining older brother, Charles IX King of France, who had succeeded to the throne through a series of unfortunate deaths, also died. He had no surviving heirs so Henry III, at only 22 years old, abandoned his Polish throne and went back to France to become king. He was crowned king in 1575. During his reign, France was being wrecked by Wars of Religion. The consequences of these wars were to cost him his life as a Catholic fanatic assassinated him in 1589. Having no heirs either because his young brother had died young, the reign of the House of Valois ended with him.
James I and VI (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625): King of Scotland, King of England & Ireland
James was born of Queen Mary of Scotland and Lord Darnley. He became King James VI of Scotland after his mother was forced to abdicate when he was just a year old in 1567. As he was too young, the kingdom was ruled on his behalf by a succession of regents while the king was being educated. Most historians consider this education to have positively impacted his rule of Scotland later. He became a nominal ruler in 1576 when he was 12 and took complete control of Scotland in 1581. Like King, he was able to successfully navigate the conflict between the Catholics, and the Protestants by playing them off each other. This gave him space to rule Scotland.
While he was King of Scotland, he dreamt of being the ruler of England instead. This fantasy made him befriend Queen Elizabeth I, the queen of England and Ireland at the time. As she was childless, he hoped his friendship would put him in an excellent position to succeed her. He was able to achieve this in 1603 when Elizabeth I died, becoming King James I. After he became King of England and Ireland, he ignored Scotland with only one recorded visit in 1617. One of his contributions you might recognize is the Authorized King James version of the Bible which he commissioned in 1611.
Pedro I and IV (12 Oct 1798 – 24 Sep 1834): Emperor of Brazil, King of Portugal
Pedro, I was the founding emperor of the Brazilian empire, where he ruled between 1822 and 1831. He was the fourth son of King João of Portugal and Queen Carlota Joaquina. When the French, led by Napoleon, invaded Portugal, the family fled to Brazil. His dad returned to Portugal in 1821, leaving him behind to be in-charge of Brazil as the regent. Tensions between Brazil and Portugal led to the regent to side with Brazil by declaring its independence in 7th Sept 1822. Subsequently, he became its first emperor at just 24 in December as Pedro I.
In 10th March 1826, while still emperor of Brazil, his father died, and he inherited the Portuguese throne as King Pedro IV. This only lasted for two months. In Francisco de Aragão Morato’s memoirs, it is claimed that the king, aware of the bad blood between Brazil and Portugal, realized his new position was untenable. He, therefore, relinquished the Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, Maria da Glória. However, this did not hinder him from getting involved in Portuguese politics as his daughter’s position was shaky. Eventually, he abdicated the Brazilian throne for his son and returned to Portugal to bolster his daughter’s claim to the throne.
Joseph Bonaparte (7 Jan 1768 – 28 July 1844): King of Naples, King of Spain
Joseph Bonaparte was a French lawyer, diplomat, and soldier. He was also the elder brother of Napoleon. After the death of their father Napoleon Bonaparte, Joseph became the head of the family, where he helped his mother to look after his siblings and their farm. Together with Napoleon, they worked together on family businesses as well as being part of the French revolution. Napoleon used his brother’s skills in diplomacy to negotiate several treaties, conventions, and negotiations like the Treaty of Lunéville with Austria in 1801 and the Treaty of Amiens with the British in 1802.
In 1806, Joseph was installed by Napoleon as the King of Naples after the expulsion of the Bourbon dynasty. As the king, Joseph is credited with transforming the kingdom from a backward state to a state with functioning systems like courts, banks, and schools. In 1808, Napoleon made him king of Spain. His tenure there was markedly less successful despite his considerable effort. The Spanish were absolutely against his rule. They forced him out of the capital after just three months. He was only able to return with the help of French troops. After Napoleon’s defeat, Joseph fled to America, where he settled in New York and Philadelphia.
Adolphe (24 July 1817 – 17 Nov 1905): Duke of Nassau, Grand Duke of Luxembourg
He was the eldest son of Duke of Nassau William and his first wife. Following the death of his father, he inherited the Duchy of Nassau in 1839. The Seven Weeks’ War of 1886 was a war between Prussia and Austria in which Austria was defeated. Because the duke had sided with Austria during the war, Prussia annexed Nassau and forced the duke to abdicate. This he did formally in 1867.
Luxembourg in those days always found itself as part of one nation or another. Between 1815 and 1839, it was part of The Netherlands as a Grand Duchy under King Willem III. In 1839, the Treaty of London brought about the Kingdom of Belgium and a new independent Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. This grand duchy, although independent, was still connected to the Netherlands. King Willem III was also the Grand Duke of Luxembourg. When the king died in 1890, he had no male heirs. The Salic law, which prevented females from inheriting a throne, was active in the Grand Duchy but not in the Netherlands. Therefore, the king’s daughter, Wilhelmina, could only ascend to the Dutch throne. Another agreement called the Nassau Family Pact meant the Grand Duchy throne passed on to Adolphe. He became the Grand Duke of Luxembourg in 1890, and the union between Netherlands and Luxembourg came to an end.
Stanislaw I Leszczynski (20 Oct 1677 – 23 Feb 1766): King of Poland, Duke of Lorraine
He was born to a prominent and influential family in Poland. When the King of Sweden, Charles XII, invaded Poland in 1702, he forced the abdication of Augustus II, the then King of Poland. Charles XII then installed Stanislaw as the new King of Poland in 1704. During that period, Poland was a weak country that became a proving ground for foreign militaries. They marched, plundered and ravaged it at will. In 1709 Battle of Poltava, the Russians defeated the Swedish army, and Charles XII withdrew from Poland. This meant Stanislaw was unprotected and Augustus II retook his throne. Stanislaw fled the country and settled in France.
In 1733, Augustus II died, and Stanislaw with the help of the French was elected as Polish king in the Diet, Polish parliament. Austria and Russia, however, thwarted attempts to crown him by invading the country and forcing the Diet to elect Frederick Augustus II as the new king instead, to be known as King Augustus III. They had feared Stanislaw would try to ally with France and Sweden. He fled Warsaw, waited for the French to help him retake his throne but help did not come. He then decided to engage in guerilla tactics against the Russians and their allies. These efforts culminated to the Peace Treaty of Vienna in 1738 which recognized Augustus III as the Polish King. As a consolation, Stanislaw was given Duchies of Lorraine and Bar to rule for life. Among his achievements there included promoting economic development, creating a great cultural center in Lunéville and founding of science academy in Nancy.
Francis I (8 Dec 1708 – 18 Aug 1765): Holy Roman Emperor, Archduke of Austria, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Duke of Lorraine
One thing to note about Francis I is that most of his titles came due to his marriage. His wife was Maria Theresa, the Archduchess of Austria, Queen of Hungary and heiress to the Roman Empire. Together with his wife, they founded the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. As the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI accepted the Duke of Lorraine, his marriage to Maria on the condition, he helps to end the Polish succession war between Augustus II and Stanislaw I by ceding Lorraine to Stanislaw. He in return succeeded Gian Gastone as the Grand Duke of Tuscany. These arrangements formed part of the Peace Treaty of Vienna of 1738.
After the death of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in 1740, there was a war of succession as France tried to, among others, support Charles Albert’s claim to the throne. Charles Albert was the elector of Bavaria. When Charles Albert, now emperor Charles VII, died in 1745, Francis was elected the Holy Roman emperor. As the emperor, he did not do much because it was his wife, who held the powers.
Sigismund III Vasa (20 June 1566 – 30 April 1632): King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, King of Sweden
Sigismund was the son of King John III of Sweden and his first wife, the Polish princess Catherine Jagellonica. He was elected King of Poland in 1587 after the death of his uncle, King Stephen Báthory. The throne came with an agreement to reduce the powers of the crown and increase powers of the Diet. At the time, Poland was part of Poland-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Having the successor to the Swedish throne as the King of Poland, it was hoped, would help settle the territorial issues the Commonwealth had with Sweden.
In 1592 when his father died, Sigismund sought and was permitted by the Diet to succeed him as the King of Sweden. He became king in 1594 and afterward appointed his uncle Charles to run the country on his behalf as regent. As the king of both countries, he tried to create a Polish-Swedish union, but it ultimately failed. His uncle, the regent, rebelled and succeeded in deposing him in 1599 to become King Charles IX. Sigismund now obsessed with the lost throne, went to war with Sweden on several occasions trying to get it back. His efforts only made things worse. He never regained the Swedish Kingdom, and Poland lost significant territories and international standing as a result.
Charles III (20 January 1716 – 14 December 1788): King of Spain, King of Naples and Sicily
He was widely regarded as one of the enlightened rulers in the 1700s. Son of King Philip V of Spain and his second wife Elizabeth Farnese of Pharma, he inherited the Duchy of Pharma due to his mother’s influence in 1731. She did not see how her son could be king of Spain as her husband had older sons with his first wife. She schemed some more and had Charles become king of Naples and Sicily in 1736. His rule was a success, and he was hugely popular with his subjects.
When his father died, the Spanish crown passed on to his only older brother alive at the time Ferdinand who became Ferdinand VI in 1746. Ferdinand died in 1759 leaving behind no children making Charles the heir apparent. Charles stepped down from the throne of Naples and Sicily and took up the Spanish throne as King Charles III. His reign was marked by economic as well as administrative reforms. | <urn:uuid:a2d5812d-635f-4728-bb65-97075742a05f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://listgecko.com/leaders-in-more-than-one-country/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.986768 | 3,136 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.31516650319099426,... | 5 | Leading a country is a very involving affair. Not everyone can do it. With diversity in opinions and competing interests, a nation’s leader has a lot to do. He/she will have classes of people to appease, an economy to manage, a population to rule while balancing international relations. Nowadays, modern communications and vastly improved governance systems have lessened this burden. Most of our presidents, prime ministers, and monarchies have inherited systems that work. This is a far cry to their predecessors, especially those who were there before the 20th century.
With that difficulty in mind, imagine there were leaders who not only led a country but had an opportunity to lead another! The multiple countries they led were independent of each other and in some instances located in vastly different corners of the planet. A number of these nations were kingdoms and duchies. Their leaders either inherited, were appointed, given or elected to those positions by their family dynasties. Some chose to relinquish their previous thrones and take the new ones while others ruled their multiple states simultaneously.
Simón Bolívar (24 July 1783 – 17 Dec 1830): President of Gran Colombia, President of Peru, President of Bolivia
He is widely regarded as the “El Libertador” in much of South America. George Washington of Latin America. This is because he is considered one of the greatest heroes, if not the greatest, of Latin American wars of independence from Spanish rule at the beginning of the 19th century. Coming from a wealthy Venezuelan aristocratic family, he was a brilliant military leader who helped several South American states secede from Spanish rule. These states are Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Panama, Ecuador, and Bolivia, who adopted his name in his honor.
Due to his efforts, he was named the president of Gran Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. Gran Colombia encompassed the present states of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. He was the president of Gran Colombia between 1819 and 1830, president of Peru between 1824 and 1827 and president of Bolivia in 1825 (August to December) His dream was to have a united South America able to meet any emerging threats like the United States. This was not to be because civil war broke out between nations under his command. He died a disappointed man.
Henry III (19 Sept 1551 – 2 Aug 1589): King of Poland, King of France, Grand Duke of Lithuania
He was the third and favorite son of King Henry II of France and Catherine de Médicis of the prominent House of Médici. Being the favorite son meant great opportunities were made available to him the courtesy of, among others, his mother’s influence. One of those opportunities was the Polish throne. It had fallen vacant following the death of Sigismund II Augustus. A French diplomat, Jean de Monluc, was sent to negotiate for Henry III to be elected king instead of a candidate fronted by the House of Habsburg, another of the distinguished royal houses in Europe then. In exchange for Henry III’s election to the throne, the French agreed to provide military and diplomatic support to the Polish to help in dealing with the Russians and the Ottoman Empire respectively. This was on top of financial subsidies. He became king of Poland in 1573, which also made him automatically the Grand Duke of Lithuania and head of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In 1574, his only remaining older brother, Charles IX King of France, who had succeeded to the throne through a series of unfortunate deaths, also died. He had no surviving heirs so Henry III, at only 22 years old, abandoned his Polish throne and went back to France to become king. He was crowned king in 1575. During his reign, France was being wrecked by Wars of Religion. The consequences of these wars were to cost him his life as a Catholic fanatic assassinated him in 1589. Having no heirs either because his young brother had died young, the reign of the House of Valois ended with him.
James I and VI (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625): King of Scotland, King of England & Ireland
James was born of Queen Mary of Scotland and Lord Darnley. He became King James VI of Scotland after his mother was forced to abdicate when he was just a year old in 1567. As he was too young, the kingdom was ruled on his behalf by a succession of regents while the king was being educated. Most historians consider this education to have positively impacted his rule of Scotland later. He became a nominal ruler in 1576 when he was 12 and took complete control of Scotland in 1581. Like King, he was able to successfully navigate the conflict between the Catholics, and the Protestants by playing them off each other. This gave him space to rule Scotland.
While he was King of Scotland, he dreamt of being the ruler of England instead. This fantasy made him befriend Queen Elizabeth I, the queen of England and Ireland at the time. As she was childless, he hoped his friendship would put him in an excellent position to succeed her. He was able to achieve this in 1603 when Elizabeth I died, becoming King James I. After he became King of England and Ireland, he ignored Scotland with only one recorded visit in 1617. One of his contributions you might recognize is the Authorized King James version of the Bible which he commissioned in 1611.
Pedro I and IV (12 Oct 1798 – 24 Sep 1834): Emperor of Brazil, King of Portugal
Pedro, I was the founding emperor of the Brazilian empire, where he ruled between 1822 and 1831. He was the fourth son of King João of Portugal and Queen Carlota Joaquina. When the French, led by Napoleon, invaded Portugal, the family fled to Brazil. His dad returned to Portugal in 1821, leaving him behind to be in-charge of Brazil as the regent. Tensions between Brazil and Portugal led to the regent to side with Brazil by declaring its independence in 7th Sept 1822. Subsequently, he became its first emperor at just 24 in December as Pedro I.
In 10th March 1826, while still emperor of Brazil, his father died, and he inherited the Portuguese throne as King Pedro IV. This only lasted for two months. In Francisco de Aragão Morato’s memoirs, it is claimed that the king, aware of the bad blood between Brazil and Portugal, realized his new position was untenable. He, therefore, relinquished the Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, Maria da Glória. However, this did not hinder him from getting involved in Portuguese politics as his daughter’s position was shaky. Eventually, he abdicated the Brazilian throne for his son and returned to Portugal to bolster his daughter’s claim to the throne.
Joseph Bonaparte (7 Jan 1768 – 28 July 1844): King of Naples, King of Spain
Joseph Bonaparte was a French lawyer, diplomat, and soldier. He was also the elder brother of Napoleon. After the death of their father Napoleon Bonaparte, Joseph became the head of the family, where he helped his mother to look after his siblings and their farm. Together with Napoleon, they worked together on family businesses as well as being part of the French revolution. Napoleon used his brother’s skills in diplomacy to negotiate several treaties, conventions, and negotiations like the Treaty of Lunéville with Austria in 1801 and the Treaty of Amiens with the British in 1802.
In 1806, Joseph was installed by Napoleon as the King of Naples after the expulsion of the Bourbon dynasty. As the king, Joseph is credited with transforming the kingdom from a backward state to a state with functioning systems like courts, banks, and schools. In 1808, Napoleon made him king of Spain. His tenure there was markedly less successful despite his considerable effort. The Spanish were absolutely against his rule. They forced him out of the capital after just three months. He was only able to return with the help of French troops. After Napoleon’s defeat, Joseph fled to America, where he settled in New York and Philadelphia.
Adolphe (24 July 1817 – 17 Nov 1905): Duke of Nassau, Grand Duke of Luxembourg
He was the eldest son of Duke of Nassau William and his first wife. Following the death of his father, he inherited the Duchy of Nassau in 1839. The Seven Weeks’ War of 1886 was a war between Prussia and Austria in which Austria was defeated. Because the duke had sided with Austria during the war, Prussia annexed Nassau and forced the duke to abdicate. This he did formally in 1867.
Luxembourg in those days always found itself as part of one nation or another. Between 1815 and 1839, it was part of The Netherlands as a Grand Duchy under King Willem III. In 1839, the Treaty of London brought about the Kingdom of Belgium and a new independent Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. This grand duchy, although independent, was still connected to the Netherlands. King Willem III was also the Grand Duke of Luxembourg. When the king died in 1890, he had no male heirs. The Salic law, which prevented females from inheriting a throne, was active in the Grand Duchy but not in the Netherlands. Therefore, the king’s daughter, Wilhelmina, could only ascend to the Dutch throne. Another agreement called the Nassau Family Pact meant the Grand Duchy throne passed on to Adolphe. He became the Grand Duke of Luxembourg in 1890, and the union between Netherlands and Luxembourg came to an end.
Stanislaw I Leszczynski (20 Oct 1677 – 23 Feb 1766): King of Poland, Duke of Lorraine
He was born to a prominent and influential family in Poland. When the King of Sweden, Charles XII, invaded Poland in 1702, he forced the abdication of Augustus II, the then King of Poland. Charles XII then installed Stanislaw as the new King of Poland in 1704. During that period, Poland was a weak country that became a proving ground for foreign militaries. They marched, plundered and ravaged it at will. In 1709 Battle of Poltava, the Russians defeated the Swedish army, and Charles XII withdrew from Poland. This meant Stanislaw was unprotected and Augustus II retook his throne. Stanislaw fled the country and settled in France.
In 1733, Augustus II died, and Stanislaw with the help of the French was elected as Polish king in the Diet, Polish parliament. Austria and Russia, however, thwarted attempts to crown him by invading the country and forcing the Diet to elect Frederick Augustus II as the new king instead, to be known as King Augustus III. They had feared Stanislaw would try to ally with France and Sweden. He fled Warsaw, waited for the French to help him retake his throne but help did not come. He then decided to engage in guerilla tactics against the Russians and their allies. These efforts culminated to the Peace Treaty of Vienna in 1738 which recognized Augustus III as the Polish King. As a consolation, Stanislaw was given Duchies of Lorraine and Bar to rule for life. Among his achievements there included promoting economic development, creating a great cultural center in Lunéville and founding of science academy in Nancy.
Francis I (8 Dec 1708 – 18 Aug 1765): Holy Roman Emperor, Archduke of Austria, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Duke of Lorraine
One thing to note about Francis I is that most of his titles came due to his marriage. His wife was Maria Theresa, the Archduchess of Austria, Queen of Hungary and heiress to the Roman Empire. Together with his wife, they founded the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. As the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI accepted the Duke of Lorraine, his marriage to Maria on the condition, he helps to end the Polish succession war between Augustus II and Stanislaw I by ceding Lorraine to Stanislaw. He in return succeeded Gian Gastone as the Grand Duke of Tuscany. These arrangements formed part of the Peace Treaty of Vienna of 1738.
After the death of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in 1740, there was a war of succession as France tried to, among others, support Charles Albert’s claim to the throne. Charles Albert was the elector of Bavaria. When Charles Albert, now emperor Charles VII, died in 1745, Francis was elected the Holy Roman emperor. As the emperor, he did not do much because it was his wife, who held the powers.
Sigismund III Vasa (20 June 1566 – 30 April 1632): King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, King of Sweden
Sigismund was the son of King John III of Sweden and his first wife, the Polish princess Catherine Jagellonica. He was elected King of Poland in 1587 after the death of his uncle, King Stephen Báthory. The throne came with an agreement to reduce the powers of the crown and increase powers of the Diet. At the time, Poland was part of Poland-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Having the successor to the Swedish throne as the King of Poland, it was hoped, would help settle the territorial issues the Commonwealth had with Sweden.
In 1592 when his father died, Sigismund sought and was permitted by the Diet to succeed him as the King of Sweden. He became king in 1594 and afterward appointed his uncle Charles to run the country on his behalf as regent. As the king of both countries, he tried to create a Polish-Swedish union, but it ultimately failed. His uncle, the regent, rebelled and succeeded in deposing him in 1599 to become King Charles IX. Sigismund now obsessed with the lost throne, went to war with Sweden on several occasions trying to get it back. His efforts only made things worse. He never regained the Swedish Kingdom, and Poland lost significant territories and international standing as a result.
Charles III (20 January 1716 – 14 December 1788): King of Spain, King of Naples and Sicily
He was widely regarded as one of the enlightened rulers in the 1700s. Son of King Philip V of Spain and his second wife Elizabeth Farnese of Pharma, he inherited the Duchy of Pharma due to his mother’s influence in 1731. She did not see how her son could be king of Spain as her husband had older sons with his first wife. She schemed some more and had Charles become king of Naples and Sicily in 1736. His rule was a success, and he was hugely popular with his subjects.
When his father died, the Spanish crown passed on to his only older brother alive at the time Ferdinand who became Ferdinand VI in 1746. Ferdinand died in 1759 leaving behind no children making Charles the heir apparent. Charles stepped down from the throne of Naples and Sicily and took up the Spanish throne as King Charles III. His reign was marked by economic as well as administrative reforms. | 3,335 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This illustration from our Victorian Picture Library (www.victorianpicturelibrary.com) shows a tennis tournament in late Victorian times. A mixed doubles match is underway. The ladies are at a considerable disadvantage with their long, billowing dresses and broad-brimmed hats.
Before tennis became popular only the well-to-do young woman could enjoy herself in mixed-sex sports, by following the traditional upper-class recreations like hunting and riding. Women from the rising commercial classes were at a distinct disadvantage. Tennis, however, offered them a unique opportunity to discover new circles of friends, as well as meet suitable young men in sedate doubles matches. By Edwardian times tennis was a must at garden parties.
Tactics would have favoured today’s base-line players: it was considered very bad form to dash to the net and volley or smash. Lobbing was unheard-of, and the ball was to be patted gently back and forth.
Ladies were allowed to serve under¬arm: if they had made any attempt at over-arm serving they would have knocked off their hats. The tennis authorities had suggested that the ball should be allowed to bounce twice to give the ladies time to get about the court, but the idea was rejected.
The game was very different from today, with all the grunting, swearing and objecting that are a regular feature of Wimbledon. | <urn:uuid:7a4eca45-e1d0-4812-beb8-9b8fc235361a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://terencesackett.wordpress.com/2018/07/20/please-no-volleying-or-grunting/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00041.warc.gz | en | 0.983717 | 286 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.0745945721864... | 1 | This illustration from our Victorian Picture Library (www.victorianpicturelibrary.com) shows a tennis tournament in late Victorian times. A mixed doubles match is underway. The ladies are at a considerable disadvantage with their long, billowing dresses and broad-brimmed hats.
Before tennis became popular only the well-to-do young woman could enjoy herself in mixed-sex sports, by following the traditional upper-class recreations like hunting and riding. Women from the rising commercial classes were at a distinct disadvantage. Tennis, however, offered them a unique opportunity to discover new circles of friends, as well as meet suitable young men in sedate doubles matches. By Edwardian times tennis was a must at garden parties.
Tactics would have favoured today’s base-line players: it was considered very bad form to dash to the net and volley or smash. Lobbing was unheard-of, and the ball was to be patted gently back and forth.
Ladies were allowed to serve under¬arm: if they had made any attempt at over-arm serving they would have knocked off their hats. The tennis authorities had suggested that the ball should be allowed to bounce twice to give the ladies time to get about the court, but the idea was rejected.
The game was very different from today, with all the grunting, swearing and objecting that are a regular feature of Wimbledon. | 269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are countries where people don’t have that many rights.
They may be imprisoned for giving their opinion. American citizens have very many rights, for example, the freedom of speech, and the U.S. Bill of Rights is protecting these freedoms.
The next lesson: Geography USA
Continue learning. To make this work well, Americans must partake in government. Adults citizens may be participating by voting, serving on juries, and paying taxes. Also, citizens can obey laws or be working on changing unfair laws.
One way of asking their governments to make some changes is through writing a petition. These citizens will write their ideas or thoughts in a petition and will ask other civilians to read it. If people agree with the ideas, they can sign the petition and when many people have signed the petition, the concerned citizens will hand it over to their government. There are times that these petitions will lead to new laws.
All U.S. citizens have the responsibility to treat other people as well as their rights with respect.
Why Do We Vote
In 1787, our founding fathers wrote the U.S. Constitution. They didn’t want any dictatorship and were turning the United States into a democracy. In democracies, citizens have the power to elect their leaders and in the United States, the people vote for those representatives that are sharing their ideas.
Consequently, these representatives will make decisions and laws for the nation. Voting belongs to the most important rights of a country’s citizens but it also represents a responsibility.
When the U.S. started out, only white men were allowed to vote. Women, American Indians, and African Americans had to work for many years to win their right to vote. Now, all U.S. citizens 18 years of age and older have voting rights (In some states, however, the privilege to vote can be taken away for a felony).
The 2000 presidential election showed how each and everyone ’s vote matters. In Florida, at that election, only a couple of hundred votes were deciding who was to become president. In fact. that election was so very close that all the votes needed to be counted again and again. Finally, the U.S.
Supreme Court decided that George W. Bush won the election so he became President.
Last Updated on | <urn:uuid:5da21da2-0b76-44aa-8f6b-5fccc88a3074> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bestgedclasses.org/american-citizen-rights-and-responsibilities/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00180.warc.gz | en | 0.982337 | 478 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.09131643176... | 2 | There are countries where people don’t have that many rights.
They may be imprisoned for giving their opinion. American citizens have very many rights, for example, the freedom of speech, and the U.S. Bill of Rights is protecting these freedoms.
The next lesson: Geography USA
Continue learning. To make this work well, Americans must partake in government. Adults citizens may be participating by voting, serving on juries, and paying taxes. Also, citizens can obey laws or be working on changing unfair laws.
One way of asking their governments to make some changes is through writing a petition. These citizens will write their ideas or thoughts in a petition and will ask other civilians to read it. If people agree with the ideas, they can sign the petition and when many people have signed the petition, the concerned citizens will hand it over to their government. There are times that these petitions will lead to new laws.
All U.S. citizens have the responsibility to treat other people as well as their rights with respect.
Why Do We Vote
In 1787, our founding fathers wrote the U.S. Constitution. They didn’t want any dictatorship and were turning the United States into a democracy. In democracies, citizens have the power to elect their leaders and in the United States, the people vote for those representatives that are sharing their ideas.
Consequently, these representatives will make decisions and laws for the nation. Voting belongs to the most important rights of a country’s citizens but it also represents a responsibility.
When the U.S. started out, only white men were allowed to vote. Women, American Indians, and African Americans had to work for many years to win their right to vote. Now, all U.S. citizens 18 years of age and older have voting rights (In some states, however, the privilege to vote can be taken away for a felony).
The 2000 presidential election showed how each and everyone ’s vote matters. In Florida, at that election, only a couple of hundred votes were deciding who was to become president. In fact. that election was so very close that all the votes needed to be counted again and again. Finally, the U.S.
Supreme Court decided that George W. Bush won the election so he became President.
Last Updated on | 464 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Scientist Victor Frankenstein
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley is a story of a scientist, Victor Frankenstein, who creates life in the form of a monster. Although Frankenstein resolves to hating the creature after he kills a majority of Victor’s family, there are many reasons why the creature and him are similar in personalities. When Frankenstein created the creature he made a doppelganger, which is a complex representation of two character s through literature, of himself (Webber). Throughout the book it is apparent in personality, actions, and thoughts, that Frankenstein and the creature are just alike.
At the beginning of both Frankenstein and the creature’s lives they were filled with a yearning for knowledge. Victor aimed to learn as much as he could about science and human life. He surrounded himself with books and learning and even left for college at 17, “From this day natural philosophy, and particularly chemistry, became nearly my sole occupation” (pg. 31). After reaching Ingolstadt, Victor’s quest for knowledge grew to the point where he was isolating himself from his family, “I proceeded, and soon became so ardent and eager that the stars often disappeared in the light of the morning whilst I was yet engaged in my laboratory” (pg. 1).
On the other hand, the creature had a different quest for knowledge. The creature was fascinated with humans, and he wanted to learn everything he could to become a part of their world. He read, learned about the habits of humans, and listened to the words they spoke to each other. Using books, the creature was able to relate himself to humans, “The possession of these treasures gave me extreme delight; I now continually studied and exercised my mind upon these treasuries” (pg. 92).
Although Frankenstein and the creature possessed the desire to learn different things, their love of knowledge and learning is what makes them similar. Frankenstein’s monster is a projection of Frankenstein’s loneliness and the evil inside him; therefore, making the monster feel like an outsider, ugly, and lonely. The creature’s rejection from society caused a deep hatred of humans in him, “My sufferings were augmented also by the oppressive sense of the injustice and ingratitude of their infliction.
My daily vows rose for revenge-a deep and deadly revenge, such as would alone compensate for the outrages and anguish I had endured” (pg. 103). When the creature saw his reflection for the first time he realized how different he looked from society, and he saw how ugly he truly was. The creature knew then that no one would accept him into their life, “‘When I looked around I saw and heard of none like me. Was I, the, a monster, a blot upon the earth from which all men fled and whom all men disowned” (pg. 86).
Due to the abandonment of Victor, and the rejection of the DeLacey family, when the creature discovers William in the woods and hears of his last name he can not control his anger towards society and murders him. Along with the creature, Victor had similar feelings. He created a hatred within himself because he felt what happened with the monster was his fault. Victor blamed himself for the deaths of the people closest to him, and he isolated himself from society in order ensure nobody else he cared about would be hurt, “I shunned the face of man; all sound of joy or complacency was torture to me; solitude was my only consolation” (pg. 2).
Victor also lived in constant fear of the creature, trying to not only protect his family but himself as well, he would often travel alone and would not keep his family updated on where he was and what he was doing. The struggles that both Frankenstein and the creature endured through their life caused the same feeling of hatred towards society and the want to isolate themselves. At the end of the book Victor and the creature began to feel sorrow and remorse for what they felt they had done.
After Frankenstein’s death the creature realizes all the wrong he has caused, and he became overwhelmed with the guilt of killing Victor’s family. “Polluted by crimes, and torn by the bitterest remorse, where can I find rest but in death” (pg. 165). When the creature found Victor dead he was overcome with sorrow and guilt, for he realized that Victor did not deserve all the pain that he had put him through, “But it is true that I am a wretch.
I have murdered the lovely and the helpless; I have strangled the innocent as they slept, and grasped to death his throat who never injured me or any other living thing. I have devoted my creator, the select specimen of all that is worthy of love and admiration among men, to misery (pg. 164). Victor felt the same sorrow and guilt, he was the one who created the creature and allowed it to cause such turmoil in his life, “Remorse extinguished every hope, I had been the author of unalterable evil; and I lived in daily fear” (pg. 63).
Victor truly believed he was the cause of his loved one’s premature deaths, and continued to blame himself for it. “Justine, poor unhappy Justine, was as innocent as I, and she suffered the same charge; she died for it; and I am the cause of this–I murdered her. William, Justine, and Henry–they all died by my hands. ” (pg. 137). The connection between Victor and his creature allowed them to feel guilt for the sorrow they caused each other. Victor’s creation of the monster is represented by the isolation and sorrows that Victor feels himself.
To further shows the similarities between Frankenstein and the creature, Mary Shelley omitted a name for the creature, resulting in many people going by the creature as Frankenstein, this further blends the similarities of the two characters together (“Frankenstein”). Victor Frankenstein and the creature are doppelgangers of each other because they share a passion for knowledge, a life filled with loneliness and isolation, and remorse and sorrow near their death because of the pain they have caused each other. | <urn:uuid:757c9270-2ce2-4b0c-8521-38241ab0efc1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/the-scientist-victor-frankenstein-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00088.warc.gz | en | 0.983368 | 1,283 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.00979145988... | 1 | The Scientist Victor Frankenstein
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley is a story of a scientist, Victor Frankenstein, who creates life in the form of a monster. Although Frankenstein resolves to hating the creature after he kills a majority of Victor’s family, there are many reasons why the creature and him are similar in personalities. When Frankenstein created the creature he made a doppelganger, which is a complex representation of two character s through literature, of himself (Webber). Throughout the book it is apparent in personality, actions, and thoughts, that Frankenstein and the creature are just alike.
At the beginning of both Frankenstein and the creature’s lives they were filled with a yearning for knowledge. Victor aimed to learn as much as he could about science and human life. He surrounded himself with books and learning and even left for college at 17, “From this day natural philosophy, and particularly chemistry, became nearly my sole occupation” (pg. 31). After reaching Ingolstadt, Victor’s quest for knowledge grew to the point where he was isolating himself from his family, “I proceeded, and soon became so ardent and eager that the stars often disappeared in the light of the morning whilst I was yet engaged in my laboratory” (pg. 1).
On the other hand, the creature had a different quest for knowledge. The creature was fascinated with humans, and he wanted to learn everything he could to become a part of their world. He read, learned about the habits of humans, and listened to the words they spoke to each other. Using books, the creature was able to relate himself to humans, “The possession of these treasures gave me extreme delight; I now continually studied and exercised my mind upon these treasuries” (pg. 92).
Although Frankenstein and the creature possessed the desire to learn different things, their love of knowledge and learning is what makes them similar. Frankenstein’s monster is a projection of Frankenstein’s loneliness and the evil inside him; therefore, making the monster feel like an outsider, ugly, and lonely. The creature’s rejection from society caused a deep hatred of humans in him, “My sufferings were augmented also by the oppressive sense of the injustice and ingratitude of their infliction.
My daily vows rose for revenge-a deep and deadly revenge, such as would alone compensate for the outrages and anguish I had endured” (pg. 103). When the creature saw his reflection for the first time he realized how different he looked from society, and he saw how ugly he truly was. The creature knew then that no one would accept him into their life, “‘When I looked around I saw and heard of none like me. Was I, the, a monster, a blot upon the earth from which all men fled and whom all men disowned” (pg. 86).
Due to the abandonment of Victor, and the rejection of the DeLacey family, when the creature discovers William in the woods and hears of his last name he can not control his anger towards society and murders him. Along with the creature, Victor had similar feelings. He created a hatred within himself because he felt what happened with the monster was his fault. Victor blamed himself for the deaths of the people closest to him, and he isolated himself from society in order ensure nobody else he cared about would be hurt, “I shunned the face of man; all sound of joy or complacency was torture to me; solitude was my only consolation” (pg. 2).
Victor also lived in constant fear of the creature, trying to not only protect his family but himself as well, he would often travel alone and would not keep his family updated on where he was and what he was doing. The struggles that both Frankenstein and the creature endured through their life caused the same feeling of hatred towards society and the want to isolate themselves. At the end of the book Victor and the creature began to feel sorrow and remorse for what they felt they had done.
After Frankenstein’s death the creature realizes all the wrong he has caused, and he became overwhelmed with the guilt of killing Victor’s family. “Polluted by crimes, and torn by the bitterest remorse, where can I find rest but in death” (pg. 165). When the creature found Victor dead he was overcome with sorrow and guilt, for he realized that Victor did not deserve all the pain that he had put him through, “But it is true that I am a wretch.
I have murdered the lovely and the helpless; I have strangled the innocent as they slept, and grasped to death his throat who never injured me or any other living thing. I have devoted my creator, the select specimen of all that is worthy of love and admiration among men, to misery (pg. 164). Victor felt the same sorrow and guilt, he was the one who created the creature and allowed it to cause such turmoil in his life, “Remorse extinguished every hope, I had been the author of unalterable evil; and I lived in daily fear” (pg. 63).
Victor truly believed he was the cause of his loved one’s premature deaths, and continued to blame himself for it. “Justine, poor unhappy Justine, was as innocent as I, and she suffered the same charge; she died for it; and I am the cause of this–I murdered her. William, Justine, and Henry–they all died by my hands. ” (pg. 137). The connection between Victor and his creature allowed them to feel guilt for the sorrow they caused each other. Victor’s creation of the monster is represented by the isolation and sorrows that Victor feels himself.
To further shows the similarities between Frankenstein and the creature, Mary Shelley omitted a name for the creature, resulting in many people going by the creature as Frankenstein, this further blends the similarities of the two characters together (“Frankenstein”). Victor Frankenstein and the creature are doppelgangers of each other because they share a passion for knowledge, a life filled with loneliness and isolation, and remorse and sorrow near their death because of the pain they have caused each other. | 1,267 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Historically, the Native Americans of the Confederated Tribes of Warms Springs were known as the tribes and bands of middle Oregon.
The Warm Springs Reservation was created by the Treaty of 1855. There would be three tribes living on the reservation, the Warm Springs tribe, Wasco tribe, and Paiute tribe.
The Warms Springs and Wasco tribes consist of different bands. The Paiutes were not formed together in bands or villages like the other tribes of the reservation. They were more nomadic and lived in family groups. They were introduced to the reservation by U.S. military authorities in 1879, when 38 Paiutes were moved from the Yakama Reservation.
On June 25, 1855, chiefs and headmen of the tribes and bands of middle Oregon gathered at Wasco near The Dalles to meet Joel Palmer, superintendent of Indian Affairs for Oregon Territory. A council was held and articles of the treaty were translated and the treaty was signed by representatives of the tribes. Presents were then distributed among the Native Americans.
The 1855 treaty established a reservation of approximately 639,000 acres. The tribes ceded almost 11,000 square miles of land to the United States government for approximately two cents per acre and the assurance that the U.S. government would improve their way of life. The Warm Spring Nation had never engaged in hostilities against the United States or its citizens. The tribes provided scouts and soldiers in campaigns against other Native Americans.
In 1856, a few families of the bands moved onto land of the new reservation. Others followed by early 1858 and began clearing land in preparation for agricultural farming in an environment they were unfamiliar with. The first season was unfavorable for good crop production and it was a harsh winter for survival. The tribes were dependent on meager supplies provided by the agency superintendent.
The Treaty of 1855 was ratified on March 8, 1859, shortly after the formation of the state of Oregon, and nearly four years after the bands of Native Americans had gathered along the Columbia to sign away the title to land on which they and their ancestors had lived for centuries.
Steve Lent is a local historian and assistant director of the Bowman Museum. He can be reached at 541-447-3715.
You count on us to stay informed and we depend on you to fund our efforts. Quality local journalism takes time and money. Please support us to protect the future of community journalism. | <urn:uuid:c9bf83d0-15b4-400a-ba90-f277eb87d516> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pamplinmedia.com/msp/129-news/419458-322379-warm-springs-reservation-story-begins-with-treaty?tmpl=component&print=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.984091 | 495 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.16537034511566162... | 1 | Historically, the Native Americans of the Confederated Tribes of Warms Springs were known as the tribes and bands of middle Oregon.
The Warm Springs Reservation was created by the Treaty of 1855. There would be three tribes living on the reservation, the Warm Springs tribe, Wasco tribe, and Paiute tribe.
The Warms Springs and Wasco tribes consist of different bands. The Paiutes were not formed together in bands or villages like the other tribes of the reservation. They were more nomadic and lived in family groups. They were introduced to the reservation by U.S. military authorities in 1879, when 38 Paiutes were moved from the Yakama Reservation.
On June 25, 1855, chiefs and headmen of the tribes and bands of middle Oregon gathered at Wasco near The Dalles to meet Joel Palmer, superintendent of Indian Affairs for Oregon Territory. A council was held and articles of the treaty were translated and the treaty was signed by representatives of the tribes. Presents were then distributed among the Native Americans.
The 1855 treaty established a reservation of approximately 639,000 acres. The tribes ceded almost 11,000 square miles of land to the United States government for approximately two cents per acre and the assurance that the U.S. government would improve their way of life. The Warm Spring Nation had never engaged in hostilities against the United States or its citizens. The tribes provided scouts and soldiers in campaigns against other Native Americans.
In 1856, a few families of the bands moved onto land of the new reservation. Others followed by early 1858 and began clearing land in preparation for agricultural farming in an environment they were unfamiliar with. The first season was unfavorable for good crop production and it was a harsh winter for survival. The tribes were dependent on meager supplies provided by the agency superintendent.
The Treaty of 1855 was ratified on March 8, 1859, shortly after the formation of the state of Oregon, and nearly four years after the bands of Native Americans had gathered along the Columbia to sign away the title to land on which they and their ancestors had lived for centuries.
Steve Lent is a local historian and assistant director of the Bowman Museum. He can be reached at 541-447-3715.
You count on us to stay informed and we depend on you to fund our efforts. Quality local journalism takes time and money. Please support us to protect the future of community journalism. | 527 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Two of its main crops are cotton and corn.
- Mississippi River.
- Skippeees Secrets to a Happy Life.
- Out of the Past (Heritage Time Travel Romance Series: PG-13 All Iowa Edition)?
- Into the Abyss (Tom Swift, Young Inventor)!
- Missouri History Databases and other Helpful Links.
It is also well-known for its cattle. On August 10, , Missouri became the 24th state. At that time, it was also the most western state in the Union. Settlers from all over the United States flocked to Missouri for multiple reasons. For one thing, the 24th state is known for its various crops and fertile soil. It also has a wide variety of terrain.
So, settlers from the Appalachian area, New England, and the Ohio Valley all came to Missouri, as well as settlers from Europe, Germany, and other regions.
How the Mississippi River Made Mark Twain… And Vice Versa
There were four major periods of time where people migrated to Missouri. The first migratory period was when the French and Spanish each controlled part of the region. They wanted United States settlers to come, as opposed to having the British try to gain control of the land. Colonel George Morgan led a group of American colonists who founded the first American settlement in the area by New Madrid. Another major settlement, Mine au Breton, was established by Moses Austin in Then Daniel Boone was given 1, arpents of land and he brought settlers to the area.
His group soon settled in what is now known as St. Charles County. German-Swiss immigrants also settled in what is now Missouri in Their settlements were in present-day Bollinger and Cape Girardeau counties.
Reminiscences of Pioneer Life - Robert Ray Latta - Google книги
The second time that settlers flocked to Missouri was after it became part of the United States, which happened in In , the population of Missouri was 10, By , when it gained its statehood, the population was greater than 65, Many boundary changes also occurred during that time. Researchers need to familiarize themselves with when those boundaries were altered in order to locate the records of interest.
The next time that large groups of people came to Missouri was from to During that era, immigrants came to the area along the Missouri, Mississippi and Ohio rivers. Many of them were on their way to the Kansas frontier. Most of the immigrants at that time came from Kentucky, but immigrants from the following other states also flocked to the area: Tennessee , Virginia , Ohio , Indiana , Illinois.
In the course of the day I met a large party of Winnebagoes, who were 15 moving and were traveling across my track.
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I was not then much acquainted with the Indians, and hardly knew what would be the best course to pursue, but concluded it was best to pass right along among them, as though I was not at all disturbed. They gathered around me, and all I could under stand was that they wanted bread. I was skating along, as that time, on a large pond, and the Indian boys followed after me, very much pleased with this, to them, novel way of going.
Now they commenced looking for their corn, beans, and dried squashes they had cached in the fall. This was done by good hiding. The most common way was to select a dry piece of ground where there was a blue grass sod.
- Renewable Energys Impact Upon Hydrocarbon Dominance?
- My Masters Slave;
- Bestselling Series.
- Tears from Heaven: An Exploration of Emotion Through Poetry;
This sod was laid aside, and then a large hole dug, enlarging as they went down, to the depth of five or six feet, so as to make it of sufficient size to hold the corn, beans, squashes, and sometimes crab apples of one family. These were put in sacks of their own making. They then put in bark on the bottom and sides. Then they were covered with bark and filled with dirt, and the sod was carefully replaced, so as to make it look perfectly natural. More filters. Sort order. Gary rated it it was amazing Mar 12, William rated it it was amazing Dec 13, D marked it as to-read Jul 01, Star Shining Forever marked it as to-read Sep 15, Joy Jensen marked it as to-read Jun 04, There are no discussion topics on this book yet.
About John W. John W. Books by John W. Trivia About Reminiscences of No trivia or quizzes yet. | <urn:uuid:4ea60ae0-a1f9-4a8f-bd32-eba81687040b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://webyjuhafy.tk/nonfiction/reminiscences-of-pioneer-life-in-the-mississippi-valley.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.9841 | 962 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.07723413... | 1 | Two of its main crops are cotton and corn.
- Mississippi River.
- Skippeees Secrets to a Happy Life.
- Out of the Past (Heritage Time Travel Romance Series: PG-13 All Iowa Edition)?
- Into the Abyss (Tom Swift, Young Inventor)!
- Missouri History Databases and other Helpful Links.
It is also well-known for its cattle. On August 10, , Missouri became the 24th state. At that time, it was also the most western state in the Union. Settlers from all over the United States flocked to Missouri for multiple reasons. For one thing, the 24th state is known for its various crops and fertile soil. It also has a wide variety of terrain.
So, settlers from the Appalachian area, New England, and the Ohio Valley all came to Missouri, as well as settlers from Europe, Germany, and other regions.
How the Mississippi River Made Mark Twain… And Vice Versa
There were four major periods of time where people migrated to Missouri. The first migratory period was when the French and Spanish each controlled part of the region. They wanted United States settlers to come, as opposed to having the British try to gain control of the land. Colonel George Morgan led a group of American colonists who founded the first American settlement in the area by New Madrid. Another major settlement, Mine au Breton, was established by Moses Austin in Then Daniel Boone was given 1, arpents of land and he brought settlers to the area.
His group soon settled in what is now known as St. Charles County. German-Swiss immigrants also settled in what is now Missouri in Their settlements were in present-day Bollinger and Cape Girardeau counties.
Reminiscences of Pioneer Life - Robert Ray Latta - Google книги
The second time that settlers flocked to Missouri was after it became part of the United States, which happened in In , the population of Missouri was 10, By , when it gained its statehood, the population was greater than 65, Many boundary changes also occurred during that time. Researchers need to familiarize themselves with when those boundaries were altered in order to locate the records of interest.
The next time that large groups of people came to Missouri was from to During that era, immigrants came to the area along the Missouri, Mississippi and Ohio rivers. Many of them were on their way to the Kansas frontier. Most of the immigrants at that time came from Kentucky, but immigrants from the following other states also flocked to the area: Tennessee , Virginia , Ohio , Indiana , Illinois.
In the course of the day I met a large party of Winnebagoes, who were 15 moving and were traveling across my track.
Browse Free Online Books and eBooks:
I was not then much acquainted with the Indians, and hardly knew what would be the best course to pursue, but concluded it was best to pass right along among them, as though I was not at all disturbed. They gathered around me, and all I could under stand was that they wanted bread. I was skating along, as that time, on a large pond, and the Indian boys followed after me, very much pleased with this, to them, novel way of going.
Now they commenced looking for their corn, beans, and dried squashes they had cached in the fall. This was done by good hiding. The most common way was to select a dry piece of ground where there was a blue grass sod.
- Renewable Energys Impact Upon Hydrocarbon Dominance?
- My Masters Slave;
- Bestselling Series.
- Tears from Heaven: An Exploration of Emotion Through Poetry;
This sod was laid aside, and then a large hole dug, enlarging as they went down, to the depth of five or six feet, so as to make it of sufficient size to hold the corn, beans, squashes, and sometimes crab apples of one family. These were put in sacks of their own making. They then put in bark on the bottom and sides. Then they were covered with bark and filled with dirt, and the sod was carefully replaced, so as to make it look perfectly natural. More filters. Sort order. Gary rated it it was amazing Mar 12, William rated it it was amazing Dec 13, D marked it as to-read Jul 01, Star Shining Forever marked it as to-read Sep 15, Joy Jensen marked it as to-read Jun 04, There are no discussion topics on this book yet.
About John W. John W. Books by John W. Trivia About Reminiscences of No trivia or quizzes yet. | 951 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The most extreme precursor to the Reform movement was a man by the name of Samuel Holdheim. He was born in 1806 in Kempo in the province of Posen. At a young age he studied at a yeshiva and received a Talmudic education. He began to study German and secular subjects after his marriage to a woman with a modern education. After their divorce several years later, he began studying at the University of Prague and Berlin and received a doctorate from the University of Leipzig. Following service in Frankfurt -Am-Oder he became a Landesrabbiner or chief Rabbi of Mecklenberg-Schewerin. In the year 1847 he became the rabbinate of a reform congregation in Berlin . At this point he already disapproved of most liberal Rabbis and came to be known as the most exemplar of reform Rabbis in all of Europe ( 241)
The question comes to mind as to what exactly triggered this different belief in Judaism which differed significantly from previous tenents. It started during the time of the French revolution, a time when European Jews were (for the first time) recognized as citizens of the countries in which they lived in. Ghettos were being abolished, special badges were no longer required and Jews could dress the way they wanted, settle were they pleased and work the occupations they desired.
Many Jews settled outside of Jewish districts, and began to live like their neighbors and speak the language of the land. They went to public schools and began to neglect Jewish Studies and forget about he Shulchan Aruch.
In 1815, after Napoleon's defeat, Jews lost the rights of citizenship in many countries. Many Jews converted to Christianity in order to retain those rights. Many thoughtful Jews were concerned about this. They realized that many of these changes took place not because of a dislike for Judaism, but in order to obtain better treatment. Many rabbis believed that the way to address this was to force Jews to give up public schools and universities. This didn't work.
Rabbis suggested that observance might have to be changed in order to appeal to the Jew living the modern world. They realized that every now and then old practices and new ones were introduced, resulting in a different lifestyle then 4000 or even 2000 years previously. They fathomed that these changes often made life easier for the Jew. They concluded that in order to make Judaism attractive to all Jews this change had to continue. A group of Rabbis assembled in Germany, and changes began, thus developed the start of Reform Judaism. Holdheim a reform Rabbi himself felt that the Jews living during his time period should change the laws given to them at Mt. Sinai and the halacha that the Talmud and Mishna state. Holdheim believed that the laws of the Torah and the Talmud that were in effect when the Jews had their own country and government have lost their legitimacy. Judaism now had to be in accord with both the letter and the spirit of laws of the nations they were living among. Even the laws of the Torah whose source was God had to be regarded as valid for certain times and places as he said " with the change of the circumstances and conditions of life for which God once gave those laws , the laws themselves cease to be operative, that they shall be observed no longer because they no longer can be observed". Thus , Holdheim said that the biblical and Talmudic laws concerning marriage, divorce and personal status are no longer relevant and the Jews in these cases should be ruled by the state government (Sasson 835). He concluded that laws between man and man should be left to the rule of the state they lived in but questions of prayer and religious institutions should be left to the Rabbis because prayer was the most important part of religious life.
Holdheim denied the authority of the Talmudic dicta, the oral law. He says that it was written by the hand of man but was divinely inspired. His conclusion was that Jewish life should be based on spiritual and ethical guidance of the Torah. Even though he didn't reject the Talmud and Mishna one-hundred percent for him they were no longer used for Jewish law but storehouses of wisdom and ethics (Gay 155). Illustrations of commandments that he rejected during this time period were the celebration of Shabbat on Saturday. The reason for this was there was normal school on Saturdays and the Jews felt school was more important than observing the word of God (Gay 155). Holdheim also went a little far fetched and said that he couldn't find anything wrong with intermarriage , even though the Torah clearly states it. He also stated in 1844 that circumcision wasn't required even though he had absolutely no reason for this( 243). Other important beliefs of Holdheim were anti-Zionism, the observance of only one day festivals and that men and women should be treated equally in terms of mitzvot (Gay 155). Most of these changes in the religion were so that the Jews should adapt with the nation they were living in. Since they themselves didn't constitute a nation and these laws were prerogatives of the state the Jews should abide by the law of the land (Sasson 835).
Reform Judaism wasn't the only way of belief during this time period. Others like Samson Raphael Hirsch went in the totally opposite direction of Holdheim. Hirsch felt that Judaism had to be observed the way we were told to under almost any and every circumstance(Gay 154). If Hirsch wouldn't have taken this different stand a true Jewish nation wouldn't exist today. Holdheim didn't realize that he was weakening the nation and could have ultimately led to the extinction of the Jewish people. | <urn:uuid:5c369cbb-32d1-4ebe-b65f-e20062bc6c25> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.novelguide.com/reportessay/history/general-history/reform-judaism-19th-century | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.988555 | 1,160 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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-0.2212837040... | 1 | The most extreme precursor to the Reform movement was a man by the name of Samuel Holdheim. He was born in 1806 in Kempo in the province of Posen. At a young age he studied at a yeshiva and received a Talmudic education. He began to study German and secular subjects after his marriage to a woman with a modern education. After their divorce several years later, he began studying at the University of Prague and Berlin and received a doctorate from the University of Leipzig. Following service in Frankfurt -Am-Oder he became a Landesrabbiner or chief Rabbi of Mecklenberg-Schewerin. In the year 1847 he became the rabbinate of a reform congregation in Berlin . At this point he already disapproved of most liberal Rabbis and came to be known as the most exemplar of reform Rabbis in all of Europe ( 241)
The question comes to mind as to what exactly triggered this different belief in Judaism which differed significantly from previous tenents. It started during the time of the French revolution, a time when European Jews were (for the first time) recognized as citizens of the countries in which they lived in. Ghettos were being abolished, special badges were no longer required and Jews could dress the way they wanted, settle were they pleased and work the occupations they desired.
Many Jews settled outside of Jewish districts, and began to live like their neighbors and speak the language of the land. They went to public schools and began to neglect Jewish Studies and forget about he Shulchan Aruch.
In 1815, after Napoleon's defeat, Jews lost the rights of citizenship in many countries. Many Jews converted to Christianity in order to retain those rights. Many thoughtful Jews were concerned about this. They realized that many of these changes took place not because of a dislike for Judaism, but in order to obtain better treatment. Many rabbis believed that the way to address this was to force Jews to give up public schools and universities. This didn't work.
Rabbis suggested that observance might have to be changed in order to appeal to the Jew living the modern world. They realized that every now and then old practices and new ones were introduced, resulting in a different lifestyle then 4000 or even 2000 years previously. They fathomed that these changes often made life easier for the Jew. They concluded that in order to make Judaism attractive to all Jews this change had to continue. A group of Rabbis assembled in Germany, and changes began, thus developed the start of Reform Judaism. Holdheim a reform Rabbi himself felt that the Jews living during his time period should change the laws given to them at Mt. Sinai and the halacha that the Talmud and Mishna state. Holdheim believed that the laws of the Torah and the Talmud that were in effect when the Jews had their own country and government have lost their legitimacy. Judaism now had to be in accord with both the letter and the spirit of laws of the nations they were living among. Even the laws of the Torah whose source was God had to be regarded as valid for certain times and places as he said " with the change of the circumstances and conditions of life for which God once gave those laws , the laws themselves cease to be operative, that they shall be observed no longer because they no longer can be observed". Thus , Holdheim said that the biblical and Talmudic laws concerning marriage, divorce and personal status are no longer relevant and the Jews in these cases should be ruled by the state government (Sasson 835). He concluded that laws between man and man should be left to the rule of the state they lived in but questions of prayer and religious institutions should be left to the Rabbis because prayer was the most important part of religious life.
Holdheim denied the authority of the Talmudic dicta, the oral law. He says that it was written by the hand of man but was divinely inspired. His conclusion was that Jewish life should be based on spiritual and ethical guidance of the Torah. Even though he didn't reject the Talmud and Mishna one-hundred percent for him they were no longer used for Jewish law but storehouses of wisdom and ethics (Gay 155). Illustrations of commandments that he rejected during this time period were the celebration of Shabbat on Saturday. The reason for this was there was normal school on Saturdays and the Jews felt school was more important than observing the word of God (Gay 155). Holdheim also went a little far fetched and said that he couldn't find anything wrong with intermarriage , even though the Torah clearly states it. He also stated in 1844 that circumcision wasn't required even though he had absolutely no reason for this( 243). Other important beliefs of Holdheim were anti-Zionism, the observance of only one day festivals and that men and women should be treated equally in terms of mitzvot (Gay 155). Most of these changes in the religion were so that the Jews should adapt with the nation they were living in. Since they themselves didn't constitute a nation and these laws were prerogatives of the state the Jews should abide by the law of the land (Sasson 835).
Reform Judaism wasn't the only way of belief during this time period. Others like Samson Raphael Hirsch went in the totally opposite direction of Holdheim. Hirsch felt that Judaism had to be observed the way we were told to under almost any and every circumstance(Gay 154). If Hirsch wouldn't have taken this different stand a true Jewish nation wouldn't exist today. Holdheim didn't realize that he was weakening the nation and could have ultimately led to the extinction of the Jewish people. | 1,204 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Garrison, Nebraska facts for kids
Location of Garrison, Nebraska
|• Total||0.11 sq mi (0.28 km2)|
|• Land||0.11 sq mi (0.28 km2)|
|• Water||0 sq mi (0 km2)|
|Elevation||1,601 ft (488 m)|
|• Estimate (2012)||53|
|• Density||490.9/sq mi (189.5/km2)|
|Time zone||Central (CST) (UTC-6)|
|• Summer (DST)||CDT (UTC-5)|
|GNIS feature ID||0829468|
Garrison was laid out ca. the late 1870s when the railroad was extended to that point. It was named for abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison.
A post office was established in Garrison in 1880, and remained in operation until it was discontinued in 1965.
Garrison is located at(41.175518, -97.164883).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0.11 square miles (0.28 km2), all of it land.
As of the census of 2010, there were 54 people, 23 households, and 15 families residing in the village. The population density was 490.9 inhabitants per square mile (189.5/km2). There were 28 housing units at an average density of 254.5 per square mile (98.3/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 100.0% White. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.9% of the population.
There were 23 households of which 26.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.8% were married couples living together, 17.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.8% were non-families. 26.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 13% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.93.
The median age in the village was 40.5 years. 22.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26% were from 25 to 44; 33.4% were from 45 to 64; and 13% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 61.1% male and 38.9% female.
As of the census of 2000, there were 67 people, 27 households, and 14 families residing in the village. The population density was 572.3 people per square mile (215.6/km²). There were 31 housing units at an average density of 264.8 per square mile (99.7/km²). The racial makeup of the village was 95.52% White and 4.48% Native American.
There were 27 households out of which 40.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.1% were married couples living together, 3.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 48.1% were non-families. 40.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.71.
In the village, the population was spread out with 35.8% under the age of 18, 3.0% from 18 to 24, 31.3% from 25 to 44, 16.4% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 86.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.5 males.
As of 2000 the median income for a household in the village was $32,917, and the median income for a family was $51,000. Males had a median income of $31,250 versus $26,500 for females. The per capita income for the village was $17,317. There were no families and 9.2% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and none of those over 64.
Garrison, Nebraska Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:0f4bc117-beab-4470-8a18-934f4e19c722> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Garrison,_Nebraska | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00146.warc.gz | en | 0.982383 | 936 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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Location of Garrison, Nebraska
|• Total||0.11 sq mi (0.28 km2)|
|• Land||0.11 sq mi (0.28 km2)|
|• Water||0 sq mi (0 km2)|
|Elevation||1,601 ft (488 m)|
|• Estimate (2012)||53|
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Garrison was laid out ca. the late 1870s when the railroad was extended to that point. It was named for abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison.
A post office was established in Garrison in 1880, and remained in operation until it was discontinued in 1965.
Garrison is located at(41.175518, -97.164883).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0.11 square miles (0.28 km2), all of it land.
As of the census of 2010, there were 54 people, 23 households, and 15 families residing in the village. The population density was 490.9 inhabitants per square mile (189.5/km2). There were 28 housing units at an average density of 254.5 per square mile (98.3/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 100.0% White. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.9% of the population.
There were 23 households of which 26.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.8% were married couples living together, 17.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.8% were non-families. 26.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 13% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.93.
The median age in the village was 40.5 years. 22.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26% were from 25 to 44; 33.4% were from 45 to 64; and 13% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 61.1% male and 38.9% female.
As of the census of 2000, there were 67 people, 27 households, and 14 families residing in the village. The population density was 572.3 people per square mile (215.6/km²). There were 31 housing units at an average density of 264.8 per square mile (99.7/km²). The racial makeup of the village was 95.52% White and 4.48% Native American.
There were 27 households out of which 40.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.1% were married couples living together, 3.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 48.1% were non-families. 40.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.71.
In the village, the population was spread out with 35.8% under the age of 18, 3.0% from 18 to 24, 31.3% from 25 to 44, 16.4% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 86.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.5 males.
As of 2000 the median income for a household in the village was $32,917, and the median income for a family was $51,000. Males had a median income of $31,250 versus $26,500 for females. The per capita income for the village was $17,317. There were no families and 9.2% of the population living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and none of those over 64.
Garrison, Nebraska Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 1,144 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day: Sturt begins river exploration
ON 10 NOVEMBER 1828, the English explorer Charles Sturt set out from Sydney on his expedition of the westward-flowing rivers in south-east Australia, thus beginning a historic venture to determine if an inland sea lay in the unexplored country beyond the Blue Mountains.
Colonists had discovered rivers at their sources west and north of Sydney, but these flowed westward, away from the known coastline. As Australia had been recently confirmed as a whole continent instead of two potentially large islands, many hoped for agricultural reasons that the rivers led to a large inland body of water they could exploit.
Sturt – commemorated today with numerous places and institutions that carry his name – was born in India in 1795 and joined the British army when he was 18. He was “someone who was often in the wrong place at the wrong time,” says Denise Schumann, historian and cultural heritage adviser for Norwood Council in South Australia.
“He arrived in Europe three days after the Battle of Waterloo, and had terrible luck in his [military] expeditions,” she says. “But he was fortunate to learn surveying and drawing while in France following the war. When a role escorting convicts with his regiment brought him to Australia in 1827, he managed to use this knowledge to explore previously unvisited land”.
Solving a mystery
Sturt began his expedition along the Macquarie River to the north-west of Sydney, and on 2 February 1829, discovered that the this river flowed into the previously unknown Darling River in what is now north-west NSW. He named the new river for Sir Ralph Darling, then governor of NSW.
Soon after, the expedition’s supplies began to run low due to severe drought and Sturt fell ill, forcing them back to Sydney on 21 April. The team had proved that northern NSW had no inland sea, but they had deepened the mystery about where the rivers flowed.
After Sturt recovered, they set off again on 3 November 1829, this time along the Murrumbidgee River, south of the Macquarie. On the 14 January 1830, 900km into their journey, they discovered the Murray River into which the Murrumbidgee flows. Sturt named the Murray for Sir George Murray, secretary of state for the colonies.
Sturt followed the Murray River until it reached a large body of water thinking he’d discovered something new. But it was Lake Alexandrina, where the Murray River meets the sea on the SA coast, and it had already been discovered two years earlier.
Sturt later wrote about the discovery: “Immediately below me was a beautiful lake which appeared to be a fitting reservoir for the noble stream which had led us to it. Even while grazing at this fine scene I could not but regret that the Murray had thus terminated, for I immediately foresaw that in all probability we should be disappointed in finding any practicable communication between the lake and the ocean.”
Sturt’s mission to map the westward flowing rivers was completed over two expeditions, detailed here. (Credit: Project Gutenberg)
A sea too late
Nevertheless, by reaching the end of the Murray River, Sturt had shown that all the known westward-running rivers eventually flowed into the sea at the coastline of SA, says Denise. But this didn’t disprove the idea of an inland sea further west. Sturt spent some time back in England and didn’t go exploring again for another 14 years, but the idea of an inland sea was something he never gave up thinking about.
In 1844 he set out again determined to find it – or at least the dry centre of the continent, which was now looking more likely – his expedition trekked up the north-west of NSW and carried on into the dry heart, making it as far as the Simpson Desert, and the centre of the continent, in November 1845.
“He didn’t find an inland sea and was disappointed to disprove its existence, but he was nevertheless the first to find the centre of Australia,” says Denise. “It’s ironic because the desert is an extinct sea, so technically he found what he was looking for, but in the wrong era!”
Sturt wanted to continue north, but was afflicted with a serious case of scurvy, so he headed back south, concluding his efforts to help re-write the map of the eastern half of Australia.
According to the Australian Dictionary of Biography, “although Sturt probably entered his career as an explorer through influence, his selection was justified by results. He was a careful and accurate observer and an intelligent interpreter of what he saw, and it was unfortunate that much of his work revealed nothing but desolation… He remained throughout his life an English Tory gentleman with an unshakeable faith in God [and] will always be remembered…as the first to chart the Murray River.” | <urn:uuid:f6e723a6-ecd0-47e8-8ec4-3a7c3d9915b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2013/11/on-this-day-sturt-begins-river-exploration/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.984137 | 1,040 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.5473188161849... | 6 | On this day: Sturt begins river exploration
ON 10 NOVEMBER 1828, the English explorer Charles Sturt set out from Sydney on his expedition of the westward-flowing rivers in south-east Australia, thus beginning a historic venture to determine if an inland sea lay in the unexplored country beyond the Blue Mountains.
Colonists had discovered rivers at their sources west and north of Sydney, but these flowed westward, away from the known coastline. As Australia had been recently confirmed as a whole continent instead of two potentially large islands, many hoped for agricultural reasons that the rivers led to a large inland body of water they could exploit.
Sturt – commemorated today with numerous places and institutions that carry his name – was born in India in 1795 and joined the British army when he was 18. He was “someone who was often in the wrong place at the wrong time,” says Denise Schumann, historian and cultural heritage adviser for Norwood Council in South Australia.
“He arrived in Europe three days after the Battle of Waterloo, and had terrible luck in his [military] expeditions,” she says. “But he was fortunate to learn surveying and drawing while in France following the war. When a role escorting convicts with his regiment brought him to Australia in 1827, he managed to use this knowledge to explore previously unvisited land”.
Solving a mystery
Sturt began his expedition along the Macquarie River to the north-west of Sydney, and on 2 February 1829, discovered that the this river flowed into the previously unknown Darling River in what is now north-west NSW. He named the new river for Sir Ralph Darling, then governor of NSW.
Soon after, the expedition’s supplies began to run low due to severe drought and Sturt fell ill, forcing them back to Sydney on 21 April. The team had proved that northern NSW had no inland sea, but they had deepened the mystery about where the rivers flowed.
After Sturt recovered, they set off again on 3 November 1829, this time along the Murrumbidgee River, south of the Macquarie. On the 14 January 1830, 900km into their journey, they discovered the Murray River into which the Murrumbidgee flows. Sturt named the Murray for Sir George Murray, secretary of state for the colonies.
Sturt followed the Murray River until it reached a large body of water thinking he’d discovered something new. But it was Lake Alexandrina, where the Murray River meets the sea on the SA coast, and it had already been discovered two years earlier.
Sturt later wrote about the discovery: “Immediately below me was a beautiful lake which appeared to be a fitting reservoir for the noble stream which had led us to it. Even while grazing at this fine scene I could not but regret that the Murray had thus terminated, for I immediately foresaw that in all probability we should be disappointed in finding any practicable communication between the lake and the ocean.”
Sturt’s mission to map the westward flowing rivers was completed over two expeditions, detailed here. (Credit: Project Gutenberg)
A sea too late
Nevertheless, by reaching the end of the Murray River, Sturt had shown that all the known westward-running rivers eventually flowed into the sea at the coastline of SA, says Denise. But this didn’t disprove the idea of an inland sea further west. Sturt spent some time back in England and didn’t go exploring again for another 14 years, but the idea of an inland sea was something he never gave up thinking about.
In 1844 he set out again determined to find it – or at least the dry centre of the continent, which was now looking more likely – his expedition trekked up the north-west of NSW and carried on into the dry heart, making it as far as the Simpson Desert, and the centre of the continent, in November 1845.
“He didn’t find an inland sea and was disappointed to disprove its existence, but he was nevertheless the first to find the centre of Australia,” says Denise. “It’s ironic because the desert is an extinct sea, so technically he found what he was looking for, but in the wrong era!”
Sturt wanted to continue north, but was afflicted with a serious case of scurvy, so he headed back south, concluding his efforts to help re-write the map of the eastern half of Australia.
According to the Australian Dictionary of Biography, “although Sturt probably entered his career as an explorer through influence, his selection was justified by results. He was a careful and accurate observer and an intelligent interpreter of what he saw, and it was unfortunate that much of his work revealed nothing but desolation… He remained throughout his life an English Tory gentleman with an unshakeable faith in God [and] will always be remembered…as the first to chart the Murray River.” | 1,024 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Captain John Smith was an English soldier, explorer, admiral, and author, Smith established the first permanent English settlement in North America at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. He was clearly a hero, as he led the exploration of Virginia and the Chesapeake Bay, managed the settlement of Jamestown, fought and negotiated with Native Americans, and recorded a number of historic books and maps that encouraged more exploration of the New World. However, he was also a proud and boastful man, which has made it difficult to determine which parts of his life are fact and which are fiction.
He was born in January 1580 in Willoughby, England and attended grammar school for just three years while also helping out on the family farm. However, after his father died when he was just 16, John set off to sea. He served as a mercenary in the army of King Henry IV of France against the Spaniards, fought for Dutch independence from the Spanish King Phillip II. Two years later, he set off for the Mediterranean Sea, working on a merchant ship. In 1600, he joined the Austrian Forces to fight the Turks in the “Long War.”
A valiant soldier, he was promoted to Captain while fighting in Hungary. He was fighting in Transylvania two years later in 1602. There he was wounded in battle, captured, and sold as a slave to a Turk. This Turk then sent Smith to Istanbul as a gift to his sweetheart. According to Smith, this girl fell in love with him and sent him to her brother to get training for the Turkish imperial service. Smith reportedly escaped by murdering the brother, and he returned to Transylvania by fleeing through Russia and Poland. After being released from service and receiving a large reward, he traveled throughout Europe and Northern Africa before returning to England in the winter of 1604-05.
Apparently restless in England, Smith became actively involved with the Virginia Company’s plans to colonize Virginia for profit in 1606. The expedition, composed of three ships, set sail on December 20, 1606, and finally reached Virginia in April 1607, after enduring a long voyage of over four months. Smith was apparently a troublemaker on the voyage, and Captain Christopher Newport, who was in charge of the three ships, had planned to execute him upon arrival in Virginia. However, before he did so, Newport opened a sealed box that listed the names of the seven council members who were to govern the colony, and Smith’s name was on the list. For the next few weeks, the expedition searched for a suitable site and on May 13, 1607, landed at Jamestown ready to begin the task of surviving in a new environment.
The first year, the settlers faced a number of problems including lack of freshwater, disease, a very harsh winter, and attacks by the native Powhatan Indians, nearly destroying them. The Indians, angered at the intrusion upon their territory and trying to drive the settlers away, raided their camps and stole their supplies.
In December 1607, while Smith was searching for food on the Chickahominy River, he was captured by a Powhatan chief named Opechancanough and taken back to the camp of the Powhatan Confederacy’s primary chief, Powhatan, to decide his fate. Chief Powhatan was apparently greatly impressed by Smith’s self-confidence and was also fascinated by the mystical instruments which Smith carried with him, such as an ivory and glass pocket compass. Smith was questioned about his colony and then made to take part in some sort of ritual or trial, after which, in keeping with Indian custom, he was made a subordinate chief in the tribe.
Powhatan’s 11-year-old daughter Pocahontas took part in the ceremony in some way. Smith was constantly unsure of his fate, and he was convinced afterward that Pocahontas had saved his life. Smith was released in friendship after about four weeks of captivity and returned to Jamestown, guided by the Indians.
Meanwhile, dissent within the colony fermented due to laziness, lack of supplies, and periodic attempts at desertion by many of the colonists. Personal conflicts, as well as disagreements over new policies being formulated in London, developed among Smith and various leaders.
As a result, Smith left Jamestown to explore and map the Chesapeake Bay region and search for badly needed food supplies. Due to bad government and near chaos, Smith eventually became president of the local council in September 1608. He instituted a policy of rigid discipline, strengthened defenses and encouraged farming with this admonishment: “He who does not work, will not eat.” Because of his strong leadership, the settlement survived and grew during the next year. Unfortunately, Smith was accidentally injured by a gunpowder burn and had to return to England for treatment in October 1609. He would never return to Virginia again.
In London, he actively promoted the further colonization of Virginia, encouraging more Englishmen and women to follow the trail he had blazed and to colonize the New World, later saying: “Here every man may be master and owner of his owne labour and land…If he have nothing but his hands, he may…by industrie quickly grow rich.” However, because of his independence, he was unpopular with the Virginia Company and would not be asked to return.
Though he would not again go to Virginia, in April 1614, he returned to the New World in a successful voyage to the Maine and Massachusetts Bay areas. With the approval of Prince Charles, he named this region New England. He would make two more attempts to return to the same coast, but the first attempt failed due to a major storm that dismasted his ship. In the second attempt in 1615, he was captured by French pirates off the Azores. Smith escaped after weeks of captivity and made his way back to England. He was denied further opportunities to return to America and spent the rest of his life writing books until his death in 1631 at age 51. He was buried in the church of St. Sepulchre-without-Newgate, the largest Parish Church in the City of London.
Though his message and writings would attract millions of people to the United States over the next centuries, much of his written words were questioned due to the differences between his narratives over time. In later writings, including the scene where he gave Pocahontas credit for saving his life, these were much changed or left out of previous writings. These changes, coupled with his boastful manner, have made much of his remembrances obscure and questionable.
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-0.00605406705290... | 8 | Captain John Smith was an English soldier, explorer, admiral, and author, Smith established the first permanent English settlement in North America at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. He was clearly a hero, as he led the exploration of Virginia and the Chesapeake Bay, managed the settlement of Jamestown, fought and negotiated with Native Americans, and recorded a number of historic books and maps that encouraged more exploration of the New World. However, he was also a proud and boastful man, which has made it difficult to determine which parts of his life are fact and which are fiction.
He was born in January 1580 in Willoughby, England and attended grammar school for just three years while also helping out on the family farm. However, after his father died when he was just 16, John set off to sea. He served as a mercenary in the army of King Henry IV of France against the Spaniards, fought for Dutch independence from the Spanish King Phillip II. Two years later, he set off for the Mediterranean Sea, working on a merchant ship. In 1600, he joined the Austrian Forces to fight the Turks in the “Long War.”
A valiant soldier, he was promoted to Captain while fighting in Hungary. He was fighting in Transylvania two years later in 1602. There he was wounded in battle, captured, and sold as a slave to a Turk. This Turk then sent Smith to Istanbul as a gift to his sweetheart. According to Smith, this girl fell in love with him and sent him to her brother to get training for the Turkish imperial service. Smith reportedly escaped by murdering the brother, and he returned to Transylvania by fleeing through Russia and Poland. After being released from service and receiving a large reward, he traveled throughout Europe and Northern Africa before returning to England in the winter of 1604-05.
Apparently restless in England, Smith became actively involved with the Virginia Company’s plans to colonize Virginia for profit in 1606. The expedition, composed of three ships, set sail on December 20, 1606, and finally reached Virginia in April 1607, after enduring a long voyage of over four months. Smith was apparently a troublemaker on the voyage, and Captain Christopher Newport, who was in charge of the three ships, had planned to execute him upon arrival in Virginia. However, before he did so, Newport opened a sealed box that listed the names of the seven council members who were to govern the colony, and Smith’s name was on the list. For the next few weeks, the expedition searched for a suitable site and on May 13, 1607, landed at Jamestown ready to begin the task of surviving in a new environment.
The first year, the settlers faced a number of problems including lack of freshwater, disease, a very harsh winter, and attacks by the native Powhatan Indians, nearly destroying them. The Indians, angered at the intrusion upon their territory and trying to drive the settlers away, raided their camps and stole their supplies.
In December 1607, while Smith was searching for food on the Chickahominy River, he was captured by a Powhatan chief named Opechancanough and taken back to the camp of the Powhatan Confederacy’s primary chief, Powhatan, to decide his fate. Chief Powhatan was apparently greatly impressed by Smith’s self-confidence and was also fascinated by the mystical instruments which Smith carried with him, such as an ivory and glass pocket compass. Smith was questioned about his colony and then made to take part in some sort of ritual or trial, after which, in keeping with Indian custom, he was made a subordinate chief in the tribe.
Powhatan’s 11-year-old daughter Pocahontas took part in the ceremony in some way. Smith was constantly unsure of his fate, and he was convinced afterward that Pocahontas had saved his life. Smith was released in friendship after about four weeks of captivity and returned to Jamestown, guided by the Indians.
Meanwhile, dissent within the colony fermented due to laziness, lack of supplies, and periodic attempts at desertion by many of the colonists. Personal conflicts, as well as disagreements over new policies being formulated in London, developed among Smith and various leaders.
As a result, Smith left Jamestown to explore and map the Chesapeake Bay region and search for badly needed food supplies. Due to bad government and near chaos, Smith eventually became president of the local council in September 1608. He instituted a policy of rigid discipline, strengthened defenses and encouraged farming with this admonishment: “He who does not work, will not eat.” Because of his strong leadership, the settlement survived and grew during the next year. Unfortunately, Smith was accidentally injured by a gunpowder burn and had to return to England for treatment in October 1609. He would never return to Virginia again.
In London, he actively promoted the further colonization of Virginia, encouraging more Englishmen and women to follow the trail he had blazed and to colonize the New World, later saying: “Here every man may be master and owner of his owne labour and land…If he have nothing but his hands, he may…by industrie quickly grow rich.” However, because of his independence, he was unpopular with the Virginia Company and would not be asked to return.
Though he would not again go to Virginia, in April 1614, he returned to the New World in a successful voyage to the Maine and Massachusetts Bay areas. With the approval of Prince Charles, he named this region New England. He would make two more attempts to return to the same coast, but the first attempt failed due to a major storm that dismasted his ship. In the second attempt in 1615, he was captured by French pirates off the Azores. Smith escaped after weeks of captivity and made his way back to England. He was denied further opportunities to return to America and spent the rest of his life writing books until his death in 1631 at age 51. He was buried in the church of St. Sepulchre-without-Newgate, the largest Parish Church in the City of London.
Though his message and writings would attract millions of people to the United States over the next centuries, much of his written words were questioned due to the differences between his narratives over time. In later writings, including the scene where he gave Pocahontas credit for saving his life, these were much changed or left out of previous writings. These changes, coupled with his boastful manner, have made much of his remembrances obscure and questionable.
Source: National Park Service | 1,392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nat Turner’s Bible was donated to the Smithsonian in Washington DC by a family with Southampton County roots. The Bible, which he is believed to have been holding when captured, now serves as a centerpiece at the National Museum of African American History. Wendy Porter of Virginia Beach spoke of giving the Bible to the National Museum of African American History and Culture, “We just thought it had so much history and there’s so much bloodshed on it”.
Turner, an educated minister and slave believed he was divinely chosen to lead his people out of slavery
led what is believed to be the bloodiest slave revolts in American history. On August 21, 1831 Turner initiated the uprising by killing his owner, Joseph Travis, and Travis’ family. Within just two days, an estimated 60 whites had been murdered and the group of slaves participating in the uprising had swelled to more than 60. In the rebellion’s aftermath, more than 200 enslaved and free blacks were executed.
Turner eluded capture for two months but was later found in a hole hidden by fence rails. He was immediately arrested. Two months that Turner was on the run was enough time for the rebellion to generate national attention and panic throughout the South. Six days after conviction, Turner was hanged, and his body mutilated. After Turner’s death, the judge ordered the Commonwealth to reimburse the estate belonging to Turner’s master. Considered as confiscated chattel, Nat Turner’s life was valued at just $375.
Maurice Pearson, a resident of Virginia Beach, heard the Bible belonged to Turner. Person’s father took possession of the Bible in 1912 when the Courthouse in Southampton was being renovated. “They had a bunch of things they didn’t want, and he took the Bible since he belonged to the Church”, said Person. The family had a religious background and had an interest in Bibles. His family displayed it for a few years and then decided to store it in a safe-deposit box, so it would not get ruined.
The family was hoping that in the future the Bible could be stored where it would be preserved. Because of its age, the Bible is terribly fragile. Just by opening the book, a page could deteriorate or tear. The Smithsonian stepped up. Nora Lockshin, a Smithsonian Institution Archives paper conservator, examined the pages of the bible, the ink and arrangement of the pages. It was discovered that the book is missing the front and back covers, one chapter and part of the spine. Due to age, the pages are yellowed and there is mold and watermarks on the pages. It cannot be open fully and flattened.
Rick Francis, a Southampton County Historical Society member, has known about the Bible for most of his life. He knew that it belonged to the Person family and can recount asking to see it at least five times. “They always said “yes”, but I never saw it”. Francis says he would prefer that the Bible remained on loan to the historical society or remain in Southampton County. He believes the Bible should be reunited with the sword used in the 1831 massacre. The sword has undergone restoration but is not yet on display at the historical society.
Maurice Person’s great-grandmother, Lavinia Francis, came close to being a victim of the massacre. Porter, a former professor of women’s studies at Old Dominion University confirmed the story. It is believed that on the night of the revolt, the family had been targeted for the attack. The slaves working in the house hid her in the closet. Their actions spared her life. They later learned that there were people killed in an area nearby.
Visit https://tidewaternews.com for more breaking news. | <urn:uuid:2d3e8f65-606f-4697-8ec8-9c2a1c11abb9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tidewaternews.com/2012/02/20/nat-turner%E2%80%99s-bible-donated-to-smithsonian-museum/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00431.warc.gz | en | 0.980655 | 787 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.1745355129241943... | 11 | Nat Turner’s Bible was donated to the Smithsonian in Washington DC by a family with Southampton County roots. The Bible, which he is believed to have been holding when captured, now serves as a centerpiece at the National Museum of African American History. Wendy Porter of Virginia Beach spoke of giving the Bible to the National Museum of African American History and Culture, “We just thought it had so much history and there’s so much bloodshed on it”.
Turner, an educated minister and slave believed he was divinely chosen to lead his people out of slavery
led what is believed to be the bloodiest slave revolts in American history. On August 21, 1831 Turner initiated the uprising by killing his owner, Joseph Travis, and Travis’ family. Within just two days, an estimated 60 whites had been murdered and the group of slaves participating in the uprising had swelled to more than 60. In the rebellion’s aftermath, more than 200 enslaved and free blacks were executed.
Turner eluded capture for two months but was later found in a hole hidden by fence rails. He was immediately arrested. Two months that Turner was on the run was enough time for the rebellion to generate national attention and panic throughout the South. Six days after conviction, Turner was hanged, and his body mutilated. After Turner’s death, the judge ordered the Commonwealth to reimburse the estate belonging to Turner’s master. Considered as confiscated chattel, Nat Turner’s life was valued at just $375.
Maurice Pearson, a resident of Virginia Beach, heard the Bible belonged to Turner. Person’s father took possession of the Bible in 1912 when the Courthouse in Southampton was being renovated. “They had a bunch of things they didn’t want, and he took the Bible since he belonged to the Church”, said Person. The family had a religious background and had an interest in Bibles. His family displayed it for a few years and then decided to store it in a safe-deposit box, so it would not get ruined.
The family was hoping that in the future the Bible could be stored where it would be preserved. Because of its age, the Bible is terribly fragile. Just by opening the book, a page could deteriorate or tear. The Smithsonian stepped up. Nora Lockshin, a Smithsonian Institution Archives paper conservator, examined the pages of the bible, the ink and arrangement of the pages. It was discovered that the book is missing the front and back covers, one chapter and part of the spine. Due to age, the pages are yellowed and there is mold and watermarks on the pages. It cannot be open fully and flattened.
Rick Francis, a Southampton County Historical Society member, has known about the Bible for most of his life. He knew that it belonged to the Person family and can recount asking to see it at least five times. “They always said “yes”, but I never saw it”. Francis says he would prefer that the Bible remained on loan to the historical society or remain in Southampton County. He believes the Bible should be reunited with the sword used in the 1831 massacre. The sword has undergone restoration but is not yet on display at the historical society.
Maurice Person’s great-grandmother, Lavinia Francis, came close to being a victim of the massacre. Porter, a former professor of women’s studies at Old Dominion University confirmed the story. It is believed that on the night of the revolt, the family had been targeted for the attack. The slaves working in the house hid her in the closet. Their actions spared her life. They later learned that there were people killed in an area nearby.
Visit https://tidewaternews.com for more breaking news. | 767 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When Martin Luther died unexpectedly in 1546, Philip Melanchthon was his obvious heir. But as we know from bitter disputes among Lutherans that erupted almost immediately after Luther's death and which lasted for several decades, Melanchthon's authority was never accepted by all of Luther's disciples. Indeed, it seems only a minority considered him to be Luther's true successor. How can this be explained? First, in all of his writings Luther produced no systematic summary of his theology. He addressed specific problems, discussing at great length controversial issues which were brought to his attention, and spelled out in his answers many specific positions which served to characterize his theological approach. But he never wrote a large treatise explaining dogmatic matters in a comprehensive way, a piece which could be compared to Calvin's Institutio. Perhaps one could say that his translation of the New Testament and later also the Old Testament, together with the longer and the shorter versions of the Catechism, represented the sum of his theological insight. But just as Luther had always insisted on his own understanding of the biblical texts, after 1546 others, including some of his students, friends and followers, were tempted to do so also. Luther's German Bible and the two Catechisms were a solid base on which all of his disciples stood, but this base did not provide them with a common theological approach.
Philip Melanchthon certainly believed that he understood Luther's true intentions better than anyone else. Melanchthon had deputized for Luther at the Augsburg negotiations in 1530. Here the text which Lutherans would accept as the very foundation of their faith for centuries to come was formulated: the Augsburg Confession. Melanchthon had also been close to Luther since 1518. Because of his excellent knowledge of Greek he had played a major part in translating the Bible. Furthermore, Melanchthon had written the first survey of Luther's life after Luther passed away. But these accomplishments
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:bfb14077-d51f-415e-96b7-aaf2a1dd1850> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wilmingtonfavs.com/church-discipline/luthers-legacy-contested.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.989946 | 405 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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-0.1224460... | 1 | When Martin Luther died unexpectedly in 1546, Philip Melanchthon was his obvious heir. But as we know from bitter disputes among Lutherans that erupted almost immediately after Luther's death and which lasted for several decades, Melanchthon's authority was never accepted by all of Luther's disciples. Indeed, it seems only a minority considered him to be Luther's true successor. How can this be explained? First, in all of his writings Luther produced no systematic summary of his theology. He addressed specific problems, discussing at great length controversial issues which were brought to his attention, and spelled out in his answers many specific positions which served to characterize his theological approach. But he never wrote a large treatise explaining dogmatic matters in a comprehensive way, a piece which could be compared to Calvin's Institutio. Perhaps one could say that his translation of the New Testament and later also the Old Testament, together with the longer and the shorter versions of the Catechism, represented the sum of his theological insight. But just as Luther had always insisted on his own understanding of the biblical texts, after 1546 others, including some of his students, friends and followers, were tempted to do so also. Luther's German Bible and the two Catechisms were a solid base on which all of his disciples stood, but this base did not provide them with a common theological approach.
Philip Melanchthon certainly believed that he understood Luther's true intentions better than anyone else. Melanchthon had deputized for Luther at the Augsburg negotiations in 1530. Here the text which Lutherans would accept as the very foundation of their faith for centuries to come was formulated: the Augsburg Confession. Melanchthon had also been close to Luther since 1518. Because of his excellent knowledge of Greek he had played a major part in translating the Bible. Furthermore, Melanchthon had written the first survey of Luther's life after Luther passed away. But these accomplishments
Was this article helpful? | 410 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In a spectacle that might have beguiled poets, lovers and songwriters if only they had been around to see it, Earth once had two moons, astronomers now think. But the smaller one smashed into the other in what is being called the "big splat."
The result: Our planet was left with a single bulked-up and ever-so-slightly lopsided moon.
The astronomers came up with the scenario to explain why the moon's far side is so much more hilly than the one that is always facing Earth.
The theory, outlined today in the journal Nature, comes complete with computer model runs showing how it might have happened and an illustration that looks like the bigger moon getting a pie in the face.
Outside experts said the idea makes sense, but they aren't completely sold yet.
This all supposedly happened about 4.4 billion years ago, long before there was any life on Earth to gaze up and see the strange sight of dual moons. The moons themselves were young, formed about 100 million years earlier when a giant planet smashed into Earth. They both orbited Earth and sort of rose in the sky together, the smaller one trailing a few steps behind like a little sister in tow.
The smaller one was a planetary lightweight. The other was three times wider and 25 times heavier, its gravity so strong that the smaller one just couldn't resist, even though it was parked a good bit away.
"They're destined to collide. There's no way out. ... This big splat is a low-velocity collision," said study co-author Erik Asphaug, a planetary scientist at the University of California, Santa Cruz.
What Asphaug calls a slow crash is relative: It happened at more than 5,000 mph, but that's about as slow as possible when you are talking planetary smashups. It's slow enough that the rocks didn't melt.
And because the smaller moon was more than 600 miles wide, the crash took a while to finish even at 5,000 mph. Asphaug likened the smaller moon to a rifle bullet and said, "People would be bored looking at it because it's taking 10 minutes just for the bullet to bury itself in the moon. This is an event if you were looking at, you'd need a big bag of popcorn."
The rocks and crust from the smaller moon would have spread over and around the bigger moon without creating a crater, as a faster crash would have done.
"The physics is really surprisingly similar to a pie in the face," Asphaug said.
And about a day later, everything was settled and the near and far sides of the moon looked different, Asphaug said.
Co-author Martin Jutzi of the University of Bern in Switzerland said the study was an attempt to explain the odd crust and mountainous terrain of the moon's far side. Asphaug noticed it looked as if something had been added to the surface, so the duo started running computer simulations of cosmic crashes.
Earth had always been an oddball in the solar system as the only planet with a single moon. While Venus and Mercury have no moons, Mars has two, while Saturn and Jupiter have more than 60 each. Even tiny Pluto, which was demoted to dwarf status, has four moons.
The theory was the buzz this week in Woods Hole, Mass., at a conference of scientists working on NASA's next robotic mission to the moon, said H. Jay Melosh of Purdue University.
"We can't find anything wrong with it," Melosh said. "It may or may not be right."
Planetary scientist Alan Stern, former NASA associate administrator for science, said it is a "very clever new idea," but one that is not easily tested to learn whether it is right.
A second moon isn't just an astronomical matter. The moon plays a big role in literature and song. And poet Todd Davis, a professor of literature at Penn State University, said this idea of two moons — one essentially swallowing the other — will capture the literary imagination.
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0.1175601333... | 4 | In a spectacle that might have beguiled poets, lovers and songwriters if only they had been around to see it, Earth once had two moons, astronomers now think. But the smaller one smashed into the other in what is being called the "big splat."
The result: Our planet was left with a single bulked-up and ever-so-slightly lopsided moon.
The astronomers came up with the scenario to explain why the moon's far side is so much more hilly than the one that is always facing Earth.
The theory, outlined today in the journal Nature, comes complete with computer model runs showing how it might have happened and an illustration that looks like the bigger moon getting a pie in the face.
Outside experts said the idea makes sense, but they aren't completely sold yet.
This all supposedly happened about 4.4 billion years ago, long before there was any life on Earth to gaze up and see the strange sight of dual moons. The moons themselves were young, formed about 100 million years earlier when a giant planet smashed into Earth. They both orbited Earth and sort of rose in the sky together, the smaller one trailing a few steps behind like a little sister in tow.
The smaller one was a planetary lightweight. The other was three times wider and 25 times heavier, its gravity so strong that the smaller one just couldn't resist, even though it was parked a good bit away.
"They're destined to collide. There's no way out. ... This big splat is a low-velocity collision," said study co-author Erik Asphaug, a planetary scientist at the University of California, Santa Cruz.
What Asphaug calls a slow crash is relative: It happened at more than 5,000 mph, but that's about as slow as possible when you are talking planetary smashups. It's slow enough that the rocks didn't melt.
And because the smaller moon was more than 600 miles wide, the crash took a while to finish even at 5,000 mph. Asphaug likened the smaller moon to a rifle bullet and said, "People would be bored looking at it because it's taking 10 minutes just for the bullet to bury itself in the moon. This is an event if you were looking at, you'd need a big bag of popcorn."
The rocks and crust from the smaller moon would have spread over and around the bigger moon without creating a crater, as a faster crash would have done.
"The physics is really surprisingly similar to a pie in the face," Asphaug said.
And about a day later, everything was settled and the near and far sides of the moon looked different, Asphaug said.
Co-author Martin Jutzi of the University of Bern in Switzerland said the study was an attempt to explain the odd crust and mountainous terrain of the moon's far side. Asphaug noticed it looked as if something had been added to the surface, so the duo started running computer simulations of cosmic crashes.
Earth had always been an oddball in the solar system as the only planet with a single moon. While Venus and Mercury have no moons, Mars has two, while Saturn and Jupiter have more than 60 each. Even tiny Pluto, which was demoted to dwarf status, has four moons.
The theory was the buzz this week in Woods Hole, Mass., at a conference of scientists working on NASA's next robotic mission to the moon, said H. Jay Melosh of Purdue University.
"We can't find anything wrong with it," Melosh said. "It may or may not be right."
Planetary scientist Alan Stern, former NASA associate administrator for science, said it is a "very clever new idea," but one that is not easily tested to learn whether it is right.
A second moon isn't just an astronomical matter. The moon plays a big role in literature and song. And poet Todd Davis, a professor of literature at Penn State University, said this idea of two moons — one essentially swallowing the other — will capture the literary imagination.
"I'll probably be dreaming about it and trying to work on a poem," he said. | 845 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 8 (1853 words)
The succession of the Southern States had been brewing for many years; this was due to fundamental differences in agriculture and resultant adoption of slavery in the South. From early days, the thirteen states had grown up separately, and each had their own culture and beliefs, which were often incompatible with those held in other states. The geographical and cultural differences between north and south would manifest themselves at regular and alarming intervals throughout the hundred years following the drafting of the constitution.
Tension increased during the 1850s, over the right to hold slaves in new territories. The Wilmot Proviso of 1846, roused bitter hostilities, and violent debate turned to physical violence during the period of ‘Bleeding Kansas’. The election of Lincoln, who the South perceived to be an abolitionist, in 1860, was the final straw, and the secession of seven Southern states followed soon after.
The North and South were very different places. The climate of the North was similar to that of England, so the land was suitable for a variety of uses.
The hot Southern climate was perfect for growing cotton, which was a hugely lucrative business at this time. Following the invention of Eli Whitney’s Cotton Gin, the South became increasingly dependent on this crop, and an entire society grew out of it. The society was one of wealthy planters, controlling politics and society of the day. Slaves labored in the fields, usually only a handful per plantation, though larger farms were occasionally seen. There were also poor white farmers who scraped out a living from the land. This contrasted sharply with Northern society, where industrialization flourished, creating wealthy entrepreneurs and employing cheap immigrant labour. Given the localized nature of media, and difficulties of transport two cultures grew up in the same nation being very different.
During the presidential election of 1860, Southern leaders told the South to secede from the Union if Lincoln were to win the election because they believed Lincoln was an abolitionist. Lincoln was an Abolitionist but not because he cared about slavery but to try and save the Union. This is clearly evident in his letter to Horace Greeley. Here is an quote from the letter: “My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.
What I do about slavery and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union;.” (pg. 809) This clearly shows that Lincoln was only in it for one thing but still an Abolitionist. Abolitionists were people who worked to get rid of slavery. The South was afraid that Lincoln would outlaw slavery while in office. This would have created a problem for the South since its way of life depended on slaves. It would have prevented the South from thriving. Southern farmers would be forced to pay their former slaves in return for working on the farms. Plantation owners would make less money since most of the people working on the plantations would have to be paid. In other words, the main reason the Southern states seceded from the Union was to escape what they felt was a threat to their right to own slaves.
The secession of the southern states would cause the bloodiest war in American history. There were less American men killed in the world wars than there was in the civil war which has had a long lasting effect on the nation. There were many factors why they did secede which are still discussed amongst historians to this present day. Slavery has generally been held to have been the major factor, but not the single cause. Other factors such as state sovereignty, political and economic differences and ‘pressure groups’ such as the Abolitionists and southern ‘fire eaters’ are also acknowledged. Short term ‘sparks’ could be seen to be the raid on Harpers Ferry by John Brown and the election of Abraham Lincoln. “On news of Lincoln’s election, South Carolina (site of nullification fight in 1830s) secedes”
The southern states which seceded were; South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina who attempted to form a southern Confederacy on equal terms to the Union in the north. Throughout the seventy three history of the United States up to 1860, there had always been rivalry between the north and the south of the country. This was based in their culture, economy and ideas, for example, the North were generally unionists, supporting the supremacy of the Federal government, the South were generally more state orientated, supporting the rights of individual states to run their own affairs.
The contentious issue of slavery had many implications. The South depended economically on the institution. There was one industry – cotton – due to the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney (ironically a northerner) in 1793 which made cotton production very profitable. Profits soared making slavery an even greater institution. Between 1800 and 1860, the number of slaves increased from one to four million – this was despite slave importation being banned in 1808. The South was dependent on this one industry which depended on slavery, without slaves the southern economy would collapse. The Northern economy did not rely on slavery, they had an industrial base. It became easier for Northerners therefore to accept the moral arguments against slavery because it was unlikely that they would be affected economically by its abolition.
As the protestant religion spread in the North – a religion which believed in equality, Abolitionists began to more strongly argue for the abolition of slavery on moral grounds. The problem which confronted every American was racism. The thought of four million Negros having equal rights and being able to marry their daughters scared many Americans, especially those in the South. Southerners who did not agree with slavery were still racist, Hinton R. Helper who attacked slavery in his book ‘The Impending Crisis.’ (1857) despised the Negro to the point of fighting for the South.
Two key events brought slavery onto the agenda, the first was a book by Harriet Beecher Stowe, ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’ (1852) which told the story of a fugitive slave and the general brutality of the slave system. It can be argued that it opened many Americans eyes that such an institution could exist in a country which professed itself to be the most democratic and free. From this book, anti- slavery snowballed from a racial issue to a nation one.
The second key event was the raid on the Federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia in October 1859 by John Brown. Brown planned to take the arsenal, call slaves from the local area and establish a free state before marching south. His mission failed, no slaves joined him and after a three day siege, Federal troops under the command of General Robert E. Lee captured him and he was hanged for treason on December 2nd. Brown was held as a martyr by anti-slavery groups in the north. Brown showed the country that people were prepared to fight for slave rights and the South would defend themselves.
By now, the war was inevitable and was only a matter of time, the ideas and reasons behind each sides arguments were now so deeply entrenched that only war could result. William Lloyd Garrison commented,” In firing his gun, John Brown has merely told what time of day it is. It is high noon, thank God”. John Brown also knew this, at his execution, he handed a note to the executioner which read “I, John Brown, am certain that the crimes of this land will never be purged away but with blood.” The South saw the issue of slavery as a states rights issue. They believed it was just another attempt by the Federal government (a government based in the northern city of Washington) to force them to conform.
Southerners strongly believed in their states’ culture and disapproved of external interference. They also held all their allegiances to their state and not the Union, Alexander Stephens, a southern congressman against secession typified many southerners sentiments, “My native land, my country – the only one that is country to me is Georgia”. Before the war, “My country” meant “My state” to many southerners. For thirty years before the war, many southerners had been well educated in states rights; they were seen as a constitutional safeguard against the stronger, larger northern states.
The right to self determination to the point of secession was strongly guarded by southern politicians. The North was not so state orientated and failed to recognize the southern allegiances before the war begun. This argument can be seen to have parallels with the demands for independence from Britain. The South did not want to be ruled by a government based in a state which had a different culture and could be argued to be unrepresentative of their rights. It can also be argued that this was a major flaw in the South’s’ attempt to secede, the Union fought as a co-ordinated army, the Confederates fought as State armies and so were not so unified.
The south were obviously angry and with Lincoln winning the election the succession of states was inevitable despite his attempt to convince the South that he was not a firebrand abolitionist. “Though winning in the electoral college, Lincoln’s lack of a popular majority (1.9 million out of 4.7 million votes cast) is an indication of the problems he would face with a divided nation” (Web page). The prospect of a federal government controlled by the ‘Black’ Republican Party was too much for some, and South Carolina was the first state to secede, followed quickly by six others. This did not necessarily have to mean Civil War, but few in the north were prepared to readily see the Union dismembered. Perhaps they remembered Madison’s words at the drafting of the constitution; “great as the evil (slavery) is, a dismemberment of the union would be worse”.
Lincoln’s election was the last in a string of events which had heightened sectional feeling to beyond the realms of reason or constraint. Emerson’s warning that ‘Mexico will poison us’ seemed prophetically true, given the bitter struggle over bondage in the captured territories. Bloodshed in Kansas, weak Presidents, extraordinary goings on in Congress, a Chief Justice who was anything but impartial, extremists such as John Brown, and finally the United States’ first sectional party all served to highlight the fundamental differences between north and south. Lincoln’s election was the catalyst which sparked off the succession of the southern states and than lead to something catastrophic where millions of men would die.
Key Events and Battles of the Civil War, http://home.earthlink.net/~gfeldmeth/chart.civwar.html, December 2003.
Perkins, George, ed. “The American Tradition in Literature”. The McGraw-Hill Companies, 1999.
http://www.polytechnic.org/faculty/gfeldmeth/lec.civilwar.html December 2003
http://home.earthlink.net/~gfeldmeth/chart.civwar.html December 2003
Cite this page
The Southern states secede in 1861. (2016, Jul 21). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-southern-states-secede-in-1861-essay | <urn:uuid:91c19983-b330-4ad4-83ec-62477bdf6222> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/the-southern-states-secede-in-1861-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00022.warc.gz | en | 0.981417 | 2,447 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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The succession of the Southern States had been brewing for many years; this was due to fundamental differences in agriculture and resultant adoption of slavery in the South. From early days, the thirteen states had grown up separately, and each had their own culture and beliefs, which were often incompatible with those held in other states. The geographical and cultural differences between north and south would manifest themselves at regular and alarming intervals throughout the hundred years following the drafting of the constitution.
Tension increased during the 1850s, over the right to hold slaves in new territories. The Wilmot Proviso of 1846, roused bitter hostilities, and violent debate turned to physical violence during the period of ‘Bleeding Kansas’. The election of Lincoln, who the South perceived to be an abolitionist, in 1860, was the final straw, and the secession of seven Southern states followed soon after.
The North and South were very different places. The climate of the North was similar to that of England, so the land was suitable for a variety of uses.
The hot Southern climate was perfect for growing cotton, which was a hugely lucrative business at this time. Following the invention of Eli Whitney’s Cotton Gin, the South became increasingly dependent on this crop, and an entire society grew out of it. The society was one of wealthy planters, controlling politics and society of the day. Slaves labored in the fields, usually only a handful per plantation, though larger farms were occasionally seen. There were also poor white farmers who scraped out a living from the land. This contrasted sharply with Northern society, where industrialization flourished, creating wealthy entrepreneurs and employing cheap immigrant labour. Given the localized nature of media, and difficulties of transport two cultures grew up in the same nation being very different.
During the presidential election of 1860, Southern leaders told the South to secede from the Union if Lincoln were to win the election because they believed Lincoln was an abolitionist. Lincoln was an Abolitionist but not because he cared about slavery but to try and save the Union. This is clearly evident in his letter to Horace Greeley. Here is an quote from the letter: “My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.
What I do about slavery and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union;.” (pg. 809) This clearly shows that Lincoln was only in it for one thing but still an Abolitionist. Abolitionists were people who worked to get rid of slavery. The South was afraid that Lincoln would outlaw slavery while in office. This would have created a problem for the South since its way of life depended on slaves. It would have prevented the South from thriving. Southern farmers would be forced to pay their former slaves in return for working on the farms. Plantation owners would make less money since most of the people working on the plantations would have to be paid. In other words, the main reason the Southern states seceded from the Union was to escape what they felt was a threat to their right to own slaves.
The secession of the southern states would cause the bloodiest war in American history. There were less American men killed in the world wars than there was in the civil war which has had a long lasting effect on the nation. There were many factors why they did secede which are still discussed amongst historians to this present day. Slavery has generally been held to have been the major factor, but not the single cause. Other factors such as state sovereignty, political and economic differences and ‘pressure groups’ such as the Abolitionists and southern ‘fire eaters’ are also acknowledged. Short term ‘sparks’ could be seen to be the raid on Harpers Ferry by John Brown and the election of Abraham Lincoln. “On news of Lincoln’s election, South Carolina (site of nullification fight in 1830s) secedes”
The southern states which seceded were; South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina who attempted to form a southern Confederacy on equal terms to the Union in the north. Throughout the seventy three history of the United States up to 1860, there had always been rivalry between the north and the south of the country. This was based in their culture, economy and ideas, for example, the North were generally unionists, supporting the supremacy of the Federal government, the South were generally more state orientated, supporting the rights of individual states to run their own affairs.
The contentious issue of slavery had many implications. The South depended economically on the institution. There was one industry – cotton – due to the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney (ironically a northerner) in 1793 which made cotton production very profitable. Profits soared making slavery an even greater institution. Between 1800 and 1860, the number of slaves increased from one to four million – this was despite slave importation being banned in 1808. The South was dependent on this one industry which depended on slavery, without slaves the southern economy would collapse. The Northern economy did not rely on slavery, they had an industrial base. It became easier for Northerners therefore to accept the moral arguments against slavery because it was unlikely that they would be affected economically by its abolition.
As the protestant religion spread in the North – a religion which believed in equality, Abolitionists began to more strongly argue for the abolition of slavery on moral grounds. The problem which confronted every American was racism. The thought of four million Negros having equal rights and being able to marry their daughters scared many Americans, especially those in the South. Southerners who did not agree with slavery were still racist, Hinton R. Helper who attacked slavery in his book ‘The Impending Crisis.’ (1857) despised the Negro to the point of fighting for the South.
Two key events brought slavery onto the agenda, the first was a book by Harriet Beecher Stowe, ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’ (1852) which told the story of a fugitive slave and the general brutality of the slave system. It can be argued that it opened many Americans eyes that such an institution could exist in a country which professed itself to be the most democratic and free. From this book, anti- slavery snowballed from a racial issue to a nation one.
The second key event was the raid on the Federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia in October 1859 by John Brown. Brown planned to take the arsenal, call slaves from the local area and establish a free state before marching south. His mission failed, no slaves joined him and after a three day siege, Federal troops under the command of General Robert E. Lee captured him and he was hanged for treason on December 2nd. Brown was held as a martyr by anti-slavery groups in the north. Brown showed the country that people were prepared to fight for slave rights and the South would defend themselves.
By now, the war was inevitable and was only a matter of time, the ideas and reasons behind each sides arguments were now so deeply entrenched that only war could result. William Lloyd Garrison commented,” In firing his gun, John Brown has merely told what time of day it is. It is high noon, thank God”. John Brown also knew this, at his execution, he handed a note to the executioner which read “I, John Brown, am certain that the crimes of this land will never be purged away but with blood.” The South saw the issue of slavery as a states rights issue. They believed it was just another attempt by the Federal government (a government based in the northern city of Washington) to force them to conform.
Southerners strongly believed in their states’ culture and disapproved of external interference. They also held all their allegiances to their state and not the Union, Alexander Stephens, a southern congressman against secession typified many southerners sentiments, “My native land, my country – the only one that is country to me is Georgia”. Before the war, “My country” meant “My state” to many southerners. For thirty years before the war, many southerners had been well educated in states rights; they were seen as a constitutional safeguard against the stronger, larger northern states.
The right to self determination to the point of secession was strongly guarded by southern politicians. The North was not so state orientated and failed to recognize the southern allegiances before the war begun. This argument can be seen to have parallels with the demands for independence from Britain. The South did not want to be ruled by a government based in a state which had a different culture and could be argued to be unrepresentative of their rights. It can also be argued that this was a major flaw in the South’s’ attempt to secede, the Union fought as a co-ordinated army, the Confederates fought as State armies and so were not so unified.
The south were obviously angry and with Lincoln winning the election the succession of states was inevitable despite his attempt to convince the South that he was not a firebrand abolitionist. “Though winning in the electoral college, Lincoln’s lack of a popular majority (1.9 million out of 4.7 million votes cast) is an indication of the problems he would face with a divided nation” (Web page). The prospect of a federal government controlled by the ‘Black’ Republican Party was too much for some, and South Carolina was the first state to secede, followed quickly by six others. This did not necessarily have to mean Civil War, but few in the north were prepared to readily see the Union dismembered. Perhaps they remembered Madison’s words at the drafting of the constitution; “great as the evil (slavery) is, a dismemberment of the union would be worse”.
Lincoln’s election was the last in a string of events which had heightened sectional feeling to beyond the realms of reason or constraint. Emerson’s warning that ‘Mexico will poison us’ seemed prophetically true, given the bitter struggle over bondage in the captured territories. Bloodshed in Kansas, weak Presidents, extraordinary goings on in Congress, a Chief Justice who was anything but impartial, extremists such as John Brown, and finally the United States’ first sectional party all served to highlight the fundamental differences between north and south. Lincoln’s election was the catalyst which sparked off the succession of the southern states and than lead to something catastrophic where millions of men would die.
Key Events and Battles of the Civil War, http://home.earthlink.net/~gfeldmeth/chart.civwar.html, December 2003.
Perkins, George, ed. “The American Tradition in Literature”. The McGraw-Hill Companies, 1999.
http://www.polytechnic.org/faculty/gfeldmeth/lec.civilwar.html December 2003
http://home.earthlink.net/~gfeldmeth/chart.civwar.html December 2003
Cite this page
The Southern states secede in 1861. (2016, Jul 21). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-southern-states-secede-in-1861-essay | 2,416 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Land, and the ownership of land, was to dominate Ireland’s history in the Nineteenth Century. The problems caused by who owned the land was partly responsible for the terrible impact of the Great Famine from 1845 to 1847. Gladstone attempted to resolve the land issue but by the end of the Nineteenth Century not a great deal had been done which specifically improved the lifestyle of those who worked on the land.
Those who owned estates in England had realised that a well managed estate could be a source of considerable income. The Agricultural Revolution had shown landowners the way. Such interest was rarely shown in Ireland. Those who owned the land were frequently absentee landlords. This title accurately indicates the problem: those who owned the land were never there to see what was going on within their estates. Many of the absentee landlords lived in England. This left the system open to much abuse. Many landowners would leave agents behind to run their estates or they would lease their land out to middlemen for a set number of years in return for a set sum of money. These middlemen ensured that they got their money back – and more. They were motivated purely by profit.
Land prices were high in Ireland – up to 80% to 100% more expensive than in mainland Britain. Those who leased land from an absentee landlord, rented out small parcels of land to those who paid to farm it. Each estate leased out was divided into the smallest possible parcels of land and many families who worked the land had only half-an-acre to live off.
There were essentially no rules that controlled the work of those who had leased land from absentee landlords. They worked in conjunction with the Royal Irish Constabulary and it was the RIC and Army that enforced evictions if this was needed.
There were many abuses that were carried out by land managers:
Rundale was the name given to a system whereby land rented to a person or persons was scattered throughout an estate. Therefore, it was very time consuming getting to each parcel of land. The argument given for using this system was that everyone got a chance of getting at least some good land to farm. One man in Donegal had 42 pieces of land throughout one managed estate.
Hanging Gale was a system whereby a new tenant was allowed to delay his payment of rent for 6 to 8 months from the start of renting the land. Therefore, he was permanently in debt and had no security.
Conacre was a system whereby the landlord/manager prepared the land and then the tenant moved in. The tenant was then allowed to pay part of his rent using the crops he had grown. If there had been a bad harvest, then he had no crops to pay part of his rent. Therefore, he was gambling that he would get a good harvest. In 1845 to 1847, this was a disaster.
These three systems offered no security to the tenants. Those who could not pay their rent were evicted and landlords could call on either the Army or the Police (or both) to enforce this. Even those tenants who had done what they could to improve their land were not safe as it was common for landlords to evict these tenants on the slightest excuse, and then rent it out at a higher rate as ‘improved land’.
The situation was different in Ulster. Many of the tenants there were Protestant and they were legally entitled to compensation for improvements done to their land and they were generally better treated by their landlords. A specific procedure had to be gone through to evict someone and landlords and magistrates in Ulster tended to be more compassionate to those who had difficulty paying their rent. Such a situation created great resentment amongst Catholic tenants.
- When the Restoration Settlement was discussed, land was considered to be the most pressing of all problems and potentially the most troublesome of problems. During…
- Russia and Agriculture Agriculture was a major component of Russia’s economy for many decades leading up to 1917. Even with industrialisation, the majority of Russians…
- Bolshevik Land Reforms Land reform was very important to the Bolsheviks. Support from the peasants was needed if the fragile Bolshevik government was going to… | <urn:uuid:1de6834f-77b6-447f-b94f-7b183b9e3e25> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ireland-1845-to-1922/ireland-and-land-problems/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00438.warc.gz | en | 0.991429 | 839 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.310671210289... | 10 | Land, and the ownership of land, was to dominate Ireland’s history in the Nineteenth Century. The problems caused by who owned the land was partly responsible for the terrible impact of the Great Famine from 1845 to 1847. Gladstone attempted to resolve the land issue but by the end of the Nineteenth Century not a great deal had been done which specifically improved the lifestyle of those who worked on the land.
Those who owned estates in England had realised that a well managed estate could be a source of considerable income. The Agricultural Revolution had shown landowners the way. Such interest was rarely shown in Ireland. Those who owned the land were frequently absentee landlords. This title accurately indicates the problem: those who owned the land were never there to see what was going on within their estates. Many of the absentee landlords lived in England. This left the system open to much abuse. Many landowners would leave agents behind to run their estates or they would lease their land out to middlemen for a set number of years in return for a set sum of money. These middlemen ensured that they got their money back – and more. They were motivated purely by profit.
Land prices were high in Ireland – up to 80% to 100% more expensive than in mainland Britain. Those who leased land from an absentee landlord, rented out small parcels of land to those who paid to farm it. Each estate leased out was divided into the smallest possible parcels of land and many families who worked the land had only half-an-acre to live off.
There were essentially no rules that controlled the work of those who had leased land from absentee landlords. They worked in conjunction with the Royal Irish Constabulary and it was the RIC and Army that enforced evictions if this was needed.
There were many abuses that were carried out by land managers:
Rundale was the name given to a system whereby land rented to a person or persons was scattered throughout an estate. Therefore, it was very time consuming getting to each parcel of land. The argument given for using this system was that everyone got a chance of getting at least some good land to farm. One man in Donegal had 42 pieces of land throughout one managed estate.
Hanging Gale was a system whereby a new tenant was allowed to delay his payment of rent for 6 to 8 months from the start of renting the land. Therefore, he was permanently in debt and had no security.
Conacre was a system whereby the landlord/manager prepared the land and then the tenant moved in. The tenant was then allowed to pay part of his rent using the crops he had grown. If there had been a bad harvest, then he had no crops to pay part of his rent. Therefore, he was gambling that he would get a good harvest. In 1845 to 1847, this was a disaster.
These three systems offered no security to the tenants. Those who could not pay their rent were evicted and landlords could call on either the Army or the Police (or both) to enforce this. Even those tenants who had done what they could to improve their land were not safe as it was common for landlords to evict these tenants on the slightest excuse, and then rent it out at a higher rate as ‘improved land’.
The situation was different in Ulster. Many of the tenants there were Protestant and they were legally entitled to compensation for improvements done to their land and they were generally better treated by their landlords. A specific procedure had to be gone through to evict someone and landlords and magistrates in Ulster tended to be more compassionate to those who had difficulty paying their rent. Such a situation created great resentment amongst Catholic tenants.
- When the Restoration Settlement was discussed, land was considered to be the most pressing of all problems and potentially the most troublesome of problems. During…
- Russia and Agriculture Agriculture was a major component of Russia’s economy for many decades leading up to 1917. Even with industrialisation, the majority of Russians…
- Bolshevik Land Reforms Land reform was very important to the Bolsheviks. Support from the peasants was needed if the fragile Bolshevik government was going to… | 853 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In honor of NASA wanting to put a WOMAN on the moon, this week’s #WomenInSTEMWednesday is going back into space! Today’s #WomenInSTEM is Yvonne Brill.
In the air and space community, Yvonne Brill is most well known for her contribution of the electrothermal hydrazine thruster (fancy terms for a chemical propulsion thruster, which was still in use when she died in 2013. But it was not her only contribution!
Starting in high school, Brill was told she couldn’t do certain things because she was female. Her physics teacher told her women couldn’t amount to anything, the engineering department at the University of Manitoba wouldn’t admit women and that she would have to work harder to receive the same recognition as her male colleagues. NONE of those things stopped her.
By the time she graduated from the University of Manitoba with a degree in mathematics and chemistry, she was at the top of her class. She moved to LA and began working at Douglas Aircraft on the design for the first American satellite. (Note: It is believed that Brill was the only woman working in the United States during the 1940s in the field of rocket science).
While she continued to work, Brill found herself restless with the purely theoretical work – she wanted to see her calculations and work actually take off. She moved to the east coast working on calculations for turbojets and chemical manufacturing. During her work, she knew there had to be a way for satellites to make little adjustments once they were launched into orbit and was determined to find a way to make this happen.
After long hours and many weekends spent working on this new way, she discovered a more fuel-efficient chemical propulsion thruster that helped satellites carry more substantial payloads and remain in orbit for longer periods of time. Brill also worked on the Nova rockets that took America to the moon, the first weather satellite (TIROS-1 which launched April 1, 1960), the first satellite stationed in the upper atmosphere, the Mars Observer, and the engine for the space shuttle! WOW!
Although she may have been told that she couldn’t amount to much or couldn’t do things because she was female – that never stopped her! Instead, she proved everyone wrong and spent decades encouraging women to go into the math and science fields along with encouraging places to give female engineers the recognition they deserve! | <urn:uuid:f20b9269-d584-4ddb-951f-f8f502c43b89> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://meganmcclellanwx.wordpress.com/2019/05/15/womeninstemwednesday-yvonne-brill/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00158.warc.gz | en | 0.982098 | 499 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.0915031433105... | 3 | In honor of NASA wanting to put a WOMAN on the moon, this week’s #WomenInSTEMWednesday is going back into space! Today’s #WomenInSTEM is Yvonne Brill.
In the air and space community, Yvonne Brill is most well known for her contribution of the electrothermal hydrazine thruster (fancy terms for a chemical propulsion thruster, which was still in use when she died in 2013. But it was not her only contribution!
Starting in high school, Brill was told she couldn’t do certain things because she was female. Her physics teacher told her women couldn’t amount to anything, the engineering department at the University of Manitoba wouldn’t admit women and that she would have to work harder to receive the same recognition as her male colleagues. NONE of those things stopped her.
By the time she graduated from the University of Manitoba with a degree in mathematics and chemistry, she was at the top of her class. She moved to LA and began working at Douglas Aircraft on the design for the first American satellite. (Note: It is believed that Brill was the only woman working in the United States during the 1940s in the field of rocket science).
While she continued to work, Brill found herself restless with the purely theoretical work – she wanted to see her calculations and work actually take off. She moved to the east coast working on calculations for turbojets and chemical manufacturing. During her work, she knew there had to be a way for satellites to make little adjustments once they were launched into orbit and was determined to find a way to make this happen.
After long hours and many weekends spent working on this new way, she discovered a more fuel-efficient chemical propulsion thruster that helped satellites carry more substantial payloads and remain in orbit for longer periods of time. Brill also worked on the Nova rockets that took America to the moon, the first weather satellite (TIROS-1 which launched April 1, 1960), the first satellite stationed in the upper atmosphere, the Mars Observer, and the engine for the space shuttle! WOW!
Although she may have been told that she couldn’t amount to much or couldn’t do things because she was female – that never stopped her! Instead, she proved everyone wrong and spent decades encouraging women to go into the math and science fields along with encouraging places to give female engineers the recognition they deserve! | 486 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Guinea Pigs originated in South America but are now found throughout most parts of the world.
Some countries view the Guinea Pig as a delicacy however most countries simply own them as pets. A large variety of coat colours and types have developed.
Guinea Pigs are herbivores and require fresh, clean vegetables and grass. They will often eat their own droppings, which is known as coprophagy and is important in obtaining their protein content.
Guinea Pigs can live between 5 and 8 years.
A sow can have between 1 and 6 puppies but generally averaging 3-4 but have been known to have up to 8. Their young are born fully developed with a full coat of hair and eyes open. They will start wandering around an hour after birth and take solid food a day or two later. | <urn:uuid:c11a53ae-02b7-4a97-9881-49ae3e6e8a72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://oakvalewildlife.com.au/explore/our-animals/guinea-pig | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00184.warc.gz | en | 0.982199 | 164 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.230426907539... | 2 | Guinea Pigs originated in South America but are now found throughout most parts of the world.
Some countries view the Guinea Pig as a delicacy however most countries simply own them as pets. A large variety of coat colours and types have developed.
Guinea Pigs are herbivores and require fresh, clean vegetables and grass. They will often eat their own droppings, which is known as coprophagy and is important in obtaining their protein content.
Guinea Pigs can live between 5 and 8 years.
A sow can have between 1 and 6 puppies but generally averaging 3-4 but have been known to have up to 8. Their young are born fully developed with a full coat of hair and eyes open. They will start wandering around an hour after birth and take solid food a day or two later. | 170 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 1932 Presidential election marked the beginning of the FDR era and the end of a 12 year Republican reign in the White House. Although Michigan did not carry the most electoral votes, it had a symbolic significance in this election. “[S]ince Michigan was one of the most heavily urbanized states in a nation which had become increasingly urban in complexion, it was regarded as somewhat of a barometer of nationwide political sentiment.” Picture
From the formation of the Republican Party in 1854 to 1932, however, Michigan had consistently favored Republican candidates. In fact, Michigan had never even cast a plurality of popular votes for a Democrat before the 1932 election. Michigan was ripe for the taking though, as it was greatly impacted by the surge of national unemployment since 1929 as well as a loss of automobile sales (Michigan being the largest automobile producer) from 4,455,100 to 1,103,500 and a drop in value of automobile exports from $541,000,000 to $76,000,000. Michigan’s woes demonstrated that it could clearly benefit from a different perspective.
Roosevelt travelled to Detroit where he diagnosed the massive unemployment as a sickness. “[W]e have got beyond the point in modern civilization of merely trying to fight an epidemic of disease by taking care of the victims after they are stricken. We do that, but we must do more. We seek to prevent it,” Roosevelt stated. A way to treat this sickness, and prevent it in the future, was to employ men and women through Roosevelt’s social reforms that later became known as the New Deal. Michigan was an ideal patient for this plan with so many of its residents out of work and production at rock bottom.
President Hoover, however, attempted to use Roosevelt’s idealistic solutions against him at a speech in Detroit on October 22. “Hoover accused the Democratic challenger of suggesting that the federal government could provide jobs for the several million unemployed. Charging that Roosevelt’s remedy for unemployment was a ‘promise no government could fulfill,’ the President concluded that it was ‘utterly wrong to delude the suffering men and women with such assurances.” Hoover’s criticism did not end there for “[l]ate in the campaign, at a dramatic Madison Square Garden rally, [Hoover] likened [Roosevelt] to ‘a chameleon on scotch plaid. Hoover told MacLafferty ‘with a great deal of earnestness that he was convinced more and more that the thing…to do is to bring out clearly that Roosevelt is a “flutter-budget” and to ridicule his pretended stand on different subjects and what his exact program is on different things.”
Despite these insults, Roosevelt was able to secure 50 of Michigan’s 83 counties and turn a 1928 Democratic deficit of 488,634 into a 1932 surplus of 131,806. Roosevelt was able to shift deeply rooted Republic tradition in Michigan to his favor, much the same way he was able to redirect the nation’s past Republican leanings: he identified devastated economic conditions and proposed a solution that was desperately needed. | <urn:uuid:b5b6c9be-2e7a-4c2e-ab5a-e4c1bb1a997f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blogs.dickinson.edu/hist-211pinsker/2010/10/12/michigan-and-fdr%E2%80%99s-1932-presidential-election-victory/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.981273 | 657 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.25789016485214... | 5 | The 1932 Presidential election marked the beginning of the FDR era and the end of a 12 year Republican reign in the White House. Although Michigan did not carry the most electoral votes, it had a symbolic significance in this election. “[S]ince Michigan was one of the most heavily urbanized states in a nation which had become increasingly urban in complexion, it was regarded as somewhat of a barometer of nationwide political sentiment.” Picture
From the formation of the Republican Party in 1854 to 1932, however, Michigan had consistently favored Republican candidates. In fact, Michigan had never even cast a plurality of popular votes for a Democrat before the 1932 election. Michigan was ripe for the taking though, as it was greatly impacted by the surge of national unemployment since 1929 as well as a loss of automobile sales (Michigan being the largest automobile producer) from 4,455,100 to 1,103,500 and a drop in value of automobile exports from $541,000,000 to $76,000,000. Michigan’s woes demonstrated that it could clearly benefit from a different perspective.
Roosevelt travelled to Detroit where he diagnosed the massive unemployment as a sickness. “[W]e have got beyond the point in modern civilization of merely trying to fight an epidemic of disease by taking care of the victims after they are stricken. We do that, but we must do more. We seek to prevent it,” Roosevelt stated. A way to treat this sickness, and prevent it in the future, was to employ men and women through Roosevelt’s social reforms that later became known as the New Deal. Michigan was an ideal patient for this plan with so many of its residents out of work and production at rock bottom.
President Hoover, however, attempted to use Roosevelt’s idealistic solutions against him at a speech in Detroit on October 22. “Hoover accused the Democratic challenger of suggesting that the federal government could provide jobs for the several million unemployed. Charging that Roosevelt’s remedy for unemployment was a ‘promise no government could fulfill,’ the President concluded that it was ‘utterly wrong to delude the suffering men and women with such assurances.” Hoover’s criticism did not end there for “[l]ate in the campaign, at a dramatic Madison Square Garden rally, [Hoover] likened [Roosevelt] to ‘a chameleon on scotch plaid. Hoover told MacLafferty ‘with a great deal of earnestness that he was convinced more and more that the thing…to do is to bring out clearly that Roosevelt is a “flutter-budget” and to ridicule his pretended stand on different subjects and what his exact program is on different things.”
Despite these insults, Roosevelt was able to secure 50 of Michigan’s 83 counties and turn a 1928 Democratic deficit of 488,634 into a 1932 surplus of 131,806. Roosevelt was able to shift deeply rooted Republic tradition in Michigan to his favor, much the same way he was able to redirect the nation’s past Republican leanings: he identified devastated economic conditions and proposed a solution that was desperately needed. | 675 | ENGLISH | 1 |
*Illustrated with pictures
*Includes Table of Contents
One of the most famous poets of the 20th century, William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) was so popular and renowned during his time that he was the leader of what came to be known as the Irish Literary Revival, on the strength of his short stories and vivid poetry. Eventually it would lead to his winning a Nobel Prize in 1923. It is no surprise that Ireland loved its home grown son; the Nobel Prize Committee credited him for “inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation.”
Before Yeats won awards, his interest in spirituality and folklore drove him to write at length about Irish mythology and the occult before the turn of the 20th century. In many ways, it was Yeats who popularized the characters of Celtic mythology and medieval Irish folklore for contemporaneous audiences.
This edition of At the Hawk’s Well is specially formatted with a Table of Contents and pictures of Yeats, his life and work, as well as characters from Celtic mythology and Irish folklore. At the Hawk’s Well is one of five plays written by Yeats that was loosely based on the myths surrounding Cuchulain. | <urn:uuid:8fddd823-bc6b-4663-85c2-034ab5eb4a52> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.apple.com/us/book/at-the-hawks-well/id556755441 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00486.warc.gz | en | 0.986424 | 256 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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*Includes Table of Contents
One of the most famous poets of the 20th century, William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) was so popular and renowned during his time that he was the leader of what came to be known as the Irish Literary Revival, on the strength of his short stories and vivid poetry. Eventually it would lead to his winning a Nobel Prize in 1923. It is no surprise that Ireland loved its home grown son; the Nobel Prize Committee credited him for “inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation.”
Before Yeats won awards, his interest in spirituality and folklore drove him to write at length about Irish mythology and the occult before the turn of the 20th century. In many ways, it was Yeats who popularized the characters of Celtic mythology and medieval Irish folklore for contemporaneous audiences.
This edition of At the Hawk’s Well is specially formatted with a Table of Contents and pictures of Yeats, his life and work, as well as characters from Celtic mythology and Irish folklore. At the Hawk’s Well is one of five plays written by Yeats that was loosely based on the myths surrounding Cuchulain. | 260 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hinduism and Buddhism have there similarities and have there differences. Hinduism started from the Aryans and developed from there, Buddhism started some years later and became a practice. To call Buddhism a branch would not be correct but to call it similar would be correct. Hinduism and Buddhism both started from the ancient land of India, which at the time was a powerful country. As time went on Hinduism would originate by a group of people, and Buddhism would start from a Prince in India. Both religions will have similarities in there origin, beliefs, practices and spread. The Aryans just moved into a new land, and they would then start a religion, Gautama had left his castle, and would later begin a new religion. . The Aryans had moved from the Caspian Sea searching for new land, which they would later find. They had moved into the Ganges Plains which was an excellent area for farming raising cattle. By then the Aryans and others had began a religion. At the time, the Aryans did not have a written language, only the spoken language, Sanskrit, was official. As time went on, Sanskrit became a written language to. Hymns, poetry and sacred rules were written into many books which later became known as the Vedas. Hinduism had then been established. On the other hand, a Prince had been isolated from the world for years. One day he had escaped from his castle and came across many issues. He saw a poor man, ill man, dead man, and a monk. Noticing all these problems, Gautama, realized that the world was full of many problems. Gautama became a Buddha, after meditation and many other tasks, and started teaching Buddhism.
Hinduism and Buddhism share some ideas about there beliefs. Hinduism, which is polytheistic, deals with a social system and many other Gods. The social system consist of five different groups: the Brahmans or priest, the Kshatrigas or warriors and rulers, the Vaisyas or common people, the Sudras or servants, and the Pariahs or slaves. | <urn:uuid:ec9371fd-fbd8-45af-8762-219fa753fe34> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/88215.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00318.warc.gz | en | 0.990539 | 431 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.32134398818... | 2 | Hinduism and Buddhism have there similarities and have there differences. Hinduism started from the Aryans and developed from there, Buddhism started some years later and became a practice. To call Buddhism a branch would not be correct but to call it similar would be correct. Hinduism and Buddhism both started from the ancient land of India, which at the time was a powerful country. As time went on Hinduism would originate by a group of people, and Buddhism would start from a Prince in India. Both religions will have similarities in there origin, beliefs, practices and spread. The Aryans just moved into a new land, and they would then start a religion, Gautama had left his castle, and would later begin a new religion. . The Aryans had moved from the Caspian Sea searching for new land, which they would later find. They had moved into the Ganges Plains which was an excellent area for farming raising cattle. By then the Aryans and others had began a religion. At the time, the Aryans did not have a written language, only the spoken language, Sanskrit, was official. As time went on, Sanskrit became a written language to. Hymns, poetry and sacred rules were written into many books which later became known as the Vedas. Hinduism had then been established. On the other hand, a Prince had been isolated from the world for years. One day he had escaped from his castle and came across many issues. He saw a poor man, ill man, dead man, and a monk. Noticing all these problems, Gautama, realized that the world was full of many problems. Gautama became a Buddha, after meditation and many other tasks, and started teaching Buddhism.
Hinduism and Buddhism share some ideas about there beliefs. Hinduism, which is polytheistic, deals with a social system and many other Gods. The social system consist of five different groups: the Brahmans or priest, the Kshatrigas or warriors and rulers, the Vaisyas or common people, the Sudras or servants, and the Pariahs or slaves. | 432 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nothing of Marcellus’ life before his papacy has survived the centuries. He became Pope at the end of the persecutions of Diocletian in aound 308-309. The persecutions had disrupted the Church so much that there had been a gap of over a year with no Pope. Once he was elected, he faced several challenges, including reconsituting the clergy, which had been decimated and whose remnant had practiced their vocation only covertly and with the expectation of martyrdom. He worked hard to recover and welcome back all who had denied the faith in order to keep from being murdered.When a group of the apostacized, known as the Lapsi, refused to do penance, Marcellus refused to allow their return to the Church. The Lapsi had a bit of political pull, and some members caused such civil disruption that emperor Maxentius exiled the Pope in order to settle the matter. Legend says that Marcellus was forced to work as a stable slave as punishment, but this appears to be fiction, however we do know that he died of the terrible conditions he suffered in exile, and is considered a martyr because of that.He was initially buried in the cemetery of Saint Priscilla in Rome, but his relics were later transferred to beneath the altar of San Marcello al Corso Church in Rome where they remain today.
This post was originally published on this site | <urn:uuid:b72ff808-8f10-4033-a99c-5fb717fb9d62> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.stbrendans.net/blog/st-marcellus-popea | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00002.warc.gz | en | 0.992528 | 298 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | Nothing of Marcellus’ life before his papacy has survived the centuries. He became Pope at the end of the persecutions of Diocletian in aound 308-309. The persecutions had disrupted the Church so much that there had been a gap of over a year with no Pope. Once he was elected, he faced several challenges, including reconsituting the clergy, which had been decimated and whose remnant had practiced their vocation only covertly and with the expectation of martyrdom. He worked hard to recover and welcome back all who had denied the faith in order to keep from being murdered.When a group of the apostacized, known as the Lapsi, refused to do penance, Marcellus refused to allow their return to the Church. The Lapsi had a bit of political pull, and some members caused such civil disruption that emperor Maxentius exiled the Pope in order to settle the matter. Legend says that Marcellus was forced to work as a stable slave as punishment, but this appears to be fiction, however we do know that he died of the terrible conditions he suffered in exile, and is considered a martyr because of that.He was initially buried in the cemetery of Saint Priscilla in Rome, but his relics were later transferred to beneath the altar of San Marcello al Corso Church in Rome where they remain today.
This post was originally published on this site | 299 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Master race is an idea that one group of people is better than all other people. A group of people may believe themselves to be better because of their history, race, culture or some other reason. The idea first appeared in the 19th century. It was also used at different times in the 20th century, for example by the Nazi party and during Apartheid in South Africa.
History[change | change source]
This idea mostly began in the 19th century. It is not a theory liked by any scientists today. It claims there is a hierarchy of races (or that some races are better than others). It was also claimed that at the bottom of the hierarchy were black-skinned people from Africa and Aborigines from Australia, while pale-skinned Nordic people were at the top of the hierarchy.
Writers who started this idea[change | change source]
Arthur de Gobineau (1816–1882) believed that cultures become bad when races mix. In his book Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races (French: Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines, 1853–55), de Gobineau states that the mix of races has a bad influence on culture. In his view, the development of culture is linked to that of the race. When empires are created, this leads to a mixing of races. According to de Gobineau, this would lead to degeneration, and the downfall of the respective empire.
During this time, Charles Darwin started to develop his ideas about evolution. Social Darwinism is the attempt to use these concepts to predict the development of societies. Houston Steward Chamberlain believed the Germanic race was there "to save the world".
In colonialism, the concept was helpful too. Germany and Great Britain had many colonies. They would pick an ethnic group and say that this was better than the other groups. This would then lead to an indirect rule in the respective colony. People who conducted African studies in Germany developed a whole system, to make this easier. The Hamitic theory said that the Hamitic people were superior and should rule over the other Negroid people in Sub-Saharan Africa. John Hanning Speke (1827-64) and Charles Gabriel Seligman (1873-1940) were among the most prominent people with this idea. People such Johann Ludwig Krapf, Karl Richard Lepsius, or Carl Meinhof used the study of languages in this context. They said that languages that had a grammatical genus were Hamitic, those that did not were Negroid. Using these criteria to find suitable candidates for indirect rule also led to problems: According to the theory, the Massai were hamitic, and should rule in German East Africa. Unfortunately, they were unable to make such a system for political and econmic reasons. The explanation was that "out of bad luck", the Massai were a Hamitic people kept at a lower level of social development. In their place, the Swahili were picked, as the "next-higher" people. In German South-West Africa, there was a similar problem: The theory identified the Khoikhoi as Hamitic, but they were too few to rule the country. For this reason, the Ovambo were picked for indirect rule.
Arthur Schopenhauer liked this idea, but had the ideal of "Übermensch": He said that the White race had become what it was though hardship and bad conditions in the North. Others who liked his theory were Guido von List and Lanz von Liebefels.
"Aryans", Hitler's "Master race"[change | change source]
Hitler and his supporters, the Nazi party, took power in Germany in 1933. They were Social Darwinists, Social Darwinists believe that human races are stronger or weaker than each other. They believed that the stronger races would prove themselves better in the long run, this concept was called "survival of the fittest". Nazis believed that their race the Aryans were stronger than all the other races, because of this, they believed the Aryans would one day rule over the weaker races. The Nazis made laws that were based on their ideas of race. They prevented marriage between races so that the aryan race would not become mixed with other "weaker" races because they believed it would weaken the master race. They claimed that "Aryans" were the "master race". They also made propaganda that blamed Jews for many things. Jews were considered by Nazis, a weak race whose weak values would infect the better values of the Aryan race. German Jews were not allowed to own property. In many cases they were attacked and killed because of their Race. When Germany invaded other countries in Europe, they also started putting people into concentration camps. This systematic killing is known as The Holocaust today.
To help increase the numbers of Aryans, the Nazis set up special homes called "Lebensborn". These were for unmarried pregnant woman who were likely to have children that had Nordic or Aryan qualities. This mainly meant fair skin, blond hair, blue eyes. Though slight differences could still be considered Aryan as lots of people in Germany at the time had dark hair and eyes. Heinrich Himmler believed that this would help create more members of the master race. He arranged for nine Lebensborn homes to be built in Germany, and another ten in Norway. There were also Lebensborn in France, Belgium and Luxembourg. About 20,000 children were born in these homes during the Third Reich. | <urn:uuid:57a699b2-5278-4aef-8e2f-1a4282d85f77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_race | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.987166 | 1,141 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.174788072705268... | 2 | Master race is an idea that one group of people is better than all other people. A group of people may believe themselves to be better because of their history, race, culture or some other reason. The idea first appeared in the 19th century. It was also used at different times in the 20th century, for example by the Nazi party and during Apartheid in South Africa.
History[change | change source]
This idea mostly began in the 19th century. It is not a theory liked by any scientists today. It claims there is a hierarchy of races (or that some races are better than others). It was also claimed that at the bottom of the hierarchy were black-skinned people from Africa and Aborigines from Australia, while pale-skinned Nordic people were at the top of the hierarchy.
Writers who started this idea[change | change source]
Arthur de Gobineau (1816–1882) believed that cultures become bad when races mix. In his book Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races (French: Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines, 1853–55), de Gobineau states that the mix of races has a bad influence on culture. In his view, the development of culture is linked to that of the race. When empires are created, this leads to a mixing of races. According to de Gobineau, this would lead to degeneration, and the downfall of the respective empire.
During this time, Charles Darwin started to develop his ideas about evolution. Social Darwinism is the attempt to use these concepts to predict the development of societies. Houston Steward Chamberlain believed the Germanic race was there "to save the world".
In colonialism, the concept was helpful too. Germany and Great Britain had many colonies. They would pick an ethnic group and say that this was better than the other groups. This would then lead to an indirect rule in the respective colony. People who conducted African studies in Germany developed a whole system, to make this easier. The Hamitic theory said that the Hamitic people were superior and should rule over the other Negroid people in Sub-Saharan Africa. John Hanning Speke (1827-64) and Charles Gabriel Seligman (1873-1940) were among the most prominent people with this idea. People such Johann Ludwig Krapf, Karl Richard Lepsius, or Carl Meinhof used the study of languages in this context. They said that languages that had a grammatical genus were Hamitic, those that did not were Negroid. Using these criteria to find suitable candidates for indirect rule also led to problems: According to the theory, the Massai were hamitic, and should rule in German East Africa. Unfortunately, they were unable to make such a system for political and econmic reasons. The explanation was that "out of bad luck", the Massai were a Hamitic people kept at a lower level of social development. In their place, the Swahili were picked, as the "next-higher" people. In German South-West Africa, there was a similar problem: The theory identified the Khoikhoi as Hamitic, but they were too few to rule the country. For this reason, the Ovambo were picked for indirect rule.
Arthur Schopenhauer liked this idea, but had the ideal of "Übermensch": He said that the White race had become what it was though hardship and bad conditions in the North. Others who liked his theory were Guido von List and Lanz von Liebefels.
"Aryans", Hitler's "Master race"[change | change source]
Hitler and his supporters, the Nazi party, took power in Germany in 1933. They were Social Darwinists, Social Darwinists believe that human races are stronger or weaker than each other. They believed that the stronger races would prove themselves better in the long run, this concept was called "survival of the fittest". Nazis believed that their race the Aryans were stronger than all the other races, because of this, they believed the Aryans would one day rule over the weaker races. The Nazis made laws that were based on their ideas of race. They prevented marriage between races so that the aryan race would not become mixed with other "weaker" races because they believed it would weaken the master race. They claimed that "Aryans" were the "master race". They also made propaganda that blamed Jews for many things. Jews were considered by Nazis, a weak race whose weak values would infect the better values of the Aryan race. German Jews were not allowed to own property. In many cases they were attacked and killed because of their Race. When Germany invaded other countries in Europe, they also started putting people into concentration camps. This systematic killing is known as The Holocaust today.
To help increase the numbers of Aryans, the Nazis set up special homes called "Lebensborn". These were for unmarried pregnant woman who were likely to have children that had Nordic or Aryan qualities. This mainly meant fair skin, blond hair, blue eyes. Though slight differences could still be considered Aryan as lots of people in Germany at the time had dark hair and eyes. Heinrich Himmler believed that this would help create more members of the master race. He arranged for nine Lebensborn homes to be built in Germany, and another ten in Norway. There were also Lebensborn in France, Belgium and Luxembourg. About 20,000 children were born in these homes during the Third Reich. | 1,156 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At Waverley Meadows Primary School, students are immersed in reading and a love of reading is promoted from Foundation through to Year 6. Students are taught that understanding and thinking about what they read is important.
During the daily Readers’ Workshop lessons at Waverley Meadows Primary School students are explicitly taught reading strategies and then given the chance to practise them. Students are taught to read accurately and fluently. They are taught to think about what they read, to ask questions as they read, to make predictions and to evaluate their thinking.
Students are taught to think about their thinking while they read. Students know this as ‘metacognition’. They think about their schema, which is how the books they read relate to their own experiences, to other texts they have read, and to what they know of the wider world.
In order to immerse students in a wide range of texts, each grade has a classroom library. The classroom libraries have texts catering to all interests and abilities. There is a range of fiction and non-fiction titles.
Each student at Waverley Meadows Primary School has their own book bag or box, which contains texts which are carefully selected by the student. They select a variety of books which are based on their own interest and ability. Each day students independently read books from their book bag or box. Individual reading goals are developed for each student. | <urn:uuid:4ac645c8-c02c-48f4-8a7b-79a9a84d7990> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.waverleymeadowsps.vic.edu.au/page/24/Readers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00007.warc.gz | en | 0.985168 | 283 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.370450049... | 3 | At Waverley Meadows Primary School, students are immersed in reading and a love of reading is promoted from Foundation through to Year 6. Students are taught that understanding and thinking about what they read is important.
During the daily Readers’ Workshop lessons at Waverley Meadows Primary School students are explicitly taught reading strategies and then given the chance to practise them. Students are taught to read accurately and fluently. They are taught to think about what they read, to ask questions as they read, to make predictions and to evaluate their thinking.
Students are taught to think about their thinking while they read. Students know this as ‘metacognition’. They think about their schema, which is how the books they read relate to their own experiences, to other texts they have read, and to what they know of the wider world.
In order to immerse students in a wide range of texts, each grade has a classroom library. The classroom libraries have texts catering to all interests and abilities. There is a range of fiction and non-fiction titles.
Each student at Waverley Meadows Primary School has their own book bag or box, which contains texts which are carefully selected by the student. They select a variety of books which are based on their own interest and ability. Each day students independently read books from their book bag or box. Individual reading goals are developed for each student. | 273 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lord of the Flies
Typically, in western culture masculinity is traditionally constructed as a way to show physical superiority. Masculinity in society is typically shown through the physical body which shows that masculinity is generally constructed to be heroic and a dominant power. This is shown in the novel Lord of the Flies, the theme of masculinity through the physical body is used to gain power from the group of boys. Characters in this novel were made to show different views, these characters Piggy, Ralph and Jack Merridew.
As much as Ralph and Piggy try to provide hope the need of power pushes the other boys into complete savagery. Piggy is an overweight boy with asthma that can not see without his glasses. In the novel he represents physical weakness and mental strength. Piggy’s obesity and poor sight help show that he lacks in physical well being, also his glasses help illustrate his intelligence.
In the novel Piggy provides ideas that are valuable to the group. His ability to be logical in situations helps Ralph lead the group.
But because of Piggy’s lack of physical appearance he is not treated like as leader like Ralph and Jack. Piggy has contributed to the group numerous times. He has helped Ralph become leader by identifying the conch and how to use it. Piggy always stands by his ideas and decisions; he defends his system of having names and having laws. When Piggy dies all the law and order dies with his as well. In many instances Piggy was either ignored or threatened by other boys. Piggy was a main target for Jack because of his lack of physical strength and the need to be logical.
The only ideas that were considered being used were the only ones that Ralph had suggested as the group would not listen to Piggy. Later in the novel when the boys separate into different groups the need of fire for survival overwhelms humanity and forces Jack and others to steal Piggy’s glasses, another factor of Jack’s decision was because of their lack of self defense as Piggy and Ralph were defenseless. However, whatever Piggy lacks in physically he gets more of intellectually. Ralph is a handsome, athletic twelve year old elected leader by the boys.
He is sensible and self confident, Ralph represents physical well being and a democratic leader. Gradually he becomes disheartened under the burden of being leader. Ralph shows how society sees people who are attractive, people tend to like them better and actually listen to him. Ralph is closely linked to the conch throughout the novel. The shell and Ralph both represent law and order. He is elected leader of the group because of his control of the conch which separates him from the other boys.
He then later on uses the conch to hold meetings and set up rules like keeping fresh water available, where to use the bathroom, building shelters and keeping the signal fire lit. Ralph who is born from a military background gives hope and sees in a democratic way. Ralph represents hope, he tells the boys that rescue is coming and shows that by enforcing a fire on the top of the mountain to show that there are people on the island. When they are told that there is a monster on the island, Ralph ensures the boys that there is really no monster and that they are safe.
Ralph’s main concern is to survive until they are rescued. He runs into trouble with Jack who does not agree with his plan. Throughout the whole novel, Ralph struggles to remain true to himself and fights to keep the signal fire lit up. This demonstrates how in the novel physical appearance is used to gain power. In Lord of the Flies masculinity functions as a tool to gain power shown through choir leader Jack Merridew. Jack loves attention, and does anything he can to obtain it. This in the novel means gaining power by using the other boy’s weaknesses to his advantage.
His violent behavior associated with his ego of being masculine influence the group to live up to Jack’s expectations by disagreeing with Ralph, and to do what he thinks is important; to kill the pig. Jack perceives himself higher than the rest of the group especially Piggy. Jack ridicules Piggy because of his lack of physical appearance and his mental superiority over the others. To get the others to join his side Jack he provides them with the thought of safety and survivability. To prove his promises, Jack provides a feast by killing the pig.
He provides warmth and a way to cook by stealing Piggy’s glasses to create fire. These things are provided by violence and are backed by his physical well being. Although he has succeeded by getting what he promised, there were also consequences as Piggy was killed while trying to fight for his glasses. After Piggy’s death his ego overwhelmed his humanity and was set aside as he needed to kill Ralph to feel fully superior. This demonstrates how Jack uses masculinity and fear as a tool to gain power over others.
Lord of the Flies portrays the theme of masculinity through the physical body as a way to gain power to control the group; Jack harms Piggy to intimidate the group. Jack goes against his authority (Ralph) in order to show the group that he is the more superior leader. He also shows his masculinity by showing his anger towards hunting. Jack as with his physical well being uses fear to gain power. Jack victimizes Piggy because of his weight and his use for Ralph and uses the pig, want of survival as a way to separate the group. Through society masculinity is constructed as a form of physical superiority. | <urn:uuid:04b00605-3b66-47e1-b659-dd2635e8edce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-lord-of-the-flies-10/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.985308 | 1,136 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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Typically, in western culture masculinity is traditionally constructed as a way to show physical superiority. Masculinity in society is typically shown through the physical body which shows that masculinity is generally constructed to be heroic and a dominant power. This is shown in the novel Lord of the Flies, the theme of masculinity through the physical body is used to gain power from the group of boys. Characters in this novel were made to show different views, these characters Piggy, Ralph and Jack Merridew.
As much as Ralph and Piggy try to provide hope the need of power pushes the other boys into complete savagery. Piggy is an overweight boy with asthma that can not see without his glasses. In the novel he represents physical weakness and mental strength. Piggy’s obesity and poor sight help show that he lacks in physical well being, also his glasses help illustrate his intelligence.
In the novel Piggy provides ideas that are valuable to the group. His ability to be logical in situations helps Ralph lead the group.
But because of Piggy’s lack of physical appearance he is not treated like as leader like Ralph and Jack. Piggy has contributed to the group numerous times. He has helped Ralph become leader by identifying the conch and how to use it. Piggy always stands by his ideas and decisions; he defends his system of having names and having laws. When Piggy dies all the law and order dies with his as well. In many instances Piggy was either ignored or threatened by other boys. Piggy was a main target for Jack because of his lack of physical strength and the need to be logical.
The only ideas that were considered being used were the only ones that Ralph had suggested as the group would not listen to Piggy. Later in the novel when the boys separate into different groups the need of fire for survival overwhelms humanity and forces Jack and others to steal Piggy’s glasses, another factor of Jack’s decision was because of their lack of self defense as Piggy and Ralph were defenseless. However, whatever Piggy lacks in physically he gets more of intellectually. Ralph is a handsome, athletic twelve year old elected leader by the boys.
He is sensible and self confident, Ralph represents physical well being and a democratic leader. Gradually he becomes disheartened under the burden of being leader. Ralph shows how society sees people who are attractive, people tend to like them better and actually listen to him. Ralph is closely linked to the conch throughout the novel. The shell and Ralph both represent law and order. He is elected leader of the group because of his control of the conch which separates him from the other boys.
He then later on uses the conch to hold meetings and set up rules like keeping fresh water available, where to use the bathroom, building shelters and keeping the signal fire lit. Ralph who is born from a military background gives hope and sees in a democratic way. Ralph represents hope, he tells the boys that rescue is coming and shows that by enforcing a fire on the top of the mountain to show that there are people on the island. When they are told that there is a monster on the island, Ralph ensures the boys that there is really no monster and that they are safe.
Ralph’s main concern is to survive until they are rescued. He runs into trouble with Jack who does not agree with his plan. Throughout the whole novel, Ralph struggles to remain true to himself and fights to keep the signal fire lit up. This demonstrates how in the novel physical appearance is used to gain power. In Lord of the Flies masculinity functions as a tool to gain power shown through choir leader Jack Merridew. Jack loves attention, and does anything he can to obtain it. This in the novel means gaining power by using the other boy’s weaknesses to his advantage.
His violent behavior associated with his ego of being masculine influence the group to live up to Jack’s expectations by disagreeing with Ralph, and to do what he thinks is important; to kill the pig. Jack perceives himself higher than the rest of the group especially Piggy. Jack ridicules Piggy because of his lack of physical appearance and his mental superiority over the others. To get the others to join his side Jack he provides them with the thought of safety and survivability. To prove his promises, Jack provides a feast by killing the pig.
He provides warmth and a way to cook by stealing Piggy’s glasses to create fire. These things are provided by violence and are backed by his physical well being. Although he has succeeded by getting what he promised, there were also consequences as Piggy was killed while trying to fight for his glasses. After Piggy’s death his ego overwhelmed his humanity and was set aside as he needed to kill Ralph to feel fully superior. This demonstrates how Jack uses masculinity and fear as a tool to gain power over others.
Lord of the Flies portrays the theme of masculinity through the physical body as a way to gain power to control the group; Jack harms Piggy to intimidate the group. Jack goes against his authority (Ralph) in order to show the group that he is the more superior leader. He also shows his masculinity by showing his anger towards hunting. Jack as with his physical well being uses fear to gain power. Jack victimizes Piggy because of his weight and his use for Ralph and uses the pig, want of survival as a way to separate the group. Through society masculinity is constructed as a form of physical superiority. | 1,108 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Graffiti Was Here
Graffiti at the Unterfahrung Kefergasse (a tunnel under the Westbahn) in Penzing, Vienna. Source: (Wikimedia Commons)
The debate over graffiti has been ongoing for decades. Is it art? Is it vandalism? Should it be covered under freedom of expression? While these questions may never be answered, one thing is clear: the tendency of mankind to leave their mark on walls has been around since before the invention of written language.
The word graffiti, as well as its singular form “graffito,” is Italian and derived from the word “graffio,” meaning “a scratch.” However, the practice of “tagging” walls was happening long before there was a word to describe it. In fact, the earliest graffiti is believed to have been created between 13,000 and 9,000 B.C. The graffiti in question is “Cueva de las Manos”, a cave painting found in Santa Cruz, Argentina. Its name translates to “The Cave of Hands,” which is a pretty apt description of the cave painting which consists entirely of hands in various sizes and positions.
Thousands of years later, the Greeks and Romans were still at it, writing their names and poems on buildings. In Turkey, in what was once the location of the Greek city of Ephesus, there’s a drawing of a foot, a hand, a heart, and a number. According to the local guides there, it was an advertisement for prostitution. Graffiti has also been found in the ruins of Pompeii, the oldest of which includes a timestamp dating it to October 3, 78 B.C.
While one might expect an inscription from two thousand years ago to be something profound, but this one has been translated to say “Gaius Pumidius Diphilus was here.” A similar inscription by a Viking mercenary was found in the Hagia Sophia, declaring that “Halvdan was here.” It seems the need to declare one’s presence, whether it be in a church or a bathroom stall, is timeless. Other inscriptions in Pompeii included insults, declarations of love, and epitaphs, as well the more formal political campaigns, advertisements, and public notices.
Modern-day tagging first appeared in Philadelphia during the early 1960s and had spread to New York by the late 1960s. The medium of choice was spray paint and the subway trains were their surface, though buildings were also up for grabs. It wasn’t called graffiti at first but was referred to as “writing.” Most of the taggers were gang members marking their territory. It was The New York Times and novelist Norman Mailer who first referred to the tags as graffiti.
During the early 1970s, a messenger/writer named TAKI 183 (an abbreviation of his full name, Demetraki, and 183rd Street, on which he lived) made his mark with a marker, which he used to write his name at subway stations all over New York. He was featured in a 1971 article in The New York Times after which graffiti really took off and became more of an art form, including not just names but unique and stylish tags. By the mid-1970s, it was difficult to see out subway car windows because the trains were completely covered in graffiti.
While art galleries had begun to recognize the artistic, and therefore monetary, the value of these tags, New York mayor John Lindsey declared the first “war” on graffiti in 1972 and, by the 1980s, it had become nearly impossible to tag subway trains without getting caught. Therefore, building walls and roofs took over as canvases, though some artists used actual canvases. Many former taggers, like Jean-Michel Basquiat and Keith Haring, became successful artists. The French artist Blek le Rat, along with British artist Banksy, achieved international fame by introducing a new genre of graffiti using stencils.
Like it? Share with your friends! | <urn:uuid:ed39aa52-5ce8-4a21-b6a0-ea79f37fecb3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://curioushistorian.com/graffiti-was-here | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00075.warc.gz | en | 0.984951 | 850 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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Graffiti at the Unterfahrung Kefergasse (a tunnel under the Westbahn) in Penzing, Vienna. Source: (Wikimedia Commons)
The debate over graffiti has been ongoing for decades. Is it art? Is it vandalism? Should it be covered under freedom of expression? While these questions may never be answered, one thing is clear: the tendency of mankind to leave their mark on walls has been around since before the invention of written language.
The word graffiti, as well as its singular form “graffito,” is Italian and derived from the word “graffio,” meaning “a scratch.” However, the practice of “tagging” walls was happening long before there was a word to describe it. In fact, the earliest graffiti is believed to have been created between 13,000 and 9,000 B.C. The graffiti in question is “Cueva de las Manos”, a cave painting found in Santa Cruz, Argentina. Its name translates to “The Cave of Hands,” which is a pretty apt description of the cave painting which consists entirely of hands in various sizes and positions.
Thousands of years later, the Greeks and Romans were still at it, writing their names and poems on buildings. In Turkey, in what was once the location of the Greek city of Ephesus, there’s a drawing of a foot, a hand, a heart, and a number. According to the local guides there, it was an advertisement for prostitution. Graffiti has also been found in the ruins of Pompeii, the oldest of which includes a timestamp dating it to October 3, 78 B.C.
While one might expect an inscription from two thousand years ago to be something profound, but this one has been translated to say “Gaius Pumidius Diphilus was here.” A similar inscription by a Viking mercenary was found in the Hagia Sophia, declaring that “Halvdan was here.” It seems the need to declare one’s presence, whether it be in a church or a bathroom stall, is timeless. Other inscriptions in Pompeii included insults, declarations of love, and epitaphs, as well the more formal political campaigns, advertisements, and public notices.
Modern-day tagging first appeared in Philadelphia during the early 1960s and had spread to New York by the late 1960s. The medium of choice was spray paint and the subway trains were their surface, though buildings were also up for grabs. It wasn’t called graffiti at first but was referred to as “writing.” Most of the taggers were gang members marking their territory. It was The New York Times and novelist Norman Mailer who first referred to the tags as graffiti.
During the early 1970s, a messenger/writer named TAKI 183 (an abbreviation of his full name, Demetraki, and 183rd Street, on which he lived) made his mark with a marker, which he used to write his name at subway stations all over New York. He was featured in a 1971 article in The New York Times after which graffiti really took off and became more of an art form, including not just names but unique and stylish tags. By the mid-1970s, it was difficult to see out subway car windows because the trains were completely covered in graffiti.
While art galleries had begun to recognize the artistic, and therefore monetary, the value of these tags, New York mayor John Lindsey declared the first “war” on graffiti in 1972 and, by the 1980s, it had become nearly impossible to tag subway trains without getting caught. Therefore, building walls and roofs took over as canvases, though some artists used actual canvases. Many former taggers, like Jean-Michel Basquiat and Keith Haring, became successful artists. The French artist Blek le Rat, along with British artist Banksy, achieved international fame by introducing a new genre of graffiti using stencils.
Like it? Share with your friends! | 844 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sarah Moore Grimké (1792-1873) and Angelina Emily Grimké (1805-1879), known as the Grimké sisters, were the first American female advocates of abolition of slavery and women's rights.[page needed] They were writers, orators, and educators.
They grew up in a slave-holding family in the Southern United States but moved to the North in the 1820s, settling for a time in Philadelphia and becoming part of its substantial Quaker community. They became more deeply involved with the abolitionist movement, traveling on its lecture circuit and recounting their firsthand experiences with slavery on their family's plantation. Among the first American women to act publicly in social reform movements, they were ridiculed for their abolitionist activity. They became early activists in the women's rights movement. They eventually developed a private school.
Learning that their late brother had had three mixed-race sons, they helped the boys get educations in the North. Archibald and Francis J. Grimké stayed in the North, Francis becoming a Presbyterian preacher, but their younger brother John returned to the South.
Judge John Faucheraud Grimké, the father of the Grimké sisters, was a strong advocate of slavery and of the subordination of women. A wealthy planter who held hundreds of slaves, Grimké had 14 children with his wife, and at least three children from slaves he impregnated. (See Children of the plantation.) Three of the children died in infancy. Grimké served as chief judge of the Supreme Court of South Carolina.
Sarah was the sixth child and Angelina was the thirteenth. Sarah said that at age five, after she saw a slave being whipped, she tried to board a steamer to a place where there was no slavery. Later, in violation of the law, she taught her personal slave to read.
Sarah wanted to become a lawyer and follow in her father's footsteps. She studied the books in her father's library constantly, teaching herself geography, history, and mathematics, but her father would not allow her to learn Latin, or go to college with her brother Thomas, who was at Yale Law School. Still, her father appreciated her keen intelligence, and told her that if she had been a man, she would have been the greatest lawyer in South Carolina.
After completing her studies, Sarah begged her parents to allow her to become Angelina's godmother. She became a role model to her younger sibling, and the two sisters had a close relationship all their lives. Angelina often called Sarah "mother".
Sarah became an abolitionist in 1835.
Sarah was twenty-six when she accompanied her father, who was in need of medical attention, to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she became acquainted with the Quakers. The Quakers had liberal views on slavery and gender equality, and Sarah was fascinated with their religious sincerity and simplicity, and also their disapproval of gender inequality and slavery. Because of her father's death, Sarah had to leave Philadelphia in 1818 and return to Charleston. There her abolitionist views grew stronger, while she also influenced Angelina.
Sarah left Charleston for good a short time later and relocated to Philadelphia, where Angelina joined her in 1829. The sisters became very involved in the Quaker community. In 1835 Angelina wrote a letter to William Lloyd Garrison, editor and publisher of The Liberator, which he published without her knowledge. As Quakers of the time were strict on traditional manners, as well as on individuals' deference to all decisions of the congregation before taking public actions, both sisters were immediately rebuked by the Quaker community -- yet sought out by the abolitionist movement. The sisters had to choose: recant and become members in good standing in the Quaker community, or actively work to oppose slavery. They chose the latter course.
Alice S. Rossi says that this choice "seemed to free both sisters for a rapidly escalating awareness of the many restrictions upon their lives. Their physical and intellectual energies were soon fully expanded, as though they and their ideas had been suddenly released after a long period of germination." Abolitionist Theodore Weld, who would later marry Angelina, trained them to be abolition speakers. Contact with like-minded individuals for the first time in their lives enlivened the sisters.
Sarah was rebuked again in 1836 by Quakers when she tried to discuss abolition in a meeting. Following the earlier example of the African-American orator Maria. W. Stewart of Boston, the Grimké sisters were among the first female public speakers in the United States. They first spoke to "parlor meetings," of women only, as was considered proper. Interested men frequently sneaked into the meetings. The sisters gained attention because of their class and background in having slaves, and coming from a wealthy planter family.
As they attracted larger audiences, the Grimké sisters began to speak in front of a mixed audience (both men and women). They challenged social conventions in two ways: first, speaking for the antislavery movement at a time when there was widespread disapproval of this; many male public speakers on this issue were criticized by the press. Secondly, their very act of public speaking was criticized, as it was not believed suitable for women. A group of ministers wrote a letter citing the Bible and reprimanding the sisters for stepping out of the "woman's proper sphere," which was characterized by silence and subordination. They came to understand that women were oppressed and, without power, women could not address or right the wrongs of society. They became ardent feminists.
Angelina Grimké wrote her first tract, "Appeal to the Christian Women of the South" (1836), to encourage Southern women to join the abolitionist movement for the sake of white womanhood as well as black slaves. She addressed Southern women in sisterly, reasonable tones. She began her piece by demonstrating that slavery was contrary to the United States' Declaration of Independence and to the teachings of Christ. She discussed the damage both to slaves and to society. She advocated teaching slaves to read, and freeing any slaves her readers might own. Although legal codes of slave states restricted or prohibited both of these actions, she urged her readers to ignore wrongful laws and do what was right. "Consequences, my friends, belong no more to you than they did to [the] apostles. Duty is ours and events are God's." She closed by exhorting her readers to "arise and gird yourselves for this great moral conflict."
The sisters created more controversy when Sarah published "Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States" (1836) and Angelina republished her "Appeal" in 1837. That year they went on a lecture tour, addressing Congregationalist churches in the Northeast. In addition to denouncing slavery, the sisters denounced race prejudice. Further, they argued that (white) women had a natural bond with female black slaves. These last two ideas were extreme even for radical abolitionists. Their public speaking for the abolitionist cause continued to draw criticism, each attack making the Grimké sisters more determined. Responding to an attack by Catharine Beecher on her public speaking, Angelina wrote a series of letters to Beecher, later published with the title Letters to Catharine Beecher. She staunchly defended the abolitionist cause and her right to publicly speak for that cause. By the end of the year, the sisters were being denounced from Congregationalist pulpits. The following year Sarah responded to the ministers' attacks by writing a series of letters addressed to the president of the abolitionist society which sponsored their speeches. These became known as Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, in which she defended women's right to the public platform. By 1838, thousands of people flocked to hear their Boston lecture series.
In 1839 the sisters, with Weld, published American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses, a collection of eyewitness testimony and stories from Southern newspapers.
Until 1854, Theodore was often away from home, either on the lecture circuit or in Washington, DC. After that, financial pressures forced him to take up a more lucrative profession. For a time they lived on a farm in New Jersey and operated a boarding school. Many abolitionists, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton, sent their children to the school. Eventually, it developed as a cooperative, the Raritan Bay Union. Although the sisters no longer spoke on the lecture circuit, they continued to be privately active as both abolitionists and feminists.
Neither Sarah nor Angelina initially sought to become feminists, but felt the role was forced onto them. Devoutly religious, these Quaker converts' works are predominantly religious in nature, with strong Biblical arguments. Indeed, both their abolitionist sentiments and their feminism sprang from deeply-held religious convictions. Both Sarah, who eventually emphasized feminism over abolitionism, and Angelina, who remained primarily interested in the abolitionist movement, were powerful writers. They neatly summarized the abolitionist arguments which would eventually lead to the Civil War. Sarah's work addressed many issues that are familiar to the feminist movement of the late 20th century, 150 years later.
Before the Civil War, the sisters discovered that their late brother Henry had had a relationship with Nancy Weston, an enslaved mixed-race woman, after he became a widower. They lived together and had three mixed-race sons: Archibald, Francis, and John (who was born a couple of months after their father died). The sisters arranged for the oldest two nephews to come north for education and helped support them. Francis J. Grimké became a Presbyterian minister who graduated from Lincoln University (Pennsylvania) and Princeton Theological Seminary. In December 1878, Francis married Charlotte Forten, a noted educator and author, and had one daughter, Theodora Cornelia, who died as an infant. The daughter of Archibald, Angelina Weld Grimké (named after her aunt), became a noted poet.
When Sarah was nearly 80, to test the 15th Amendment, the sisters attempted to vote.
Although Angelina's letter was published before Sarah's work, analysis of the texts and the sisters' large body of work demonstrate that much of Angelina's analysis of the creation story originally came from Sarah. Although the two sisters shared the same interpretation of the creation story, their discussions of it are very different. Angelina uses her interpretation of the creation story to bolster her position that women were not created as a gift or for possession of men but rather as unique, intelligent, capable, creatures deserving equal regard, rights, and responsibilities with men.
Sarah's discussion of the creation story is much longer, more detailed, and more sophisticated. Both stories emphasize the equality of men and women's creation but Sarah also discusses Adam's greater responsibility for the fall. To her, Eve, innocent of the ways of evil, was tempted by the crafty serpent while Adam was tempted by a mere mortal. Because of the supernatural nature of her tempter, Eve's sinfulness can be more easily forgiven. Further, Adam should have tenderly reproved his wife and led them both away from sin. Hence, Adam failed in two ways, not one. By analyzing the Hebrew text and by comparing the phrasing used here with the phrasing used in the story of Cain and Abel, Sarah found that God's "curse" is not a curse but a prophecy. Her concluding thought asserts that women are bound to God alone.
From Angelina Grimke's "Letter XII Human Rights Not Founded on Sex" (October 2, 1837):
The regulation of duty by the mere circumstance of sex, rather than by the fundamental principle of moral being, has led to all that multifarious train of evils flowing out of the anti-christian doctrine of masculine and feminine virtues. By this doctrine, man had been converted into the warrior, and clothed with sternness, and those other kindred qualities, which in common estimation belong to his character as a man; whilst woman has been taught to lean upon an arm of flesh, to sit as a doll arrayed in "gold, and pearls, and costly array," to be admired for her personal charms, and caressed and humored like a spoiled child, or converted into a mere drudge to suit the convenience of her lord and master. Thus have all the diversified relations of life been filled with "confusion and every evil work." This principle has given to man a charter for the exercise of tyranny and selfishness, pride and arrogance, lust and brutal violence. It has robbed woman of essential rights, the right to think and speak and act on all great moral questions, just as men think and speak and act; the right to share their responsibilities, perils and toils; the right to fulfill the great end of her being, as a moral, intellectual and immortal creature, and of glorifying god in her body and her spirit which are His. Hitherto, instead of being a help meet to man, in the highest, noblest sense of the term as a companion, a co-worker, an equal; she has been a mere appendage of his being, an instrument of his convenience and pleasure, the pretty toy with which he whiled away his leisure moments, or the pet animal whom he humored into playfulness and submission. Woman, instead of being regarded as the equal of man, has uniformly been looked down upon as his inferior, a mere gift to fill up the measure of his happiness. In "the poetry of romantic gallantry," it is true, she has been called "the last best gift of God to man"; but I believe I speak forth the words of truth and soberness when I affirm, that woman never was given to man. She was created, like him, in the image of God, and crowned with glory and honor; created only a little lower than the angels, - not, as is almost universally assumed, a little lower than man; on her brow, as well as on his, was placed the "diadem of beauty," and in her hand the scepter of universal dominion. Gen 1: 27, 28. "The last best gift of God to man"! Where is the scripture warrant for this "rhetorical flourish, this splendid absurdity?" Let us examine the account of the creation. "And the rib which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought her unto the man." Not as a gift - for Adam immediately recognized her as part of himself - ("this is now bone of my bone, and flesh of my flesh") - a companion and equal, not one hair's breadth beneath him in the majesty and glory of her moral being; not placed under his authority as a subject, but by his side, on the same platform of human rights, under the government of God only. This idea of woman's being "the last gift of God to man," however pretty it may sound to the ears of those who love to discourse upon. " The poetry of romantic gallantry, and the generous promptings of chivalry," has nevertheless been the means of sinking her from an end into a mere means - of turning her into an appendage to man, instead of recognizing her as a part of man - of destroying her individuality, and rights, and responsibilities, and merging her moral being in that of man. Instead of Jehovah being her king, her lawgiver, her judge, she has been taken out of the exalted scale of existence in which He placed her, and subjected to the despotic control of man.
As an added bonus, Angelina also wrote: ". . . whatever is morally right for a man to do, it is morally right for a woman to do. I recognize no rights but human rights - I know nothing of men's rights and women's rights; for in Christ Jesus, there is neither male nor female.
... I prize the purity of his character as highly as I do that of hers. As a moral being, whatever it is morally wrong for her to do, it is morally wrong for him to do.
From Sarah Grimke's "Letter 1: The Original Equality of Woman" July 11, 1837. Sarah precedes the following quote with the comment that all translations are corrupt and the only inspired versions of the Bible are in the original languages.
We must first view woman at the period of her creation. "And God said, Let us make man in our own image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing, in the image of God created he him, male and female created he them." In all this sublime description of the creation of man, (which is a difference intimated as existing between them). They were both made in the image of God; dominion was given to both over every other creature, but not over each other. Created in perfect equality, they were expected to exercise the viceregency intrusted to them by their Maker, in harmony and love.
Let us pass on now to the recapitulation of the creation of man: "The Lord god formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. And the Lord God said, it is not good that man should be alone, I will make him an help meet for him." All creation swarmed with animated beings capable of natural affection, as we know they still are; it was not, therefore, merely to give man a creature susceptible of loving, obeying, and looking up to him, for all that the animals could do and did do. It was to give him a companion, in all respects his equal; one who was like himself a free agent, gifted with intellect and endowed with immortality; not a partaker merely of his animal gratifications, but able to enter into all his feelings as a moral and responsible being. If this had not been the case, how could she have been a help meet for him? I understand this as applying not only to the parties entering into the marriage contract, but to all men and women, because I believe God designed woman to be a help meet for man in every good and perfect work. She was part of himself, as if Jehovah designed to make the oneness and identity of man and woman perfect and complete; and when the glorious work of their creation was finished, "the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy.
This blissful condition was not long enjoyed by our first parents. Eve, it would seem from history, was wandering alone amid the bowers of Paradise, when the serpent met with her. From her reply to Satan, it is evident that the command not to eat "of the tree that is in the midst of the garden," was given to both, although the term man was used when the prohibition was issued by God. "And the woman said unto the serpent, we may eat of the fruit of the trees of the garden, but of the fruit of the tree which is in the midst of the garden, God hath said, Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall Ye touch it, lest Ye die." Here the woman was exposed to temptation from a being with whom she was unacquainted. She had been accustomed to associate with her beloved partner, and to hold communion with God and with angels; but of satanic intelligence, she was in all probability entirely ignorant. Through the subtlety of the serpent, she was beguiled. And "when she was that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make one wise, she took of the fruit thereof and did eat.
We next find Adam involved in the same sin, not through the instrumentality of a super-natural agent, but through that of his equal, a being whom he must have known was liable to transgress the divine command, because he must have felt that he was himself a free agent, and that he was restrained from disobedience only by the exercise of faith and love towards his Creator. Had Adam tenderly reproved his wife, and endeavored to lead her to repentance instead of sharing in her guilt, I should be much more ready to accord to man that superiority which he claims; but as the facts stand disclosed by the sacred historian, it appears to men that to say the least, there was as much weakness exhibited by Adam as by Eve. They both fell from innocence, and consequently from happiness, but not from equality.
Let us next examine the conduct of this fallen pair, when Jehovah interrogated them respecting their fault. They both frankly confessed their guilt. "The man said, the woman who thou gavest to be with me, she gave me of the tree and I did eat. And the woman said, the serpent beguiled men and I did eat." And the Lord God said unto the woman, "Thou wilt be subject unto they husband, and he will rule over thee." That this did not allude to the subjection of woman to man is manifest, because the same mode of expression is used in speaking to Cain of Abel. The truth is that the curse, as it is termed, which was pronounced by Jehovah upon woman, is a simple prophecy. The Hebrew, like the French language, uses the same word to express shall and will. Our translators having been accustomed to exercise their lordship over their wives, and seeing only through the medium of a perverted judgment, very naturally, though I think not very learnedly or very kindly, translated it shall instead of will, and thus converted a prediction to Eve into a command to Adam; for observe, it is addressed to the woman and not to the man. the consequence of the fall was an immediate struggle for dominion, and Jehovah foretold which would gain the ascendancy; but as he created them in his image, as that image manifestly was not lost by the fall, because it is urged in Gen 9:6, as an argument why the life of man should not be taken by his fellow man, there is no reason to suppose that sin produced any distinction between them as moral, intellectual, and responsible beings. Man might just as well have endeavored by hard labor to fulfill the prophecy, thorns and thistles will the earth bring forth to thee, as to pretend to accomplish the other, "he will rule over thee," by asserting dominion over his wife.
Authority usurped from God, not give.
He gave him only over beast, flesh, fowl,
Dominion absolute: that right he holds
By God's donation: but man o'er woman
He made not Lord, such title to himself
Reserving, human left from human free,
Here then I plant myself. God created us equal; - he created us free agents; - he is our Lawgiver, our King, and our Judge, and to him alone is woman bound to be in subjection, and to him alone is she accountable for the use of those talents with which Her Heavenly Father has entrusted her. One is her Master even Christ.
In response to a letter from a group of ministers who cited the Bible in reprimanding the sisters for stepping out of "woman's proper sphere" of silence and subordination, Sarah Grimke' wrote Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Woman in 1838.
She asserts that "men and women were CREATED EQUAL.... Whatever is right for a man to do, is right for woman....I seek no favors for my sex. I surrender not our claim to equality. All I ask of our brethren is, that they will take their feet from off our necks and permit us to stand upright on that ground which God destined us to occupy."
"The Grimké Sisters at Work on Theodore Dwight Weld's American Slavery as It Is (1838)" is a poem by Melissa Range published in the September 30, 2019, issue of The Nation. | <urn:uuid:a2744399-c81a-4ce6-a60b-49bfb3a9cd0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Grimke_sisters | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.984322 | 4,965 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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-0.04663409292697... | 1 | Sarah Moore Grimké (1792-1873) and Angelina Emily Grimké (1805-1879), known as the Grimké sisters, were the first American female advocates of abolition of slavery and women's rights.[page needed] They were writers, orators, and educators.
They grew up in a slave-holding family in the Southern United States but moved to the North in the 1820s, settling for a time in Philadelphia and becoming part of its substantial Quaker community. They became more deeply involved with the abolitionist movement, traveling on its lecture circuit and recounting their firsthand experiences with slavery on their family's plantation. Among the first American women to act publicly in social reform movements, they were ridiculed for their abolitionist activity. They became early activists in the women's rights movement. They eventually developed a private school.
Learning that their late brother had had three mixed-race sons, they helped the boys get educations in the North. Archibald and Francis J. Grimké stayed in the North, Francis becoming a Presbyterian preacher, but their younger brother John returned to the South.
Judge John Faucheraud Grimké, the father of the Grimké sisters, was a strong advocate of slavery and of the subordination of women. A wealthy planter who held hundreds of slaves, Grimké had 14 children with his wife, and at least three children from slaves he impregnated. (See Children of the plantation.) Three of the children died in infancy. Grimké served as chief judge of the Supreme Court of South Carolina.
Sarah was the sixth child and Angelina was the thirteenth. Sarah said that at age five, after she saw a slave being whipped, she tried to board a steamer to a place where there was no slavery. Later, in violation of the law, she taught her personal slave to read.
Sarah wanted to become a lawyer and follow in her father's footsteps. She studied the books in her father's library constantly, teaching herself geography, history, and mathematics, but her father would not allow her to learn Latin, or go to college with her brother Thomas, who was at Yale Law School. Still, her father appreciated her keen intelligence, and told her that if she had been a man, she would have been the greatest lawyer in South Carolina.
After completing her studies, Sarah begged her parents to allow her to become Angelina's godmother. She became a role model to her younger sibling, and the two sisters had a close relationship all their lives. Angelina often called Sarah "mother".
Sarah became an abolitionist in 1835.
Sarah was twenty-six when she accompanied her father, who was in need of medical attention, to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she became acquainted with the Quakers. The Quakers had liberal views on slavery and gender equality, and Sarah was fascinated with their religious sincerity and simplicity, and also their disapproval of gender inequality and slavery. Because of her father's death, Sarah had to leave Philadelphia in 1818 and return to Charleston. There her abolitionist views grew stronger, while she also influenced Angelina.
Sarah left Charleston for good a short time later and relocated to Philadelphia, where Angelina joined her in 1829. The sisters became very involved in the Quaker community. In 1835 Angelina wrote a letter to William Lloyd Garrison, editor and publisher of The Liberator, which he published without her knowledge. As Quakers of the time were strict on traditional manners, as well as on individuals' deference to all decisions of the congregation before taking public actions, both sisters were immediately rebuked by the Quaker community -- yet sought out by the abolitionist movement. The sisters had to choose: recant and become members in good standing in the Quaker community, or actively work to oppose slavery. They chose the latter course.
Alice S. Rossi says that this choice "seemed to free both sisters for a rapidly escalating awareness of the many restrictions upon their lives. Their physical and intellectual energies were soon fully expanded, as though they and their ideas had been suddenly released after a long period of germination." Abolitionist Theodore Weld, who would later marry Angelina, trained them to be abolition speakers. Contact with like-minded individuals for the first time in their lives enlivened the sisters.
Sarah was rebuked again in 1836 by Quakers when she tried to discuss abolition in a meeting. Following the earlier example of the African-American orator Maria. W. Stewart of Boston, the Grimké sisters were among the first female public speakers in the United States. They first spoke to "parlor meetings," of women only, as was considered proper. Interested men frequently sneaked into the meetings. The sisters gained attention because of their class and background in having slaves, and coming from a wealthy planter family.
As they attracted larger audiences, the Grimké sisters began to speak in front of a mixed audience (both men and women). They challenged social conventions in two ways: first, speaking for the antislavery movement at a time when there was widespread disapproval of this; many male public speakers on this issue were criticized by the press. Secondly, their very act of public speaking was criticized, as it was not believed suitable for women. A group of ministers wrote a letter citing the Bible and reprimanding the sisters for stepping out of the "woman's proper sphere," which was characterized by silence and subordination. They came to understand that women were oppressed and, without power, women could not address or right the wrongs of society. They became ardent feminists.
Angelina Grimké wrote her first tract, "Appeal to the Christian Women of the South" (1836), to encourage Southern women to join the abolitionist movement for the sake of white womanhood as well as black slaves. She addressed Southern women in sisterly, reasonable tones. She began her piece by demonstrating that slavery was contrary to the United States' Declaration of Independence and to the teachings of Christ. She discussed the damage both to slaves and to society. She advocated teaching slaves to read, and freeing any slaves her readers might own. Although legal codes of slave states restricted or prohibited both of these actions, she urged her readers to ignore wrongful laws and do what was right. "Consequences, my friends, belong no more to you than they did to [the] apostles. Duty is ours and events are God's." She closed by exhorting her readers to "arise and gird yourselves for this great moral conflict."
The sisters created more controversy when Sarah published "Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States" (1836) and Angelina republished her "Appeal" in 1837. That year they went on a lecture tour, addressing Congregationalist churches in the Northeast. In addition to denouncing slavery, the sisters denounced race prejudice. Further, they argued that (white) women had a natural bond with female black slaves. These last two ideas were extreme even for radical abolitionists. Their public speaking for the abolitionist cause continued to draw criticism, each attack making the Grimké sisters more determined. Responding to an attack by Catharine Beecher on her public speaking, Angelina wrote a series of letters to Beecher, later published with the title Letters to Catharine Beecher. She staunchly defended the abolitionist cause and her right to publicly speak for that cause. By the end of the year, the sisters were being denounced from Congregationalist pulpits. The following year Sarah responded to the ministers' attacks by writing a series of letters addressed to the president of the abolitionist society which sponsored their speeches. These became known as Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, in which she defended women's right to the public platform. By 1838, thousands of people flocked to hear their Boston lecture series.
In 1839 the sisters, with Weld, published American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses, a collection of eyewitness testimony and stories from Southern newspapers.
Until 1854, Theodore was often away from home, either on the lecture circuit or in Washington, DC. After that, financial pressures forced him to take up a more lucrative profession. For a time they lived on a farm in New Jersey and operated a boarding school. Many abolitionists, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton, sent their children to the school. Eventually, it developed as a cooperative, the Raritan Bay Union. Although the sisters no longer spoke on the lecture circuit, they continued to be privately active as both abolitionists and feminists.
Neither Sarah nor Angelina initially sought to become feminists, but felt the role was forced onto them. Devoutly religious, these Quaker converts' works are predominantly religious in nature, with strong Biblical arguments. Indeed, both their abolitionist sentiments and their feminism sprang from deeply-held religious convictions. Both Sarah, who eventually emphasized feminism over abolitionism, and Angelina, who remained primarily interested in the abolitionist movement, were powerful writers. They neatly summarized the abolitionist arguments which would eventually lead to the Civil War. Sarah's work addressed many issues that are familiar to the feminist movement of the late 20th century, 150 years later.
Before the Civil War, the sisters discovered that their late brother Henry had had a relationship with Nancy Weston, an enslaved mixed-race woman, after he became a widower. They lived together and had three mixed-race sons: Archibald, Francis, and John (who was born a couple of months after their father died). The sisters arranged for the oldest two nephews to come north for education and helped support them. Francis J. Grimké became a Presbyterian minister who graduated from Lincoln University (Pennsylvania) and Princeton Theological Seminary. In December 1878, Francis married Charlotte Forten, a noted educator and author, and had one daughter, Theodora Cornelia, who died as an infant. The daughter of Archibald, Angelina Weld Grimké (named after her aunt), became a noted poet.
When Sarah was nearly 80, to test the 15th Amendment, the sisters attempted to vote.
Although Angelina's letter was published before Sarah's work, analysis of the texts and the sisters' large body of work demonstrate that much of Angelina's analysis of the creation story originally came from Sarah. Although the two sisters shared the same interpretation of the creation story, their discussions of it are very different. Angelina uses her interpretation of the creation story to bolster her position that women were not created as a gift or for possession of men but rather as unique, intelligent, capable, creatures deserving equal regard, rights, and responsibilities with men.
Sarah's discussion of the creation story is much longer, more detailed, and more sophisticated. Both stories emphasize the equality of men and women's creation but Sarah also discusses Adam's greater responsibility for the fall. To her, Eve, innocent of the ways of evil, was tempted by the crafty serpent while Adam was tempted by a mere mortal. Because of the supernatural nature of her tempter, Eve's sinfulness can be more easily forgiven. Further, Adam should have tenderly reproved his wife and led them both away from sin. Hence, Adam failed in two ways, not one. By analyzing the Hebrew text and by comparing the phrasing used here with the phrasing used in the story of Cain and Abel, Sarah found that God's "curse" is not a curse but a prophecy. Her concluding thought asserts that women are bound to God alone.
From Angelina Grimke's "Letter XII Human Rights Not Founded on Sex" (October 2, 1837):
The regulation of duty by the mere circumstance of sex, rather than by the fundamental principle of moral being, has led to all that multifarious train of evils flowing out of the anti-christian doctrine of masculine and feminine virtues. By this doctrine, man had been converted into the warrior, and clothed with sternness, and those other kindred qualities, which in common estimation belong to his character as a man; whilst woman has been taught to lean upon an arm of flesh, to sit as a doll arrayed in "gold, and pearls, and costly array," to be admired for her personal charms, and caressed and humored like a spoiled child, or converted into a mere drudge to suit the convenience of her lord and master. Thus have all the diversified relations of life been filled with "confusion and every evil work." This principle has given to man a charter for the exercise of tyranny and selfishness, pride and arrogance, lust and brutal violence. It has robbed woman of essential rights, the right to think and speak and act on all great moral questions, just as men think and speak and act; the right to share their responsibilities, perils and toils; the right to fulfill the great end of her being, as a moral, intellectual and immortal creature, and of glorifying god in her body and her spirit which are His. Hitherto, instead of being a help meet to man, in the highest, noblest sense of the term as a companion, a co-worker, an equal; she has been a mere appendage of his being, an instrument of his convenience and pleasure, the pretty toy with which he whiled away his leisure moments, or the pet animal whom he humored into playfulness and submission. Woman, instead of being regarded as the equal of man, has uniformly been looked down upon as his inferior, a mere gift to fill up the measure of his happiness. In "the poetry of romantic gallantry," it is true, she has been called "the last best gift of God to man"; but I believe I speak forth the words of truth and soberness when I affirm, that woman never was given to man. She was created, like him, in the image of God, and crowned with glory and honor; created only a little lower than the angels, - not, as is almost universally assumed, a little lower than man; on her brow, as well as on his, was placed the "diadem of beauty," and in her hand the scepter of universal dominion. Gen 1: 27, 28. "The last best gift of God to man"! Where is the scripture warrant for this "rhetorical flourish, this splendid absurdity?" Let us examine the account of the creation. "And the rib which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought her unto the man." Not as a gift - for Adam immediately recognized her as part of himself - ("this is now bone of my bone, and flesh of my flesh") - a companion and equal, not one hair's breadth beneath him in the majesty and glory of her moral being; not placed under his authority as a subject, but by his side, on the same platform of human rights, under the government of God only. This idea of woman's being "the last gift of God to man," however pretty it may sound to the ears of those who love to discourse upon. " The poetry of romantic gallantry, and the generous promptings of chivalry," has nevertheless been the means of sinking her from an end into a mere means - of turning her into an appendage to man, instead of recognizing her as a part of man - of destroying her individuality, and rights, and responsibilities, and merging her moral being in that of man. Instead of Jehovah being her king, her lawgiver, her judge, she has been taken out of the exalted scale of existence in which He placed her, and subjected to the despotic control of man.
As an added bonus, Angelina also wrote: ". . . whatever is morally right for a man to do, it is morally right for a woman to do. I recognize no rights but human rights - I know nothing of men's rights and women's rights; for in Christ Jesus, there is neither male nor female.
... I prize the purity of his character as highly as I do that of hers. As a moral being, whatever it is morally wrong for her to do, it is morally wrong for him to do.
From Sarah Grimke's "Letter 1: The Original Equality of Woman" July 11, 1837. Sarah precedes the following quote with the comment that all translations are corrupt and the only inspired versions of the Bible are in the original languages.
We must first view woman at the period of her creation. "And God said, Let us make man in our own image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing, in the image of God created he him, male and female created he them." In all this sublime description of the creation of man, (which is a difference intimated as existing between them). They were both made in the image of God; dominion was given to both over every other creature, but not over each other. Created in perfect equality, they were expected to exercise the viceregency intrusted to them by their Maker, in harmony and love.
Let us pass on now to the recapitulation of the creation of man: "The Lord god formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. And the Lord God said, it is not good that man should be alone, I will make him an help meet for him." All creation swarmed with animated beings capable of natural affection, as we know they still are; it was not, therefore, merely to give man a creature susceptible of loving, obeying, and looking up to him, for all that the animals could do and did do. It was to give him a companion, in all respects his equal; one who was like himself a free agent, gifted with intellect and endowed with immortality; not a partaker merely of his animal gratifications, but able to enter into all his feelings as a moral and responsible being. If this had not been the case, how could she have been a help meet for him? I understand this as applying not only to the parties entering into the marriage contract, but to all men and women, because I believe God designed woman to be a help meet for man in every good and perfect work. She was part of himself, as if Jehovah designed to make the oneness and identity of man and woman perfect and complete; and when the glorious work of their creation was finished, "the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy.
This blissful condition was not long enjoyed by our first parents. Eve, it would seem from history, was wandering alone amid the bowers of Paradise, when the serpent met with her. From her reply to Satan, it is evident that the command not to eat "of the tree that is in the midst of the garden," was given to both, although the term man was used when the prohibition was issued by God. "And the woman said unto the serpent, we may eat of the fruit of the trees of the garden, but of the fruit of the tree which is in the midst of the garden, God hath said, Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall Ye touch it, lest Ye die." Here the woman was exposed to temptation from a being with whom she was unacquainted. She had been accustomed to associate with her beloved partner, and to hold communion with God and with angels; but of satanic intelligence, she was in all probability entirely ignorant. Through the subtlety of the serpent, she was beguiled. And "when she was that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make one wise, she took of the fruit thereof and did eat.
We next find Adam involved in the same sin, not through the instrumentality of a super-natural agent, but through that of his equal, a being whom he must have known was liable to transgress the divine command, because he must have felt that he was himself a free agent, and that he was restrained from disobedience only by the exercise of faith and love towards his Creator. Had Adam tenderly reproved his wife, and endeavored to lead her to repentance instead of sharing in her guilt, I should be much more ready to accord to man that superiority which he claims; but as the facts stand disclosed by the sacred historian, it appears to men that to say the least, there was as much weakness exhibited by Adam as by Eve. They both fell from innocence, and consequently from happiness, but not from equality.
Let us next examine the conduct of this fallen pair, when Jehovah interrogated them respecting their fault. They both frankly confessed their guilt. "The man said, the woman who thou gavest to be with me, she gave me of the tree and I did eat. And the woman said, the serpent beguiled men and I did eat." And the Lord God said unto the woman, "Thou wilt be subject unto they husband, and he will rule over thee." That this did not allude to the subjection of woman to man is manifest, because the same mode of expression is used in speaking to Cain of Abel. The truth is that the curse, as it is termed, which was pronounced by Jehovah upon woman, is a simple prophecy. The Hebrew, like the French language, uses the same word to express shall and will. Our translators having been accustomed to exercise their lordship over their wives, and seeing only through the medium of a perverted judgment, very naturally, though I think not very learnedly or very kindly, translated it shall instead of will, and thus converted a prediction to Eve into a command to Adam; for observe, it is addressed to the woman and not to the man. the consequence of the fall was an immediate struggle for dominion, and Jehovah foretold which would gain the ascendancy; but as he created them in his image, as that image manifestly was not lost by the fall, because it is urged in Gen 9:6, as an argument why the life of man should not be taken by his fellow man, there is no reason to suppose that sin produced any distinction between them as moral, intellectual, and responsible beings. Man might just as well have endeavored by hard labor to fulfill the prophecy, thorns and thistles will the earth bring forth to thee, as to pretend to accomplish the other, "he will rule over thee," by asserting dominion over his wife.
Authority usurped from God, not give.
He gave him only over beast, flesh, fowl,
Dominion absolute: that right he holds
By God's donation: but man o'er woman
He made not Lord, such title to himself
Reserving, human left from human free,
Here then I plant myself. God created us equal; - he created us free agents; - he is our Lawgiver, our King, and our Judge, and to him alone is woman bound to be in subjection, and to him alone is she accountable for the use of those talents with which Her Heavenly Father has entrusted her. One is her Master even Christ.
In response to a letter from a group of ministers who cited the Bible in reprimanding the sisters for stepping out of "woman's proper sphere" of silence and subordination, Sarah Grimke' wrote Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Woman in 1838.
She asserts that "men and women were CREATED EQUAL.... Whatever is right for a man to do, is right for woman....I seek no favors for my sex. I surrender not our claim to equality. All I ask of our brethren is, that they will take their feet from off our necks and permit us to stand upright on that ground which God destined us to occupy."
"The Grimké Sisters at Work on Theodore Dwight Weld's American Slavery as It Is (1838)" is a poem by Melissa Range published in the September 30, 2019, issue of The Nation. | 5,022 | ENGLISH | 1 |
LULLABY BY JOHN FULLER A lullaby is song, which is usually sung to young children before they go to sleep. The intention of a lullaby is to speed up that process of sleeping in children. Lullabies are often simple and sometimes repetitive. John’s lullaby goes as follows: Sleep little baby, clean as a nut your fingers uncurl and your eyes are shut your life was ours, which is with you Go on your journey. We go too The bat is flying round the house like an umbrella turned into a mouse the moon is astonished and so are the sheep their bells have come to send you to sleep Oh be our rest, our hopeful start Turn your head to my beating heart Sleep little baby, clean as a nut Your fingers uncurl and your eyes are shut (Fuller) This lullaby by John Fuller is a very soothing poem.
It is a perfect one for a parent singing to his or her new born. The lullaby has many aspects to it. The author, John Fuller has explained his experience as a father through this poem and has written a lullaby for his child so that he could sleep soundly and quickly.
The purpose of the poem is solely to explain the feeling of a parent when he sees his new born child sleeping in front of his eyes. In the first two lines of the poem, he describes the way a new born baby sleeps. The metaphor “as a nut” is figurative which explains the way a little baby sleeps. Then, he mentions that a parent’s life is with his children and the way that they go. I think that Fuller is deeply attached to his child and is hence saying to his child that his life is attached to his child’s life.
Fuller is explaining that the life that his child has is his and he is a part of him. The journey over here means the lifetime journey and Fuller relates his child’s journey to his journey. Fuller has to go on with his journey and now it is time that his child will go on towards his own journey. After relating his life to his child’s, fuller is further telling that night has advanced and therefore has given the example of a bat.
A bat sleeps in the day and flies in the night; these lines in the lullaby signify that night has drawn near. To signify the beauty and the presence of his child, he is referring to the moon and the sheep which are all astonished by the sight of his child. The bells hanging around the sheep’s neck are pointing the child to sleep because night has come leaving the day behind. The final lines of the lullaby by John fuller signify that he is telling his baby to sleep on his chest so that he may sleep soundly.
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... | 2 | LULLABY BY JOHN FULLER A lullaby is song, which is usually sung to young children before they go to sleep. The intention of a lullaby is to speed up that process of sleeping in children. Lullabies are often simple and sometimes repetitive. John’s lullaby goes as follows: Sleep little baby, clean as a nut your fingers uncurl and your eyes are shut your life was ours, which is with you Go on your journey. We go too The bat is flying round the house like an umbrella turned into a mouse the moon is astonished and so are the sheep their bells have come to send you to sleep Oh be our rest, our hopeful start Turn your head to my beating heart Sleep little baby, clean as a nut Your fingers uncurl and your eyes are shut (Fuller) This lullaby by John Fuller is a very soothing poem.
It is a perfect one for a parent singing to his or her new born. The lullaby has many aspects to it. The author, John Fuller has explained his experience as a father through this poem and has written a lullaby for his child so that he could sleep soundly and quickly.
The purpose of the poem is solely to explain the feeling of a parent when he sees his new born child sleeping in front of his eyes. In the first two lines of the poem, he describes the way a new born baby sleeps. The metaphor “as a nut” is figurative which explains the way a little baby sleeps. Then, he mentions that a parent’s life is with his children and the way that they go. I think that Fuller is deeply attached to his child and is hence saying to his child that his life is attached to his child’s life.
Fuller is explaining that the life that his child has is his and he is a part of him. The journey over here means the lifetime journey and Fuller relates his child’s journey to his journey. Fuller has to go on with his journey and now it is time that his child will go on towards his own journey. After relating his life to his child’s, fuller is further telling that night has advanced and therefore has given the example of a bat.
A bat sleeps in the day and flies in the night; these lines in the lullaby signify that night has drawn near. To signify the beauty and the presence of his child, he is referring to the moon and the sheep which are all astonished by the sight of his child. The bells hanging around the sheep’s neck are pointing the child to sleep because night has come leaving the day behind. The final lines of the lullaby by John fuller signify that he is telling his baby to sleep on his chest so that he may sleep soundly.
Please type your essay title, choose your document type, enter your email and we send you essay samples | 577 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Henry Ford's Model T automobile created an auto boom in the US in the early 1900s.
- There were less than 200,000 cars on the road before Ford released the Model T.
- At its peak, the Model T cost just $575, which was less than the average annual salary for most Americans.
- Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.
Before there were Elon Musk and Tesla, there were Henry Ford and the Model T. And between Tesla's state-of-the-art cars and the rise of self-driving vehicles, it's difficult to remember how far we've come since the first-ever automobiles built in Europe in the late 1800s.
When Henry Ford built the first Model T, specifically, in 1908, he sparked an automotive movement across the US, the effects of which we are still feeling today.
Here are 13 photos of the Model T era, which revolutionized driving in America.
Although the first car was built in Europe, the US came to dominate the industry in the early 1900s. Henry Ford was at the forefront when he implemented the assembly line.
At the start of the 20th century, Henry Ford implemented the assembly line in his factory, which allowed one person to work on a single task repetitively and then pass the product off to another person to complete a different task. The revolutionary manufacturing model helped Ford introduce the Model T in 1908.
He started the assembly line in the famous Ford factory in Detroit, Michigan.
It took 84 steps to create a Model T in the Ford factory.
Since each worker only had to specialize in one step of the car-making process, Ford was able to hire unskilled workers with no background in the automotive industry.
Feeling the threat of competition, Ford paid his workers above normal rates because he didn't want them going to other factories to find work.
Before the game-changing Model T, cars and carriages were luxury items, reserved for the elite.
Before the Model T was released, there were less than 200,000 automobiles on the road.
The Model T, however, was affordable and built for everyday, ordinary people.
There were no tariffs placed on cars because they were made within the States, keeping the prices low. Ford was also using cheaper material to build his Model T cars. At its peak, the Model T cost just $575, which was less than the average annual salary for most Americans.
The Model T was equipped with a 22-horsepower and four-cylinder engine.
The Model T could go over 40 miles per hour. It also ran on gasoline and hemp-based fuel.
There was nothing flashy about the Model T, however.
Unlike the high-tech, stylized cars of today, the inside of a Model T consisted simply of a steering wheel and seats. The car was started with a hand crank and the driver would use foot pedals to drive. The gasoline tank was actually located under the driver's seat.
The car quickly spread across the US, becoming a cultural phenomenon.
For the first time in history, people were able to travel leisurely without having to take a train. More importantly, it brought people closer.
At the time, women had just earned the right to vote and saw the new car as another form of freedom.
"By owning a Ford car, a woman can with ease widen her sphere of interests without extra time or effort," one advertisement read at the time. "She can accomplish more daily, yet easily keep pace with her usual schedule of domestic obligations."
Some dogs even enjoyed a ride in the famous car.
The Model T was popular amongst most.
Meanwhile, others turned the famous design into snowmobiles to get around in the tougher climates.
Virgil D. White turned his Model T into a snowmobile in 1913. At the time, roads were still underdeveloped and plowing was rarely done in the middle of nowhere. The car, paired with sled riders, helped people in out-of-way areas get around.
By the end of the '20s, there were millions of Model Ts on the road.
On May 26, 1927, the last Model T was produced after Americans expressed interest in having more stylish cars, a request which made sense for the decadent '20s.
May 26, 1927, not only marked the day that the last Model T was produced but also the day the 15th million Model T was made.
Henry Ford himself and his son drove the milestone Model T out of the factory that day.
Get the latest Ford stock price here. | <urn:uuid:e54e0fd2-8072-40e8-ab6b-f0f1444bd77a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.insider.com/vintage-photos-of-auto-boom-america-2019-4 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00318.warc.gz | en | 0.983754 | 945 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.4386926293373108,... | 1 | - Henry Ford's Model T automobile created an auto boom in the US in the early 1900s.
- There were less than 200,000 cars on the road before Ford released the Model T.
- At its peak, the Model T cost just $575, which was less than the average annual salary for most Americans.
- Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories.
Before there were Elon Musk and Tesla, there were Henry Ford and the Model T. And between Tesla's state-of-the-art cars and the rise of self-driving vehicles, it's difficult to remember how far we've come since the first-ever automobiles built in Europe in the late 1800s.
When Henry Ford built the first Model T, specifically, in 1908, he sparked an automotive movement across the US, the effects of which we are still feeling today.
Here are 13 photos of the Model T era, which revolutionized driving in America.
Although the first car was built in Europe, the US came to dominate the industry in the early 1900s. Henry Ford was at the forefront when he implemented the assembly line.
At the start of the 20th century, Henry Ford implemented the assembly line in his factory, which allowed one person to work on a single task repetitively and then pass the product off to another person to complete a different task. The revolutionary manufacturing model helped Ford introduce the Model T in 1908.
He started the assembly line in the famous Ford factory in Detroit, Michigan.
It took 84 steps to create a Model T in the Ford factory.
Since each worker only had to specialize in one step of the car-making process, Ford was able to hire unskilled workers with no background in the automotive industry.
Feeling the threat of competition, Ford paid his workers above normal rates because he didn't want them going to other factories to find work.
Before the game-changing Model T, cars and carriages were luxury items, reserved for the elite.
Before the Model T was released, there were less than 200,000 automobiles on the road.
The Model T, however, was affordable and built for everyday, ordinary people.
There were no tariffs placed on cars because they were made within the States, keeping the prices low. Ford was also using cheaper material to build his Model T cars. At its peak, the Model T cost just $575, which was less than the average annual salary for most Americans.
The Model T was equipped with a 22-horsepower and four-cylinder engine.
The Model T could go over 40 miles per hour. It also ran on gasoline and hemp-based fuel.
There was nothing flashy about the Model T, however.
Unlike the high-tech, stylized cars of today, the inside of a Model T consisted simply of a steering wheel and seats. The car was started with a hand crank and the driver would use foot pedals to drive. The gasoline tank was actually located under the driver's seat.
The car quickly spread across the US, becoming a cultural phenomenon.
For the first time in history, people were able to travel leisurely without having to take a train. More importantly, it brought people closer.
At the time, women had just earned the right to vote and saw the new car as another form of freedom.
"By owning a Ford car, a woman can with ease widen her sphere of interests without extra time or effort," one advertisement read at the time. "She can accomplish more daily, yet easily keep pace with her usual schedule of domestic obligations."
Some dogs even enjoyed a ride in the famous car.
The Model T was popular amongst most.
Meanwhile, others turned the famous design into snowmobiles to get around in the tougher climates.
Virgil D. White turned his Model T into a snowmobile in 1913. At the time, roads were still underdeveloped and plowing was rarely done in the middle of nowhere. The car, paired with sled riders, helped people in out-of-way areas get around.
By the end of the '20s, there were millions of Model Ts on the road.
On May 26, 1927, the last Model T was produced after Americans expressed interest in having more stylish cars, a request which made sense for the decadent '20s.
May 26, 1927, not only marked the day that the last Model T was produced but also the day the 15th million Model T was made.
Henry Ford himself and his son drove the milestone Model T out of the factory that day.
Get the latest Ford stock price here. | 966 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Renaissance was an incredibly important turning point in Western Intellectual and Cultural
. All of these changes centered around the idea of Humanism -- in which, people became less "God Centered" and more "Human-centered". I have narrowed down these changes, and will discuss in detail, these changes in three major categories: Political, Education, and the Humanism of Arts. The major pollical changes of the Renaissance were from the old Feudal System of the Middle Ages into a more flexible and liberal class system. This was most noticeable in Italy (particularly in ), where the divisions consisted of the old rich, the new rich nobles, the middle class, and the lower middle class(The poor didn't count). This created great conflict between these social divisions. The new rich consisted of successful merchants, capitalists, and bankers innovators of new systems of making money. The Humanism philosophy was also a very popular with the people and many political leaders rose to high positions with support of these ideals. Three humanists even became chancellors of Florence -- they used their rhetorical skills to strongly rally the people of Florence against their enemies. The great changes in Education of the Renaissance were inspired at first, by the desire of Humanists to be wise and to speak eloquently. The idea of useful education for the people, and very "well rounded" schooling in many different fields of learning were the new defined goals of Renaissance education. People all over (Especially in Florence) revived the Ancient Greek studies of Plato, Aristotle, and many others. People began seriously questioning what these people said and re-developed the "Scientific Theory" in which you didn't just accept whatever was said to you, but you tested the truth of it. In the area of Humanism and the Arts, Renaissance Artists no longer were subordinate to the interests and the values of the Clergy, and were able to create anything of their "artistic will". Both men and women were now able to appreciated arts beyond just religious themes. Artists could also now take advantage of new techniques, such as oil painting and linear perspective to enhance the quality of their works. All of the great artists of the time used became who they were solely because of this new artistic freedom that the Renaissance brought them. These artists also created works that were more complex than before. Taking advantage of this, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci -- the ultimate example of the Renaissance man working in all types of educational fields, and Michelangelo who was possibly the most famous artist and sculptor in history. As you can see, the Renaissance was to great extent and a major turning point in history from the Middle Ages in just about every element of the Society. The Renaissance have truly become the original roots of our culture from the West. This was was the time when people questioned the past, and decided to go back to the schools of learning taking the past of the Greeks into their present to make a better future. | <urn:uuid:72b87dca-28f2-4a6b-a7e4-304c7eb82b5c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ww.novelguide.com/reportessay/science/social-science/humanism-during-renaissance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00242.warc.gz | en | 0.983593 | 592 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.243645519018... | 1 | The Renaissance was an incredibly important turning point in Western Intellectual and Cultural
. All of these changes centered around the idea of Humanism -- in which, people became less "God Centered" and more "Human-centered". I have narrowed down these changes, and will discuss in detail, these changes in three major categories: Political, Education, and the Humanism of Arts. The major pollical changes of the Renaissance were from the old Feudal System of the Middle Ages into a more flexible and liberal class system. This was most noticeable in Italy (particularly in ), where the divisions consisted of the old rich, the new rich nobles, the middle class, and the lower middle class(The poor didn't count). This created great conflict between these social divisions. The new rich consisted of successful merchants, capitalists, and bankers innovators of new systems of making money. The Humanism philosophy was also a very popular with the people and many political leaders rose to high positions with support of these ideals. Three humanists even became chancellors of Florence -- they used their rhetorical skills to strongly rally the people of Florence against their enemies. The great changes in Education of the Renaissance were inspired at first, by the desire of Humanists to be wise and to speak eloquently. The idea of useful education for the people, and very "well rounded" schooling in many different fields of learning were the new defined goals of Renaissance education. People all over (Especially in Florence) revived the Ancient Greek studies of Plato, Aristotle, and many others. People began seriously questioning what these people said and re-developed the "Scientific Theory" in which you didn't just accept whatever was said to you, but you tested the truth of it. In the area of Humanism and the Arts, Renaissance Artists no longer were subordinate to the interests and the values of the Clergy, and were able to create anything of their "artistic will". Both men and women were now able to appreciated arts beyond just religious themes. Artists could also now take advantage of new techniques, such as oil painting and linear perspective to enhance the quality of their works. All of the great artists of the time used became who they were solely because of this new artistic freedom that the Renaissance brought them. These artists also created works that were more complex than before. Taking advantage of this, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci -- the ultimate example of the Renaissance man working in all types of educational fields, and Michelangelo who was possibly the most famous artist and sculptor in history. As you can see, the Renaissance was to great extent and a major turning point in history from the Middle Ages in just about every element of the Society. The Renaissance have truly become the original roots of our culture from the West. This was was the time when people questioned the past, and decided to go back to the schools of learning taking the past of the Greeks into their present to make a better future. | 592 | ENGLISH | 1 |
'Yellow Journalism' is a term that refers to sensationalist and often inaccurate reporting by certain newspaper publishers (the off-white color of the cheap paper that these publishers used for their newspapers is what gave them the nickname 'Yellow' journalism).
In the late 19th century (roughly 1870s to 1900), the main way in which people in the United States learned about the news was through newspapers, of which there were hundreds of different newspaper publishers throughout the country, big and small, local and national. This, of course, is before the invention of radios or movies, much less the internet.
The sale of newspapers, therefore, was very big business, involving millions and millions of dollars because just about everyone bought at least one newspaper every day. Therefore, competition between different newspapers was fierce and every newspaper publisher wanted as many people to buy their papers - and not other publishers' papers. Less than honest newspaper publishers were more than willing to publish stories that involved exaggeration and half-truths, knowing that the more sensational the stories, the more likely people would buy their newspapers. This is the reason for the birth of 'Yellow Journalism'.
In the late-19th century the Caribbean island of Cuba, located a short distance from Florida, was still a colony owned by the European nation of Spain. Many of the people of Cuba resented Spanish rule and sought to win their independence through violent rebellion. The war in Cuba between the Spanish forces and the Cuban Patriots made for an exciting and easily sensationalized story in the pages of newspapers in the United States. Drawing a parallel between our own struggle for independence against a European nation and the struggle of the Cuban people, it was only natural for most people in the U.S. to sympathize with the Cuban freedom fighters. It was easy for 'Yellow Journalism', therefore, to depict the Spanish rulers of Cuba as cruel villains (the Spanish didn't much help themselves by the harsh methods they used to crush the rebellion, which played into the hands of 'Yellow Journalism').
The sensational 'Yellow Journalism' stories reported in newspapers created a public outcry among readers in the United States that, in turn, put pressure on the government, led by President William McKinley (President from 1897-1901), to do 'something'. It was common practice in the 19th century for powerful nations to send their warships to intimidate less powerful nations when these nations had a disagreement, a practice that was nicknamed 'Gunboat Diplomacy'. To send a strong message to the Spanish Government that the United States opposed the way the Cuban people were being treated, President McKinley ordered the armored cruiser, U.S.S. Maine, to pay a visit to the harbor of Havana, the capitol city of Cuba,
It was during this visit that, on 15 February, 1898, that, without warning, the U.S.S. Maine blew up in Havana harbor. Some 260 U.S. sailors aboard the U.S.S. Maine were killed by the explosion. Without any evidence to prove their claim, the competing 'Yellow Journalism' newspapers, the New York Journal owned by William Randolph Hearst and the New York World owned by Joseph Pulitzer, proclaimed that it was the Spanish government that had intentionally detonated an explosive device under the U.S.S. Maine (an investigation by the U.S. Navy later found that it was almost certainly an accidental explosion inside the ship that had caused the disaster - the Spanish had had nothing to do with it).
Hearst and Pulitzer were in competition with each other for readers to buy their respective newspapers and, therefore, used the methods of 'Yellow Journalism' - sensationalism, exaggeration, half-truths, and even outright lies - to attract readers to purchase their newspapers. Hearst and Pulitzer took up the popular cry "Remember the Maine and to Hell with Spain!" These newspapers led the popular call among the people of the United States to go to war against Spain in revenge for Spain's attack on the U.S.S. Maine (an attack that simply had not taken place). Public pressure, promoted by 'Yellow Journalism', forced President McKinley - who wanted to avoid a war with Spain - to ask Congress for an official Declaration of War.
The Spanish-American War of 1898 resulted in the defeat of Spanish forces in Cuba, so that Cuba gained its independence. But the United States reserved the right to intervene in Cuba's affairs if it felt that this was necessary (wealthy U.S. businessmen owned sugar and tobacco plantations in Cuba - if they felt that their investments in Cuba were threatened by unrest, they would put pressure on the U.S. Government to do 'something'). But, in addition, the United States gained a small overseas Empire as a result of the War because U.S. forces also attacked Spanish colonies other than Cuba. This included the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico and both the Philippine Islands and the Island of Guam in the Pacific Ocean, both of which President McKinley chose to keep as U.S. possessions, regardless of the wishes of the Puerto Ricans and Filipinos (indeed, the Filipinos fought against U.S. occupation and had to be defeated in a war that lasted until 1902). In addition, during the Spanish-American War, the U.S. seized territories in the Pacific Ocean that were not Spanish colonies, specifically the independent kingdom of the Hawaii.
The 'Americans' - a vague term indeed, which 'Americans'? - did not use 'Yellow Journalism' to get what they wanted, to get an Empire in the Age of Imperialism. In fact, one could argue the those who used the methods of 'Yellow Journalism', such as William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, used the American people to get what they wanted - profits from the sale of their newspapers. | <urn:uuid:996a290a-3947-470c-b151-44959e3edd8a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wyzant.com/resources/answers/730849/how-did-the-americans-use-yellow-journalism-to-get-what-they-wanted-in-the- | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.982741 | 1,177 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.3765354156494140... | 2 | 'Yellow Journalism' is a term that refers to sensationalist and often inaccurate reporting by certain newspaper publishers (the off-white color of the cheap paper that these publishers used for their newspapers is what gave them the nickname 'Yellow' journalism).
In the late 19th century (roughly 1870s to 1900), the main way in which people in the United States learned about the news was through newspapers, of which there were hundreds of different newspaper publishers throughout the country, big and small, local and national. This, of course, is before the invention of radios or movies, much less the internet.
The sale of newspapers, therefore, was very big business, involving millions and millions of dollars because just about everyone bought at least one newspaper every day. Therefore, competition between different newspapers was fierce and every newspaper publisher wanted as many people to buy their papers - and not other publishers' papers. Less than honest newspaper publishers were more than willing to publish stories that involved exaggeration and half-truths, knowing that the more sensational the stories, the more likely people would buy their newspapers. This is the reason for the birth of 'Yellow Journalism'.
In the late-19th century the Caribbean island of Cuba, located a short distance from Florida, was still a colony owned by the European nation of Spain. Many of the people of Cuba resented Spanish rule and sought to win their independence through violent rebellion. The war in Cuba between the Spanish forces and the Cuban Patriots made for an exciting and easily sensationalized story in the pages of newspapers in the United States. Drawing a parallel between our own struggle for independence against a European nation and the struggle of the Cuban people, it was only natural for most people in the U.S. to sympathize with the Cuban freedom fighters. It was easy for 'Yellow Journalism', therefore, to depict the Spanish rulers of Cuba as cruel villains (the Spanish didn't much help themselves by the harsh methods they used to crush the rebellion, which played into the hands of 'Yellow Journalism').
The sensational 'Yellow Journalism' stories reported in newspapers created a public outcry among readers in the United States that, in turn, put pressure on the government, led by President William McKinley (President from 1897-1901), to do 'something'. It was common practice in the 19th century for powerful nations to send their warships to intimidate less powerful nations when these nations had a disagreement, a practice that was nicknamed 'Gunboat Diplomacy'. To send a strong message to the Spanish Government that the United States opposed the way the Cuban people were being treated, President McKinley ordered the armored cruiser, U.S.S. Maine, to pay a visit to the harbor of Havana, the capitol city of Cuba,
It was during this visit that, on 15 February, 1898, that, without warning, the U.S.S. Maine blew up in Havana harbor. Some 260 U.S. sailors aboard the U.S.S. Maine were killed by the explosion. Without any evidence to prove their claim, the competing 'Yellow Journalism' newspapers, the New York Journal owned by William Randolph Hearst and the New York World owned by Joseph Pulitzer, proclaimed that it was the Spanish government that had intentionally detonated an explosive device under the U.S.S. Maine (an investigation by the U.S. Navy later found that it was almost certainly an accidental explosion inside the ship that had caused the disaster - the Spanish had had nothing to do with it).
Hearst and Pulitzer were in competition with each other for readers to buy their respective newspapers and, therefore, used the methods of 'Yellow Journalism' - sensationalism, exaggeration, half-truths, and even outright lies - to attract readers to purchase their newspapers. Hearst and Pulitzer took up the popular cry "Remember the Maine and to Hell with Spain!" These newspapers led the popular call among the people of the United States to go to war against Spain in revenge for Spain's attack on the U.S.S. Maine (an attack that simply had not taken place). Public pressure, promoted by 'Yellow Journalism', forced President McKinley - who wanted to avoid a war with Spain - to ask Congress for an official Declaration of War.
The Spanish-American War of 1898 resulted in the defeat of Spanish forces in Cuba, so that Cuba gained its independence. But the United States reserved the right to intervene in Cuba's affairs if it felt that this was necessary (wealthy U.S. businessmen owned sugar and tobacco plantations in Cuba - if they felt that their investments in Cuba were threatened by unrest, they would put pressure on the U.S. Government to do 'something'). But, in addition, the United States gained a small overseas Empire as a result of the War because U.S. forces also attacked Spanish colonies other than Cuba. This included the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico and both the Philippine Islands and the Island of Guam in the Pacific Ocean, both of which President McKinley chose to keep as U.S. possessions, regardless of the wishes of the Puerto Ricans and Filipinos (indeed, the Filipinos fought against U.S. occupation and had to be defeated in a war that lasted until 1902). In addition, during the Spanish-American War, the U.S. seized territories in the Pacific Ocean that were not Spanish colonies, specifically the independent kingdom of the Hawaii.
The 'Americans' - a vague term indeed, which 'Americans'? - did not use 'Yellow Journalism' to get what they wanted, to get an Empire in the Age of Imperialism. In fact, one could argue the those who used the methods of 'Yellow Journalism', such as William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, used the American people to get what they wanted - profits from the sale of their newspapers. | 1,189 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wardenclyffe Tower with electrical sparks. Tesla built this tower to transfer electricity without wires to electrify the entire earth and to be the first broadcasting system in the world.
Compressed air pushes on a piston in a cylinder. The piston is connected to a brake shoe which can rub on the train wheel, creating friction and stopping the train. The various Westinghouse Companies were the product of the mechanical inventiveness and the business acumen of one man--inventor, manufacturer and entrepreneur George Westinghouse.
This prolific inventor influenced the course of history by enabling the growth of the railroads through his inventions and by promoting the use of electricity for power and transportation. As an industrial manager, his influence on industrial history is considerable, having formed and directed more than 60 companies to market his and others' inventions during his lifetime.
His electric company became one of the greatest electric manufacturing organizations in the United States, and his influence abroad was evident by the many companies he founded in other countries. In the ninth century the "Westinghausen" family was prominent in Westphalia, Germany, and in the 14th century a branch of the family emigrated to England and later the United States.
When George was 10 years old his family moved to Schenectary, New York whee his father started the firm of G. While working with his father young George acquired a realistic sense of tools, materials, machinery and structures.
After three years of military service during the Civil war, he returned to Schenectady, and in Septemberenrolled as a sophomore at Union College. Within three months, however, he convinced himself and his teachers the college curriculum had little to offer to one with his mechanical learnings.
He dropped out of the college at Christmas vacation and returned to his father's factory. One important thing did happen during his short stay in college: While traveling on the trains for his fathers business he observed the problem of derailed cars, and that led to his inventing a device for replacing derailed cars with greater ease and in shorter time.
That same year he married Marguerite Erskine on Aug. Later, because of problems with his partners, he visited Pittsburgh to arrange for a steel company to make the car replacer at less cost.
During visits to Pittsburgh he made the acquaintances of persons who shared his interests in railroads and his work on inventions and manufacturing for the industry, and who would eventually help him with his Pittsburgh companies.
Westinghouse saw that railroads could never live up to their potential until trains had a more effective brake. For three years he worked at improving train brakes. Attempt after attempt failed. But Westinghouse finally hit on the idea that worked. He would place an air compressor in the engine cab and pipes would carry the air to the brakes on each of the cars.
The engineer could admit compressed air into the system to stop the train and release the air when he wanted to move. Previously, train accidents were frequent since brakes had to be applied manually on each car by different brakemen following a signal from the engineer.
On April 13,he obtained a patent for the air brake system, and in July,when he was still only twenty-two years old, the Westinghouse Air Brake Company was organized in Pittsburgh with Westinghouse as President.
The company, with Westinghouse's inventions for braking and signaling systems, helped to revolutionize the railroads. He continued to make many changes in his air brake design and later developed the automatic air brake system and the triple valve.
His industry expanded as he opened companies in Europe and Canada. In the United States, he expanded into the railroad signaling industry by organizing the Union Switch and Signal Company in In this company, devices based on his own inventions and the patents of others were designed to control the increased speed and flexibility which was made possible by the invention of the air brake.
Westinghouse supplied gas to thousands of private houses in Pittsburgh through many miles of pipe lines. During his development of the braking and signaling systems, in the mid s, Westinghouse became quite interested in electricity. His interest was piqued by the obvious disadvantages of Edison's DC system.
He began pursuing the technology of alternating current and he associated with those who were developing AC devices.
He obtained the U. Westinghouse organized the Westinghouse Electric Company to manufacture and promote the use of alternating-current system equipment, and became a spirited competitor of Edison and his DC system. He acquired exclusive rights to Nikola Tesla's patent for the polyphase system in and lured Tesla to join the electric company and continue his work on the AC motor he had been developing.
In Westinghouse won the contract to light the Columbian Exposition at Chicago. He manufactured overlamps for lighting and replacements.
The Westinghouse exhibit also included a complete working model of a polyphase system, including step-up and step-down transformers, a short length transmission line and switch board.
At about the same time Westinghouse was negotiating with the Cataract Construction Co.George Westinghouse Jr. (October 6, – March 12, ) was an American entrepreneur and engineer based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania who invented the railway air brake and was a pioneer of the electrical industry, gaining his first patent at the age of Born: October 6, , Central Bridge, New York.
This feature documentary is a biography of America's greatest industrialist, George Westinghouse. Here is the story of his companies, legacy, and personality, an honest millionaire in the days of robber barons, an optimist in the days of skeptics and a generous CEO. Find out more about inventor Nikola Tesla and his rivalry with Thomas Edison on monstermanfilm.com George Westinghouse Biography Scientist, Inventor (–) George Westinghouse is best known for his inventions and the development of his company, Westinghouse Electric & monstermanfilm.com: Oct 06, Above: Commemorative Plaque on Building (32 West 40 Street, Manhattan, New York), "The Engineers Club", was erected in memory of famous American Engineers who helped America transform from a largely agricultural nation to an architectural and industrial empire.
Nikola Tesla's name is included on the plaque among other famous Americans. Susannah Norris-Lindsay, artist who designed the. Horace Newcomb, PhD, Editor “The most definitive resource on the history of television worldwide.” – Library Journal.
With more than 1, original essays, the. | <urn:uuid:a92301d0-d8b3-4038-895a-572c426cd0dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qyfewylakuqav.monstermanfilm.com/a-biography-of-george-westinghouse-an-american-inventor-49761mg.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00523.warc.gz | en | 0.980967 | 1,335 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Wardenclyffe Tower with electrical sparks. Tesla built this tower to transfer electricity without wires to electrify the entire earth and to be the first broadcasting system in the world.
Compressed air pushes on a piston in a cylinder. The piston is connected to a brake shoe which can rub on the train wheel, creating friction and stopping the train. The various Westinghouse Companies were the product of the mechanical inventiveness and the business acumen of one man--inventor, manufacturer and entrepreneur George Westinghouse.
This prolific inventor influenced the course of history by enabling the growth of the railroads through his inventions and by promoting the use of electricity for power and transportation. As an industrial manager, his influence on industrial history is considerable, having formed and directed more than 60 companies to market his and others' inventions during his lifetime.
His electric company became one of the greatest electric manufacturing organizations in the United States, and his influence abroad was evident by the many companies he founded in other countries. In the ninth century the "Westinghausen" family was prominent in Westphalia, Germany, and in the 14th century a branch of the family emigrated to England and later the United States.
When George was 10 years old his family moved to Schenectary, New York whee his father started the firm of G. While working with his father young George acquired a realistic sense of tools, materials, machinery and structures.
After three years of military service during the Civil war, he returned to Schenectady, and in Septemberenrolled as a sophomore at Union College. Within three months, however, he convinced himself and his teachers the college curriculum had little to offer to one with his mechanical learnings.
He dropped out of the college at Christmas vacation and returned to his father's factory. One important thing did happen during his short stay in college: While traveling on the trains for his fathers business he observed the problem of derailed cars, and that led to his inventing a device for replacing derailed cars with greater ease and in shorter time.
That same year he married Marguerite Erskine on Aug. Later, because of problems with his partners, he visited Pittsburgh to arrange for a steel company to make the car replacer at less cost.
During visits to Pittsburgh he made the acquaintances of persons who shared his interests in railroads and his work on inventions and manufacturing for the industry, and who would eventually help him with his Pittsburgh companies.
Westinghouse saw that railroads could never live up to their potential until trains had a more effective brake. For three years he worked at improving train brakes. Attempt after attempt failed. But Westinghouse finally hit on the idea that worked. He would place an air compressor in the engine cab and pipes would carry the air to the brakes on each of the cars.
The engineer could admit compressed air into the system to stop the train and release the air when he wanted to move. Previously, train accidents were frequent since brakes had to be applied manually on each car by different brakemen following a signal from the engineer.
On April 13,he obtained a patent for the air brake system, and in July,when he was still only twenty-two years old, the Westinghouse Air Brake Company was organized in Pittsburgh with Westinghouse as President.
The company, with Westinghouse's inventions for braking and signaling systems, helped to revolutionize the railroads. He continued to make many changes in his air brake design and later developed the automatic air brake system and the triple valve.
His industry expanded as he opened companies in Europe and Canada. In the United States, he expanded into the railroad signaling industry by organizing the Union Switch and Signal Company in In this company, devices based on his own inventions and the patents of others were designed to control the increased speed and flexibility which was made possible by the invention of the air brake.
Westinghouse supplied gas to thousands of private houses in Pittsburgh through many miles of pipe lines. During his development of the braking and signaling systems, in the mid s, Westinghouse became quite interested in electricity. His interest was piqued by the obvious disadvantages of Edison's DC system.
He began pursuing the technology of alternating current and he associated with those who were developing AC devices.
He obtained the U. Westinghouse organized the Westinghouse Electric Company to manufacture and promote the use of alternating-current system equipment, and became a spirited competitor of Edison and his DC system. He acquired exclusive rights to Nikola Tesla's patent for the polyphase system in and lured Tesla to join the electric company and continue his work on the AC motor he had been developing.
In Westinghouse won the contract to light the Columbian Exposition at Chicago. He manufactured overlamps for lighting and replacements.
The Westinghouse exhibit also included a complete working model of a polyphase system, including step-up and step-down transformers, a short length transmission line and switch board.
At about the same time Westinghouse was negotiating with the Cataract Construction Co.George Westinghouse Jr. (October 6, – March 12, ) was an American entrepreneur and engineer based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania who invented the railway air brake and was a pioneer of the electrical industry, gaining his first patent at the age of Born: October 6, , Central Bridge, New York.
This feature documentary is a biography of America's greatest industrialist, George Westinghouse. Here is the story of his companies, legacy, and personality, an honest millionaire in the days of robber barons, an optimist in the days of skeptics and a generous CEO. Find out more about inventor Nikola Tesla and his rivalry with Thomas Edison on monstermanfilm.com George Westinghouse Biography Scientist, Inventor (–) George Westinghouse is best known for his inventions and the development of his company, Westinghouse Electric & monstermanfilm.com: Oct 06, Above: Commemorative Plaque on Building (32 West 40 Street, Manhattan, New York), "The Engineers Club", was erected in memory of famous American Engineers who helped America transform from a largely agricultural nation to an architectural and industrial empire.
Nikola Tesla's name is included on the plaque among other famous Americans. Susannah Norris-Lindsay, artist who designed the. Horace Newcomb, PhD, Editor “The most definitive resource on the history of television worldwide.” – Library Journal.
With more than 1, original essays, the. | 1,323 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henry Highland Garnet Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Henry Highland Garnet was an African American church minister and slave trade abolitionist. He became famous for calling on slaves to an armed rebellion on their masters.
Henry Highland Garnet was born into slavery in New Market, Kent County, Maryland on December 23, 1815. His family escaped to New York in 1824. Growing up in New York, Garnet enrolled at the African Free School. He graduated and became a sailor. In 1829, Garnet returned from one of his voyages. He arrived and found his sister had been captured by slave traders. The incident became the bedrock of his violent anti-slavery ideology.
He continued with his education joining the Phoenix High School for Colored Youth. He got admission at the Oneida Institute in New York to study Theology. He graduated in 1940 and became a Presbyterian Church Minister. Two years later, he was commissioned to head the Liberty Street Negro Church in New York.
He was an active sports enthusiast. He once injured his leg on the knee during his sporting activities. In the hospital, the doctors amputated the lower part of the leg to save his life in 1941.
He became a founding member of the American Anti-Slavery Society. Garnet became a vocal advocate against slavery. He partnered with other African American anti-slavery crusaders like Frederick Douglass and William Garrison. A gifted orator, Garnet delivered fiery speeches that made him famous within the abolitionists.
In 1843, he delivered his famous Call to Rebellion speech to the National Negro convention in New York. He argued for the change of approach in the fight against slavery. Garnet called for the Africans to desist on imploring the white society to end the slavery menace. Instead, Africans both free and slaves should wage an armed campaign against slavery. His fellow abolitionists rejected the idea fearing a reprisal form the slave owners.
Garnet took his abolitionist campaign to Europe in 1850. He rallied support for his cause in England and Scotland. He pressed for the freedom of slaves to immigrate to other countries of their choice. Garnet gave examples of Sierra Leone and Liberia in Africa. The two countries were largely populated with former slaves from America and Europe.
After completing his journey to Europe, Garnet went to the Caribbean in 1852. He settled for some missionary pastoring in Jamaica. He spent his time ministering to the people while rallying support for his anti-slavery campaign. Garnet suffered ill health from the tropical climate in Jamaica. He returned to the US and settled at the Shiloh Church as the resident pastor. Due to his militant views, the anti-slavery crusaders shunned him.
In 1861, the American Civil War started. Garnet joined other African Americans in enlisting for the Union army. He survived the July 1863 military draft riots. The white community rioted and razed down black-owned houses and businesses to protest the drafting of blacks into the army. Garnet served in the rehabilitation committee for the victims of the riots. The military halted the drafting. After deliberations, African Americans were allowed in the army. Special black units were created to diffuse the tensions. Garnet helped in the enlisting of blacks in the army.
In 1864, he took his family to the US capital for their safety and the black units in the war. He pastored at the Liberty Street Presbyterian Church. Garnet regularly ministered to the black units for the two years in the capital. He was invited to address the US parliament on February 12, 1865, by the US President Abraham Lincoln. He ministered to them with sermons that called for the abolition of slavery.
In 1868, Garnet became the head of the Avery College in Pennsylvania. He returned to New York and continued his ministering vocation at the Shiloh church. He received dignitaries from across the world working for the abolition of slavery.
Garnet became politically conscious and started supporting the revolutionary movements in the Caribbean. In 1878, he became an international icon. He hosted the Afro-Cuban independence hero Antonio Maceo in New York.
In 1881, his lifelong dream of living in Africa came true. The US President James Garfield appointed him the US ambassador to the West African country of Liberia. Liberia was an African nation settled majorly by freed slaves from the US. He served as the US envoy for only a few months.
Garnet married Julia Williams in 1841. The couple got three children, with two dying in their childhood. He remarried in 1879 after Julia died. Garnet married Sarah Tompkins. The two never had a biological child.
Henry Highland Garnet died on February 13, 1882, at the age of 66. He was buried as a Liberian statesman in Monrovia, after a state funeral by the Liberian military.
In remembering his role in America, several learning institutions renamed after him. There is the Henry Highland Garnet School for Success in New York, HHG Elementary School in Maryland, and Garnet High School in West Virginia.
Garnet never saw his armed liberation call materialize. He, however, inspired other fiery African American civil rights champions like Malcolm X over a century after his death. | <urn:uuid:b93a5f9b-9019-4292-bcc9-e8e472218329> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/henry-highland-garnet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00497.warc.gz | en | 0.981726 | 1,105 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.309331327... | 5 | Henry Highland Garnet Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Henry Highland Garnet was an African American church minister and slave trade abolitionist. He became famous for calling on slaves to an armed rebellion on their masters.
Henry Highland Garnet was born into slavery in New Market, Kent County, Maryland on December 23, 1815. His family escaped to New York in 1824. Growing up in New York, Garnet enrolled at the African Free School. He graduated and became a sailor. In 1829, Garnet returned from one of his voyages. He arrived and found his sister had been captured by slave traders. The incident became the bedrock of his violent anti-slavery ideology.
He continued with his education joining the Phoenix High School for Colored Youth. He got admission at the Oneida Institute in New York to study Theology. He graduated in 1940 and became a Presbyterian Church Minister. Two years later, he was commissioned to head the Liberty Street Negro Church in New York.
He was an active sports enthusiast. He once injured his leg on the knee during his sporting activities. In the hospital, the doctors amputated the lower part of the leg to save his life in 1941.
He became a founding member of the American Anti-Slavery Society. Garnet became a vocal advocate against slavery. He partnered with other African American anti-slavery crusaders like Frederick Douglass and William Garrison. A gifted orator, Garnet delivered fiery speeches that made him famous within the abolitionists.
In 1843, he delivered his famous Call to Rebellion speech to the National Negro convention in New York. He argued for the change of approach in the fight against slavery. Garnet called for the Africans to desist on imploring the white society to end the slavery menace. Instead, Africans both free and slaves should wage an armed campaign against slavery. His fellow abolitionists rejected the idea fearing a reprisal form the slave owners.
Garnet took his abolitionist campaign to Europe in 1850. He rallied support for his cause in England and Scotland. He pressed for the freedom of slaves to immigrate to other countries of their choice. Garnet gave examples of Sierra Leone and Liberia in Africa. The two countries were largely populated with former slaves from America and Europe.
After completing his journey to Europe, Garnet went to the Caribbean in 1852. He settled for some missionary pastoring in Jamaica. He spent his time ministering to the people while rallying support for his anti-slavery campaign. Garnet suffered ill health from the tropical climate in Jamaica. He returned to the US and settled at the Shiloh Church as the resident pastor. Due to his militant views, the anti-slavery crusaders shunned him.
In 1861, the American Civil War started. Garnet joined other African Americans in enlisting for the Union army. He survived the July 1863 military draft riots. The white community rioted and razed down black-owned houses and businesses to protest the drafting of blacks into the army. Garnet served in the rehabilitation committee for the victims of the riots. The military halted the drafting. After deliberations, African Americans were allowed in the army. Special black units were created to diffuse the tensions. Garnet helped in the enlisting of blacks in the army.
In 1864, he took his family to the US capital for their safety and the black units in the war. He pastored at the Liberty Street Presbyterian Church. Garnet regularly ministered to the black units for the two years in the capital. He was invited to address the US parliament on February 12, 1865, by the US President Abraham Lincoln. He ministered to them with sermons that called for the abolition of slavery.
In 1868, Garnet became the head of the Avery College in Pennsylvania. He returned to New York and continued his ministering vocation at the Shiloh church. He received dignitaries from across the world working for the abolition of slavery.
Garnet became politically conscious and started supporting the revolutionary movements in the Caribbean. In 1878, he became an international icon. He hosted the Afro-Cuban independence hero Antonio Maceo in New York.
In 1881, his lifelong dream of living in Africa came true. The US President James Garfield appointed him the US ambassador to the West African country of Liberia. Liberia was an African nation settled majorly by freed slaves from the US. He served as the US envoy for only a few months.
Garnet married Julia Williams in 1841. The couple got three children, with two dying in their childhood. He remarried in 1879 after Julia died. Garnet married Sarah Tompkins. The two never had a biological child.
Henry Highland Garnet died on February 13, 1882, at the age of 66. He was buried as a Liberian statesman in Monrovia, after a state funeral by the Liberian military.
In remembering his role in America, several learning institutions renamed after him. There is the Henry Highland Garnet School for Success in New York, HHG Elementary School in Maryland, and Garnet High School in West Virginia.
Garnet never saw his armed liberation call materialize. He, however, inspired other fiery African American civil rights champions like Malcolm X over a century after his death. | 1,147 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Athena is the Greek goddess of war, arts, skill, and most of all, wisdom. The Romans identify her as Minerva (Hamilton 29). She sprung fully grown from her father’s head, but there are many different versions of how that came to be. Some believe that she had no mother, while others think Metis, one of Zeus’s many consorts, led to the birth of the Athena (www.pantheon.org).
When people conjure up the image of Athena in their mind, a woman wearing a full armor is usually envisioned. In most pictures, she also carries a lance and a shield with Medusa’s head mounted upon it. Athena is also frequently revealed with an owl perched on one of her shoulders, the owl being a symbol of wisdom. In many vase paintings, she is also depicted with birdlike wings (www.wikipedia.org).
One of Athena’s admirable traits is her compassion, as proven in many of the myths told about her. The story of Arachne and Athena’s weaving contest is well known. Athena is not only known for wisdom, but also for her skills in weaving. Arachne however, was also popular in that aspect. Her weavings were so beautiful nymphs left their homes to watch her while she worked (www.goddess-athena.org).Arachne boasted that her work was greater than the Goddess’s, and the contest more or less proved that her weavings were equal to Athena’s, if not better. Any Goddess would not be able to stand being surpassed by a mere mortal, so Athena, in a fit of rage, tore Arachne’s hard labor into pieces. The woman tried to commit suicide, but Athena took pity on her, and allowed her to live on as a spider, forever weaving webs (www.homepage.mac.com). During other times, when criminal trials came to conclusions in which votes were split equally, Athena voted to free the accused, revealing the side of the Goddess that understood and forgave human errors (www.arthistory.sbc.edu).
Athena played a great influential role in her time. During a society in which women were “reduced to | <urn:uuid:d387f6e7-82f3-4ced-8de9-ce8c29159758> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/athena/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00355.warc.gz | en | 0.98114 | 476 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.74590051174163... | 1 | Athena is the Greek goddess of war, arts, skill, and most of all, wisdom. The Romans identify her as Minerva (Hamilton 29). She sprung fully grown from her father’s head, but there are many different versions of how that came to be. Some believe that she had no mother, while others think Metis, one of Zeus’s many consorts, led to the birth of the Athena (www.pantheon.org).
When people conjure up the image of Athena in their mind, a woman wearing a full armor is usually envisioned. In most pictures, she also carries a lance and a shield with Medusa’s head mounted upon it. Athena is also frequently revealed with an owl perched on one of her shoulders, the owl being a symbol of wisdom. In many vase paintings, she is also depicted with birdlike wings (www.wikipedia.org).
One of Athena’s admirable traits is her compassion, as proven in many of the myths told about her. The story of Arachne and Athena’s weaving contest is well known. Athena is not only known for wisdom, but also for her skills in weaving. Arachne however, was also popular in that aspect. Her weavings were so beautiful nymphs left their homes to watch her while she worked (www.goddess-athena.org).Arachne boasted that her work was greater than the Goddess’s, and the contest more or less proved that her weavings were equal to Athena’s, if not better. Any Goddess would not be able to stand being surpassed by a mere mortal, so Athena, in a fit of rage, tore Arachne’s hard labor into pieces. The woman tried to commit suicide, but Athena took pity on her, and allowed her to live on as a spider, forever weaving webs (www.homepage.mac.com). During other times, when criminal trials came to conclusions in which votes were split equally, Athena voted to free the accused, revealing the side of the Goddess that understood and forgave human errors (www.arthistory.sbc.edu).
Athena played a great influential role in her time. During a society in which women were “reduced to | 441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Even by the standards of the rapidly declining Western Empire, Honorius's reign was precarious and chaotic. His reign was supported by his principal general, Stilicho, who was successively Honorius's guardian (during his childhood) and his father-in-law (after the emperor became an adult). Stilicho's generalship helped preserve some level of stability, but with his execution in 408, the Western Roman Empire moved closer to collapse. Honorius is widely considered as one of the worst of the emperors; it was during his reign that Rome was sacked for the first time in 800 years.
After holding the consulate at the age of two, Honorius was declared Augustus by his father Theodosius I, and thus co-ruler, on 23 January 393 after the death of Valentinian II and the usurpation of Eugenius. When Theodosius died, in January 395, Honorius and Arcadius divided the Empire, so that Honorius became Western Roman Emperor at the age of ten. | <urn:uuid:0566b09b-740a-4ae5-b05f-7def7829d7f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wn.com/Honorius_(emperor) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.988822 | 211 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.42099991440773... | 1 | Even by the standards of the rapidly declining Western Empire, Honorius's reign was precarious and chaotic. His reign was supported by his principal general, Stilicho, who was successively Honorius's guardian (during his childhood) and his father-in-law (after the emperor became an adult). Stilicho's generalship helped preserve some level of stability, but with his execution in 408, the Western Roman Empire moved closer to collapse. Honorius is widely considered as one of the worst of the emperors; it was during his reign that Rome was sacked for the first time in 800 years.
After holding the consulate at the age of two, Honorius was declared Augustus by his father Theodosius I, and thus co-ruler, on 23 January 393 after the death of Valentinian II and the usurpation of Eugenius. When Theodosius died, in January 395, Honorius and Arcadius divided the Empire, so that Honorius became Western Roman Emperor at the age of ten. | 220 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery in the New World (Slavery in the Caribbean (Even though the…
Slavery in the New World
Slavery in the Caribbean
Young men and the old were also put to work. Doing jobs such as driving away birds, cleaning and guarding.
Male slaves were worked to death and eventally replaced with another slave in his place.
Space was very close for slaves, in the Caribbean, slaves were held on much larger amount, with many plantations holding 150 slaves or more. And this compares to South Americas which had one slaveholder have over one thousand slaves. And 125 slave owners had 150 slaves.
Many slaves committed suicide or ran away during this time just to be able to escape the rough conditons and work that came with being a slave in the Caribbean
Most of the slaves had to work barefoot because shoes weren't part of the annuel slave clothing allowance.
Women Slaves during this period were mostly used as sexual objects. And after long days at work for the men, women were expected to provide sexual services.
When there was poor times at harest then there we large numbers of deaths due to starvation because of the limited amount of food. But in 1682 a law was passed that stated that plantation owners had to provide food for there slaves to avoid starvation.
Even though the legislative assemblies passed "slave codes" that were supposed to prohibit slave abuse but the law was very much ignoreed and not enforced.
In sugar cane plantations workers were put into gangs due to there physical conidtions and strengths. For example, the stronger and more healthier men were sent into the fields to pick sugar cane and harvest.
Plantation owners would would provide weekly ration of food such as salt herrings, sweet potatoes, maize, and the occasional salted West Indian turtle. But also had to have wild diet to manatain their lifes.
At Mount Vernon nearly 2/3 of the slaves were married and this was acknowledged by the slaves and George Washington himself surprisingly. The slaves who were married to slaves from other plantations were actually allowed to travel to see them on Saturday nights and on Sundays because they were off.
Mount Vernon was separated into five different farms with an overseer at each, sometimes these overseers were a slave. Slave work days typically lasted 8 hours in the winter and 14 hours in the summer including generally 2 hours off to eat. Slaves and free people at the estate were given off on Sunday and given off on certain holidays.
In order to have slave control at Mount Vernon they used physical punishment like whips and beating... However a house guests journal says that Washington did not allow his slaves to be whipped.
Slavery at George Washington's Mount Vernon
When whipping or demoting a slave didn't work as repercussion or punishment the ultimate punishment would be to just sell the slave away.
Around 75% of slaves at Mount Vernon worked in the fields. Slaves who had a disability were given less physically demanding jobs like picking seeds or making clothes.
However, sometimes slaves were also rewarded for good work if they were deserving. They would be given better blankets, clothes, and even cash rewards. Washington would do this to encourage them and he would also encourage and motivate them verbally.
In 1799, there were 316 slaves at the estate. The jobs done consisted of house servants, blacksmiths, barrel makers, cooks, dairy maids, gardeners, and several more. These jobs were generally done by the men. | <urn:uuid:ff1465ba-0b8a-4183-bedb-560f8042dc2c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://coggle.it/diagram/XYN-yxz2ih0XEmvz/t/slavery-in-the-new-world | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00249.warc.gz | en | 0.989179 | 714 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.2144661098718643... | 1 | Slavery in the New World (Slavery in the Caribbean (Even though the…
Slavery in the New World
Slavery in the Caribbean
Young men and the old were also put to work. Doing jobs such as driving away birds, cleaning and guarding.
Male slaves were worked to death and eventally replaced with another slave in his place.
Space was very close for slaves, in the Caribbean, slaves were held on much larger amount, with many plantations holding 150 slaves or more. And this compares to South Americas which had one slaveholder have over one thousand slaves. And 125 slave owners had 150 slaves.
Many slaves committed suicide or ran away during this time just to be able to escape the rough conditons and work that came with being a slave in the Caribbean
Most of the slaves had to work barefoot because shoes weren't part of the annuel slave clothing allowance.
Women Slaves during this period were mostly used as sexual objects. And after long days at work for the men, women were expected to provide sexual services.
When there was poor times at harest then there we large numbers of deaths due to starvation because of the limited amount of food. But in 1682 a law was passed that stated that plantation owners had to provide food for there slaves to avoid starvation.
Even though the legislative assemblies passed "slave codes" that were supposed to prohibit slave abuse but the law was very much ignoreed and not enforced.
In sugar cane plantations workers were put into gangs due to there physical conidtions and strengths. For example, the stronger and more healthier men were sent into the fields to pick sugar cane and harvest.
Plantation owners would would provide weekly ration of food such as salt herrings, sweet potatoes, maize, and the occasional salted West Indian turtle. But also had to have wild diet to manatain their lifes.
At Mount Vernon nearly 2/3 of the slaves were married and this was acknowledged by the slaves and George Washington himself surprisingly. The slaves who were married to slaves from other plantations were actually allowed to travel to see them on Saturday nights and on Sundays because they were off.
Mount Vernon was separated into five different farms with an overseer at each, sometimes these overseers were a slave. Slave work days typically lasted 8 hours in the winter and 14 hours in the summer including generally 2 hours off to eat. Slaves and free people at the estate were given off on Sunday and given off on certain holidays.
In order to have slave control at Mount Vernon they used physical punishment like whips and beating... However a house guests journal says that Washington did not allow his slaves to be whipped.
Slavery at George Washington's Mount Vernon
When whipping or demoting a slave didn't work as repercussion or punishment the ultimate punishment would be to just sell the slave away.
Around 75% of slaves at Mount Vernon worked in the fields. Slaves who had a disability were given less physically demanding jobs like picking seeds or making clothes.
However, sometimes slaves were also rewarded for good work if they were deserving. They would be given better blankets, clothes, and even cash rewards. Washington would do this to encourage them and he would also encourage and motivate them verbally.
In 1799, there were 316 slaves at the estate. The jobs done consisted of house servants, blacksmiths, barrel makers, cooks, dairy maids, gardeners, and several more. These jobs were generally done by the men. | 721 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Euclid Euclid is one of the most influential and best read mathematician of all time. His prize work, Elements, was the textbook of elementary geometry and logic up to the early twentieth century. For his work in the field, he is known as the father of geometry and is considered one of the great Greek mathematicians. Very little is known about the life of Euclid. Both the dates and places of his birth and death are unknown.
It is believed that he was educated at Plato’s academy in Athens and stayed there until he was invited by Ptolemy I to teach at his newly founded university in Alexandria. There, Euclid founded the school of mathematics and remained there for the rest of his life. As a teacher, he was probably one of the mentors to Archimedes. Personally, all accounts of Euclid describe him as a kind, fair, patient man who quickly helped and praised the works of others. However, this did not stop him from engaging in sarcasm.
One story relates that one of his students complained that he had no use for any of the mathematics he was learning. Euclid quickly called to his slave to give the boy a coin because he must make gain out of what he learns. Another story relates that Ptolemy asked the mathematician if there was some easier way to learn geometry than by learning all the theorems. Euclid replied, There is no royal road to geometry and sent the king to study. Euclid’s fame comes from his writings, especially his masterpiece Elements. This 13 volume work is a compilation of Greek mathematics and geometry.
It is unknown how much if any of the work included in Elements is Euclid’s original work; many of the theorems found can be traced to previous thinkers including Euxodus, Thales, Hippocrates and Pythagoras. However, the format of Elements belongs to him alone. Each volume lists a number of definitions and postulates followed by theorems, which are followed by proofs using those definitions and postulates. Every statement was proven, no matter how obvious. Euclid chose his postulates carefully, picking only the most basic and self-evident propositions as the basis of his work. Before, rival schools each had a different set of postulates, some of which were very questionable.
This format helped standardize Greek mathematics. As for the subject matter, it ran the gamut of ancient thought. The subjects include: the transitive property, the Pythagorean theorem, algebraic identities, circles, tangents, plane geometry, the theory of proportions, prime numbers, perfect numbers, properties of positive integers, irrational numbers, 3-D figures, inscribed and circumscribed figures, LCD, GCM and the construction of regular solids. Especially noteworthy subjects include the method of exhaustion, which would be used by Archimedes in the invention of integral calculus, and the proof that the set of all prime numbers is infinite. Elements was translated into both Latin and Arabic and is the earliest similar work to survive, basically because it is far superior to anything previous. The first printed copy came out in 1482 and was the geometry textbook and logic primer by the 1700s.
During this period Euclid was highly respected as a mathematician and Elements was considered one of the greatest mathematical works of all time. The publication was used in schools up to 1903. Euclid also wrote many other works including Data, On Division, Phaenomena, Optics and the lost books Conics and Porisms. Today, Euclid has lost much of the godlike status he once held. In his time, many of his peers attacked him for being too thorough and including self-evident proofs, such as one side of a triangle cannot be longer than the sum of the other two sides.
Today, most mathematicians attack Euclid for the exact opposite reason that he was not thorough enough. In Elements, there are missing areas which were forced to be filled in by following mathematicians. In addition, several errors and questionable ideas have been found. The most glaring one deals with his fifth postulate, also known as the parallel postulate. The proposition states that for a straight line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one line that passes through the point parallel to the original line. Euclid was unable to prove this statement and needing it for his proofs, so he assumed it as true. Future mathematicians could not accept such a statement was unproveable and spent centuries looking for an answer.
Only with the onset of non- Euclidean geometry, that replaces the statement with postulates that assume different numbers of parallel lines, has the statement been generally accepted as necessary. However, despite these problems, Euclid holds the distinction of being one of the first persons to attempt to standardize mathematics and set it upon a foundation of proofs. His work acted as a springboard for future generations. | <urn:uuid:577f4510-f2d0-4aca-a91e-14233de594de> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://typewriterfactory.com/blog/euclid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.983511 | 1,005 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.4478874206542... | 6 | Euclid Euclid is one of the most influential and best read mathematician of all time. His prize work, Elements, was the textbook of elementary geometry and logic up to the early twentieth century. For his work in the field, he is known as the father of geometry and is considered one of the great Greek mathematicians. Very little is known about the life of Euclid. Both the dates and places of his birth and death are unknown.
It is believed that he was educated at Plato’s academy in Athens and stayed there until he was invited by Ptolemy I to teach at his newly founded university in Alexandria. There, Euclid founded the school of mathematics and remained there for the rest of his life. As a teacher, he was probably one of the mentors to Archimedes. Personally, all accounts of Euclid describe him as a kind, fair, patient man who quickly helped and praised the works of others. However, this did not stop him from engaging in sarcasm.
One story relates that one of his students complained that he had no use for any of the mathematics he was learning. Euclid quickly called to his slave to give the boy a coin because he must make gain out of what he learns. Another story relates that Ptolemy asked the mathematician if there was some easier way to learn geometry than by learning all the theorems. Euclid replied, There is no royal road to geometry and sent the king to study. Euclid’s fame comes from his writings, especially his masterpiece Elements. This 13 volume work is a compilation of Greek mathematics and geometry.
It is unknown how much if any of the work included in Elements is Euclid’s original work; many of the theorems found can be traced to previous thinkers including Euxodus, Thales, Hippocrates and Pythagoras. However, the format of Elements belongs to him alone. Each volume lists a number of definitions and postulates followed by theorems, which are followed by proofs using those definitions and postulates. Every statement was proven, no matter how obvious. Euclid chose his postulates carefully, picking only the most basic and self-evident propositions as the basis of his work. Before, rival schools each had a different set of postulates, some of which were very questionable.
This format helped standardize Greek mathematics. As for the subject matter, it ran the gamut of ancient thought. The subjects include: the transitive property, the Pythagorean theorem, algebraic identities, circles, tangents, plane geometry, the theory of proportions, prime numbers, perfect numbers, properties of positive integers, irrational numbers, 3-D figures, inscribed and circumscribed figures, LCD, GCM and the construction of regular solids. Especially noteworthy subjects include the method of exhaustion, which would be used by Archimedes in the invention of integral calculus, and the proof that the set of all prime numbers is infinite. Elements was translated into both Latin and Arabic and is the earliest similar work to survive, basically because it is far superior to anything previous. The first printed copy came out in 1482 and was the geometry textbook and logic primer by the 1700s.
During this period Euclid was highly respected as a mathematician and Elements was considered one of the greatest mathematical works of all time. The publication was used in schools up to 1903. Euclid also wrote many other works including Data, On Division, Phaenomena, Optics and the lost books Conics and Porisms. Today, Euclid has lost much of the godlike status he once held. In his time, many of his peers attacked him for being too thorough and including self-evident proofs, such as one side of a triangle cannot be longer than the sum of the other two sides.
Today, most mathematicians attack Euclid for the exact opposite reason that he was not thorough enough. In Elements, there are missing areas which were forced to be filled in by following mathematicians. In addition, several errors and questionable ideas have been found. The most glaring one deals with his fifth postulate, also known as the parallel postulate. The proposition states that for a straight line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one line that passes through the point parallel to the original line. Euclid was unable to prove this statement and needing it for his proofs, so he assumed it as true. Future mathematicians could not accept such a statement was unproveable and spent centuries looking for an answer.
Only with the onset of non- Euclidean geometry, that replaces the statement with postulates that assume different numbers of parallel lines, has the statement been generally accepted as necessary. However, despite these problems, Euclid holds the distinction of being one of the first persons to attempt to standardize mathematics and set it upon a foundation of proofs. His work acted as a springboard for future generations. | 1,006 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is the history and manufacturing process of brooms?
That brooms have been around since ancient times is evinced in a passage from New Testament in which a woman, having lost a piece of silver in her house, sweeps all around as she searches for it. Certainly, brooms have not always appeared as they do now. Roughly fashioned from straw or twigs or whatever materials were at hand, the broom was constructed by tying twine or rope around these materials which covered a wooden stick.
Broom-making as a trade was not begun until the days of Anglo-Saxon England in the southeastern region where "besom squires" fashioned brooms from twigs of birch trees that were then tied to chestnut wood. In fact, this method is still used today as a heritage craft. But, the rise in interest of growing a crop of tasseled grace scientifically called sorghum vulgare, brought about the creation of the modern broom. This grass had heretofore just been used as animal feed, but one farmer in Massachusetts fashioned a broom using this crop for his wife and it was more effective as well as durable. In 1797 Gregory H. Nobles peddled some extra brooms to his neighbors and soon found himself in business. Other farmers soon joined this trade, and in 1906 a machine was constructed which would hold the twine taunt while the broom maker fashioned the broom.
It was not until a Christian sect called Shakers began making brooms that the flat bottom of the modern broom came into being. They found that instead of making a round broom, they could secure the broomcorn with wire and flatten it with a vice while they sewed it tight and cut the bottom. This method resulted in a superior cleaning tool as a straight bottom allowed more efficient sweeping of larger areas. The Shakers also designed the whisk broom for cleaning smaller areas. These designs, then, are almost the same as those of modern brooms.
The broom-making industry moved from the Northeastern United States to the Western states when it was discovered that the broom grass grew well in places such as Colorado. By the turn of the twentieth century, broom shops turned into factories except for a few small industries such as the Industries for the Blind where brooms are made by the visually impaired. Also, the Lions' Club is an organization that has traditionally sold brooms made by small concerns such as the afore-mentioned. After 1994, NAFTA sent broom-making to Mexico, so most of the corn brooms come from this country.
Synthetic brooms were introduced in the 1950's and 1960's by DuPont and other companies. These brooms are composed of filaments and softer plastic bristles which are often used on hardwood floors. Of course, there are many varieties and sizes nowadays as people use brooms to sweep out garages and sweep large cement floors in shops and factories.
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-0.0962857... | 2 | What is the history and manufacturing process of brooms?
That brooms have been around since ancient times is evinced in a passage from New Testament in which a woman, having lost a piece of silver in her house, sweeps all around as she searches for it. Certainly, brooms have not always appeared as they do now. Roughly fashioned from straw or twigs or whatever materials were at hand, the broom was constructed by tying twine or rope around these materials which covered a wooden stick.
Broom-making as a trade was not begun until the days of Anglo-Saxon England in the southeastern region where "besom squires" fashioned brooms from twigs of birch trees that were then tied to chestnut wood. In fact, this method is still used today as a heritage craft. But, the rise in interest of growing a crop of tasseled grace scientifically called sorghum vulgare, brought about the creation of the modern broom. This grass had heretofore just been used as animal feed, but one farmer in Massachusetts fashioned a broom using this crop for his wife and it was more effective as well as durable. In 1797 Gregory H. Nobles peddled some extra brooms to his neighbors and soon found himself in business. Other farmers soon joined this trade, and in 1906 a machine was constructed which would hold the twine taunt while the broom maker fashioned the broom.
It was not until a Christian sect called Shakers began making brooms that the flat bottom of the modern broom came into being. They found that instead of making a round broom, they could secure the broomcorn with wire and flatten it with a vice while they sewed it tight and cut the bottom. This method resulted in a superior cleaning tool as a straight bottom allowed more efficient sweeping of larger areas. The Shakers also designed the whisk broom for cleaning smaller areas. These designs, then, are almost the same as those of modern brooms.
The broom-making industry moved from the Northeastern United States to the Western states when it was discovered that the broom grass grew well in places such as Colorado. By the turn of the twentieth century, broom shops turned into factories except for a few small industries such as the Industries for the Blind where brooms are made by the visually impaired. Also, the Lions' Club is an organization that has traditionally sold brooms made by small concerns such as the afore-mentioned. After 1994, NAFTA sent broom-making to Mexico, so most of the corn brooms come from this country.
Synthetic brooms were introduced in the 1950's and 1960's by DuPont and other companies. These brooms are composed of filaments and softer plastic bristles which are often used on hardwood floors. Of course, there are many varieties and sizes nowadays as people use brooms to sweep out garages and sweep large cement floors in shops and factories.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 622 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Caligula Conquered Britain, and How Caractacus Refused To Be Conquered
A FTER the second coming of Cæsar, years passed during which the Romans left the Britons in peace. But they had by no means forgotten about the little green island in the blue sea.
Julius Cæsar had been dead many years when a Roman emperor called Caligula said he would go to Britain and thoroughly conquer the island. He did not mean to land and fight in one small part of it as Julius Cæsar had done. He meant to march over the island, north, south, east, and west, and bring it all under the power of Rome. That is what he said he was going to do. What he really did was something quite different.
He gathered a great army and marched from Italy right through France till he reached the coast. There news came to him that Guilderius, the king of Britain, had heard of his coming and had also gathered his soldiers together.
Caligula must have been afraid when he heard that the brave Britons were ready to fight him, for this is how he conquered Britain.
He drew his soldiers up in battle array upon the shore. Then he himself went into his galley and told his sailors to row him out to sea. After they had rowed him a short way he told them to return. When he had landed again he climbed into a high seat like a pulpit, which he had built on the sands. Then he sounded a trumpet and ordered his soldiers to advance as if to battle.
But there was no enemy there. In front of the soldiers there was nothing but the blue sea and the sandy shore covered with shells. They could not fight against the waves and the sand, and the brave Britons, whom they had come to fight, were far away on the other side of the water and quite out of reach.
So the soldiers stood and wondered what to do. Then Caligula ordered them to kneel down upon the sand and gather as many shells as they could.
The first thing a Roman was taught, was to obey. So now the soldiers did as their general commanded and gathered the cockle shells which lay around in hundreds.
It must have been a curious sight to see all these strong
soldiers, armed with sword, shield, and helmet, picking up
shells upon the
When they had gathered a great quantity, Caligula made a speech. He thanked the soldiers as if they had done him some great service. He told them that now he had conquered the ocean and the islands in it, and that these shells were the spoils of war. He praised the soldiers for their bravery, and said that the shells should be placed in the temples of Rome in remembrance of it. Then he rewarded them richly and they marched home again.
That was how Caligula conquered Britain.
After the death of Caligula, another Roman called Claudius tried to conquer Britain. He sent generals and came himself, but he could not thoroughly subdue the Britons. A few chiefs indeed owned themselves beaten, but others would not. They would rather die than be slaves of Rome, they said.
Among those who would not yield was a brave man called Caractacus. A great many of the Britons joined him and fought under his orders. Caractacus and his men fought well and bravely, but in the end the Romans defeated them.
After many battles Caractacus chose for his camp a place on
the top of a hill on the borders of Shropshire, Cheshire,
and Lancashire. There he made a very strong fortress
surrounded by three walls and a deep ditch. The walls were
so well built that after all these long years they can still
be seen quite plainly
When the Roman soldiers came to the foot of the hill,
Caractacus prepared for battle. He called his soldiers
together and made a speech to them. "Show yourselves to be
men," he said.
Then all the Britons called out, "We will die for our country." The noise of their shouts was carried by the wind to the camp of the Romans. It sounded to them as if the Britons were rejoicing. The Romans feared Caractacus. They knew how brave he and his men were. They knew that it would be very difficult to take his strong fortress. Yet they felt quite sure of taking it in the end, and they wondered what cause the Britons had for rejoicing.
And it happened as the Romans expected. After fierce fighting and great slaughter on both sides the camp was taken. Caractacus, his wife and daughter, and all his brothers were made prisoner and led in chains to Rome, and there was great sorrow in Britain.
Whenever a Roman emperor returned from battle and victory, he used to have what was called a Triumph. Every one in Rome had a holiday; the streets were gay with flowers and green wreaths. The conqueror, dressed in beautiful robes and wearing a crown of bay leaves, rode through the streets. He was followed by his soldiers, servants, and friends. Then came a long train of the captives he had made during the war, with the armour, weapons, jewels, and other riches he had taken from the conquered people.
After the war with Britain was over Claudius had a Triumph. The fame of Caractacus had already reached Rome, and when it became known that he had been taken prisoner and would walk in the Triumph there was great excitement. The people crowded into the streets eager to see this brave warrior. And although in chains he looked so proud and noble that many even of the Romans were sorry for him.
When he was brought before the Emperor and Empress, Claudius and Agrippina, he did not behave like a slave or a captive, but like the freeborn king and Briton he was.
"I am as nobly born as you," he said proudly to Claudius. "I had men and horses, lands and great riches. Was it wonderful that I wished to keep them? You fight to gain possession of the whole world and make all men your slaves, but I fought for my own land and for freedom. Kill me now and people will think little of you: but if you grant me my life, all men will know that you are not only powerful but merciful."
Instead of being angry, Claudius was pleased with the proud
words of Caractacus. He was so pleased that he set him at
liberty with his wife and all his family. But whether
Caractacus ever returned to his dear country, or whether he
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0.288693726062... | 8 | How Caligula Conquered Britain, and How Caractacus Refused To Be Conquered
A FTER the second coming of Cæsar, years passed during which the Romans left the Britons in peace. But they had by no means forgotten about the little green island in the blue sea.
Julius Cæsar had been dead many years when a Roman emperor called Caligula said he would go to Britain and thoroughly conquer the island. He did not mean to land and fight in one small part of it as Julius Cæsar had done. He meant to march over the island, north, south, east, and west, and bring it all under the power of Rome. That is what he said he was going to do. What he really did was something quite different.
He gathered a great army and marched from Italy right through France till he reached the coast. There news came to him that Guilderius, the king of Britain, had heard of his coming and had also gathered his soldiers together.
Caligula must have been afraid when he heard that the brave Britons were ready to fight him, for this is how he conquered Britain.
He drew his soldiers up in battle array upon the shore. Then he himself went into his galley and told his sailors to row him out to sea. After they had rowed him a short way he told them to return. When he had landed again he climbed into a high seat like a pulpit, which he had built on the sands. Then he sounded a trumpet and ordered his soldiers to advance as if to battle.
But there was no enemy there. In front of the soldiers there was nothing but the blue sea and the sandy shore covered with shells. They could not fight against the waves and the sand, and the brave Britons, whom they had come to fight, were far away on the other side of the water and quite out of reach.
So the soldiers stood and wondered what to do. Then Caligula ordered them to kneel down upon the sand and gather as many shells as they could.
The first thing a Roman was taught, was to obey. So now the soldiers did as their general commanded and gathered the cockle shells which lay around in hundreds.
It must have been a curious sight to see all these strong
soldiers, armed with sword, shield, and helmet, picking up
shells upon the
When they had gathered a great quantity, Caligula made a speech. He thanked the soldiers as if they had done him some great service. He told them that now he had conquered the ocean and the islands in it, and that these shells were the spoils of war. He praised the soldiers for their bravery, and said that the shells should be placed in the temples of Rome in remembrance of it. Then he rewarded them richly and they marched home again.
That was how Caligula conquered Britain.
After the death of Caligula, another Roman called Claudius tried to conquer Britain. He sent generals and came himself, but he could not thoroughly subdue the Britons. A few chiefs indeed owned themselves beaten, but others would not. They would rather die than be slaves of Rome, they said.
Among those who would not yield was a brave man called Caractacus. A great many of the Britons joined him and fought under his orders. Caractacus and his men fought well and bravely, but in the end the Romans defeated them.
After many battles Caractacus chose for his camp a place on
the top of a hill on the borders of Shropshire, Cheshire,
and Lancashire. There he made a very strong fortress
surrounded by three walls and a deep ditch. The walls were
so well built that after all these long years they can still
be seen quite plainly
When the Roman soldiers came to the foot of the hill,
Caractacus prepared for battle. He called his soldiers
together and made a speech to them. "Show yourselves to be
men," he said.
Then all the Britons called out, "We will die for our country." The noise of their shouts was carried by the wind to the camp of the Romans. It sounded to them as if the Britons were rejoicing. The Romans feared Caractacus. They knew how brave he and his men were. They knew that it would be very difficult to take his strong fortress. Yet they felt quite sure of taking it in the end, and they wondered what cause the Britons had for rejoicing.
And it happened as the Romans expected. After fierce fighting and great slaughter on both sides the camp was taken. Caractacus, his wife and daughter, and all his brothers were made prisoner and led in chains to Rome, and there was great sorrow in Britain.
Whenever a Roman emperor returned from battle and victory, he used to have what was called a Triumph. Every one in Rome had a holiday; the streets were gay with flowers and green wreaths. The conqueror, dressed in beautiful robes and wearing a crown of bay leaves, rode through the streets. He was followed by his soldiers, servants, and friends. Then came a long train of the captives he had made during the war, with the armour, weapons, jewels, and other riches he had taken from the conquered people.
After the war with Britain was over Claudius had a Triumph. The fame of Caractacus had already reached Rome, and when it became known that he had been taken prisoner and would walk in the Triumph there was great excitement. The people crowded into the streets eager to see this brave warrior. And although in chains he looked so proud and noble that many even of the Romans were sorry for him.
When he was brought before the Emperor and Empress, Claudius and Agrippina, he did not behave like a slave or a captive, but like the freeborn king and Briton he was.
"I am as nobly born as you," he said proudly to Claudius. "I had men and horses, lands and great riches. Was it wonderful that I wished to keep them? You fight to gain possession of the whole world and make all men your slaves, but I fought for my own land and for freedom. Kill me now and people will think little of you: but if you grant me my life, all men will know that you are not only powerful but merciful."
Instead of being angry, Claudius was pleased with the proud
words of Caractacus. He was so pleased that he set him at
liberty with his wife and all his family. But whether
Caractacus ever returned to his dear country, or whether he
died in that | 1,364 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Roman times, the site of today's Minster was home to the headquarters of the Roman Legion fort Eboracum, whose remains can be seen in the exhibition under the church.
The present church had at least three previous buildings. For the first church mentioned by Beda Venerabilis, in which 627 King Edwin was baptized by Paulinus, there is no archaeological evidence. It was probably made of wood. A stone construction completed about ten years later was enlarged by Bishop Wilfrid at the end of the 7th century. It burned down in 741 and was replaced by a stately new building. This church was heavily damaged in 1069 in the suppression of the Anglo Saxon uprising against the Norman William the Conqueror and finally destroyed during a Viking invasion in 1075.
In 1080, the first Norman Archbishop Thomas of Bayeux began construction of a Norman church modeled on the Bayeux Cathedral. This survived the city fire in 1137 damaged and was enlarged in the following decades by annexes. Walter de Gray, who became Archbishop of York in 1216, began building the present-day Gothic church. The Romanesque church was partially replaced by the new building. Pillar stumps of the predecessor building are accessible in the exhibition under the church. There is also the tomb of Saint Paulinus.
August 12, 2019
In the know? Log-in to add a tip for other adventurers! | <urn:uuid:327d7069-95e5-437f-9277-23faf6b94e9f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.komoot.com/highlight/480481 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.983232 | 291 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.35054653882... | 1 | In Roman times, the site of today's Minster was home to the headquarters of the Roman Legion fort Eboracum, whose remains can be seen in the exhibition under the church.
The present church had at least three previous buildings. For the first church mentioned by Beda Venerabilis, in which 627 King Edwin was baptized by Paulinus, there is no archaeological evidence. It was probably made of wood. A stone construction completed about ten years later was enlarged by Bishop Wilfrid at the end of the 7th century. It burned down in 741 and was replaced by a stately new building. This church was heavily damaged in 1069 in the suppression of the Anglo Saxon uprising against the Norman William the Conqueror and finally destroyed during a Viking invasion in 1075.
In 1080, the first Norman Archbishop Thomas of Bayeux began construction of a Norman church modeled on the Bayeux Cathedral. This survived the city fire in 1137 damaged and was enlarged in the following decades by annexes. Walter de Gray, who became Archbishop of York in 1216, began building the present-day Gothic church. The Romanesque church was partially replaced by the new building. Pillar stumps of the predecessor building are accessible in the exhibition under the church. There is also the tomb of Saint Paulinus.
August 12, 2019
In the know? Log-in to add a tip for other adventurers! | 315 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Located thirty seven miles west of Krakow , Auschwitz was the camp where Jewish people were killed and were worked to death . This camp out of the rest of the concentration camps tortured the most prisoners . On August 15 1940 this camp opened which was the beginning of the worst five years of the Jewish people's history . In my essay on Auschwitz I will be including the location of the concentration camp , how many died at Auschwitz , methods they used 2 kill the Jews , what they ate at the camps , the prisoners daily routine , security around Auschwitz and the three main parts the camp was made up of . .
The Auschwitz concentration camp was opened from August 15 1940 to mid January 1945 . The prisoners at Auschwitz mainly consisted of Jews . The prisoners here were feed rations of bread and soup . The bread was usually stale and the soup would have human meat in it or other items such as lip stick , boots , jewelry and teeth . Here the prisoners were worked to the point of death . Trains transported prisoners to the camps , and the guards violently forced them off the train . All of the prisoners property was left on the train also and the dead bodies also . (www.holocaust-history.org) When they arrived at the camp the prisoners were sent into two different lines , one for the women and the other for the men . The lines moved into the place where a procedure called Selection took place . The ones who could work were not killed at this time , but the women , children and others that could not work were gassed . The prisoners that were good to work had their clothes taken , heads shaved , got sterilized and were given black and white striped clothing to wear . In this force labor camp the average life time was only a few months . Some ways that the Nazi's killed the jews were: being hanged , dying from mal nutrition and starvation , shot by the guards , thrown into the gas chambers , beat to death by the guards and sometimes even other by other prisoners that wanted their food . | <urn:uuid:e2f01203-5cf9-48cc-b8ac-e6d36708870c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/52988.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.988981 | 404 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | Located thirty seven miles west of Krakow , Auschwitz was the camp where Jewish people were killed and were worked to death . This camp out of the rest of the concentration camps tortured the most prisoners . On August 15 1940 this camp opened which was the beginning of the worst five years of the Jewish people's history . In my essay on Auschwitz I will be including the location of the concentration camp , how many died at Auschwitz , methods they used 2 kill the Jews , what they ate at the camps , the prisoners daily routine , security around Auschwitz and the three main parts the camp was made up of . .
The Auschwitz concentration camp was opened from August 15 1940 to mid January 1945 . The prisoners at Auschwitz mainly consisted of Jews . The prisoners here were feed rations of bread and soup . The bread was usually stale and the soup would have human meat in it or other items such as lip stick , boots , jewelry and teeth . Here the prisoners were worked to the point of death . Trains transported prisoners to the camps , and the guards violently forced them off the train . All of the prisoners property was left on the train also and the dead bodies also . (www.holocaust-history.org) When they arrived at the camp the prisoners were sent into two different lines , one for the women and the other for the men . The lines moved into the place where a procedure called Selection took place . The ones who could work were not killed at this time , but the women , children and others that could not work were gassed . The prisoners that were good to work had their clothes taken , heads shaved , got sterilized and were given black and white striped clothing to wear . In this force labor camp the average life time was only a few months . Some ways that the Nazi's killed the jews were: being hanged , dying from mal nutrition and starvation , shot by the guards , thrown into the gas chambers , beat to death by the guards and sometimes even other by other prisoners that wanted their food . | 418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A New England on the Black Sea was created more than 500 years before its American successor, naming towns after their homeland like the Pilgrim Fathers.
Fugitives of the Norman Conquest are said to have been rewarded for their gallantry by the Byzantine emperor with an enclave in the Crimea, according to historian Caitlin Green.
Dr. Green’s account of ‘Nova Anglia’ on her blog tells of the 14th-century Icelandic saga of Edward the Confessor which outlines events following 1066.
‘They left their estates and fled away from the land with a great host,’ the old text says.
They were led by Siward, earl of Gloucester, and headed south to the Mediterranean, making a raid on Cueta, North Africa, and slaughtering there.
Afterwards, they made haste to Micklegarth, now known as Istanbul, where they had heard a siege was underway.
They defeated the enemy ships and the saga says that the emperor ‘took wonderfully well’ to the newcomers.
According to the saga he offered the English positions in his personal bodyguard, the Varangians, so impressed was he by the warriors.
But the astute Englishmen asked for land instead.
Rather than deprive his own gentry of their lands, the emperor advised the English of a region across the sea, which had once belonged to the Romans.
The emperor said they could have it if they were able to defeat the barbarians living there.
After countless battles, the saga says that they took the land and named it England.
The saga says: ‘To the towns that were in the land and to those which they built they gave the names of the towns in England. They called them both London and York, and by the names of other great towns in England.’
Despite problems with the narrative, for example there was never a Siward, earl of Gloucester, there remains compelling evidence provided by Dr Green.
It is well documented for instance that the emperor’s Varangian guard went from being largely made up of Scandinavians in the 10th and 11th centuries, to a predominantly English force.
Dr Green told The Times of those who rose through the ranks of Byzantine society who were able to earn titles and land.
Furthermore, old maps seem to show that there were places named by Englishmen, including the town of ‘Susaco’ (Sussex) and the river ‘Londina’ (London).
On her website Dr Green writes: ‘This territory would appear to have been established by the late eleventh-century Anglo-Saxon exiles who had left England after the Norman Conquest and joined the Byzantine emperor’s Varangian Guard, and their control of at least some land and cities here apparently persisted for several centuries, perhaps thus providing a regular supply of “English Varangians” to the Byzantine Empire that helps to explain why the “native tongue” of the Varangian Guard continued to be English as late as the mid-fourteenth century.’ | <urn:uuid:b61dbcfe-5fae-471c-969b-37836d106136> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mybyzantine.wordpress.com/2020/01/11/the-medieval-new-england-a-forgotten-anglo-saxon-colony-on-the-north-eastern-black-sea-coast/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00038.warc.gz | en | 0.985482 | 643 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.53043973... | 3 | A New England on the Black Sea was created more than 500 years before its American successor, naming towns after their homeland like the Pilgrim Fathers.
Fugitives of the Norman Conquest are said to have been rewarded for their gallantry by the Byzantine emperor with an enclave in the Crimea, according to historian Caitlin Green.
Dr. Green’s account of ‘Nova Anglia’ on her blog tells of the 14th-century Icelandic saga of Edward the Confessor which outlines events following 1066.
‘They left their estates and fled away from the land with a great host,’ the old text says.
They were led by Siward, earl of Gloucester, and headed south to the Mediterranean, making a raid on Cueta, North Africa, and slaughtering there.
Afterwards, they made haste to Micklegarth, now known as Istanbul, where they had heard a siege was underway.
They defeated the enemy ships and the saga says that the emperor ‘took wonderfully well’ to the newcomers.
According to the saga he offered the English positions in his personal bodyguard, the Varangians, so impressed was he by the warriors.
But the astute Englishmen asked for land instead.
Rather than deprive his own gentry of their lands, the emperor advised the English of a region across the sea, which had once belonged to the Romans.
The emperor said they could have it if they were able to defeat the barbarians living there.
After countless battles, the saga says that they took the land and named it England.
The saga says: ‘To the towns that were in the land and to those which they built they gave the names of the towns in England. They called them both London and York, and by the names of other great towns in England.’
Despite problems with the narrative, for example there was never a Siward, earl of Gloucester, there remains compelling evidence provided by Dr Green.
It is well documented for instance that the emperor’s Varangian guard went from being largely made up of Scandinavians in the 10th and 11th centuries, to a predominantly English force.
Dr Green told The Times of those who rose through the ranks of Byzantine society who were able to earn titles and land.
Furthermore, old maps seem to show that there were places named by Englishmen, including the town of ‘Susaco’ (Sussex) and the river ‘Londina’ (London).
On her website Dr Green writes: ‘This territory would appear to have been established by the late eleventh-century Anglo-Saxon exiles who had left England after the Norman Conquest and joined the Byzantine emperor’s Varangian Guard, and their control of at least some land and cities here apparently persisted for several centuries, perhaps thus providing a regular supply of “English Varangians” to the Byzantine Empire that helps to explain why the “native tongue” of the Varangian Guard continued to be English as late as the mid-fourteenth century.’ | 616 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The poem ‘Assisi’ written by Norman MacCraig in which the poet’s feelings are revealed. The poem tells of a deformed dwarf who sits on the steps of a church that was built in the honour of St Francis. The poet describes the suffering of the dwarf then he describes how hypocritical the priest is being by taking tourists round the church rather than helping the dwarf.
Paragraph 2. The dwarf
“The dwarf with his hands on backwards”
The poet uses this metaphor to describe how twister and deformed the dwarf looks. It also implies that the dwarf has poor dexterity in his hands. The reader begins to feel pity for the dwarf. The poet wants the reader to understand the suffering of the dwarf is feeling.
“sat, slumped like a half-filled sack on tiny twisted legs from which sawdust might run”.
The alliteration of the ‘S’ sound in the words sat, slumped and sack creates the impression that sawdust is running out his legs. The sawdust is a metaphor for his life. So the poet is saying the dwarf will not live for very long. The alliteration of the ‘T’ sound in the words tiny and twister give the impression that because t is a hard sound life for the dwarf is also hard as he is having to beg for food.
“outside the three tiers of churches built in honour of St Francis, brother of the poor,”
The poet is comparing the contrast between the dwarf and the church. The church is beautiful where as the dwarf is deformed and ugly. The church is big where as the dwarf is small. The poet also gives the reader a sense of irony that St Francis was a humble person but the monument that was built in his honour is ostentatious.
“over whom he had the advantage of not being dead yet.”
The writer says this sarcastically to give the reader the impression that the dwarf is in so much pain he would welcome death.
Paragraph 3. The priest
“A priest explained how clever it was of Giotto”
The poet is pointing out the irony that the priest should be humble but instead is relishing the attention that the tourists are giving him instead of helping the dwarf as he should.
“of god and the suffering of his son. I understood the explanation and the cleverness.”
The poet is introduced and we can see that he is saying this sarcastically and that he is getting angrier. The poet appears to be criticising the priest for not helping the dwarf when Jesus said that they should help the sick.
Paragraph 4 Tourists
“A rush of tourists, clucking contentedly, fluttered after him as he scattered the grain of the word. It was they who had passed”.
The poet is using the words clucked, fluttered and grain to imply that the tourists are chickens. Suggesting that they are not very intelligent and don’t question what the priest is telling them. The poets tone changes to give the impression that he does not approve of the tourists. The poet uses caesura in the middle of the sentence to emphasize the anger that he has towards the tourists for not helping the dwarf. The writer also uses enjambment to put further emphasize his anger at the tourists.
“The ruined temple outside, whose eyes wept pus, whose back was higher than his head, whose lopsided mouth said Grazie in a voice as sweep as a child’s when she speaks to her mother”
The poet here is using the metaphor as the dwarfs body as a ruined temple to describe to the great extent that his body is wrecked. The poet also uses a run on sentence to give the impression that the dwarf’s suffering has lasted a long time. The simile that compares the dwarf’s voice to a child’s tells us that the poet feels the dwarf is beautiful on the inside even though he is ugly on the outside. The poet also takes the reader back to the feeling that the dwarf is a person rather than an object.
“said Grazie in a voice as sweet as a child’s when she speaks to her mother or a bird’s when it spoke to St Francis.”
This is a contrast between the hideous description that came before. The child and the bird are both beautiful and innocent. The poet is saying that the dwarf is innocent and is beautiful on the inside. The poet is again going back to the fact that St Francis would have helped the dwarf where as the priest who is in charge of the church that was built in his honour does nothing to help the dwarf.
The poet’s attitude towards the church is that it is hypocritical to be claiming to do the work of god then not to help the dwarf who is sitting on the steps of a church in pain. The poet gets across his feeling of disgust with the use of metaphors and similes which compare the priest with St Francis. He builds on that the priest does not help him while St Francis would have. He expands on this message by comparing the ostentatious priest and church to the humble St Francis.
The poet feels that the church should be helping people rather than spending money on a grand church and does this by describing vividly the extent of the dwarfs deformities to get the reader to feel sympathy for him. He then uses this to show how uncaring the priest is about the plight of humanity. | <urn:uuid:04593c98-5a9a-464d-bf70-8b19b39a770c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/The-Poem-%E2%80%98Assisi%E2%80%99-Written-By-Norman-63643084.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00159.warc.gz | en | 0.985081 | 1,143 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.08708059042692184... | 1 | The poem ‘Assisi’ written by Norman MacCraig in which the poet’s feelings are revealed. The poem tells of a deformed dwarf who sits on the steps of a church that was built in the honour of St Francis. The poet describes the suffering of the dwarf then he describes how hypocritical the priest is being by taking tourists round the church rather than helping the dwarf.
Paragraph 2. The dwarf
“The dwarf with his hands on backwards”
The poet uses this metaphor to describe how twister and deformed the dwarf looks. It also implies that the dwarf has poor dexterity in his hands. The reader begins to feel pity for the dwarf. The poet wants the reader to understand the suffering of the dwarf is feeling.
“sat, slumped like a half-filled sack on tiny twisted legs from which sawdust might run”.
The alliteration of the ‘S’ sound in the words sat, slumped and sack creates the impression that sawdust is running out his legs. The sawdust is a metaphor for his life. So the poet is saying the dwarf will not live for very long. The alliteration of the ‘T’ sound in the words tiny and twister give the impression that because t is a hard sound life for the dwarf is also hard as he is having to beg for food.
“outside the three tiers of churches built in honour of St Francis, brother of the poor,”
The poet is comparing the contrast between the dwarf and the church. The church is beautiful where as the dwarf is deformed and ugly. The church is big where as the dwarf is small. The poet also gives the reader a sense of irony that St Francis was a humble person but the monument that was built in his honour is ostentatious.
“over whom he had the advantage of not being dead yet.”
The writer says this sarcastically to give the reader the impression that the dwarf is in so much pain he would welcome death.
Paragraph 3. The priest
“A priest explained how clever it was of Giotto”
The poet is pointing out the irony that the priest should be humble but instead is relishing the attention that the tourists are giving him instead of helping the dwarf as he should.
“of god and the suffering of his son. I understood the explanation and the cleverness.”
The poet is introduced and we can see that he is saying this sarcastically and that he is getting angrier. The poet appears to be criticising the priest for not helping the dwarf when Jesus said that they should help the sick.
Paragraph 4 Tourists
“A rush of tourists, clucking contentedly, fluttered after him as he scattered the grain of the word. It was they who had passed”.
The poet is using the words clucked, fluttered and grain to imply that the tourists are chickens. Suggesting that they are not very intelligent and don’t question what the priest is telling them. The poets tone changes to give the impression that he does not approve of the tourists. The poet uses caesura in the middle of the sentence to emphasize the anger that he has towards the tourists for not helping the dwarf. The writer also uses enjambment to put further emphasize his anger at the tourists.
“The ruined temple outside, whose eyes wept pus, whose back was higher than his head, whose lopsided mouth said Grazie in a voice as sweep as a child’s when she speaks to her mother”
The poet here is using the metaphor as the dwarfs body as a ruined temple to describe to the great extent that his body is wrecked. The poet also uses a run on sentence to give the impression that the dwarf’s suffering has lasted a long time. The simile that compares the dwarf’s voice to a child’s tells us that the poet feels the dwarf is beautiful on the inside even though he is ugly on the outside. The poet also takes the reader back to the feeling that the dwarf is a person rather than an object.
“said Grazie in a voice as sweet as a child’s when she speaks to her mother or a bird’s when it spoke to St Francis.”
This is a contrast between the hideous description that came before. The child and the bird are both beautiful and innocent. The poet is saying that the dwarf is innocent and is beautiful on the inside. The poet is again going back to the fact that St Francis would have helped the dwarf where as the priest who is in charge of the church that was built in his honour does nothing to help the dwarf.
The poet’s attitude towards the church is that it is hypocritical to be claiming to do the work of god then not to help the dwarf who is sitting on the steps of a church in pain. The poet gets across his feeling of disgust with the use of metaphors and similes which compare the priest with St Francis. He builds on that the priest does not help him while St Francis would have. He expands on this message by comparing the ostentatious priest and church to the humble St Francis.
The poet feels that the church should be helping people rather than spending money on a grand church and does this by describing vividly the extent of the dwarfs deformities to get the reader to feel sympathy for him. He then uses this to show how uncaring the priest is about the plight of humanity. | 1,082 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
|Subject area||Arts Entertainment|
Have you ever thought what the world would be like without music? In my opinion, simply boring. Now imagine a movie in a stunning scene with no instrumental song that makes us desire to know what's going to happen. It wouldn't be the same. The truth is that we've got the privilege to incorporate songs into our own lives and make our days happier by listening to this music we enjoy. There has also been important artists that involved societal issues for their tunes or perhaps racism issues and for me that is awesome they had the courage to share their opinions and feelings towards these difficulties with songs. Artists like Bob Dylan, Billie Holiday, John Lennon, Frank Sinatra and Pete Seeger. The first performer I will speak about is Mr.Bob Dylan, who was born on May 24,1941. He was a folk singer and songwriter, his entire name is Robert Allen Zimmerman but now that he took the title of Bob Dylan when acting folk and state songs.According into Pbs.org, his influences towards music were Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis and Little Richard. When his singer career started, some of his early songs like "Blowin in the wind" and "The Times They Are A Changin" became anthems for the U.S civil rights and the Anti-War movements. The lyrics that he was on politics, social issues, philosophy and literary consequences. Dylan's music often included real life stories on them, such as in the song, "Just a Pawn on their game", describing the brutal murder of a civil rights worker Medgar Evers. Another dilemma Dylan claimed about was the breakdown of farming and mining towns, that had been followed with two songs he made because of this political dilemma, "Boots of Spanish leather and "One too many mornings". Later on, in the year 1963, Dylan felt controlled. | <urn:uuid:30b0a54f-71c0-45fd-a65f-85c42f99d488> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/arts_entertainment/1014949/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00348.warc.gz | en | 0.983727 | 403 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.330593943595... | 1 | Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
|Subject area||Arts Entertainment|
Have you ever thought what the world would be like without music? In my opinion, simply boring. Now imagine a movie in a stunning scene with no instrumental song that makes us desire to know what's going to happen. It wouldn't be the same. The truth is that we've got the privilege to incorporate songs into our own lives and make our days happier by listening to this music we enjoy. There has also been important artists that involved societal issues for their tunes or perhaps racism issues and for me that is awesome they had the courage to share their opinions and feelings towards these difficulties with songs. Artists like Bob Dylan, Billie Holiday, John Lennon, Frank Sinatra and Pete Seeger. The first performer I will speak about is Mr.Bob Dylan, who was born on May 24,1941. He was a folk singer and songwriter, his entire name is Robert Allen Zimmerman but now that he took the title of Bob Dylan when acting folk and state songs.According into Pbs.org, his influences towards music were Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis and Little Richard. When his singer career started, some of his early songs like "Blowin in the wind" and "The Times They Are A Changin" became anthems for the U.S civil rights and the Anti-War movements. The lyrics that he was on politics, social issues, philosophy and literary consequences. Dylan's music often included real life stories on them, such as in the song, "Just a Pawn on their game", describing the brutal murder of a civil rights worker Medgar Evers. Another dilemma Dylan claimed about was the breakdown of farming and mining towns, that had been followed with two songs he made because of this political dilemma, "Boots of Spanish leather and "One too many mornings". Later on, in the year 1963, Dylan felt controlled. | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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King of Spain, only son of the Emperor Charles V, and Isabella of Portugal, b. at Valladolid, 21 May, 1527; d. at the Escorial, 13 Sept., 1598. He was carefully educated in the sciences, learned French and Latin, though he never spoke anything but Castilian, and also showed much interest in architecture and music. In 1543 he married his cousin, Maria of Portugal, who died at the birth of Don Carlos (1545). He was appointed regent of Spain with a council by Charles V. In 1554 he married Mary Tudor, Queen of England, who was eleven years his senior. This political marriage gave Spain an indirect influence on affairs of England, recently restored to Catholicism ; but in 1555 Philip was summoned to the Low Countries, and Mary's death in the same year [actually in 1558 -- Ed. ] severed the connection between the two countries. At a solemn conference held at Brussels, 22 Oct., 1555, Charles V ceded to Philip the Low Countries, the crowns of Castille, Aragon, and Sicily, on 16 Jan., 1556, and the countship of Burgundy on the tenth of June. He even thought of securing for him the imperial crown, but the opposition of his brother Ferdinand caused him to abandon that project. Having become king, Philip, devoted to Catholicism, defended the Faith throughout the world and opposed the progress of heresy, and these two things are the key to his whole reign. He did both by means of absolutism. His reign began unpleasantly for a Catholic sovereign. He had signed with France the Treaty of Vaucelles (5 Feb., 1556), but it was soon broken by France, which joined Paul IV against him. Like Julius II this pope longed to drive the foreigners out of Italy. Philip had two wars on his hands at the same time, in Italy and in the Low Countries. In Italy the Duke of Alva , Viceroy of Naples, defeated the Duke of Guise and reduced the pope to such distress that he was forced to make peace. Philip granted this on the most favourable terms and the Duke of Alva was even obliged to ask the pope's pardon for having invaded the Pontifical States. In the Low Countries Philip defeated the French at Saint Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558) and afterwards signed the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis (3 April, 1559), which was sealed by his marriage with Elizabeth of Valois, daughter of Henry II. Peace concluded, Philip, who had been detained in the Low Countries, returned to Spain. For more than forty years he directed from his cabinet the affairs of the monarchy. He resided alternately at Madrid which he made the capital of the kingdom and in villégiatures , the most famous of which is the Escorial, which he built in fulfillment of a vow made at the time of the battle of Saint Quentin.
In Spain, Philip continued the policy of the Catholic Ferdinand and Isabella. He was merciless in the supression of the Lutheran heresy, which had appeared in various parts of the country, notably at Valladolid and Seville. "If my own son were guilty like you", he replied to a gentleman condemned to death for heresy who had reproached him for his cruelty, "I should lead him with my own hands to the stake". He succeeded in exterminating Protestantism in Spain, but encountered another enemy no less dangerous. The Moriscoes of the ancient Kingdom of Granada had been conquered, but they remained the implacable enemies of their conquerors, from whom they were separated by religion, language, dress, and manners, and they plotted incessantly with the Mussulmans outside the country. Philip wished to force them to renounce their language and dress, whereupon they revolted and engagedin a bloody struggle against Spain which lasted three years (1567-70) until ended by Don Juan, natural son of Charles V. The defeated Moriscoes were transplanted in great numbers to the interior of the country. Another event of historical importance in Philip's reign was the conquest of Portugal in 1580. After the death of the young King Sebastian at the battle of Alcazar (1578) and that of his successor the aged Cardinal Henry (1580), Philip II, who through his mother was a grandson of King Emmanuel, pleaded his title of heir and sent the Duke of Alva to occupy the country. This was the only conquest of the reign. Iberian unity, thus realized, lasted from 1580 to 1640. Other events were the troubles in Aragon, which were fomented by Antonio Perez, former secretary of the king. Being pursued for high treason he sought refuge in his native country, and appealed for protection to its fueros that he might not be delivered to the Castilian judges, nor to the Inquisition. The inhabitants of Saragossa defended him by force of arms and he succeeded in escaping abroad, but Philip sent an army to punish Aragon, infringed on the fueros and established absolutism in the Kingdom of Aragon , hitherto proud of its freedom (1592).
In the Low Countries, where Philip had committed the government to his aunt [some sources say half-sister -- Ed. ], Margaret of Parma, the nobles, chafed because of their want of influence, plotted and trumped up grievances. They protested against the presence in the country of several thousands of Spanish soldiers, against Cardinal de Granvelle's influence with the regent, and against the severity of Charles V's decrees against heresy. Philip recalled the Spanish soldiers and the Cardinal de Greavelle, but he refused to mitigate the decrees and declared that he did not wish to reign over a nation of heretics. The difficulties with the Iconoclasts having broken out he swore to punish them and sent thither the Duke of Alva with an army, whereupon Margaret of Parma resigned. Alva behaved as though in a conquered country, caused the arrest and execution of Count Egmont and de Hornes, who were accused of complicity with the rebels, created the Council of Troubles, which was popularly styled the "Council of Blood", defeated the Prince of Orange and his brother who had invaded the country with German mercenaries, but could not prevent the "Sea-beggars" from capturing Brille. He followed up his military successes but was recalled in 1573. His successor Requesens could not recover Leyden. Influenced by the Prince of Orange the provinces concluded the "Pacification of Ghent " which regulated the religious situation in the Low Countries without royal intervention. The new governor, Don Juan, upset the calculations of Orange by accepting the "Pacification", and finally the Prince of Orange decided to proclaim Philip's deposition by the revolted provinces. The king replied by placing the prince under the ban; shortly afterwards he was slain by an assassin (1584). Nevertheless, the united provinces did not submit and were lost to Spain. Those of the South, however, were recovered one after another by the new governor, Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma. But he having died in 1592 and the war becoming more difficult against the rebels, led by the great general Maurice of Nassau, son of William of Orange, Philip II realized that he must change his policy and ceded the Low Countries to his daughter Isabella, whom he espoused to the Archduke Albert of Austria, with the provision that the provinces would be returned to Spain in case there were no children by this union (1598). (See ALVA; EGMONT; GRANVELLE; NETHERLANDS.) The object of Philip's reign was only partly realized. He had safeguarded the religious unity of Spain and had exterminated heresy in the southern Low Countries, but the northern Low Countries were lost to him forever.
Philip had three enemies to contend with abroad, Islam, England, and France. Islam was master of the Mediterranean, being in possession of the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Egypt, all the coast of northern Africa (Tunis, Algiers, Morocco ); it had just conquered the Island of Cyprus and laid siege to the Island of Malta (1505), which had valiantly repulsed the assault. Dragut, the Ottoman admiral, was the terror of the Mediterranean. On several occasions Philip had fought against the Mussulman peril, meeting alternately with success and defeat. He therefore eagerly joined the Holy League organized by Pius V to resist Islam, and which Venice consented to join. The fleet of the League, commanded by Don Juan, brother of Philip II, inflicted on the Turkish fleet the terrible defeat of Lepanto (7 Oct., 1571), the results of which would have been greater had Venice not proved false and if Pius V had not died in 1572. Nevertheless, the Turkish domination of the Mediterranean was ended and in 1578 Philip concluded a treaty with the Turks which lasted till the end of his reign. Relations of intimacy with England had ceased at the death of Mary Tudor. Philip attempted to renew them by his chimerical project of marriage with Elizabeth, who had not yet become the cruel persecutor of Catholicism. When she constituted herself the protectress of Protestant interests throughout the world and did all in her power to encourage the revolt of the Low Countries, Philip thought of contending with her in her own country by espousing the cause of Mary Stuart, but Elizabeth did away with the latter in 1587, and furnished relief to the Low Countries against Philip, who thereupon armed an immense fleet (the Invincible Armada) against England. But being led by an incompetent commander it accomplished nothing and was almost wholly destroyed by storms (1588). This was an irreparable disaster which inaugurated Spain's naval decline. The English corsairs could with impunity pillage her colonies and under Drake even her own coast; in 1596 the Duke of Essex pillaged the flourishing town of Cadiz, and the sceptre of the seas passed from Spain to England. From 1559 Philip II had been at peace with France, and had contented himself with urging it to crush out heresy. French intervention in favour of the Low Countries did not cause him to change his attitude, but when at the death of Henry III in 1589 the Protestant Henry of Bourbon became heir to the throne of France, Philip II allied himself with the Guises, who were at the head of the League, supplied them with money and men, and on several occasions sent to their relief his great general Alexander Farnese. He even dreamed of obtaining the crown of France for his daughter Isabella, but this daring project was not realized. The conversion of Henry IV (1593). to Catholicism removed the last obstacle to his accession to the French throne. Apparently Philip II failed to grasp the situation, since he continued for two years more the war against Henry IV, but his fruitless efforts were finally terminated in 1595 by the absolution of Henry IV by Clement VIII.
No sovereign has been the object of such diverse judgments. While the Spaniards regarded him as their Solomon and called him "the prudent king" ( el rey prudente ), to Protestants he was the "demon of the south" ( dæmon meridianus ) and most cruel of tyrants. This was because, having constituted himself the defender of Catholicism throughout the world, he encountered innumerable enemies, not to mention such adversaries as Antonio Perez and William of Orange who maligned him so as to justify their treason. Subsequently poets (Schiller in his "Don Carlos"), romance-writers, and publicists repeated these calumnies. As a matter of fact Philip II joined great qualities to great faults. He was industrious, tenacious, devoted to study, serious, simple-mannered, generous to those who served him, the friend and patron of arts. He was a dutiful son, a loving husband and father, whose family worshiped him. His piety was fervent, he had a boundless devotion to the Catholic Faith and was, moreover, a zealous lover of Justice. His stoical strength in adversity and the courage with which he endured the sufferings of his last illness are worthy of admiration. On the other hand he was cold, suspicious, secretive, scrupulous to excess, indecisive and procrastinating, little disposed to clemency or forgetfulness of wrongs. His religion was austere and sombre. He could not understand opposition to heresy except by force. Imbued with ideas of absolutism, as were all the rulers of his time, he was led into acts disapproved by the moral law. His cabinet policy, always behind-hand with regard to events and ill-informed concerning the true situation, explains his failures to a great extent. To sum up we may cite the opinion of Baumstark: "He was a sinner, as we all are, but he was also a king and a Christian king in the full sense of the term".
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King of Spain, only son of the Emperor Charles V, and Isabella of Portugal, b. at Valladolid, 21 May, 1527; d. at the Escorial, 13 Sept., 1598. He was carefully educated in the sciences, learned French and Latin, though he never spoke anything but Castilian, and also showed much interest in architecture and music. In 1543 he married his cousin, Maria of Portugal, who died at the birth of Don Carlos (1545). He was appointed regent of Spain with a council by Charles V. In 1554 he married Mary Tudor, Queen of England, who was eleven years his senior. This political marriage gave Spain an indirect influence on affairs of England, recently restored to Catholicism ; but in 1555 Philip was summoned to the Low Countries, and Mary's death in the same year [actually in 1558 -- Ed. ] severed the connection between the two countries. At a solemn conference held at Brussels, 22 Oct., 1555, Charles V ceded to Philip the Low Countries, the crowns of Castille, Aragon, and Sicily, on 16 Jan., 1556, and the countship of Burgundy on the tenth of June. He even thought of securing for him the imperial crown, but the opposition of his brother Ferdinand caused him to abandon that project. Having become king, Philip, devoted to Catholicism, defended the Faith throughout the world and opposed the progress of heresy, and these two things are the key to his whole reign. He did both by means of absolutism. His reign began unpleasantly for a Catholic sovereign. He had signed with France the Treaty of Vaucelles (5 Feb., 1556), but it was soon broken by France, which joined Paul IV against him. Like Julius II this pope longed to drive the foreigners out of Italy. Philip had two wars on his hands at the same time, in Italy and in the Low Countries. In Italy the Duke of Alva , Viceroy of Naples, defeated the Duke of Guise and reduced the pope to such distress that he was forced to make peace. Philip granted this on the most favourable terms and the Duke of Alva was even obliged to ask the pope's pardon for having invaded the Pontifical States. In the Low Countries Philip defeated the French at Saint Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558) and afterwards signed the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis (3 April, 1559), which was sealed by his marriage with Elizabeth of Valois, daughter of Henry II. Peace concluded, Philip, who had been detained in the Low Countries, returned to Spain. For more than forty years he directed from his cabinet the affairs of the monarchy. He resided alternately at Madrid which he made the capital of the kingdom and in villégiatures , the most famous of which is the Escorial, which he built in fulfillment of a vow made at the time of the battle of Saint Quentin.
In Spain, Philip continued the policy of the Catholic Ferdinand and Isabella. He was merciless in the supression of the Lutheran heresy, which had appeared in various parts of the country, notably at Valladolid and Seville. "If my own son were guilty like you", he replied to a gentleman condemned to death for heresy who had reproached him for his cruelty, "I should lead him with my own hands to the stake". He succeeded in exterminating Protestantism in Spain, but encountered another enemy no less dangerous. The Moriscoes of the ancient Kingdom of Granada had been conquered, but they remained the implacable enemies of their conquerors, from whom they were separated by religion, language, dress, and manners, and they plotted incessantly with the Mussulmans outside the country. Philip wished to force them to renounce their language and dress, whereupon they revolted and engagedin a bloody struggle against Spain which lasted three years (1567-70) until ended by Don Juan, natural son of Charles V. The defeated Moriscoes were transplanted in great numbers to the interior of the country. Another event of historical importance in Philip's reign was the conquest of Portugal in 1580. After the death of the young King Sebastian at the battle of Alcazar (1578) and that of his successor the aged Cardinal Henry (1580), Philip II, who through his mother was a grandson of King Emmanuel, pleaded his title of heir and sent the Duke of Alva to occupy the country. This was the only conquest of the reign. Iberian unity, thus realized, lasted from 1580 to 1640. Other events were the troubles in Aragon, which were fomented by Antonio Perez, former secretary of the king. Being pursued for high treason he sought refuge in his native country, and appealed for protection to its fueros that he might not be delivered to the Castilian judges, nor to the Inquisition. The inhabitants of Saragossa defended him by force of arms and he succeeded in escaping abroad, but Philip sent an army to punish Aragon, infringed on the fueros and established absolutism in the Kingdom of Aragon , hitherto proud of its freedom (1592).
In the Low Countries, where Philip had committed the government to his aunt [some sources say half-sister -- Ed. ], Margaret of Parma, the nobles, chafed because of their want of influence, plotted and trumped up grievances. They protested against the presence in the country of several thousands of Spanish soldiers, against Cardinal de Granvelle's influence with the regent, and against the severity of Charles V's decrees against heresy. Philip recalled the Spanish soldiers and the Cardinal de Greavelle, but he refused to mitigate the decrees and declared that he did not wish to reign over a nation of heretics. The difficulties with the Iconoclasts having broken out he swore to punish them and sent thither the Duke of Alva with an army, whereupon Margaret of Parma resigned. Alva behaved as though in a conquered country, caused the arrest and execution of Count Egmont and de Hornes, who were accused of complicity with the rebels, created the Council of Troubles, which was popularly styled the "Council of Blood", defeated the Prince of Orange and his brother who had invaded the country with German mercenaries, but could not prevent the "Sea-beggars" from capturing Brille. He followed up his military successes but was recalled in 1573. His successor Requesens could not recover Leyden. Influenced by the Prince of Orange the provinces concluded the "Pacification of Ghent " which regulated the religious situation in the Low Countries without royal intervention. The new governor, Don Juan, upset the calculations of Orange by accepting the "Pacification", and finally the Prince of Orange decided to proclaim Philip's deposition by the revolted provinces. The king replied by placing the prince under the ban; shortly afterwards he was slain by an assassin (1584). Nevertheless, the united provinces did not submit and were lost to Spain. Those of the South, however, were recovered one after another by the new governor, Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma. But he having died in 1592 and the war becoming more difficult against the rebels, led by the great general Maurice of Nassau, son of William of Orange, Philip II realized that he must change his policy and ceded the Low Countries to his daughter Isabella, whom he espoused to the Archduke Albert of Austria, with the provision that the provinces would be returned to Spain in case there were no children by this union (1598). (See ALVA; EGMONT; GRANVELLE; NETHERLANDS.) The object of Philip's reign was only partly realized. He had safeguarded the religious unity of Spain and had exterminated heresy in the southern Low Countries, but the northern Low Countries were lost to him forever.
Philip had three enemies to contend with abroad, Islam, England, and France. Islam was master of the Mediterranean, being in possession of the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Egypt, all the coast of northern Africa (Tunis, Algiers, Morocco ); it had just conquered the Island of Cyprus and laid siege to the Island of Malta (1505), which had valiantly repulsed the assault. Dragut, the Ottoman admiral, was the terror of the Mediterranean. On several occasions Philip had fought against the Mussulman peril, meeting alternately with success and defeat. He therefore eagerly joined the Holy League organized by Pius V to resist Islam, and which Venice consented to join. The fleet of the League, commanded by Don Juan, brother of Philip II, inflicted on the Turkish fleet the terrible defeat of Lepanto (7 Oct., 1571), the results of which would have been greater had Venice not proved false and if Pius V had not died in 1572. Nevertheless, the Turkish domination of the Mediterranean was ended and in 1578 Philip concluded a treaty with the Turks which lasted till the end of his reign. Relations of intimacy with England had ceased at the death of Mary Tudor. Philip attempted to renew them by his chimerical project of marriage with Elizabeth, who had not yet become the cruel persecutor of Catholicism. When she constituted herself the protectress of Protestant interests throughout the world and did all in her power to encourage the revolt of the Low Countries, Philip thought of contending with her in her own country by espousing the cause of Mary Stuart, but Elizabeth did away with the latter in 1587, and furnished relief to the Low Countries against Philip, who thereupon armed an immense fleet (the Invincible Armada) against England. But being led by an incompetent commander it accomplished nothing and was almost wholly destroyed by storms (1588). This was an irreparable disaster which inaugurated Spain's naval decline. The English corsairs could with impunity pillage her colonies and under Drake even her own coast; in 1596 the Duke of Essex pillaged the flourishing town of Cadiz, and the sceptre of the seas passed from Spain to England. From 1559 Philip II had been at peace with France, and had contented himself with urging it to crush out heresy. French intervention in favour of the Low Countries did not cause him to change his attitude, but when at the death of Henry III in 1589 the Protestant Henry of Bourbon became heir to the throne of France, Philip II allied himself with the Guises, who were at the head of the League, supplied them with money and men, and on several occasions sent to their relief his great general Alexander Farnese. He even dreamed of obtaining the crown of France for his daughter Isabella, but this daring project was not realized. The conversion of Henry IV (1593). to Catholicism removed the last obstacle to his accession to the French throne. Apparently Philip II failed to grasp the situation, since he continued for two years more the war against Henry IV, but his fruitless efforts were finally terminated in 1595 by the absolution of Henry IV by Clement VIII.
No sovereign has been the object of such diverse judgments. While the Spaniards regarded him as their Solomon and called him "the prudent king" ( el rey prudente ), to Protestants he was the "demon of the south" ( dæmon meridianus ) and most cruel of tyrants. This was because, having constituted himself the defender of Catholicism throughout the world, he encountered innumerable enemies, not to mention such adversaries as Antonio Perez and William of Orange who maligned him so as to justify their treason. Subsequently poets (Schiller in his "Don Carlos"), romance-writers, and publicists repeated these calumnies. As a matter of fact Philip II joined great qualities to great faults. He was industrious, tenacious, devoted to study, serious, simple-mannered, generous to those who served him, the friend and patron of arts. He was a dutiful son, a loving husband and father, whose family worshiped him. His piety was fervent, he had a boundless devotion to the Catholic Faith and was, moreover, a zealous lover of Justice. His stoical strength in adversity and the courage with which he endured the sufferings of his last illness are worthy of admiration. On the other hand he was cold, suspicious, secretive, scrupulous to excess, indecisive and procrastinating, little disposed to clemency or forgetfulness of wrongs. His religion was austere and sombre. He could not understand opposition to heresy except by force. Imbued with ideas of absolutism, as were all the rulers of his time, he was led into acts disapproved by the moral law. His cabinet policy, always behind-hand with regard to events and ill-informed concerning the true situation, explains his failures to a great extent. To sum up we may cite the opinion of Baumstark: "He was a sinner, as we all are, but he was also a king and a Christian king in the full sense of the term".
FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything
- Act of Consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary
- Unfailing Prayer to St. Anthony
- The Apostles' Creed
- A Guide for Confession
- Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary
- Come Holy Spirit
- Hail, Holy Queen
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 3,010 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Events that led to the collapse of USSR’s hold on Eastern Europe in the late 20th century.
The 20th century saw the rise and subsequent disintegration of a number of world economies, the most important being the dissolution of The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics-the USSR. This officially took place on the 26th of December, 1991.
Before seeing what brought about this breakdown, let us first discuss the rise and formation of the USSR. In the late 19th /early 20th century, the concepts of socialism and communism were gradually sweeping over the Central and Eastern European countries. These nations, at the time, were largely ruled by monarchs and the so called aristocratic and noble rulers, who tried repressing the spread of the communist ideology. However, in 1917, the Soviet Union witnessed the Bolshevik Revolution which overthrew the czarism and a communist state was born. The Central and Eastern Europe nations followed suit and adopted communism, with their leaders directly under the command and control of the Soviet Union.
Reasons for the downfall of the Communist Bloc:
Soon after World War II, the people of these countries started realizing and experiencing the pitfalls of the communist form of governance. There were a number of unsuccessful uprisings during the 1950s & the 1960s (viz. The Hungarian Revolution of 1954; The Prague Spring of 1968). The Soviet Union under the leadership of Leonid Brezhnev largely managed to contain and repress these putsches. In fact, Brezhnev’s period of rule is referred to as ‘The Era of Stagnation’. His successors Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko also continued in the same vein. It was only in the year 1985, when Mikhail Gorbachev took over the leadership of the Soviet Union that things began to change. Gorbachev realized that if the communist bloc had to keep pace with the development seen in the western countries, reforms was the only way to go. The Iron Curtain was the clear divide between progress and backwardness. Various causes and events led to the disintegration of the communist bloc.
• Equitable distribution of resources and production, which was considered one of the main tenets of communism, was totally mismanaged and corrupt. The entire public distribution system was in a mess. This was the fall out of the distribution system being vested in the hands of one central government.
• The leaders of these nations were amassing unjustifiably large wealth and power. All this was at the expense of the mass civilian population. The economic divide between the mass workers and the ruling class was getting wider and wider.
• The disparity between the developed western world and the tightly controlled underdeveloped eastern bloc was felt. The advantages of capitalism and a free market economy were strongly being recognized by the working masses of these countries. They came to realize that they were getting little or nothing for all their sweat and toil and were losing out on all the niceties that came with development. The people were beginning to resent the fact that they were not partaking in the profits in an oppressive regime which they would have otherwise enjoyed in a free market economy.
• Maintaining the KGB and Police which largely interfered in the day to day living of the common man was also one of the major factors contributing to the economic regression.
Abject poverty, mass oppression, incompetent governance, misuse of resources, corruption - all of these led to the fall of communism. Gorbachev introduced several fundamental liberal reforms to undo the economic and political harm caused by the earlier leaders. He introduced ‘Glasnost’ meaning openness and ‘Perestroika’ meaning economic restructuring. He not only brought about these changes in the Soviet Union but also encouraged the eastern bloc countries to do so. He withdrew Soviet powers and subsidies from these Eastern European countries. This was by no means an easy task and was met by a lot of opposition from a few megalomaniac communist leaders such as Nicolae Ceausescu of Romania, Erich Honecker of East Germany, Todor Zhivkov of Bulgaria and Gustav Husak of Czechoslovakia.
Reforms seen in Europe(1980-1990):
In 1989 thousands of East Germans managed to escape to the west via the destroyed barricades between Hungary, Czechoslovakia and the western bloc countries. There were huge demonstrations every Monday in September and October, 1989 in Leipzig, East Germany notwithstanding the shoot and kill orders of Honecker. These later came to be known as ‘The Monday Demonstrations’. Gorbachev visited the GDR in the month of October 1989 and tried convincing the powers to switch over to a more liberal economy and form of governance. After much civil unrest and change in the seat of power, the Berlin Wall was demolished on 9th November, 1989, paving the way for the integration of West and East Germany into a united Germany which finally came into being on 03rd October, 1990.
At the same time the Bulgarian capital, Sofia witnessed similar large demonstrations which were quelled by the communist dictator Todor Zhivkov. However, Zhivkov could not hold fort for long, and soon after the Berlin wall demolition he was ousted. Bulgaria gradually decided to do away with communism and change over to a democratic model and it had its first multi-party elections in June 1990.
Czechoslovakia was swept by huge non-violent peaceful demonstrations which were later termed as ‘The Velvet Revolution’. The communist leader Husack resigned making way for a more reformist leader in December 1989 and by June 1990 it had its first fair democratic elections.
Unlike Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria, Romania went through a bloodier revolution to throw off the communist regime. Its leader Nicolae Ceausescu not only managed to survive the Brasov Rebellion of 1987, but also managed to get re-elected for 5 years in 1989. However at the same time, the wave of civil unrest which was sweeping over the entire Eastern bloc also took over the streets of Romania and there was mass rioting. A vast number of people laid down their lives in this bloody revolution which finally culminated in the military joining hands with the rioters forcing Ceausescu to escape briefly before being captured and put to death along with his wife. Romania had its first fair & free elections in May 1990.
The Warsaw Pact:
The Warsaw Pact initiated by the Soviet Union in 1955 consisting of the 8 Eastern –Europe communist nations was meaningless with the fall of communism and was dissolved in February, 1991. The Malta Summit in December 1989 between President George Bush of the USA and Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union officially declared the end of The Cold War between the Western and Eastern Blocs. | <urn:uuid:e17f1728-6eee-4c99-8788-25a13030f6b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.academicdestressor.com/disintegration-of-the-soviet-union-in-eastern-europe/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00104.warc.gz | en | 0.980513 | 1,379 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.23565271496772... | 3 | Events that led to the collapse of USSR’s hold on Eastern Europe in the late 20th century.
The 20th century saw the rise and subsequent disintegration of a number of world economies, the most important being the dissolution of The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics-the USSR. This officially took place on the 26th of December, 1991.
Before seeing what brought about this breakdown, let us first discuss the rise and formation of the USSR. In the late 19th /early 20th century, the concepts of socialism and communism were gradually sweeping over the Central and Eastern European countries. These nations, at the time, were largely ruled by monarchs and the so called aristocratic and noble rulers, who tried repressing the spread of the communist ideology. However, in 1917, the Soviet Union witnessed the Bolshevik Revolution which overthrew the czarism and a communist state was born. The Central and Eastern Europe nations followed suit and adopted communism, with their leaders directly under the command and control of the Soviet Union.
Reasons for the downfall of the Communist Bloc:
Soon after World War II, the people of these countries started realizing and experiencing the pitfalls of the communist form of governance. There were a number of unsuccessful uprisings during the 1950s & the 1960s (viz. The Hungarian Revolution of 1954; The Prague Spring of 1968). The Soviet Union under the leadership of Leonid Brezhnev largely managed to contain and repress these putsches. In fact, Brezhnev’s period of rule is referred to as ‘The Era of Stagnation’. His successors Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko also continued in the same vein. It was only in the year 1985, when Mikhail Gorbachev took over the leadership of the Soviet Union that things began to change. Gorbachev realized that if the communist bloc had to keep pace with the development seen in the western countries, reforms was the only way to go. The Iron Curtain was the clear divide between progress and backwardness. Various causes and events led to the disintegration of the communist bloc.
• Equitable distribution of resources and production, which was considered one of the main tenets of communism, was totally mismanaged and corrupt. The entire public distribution system was in a mess. This was the fall out of the distribution system being vested in the hands of one central government.
• The leaders of these nations were amassing unjustifiably large wealth and power. All this was at the expense of the mass civilian population. The economic divide between the mass workers and the ruling class was getting wider and wider.
• The disparity between the developed western world and the tightly controlled underdeveloped eastern bloc was felt. The advantages of capitalism and a free market economy were strongly being recognized by the working masses of these countries. They came to realize that they were getting little or nothing for all their sweat and toil and were losing out on all the niceties that came with development. The people were beginning to resent the fact that they were not partaking in the profits in an oppressive regime which they would have otherwise enjoyed in a free market economy.
• Maintaining the KGB and Police which largely interfered in the day to day living of the common man was also one of the major factors contributing to the economic regression.
Abject poverty, mass oppression, incompetent governance, misuse of resources, corruption - all of these led to the fall of communism. Gorbachev introduced several fundamental liberal reforms to undo the economic and political harm caused by the earlier leaders. He introduced ‘Glasnost’ meaning openness and ‘Perestroika’ meaning economic restructuring. He not only brought about these changes in the Soviet Union but also encouraged the eastern bloc countries to do so. He withdrew Soviet powers and subsidies from these Eastern European countries. This was by no means an easy task and was met by a lot of opposition from a few megalomaniac communist leaders such as Nicolae Ceausescu of Romania, Erich Honecker of East Germany, Todor Zhivkov of Bulgaria and Gustav Husak of Czechoslovakia.
Reforms seen in Europe(1980-1990):
In 1989 thousands of East Germans managed to escape to the west via the destroyed barricades between Hungary, Czechoslovakia and the western bloc countries. There were huge demonstrations every Monday in September and October, 1989 in Leipzig, East Germany notwithstanding the shoot and kill orders of Honecker. These later came to be known as ‘The Monday Demonstrations’. Gorbachev visited the GDR in the month of October 1989 and tried convincing the powers to switch over to a more liberal economy and form of governance. After much civil unrest and change in the seat of power, the Berlin Wall was demolished on 9th November, 1989, paving the way for the integration of West and East Germany into a united Germany which finally came into being on 03rd October, 1990.
At the same time the Bulgarian capital, Sofia witnessed similar large demonstrations which were quelled by the communist dictator Todor Zhivkov. However, Zhivkov could not hold fort for long, and soon after the Berlin wall demolition he was ousted. Bulgaria gradually decided to do away with communism and change over to a democratic model and it had its first multi-party elections in June 1990.
Czechoslovakia was swept by huge non-violent peaceful demonstrations which were later termed as ‘The Velvet Revolution’. The communist leader Husack resigned making way for a more reformist leader in December 1989 and by June 1990 it had its first fair democratic elections.
Unlike Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria, Romania went through a bloodier revolution to throw off the communist regime. Its leader Nicolae Ceausescu not only managed to survive the Brasov Rebellion of 1987, but also managed to get re-elected for 5 years in 1989. However at the same time, the wave of civil unrest which was sweeping over the entire Eastern bloc also took over the streets of Romania and there was mass rioting. A vast number of people laid down their lives in this bloody revolution which finally culminated in the military joining hands with the rioters forcing Ceausescu to escape briefly before being captured and put to death along with his wife. Romania had its first fair & free elections in May 1990.
The Warsaw Pact:
The Warsaw Pact initiated by the Soviet Union in 1955 consisting of the 8 Eastern –Europe communist nations was meaningless with the fall of communism and was dissolved in February, 1991. The Malta Summit in December 1989 between President George Bush of the USA and Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union officially declared the end of The Cold War between the Western and Eastern Blocs. | 1,452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why does the poet call 'triumph' and 'disaster' impostors?
"Triumph" and "disaster" are two opposite situations of life. One confronts both in his or her life. Both are fleeting in nature as neither of these two lasts forever.
By "triumph," the poet means moments of success and accomplishment in life, while by "disaster," he implies the time of failure or loss. It’s human nature to celebrate and jubilate at time of success and victory. In a similar way, disaster brings in frustration and despair.
The father is an experienced man and has grasped the fleeting nature of both triumph and disaster. Therefore, he suggests his son that he shouldn't get carried away by either of the two.
They are “impostors.” Both "triumph" and "disaster" seem to last forever when they visit us, but, actually, they pass away soon with time.
If one gets carried away with triumph, it may make him or her conceited and condescending. After success, he or she might find it unbearable to face failures in life.
Similarly, disaster or failures, too, might lead to utter frustration. If one loses his or her spirits and gets despaired, it would make things much worse and extremely difficult to overcome such tough moments.
The poet seems to have seen life closely. He has understood that both "triumph" and "disaster" follow each other incessantly. The best way to deal with these two opposing situations is to remain equanimous and consider these two as "impostors."
By doing so, one can remain happy in all situations. If one treats both "triumph" and "disaster" as "impostors," he or she would never be deceived by either of the two.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:7eae1773-7a7d-42aa-8f96-200544f21708> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-poet-call-triumph-disaster-impostors-537272 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00544.warc.gz | en | 0.981441 | 388 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.234813258051... | 2 | Why does the poet call 'triumph' and 'disaster' impostors?
"Triumph" and "disaster" are two opposite situations of life. One confronts both in his or her life. Both are fleeting in nature as neither of these two lasts forever.
By "triumph," the poet means moments of success and accomplishment in life, while by "disaster," he implies the time of failure or loss. It’s human nature to celebrate and jubilate at time of success and victory. In a similar way, disaster brings in frustration and despair.
The father is an experienced man and has grasped the fleeting nature of both triumph and disaster. Therefore, he suggests his son that he shouldn't get carried away by either of the two.
They are “impostors.” Both "triumph" and "disaster" seem to last forever when they visit us, but, actually, they pass away soon with time.
If one gets carried away with triumph, it may make him or her conceited and condescending. After success, he or she might find it unbearable to face failures in life.
Similarly, disaster or failures, too, might lead to utter frustration. If one loses his or her spirits and gets despaired, it would make things much worse and extremely difficult to overcome such tough moments.
The poet seems to have seen life closely. He has understood that both "triumph" and "disaster" follow each other incessantly. The best way to deal with these two opposing situations is to remain equanimous and consider these two as "impostors."
By doing so, one can remain happy in all situations. If one treats both "triumph" and "disaster" as "impostors," he or she would never be deceived by either of the two.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 377 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Horrocks, founder of Horrockses cotton manufacturers, was born in 1768 and established the first weaving sheds in Preston in 1800. The Yard Works and Centenary Mill were the largest mills, although there were many other smaller mills owned by other companies throughout the town. The rise of the cotton mill changed the landscape and lifestyle of Lancashire towns throughout the Victorian era.
The mills were very noisy and dangerous places to work due to the machinery. The workers developed a system of sign language to communicate with each other over the din of the machinery. The mills were also very hot and humid places as this climate kept the cotton in good condition. Many people became ill with respiratory and lung conditions caused by breathing in the cotton dust. The majority of employees were women and children who worked long hours. It was common for adults to work for around 12 to 14 hours a day, and half a day on Saturday, with children working around 6-10 hours a day, with the possibility of time in school on top of that. Despite the long hours and poor conditions, mill workers were generally better paid than other members of the working class.
The last mills in Preston were built during the 1890s and early 1900s. The industry went into decline after the Second World War and cotton ceased to be manufactured in Preston in the 1960s when Horrockses was sold off. Cotton could now be produced and imported more cheaply in Asian countries such as India. Man made, synthetic materials were also becoming more popular than cotton.
Use the image below with the discussion ideas. Horrockses Yard Works was one of the largest cotton mills in Preston in Victorian times.
- Can you see any men in the photograph?
- How old do you think the girl at the front would be?
- Look at the machinery. How do you think a child would feel working at the mill?
- What do you think they make at the mill?
- What do you think you would be able to hear, smell, feel, see and taste in this mill?
- How could you communicate with your workmates if it was too noisy to talk in the mill?
In the Victorian School and Work Documents PDF you can see a copy of a census form of 1861 showing the kinds of jobs people did in the mill at that time. In the Victorian School and Work Activities PDF there is a glossary of mill jobs. | <urn:uuid:bf0993e1-dd24-4576-ae3f-6981ab624e9f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mylearning.org/stories/victorian-school-and-work-in-preston/368 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.986604 | 491 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.11689405143... | 10 | John Horrocks, founder of Horrockses cotton manufacturers, was born in 1768 and established the first weaving sheds in Preston in 1800. The Yard Works and Centenary Mill were the largest mills, although there were many other smaller mills owned by other companies throughout the town. The rise of the cotton mill changed the landscape and lifestyle of Lancashire towns throughout the Victorian era.
The mills were very noisy and dangerous places to work due to the machinery. The workers developed a system of sign language to communicate with each other over the din of the machinery. The mills were also very hot and humid places as this climate kept the cotton in good condition. Many people became ill with respiratory and lung conditions caused by breathing in the cotton dust. The majority of employees were women and children who worked long hours. It was common for adults to work for around 12 to 14 hours a day, and half a day on Saturday, with children working around 6-10 hours a day, with the possibility of time in school on top of that. Despite the long hours and poor conditions, mill workers were generally better paid than other members of the working class.
The last mills in Preston were built during the 1890s and early 1900s. The industry went into decline after the Second World War and cotton ceased to be manufactured in Preston in the 1960s when Horrockses was sold off. Cotton could now be produced and imported more cheaply in Asian countries such as India. Man made, synthetic materials were also becoming more popular than cotton.
Use the image below with the discussion ideas. Horrockses Yard Works was one of the largest cotton mills in Preston in Victorian times.
- Can you see any men in the photograph?
- How old do you think the girl at the front would be?
- Look at the machinery. How do you think a child would feel working at the mill?
- What do you think they make at the mill?
- What do you think you would be able to hear, smell, feel, see and taste in this mill?
- How could you communicate with your workmates if it was too noisy to talk in the mill?
In the Victorian School and Work Documents PDF you can see a copy of a census form of 1861 showing the kinds of jobs people did in the mill at that time. In the Victorian School and Work Activities PDF there is a glossary of mill jobs. | 507 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are weird lines and decorations called Nazca Lines that scientist are trying to find out who did it. Read this article to learn about them.
About the lines
Did you know that the Nazca lines are actually 2-6 in. deep but 2-7 miles in length! Also they were created in Peru over 2,000 years ago in the 200 BC. They can be seen only by flying over them.They were carved and are 200 miles away from south Lima. They were also found in the 1940s.
There are also more decorations of the people of Nazca. They would have sacrifice ceremonies!!! scientist don’t know how they killed them but we know what they did with them.
After they kept their skulls and removed their intestines and sewed their lips with cactus spines. Also they drilled through their skulls and put a rope through their hole in their skull and hung them.But do you still wonder what happened with their body? Well they keep them for status but they replace their head with a jar and call all of their skulls battle trophies. They still don’t know that the skulls are from the same people that they know.
One last fact is that scientist think that the lines were drawn randomly creating pictures and then the carvings carried a water supply.
Hope you liked my article about the Nazca lines and other decorations.
Here is a video to learn more. | <urn:uuid:58df9de3-4d8e-4a09-a3fc-5918673ddd09> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrsmckelvey.edublogs.org/2020/01/08/nazca-lines/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.99083 | 290 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.27630609273910... | 15 | There are weird lines and decorations called Nazca Lines that scientist are trying to find out who did it. Read this article to learn about them.
About the lines
Did you know that the Nazca lines are actually 2-6 in. deep but 2-7 miles in length! Also they were created in Peru over 2,000 years ago in the 200 BC. They can be seen only by flying over them.They were carved and are 200 miles away from south Lima. They were also found in the 1940s.
There are also more decorations of the people of Nazca. They would have sacrifice ceremonies!!! scientist don’t know how they killed them but we know what they did with them.
After they kept their skulls and removed their intestines and sewed their lips with cactus spines. Also they drilled through their skulls and put a rope through their hole in their skull and hung them.But do you still wonder what happened with their body? Well they keep them for status but they replace their head with a jar and call all of their skulls battle trophies. They still don’t know that the skulls are from the same people that they know.
One last fact is that scientist think that the lines were drawn randomly creating pictures and then the carvings carried a water supply.
Hope you liked my article about the Nazca lines and other decorations.
Here is a video to learn more. | 293 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is the history of Lake Zurich, Illinois?
The area of Lake Zurich was first settled by Europeans in the 1830s. Two early pioneers were George Ela, after whom the Ela township is named, and Seth Paine, who established a number of commercial ventures in the town. New England farmers moved to the area in the 1830s and 1840s, and German immigrants began to move to the area from the middle of the century. The village of Lake Zurich was incorporated on September 19th, 1896. It remained primarily a farming community; although the village was connected to the railroad in 1910, the line was closed ten years later. However, the arrival of the highway system with Rand Road, US Route 12 in 1922 and Half Day Road, Illinois Route 22 in 1927 established Lake Zurich as a convenient summer resort. The now-defunct Palatine, Lake Zurich and Wauconda Railroad also served the community. Housing development began in the 1950s, with the population expanding throughout the latter part of the 20th century. The nation-wide crisis regarding eminent doma | <urn:uuid:a1bca9a0-ae1d-46c4-8d19-f2647349852e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.experts123.com/q/what-is-the-history-of-lake-zurich-illinois.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.984258 | 218 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.4763406515... | 1 | What is the history of Lake Zurich, Illinois?
The area of Lake Zurich was first settled by Europeans in the 1830s. Two early pioneers were George Ela, after whom the Ela township is named, and Seth Paine, who established a number of commercial ventures in the town. New England farmers moved to the area in the 1830s and 1840s, and German immigrants began to move to the area from the middle of the century. The village of Lake Zurich was incorporated on September 19th, 1896. It remained primarily a farming community; although the village was connected to the railroad in 1910, the line was closed ten years later. However, the arrival of the highway system with Rand Road, US Route 12 in 1922 and Half Day Road, Illinois Route 22 in 1927 established Lake Zurich as a convenient summer resort. The now-defunct Palatine, Lake Zurich and Wauconda Railroad also served the community. Housing development began in the 1950s, with the population expanding throughout the latter part of the 20th century. The nation-wide crisis regarding eminent doma | 255 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Some of the links in this post may be affiliate links. If make a purchase through these links, we receive a commission at no extra cost to you. Please see our disclosure for more info.
Socrates, a classical Greek philosopher who made a huge impact on Western logic and philosophy, was born around 470 BC, in Athens, Greece.
Although we know little about his life beyond the information recorded by his students like Plato, what we do know makes it clear that he had a unique and powerful philosophy and personality.
Socrates was son of Sophroniscus, a stone mason and sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife.
Because he was not from an aristocratic family, he most likely received a basic Greek education and learned his father’s craft at a young age before devoting his life to philosophy. He married Xanthippe and together they had three sons—Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus.
Socrates believed that philosophy had the potential to cause greater well-being in society.
He aimed to establish an ethical system based on human reason by pointing out that our choices were motivated by the desire for happiness, and that wisdom comes from introspection.
While some Athenians admired Socrates’ challenges to conventional Greek wisdom, many felt he threatened a way of life that had persisted for generations. When the political climate of Greece turned, Socrates was sentenced to death by hemlock poisoning in 399 BC and accepted his judgment.
These Socrates quotes are still inspiring and profoundly thought provoking to people today.
- His wife was not happy with his ‘philosopher’ profession and constantly complained that he did not support his family the way he should.
- Socrates was short and stocky with big eyes and snub nose, very much unlike the usual masculine Athenian.
- After Socrates’ death sentence was announced, many of his friends told him to flee and offered to bribe the guards.
- According to Plato, during the last moment before he passed, Socrates claimed that his soul had been released from his body.
- By law, at the age of 18, Socrates was ordered to serve in the military and took part in the Peloponnesian war, a conflict that lasted about thirty years.
I hope this collection of Socrates quotes has opened up your mind to a new way of living. If you are moved by these Socrates quotes, feel free to share them with your friends! | <urn:uuid:678e5500-3860-49f5-9514-fdb5f78c3d89> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.keepinspiring.me/socrates-quotes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.987229 | 510 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.209349155426025... | 6 | Some of the links in this post may be affiliate links. If make a purchase through these links, we receive a commission at no extra cost to you. Please see our disclosure for more info.
Socrates, a classical Greek philosopher who made a huge impact on Western logic and philosophy, was born around 470 BC, in Athens, Greece.
Although we know little about his life beyond the information recorded by his students like Plato, what we do know makes it clear that he had a unique and powerful philosophy and personality.
Socrates was son of Sophroniscus, a stone mason and sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife.
Because he was not from an aristocratic family, he most likely received a basic Greek education and learned his father’s craft at a young age before devoting his life to philosophy. He married Xanthippe and together they had three sons—Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus.
Socrates believed that philosophy had the potential to cause greater well-being in society.
He aimed to establish an ethical system based on human reason by pointing out that our choices were motivated by the desire for happiness, and that wisdom comes from introspection.
While some Athenians admired Socrates’ challenges to conventional Greek wisdom, many felt he threatened a way of life that had persisted for generations. When the political climate of Greece turned, Socrates was sentenced to death by hemlock poisoning in 399 BC and accepted his judgment.
These Socrates quotes are still inspiring and profoundly thought provoking to people today.
- His wife was not happy with his ‘philosopher’ profession and constantly complained that he did not support his family the way he should.
- Socrates was short and stocky with big eyes and snub nose, very much unlike the usual masculine Athenian.
- After Socrates’ death sentence was announced, many of his friends told him to flee and offered to bribe the guards.
- According to Plato, during the last moment before he passed, Socrates claimed that his soul had been released from his body.
- By law, at the age of 18, Socrates was ordered to serve in the military and took part in the Peloponnesian war, a conflict that lasted about thirty years.
I hope this collection of Socrates quotes has opened up your mind to a new way of living. If you are moved by these Socrates quotes, feel free to share them with your friends! | 505 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Tanzimat was basically a period during which the Ottoman Empire was reorganized and reformed starting from the early eighties. The main idea was to bring about development in the empire through tax revenue collection for military support in order to ensure complete control of its territory and prevent colonization by the powerful nations.
The reformations made became the major root of Ottomanism among the majority ethnic groups in the empire which led to formation of nationalists movements. One main attempt of the reformations was to bring together non-Muslims and non-Turks and incorporate them into the Ottoman social believes and norms. They were to get liberty to allow them to exercise equal right to the Turks (Goodwin 1).
Changes on the Ottoman Empire during Tanzimat
The transformations that were brought during the Tanzimat era resulted to certain changes in the territory some of which were positive while others affected the Turks negatively. The most affected fields by these changes were national economy as well as the cultural backgrounds.
For instance, the taxation system changed from use of goods to cash based taxation especially with the increased Jewish migrations during that period, who contributed to the empire’s economic growth. As the economy continued to grow many people from upcountry moved to the urban areas from where they could access employment opportunities much easily.
Other significant changes occurred in the reformation and restructuring of many structures in the state. The traditional administration was abolished and a new modern one established that would deliver more effectively to the people. Some changes also occurred in the social way of life with many people getting aware of education and sending them to the Islam schools that were available during that time.
Traditional systems in education were replaced with western schools which produced quality graduates and the madrasa system, as well, was reformed to a modern one. The court system was changed to consist of panel judges although Islam courts were still in place to promote centralized administration.
However, these modernization attempts led to the weakening of the empire before the western powers who gained power over the territory. Some western countries such as Europe gained power to control the empire as they had certain privileges in economy and diplomacy since they claimed to be protecting the Ottoman communities.
Many people were influenced by the western powers to convert from Islam to Christianity especially Catholicism which was the major religious group. As other religious groups grew, competition on religion increased and as a result non-Muslims were forbidden from joining Islam (Berald 1).
European impact on the Ottoman Empire
Exchange of culture has been, over the years, a very common doing between many nations worldwide. As the Ottoman Empire was getting more and more dominated by western nations, Europe used the chance to market itself in the territory as a way of assisting them.
During and after World War I and II, many powerful nations had plans to get Europe out of the dominance position it acquired in many less powerful nations especially in Asia and Africa. As a result, Europe’s powers on economy and military decreased drastically within those nations.
However, its civilization and technological knowhow have remained deep rooted in many countries. Scientific technologies were introduced in the Ottoman communities and just like many other nations, the territory become under the influence of Europe. The Ottoman’s communities benefitted as they advanced their body health as well as gaining knowledge on general issues and intellectual capabilities.
Structures in the Ottoman’s community were improved leading to a better planned city and a consequential societal livelihood. Classical music was also developed with much influence from the European nations. Cultural traditions were abolished and new forms of social ways of living were adopted. European traders were eager to start trading in many regions including the Ottoman society which benefited by getting availability of goods that are not locally produced.
However, boundaries by the Europeans did not put into consideration the differences that occur between different ethnic groups and this affected the Ottoman communities’ ways of living since each ethnic group has its own norms and way of live. These boundaries caused displacement of many large volumes of populations as well as splitting of families and loss of land for cultivation and grazing for those who were still practicing agriculture (Acer 1).
How Russia acquired dominance in the Ottoman Empire
Despite the formation of an alliance between Ottoman and Germany to prevent Russia’s dominance over the Empire, Russia still managed to dominate over the Ottoman Empire. Russia got the chance to dominate Ottoman from World War I when the empire harbored Germany ships which were used to attack the Russians.
In the first periods of the war, the Ottoman communities had gained some victory in several occasions but as the war progressed, some difficulties were faced. Later during the war, Ottoman’s government prohibited the deportation of Armenians.
However, despite this prohibition, the Armenians were forcefully brought to the Ottoman communities. In 1916, the Ottomans power on the war reduced drastically and resulted to assignment of its territories to the Russian empire. Being the first neighbor to the Ottoman community, Russia had the advantage of dominating over Turkey which was crumbling at the time.
This gave Russia more access to the Empire than the other European powers and this is partly why Russia gained dominance. Besides being the nearest to the Ottoman community, Russia used other strategies to gain dominance. For instance, it claimed the right to protect the Orthodox Christians since it was the leading powers over the church group. This provided the Russians with greater opportunities to engage indirectly in affairs involving Turkey.
Geographical features connecting Russia and Turkey also gave easy access to the region making it easy for the Russians to exercise power in the Turkish territories. Communication ships and other modes were used by the Russian military to get better access to the Ottomans communities. Russia had an added advantage in an agreement which blocked the use of these channels by all European nations except for Russia in case of a crisis (Simon 1).
The Tanzimat period had very useful changes especially in the education forum which is still and more beneficial today. Other developments such as in revenue generation and service delivery by the state have been of great help in bringing equal civilization and modernization in all the communities.
It was therefore a great move by the Ottoman society to realize that it had lagged behind and to accept help and modernization from the western nations. The social life of the Ottomans society as a whole changed to the better with the introduction of modern schools since quality education is the key to a better life.
Acer, Zabit. “Ottoman Modernization and Effects of the Tanziman Edict on Today”. 2009. Web.
Berald, Gerry. “The Age of Western Imperialism”. 2002. Web.
Goodwin, Kevin. “ The Tanziman and the Problem of Political Authority in the Ottoman Empire: 1839 – 1876”. 2006. Web.
Simon, Viviane. “Europe and nations, 1815-1914”. 2005. Web. | <urn:uuid:d305f039-d9ff-4301-8e5b-ecce98992bee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-tanzimat/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.980198 | 1,393 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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0.228017598... | 1 | The Tanzimat was basically a period during which the Ottoman Empire was reorganized and reformed starting from the early eighties. The main idea was to bring about development in the empire through tax revenue collection for military support in order to ensure complete control of its territory and prevent colonization by the powerful nations.
The reformations made became the major root of Ottomanism among the majority ethnic groups in the empire which led to formation of nationalists movements. One main attempt of the reformations was to bring together non-Muslims and non-Turks and incorporate them into the Ottoman social believes and norms. They were to get liberty to allow them to exercise equal right to the Turks (Goodwin 1).
Changes on the Ottoman Empire during Tanzimat
The transformations that were brought during the Tanzimat era resulted to certain changes in the territory some of which were positive while others affected the Turks negatively. The most affected fields by these changes were national economy as well as the cultural backgrounds.
For instance, the taxation system changed from use of goods to cash based taxation especially with the increased Jewish migrations during that period, who contributed to the empire’s economic growth. As the economy continued to grow many people from upcountry moved to the urban areas from where they could access employment opportunities much easily.
Other significant changes occurred in the reformation and restructuring of many structures in the state. The traditional administration was abolished and a new modern one established that would deliver more effectively to the people. Some changes also occurred in the social way of life with many people getting aware of education and sending them to the Islam schools that were available during that time.
Traditional systems in education were replaced with western schools which produced quality graduates and the madrasa system, as well, was reformed to a modern one. The court system was changed to consist of panel judges although Islam courts were still in place to promote centralized administration.
However, these modernization attempts led to the weakening of the empire before the western powers who gained power over the territory. Some western countries such as Europe gained power to control the empire as they had certain privileges in economy and diplomacy since they claimed to be protecting the Ottoman communities.
Many people were influenced by the western powers to convert from Islam to Christianity especially Catholicism which was the major religious group. As other religious groups grew, competition on religion increased and as a result non-Muslims were forbidden from joining Islam (Berald 1).
European impact on the Ottoman Empire
Exchange of culture has been, over the years, a very common doing between many nations worldwide. As the Ottoman Empire was getting more and more dominated by western nations, Europe used the chance to market itself in the territory as a way of assisting them.
During and after World War I and II, many powerful nations had plans to get Europe out of the dominance position it acquired in many less powerful nations especially in Asia and Africa. As a result, Europe’s powers on economy and military decreased drastically within those nations.
However, its civilization and technological knowhow have remained deep rooted in many countries. Scientific technologies were introduced in the Ottoman communities and just like many other nations, the territory become under the influence of Europe. The Ottoman’s communities benefitted as they advanced their body health as well as gaining knowledge on general issues and intellectual capabilities.
Structures in the Ottoman’s community were improved leading to a better planned city and a consequential societal livelihood. Classical music was also developed with much influence from the European nations. Cultural traditions were abolished and new forms of social ways of living were adopted. European traders were eager to start trading in many regions including the Ottoman society which benefited by getting availability of goods that are not locally produced.
However, boundaries by the Europeans did not put into consideration the differences that occur between different ethnic groups and this affected the Ottoman communities’ ways of living since each ethnic group has its own norms and way of live. These boundaries caused displacement of many large volumes of populations as well as splitting of families and loss of land for cultivation and grazing for those who were still practicing agriculture (Acer 1).
How Russia acquired dominance in the Ottoman Empire
Despite the formation of an alliance between Ottoman and Germany to prevent Russia’s dominance over the Empire, Russia still managed to dominate over the Ottoman Empire. Russia got the chance to dominate Ottoman from World War I when the empire harbored Germany ships which were used to attack the Russians.
In the first periods of the war, the Ottoman communities had gained some victory in several occasions but as the war progressed, some difficulties were faced. Later during the war, Ottoman’s government prohibited the deportation of Armenians.
However, despite this prohibition, the Armenians were forcefully brought to the Ottoman communities. In 1916, the Ottomans power on the war reduced drastically and resulted to assignment of its territories to the Russian empire. Being the first neighbor to the Ottoman community, Russia had the advantage of dominating over Turkey which was crumbling at the time.
This gave Russia more access to the Empire than the other European powers and this is partly why Russia gained dominance. Besides being the nearest to the Ottoman community, Russia used other strategies to gain dominance. For instance, it claimed the right to protect the Orthodox Christians since it was the leading powers over the church group. This provided the Russians with greater opportunities to engage indirectly in affairs involving Turkey.
Geographical features connecting Russia and Turkey also gave easy access to the region making it easy for the Russians to exercise power in the Turkish territories. Communication ships and other modes were used by the Russian military to get better access to the Ottomans communities. Russia had an added advantage in an agreement which blocked the use of these channels by all European nations except for Russia in case of a crisis (Simon 1).
The Tanzimat period had very useful changes especially in the education forum which is still and more beneficial today. Other developments such as in revenue generation and service delivery by the state have been of great help in bringing equal civilization and modernization in all the communities.
It was therefore a great move by the Ottoman society to realize that it had lagged behind and to accept help and modernization from the western nations. The social life of the Ottomans society as a whole changed to the better with the introduction of modern schools since quality education is the key to a better life.
Acer, Zabit. “Ottoman Modernization and Effects of the Tanziman Edict on Today”. 2009. Web.
Berald, Gerry. “The Age of Western Imperialism”. 2002. Web.
Goodwin, Kevin. “ The Tanziman and the Problem of Political Authority in the Ottoman Empire: 1839 – 1876”. 2006. Web.
Simon, Viviane. “Europe and nations, 1815-1914”. 2005. Web. | 1,381 | ENGLISH | 1 |
B. 1661 D. 1720
And who has greater sense, but greater sorrow shares? - Anne Finch, 'The hog, the sheep and the goat, carrying to a fair'
About Anne Finch
Anne Finch was an aristocrat acquainted with the most famous poet of the age, Alexander Pope. However, during her lifetime, her poetry was little known and would have remained obscure had not William Wordsworth praised it, particularly her depictions of nature, in an essay included in his Lyrical Ballads (written with Samuel Taylor Coleridge) of 1815. Today, literary academics are again interested in Finch as an example of a neglected female poet who wrote within and against the conventions of contemporary, predominantly male, literary taste.
A spiritual, religious poet, whose work often expresses intense private struggles, Finch seems to have suffered from severe depression. Though she was an aristocrat, her life was certainly not without hardship. In particular, she was a passionate advocate of social justice for women and a staunch, faithful supporter of King James II. After James had been deposed andit was dangerous to be seen to side with him, Finch’s support was unwavering. | <urn:uuid:9d007348-48c0-45fa-a9b5-22ae713f4eca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://poetryarchive.org/poet/anne-finch/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00323.warc.gz | en | 0.989836 | 240 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.0052474080584... | 3 | B. 1661 D. 1720
And who has greater sense, but greater sorrow shares? - Anne Finch, 'The hog, the sheep and the goat, carrying to a fair'
About Anne Finch
Anne Finch was an aristocrat acquainted with the most famous poet of the age, Alexander Pope. However, during her lifetime, her poetry was little known and would have remained obscure had not William Wordsworth praised it, particularly her depictions of nature, in an essay included in his Lyrical Ballads (written with Samuel Taylor Coleridge) of 1815. Today, literary academics are again interested in Finch as an example of a neglected female poet who wrote within and against the conventions of contemporary, predominantly male, literary taste.
A spiritual, religious poet, whose work often expresses intense private struggles, Finch seems to have suffered from severe depression. Though she was an aristocrat, her life was certainly not without hardship. In particular, she was a passionate advocate of social justice for women and a staunch, faithful supporter of King James II. After James had been deposed andit was dangerous to be seen to side with him, Finch’s support was unwavering. | 247 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Washington was born on February 22, 1732 in Westmoreland County, Virginia, although he grew up near Fredericksburg. In his childhood and adolescence, he studied math and surveying. When he was 16, he went to live with his brother Lawrence in Mount Vernon.
George was scarred with Smallpox before the age of 20, but inherited his brother's land (including Mt. Vernon) when he died in 1752.
Washington's military career began in 1753, when he was sent into Ohio country during the French and Indian War to protect British interests in the area. In 1754, he battled the French and was forced to surrender Fort Necessity (near present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). He continued as an officer in Ohio country, and served under the British general Edward Braddock when their army was ambushed by the French in 1755. Once again, Washington tasted defeat after their surrender of Fort Duquesne to French forces. Luckily for the future United States, the French agreed to release him rather than keep him as a prisoner. He helped take Fort Duquesne back in 1758.
Washington was married to Martha Custis in 1759. He managed the family and estate until he took command of Virginia troops just before the American Revolution. He was made commander of the Continental Army on June 15, 1775. Washington, however, would struggle with a rag-tag army of volunteers and militia men. His armies were constantly low on supplies and food, and often times marched to battle without shoes. They were routed in a series of battles in and around New York City in 1776 and forced to retreat into Pennsylvania where he planned a strategic ambush. On Christmas night 1776, Washington and his men crossed the Delaware River and captured a band of 800-900 Hessian soldiers. Hessians were fearsome German mercenaries hired by the British as soldiers. The event came to be known as "Washington's Crossing" and was successful in raising the morale of the entire army. The dramatic ambush would be called The Battle of Trenton.
Washington proved himself an excellent leader, and won several other decisive battles during the Revolution. In 1781, he helped to formulate the plan that eventually resulted in the defeat of the British army at Yorktown, Virginia and the British surrender. As an advocate of a federal government, Washington became chairman of the Constitutional Convention and helped in getting the Constitution ratified. In 1789, he was inaugurated as America's first president after refusing to be coronated as king.
Washington was re-elected for a second term in 1792, but refused a third term. On December 14, 1799, seventeen days before the new century, Washington died of acute laryngitis or epiglottitis. Today, George Washington is probably the most honored individual in American history. Numerous cities, towns, highways, monuments, and parks bear his name. The capital of the United States is named after him. He was honored on the first American postage stamp, as well as on the quarter and one dollar bill. He even has a state named after him - Washington, although he never set foot there. | <urn:uuid:3ffdf407-5857-4a08-9880-db7241b7e048> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/uploads/activities/presidents2/georgewashington.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00302.warc.gz | en | 0.990131 | 637 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | George Washington was born on February 22, 1732 in Westmoreland County, Virginia, although he grew up near Fredericksburg. In his childhood and adolescence, he studied math and surveying. When he was 16, he went to live with his brother Lawrence in Mount Vernon.
George was scarred with Smallpox before the age of 20, but inherited his brother's land (including Mt. Vernon) when he died in 1752.
Washington's military career began in 1753, when he was sent into Ohio country during the French and Indian War to protect British interests in the area. In 1754, he battled the French and was forced to surrender Fort Necessity (near present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). He continued as an officer in Ohio country, and served under the British general Edward Braddock when their army was ambushed by the French in 1755. Once again, Washington tasted defeat after their surrender of Fort Duquesne to French forces. Luckily for the future United States, the French agreed to release him rather than keep him as a prisoner. He helped take Fort Duquesne back in 1758.
Washington was married to Martha Custis in 1759. He managed the family and estate until he took command of Virginia troops just before the American Revolution. He was made commander of the Continental Army on June 15, 1775. Washington, however, would struggle with a rag-tag army of volunteers and militia men. His armies were constantly low on supplies and food, and often times marched to battle without shoes. They were routed in a series of battles in and around New York City in 1776 and forced to retreat into Pennsylvania where he planned a strategic ambush. On Christmas night 1776, Washington and his men crossed the Delaware River and captured a band of 800-900 Hessian soldiers. Hessians were fearsome German mercenaries hired by the British as soldiers. The event came to be known as "Washington's Crossing" and was successful in raising the morale of the entire army. The dramatic ambush would be called The Battle of Trenton.
Washington proved himself an excellent leader, and won several other decisive battles during the Revolution. In 1781, he helped to formulate the plan that eventually resulted in the defeat of the British army at Yorktown, Virginia and the British surrender. As an advocate of a federal government, Washington became chairman of the Constitutional Convention and helped in getting the Constitution ratified. In 1789, he was inaugurated as America's first president after refusing to be coronated as king.
Washington was re-elected for a second term in 1792, but refused a third term. On December 14, 1799, seventeen days before the new century, Washington died of acute laryngitis or epiglottitis. Today, George Washington is probably the most honored individual in American history. Numerous cities, towns, highways, monuments, and parks bear his name. The capital of the United States is named after him. He was honored on the first American postage stamp, as well as on the quarter and one dollar bill. He even has a state named after him - Washington, although he never set foot there. | 689 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saint Josephine Bakhita, Virgin, 1869–1947
February 8—Optional Memorial
Liturgical Color: White (Purple if Lenten Weekday)
Patron Saint of Sudan and human-trafficking survivors
Out of Africa comes a slave, to freely serve the Master of all
Black-on-black or Arab-on-black slavery normally preceded and made possible the white-on-black slavery practiced by the colonial powers. These powers—England, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy—were not slave societies, but their colonies were. The complex, pancultural reality of the slave trade and of slavery itself was on full display in the dramatic early life of today’s saint. The future Josephine was born in Western Sudan, centuries after the Church and most Catholic nations had long since outlawed slavery. Enforcing such teachings and laws was infinitely more difficult, however, than issuing them. And so it happened that a little African girl was kidnapped by Arab slave traders, forced to walk six hundred miles barefoot, and sold and resold in local slave markets over a period of twelve years. She was forcibly converted from her native religion to Islam, was cruelly treated by one master after another, was whipped, tattooed, scarred, and beaten. After experiencing all the humiliations inherent to captivity, she was bought by an Italian diplomat. She had been too young, and it had been too long, so she did not know her own name and had unclear recollections of where her family would be. She, essentially, had no people. The slave traders had given her the Arabic name Bakhita, “The Fortunate,” and the name stuck.
Living with limited freedom as a maid with her new family, Bakhita first learned what it meant to be treated like a child of God. No chains, no lashes, no threats, no hunger. She was surrounded by the love and warmth of normal family life. When her new family was returning to Italy, she asked to accompany them, thus beginning the long second half of her life’s story. Bakhita settled with a different family near Venice and and became the nanny for their daughter. When the parents had to tend to overseas business, Bakhita and the daughter were put in the care of the nuns of a local convent. Bakhita was so edified by the sisters’ example of prayer and charity that when her family returned to take her home, she refused to leave the convent, a decision reaffirmed by an Italian court which determined she had never legally been a slave in the first place. Bakhita was now absolutely free. “Freedom from” exists to make “freedom for” possible, and once free from obligations to her family, Bakhita chose to be free for service to God and her religious order. She freely chose poverty, chastity, and obedience. She freely chose not to be free.
Bakhita took the name Josephine and was baptized, confirmed, and received First Holy Communion on the same day from the Cardinal Patriarch of Venice, Giuseppe Sarto, the future Pope Saint Pius X. The same future saint received her religious vows a few years later. Saints know saints. The trajectory of Sister Josephine’s life was now settled. She would remain a nun until her death. Throughout her life, Sister Josephine would often kiss the baptismal font, grateful that in its holy water she became a child of God. Her religious duties were humble—cooking, sewing, and greeting visitors. For a few years she travelled to other communities of her order to share her remarkable story and to prepare younger sisters for service in Africa. One nun commented that “her mind was always on God, but her heart in Africa.” Her humility, sweetness, and simple joy were infectious, and she became well known for her closeness to God. After heroically enduring a painful illness, she died with the words “Our Lady, Our Lady” on her lips. Her process began in 1959 and she was canonized by Pope Saint John Paul II in 2000.
Saint Josephine, you lost your freedom when young and gave it away when an adult, showing that freedom is not the goal but the pathway to serving the Master of all. From your place in heaven, give hope to those enduring the indignity of physical slavery and to those bound tightly by other chains. | <urn:uuid:bb553677-a797-4505-a276-eff0dd121226> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mycatholic.life/saints/saints-of-the-liturgical-year/february-8-saint-josephine-bakhita-virgin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.982748 | 915 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.3790310323... | 1 | Saint Josephine Bakhita, Virgin, 1869–1947
February 8—Optional Memorial
Liturgical Color: White (Purple if Lenten Weekday)
Patron Saint of Sudan and human-trafficking survivors
Out of Africa comes a slave, to freely serve the Master of all
Black-on-black or Arab-on-black slavery normally preceded and made possible the white-on-black slavery practiced by the colonial powers. These powers—England, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy—were not slave societies, but their colonies were. The complex, pancultural reality of the slave trade and of slavery itself was on full display in the dramatic early life of today’s saint. The future Josephine was born in Western Sudan, centuries after the Church and most Catholic nations had long since outlawed slavery. Enforcing such teachings and laws was infinitely more difficult, however, than issuing them. And so it happened that a little African girl was kidnapped by Arab slave traders, forced to walk six hundred miles barefoot, and sold and resold in local slave markets over a period of twelve years. She was forcibly converted from her native religion to Islam, was cruelly treated by one master after another, was whipped, tattooed, scarred, and beaten. After experiencing all the humiliations inherent to captivity, she was bought by an Italian diplomat. She had been too young, and it had been too long, so she did not know her own name and had unclear recollections of where her family would be. She, essentially, had no people. The slave traders had given her the Arabic name Bakhita, “The Fortunate,” and the name stuck.
Living with limited freedom as a maid with her new family, Bakhita first learned what it meant to be treated like a child of God. No chains, no lashes, no threats, no hunger. She was surrounded by the love and warmth of normal family life. When her new family was returning to Italy, she asked to accompany them, thus beginning the long second half of her life’s story. Bakhita settled with a different family near Venice and and became the nanny for their daughter. When the parents had to tend to overseas business, Bakhita and the daughter were put in the care of the nuns of a local convent. Bakhita was so edified by the sisters’ example of prayer and charity that when her family returned to take her home, she refused to leave the convent, a decision reaffirmed by an Italian court which determined she had never legally been a slave in the first place. Bakhita was now absolutely free. “Freedom from” exists to make “freedom for” possible, and once free from obligations to her family, Bakhita chose to be free for service to God and her religious order. She freely chose poverty, chastity, and obedience. She freely chose not to be free.
Bakhita took the name Josephine and was baptized, confirmed, and received First Holy Communion on the same day from the Cardinal Patriarch of Venice, Giuseppe Sarto, the future Pope Saint Pius X. The same future saint received her religious vows a few years later. Saints know saints. The trajectory of Sister Josephine’s life was now settled. She would remain a nun until her death. Throughout her life, Sister Josephine would often kiss the baptismal font, grateful that in its holy water she became a child of God. Her religious duties were humble—cooking, sewing, and greeting visitors. For a few years she travelled to other communities of her order to share her remarkable story and to prepare younger sisters for service in Africa. One nun commented that “her mind was always on God, but her heart in Africa.” Her humility, sweetness, and simple joy were infectious, and she became well known for her closeness to God. After heroically enduring a painful illness, she died with the words “Our Lady, Our Lady” on her lips. Her process began in 1959 and she was canonized by Pope Saint John Paul II in 2000.
Saint Josephine, you lost your freedom when young and gave it away when an adult, showing that freedom is not the goal but the pathway to serving the Master of all. From your place in heaven, give hope to those enduring the indignity of physical slavery and to those bound tightly by other chains. | 897 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“The Prince”: The Ability to Deceive People as a Way to Maintain One’s Power
In his famous work “The Prince”, Machiavelli offers the image of an ideal ruler, which can in principle be applied not only to Italy but also to other states. Machiavelli is mainly focused on the qualities of the ruler, while he pays particular attention to such quality as the ability to deceive the people by creating the right image of a ruler. Its value is to strengthen the power of the ruler. The ruler should be feared and honored, and in this respect, his ability to deceive people by pretending to be the most noble of them is of paramount importance.
Machiavelli clearly understands what qualities and what behaviors are unacceptable for the governor if he wants to continue his rule and still be respected and revered by his people. The task of the ruler is to avoid peoples contempt and hatred. Machiavelli points out that any people will not be able to positively assess the governor if the governor would infringe on private property and assert his rights to the women of his subjects. This will lead to a wave of resentment, hatred and contempt among all the people, and therefore the governor will face serious challenges in his quest to retain the power. For this reason, a wise ruler will do everything possible to create the image of a noble leader of the country, who is “merciful, faithful, humane, upright, and religious” (Machiavelli 85). This involves constant monitoring of his behavior, as well as his words, because as is it known, words can cause no less harm than the actions of a person. Machiavelli recognizes the fact that a man cannot be perfect and have only virtues. All people have various vices, however, because of his special status, the ruler should be seen as an extremely noble person who seeks the welfare of his people.
On the other hand, it does not require the governor to be humane, compassionate, religious, etc. in reality. The ruler must learn to deceive the people by creating an image of a just and noble ruler. People should think that their ruler is a good, fair and honest person, while in reality the ruler may not have all these qualities. This deception helps protect the ruler from attempts to encroach on his authority or to trick him, since the image of a bold, resolute, intelligent and steadfast ruler scares away all his enemies. At the heart of such behavior according to the position of Machiavelli, there is the principle that the end justifies the means.
Thus, the policy of creating a misleading image of the noble and dignified ruler makes sense in that it deters enemies and causes people to respect their ruler. The enemies do not dare to speak out against the strong and determined ruler who is supported by his people. In turn, the people will obey their ruler if they see him as a worthy leader and politician. | <urn:uuid:c95a0b95-5416-4a5c-abd3-66d499ef5caa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/the-prince/the-prince-the-ability-to-deceive-people-as-a-way-to-maintain-ones-power/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.982214 | 606 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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... | 12 | “The Prince”: The Ability to Deceive People as a Way to Maintain One’s Power
In his famous work “The Prince”, Machiavelli offers the image of an ideal ruler, which can in principle be applied not only to Italy but also to other states. Machiavelli is mainly focused on the qualities of the ruler, while he pays particular attention to such quality as the ability to deceive the people by creating the right image of a ruler. Its value is to strengthen the power of the ruler. The ruler should be feared and honored, and in this respect, his ability to deceive people by pretending to be the most noble of them is of paramount importance.
Machiavelli clearly understands what qualities and what behaviors are unacceptable for the governor if he wants to continue his rule and still be respected and revered by his people. The task of the ruler is to avoid peoples contempt and hatred. Machiavelli points out that any people will not be able to positively assess the governor if the governor would infringe on private property and assert his rights to the women of his subjects. This will lead to a wave of resentment, hatred and contempt among all the people, and therefore the governor will face serious challenges in his quest to retain the power. For this reason, a wise ruler will do everything possible to create the image of a noble leader of the country, who is “merciful, faithful, humane, upright, and religious” (Machiavelli 85). This involves constant monitoring of his behavior, as well as his words, because as is it known, words can cause no less harm than the actions of a person. Machiavelli recognizes the fact that a man cannot be perfect and have only virtues. All people have various vices, however, because of his special status, the ruler should be seen as an extremely noble person who seeks the welfare of his people.
On the other hand, it does not require the governor to be humane, compassionate, religious, etc. in reality. The ruler must learn to deceive the people by creating an image of a just and noble ruler. People should think that their ruler is a good, fair and honest person, while in reality the ruler may not have all these qualities. This deception helps protect the ruler from attempts to encroach on his authority or to trick him, since the image of a bold, resolute, intelligent and steadfast ruler scares away all his enemies. At the heart of such behavior according to the position of Machiavelli, there is the principle that the end justifies the means.
Thus, the policy of creating a misleading image of the noble and dignified ruler makes sense in that it deters enemies and causes people to respect their ruler. The enemies do not dare to speak out against the strong and determined ruler who is supported by his people. In turn, the people will obey their ruler if they see him as a worthy leader and politician. | 593 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This informative post is written by Academic Papers UK about the life history of queen Elizabeth II. After reading this post, you will be able to get enough information about the life of Queen Elizabeth II.
An Informative Post On, “The Life of Queen Elizabeth II” by The Academic Papers UK
Queen Elizabeth II is known as the longest-reigning monarch in the history of Great Britain. Queen Elizabeth II was born as Princess Elizabeth Alexandra Mary. She was born in the royal family of London on April 21, 1926. She was married to Philip Mountbatten in 1947 and she became queen in 1952. Queen Elizabeth II has also the great name in history because she was also the mother of Prince Charles and she was also the grandmother of Prince William and Harry. Another important thing that is associated with Queen Elizabeth II was that she had also modernized her reign by adopting some modern traditions.
At the time of her birth, most of the people did not realize that she can become the queen of Great Britain. During the first decade of her life, she was known from his nickname Lilibet and almost all the members of the royal family called her with this nickname. Margaret was the sister of Queen Elizabeth. Queen Elizabeth and her sister Margaret got their early education from their home from different tutors. In their early education, they had learned basic mathematics, French, history, dancing, and some other art lessons. During World War II, Queen Elizabeth and her sister Margaret have to stay out of their home in London. They were living in Windsor Castle. From there, they had broadcasted her first radio program. In this radio program, she showed her calm and firm personality by addressing to the children that all will be good after this war. After that Elizabeth tried to show her interest in different areas with her father and she had also made lots of official royal visits with her family members. After the victory of Europe in the war, she and her sister were allowed to mingle anonymously with the citizens.
Ascension to the crown
After the death of Queen Elizabeth’s grandfather George V in 1936, her uncle became the king. Anyhow, he was fallen in love with Wallis Simpson (an American divorcee). Therefore, he had to choose one thing between the crown and Simpson. In the end, he had left the crown and chose Simpson. After that, her father became king in 1937 and after the death of her father in 1952, her mother became Queen Elizabeth I and she had become Queen Elizabeth II.
Queen Elizabeth’s coronation
Elizabeth was crowned as Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. When she became queen, her age was 27 years. Anyhow, Queen Elizabeth II had started to assume the responsibilities of the ruling monarch after the death of her father in 1952. The most important thing about this coronation ceremony was that it was broadcasted first time on the television. Therefore, millions of people from all around the world have witnessed the pomp and spectacle of this event.
Prince Philip, Queen Elizabeth’s husband
On November 20, 1947, she got married to Philip Mountbatten. Philip Mountbatten was a distant cousin of Queen Elizabeth II. Philip Mountbatten was the son of Prince Andrew of Greece. She was just 13 years old when she met with Philip Mountbatten. After that, they spent lots of years together and soon, they were fallen in love with each other. Anyhow, they were an unusual pair. Its reason was that Queen Elizabeth II had a quiet and calm personality. On the other hand, Philip Mountbatten had a boisterous and outspoken personality. Her father King George VI was hesitant about their relationship because Philip didn’t possess great wealth and he also considered that Philip had a rough personality.
Queen Elizabeth’s children
Queen Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten had four children. Their first child Charles was born in 1948 just after one year of their wedding. After that their first daughter Anne was born in 1950. Their third children Andrew was born in 1960 and Edward was born in 1964. In 1969, Queen Elizabeth made her son Charles as her successor and he had also given the title of Prince of Wales. This crown ceremony was also broadcasted on the TV and hundreds of millions of people had seen this ceremony live on the TV. In 1981, Prince Charles got married to 19 years old Diana.
In 2002, when she was celebrating her Golden Jubilee (50 years on the throne), she had to say good-bye to their mother and sister Margaret. Her mother who was also known as Queen Elizabeth I died at the age of 101 years. | <urn:uuid:66d43247-4841-452d-b01a-37a2e88037d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.247liveupdates.com/2019/12/04/an-informative-post-on-the-life-of-queen-elizabeth-ii-by-the-academic-papers-uk/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.99022 | 940 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.239050060510... | 9 | This informative post is written by Academic Papers UK about the life history of queen Elizabeth II. After reading this post, you will be able to get enough information about the life of Queen Elizabeth II.
An Informative Post On, “The Life of Queen Elizabeth II” by The Academic Papers UK
Queen Elizabeth II is known as the longest-reigning monarch in the history of Great Britain. Queen Elizabeth II was born as Princess Elizabeth Alexandra Mary. She was born in the royal family of London on April 21, 1926. She was married to Philip Mountbatten in 1947 and she became queen in 1952. Queen Elizabeth II has also the great name in history because she was also the mother of Prince Charles and she was also the grandmother of Prince William and Harry. Another important thing that is associated with Queen Elizabeth II was that she had also modernized her reign by adopting some modern traditions.
At the time of her birth, most of the people did not realize that she can become the queen of Great Britain. During the first decade of her life, she was known from his nickname Lilibet and almost all the members of the royal family called her with this nickname. Margaret was the sister of Queen Elizabeth. Queen Elizabeth and her sister Margaret got their early education from their home from different tutors. In their early education, they had learned basic mathematics, French, history, dancing, and some other art lessons. During World War II, Queen Elizabeth and her sister Margaret have to stay out of their home in London. They were living in Windsor Castle. From there, they had broadcasted her first radio program. In this radio program, she showed her calm and firm personality by addressing to the children that all will be good after this war. After that Elizabeth tried to show her interest in different areas with her father and she had also made lots of official royal visits with her family members. After the victory of Europe in the war, she and her sister were allowed to mingle anonymously with the citizens.
Ascension to the crown
After the death of Queen Elizabeth’s grandfather George V in 1936, her uncle became the king. Anyhow, he was fallen in love with Wallis Simpson (an American divorcee). Therefore, he had to choose one thing between the crown and Simpson. In the end, he had left the crown and chose Simpson. After that, her father became king in 1937 and after the death of her father in 1952, her mother became Queen Elizabeth I and she had become Queen Elizabeth II.
Queen Elizabeth’s coronation
Elizabeth was crowned as Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. When she became queen, her age was 27 years. Anyhow, Queen Elizabeth II had started to assume the responsibilities of the ruling monarch after the death of her father in 1952. The most important thing about this coronation ceremony was that it was broadcasted first time on the television. Therefore, millions of people from all around the world have witnessed the pomp and spectacle of this event.
Prince Philip, Queen Elizabeth’s husband
On November 20, 1947, she got married to Philip Mountbatten. Philip Mountbatten was a distant cousin of Queen Elizabeth II. Philip Mountbatten was the son of Prince Andrew of Greece. She was just 13 years old when she met with Philip Mountbatten. After that, they spent lots of years together and soon, they were fallen in love with each other. Anyhow, they were an unusual pair. Its reason was that Queen Elizabeth II had a quiet and calm personality. On the other hand, Philip Mountbatten had a boisterous and outspoken personality. Her father King George VI was hesitant about their relationship because Philip didn’t possess great wealth and he also considered that Philip had a rough personality.
Queen Elizabeth’s children
Queen Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten had four children. Their first child Charles was born in 1948 just after one year of their wedding. After that their first daughter Anne was born in 1950. Their third children Andrew was born in 1960 and Edward was born in 1964. In 1969, Queen Elizabeth made her son Charles as her successor and he had also given the title of Prince of Wales. This crown ceremony was also broadcasted on the TV and hundreds of millions of people had seen this ceremony live on the TV. In 1981, Prince Charles got married to 19 years old Diana.
In 2002, when she was celebrating her Golden Jubilee (50 years on the throne), she had to say good-bye to their mother and sister Margaret. Her mother who was also known as Queen Elizabeth I died at the age of 101 years. | 996 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Unknown Seas: The Portuguese Captains and the Passage to India, page 18
Vasco, his captains and pilots, also received the very latest in navigation and astronomical aids, as well as mathematical tables of declinations to fix position, which the junta had been improving at a remarkable pace. The compass had first appeared in western Europe during the twelfth century and quickly proved invaluable. By the time of the final passage to India it had become the most important navigation instrument. In design a needle was fixed to a pivoted card which bore the points of the compass, painted in various colours. The card was housed within a round bowl, lit by a small lamp. This was placed in a hooded box, which was set on top of a stand where the helmsman could easily see it. On each vessel was also a lodestone, which was used periodically to remagnetize the needle, if required. A supply of extra needles and entire compasses was also available.137
The astrolabe, which probably originated with the Arabs, was still new to Europeans and few were skilled in using it. The device was employed to measure the altitude of the sun and stars, and to fix one’s position to the north and south. It was eventually replaced by the more superior sextant. An astrolabe was specially constructed and presented to Vasco, but did not prove as effective as in future voyages because the small ships of his expedition rolled in all but the calmest of seas, which made accurate readings nearly impossible.
Although most of its members opposed it, the junta now decided to support the expedition, and every member made a contribution to aid the scientific outfitting. Vasco was provided with a copy of Ptolemy’s Geography, along with extracts from the writings of Benjamin of Tudela, Marco Polo and Nicolo di Conti.138 Presumably Vasco received at least some of the information received from John II’s spies, though clearly little in detail.
Vasco is believed to have been given a copy of the Ephemerides of Regio Montanus and most certainly the Almanach Perpetuum of Abraham ben Zacuto for use in solar observations. Zacuto had been professor of mathematics in Salamanca, Spain, and had come to Portugal in 1492 seeking refuge. He was named Astronomer Royal, served as the king’s astrologer and was commonly regarded as the greatest mathematician of his time. He gave each pilot a chart depicting the names and direction of the winds, which were portrayed in contrasting colours. In addition, the armada possessed tables of traverses used by ships in long tacks to assist in the potentially confusing zigzag course it entailed.
Although Vasco took with him the very latest in instruments and the most complete information available, the science of navigation was still in its infancy and he did not possess many of the basics that future captains would take for granted and consider indispensable. There is no record, for example, that anyone in the fleet possessed a quadrant.
Stored within the ships was everything that logic and prior experience dictated would be required. Each vessel carried six anchors, since these were often lost during storms. At the waist of each ship was a light yawl and a longboat, both of which could be rowed by a small crew when in port or near shore. The holes of the ships were divided into three compartments on two decks. On the upper deck, to the rear, was the supply of water, stored in wooden casks, and additional rope. Shot, gunpowder, firearms and weapons were kept amidships. Forward was the additional spare equipment and food supplies. A tremendous quantity of spare tackle, sails and nautical equipment of every kind was also provided to each ship. The health of the men was of paramount concern and each vessel carried a large supply of drugs.
In the lower deck the compartments held more provisions, plus assorted merchandise, presents and trade goods. These included a wide selection of wool, necklaces, chains and bracelets, and hand basins as well as swords, daggers –both plain and engraved – ornamented spears and shields, as well as the traditional glass beads and the usual trade items. Later historians reported the ships carried both gold and silk, jewels of gold and princely gifts to ‘be presented to the kings and lords of the countries where they might land –and a small quantity of every kind of spice’.139
The reference to spices is accurate, but there were no ‘princely gifts’, as the most startling aspect of these stores lay in the actual selection of trade goods and articles to be used as gifts. The traditional interpretation has been that until now the Portuguese had been dealing with tribes along the African coast and had grown accustomed to bartering successfully with cheap items, but they surely knew better than to see these as legitimate goods for trade in India.
For generations Europe had received costly spices from Asia. The Portuguese knew they were valued there, as they were in Europe. It took gold and silver to buy pepper, cinnamon, cloves and the other desired spices. In addition, Europeans had heard frequent lavish stories of the vast, incalculable wealth of Asia and India. Woollen cloth, striped cotton, sugar, honey, coral, glass beads, red hats, trousers, bells and tin jewellery were simply not going to be adequate, yet for the most part that is what Vasco was given. The reasons for such a profound error in judgement –one that was to cause no end of difficulty –are unlikely ever to be established.
In every other respect Vasco was provided with the very best Portugal had to offer to make the expedition a success. No expense was spared, so there must have been a reason why he carried the trade goods he did. Accepting that this was not a serious miscalculation, which the methodical manner in which the explorations had taken place would indicate it was not, then there would have been a logic behind it.
One factor may have been that Vasco was not expected to succeed. The incredible distances Dias had covered were known, and he had still been a long way from India, even at his furthest point. Although the precise location of the subcontinent was not yet established, by the time of Vasco da Gama’s voyage the Portuguese had a much better idea of where it lay. They could make a rough calculation of the increased distances involved and make a determination as to the likelihood of success. Given the technology, there were legitimate concerns as to whether the voyage was even possible. Why send valuable trade goods or a large quantity of gold and silver on a mission so likely to fail? Better to use them once it was established that they were capable of making the voyage, and returning.
The selection also suggests the nature of the people with whom Vasco was expected to contact. No advanced civilizations had been encountered thus far in the push to India, and it appears the planners doubted any would be on this voyage either.
Finally, the trade goods taken indicate that this was still primarily viewed as a voyage of exploration rather than of commerce. While the eventual aim was to establish a trade mission and bring back a profitable quantity of spices, the primary purpose of this voyage was to discover the way to India, and return with that vital knowledge. Goods that would be of use en route were considered more important than those to be used for barter in the event of the ships actually reaching India.
During the lengthy preparations Manuel and Vasco continued meeting on a nearly daily basis. Correa records that:
Vasco da Gama gave an account to the king of all that he did, and always talked to him of the things which he desired; and the king told him to do what his heart prompted him . . . and that in the countries at which he touched, he should take great precautions for taking care of his health and life upon which depended all that had been done, and that remained to be accomplished; and, according as he saw fit, he was to make peace or war, and to make of himself a merchant or a warrior, or one cast away or who had lost his way, and he was to make himself an ambassador . . . And all that he said to him thus was nought, because it seemed to the king in his heart that Vasco da Gama would know much the best what to do; for each time his heart received greater satisfaction from him.140
Vasco reported to his sovereign that ‘his soul was in readiness, and that there was nothing to detain him from embarking at once’.141
All was now prepared. Carried aboard the São Gabriel was the carved image of Santa Maria, whose presence was meant to grant the voyage good fortune. When all else was in readiness, placed within the holds of the ships were three stone padrões, similar in desi
Volta da Guiné
By that summer of 1497 the four ships destined for the first passage to India had lain at anchor in the tranquil fresh waters of the Sea of Straw (Mar de Palha) at the port of Lisbon for many months. New sails and rigging were strung across the masts and a veritable ocean of supplies had been stored deep within the holds. Pennants snapped in the breeze and bright fittings glittered in the summer sun.
Preparations for the impending voyage had consumed nearly every aspect of Lisbon’s commercial life. In the numerous tascas along the wharf seamen, soldiers, merchants and labourers gathered over cups of wine, speculating endlessly about the imminent expedition, while in the courtyards and meeting halls of the Portugese nobility there had been talk of little else. Hundreds of other ships, from nations of Europe and throughout the Mediterranean, were also anchored in the busy harbour and not one of those crews was unaware of the adventure about to unfold.
The weather remained temperate and as yet the yearly summer plague had not shown itself within the city. With the coming of the annual wind from the north it seemed that at last the small fleet would finally sail.
For nearly a century the Portuguese had been directed towards this moment. From the day the young Prince Henry had first seen for himself the wonders of conquered Ceuta and his mind’s eye had grasped the possibilities for his people, the course of the nation had been set. These had been decades of success but also of failure, of high expectations as well as profound disappointments. Countless lives had been lost, and on occasion the meagre resources of the nation had been stretched to their limit to maintain the push to India by sea. The departure of these ships was recognized by the Portuguese people and the monarch as the single most momentous event in Portuguese history since the creation of the nation itself.
Saturday 8 July was selected for departure. In acknowledgment of this enormous undertaking no ceremony to mark it was omitted. The 28-year-old Vasco da Gama, Captain-Major of the four-ship fleet, and his officers were directed to present themselves before the equally youthful Manuel to request formal permission to set sail and to receive the royal instructions.
With nearly 200 men about to depart on such a treacherous voyage, their extended families and circle of friends meant that much of the populace was personally affected. Emotions were running high, not just at the prospect of success and wealth, but also from the certain knowledge that, even should the expedition be a resounding success, many –even most – of these men would die in the effort. Given the large number of ships that had previously set out, never to return, and the enormous distances and difficulties to be overcome in this effort, even the most optimistic possessed deep concern for the fate of Vasco and his crew.
On 7 July, Manuel received Vasco and his captains in solemn ceremony. Assembled about the sovereign were the most important nobles and other personages of the court, including the highest members of the clergy, all arrayed in their finest ceremonial attire. The crowd both within and without was also bedecked in a bright patchwork of dress. For all the gravity of the gathering there was also a festive mood to the occasion among many of those present, or at the least an effort to make it seem so.
Vasco, his older brother Paulo, their devoted friend the young Nicolau Coelho and other high-ranking officers of the expedition all wore their finest armour. Helmets, breastplates and the elaborate hilts of their swords were polished to a bright lustre. One by one they were escorted forward, introduced to the king and court and then stood at attention. When all were in place, Manuel, regally attired in the fashion of the Portuguese monarchs, delivered prepared remarks.
He recounted how he had received the benefits of the efforts of past kings in driving the Moors from Portugal and also by way of exploration and conquest. He said that he had pondered the next step for the greater good of his nation. ‘I have come to the decision that no other is more proper for this my kingdom –as I have debated with you often – than the search for India and lands of the East.’The purpose of such a search was to spread the word of Jesus Christ and thereby obtain their reward in heaven, ‘but in addition [to acquire] kingdoms and new states with much riches’.
Manuel reminded all those assembled that the Italian city-states had become wealthy and powerful through their monopoly on the trade in spices. It would, he pronounced, ‘be an [act of] ingratitude to God to reject what He so propitiously offers us, and an insult to those princes of lauded memory from whom I have inherited this quest, and an offence to you who have shared in it if I neglected it for [too] long’. For these reasons he had ordered ships to be prepared, which now lay in readiness.
Continuing, Manuel said:
And I have in my mind how Vasco da Gama, who is here present, has given a good account of himself in all matters which were entrusted to him, or with which he was charged. I have chosen him for this journey, as a loyal cavalier, worthy of such an honourable enterprise. I hope that Our Lord may grant he may perform such services for himself and for me that his recompense may be as a memorial both for him and for those who may aid him in the work [to be] performed in this voyage, because with this confidence and with the knowledge which I have had of all [of them] I have chosen them as his co-workers, with the intention that they obey him in all things which pertain to my service.
He charged the men to work together cooperatively, so as to overcome more easily the dangers they were certain to face. ‘And that through you this my kingdom may share the benefactions.’142
With that, Vasco knelt and in the solemn hush that ensued kissed the hand of his sovereign in thanks for the great honour that had been given him. The silk banner of the Order of Christ was presented by an official. Vasco placed his hands on it and then pledged his oath of fealty in a clear, loud voice for all to hear:
I, Vasco da Gama, who now have been commanded by you, most high and most powerful king, my liege lord, to set out to discover the seas and the lands of India and the Orient, do swear on the symbol of this cross, on which I lay my hands, that in the service of God and for you I shall uphold it and not surrender it in the sight of the Moor, pagan or any race of people that I may encounter, and in the face of every peril of water, fire or sword, always to defend and protect it, even unto death. And I further swear that, in the pursuit and the labours of this quest which you, my king and lord, have ordered me to undertake, I shall serve with all fidelity, loyalty, watchfulness and diligence, observing and enforcing the orders which have just been entrusted to me, until such time as I return to this place where I now stand, in the presence of your Royal Highness, with the help of the grace of God, in whose service you are sending me.143
Vasco accepted the banner and was then given a copy of his orders, a letter of credence and correspondence to princes with whom he might come into contact, but most especially to the fabled Prester John and to the Zamorin of Calicut.18
Then Vasco and the members of the expedition remained at attention as Manuel and his entourage exited with great dignity and ceremony.
In procession, by one account accompanied by the king himself, Vasco and his men solemnly marched towards the nearby harbour. Another account places Vasco on a horse. The great crowd greeted the men with both cheers and tears. In deference to his older brother Vasco had directed that his vessel, the São Rafael, would serve as flagship and so the banner of the Order of Christ was raised over it, snapping in the freshening breeze.
The men boarded the ships to the steady tattoo of the drums and the flourish of trumpets. Each vessel was adorned with colourful banners and fluttering pennants. The ships were soon moving slowly, carried by the modest wind and current of the Tagus river towards the ocean. Along the shore an enormous crowd was gathered, waving gaily at the ships, w
Here a long generation ago Prince Henry had built a nationally revered chapel dedicated to all who took to sea. An order of nuns maintained a nearby hospital, where they nursed seamen carried ill or dying from ships just returned from distant voyages. Vasco, his brother Paulo and Coelho, still attired in their armour, went back ashore and passed through the throng that was awaiting them, swelled by the numbers who had followed the ships on horseback and by carriage. Others travelling on foot continued arriving throughout the night.
It was customary for departing Portuguese seamen to offer prayer to St Mary of Belém within this small chapel, and so the three principal captains assumed their places, possibly accompanied by others of higher rank who would sail, and knelt during the long night, joined by the priests of the nearby monastery. The men confessed and tended to their devotions, each man offering prayers in words immortalized by the great Portuguese poet and author Luis Vaz de Camoens:
. . . Oh, Mighty God, be Thou our watchful guide.
. . . To weigh our anchors from our native shore –
To dare new oceans never dared before –
Perhaps to see my native coast no more.144
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0.26190429925... | 1 | Unknown Seas: The Portuguese Captains and the Passage to India, page 18
Vasco, his captains and pilots, also received the very latest in navigation and astronomical aids, as well as mathematical tables of declinations to fix position, which the junta had been improving at a remarkable pace. The compass had first appeared in western Europe during the twelfth century and quickly proved invaluable. By the time of the final passage to India it had become the most important navigation instrument. In design a needle was fixed to a pivoted card which bore the points of the compass, painted in various colours. The card was housed within a round bowl, lit by a small lamp. This was placed in a hooded box, which was set on top of a stand where the helmsman could easily see it. On each vessel was also a lodestone, which was used periodically to remagnetize the needle, if required. A supply of extra needles and entire compasses was also available.137
The astrolabe, which probably originated with the Arabs, was still new to Europeans and few were skilled in using it. The device was employed to measure the altitude of the sun and stars, and to fix one’s position to the north and south. It was eventually replaced by the more superior sextant. An astrolabe was specially constructed and presented to Vasco, but did not prove as effective as in future voyages because the small ships of his expedition rolled in all but the calmest of seas, which made accurate readings nearly impossible.
Although most of its members opposed it, the junta now decided to support the expedition, and every member made a contribution to aid the scientific outfitting. Vasco was provided with a copy of Ptolemy’s Geography, along with extracts from the writings of Benjamin of Tudela, Marco Polo and Nicolo di Conti.138 Presumably Vasco received at least some of the information received from John II’s spies, though clearly little in detail.
Vasco is believed to have been given a copy of the Ephemerides of Regio Montanus and most certainly the Almanach Perpetuum of Abraham ben Zacuto for use in solar observations. Zacuto had been professor of mathematics in Salamanca, Spain, and had come to Portugal in 1492 seeking refuge. He was named Astronomer Royal, served as the king’s astrologer and was commonly regarded as the greatest mathematician of his time. He gave each pilot a chart depicting the names and direction of the winds, which were portrayed in contrasting colours. In addition, the armada possessed tables of traverses used by ships in long tacks to assist in the potentially confusing zigzag course it entailed.
Although Vasco took with him the very latest in instruments and the most complete information available, the science of navigation was still in its infancy and he did not possess many of the basics that future captains would take for granted and consider indispensable. There is no record, for example, that anyone in the fleet possessed a quadrant.
Stored within the ships was everything that logic and prior experience dictated would be required. Each vessel carried six anchors, since these were often lost during storms. At the waist of each ship was a light yawl and a longboat, both of which could be rowed by a small crew when in port or near shore. The holes of the ships were divided into three compartments on two decks. On the upper deck, to the rear, was the supply of water, stored in wooden casks, and additional rope. Shot, gunpowder, firearms and weapons were kept amidships. Forward was the additional spare equipment and food supplies. A tremendous quantity of spare tackle, sails and nautical equipment of every kind was also provided to each ship. The health of the men was of paramount concern and each vessel carried a large supply of drugs.
In the lower deck the compartments held more provisions, plus assorted merchandise, presents and trade goods. These included a wide selection of wool, necklaces, chains and bracelets, and hand basins as well as swords, daggers –both plain and engraved – ornamented spears and shields, as well as the traditional glass beads and the usual trade items. Later historians reported the ships carried both gold and silk, jewels of gold and princely gifts to ‘be presented to the kings and lords of the countries where they might land –and a small quantity of every kind of spice’.139
The reference to spices is accurate, but there were no ‘princely gifts’, as the most startling aspect of these stores lay in the actual selection of trade goods and articles to be used as gifts. The traditional interpretation has been that until now the Portuguese had been dealing with tribes along the African coast and had grown accustomed to bartering successfully with cheap items, but they surely knew better than to see these as legitimate goods for trade in India.
For generations Europe had received costly spices from Asia. The Portuguese knew they were valued there, as they were in Europe. It took gold and silver to buy pepper, cinnamon, cloves and the other desired spices. In addition, Europeans had heard frequent lavish stories of the vast, incalculable wealth of Asia and India. Woollen cloth, striped cotton, sugar, honey, coral, glass beads, red hats, trousers, bells and tin jewellery were simply not going to be adequate, yet for the most part that is what Vasco was given. The reasons for such a profound error in judgement –one that was to cause no end of difficulty –are unlikely ever to be established.
In every other respect Vasco was provided with the very best Portugal had to offer to make the expedition a success. No expense was spared, so there must have been a reason why he carried the trade goods he did. Accepting that this was not a serious miscalculation, which the methodical manner in which the explorations had taken place would indicate it was not, then there would have been a logic behind it.
One factor may have been that Vasco was not expected to succeed. The incredible distances Dias had covered were known, and he had still been a long way from India, even at his furthest point. Although the precise location of the subcontinent was not yet established, by the time of Vasco da Gama’s voyage the Portuguese had a much better idea of where it lay. They could make a rough calculation of the increased distances involved and make a determination as to the likelihood of success. Given the technology, there were legitimate concerns as to whether the voyage was even possible. Why send valuable trade goods or a large quantity of gold and silver on a mission so likely to fail? Better to use them once it was established that they were capable of making the voyage, and returning.
The selection also suggests the nature of the people with whom Vasco was expected to contact. No advanced civilizations had been encountered thus far in the push to India, and it appears the planners doubted any would be on this voyage either.
Finally, the trade goods taken indicate that this was still primarily viewed as a voyage of exploration rather than of commerce. While the eventual aim was to establish a trade mission and bring back a profitable quantity of spices, the primary purpose of this voyage was to discover the way to India, and return with that vital knowledge. Goods that would be of use en route were considered more important than those to be used for barter in the event of the ships actually reaching India.
During the lengthy preparations Manuel and Vasco continued meeting on a nearly daily basis. Correa records that:
Vasco da Gama gave an account to the king of all that he did, and always talked to him of the things which he desired; and the king told him to do what his heart prompted him . . . and that in the countries at which he touched, he should take great precautions for taking care of his health and life upon which depended all that had been done, and that remained to be accomplished; and, according as he saw fit, he was to make peace or war, and to make of himself a merchant or a warrior, or one cast away or who had lost his way, and he was to make himself an ambassador . . . And all that he said to him thus was nought, because it seemed to the king in his heart that Vasco da Gama would know much the best what to do; for each time his heart received greater satisfaction from him.140
Vasco reported to his sovereign that ‘his soul was in readiness, and that there was nothing to detain him from embarking at once’.141
All was now prepared. Carried aboard the São Gabriel was the carved image of Santa Maria, whose presence was meant to grant the voyage good fortune. When all else was in readiness, placed within the holds of the ships were three stone padrões, similar in desi
Volta da Guiné
By that summer of 1497 the four ships destined for the first passage to India had lain at anchor in the tranquil fresh waters of the Sea of Straw (Mar de Palha) at the port of Lisbon for many months. New sails and rigging were strung across the masts and a veritable ocean of supplies had been stored deep within the holds. Pennants snapped in the breeze and bright fittings glittered in the summer sun.
Preparations for the impending voyage had consumed nearly every aspect of Lisbon’s commercial life. In the numerous tascas along the wharf seamen, soldiers, merchants and labourers gathered over cups of wine, speculating endlessly about the imminent expedition, while in the courtyards and meeting halls of the Portugese nobility there had been talk of little else. Hundreds of other ships, from nations of Europe and throughout the Mediterranean, were also anchored in the busy harbour and not one of those crews was unaware of the adventure about to unfold.
The weather remained temperate and as yet the yearly summer plague had not shown itself within the city. With the coming of the annual wind from the north it seemed that at last the small fleet would finally sail.
For nearly a century the Portuguese had been directed towards this moment. From the day the young Prince Henry had first seen for himself the wonders of conquered Ceuta and his mind’s eye had grasped the possibilities for his people, the course of the nation had been set. These had been decades of success but also of failure, of high expectations as well as profound disappointments. Countless lives had been lost, and on occasion the meagre resources of the nation had been stretched to their limit to maintain the push to India by sea. The departure of these ships was recognized by the Portuguese people and the monarch as the single most momentous event in Portuguese history since the creation of the nation itself.
Saturday 8 July was selected for departure. In acknowledgment of this enormous undertaking no ceremony to mark it was omitted. The 28-year-old Vasco da Gama, Captain-Major of the four-ship fleet, and his officers were directed to present themselves before the equally youthful Manuel to request formal permission to set sail and to receive the royal instructions.
With nearly 200 men about to depart on such a treacherous voyage, their extended families and circle of friends meant that much of the populace was personally affected. Emotions were running high, not just at the prospect of success and wealth, but also from the certain knowledge that, even should the expedition be a resounding success, many –even most – of these men would die in the effort. Given the large number of ships that had previously set out, never to return, and the enormous distances and difficulties to be overcome in this effort, even the most optimistic possessed deep concern for the fate of Vasco and his crew.
On 7 July, Manuel received Vasco and his captains in solemn ceremony. Assembled about the sovereign were the most important nobles and other personages of the court, including the highest members of the clergy, all arrayed in their finest ceremonial attire. The crowd both within and without was also bedecked in a bright patchwork of dress. For all the gravity of the gathering there was also a festive mood to the occasion among many of those present, or at the least an effort to make it seem so.
Vasco, his older brother Paulo, their devoted friend the young Nicolau Coelho and other high-ranking officers of the expedition all wore their finest armour. Helmets, breastplates and the elaborate hilts of their swords were polished to a bright lustre. One by one they were escorted forward, introduced to the king and court and then stood at attention. When all were in place, Manuel, regally attired in the fashion of the Portuguese monarchs, delivered prepared remarks.
He recounted how he had received the benefits of the efforts of past kings in driving the Moors from Portugal and also by way of exploration and conquest. He said that he had pondered the next step for the greater good of his nation. ‘I have come to the decision that no other is more proper for this my kingdom –as I have debated with you often – than the search for India and lands of the East.’The purpose of such a search was to spread the word of Jesus Christ and thereby obtain their reward in heaven, ‘but in addition [to acquire] kingdoms and new states with much riches’.
Manuel reminded all those assembled that the Italian city-states had become wealthy and powerful through their monopoly on the trade in spices. It would, he pronounced, ‘be an [act of] ingratitude to God to reject what He so propitiously offers us, and an insult to those princes of lauded memory from whom I have inherited this quest, and an offence to you who have shared in it if I neglected it for [too] long’. For these reasons he had ordered ships to be prepared, which now lay in readiness.
Continuing, Manuel said:
And I have in my mind how Vasco da Gama, who is here present, has given a good account of himself in all matters which were entrusted to him, or with which he was charged. I have chosen him for this journey, as a loyal cavalier, worthy of such an honourable enterprise. I hope that Our Lord may grant he may perform such services for himself and for me that his recompense may be as a memorial both for him and for those who may aid him in the work [to be] performed in this voyage, because with this confidence and with the knowledge which I have had of all [of them] I have chosen them as his co-workers, with the intention that they obey him in all things which pertain to my service.
He charged the men to work together cooperatively, so as to overcome more easily the dangers they were certain to face. ‘And that through you this my kingdom may share the benefactions.’142
With that, Vasco knelt and in the solemn hush that ensued kissed the hand of his sovereign in thanks for the great honour that had been given him. The silk banner of the Order of Christ was presented by an official. Vasco placed his hands on it and then pledged his oath of fealty in a clear, loud voice for all to hear:
I, Vasco da Gama, who now have been commanded by you, most high and most powerful king, my liege lord, to set out to discover the seas and the lands of India and the Orient, do swear on the symbol of this cross, on which I lay my hands, that in the service of God and for you I shall uphold it and not surrender it in the sight of the Moor, pagan or any race of people that I may encounter, and in the face of every peril of water, fire or sword, always to defend and protect it, even unto death. And I further swear that, in the pursuit and the labours of this quest which you, my king and lord, have ordered me to undertake, I shall serve with all fidelity, loyalty, watchfulness and diligence, observing and enforcing the orders which have just been entrusted to me, until such time as I return to this place where I now stand, in the presence of your Royal Highness, with the help of the grace of God, in whose service you are sending me.143
Vasco accepted the banner and was then given a copy of his orders, a letter of credence and correspondence to princes with whom he might come into contact, but most especially to the fabled Prester John and to the Zamorin of Calicut.18
Then Vasco and the members of the expedition remained at attention as Manuel and his entourage exited with great dignity and ceremony.
In procession, by one account accompanied by the king himself, Vasco and his men solemnly marched towards the nearby harbour. Another account places Vasco on a horse. The great crowd greeted the men with both cheers and tears. In deference to his older brother Vasco had directed that his vessel, the São Rafael, would serve as flagship and so the banner of the Order of Christ was raised over it, snapping in the freshening breeze.
The men boarded the ships to the steady tattoo of the drums and the flourish of trumpets. Each vessel was adorned with colourful banners and fluttering pennants. The ships were soon moving slowly, carried by the modest wind and current of the Tagus river towards the ocean. Along the shore an enormous crowd was gathered, waving gaily at the ships, w
Here a long generation ago Prince Henry had built a nationally revered chapel dedicated to all who took to sea. An order of nuns maintained a nearby hospital, where they nursed seamen carried ill or dying from ships just returned from distant voyages. Vasco, his brother Paulo and Coelho, still attired in their armour, went back ashore and passed through the throng that was awaiting them, swelled by the numbers who had followed the ships on horseback and by carriage. Others travelling on foot continued arriving throughout the night.
It was customary for departing Portuguese seamen to offer prayer to St Mary of Belém within this small chapel, and so the three principal captains assumed their places, possibly accompanied by others of higher rank who would sail, and knelt during the long night, joined by the priests of the nearby monastery. The men confessed and tended to their devotions, each man offering prayers in words immortalized by the great Portuguese poet and author Luis Vaz de Camoens:
. . . Oh, Mighty God, be Thou our watchful guide.
. . . To weigh our anchors from our native shore –
To dare new oceans never dared before –
Perhaps to see my native coast no more.144
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Vera Rubin was born in Philadelphia, USA in 1928. Her father worked as an electrical engineer, her mother for the Bell Telephone Company and her sister pursued a career as an administrative judge. Rubin was different, however, and was always fascinated by physics and astronomy.
In 1965, she successfully became the first woman to be granted permission to use the instruments at Palomar Observatory, California. In the same year, Rubin successfully secured a position at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington, where she began work on galaxy clusters – what she found was even more extraordinary than her previous work and would have consequences for our understanding of today’s cosmos. When Rubin observed her galaxies, she found that their rotation curves didn’t match up to theory. What could the explanation be? Little did she know, she had found the first indicator for dark matter, an elusive material believed to make up around 25 per cent of the “missing” mass of the universe. Rubin knew that her new findings would be criticised and so, in a bid to avoid it, she decided to slant her research more towards the study of the rotation curves of singular galaxies, rather than the wildly debated galaxy clusters. She began her research with our closest spiral, the Andromeda galaxy. | <urn:uuid:10f4e55d-775e-4f94-b21d-b270d5c68d58> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.portaltotheuniverse.org/blogs/posts/view/629254/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.980371 | 261 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2099207937717... | 2 | Vera Rubin was born in Philadelphia, USA in 1928. Her father worked as an electrical engineer, her mother for the Bell Telephone Company and her sister pursued a career as an administrative judge. Rubin was different, however, and was always fascinated by physics and astronomy.
In 1965, she successfully became the first woman to be granted permission to use the instruments at Palomar Observatory, California. In the same year, Rubin successfully secured a position at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington, where she began work on galaxy clusters – what she found was even more extraordinary than her previous work and would have consequences for our understanding of today’s cosmos. When Rubin observed her galaxies, she found that their rotation curves didn’t match up to theory. What could the explanation be? Little did she know, she had found the first indicator for dark matter, an elusive material believed to make up around 25 per cent of the “missing” mass of the universe. Rubin knew that her new findings would be criticised and so, in a bid to avoid it, she decided to slant her research more towards the study of the rotation curves of singular galaxies, rather than the wildly debated galaxy clusters. She began her research with our closest spiral, the Andromeda galaxy. | 266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Harold Godwinson, the Earl of Wessex, was the most powerful noble in England and the brother-in-law of King Alfred of England. Alfred had no children and no successor except a young nephew who would not be considered not be considered because of his age. The Witenagemot, an assembly of the nobility determined the succession, not primogeniture.
Harold’s crowning after Alfred’s death was a cause for war with William whose great-aunt was Harold’s mother which he saw as giving him rights to the English throne. While William was preparing his invasion, Harold’s brother, Tostig, however, approached King of Norway, Harald Hardrada, to help him usurp the throne of England. Harold Hardrada, however, decided he had some claim to the throne himself. The two joined forces to push their claim by force of arms (that means they were going to attack Harold and England.).
While King Harold awaited William’s arrival in the south, Harald Hardrada with Earl Tostig invaded England from the north (near York). King Harold’s forces marched north and defeated the Norwegian Vikings at Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. Both Hardrada and Tostig died in battle.
When Harold heard that the Duke William’s forces had landed he hurried southward to meet the invaders. Ignoring his brother’s, Earl Gyrth, advice to delay to recover from battle and assemble more men, he left London on October 12th and arrived at Senlac Hill on October 13th only to be defeated and killed in battle by William. Pic: Duke William and Harold in Normandy Hawking in better days.
Tomorrow, William the Bastard Rita Bay
The battle of Hastings was fought on October 14, 1066. The battle ensured the Norman conquest of England. The battle actually occurred at Senlac Hill, near what is now Battle, East Sussex. Battle Abbey, which was founded by King William perhaps serves as a memorial to the fallen or as penance for the bloodshed, marks the site where it is believed that the battle was fought.
King Harold Godwinson had succeeded to the English throne with the death of King Edward the Confessor. Harold’s right to succeed to the throne was based on his assertion that King Edward the Confessor had passed the crown to him on his deathbed. The assembly of nobles, the Witenagemot, supported his claim.
Duke William of Normandy claimed that the crown was his. When Harold was crowned King, William took it as a declaration of war. He gathered his allies, knights, and troops with promises of land and titles. His forces crossed the English Channel and landed at Pevensey on September 28th. In the battle of Hastings the superiority of the combined arms attack over an army predominately composed of infantry was demonstrated.
The shield wall of the English infantry could not stand against the coordinated assault of William’s archers, cavalry and infantry. When the Norman army retreated Harold’s men led by his two brothers (Leofwyne and Gyrthe ) pursued them, they were attacked and destroyed. Harold was possibly shot in the eye with an arrow, then cut down with a sword. He was the last king of England to die on a battlefield until Richard III on Bosworth Field, possibly from an arrow in his eye The battle ended with a rout of the English army and the death of all the housecarls (professional soldiers) who were bound to Harold.
Tomorrow, Harold at Stamford Bridge Rita Bay | <urn:uuid:6de90379-f905-44f9-9fc6-f1d9f9ab19a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ritabay.com/tag/duke-william-of-normandy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00076.warc.gz | en | 0.983719 | 746 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.24970202... | 3 | Harold Godwinson, the Earl of Wessex, was the most powerful noble in England and the brother-in-law of King Alfred of England. Alfred had no children and no successor except a young nephew who would not be considered not be considered because of his age. The Witenagemot, an assembly of the nobility determined the succession, not primogeniture.
Harold’s crowning after Alfred’s death was a cause for war with William whose great-aunt was Harold’s mother which he saw as giving him rights to the English throne. While William was preparing his invasion, Harold’s brother, Tostig, however, approached King of Norway, Harald Hardrada, to help him usurp the throne of England. Harold Hardrada, however, decided he had some claim to the throne himself. The two joined forces to push their claim by force of arms (that means they were going to attack Harold and England.).
While King Harold awaited William’s arrival in the south, Harald Hardrada with Earl Tostig invaded England from the north (near York). King Harold’s forces marched north and defeated the Norwegian Vikings at Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. Both Hardrada and Tostig died in battle.
When Harold heard that the Duke William’s forces had landed he hurried southward to meet the invaders. Ignoring his brother’s, Earl Gyrth, advice to delay to recover from battle and assemble more men, he left London on October 12th and arrived at Senlac Hill on October 13th only to be defeated and killed in battle by William. Pic: Duke William and Harold in Normandy Hawking in better days.
Tomorrow, William the Bastard Rita Bay
The battle of Hastings was fought on October 14, 1066. The battle ensured the Norman conquest of England. The battle actually occurred at Senlac Hill, near what is now Battle, East Sussex. Battle Abbey, which was founded by King William perhaps serves as a memorial to the fallen or as penance for the bloodshed, marks the site where it is believed that the battle was fought.
King Harold Godwinson had succeeded to the English throne with the death of King Edward the Confessor. Harold’s right to succeed to the throne was based on his assertion that King Edward the Confessor had passed the crown to him on his deathbed. The assembly of nobles, the Witenagemot, supported his claim.
Duke William of Normandy claimed that the crown was his. When Harold was crowned King, William took it as a declaration of war. He gathered his allies, knights, and troops with promises of land and titles. His forces crossed the English Channel and landed at Pevensey on September 28th. In the battle of Hastings the superiority of the combined arms attack over an army predominately composed of infantry was demonstrated.
The shield wall of the English infantry could not stand against the coordinated assault of William’s archers, cavalry and infantry. When the Norman army retreated Harold’s men led by his two brothers (Leofwyne and Gyrthe ) pursued them, they were attacked and destroyed. Harold was possibly shot in the eye with an arrow, then cut down with a sword. He was the last king of England to die on a battlefield until Richard III on Bosworth Field, possibly from an arrow in his eye The battle ended with a rout of the English army and the death of all the housecarls (professional soldiers) who were bound to Harold.
Tomorrow, Harold at Stamford Bridge Rita Bay | 733 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to the recorded history, the first Christmas was celebrated on 25 December 336 under the regime of the first Christian Roman emperor “Constantine”. Pope Julius (I) was the pope who settled the date 25th December. Christmas celebrates the birth of the son of Zeus “Jesus”, who was born in the city of Bethlehem, which also holds the religious connection for Muslims and Jews. Even before Christmas, the winters in Europe has always been celebrated with storytelling and lights.
Before Christmas “Easter” was the most celebrated festival in Christianity. The date” 25th” December has been argued by many historians to be incorrect. Even bible doesn't clearly mention the Jesus birth date and there are reasons to believe that 25th December is not the right date as one argued that “Why would the Shepard be herding the sheep's in the middle of harsh winters”.
However, Pope Julius (I) choose 25th December as the official date of Jesus birth and many argue that he did this in order to promote and adopt the “Pagan Saturnalia” festival. In the Greek and Russian orthodox system, Christmas is celebrated 13 days after 25th December as they believe that it was after 13 days 3 wise men found Jesus in the manger.
Whatever the reasons may be today Christmas is the most celebrated festival around the world with around 2.2 billion Christians adherent.
According to the recorded history, the first Christmas was celebrated on 25 December 336 under the regime of the first Christian Roman emperor “Constantine”. Pope Julius (I) was the...Read More | <urn:uuid:5388ad57-4452-4372-8f8e-9daaba630d60> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/1056529/-when-was-the-first-christmas-celebrated-and-why | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.982508 | 333 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | According to the recorded history, the first Christmas was celebrated on 25 December 336 under the regime of the first Christian Roman emperor “Constantine”. Pope Julius (I) was the pope who settled the date 25th December. Christmas celebrates the birth of the son of Zeus “Jesus”, who was born in the city of Bethlehem, which also holds the religious connection for Muslims and Jews. Even before Christmas, the winters in Europe has always been celebrated with storytelling and lights.
Before Christmas “Easter” was the most celebrated festival in Christianity. The date” 25th” December has been argued by many historians to be incorrect. Even bible doesn't clearly mention the Jesus birth date and there are reasons to believe that 25th December is not the right date as one argued that “Why would the Shepard be herding the sheep's in the middle of harsh winters”.
However, Pope Julius (I) choose 25th December as the official date of Jesus birth and many argue that he did this in order to promote and adopt the “Pagan Saturnalia” festival. In the Greek and Russian orthodox system, Christmas is celebrated 13 days after 25th December as they believe that it was after 13 days 3 wise men found Jesus in the manger.
Whatever the reasons may be today Christmas is the most celebrated festival around the world with around 2.2 billion Christians adherent.
According to the recorded history, the first Christmas was celebrated on 25 December 336 under the regime of the first Christian Roman emperor “Constantine”. Pope Julius (I) was the...Read More | 337 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today, class 1's activities were focusing on patterns and self portraits! They each had a large a3 paper and drew a picture of themselves, focusing on hair, eyes, nose and mouth. The teachers shared that Pau is an amazing artist. His lines were straight and all of his facial features were realistic and accurate.
Their next task was to colour in the catapillars body copying the colours the sheet had previously drawn. This involved lots of counting and concentration!
During farm time, the children collected the chickens eggs, fed the donkeys, ponys and goats and then went to make cinnamon swirls in the outdoor kitchen! The kids loved to create a swirly shape with the sweet cinnamon dough!
Today in class 3, the children were looking at the theme of emotions! They begun by showing me their best impressions, and then creating their own bingo table of labelled pictures from the feelings that we'd been talking about. Through an interesting bit of role play, they had to guess how the actor's were feeling! They enjoyed it a lot, and picked up the language very quickly. Next up, they all had a read of various scenarios and tried to empathise, and imagine how they would react. Some good acting skills within the group, well done kids! | <urn:uuid:5c6a9006-17c6-4114-bfcd-9c631e3196e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.internationalruralschool.com/single-post/2017/05/04/Emotions | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00181.warc.gz | en | 0.989366 | 261 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.438698768615722... | 3 | Today, class 1's activities were focusing on patterns and self portraits! They each had a large a3 paper and drew a picture of themselves, focusing on hair, eyes, nose and mouth. The teachers shared that Pau is an amazing artist. His lines were straight and all of his facial features were realistic and accurate.
Their next task was to colour in the catapillars body copying the colours the sheet had previously drawn. This involved lots of counting and concentration!
During farm time, the children collected the chickens eggs, fed the donkeys, ponys and goats and then went to make cinnamon swirls in the outdoor kitchen! The kids loved to create a swirly shape with the sweet cinnamon dough!
Today in class 3, the children were looking at the theme of emotions! They begun by showing me their best impressions, and then creating their own bingo table of labelled pictures from the feelings that we'd been talking about. Through an interesting bit of role play, they had to guess how the actor's were feeling! They enjoyed it a lot, and picked up the language very quickly. Next up, they all had a read of various scenarios and tried to empathise, and imagine how they would react. Some good acting skills within the group, well done kids! | 259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Aleppo
Aleppo, going back to the early 2nd millennium BC, competes with Damascus on being the oldest inhabited city in the world. It appeared in the Hittite archives in central Anatolia and in the archives of Mari on the Euphrates. Aleppo (Halab) was the capital of the Amorite kingdom of Yamkhad, in the middle centuries of that millennium. It was the focus of the Hittites in their overthrow of the Amorite Dynasty, in 1595 BC. In about 1000 BC, Northern Syria was taken over by the Sea Peoples; however Aleppo remained a small Neo-Hittite state. From 800 BC to 400 BC, the Assyrians followed by the Persians were in control of Syria.
In 333 BC, Aleppo was taken over by Alexander the Great, and was kept under the Greeks for 300 years in the form of the Seleucid Empire. During this time Aleppo was an important trading city, between the Euphrates and Antioch.
In 64 BC Pompey brought Syria under Roman domination. It remained under Roman control in the form of the Byzantine Empire until 637AD, when the Arabs took over.
In the 10th century Aleppo was taken over by the Hamdanids who made it virtually independent until 962 AD when it was retaken by the Byzantine Empire. In 1098, it was circled by soldiers from the First Crusade who could not conquer it, but paralyzed its commercial power. It was besieged again in 1124 by another Crusade, and then taken over by Zengi and his successor Nur al Din.
Saladin then took over and at his death the Ayyubid dynasty was perpetuated in Aleppo. At the Mameluke period, trade was diverted from Aleppo to the North in Antioch and to the South through Palmyra. But when the Mongol Empire broke up and some converted to Islam, trade resumed through Aleppo. The Ottomans later took over, but by that time Europe had redirected its trade through sea routes to India and China.
During World War I, Aleppo's trade rose with the arrival of Armenian refugees, who fled the Ottoman massacres. But after France had given Antioch to Turkey, Aleppo lost its Mediterranean outlet. | <urn:uuid:570d51fb-1fbe-4fd6-839b-0afcfcbbd5db> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://algassania2.mam9.com/t656-history-of-aleppo | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.980905 | 452 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.220681384205... | 2 | History of Aleppo
Aleppo, going back to the early 2nd millennium BC, competes with Damascus on being the oldest inhabited city in the world. It appeared in the Hittite archives in central Anatolia and in the archives of Mari on the Euphrates. Aleppo (Halab) was the capital of the Amorite kingdom of Yamkhad, in the middle centuries of that millennium. It was the focus of the Hittites in their overthrow of the Amorite Dynasty, in 1595 BC. In about 1000 BC, Northern Syria was taken over by the Sea Peoples; however Aleppo remained a small Neo-Hittite state. From 800 BC to 400 BC, the Assyrians followed by the Persians were in control of Syria.
In 333 BC, Aleppo was taken over by Alexander the Great, and was kept under the Greeks for 300 years in the form of the Seleucid Empire. During this time Aleppo was an important trading city, between the Euphrates and Antioch.
In 64 BC Pompey brought Syria under Roman domination. It remained under Roman control in the form of the Byzantine Empire until 637AD, when the Arabs took over.
In the 10th century Aleppo was taken over by the Hamdanids who made it virtually independent until 962 AD when it was retaken by the Byzantine Empire. In 1098, it was circled by soldiers from the First Crusade who could not conquer it, but paralyzed its commercial power. It was besieged again in 1124 by another Crusade, and then taken over by Zengi and his successor Nur al Din.
Saladin then took over and at his death the Ayyubid dynasty was perpetuated in Aleppo. At the Mameluke period, trade was diverted from Aleppo to the North in Antioch and to the South through Palmyra. But when the Mongol Empire broke up and some converted to Islam, trade resumed through Aleppo. The Ottomans later took over, but by that time Europe had redirected its trade through sea routes to India and China.
During World War I, Aleppo's trade rose with the arrival of Armenian refugees, who fled the Ottoman massacres. But after France had given Antioch to Turkey, Aleppo lost its Mediterranean outlet. | 497 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On July 26, 1937, social unrest erupted in Bridgetown. Intensifying on July 27, it soon spread to some rural districts. Known as the 1937 Labour rebellion, these events ushered in a period of socio-political change that culminated in the attainment of independence on November 30, 1966.
In 1937, Barbados was a country greatly divided by race, with the white elite holding economic and political power. The native black population was employed mainly in the agricultural sector and suffering from poverty. There was a lack of opportunity and employment in the area which kept the common man down and was not advanced due to the dismal labour conditions and social/economic malaise. The racial structure that ruled the social, economic and political landscape rigidly reinforced these conditions. Barbados was a country still ruled by the plantation and there owners even one hundred years after slaver was abolished.
Clement Payne, one of a few men who stood up for the working people of Barbados and advocated for the labour reform and the formation of trade unions, was able to inspire the common man to rise up and fend for themselves. Seeing how this could turn into an uprising and change in the social structure on the colony, the Barbadian authorities deported Payne to Trinidad on July 26th, 1937. Crowds gathered at the news of his deportation and the anger and frustration that had built up erupted into riots that lasted for four days.
The years following the riots would witness significant social and political reform in Barbados as native black Barbadians emerged to rule a country where they were the majority. Payne, who died in 1941, did not live to see how he had impacted his fellow man, but his bravery in rebelling against the status quo was not in vain as generations of Bajans have benefited from his actions. Payne is now deemed a National Hero of Barbados. | <urn:uuid:92023743-5e76-4b97-87b0-d7df637731d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.caribbeannationalweekly.com/uncategorized/day-history-33-5/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.986148 | 374 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.457091... | 6 | On July 26, 1937, social unrest erupted in Bridgetown. Intensifying on July 27, it soon spread to some rural districts. Known as the 1937 Labour rebellion, these events ushered in a period of socio-political change that culminated in the attainment of independence on November 30, 1966.
In 1937, Barbados was a country greatly divided by race, with the white elite holding economic and political power. The native black population was employed mainly in the agricultural sector and suffering from poverty. There was a lack of opportunity and employment in the area which kept the common man down and was not advanced due to the dismal labour conditions and social/economic malaise. The racial structure that ruled the social, economic and political landscape rigidly reinforced these conditions. Barbados was a country still ruled by the plantation and there owners even one hundred years after slaver was abolished.
Clement Payne, one of a few men who stood up for the working people of Barbados and advocated for the labour reform and the formation of trade unions, was able to inspire the common man to rise up and fend for themselves. Seeing how this could turn into an uprising and change in the social structure on the colony, the Barbadian authorities deported Payne to Trinidad on July 26th, 1937. Crowds gathered at the news of his deportation and the anger and frustration that had built up erupted into riots that lasted for four days.
The years following the riots would witness significant social and political reform in Barbados as native black Barbadians emerged to rule a country where they were the majority. Payne, who died in 1941, did not live to see how he had impacted his fellow man, but his bravery in rebelling against the status quo was not in vain as generations of Bajans have benefited from his actions. Payne is now deemed a National Hero of Barbados. | 403 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Now is the winter of our discontent, made glorious summer by this sun of York was coined by Shakespeare and put into print in Richard III, 1594. The 'sun of York' wasn't of course a comment on Yorkshire weather but on King Richard. In this play Shakespeare presents an account of Richard's character that, until the late 20th century, largely formed the popular opinion of him as a malevolent, deformed schemer. Historians now view that representation as a dramatic plot device - necessary for the villainous role that Shakespeare had allocated him. It isn't consistent with what is now known of Richard III, who in many ways showed himself to be an enlightened and forward-looking monarch.
"Now is the winter of our discontent" are the opening words of the play and lay the groundwork for the portrait of Richard as a discontented man who is unhappy in a world that hates him. Later he describes himself as "Deformed, unfinished, sent before his time into this breathing world, scarce half made up". This deformity, which has now been shown to have been exaggerated or even deliberately faked in portraits of Richard, is given as the source of his supposed evil doings. He says that as he "cannot prove a lover" he is "determined to be a villain".
The brooding malevolence that Shakespeare has Richard personify mirrors the playwright's view of the state of the English nation during the Wars of the Roses. | <urn:uuid:52b6789e-4650-40de-a6a2-31b3522b9f33> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.poetrynook.com/review/now-winter | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00048.warc.gz | en | 0.980869 | 296 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.20434208214282... | 2 | Now is the winter of our discontent, made glorious summer by this sun of York was coined by Shakespeare and put into print in Richard III, 1594. The 'sun of York' wasn't of course a comment on Yorkshire weather but on King Richard. In this play Shakespeare presents an account of Richard's character that, until the late 20th century, largely formed the popular opinion of him as a malevolent, deformed schemer. Historians now view that representation as a dramatic plot device - necessary for the villainous role that Shakespeare had allocated him. It isn't consistent with what is now known of Richard III, who in many ways showed himself to be an enlightened and forward-looking monarch.
"Now is the winter of our discontent" are the opening words of the play and lay the groundwork for the portrait of Richard as a discontented man who is unhappy in a world that hates him. Later he describes himself as "Deformed, unfinished, sent before his time into this breathing world, scarce half made up". This deformity, which has now been shown to have been exaggerated or even deliberately faked in portraits of Richard, is given as the source of his supposed evil doings. He says that as he "cannot prove a lover" he is "determined to be a villain".
The brooding malevolence that Shakespeare has Richard personify mirrors the playwright's view of the state of the English nation during the Wars of the Roses. | 296 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What do an 8th century priest, a 16th century religious reformer, and the Victorian royals have in common? They all played a role in the history of the Christmas tree. Let’s find out how…
8th Century: St. Boniface, Fir Trees, and Christianity
Bringing branches and greenery into homes in the winter was found in many religions and goes back to ancient times. But linking the evergreen tree to Christianity (and then by association to Christmas) seems to have begun with an 8th century English missionary to Germany who later became known as St. Boniface.
Pagans and Oak Trees
Around 717 an English priest called Boniface went to Germany as a missionary and settled in the region of Hesse. The people there were pagans, and they worshipped at sacred trees. The main tree in the area was a large oak called the Donar Oak. Donar is the Old German word for the mythological, hammer-wielding god of thunder, also known as Thor or Jupiter.
According to legend, Boniface would call for people to come and hear him preach but he just couldn’t draw a crowd. Everyone was out worshiping at the big Donar Oak. Something had to be done. Boniface decided to prove to the locals once and for all that his God was mightier than theirs. So he announced a meeting at the Donar tree.
When everyone had gathered, Boniface pulled out an axe and started hacking at the tree’s trunk. But no one tried to stop him – they were just curious. The tree that represented their god looked much stronger than the scrawny little priest with an axe. They were just watching and waiting for Thor to throw down a thunderbolt and finish off the mad missionary.
But after Boniface had made only a few chops, a strong wind rushed through the forest and the mighty oak began to crack and lean. Thor’s devotees scattered as the representation of their god crashed to the ground.
Christians and Fir Trees
Then Boniface stood on the stump and said “See, I told you my God was stronger than yours.” Everyone was pretty impressed and converted to Christianity under Boniface’s instructions.
Then, miraculously, from the roots of that pagan oak tree, a fir tree sprang up. Since everyone was used to associating trees with religion, they immediately took the evergreen tree as a symbol of Christianity and everlasting life.
This legend explains the early connection of the fir tree with Christianity in Germany. As the new religion spread through the country, the evergreen tree went with it and soon became linked to the main Christian holiday of Christmas.
So it seems that an English missionary might have introduced the Germans to the idea of a Christmas tree – and the Germans took it from there…
16th Century: Martin Luther and Lighted, Indoor Trees
By the 16th century, decorated Christmas trees were being set up in guild halls and public squares in Germany. But most people weren’t bringing entire trees into their homes. They were putting up evergreen branches which they would decorate with apples, oranges, nuts, paper roses, etc.
One legend says that Martin Luther, leader of the Protestant Reformation, was the first one to bring a tree indoors and light it with candles.
Stars and Candles
As the story goes, it was a cold, clear winter’s evening about 1536, and Martin was walking home through a forest of evergreen trees. He looked up toward the heavens to say a prayer, and his heart was stirred by the beauty of what he saw: a sea of stars twinkling through the green boughs. It was such a wonderful sight that he wanted to recreate it and share it with his wife and children.
So he found a small fir tree, dug it up and took it home. Mrs. Luther must have been surprised to see him walk in the door with a tree. He told her of his forest experience and they put the tree in a big tub and set it on a table. To represent the stars, they attached little candles to the branches.
Whether or not Martin Luther was truly the first one to bring a whole tree indoors and put candles on it, we can’t say for sure. However, we do know that it soon became a German Christmas tradition that has lasted until this day – with electric lights eventually replacing the candles, of course.
19th Century: British Royals and Christmas Trees
In 18th century England, people were still following the old tradition of bringing evergreen boughs inside and decorating them at Christmas time. Bringing a tree inside the home was considered a very German custom.
Queen Charlotte Brings Trees to the Nobles
Then in 1761, King George III of England married Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was German, and she was the one responsible for the first known Christmas tree in England. It was in Windsor in 1800, and Queen Charlotte was planning a big Christmas party for the children. She invited all the kiddies of the important families of Windsor.
The Queen thought a real German Christmas tree would be a wonderful surprise. So she had an evergreen tree potted up and placed in the middle of the drawing room in the Queen’s Lodge. It was hung with fruit, nuts and raisins wrapped in colorful paper, and small toys. Then little wax candles were attached to the branched to light it up.
It was a huge success with those who had seen it, and it was copied by many of the lords, dukes, and earls, the following year. Queen Charlotte was Queen Victoria’s grandmother, so Victoria would have had a Christmas tree in her home as a child.
Victoria and Albert Bring Trees to Everyone
So, in 1840 when newlyweds, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert (her German cousin) set up their first Christmas tree together. It wasn’t anything new. All the upper class families had trees by then, but Christmas trees were still very much a novelty to the British public.
That all changed in 1843 when several periodicals printed an image of the young Royal Family gathered around their Christmas tree. Along with the image, the magazines and newspapers described in detail how the royal tree was decorated. This Christmas commentary continued every year until the 1850s, and soon nearly every home in the UK had a decorated tree for Christmas.
In America, German immigrants had brought the Christmas tree custom with them, but the tradition wasn’t widespread. When American magazines also printed these royal Christmas images, Americans jumped on the Christmas tree bandwagon too.
Since the decorated trees were a German tradition and since Prince Albert was German, the public gave him credit for introducing the Christmas tree – “that pretty German Toy,” as Charles Dickens called it.
So it seems that the Christmas tree came full circle. It was introduced to the Germans by a British missionary. Then after the Germans perfected the Christmas tree tradition, they sent it back to the UK with the royal spouses.
Hope everyone is enjoying a happy holiday season!
*Don’t Miss Anything– To receive an email when I post an article (every other week or so) enter your email below and click the Follow the Curious Rambler button. | <urn:uuid:e0975173-11b6-4cfd-a948-0d1179502208> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://curiousrambler.com/history-of-the-christmas-tree/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.982574 | 1,524 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.131816446781... | 3 | What do an 8th century priest, a 16th century religious reformer, and the Victorian royals have in common? They all played a role in the history of the Christmas tree. Let’s find out how…
8th Century: St. Boniface, Fir Trees, and Christianity
Bringing branches and greenery into homes in the winter was found in many religions and goes back to ancient times. But linking the evergreen tree to Christianity (and then by association to Christmas) seems to have begun with an 8th century English missionary to Germany who later became known as St. Boniface.
Pagans and Oak Trees
Around 717 an English priest called Boniface went to Germany as a missionary and settled in the region of Hesse. The people there were pagans, and they worshipped at sacred trees. The main tree in the area was a large oak called the Donar Oak. Donar is the Old German word for the mythological, hammer-wielding god of thunder, also known as Thor or Jupiter.
According to legend, Boniface would call for people to come and hear him preach but he just couldn’t draw a crowd. Everyone was out worshiping at the big Donar Oak. Something had to be done. Boniface decided to prove to the locals once and for all that his God was mightier than theirs. So he announced a meeting at the Donar tree.
When everyone had gathered, Boniface pulled out an axe and started hacking at the tree’s trunk. But no one tried to stop him – they were just curious. The tree that represented their god looked much stronger than the scrawny little priest with an axe. They were just watching and waiting for Thor to throw down a thunderbolt and finish off the mad missionary.
But after Boniface had made only a few chops, a strong wind rushed through the forest and the mighty oak began to crack and lean. Thor’s devotees scattered as the representation of their god crashed to the ground.
Christians and Fir Trees
Then Boniface stood on the stump and said “See, I told you my God was stronger than yours.” Everyone was pretty impressed and converted to Christianity under Boniface’s instructions.
Then, miraculously, from the roots of that pagan oak tree, a fir tree sprang up. Since everyone was used to associating trees with religion, they immediately took the evergreen tree as a symbol of Christianity and everlasting life.
This legend explains the early connection of the fir tree with Christianity in Germany. As the new religion spread through the country, the evergreen tree went with it and soon became linked to the main Christian holiday of Christmas.
So it seems that an English missionary might have introduced the Germans to the idea of a Christmas tree – and the Germans took it from there…
16th Century: Martin Luther and Lighted, Indoor Trees
By the 16th century, decorated Christmas trees were being set up in guild halls and public squares in Germany. But most people weren’t bringing entire trees into their homes. They were putting up evergreen branches which they would decorate with apples, oranges, nuts, paper roses, etc.
One legend says that Martin Luther, leader of the Protestant Reformation, was the first one to bring a tree indoors and light it with candles.
Stars and Candles
As the story goes, it was a cold, clear winter’s evening about 1536, and Martin was walking home through a forest of evergreen trees. He looked up toward the heavens to say a prayer, and his heart was stirred by the beauty of what he saw: a sea of stars twinkling through the green boughs. It was such a wonderful sight that he wanted to recreate it and share it with his wife and children.
So he found a small fir tree, dug it up and took it home. Mrs. Luther must have been surprised to see him walk in the door with a tree. He told her of his forest experience and they put the tree in a big tub and set it on a table. To represent the stars, they attached little candles to the branches.
Whether or not Martin Luther was truly the first one to bring a whole tree indoors and put candles on it, we can’t say for sure. However, we do know that it soon became a German Christmas tradition that has lasted until this day – with electric lights eventually replacing the candles, of course.
19th Century: British Royals and Christmas Trees
In 18th century England, people were still following the old tradition of bringing evergreen boughs inside and decorating them at Christmas time. Bringing a tree inside the home was considered a very German custom.
Queen Charlotte Brings Trees to the Nobles
Then in 1761, King George III of England married Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was German, and she was the one responsible for the first known Christmas tree in England. It was in Windsor in 1800, and Queen Charlotte was planning a big Christmas party for the children. She invited all the kiddies of the important families of Windsor.
The Queen thought a real German Christmas tree would be a wonderful surprise. So she had an evergreen tree potted up and placed in the middle of the drawing room in the Queen’s Lodge. It was hung with fruit, nuts and raisins wrapped in colorful paper, and small toys. Then little wax candles were attached to the branched to light it up.
It was a huge success with those who had seen it, and it was copied by many of the lords, dukes, and earls, the following year. Queen Charlotte was Queen Victoria’s grandmother, so Victoria would have had a Christmas tree in her home as a child.
Victoria and Albert Bring Trees to Everyone
So, in 1840 when newlyweds, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert (her German cousin) set up their first Christmas tree together. It wasn’t anything new. All the upper class families had trees by then, but Christmas trees were still very much a novelty to the British public.
That all changed in 1843 when several periodicals printed an image of the young Royal Family gathered around their Christmas tree. Along with the image, the magazines and newspapers described in detail how the royal tree was decorated. This Christmas commentary continued every year until the 1850s, and soon nearly every home in the UK had a decorated tree for Christmas.
In America, German immigrants had brought the Christmas tree custom with them, but the tradition wasn’t widespread. When American magazines also printed these royal Christmas images, Americans jumped on the Christmas tree bandwagon too.
Since the decorated trees were a German tradition and since Prince Albert was German, the public gave him credit for introducing the Christmas tree – “that pretty German Toy,” as Charles Dickens called it.
So it seems that the Christmas tree came full circle. It was introduced to the Germans by a British missionary. Then after the Germans perfected the Christmas tree tradition, they sent it back to the UK with the royal spouses.
Hope everyone is enjoying a happy holiday season!
*Don’t Miss Anything– To receive an email when I post an article (every other week or so) enter your email below and click the Follow the Curious Rambler button. | 1,485 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Just as my grandpa spread the love of the game to my family, the United States Navy was instrumental in introducing and popularizing the game of baseball around the world. Baseball was first brought to Japan in 1870 and when U.S. naval ships docked later in the 1870s, they began playing against the local teams.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Baseball and the American Military during World War" essay for youCreate order
From Japan, the game spread to Korea and Taiwan. Before the start of World War I, the U.S. Navy had introduced the game in China, Hawaii, the Virgin Islands, Nicaragua, and the Philippines.3 Countries surrounded by water were easily reached and were common stopping points for the U.S. Navy. During World War I, baseball was what brought soldiers together. It was an integral part of Navy training. The War Department developed the slogan Every American Soldier a baseball player and it was assimilated into training camp drills and activities. Throughout the course of the war, 440 major and minor league ball players fought overseas, and only six died. Baseball was often used as a diplomatic tool. Tensions in a meeting could be lessened on the playing field because sports bring people together in a way that nothing else does.
At the start of the 1941 baseball season, America was not yet involved in the war in Europe. A national publication that dominated in covering baseball called The Sporting News, released a cartoon that was titled Europe’s national pastime seems to be war; America’s is baseball. That season would be the last for a while, with the war raging on in Europe, many players enlisted to join the fight. The 1941 season was known for three things; Joe DiMaggio of the New York Yankees had a 56-game hitting streak, Ted Williams of the Boston Red Sox accrued a .406 batting average, and the World Series was between two New York rivals – the Yankees and the Brooklyn Dodgers. The United States entered the war just two months after the World Series ended, with DiMaggio and Williams both enlisting in 1943.
December 7, 1941 was the day that the United States Naval Base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii was to have their baseball championship. The baseball teams from the battleship USS Arizona and the USS Enterprise were set to play. Unfortunately, the game was delayed due to the USS Enterprise being unable to return to port on time, and the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred instead. 1,177 crewmen died on the Arizona, many of which were the baseball players who were meant to be playing in a game that day.5 The USS Arizona was completely destroyed during the strike and was sunk by the Japanese. Parts of the sunken battleship still lies at the bottom of Pearl Harbor where there is a memorial to those who died on it. Pearl Harbor was the catalyst for propelling America head on into World War II.
Military leaders also recognized baseball as an excellent training device and tool for success. Army Commander General Brehon Somervell said The sandlots and big league ballparks of America have contributed to our military success. A million and a half kids from junior sandlot teams are in the Armed Forces. They learned the teamwork it takes to win a battle or war. We never dare forget that a campaign can be upset by a ninth inning rally. We dare not relax until the last man is out. In baseball, you learn that anything can happen to change the course of the game, just as in war. One base hit or one battle can mean the difference between winning and losing. It is also vital to remember that even if you are up two runs in the bottom of the ninth inning, the game is still on. Many sailors had these lessons instilled in them from a young age due to their playing ball, which was beneficial then being in the Navy. It is also important to note that sports train sailors to be better than the enemy both mentally and physically because they are used to the pressure, competitiveness, and dedication it takes to succeed in athletics.
One of the most important components of success during war time is morale. A military can have thousands of weapons and soldiers, but if they aren’t happy or invested in the cause, then that causes a problem. The United States War Department made it a goal to provide opportunities to increase morale. They recognized baseball as a crowd favorite with sailors. Leaders made it a priority to provide ships loaded with bats, balls, and other gear. Baseball fields were also constructed, especially in the Pacific, for sailors to play on in their free time. Professional players were sent out to these fields to play exhibition games for the troops as entertainment and a way for the men to escape the horrors of war for an afternoon. Baseball was so instrumental in raising sailor’s spirits because it reminded them of home. It’s America’s national pastime, it brings different generations together, teaches life lessons, and provides a time where everyone can forget about life’s problems for the length of the game. It can be played in the backyard with friends and family, or watched in a stadium with thousands of people. Baseball in the navy discouraged homesickness because picking up a bat and ball could bring back memories of playing ball in the backyard and make them feel like they were home. Playing also gave them something to do during long trips at sea or while docked waiting for instructions. Baseball was not only played and talked about, but it was utilized in military names. The Allied campaign in North Africa was named Play Ball, pilots named their planes Winning Run, and warships were named after famous players like the SS Lou Gehrig and the SS Christy Mathewson. These names also brought a sense of connection to home and what they missed.
Before sailors even went to war, they were first recruits trained in the United States. The main two training grounds were the Great Lakes Naval Training Station outside of Chicago, where my grandfather was trained, and the Naval Training Station in Norfolk, Virginia. The Great Lakes Naval Training Station was founded in 1911 and remains to this day the Navy’s largest training facility. The station was also the first site to allow African American trainees in 1942. While at first segregated, all training was integrated by mid-1945. Over four million sailor served on active duty for the United States Navy in World War II, and over one million of those sailors were trained at the Great Lakes Training Station. After leaving the training center, sailors were sent out across the Pacific or Atlantic. It was on their ships that they made teams and scheduled games for when they reached land. Phil Rizzuto, a Hall of Famer who played shortstop for the New York Yankees said he never met anyone who didn’t like baseball while in the Navy.10 Sailors could talk about a good game for days, and they followed their favorite teams anytime they could get news. Baseball was one thing that everyone on the ship could have in common, a devout Christian from Texas and a Jewish sailor from New York could bond over their love of the game.
With the war in full force, the United States Military put on the Servicemen’s World Series from September 22nd to October 15th, 1944 in Honolulu. Navy defeated Army in eight out of eleven games awarding the title of champion to the United States Navy team. 50 players participated in the series and 36 of them had played in the major leagues back home. Although the Navy won many more games, all eleven games were played so that as many people could watch the games as possible and they were exclusively for servicemen with almost 20,000 attending each game. These games allowed for an escape from the fighting, and an opportunity for all the men in the military to come together and enjoy America’s favorite pastime, something they were all fighting to protect.
Over the course of World War II, over 500 major league players and 4,000 minor league players joined the United States Military, with 15 Hall of Famers joining the Navy. One of such men was Cleveland Indians pitcher Bob Feller. In his seven years playing professional baseball before the war, he accumulated a record of 107-54. When the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, Feller was driving back to Cleveland after visiting his terminally ill father in order to meet with his bosses to sign his 1942 contract with the Indians. Although Feller was exempt from military service due to his father’s illness, he gave up his chance to earn $100,000, which would be $1.7 million today, with the Indians to became the first professional athlete to join the Navy just two days after Pearl Harbor. Feller called fighting in the Navy one of the greatest experiences of his life. He went on inactive duty in August 1945 and started for the Indians two days after returning home. Since he was able to play during his time in the Navy and remained in shape during his four-year absence, he allowed only four hits during his first game back and won 4-2 against the Tigers. In an interview Feller did in 2006, he said you can talk about teamwork on a baseball team, but I’ll tell you, it takes teamwork when you have 2,900 men stationed on the U.S.S Alabama in the South Pacific. Teamwork is a vital aspect of both baseball and war, but if you have previous experience with teamwork in a sport, it is easier to apply it in a vital event like an invasion or battle.
The Bob Feller Act of Valor Foundation was created to educate youth about the valor, commitment, and duty to country. The Bob Feller Act of Valor Award honors service men and women who have recognized the importance of service to one’s country, and have sacrificed in times of national need. The inspiring part about Feller’s story is that he was at the peak of his career, would have continued to thrive in the major’s, and was about to make $1.7 million in one season, but gave it all up to serve his country. His sacrifice and courage over 70 years ago, still motivates people today. Feller stated over 67,000 people came to watch his first game back from the war. Baseball players who fought in the war and returned home were welcomed back with open arms and treated as even bigger heroes than when they left. They were idols for being more than just good ball players, they helped save millions of people too.
At the start of the war, there was much debate about whether professional ball players should be exempt from the draft or if there should even be a 1942 baseball season at all. Harry Williams, the secretary of the Pacific Coast League was quoted as saying, We went to the trouble of teaching the Japs baseball, and we don’t intend to let them obliterate it.15 In mid-January, Commissioner Landis wrote a letter to President Roosevelt asking if professional baseball should continue during the war. The President responded that in his personal opinion, baseball should keep going. His reasoning was that because of the war, less people were unemployed and were working longer, harder hours than before. This meant that everyone deserved a chance to relax and enjoy a night out more than before the war. Roosevelt stated that even if less players were able to play due to being drafted, the lower quality of teams would not dampen the popularity of the sport because it still provided entertainment to millions of people. Congressman LaVern Dilweg said that baseball was important to those at war because they “hungrily await news of sports,” and a journalist named Quentin Reynolds said, Hitler has killed a great many things in the past few years. Do not let him kill baseball. With the arrival of Roosevelt’s letter, the 1942 season began as scheduled.
After the season began, baseball pledged $25,000 towards purchasing equipment for the army and navy sports programs and donated all proceeds from the All-Star Game that year towards the Bat and Ball Fund. The first order from this fund comprised of 18,000 baseballs and 4,500 bats. Every destination received a package containing three bats, twelve balls, and a complete set of catching equipment. Troops also received copies of the Sporting News, the national baseball publication. The sport raised money by putting part of each ticket towards the purchase of a B-17 bomber, a second all-star game was suggested each season to raise money for the Bat and Ball Fund, players and umpires wore a patch on their uniform that supported a physical fitness program sponsored by the Office of Civil Defense, and people were encouraged to take part of their salary in war bonds. Throughout the season, autographed baseballs were auctioned off to buy war bonds, and some clubs allowed fans to get into games if they donated scrap mental instead of buying a ticket.
The war threatened a baseball player’s career in more ways than one. Other than the possibility of death and injury, a player may have only had a year or two left of his career when he joined the military for a three-year deployment. In addition, a player who was in his prime when he enlisted or was drafted may have lost his spark and never played the same again. After the Selective Service Director of the draft, Lewis Hershey, announced that deferments should be available to actors and reporters, the public went into uproar.20 Hershey then clarified by stating that no replaceable man would be deferred. Americans wanted movies and baseball to continue in full force, but they didn’t want the stars to get special treatment in the draft in order for them to continue. Many famous ballplayers enlisted on their own anyways, Phil Rizzuto and Bob Feller enlisted in the Navy, Joe DiMaggio enlisted in the Navy even though he could have been deferred.
It was the correct decision to continue professional baseball during the war. Although most rosters depleted and had to resort to much lower quality players, they survived the war. Many players who would never have normally seen the majors, played there for a whole season. Pete Gray who had one arm played for St. Louis in 77 games in 1945, and a fifteen-year-old pitched in a game in 1944 for the Reds. In the 1945 World Series, the Detroit Tigers played the Chicago Cubs and a sportswriter wrote that neither team was good enough to win. Major league attendance dropped to 7.5 million in 1943 but climbed to an all-time high in 1945 at 10.8 million tickets. Nevertheless, every season continued and baseball still remained a high point of American’s lives and in the lives of soldiers and sailors overseas. Baseball was necessary for keeping servicemen in good spirits during the war.
World War II and the Navy spread baseball everywhere they went, and popularized it more in places it already existed. It provided a connection to home and the lives that were left behind or put on hold during the war. Baseball taught teamwork, dedication, and to never give up until the game or battle was over. The game helped form friendships and bonds between sailors who had no similarities or connections to one another. It also forms bonds between family members, it gives them time to spend together like it gave me and my grandfather. There really is no sport like baseball.
Act of Valor Award. Bob Feller Act of Valor Foundation. 2018. https://www.actofvaloraward.org/
Baseball Warms up for World War II. Puget Sound Navy Museum. 2018. https://www.pugetsoundnavymuseum.org/baseball-warms-wwii/
The Birth of Navy Baseball. Puget Sound Navy Museum. 2018. https://www.pugetsoundnavymuseum.org/when-baseball-went-to-war/
The Origins of Baseball. World Baseball Softball Confederation. 2018.
Who Invented Baseball? History.com. March 27, 2013. https://www.history.com/news/who-invented-baseball
Frank, Joel S. “Reviews of Bullock, Playing for Their Nation: Baseball and the American Military during World War II and Powers-Beck, The American Indian Integration of Baseball.” Pacific Historical Review 75, no. 3 (2006): 530-32. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2006.75.3.530?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchText=baseball&searchText=AND&searchText=navy&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dbaseball%2BAND%2Bnavy&refreqid=search%3Acb44929b37a8d6bb51b29e6561b1b745&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
Keene, Anne Raugh. During World War II, the Game of Their Lives. The New York Times. July 29, 2018. https://case.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?bookMark=ePnHCXMw42LgTQStzc4rAe_hSmECnVdqagwsCS1NWWBHORkbG3Ign_HEyaDjAt6VpwBeQqIQnlik4OmpowA0R8E9MTdVIT9NIQQ0cK7gAzqMlYeBNQ0YOam8UJqbQdXNNcTZQxdWmsaDmqQFiQXAFlS8kYG5ubmloRF4Yw5x6gBziThQ
Roberts, James C. Baseball on the Home Front. American Veterans Center. 2016. https://www.americanveteranscenter.org/avc-media/magazine/wwiichronicles/wwii-chronicles-issue-xxxix/baseball-goes-to-war-the-national-pastime-in-world-war-i
Schwarz, Allan. Feller Proud to Serve in ‘Time of Need’. The New York Times. December 16, 2010. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/17/sports/baseball/17reflect.html
Steven P. Gietschier. “”Uncle Sam Needs Only to Call”: Baseball and othe United States’ Peacetime Military Draft, 194042.” NINE: A Journal of Baseball History and Culture 24, no. 1 (2015): 29-56. https://muse.jhu.edu/
Werner, Dave. Baseball and the U.S. Navy: All Who Play Win. The Sextant. November 9, 2018. https://usnhistory.navylive.dodlive.mil/2018/11/09/baseball-and-the-u-s-navy-all-who-play-win/
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | <urn:uuid:6e1d6996-a74e-4e5e-82b8-4d6b1e5ad2cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydriver.com/baseball-and-the-american-military-during-world-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.981136 | 3,973 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.263056635856628... | 1 | Just as my grandpa spread the love of the game to my family, the United States Navy was instrumental in introducing and popularizing the game of baseball around the world. Baseball was first brought to Japan in 1870 and when U.S. naval ships docked later in the 1870s, they began playing against the local teams.
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From Japan, the game spread to Korea and Taiwan. Before the start of World War I, the U.S. Navy had introduced the game in China, Hawaii, the Virgin Islands, Nicaragua, and the Philippines.3 Countries surrounded by water were easily reached and were common stopping points for the U.S. Navy. During World War I, baseball was what brought soldiers together. It was an integral part of Navy training. The War Department developed the slogan Every American Soldier a baseball player and it was assimilated into training camp drills and activities. Throughout the course of the war, 440 major and minor league ball players fought overseas, and only six died. Baseball was often used as a diplomatic tool. Tensions in a meeting could be lessened on the playing field because sports bring people together in a way that nothing else does.
At the start of the 1941 baseball season, America was not yet involved in the war in Europe. A national publication that dominated in covering baseball called The Sporting News, released a cartoon that was titled Europe’s national pastime seems to be war; America’s is baseball. That season would be the last for a while, with the war raging on in Europe, many players enlisted to join the fight. The 1941 season was known for three things; Joe DiMaggio of the New York Yankees had a 56-game hitting streak, Ted Williams of the Boston Red Sox accrued a .406 batting average, and the World Series was between two New York rivals – the Yankees and the Brooklyn Dodgers. The United States entered the war just two months after the World Series ended, with DiMaggio and Williams both enlisting in 1943.
December 7, 1941 was the day that the United States Naval Base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii was to have their baseball championship. The baseball teams from the battleship USS Arizona and the USS Enterprise were set to play. Unfortunately, the game was delayed due to the USS Enterprise being unable to return to port on time, and the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred instead. 1,177 crewmen died on the Arizona, many of which were the baseball players who were meant to be playing in a game that day.5 The USS Arizona was completely destroyed during the strike and was sunk by the Japanese. Parts of the sunken battleship still lies at the bottom of Pearl Harbor where there is a memorial to those who died on it. Pearl Harbor was the catalyst for propelling America head on into World War II.
Military leaders also recognized baseball as an excellent training device and tool for success. Army Commander General Brehon Somervell said The sandlots and big league ballparks of America have contributed to our military success. A million and a half kids from junior sandlot teams are in the Armed Forces. They learned the teamwork it takes to win a battle or war. We never dare forget that a campaign can be upset by a ninth inning rally. We dare not relax until the last man is out. In baseball, you learn that anything can happen to change the course of the game, just as in war. One base hit or one battle can mean the difference between winning and losing. It is also vital to remember that even if you are up two runs in the bottom of the ninth inning, the game is still on. Many sailors had these lessons instilled in them from a young age due to their playing ball, which was beneficial then being in the Navy. It is also important to note that sports train sailors to be better than the enemy both mentally and physically because they are used to the pressure, competitiveness, and dedication it takes to succeed in athletics.
One of the most important components of success during war time is morale. A military can have thousands of weapons and soldiers, but if they aren’t happy or invested in the cause, then that causes a problem. The United States War Department made it a goal to provide opportunities to increase morale. They recognized baseball as a crowd favorite with sailors. Leaders made it a priority to provide ships loaded with bats, balls, and other gear. Baseball fields were also constructed, especially in the Pacific, for sailors to play on in their free time. Professional players were sent out to these fields to play exhibition games for the troops as entertainment and a way for the men to escape the horrors of war for an afternoon. Baseball was so instrumental in raising sailor’s spirits because it reminded them of home. It’s America’s national pastime, it brings different generations together, teaches life lessons, and provides a time where everyone can forget about life’s problems for the length of the game. It can be played in the backyard with friends and family, or watched in a stadium with thousands of people. Baseball in the navy discouraged homesickness because picking up a bat and ball could bring back memories of playing ball in the backyard and make them feel like they were home. Playing also gave them something to do during long trips at sea or while docked waiting for instructions. Baseball was not only played and talked about, but it was utilized in military names. The Allied campaign in North Africa was named Play Ball, pilots named their planes Winning Run, and warships were named after famous players like the SS Lou Gehrig and the SS Christy Mathewson. These names also brought a sense of connection to home and what they missed.
Before sailors even went to war, they were first recruits trained in the United States. The main two training grounds were the Great Lakes Naval Training Station outside of Chicago, where my grandfather was trained, and the Naval Training Station in Norfolk, Virginia. The Great Lakes Naval Training Station was founded in 1911 and remains to this day the Navy’s largest training facility. The station was also the first site to allow African American trainees in 1942. While at first segregated, all training was integrated by mid-1945. Over four million sailor served on active duty for the United States Navy in World War II, and over one million of those sailors were trained at the Great Lakes Training Station. After leaving the training center, sailors were sent out across the Pacific or Atlantic. It was on their ships that they made teams and scheduled games for when they reached land. Phil Rizzuto, a Hall of Famer who played shortstop for the New York Yankees said he never met anyone who didn’t like baseball while in the Navy.10 Sailors could talk about a good game for days, and they followed their favorite teams anytime they could get news. Baseball was one thing that everyone on the ship could have in common, a devout Christian from Texas and a Jewish sailor from New York could bond over their love of the game.
With the war in full force, the United States Military put on the Servicemen’s World Series from September 22nd to October 15th, 1944 in Honolulu. Navy defeated Army in eight out of eleven games awarding the title of champion to the United States Navy team. 50 players participated in the series and 36 of them had played in the major leagues back home. Although the Navy won many more games, all eleven games were played so that as many people could watch the games as possible and they were exclusively for servicemen with almost 20,000 attending each game. These games allowed for an escape from the fighting, and an opportunity for all the men in the military to come together and enjoy America’s favorite pastime, something they were all fighting to protect.
Over the course of World War II, over 500 major league players and 4,000 minor league players joined the United States Military, with 15 Hall of Famers joining the Navy. One of such men was Cleveland Indians pitcher Bob Feller. In his seven years playing professional baseball before the war, he accumulated a record of 107-54. When the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, Feller was driving back to Cleveland after visiting his terminally ill father in order to meet with his bosses to sign his 1942 contract with the Indians. Although Feller was exempt from military service due to his father’s illness, he gave up his chance to earn $100,000, which would be $1.7 million today, with the Indians to became the first professional athlete to join the Navy just two days after Pearl Harbor. Feller called fighting in the Navy one of the greatest experiences of his life. He went on inactive duty in August 1945 and started for the Indians two days after returning home. Since he was able to play during his time in the Navy and remained in shape during his four-year absence, he allowed only four hits during his first game back and won 4-2 against the Tigers. In an interview Feller did in 2006, he said you can talk about teamwork on a baseball team, but I’ll tell you, it takes teamwork when you have 2,900 men stationed on the U.S.S Alabama in the South Pacific. Teamwork is a vital aspect of both baseball and war, but if you have previous experience with teamwork in a sport, it is easier to apply it in a vital event like an invasion or battle.
The Bob Feller Act of Valor Foundation was created to educate youth about the valor, commitment, and duty to country. The Bob Feller Act of Valor Award honors service men and women who have recognized the importance of service to one’s country, and have sacrificed in times of national need. The inspiring part about Feller’s story is that he was at the peak of his career, would have continued to thrive in the major’s, and was about to make $1.7 million in one season, but gave it all up to serve his country. His sacrifice and courage over 70 years ago, still motivates people today. Feller stated over 67,000 people came to watch his first game back from the war. Baseball players who fought in the war and returned home were welcomed back with open arms and treated as even bigger heroes than when they left. They were idols for being more than just good ball players, they helped save millions of people too.
At the start of the war, there was much debate about whether professional ball players should be exempt from the draft or if there should even be a 1942 baseball season at all. Harry Williams, the secretary of the Pacific Coast League was quoted as saying, We went to the trouble of teaching the Japs baseball, and we don’t intend to let them obliterate it.15 In mid-January, Commissioner Landis wrote a letter to President Roosevelt asking if professional baseball should continue during the war. The President responded that in his personal opinion, baseball should keep going. His reasoning was that because of the war, less people were unemployed and were working longer, harder hours than before. This meant that everyone deserved a chance to relax and enjoy a night out more than before the war. Roosevelt stated that even if less players were able to play due to being drafted, the lower quality of teams would not dampen the popularity of the sport because it still provided entertainment to millions of people. Congressman LaVern Dilweg said that baseball was important to those at war because they “hungrily await news of sports,” and a journalist named Quentin Reynolds said, Hitler has killed a great many things in the past few years. Do not let him kill baseball. With the arrival of Roosevelt’s letter, the 1942 season began as scheduled.
After the season began, baseball pledged $25,000 towards purchasing equipment for the army and navy sports programs and donated all proceeds from the All-Star Game that year towards the Bat and Ball Fund. The first order from this fund comprised of 18,000 baseballs and 4,500 bats. Every destination received a package containing three bats, twelve balls, and a complete set of catching equipment. Troops also received copies of the Sporting News, the national baseball publication. The sport raised money by putting part of each ticket towards the purchase of a B-17 bomber, a second all-star game was suggested each season to raise money for the Bat and Ball Fund, players and umpires wore a patch on their uniform that supported a physical fitness program sponsored by the Office of Civil Defense, and people were encouraged to take part of their salary in war bonds. Throughout the season, autographed baseballs were auctioned off to buy war bonds, and some clubs allowed fans to get into games if they donated scrap mental instead of buying a ticket.
The war threatened a baseball player’s career in more ways than one. Other than the possibility of death and injury, a player may have only had a year or two left of his career when he joined the military for a three-year deployment. In addition, a player who was in his prime when he enlisted or was drafted may have lost his spark and never played the same again. After the Selective Service Director of the draft, Lewis Hershey, announced that deferments should be available to actors and reporters, the public went into uproar.20 Hershey then clarified by stating that no replaceable man would be deferred. Americans wanted movies and baseball to continue in full force, but they didn’t want the stars to get special treatment in the draft in order for them to continue. Many famous ballplayers enlisted on their own anyways, Phil Rizzuto and Bob Feller enlisted in the Navy, Joe DiMaggio enlisted in the Navy even though he could have been deferred.
It was the correct decision to continue professional baseball during the war. Although most rosters depleted and had to resort to much lower quality players, they survived the war. Many players who would never have normally seen the majors, played there for a whole season. Pete Gray who had one arm played for St. Louis in 77 games in 1945, and a fifteen-year-old pitched in a game in 1944 for the Reds. In the 1945 World Series, the Detroit Tigers played the Chicago Cubs and a sportswriter wrote that neither team was good enough to win. Major league attendance dropped to 7.5 million in 1943 but climbed to an all-time high in 1945 at 10.8 million tickets. Nevertheless, every season continued and baseball still remained a high point of American’s lives and in the lives of soldiers and sailors overseas. Baseball was necessary for keeping servicemen in good spirits during the war.
World War II and the Navy spread baseball everywhere they went, and popularized it more in places it already existed. It provided a connection to home and the lives that were left behind or put on hold during the war. Baseball taught teamwork, dedication, and to never give up until the game or battle was over. The game helped form friendships and bonds between sailors who had no similarities or connections to one another. It also forms bonds between family members, it gives them time to spend together like it gave me and my grandfather. There really is no sport like baseball.
Act of Valor Award. Bob Feller Act of Valor Foundation. 2018. https://www.actofvaloraward.org/
Baseball Warms up for World War II. Puget Sound Navy Museum. 2018. https://www.pugetsoundnavymuseum.org/baseball-warms-wwii/
The Birth of Navy Baseball. Puget Sound Navy Museum. 2018. https://www.pugetsoundnavymuseum.org/when-baseball-went-to-war/
The Origins of Baseball. World Baseball Softball Confederation. 2018.
Who Invented Baseball? History.com. March 27, 2013. https://www.history.com/news/who-invented-baseball
Frank, Joel S. “Reviews of Bullock, Playing for Their Nation: Baseball and the American Military during World War II and Powers-Beck, The American Indian Integration of Baseball.” Pacific Historical Review 75, no. 3 (2006): 530-32. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2006.75.3.530?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchText=baseball&searchText=AND&searchText=navy&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dbaseball%2BAND%2Bnavy&refreqid=search%3Acb44929b37a8d6bb51b29e6561b1b745&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
Keene, Anne Raugh. During World War II, the Game of Their Lives. The New York Times. July 29, 2018. https://case.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?bookMark=ePnHCXMw42LgTQStzc4rAe_hSmECnVdqagwsCS1NWWBHORkbG3Ign_HEyaDjAt6VpwBeQqIQnlik4OmpowA0R8E9MTdVIT9NIQQ0cK7gAzqMlYeBNQ0YOam8UJqbQdXNNcTZQxdWmsaDmqQFiQXAFlS8kYG5ubmloRF4Yw5x6gBziThQ
Roberts, James C. Baseball on the Home Front. American Veterans Center. 2016. https://www.americanveteranscenter.org/avc-media/magazine/wwiichronicles/wwii-chronicles-issue-xxxix/baseball-goes-to-war-the-national-pastime-in-world-war-i
Schwarz, Allan. Feller Proud to Serve in ‘Time of Need’. The New York Times. December 16, 2010. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/17/sports/baseball/17reflect.html
Steven P. Gietschier. “”Uncle Sam Needs Only to Call”: Baseball and othe United States’ Peacetime Military Draft, 194042.” NINE: A Journal of Baseball History and Culture 24, no. 1 (2015): 29-56. https://muse.jhu.edu/
Werner, Dave. Baseball and the U.S. Navy: All Who Play Win. The Sextant. November 9, 2018. https://usnhistory.navylive.dodlive.mil/2018/11/09/baseball-and-the-u-s-navy-all-who-play-win/
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | 4,035 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Main / Health / What is a cattle drive
What is a cattle drive
A cattle drive is the process of moving a herd of cattle from one place to another, usually moved and herded by cowboys on horses. Cattle drive definition: the process of moving cattle across country, often carried out by cowboys on horseback | Meaning, pronunciation, translations and. Cattle Drives. After the American Civil War there was a great demand for meat in the northern and eastern parts of the United States. It is estimated that at this.
The most famous "Trail Drives" during the early days of the American west, were from Texas north to the railheads in Kansas. They usually began in the spring. Cattle drive: Chisholm Trail: cattle drovers' trail in the western United States. Although its exact route is uncertain, it originated south of San Antonio, Texas, ran. No single endeavor has marked the image of Texas in the national mind more than the cattle drive. For more than a century, writers have romanticized the work .
Cattle drives moved large herds of livestock to market, to shipping points, or to find fresh pasturage. The practice was introduced to North America early during. These long journeys were called turkey drives, similar to the cattle drives romanticized in film and literature, but without the cowboys, the Old West myths or the. The cattle drive was not a novel concept. In the prewar years Texans drove beef on a small scale to the goldfields of California and the Rockies. Cattle drives are simply that: you are moving cattle from one area to another. In the olden times this was done because there was no other way. Life is better in Cowboy boots. Bring your Team for a Real Cattle drive on our Cowboy Ranch close to Pretoria.
Cattle Drive. Roundup In the years from to the Great Plains of the American West were home to over five million cattle. The cattle survived on the. Arkansas was the source for many cattle drives westward following the California gold rush, and some later cattle drives cut through Arkansas. Credit: MCKIBILLO The cattle drive in this illustration is a bit overmanned, but it still gives you a good idea where cowboys should be positioned. Equitours offers authentic cattle drive vacations in spectacular, wild country from its own Wyoming ranch, in Arizona, in Argentina and in Texas.
Texas cattle were first driven north across eastern Indian Territory to Missouri during the s and s after Texans found better markets for their cattle in St . The great Texas cattle drives started in the 's because we had lots of longhorn and the rest of the country wanted beef. (We get beef from cattle.) From about. You still can be a cowboy. Here are 5 cattle drives on a working cattle ranch you are sure to enjoy as an authentic cowboy. Although there were cattle drives prior to the Civil War their heyday came in the years that followed. The war had pretty much depleted the beef. | <urn:uuid:715fb308-3ae8-4354-86bf-4c80d60ebe8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jipadijucomy.tk/health/what-is-a-cattle-drive.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.98047 | 614 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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What is a cattle drive
A cattle drive is the process of moving a herd of cattle from one place to another, usually moved and herded by cowboys on horses. Cattle drive definition: the process of moving cattle across country, often carried out by cowboys on horseback | Meaning, pronunciation, translations and. Cattle Drives. After the American Civil War there was a great demand for meat in the northern and eastern parts of the United States. It is estimated that at this.
The most famous "Trail Drives" during the early days of the American west, were from Texas north to the railheads in Kansas. They usually began in the spring. Cattle drive: Chisholm Trail: cattle drovers' trail in the western United States. Although its exact route is uncertain, it originated south of San Antonio, Texas, ran. No single endeavor has marked the image of Texas in the national mind more than the cattle drive. For more than a century, writers have romanticized the work .
Cattle drives moved large herds of livestock to market, to shipping points, or to find fresh pasturage. The practice was introduced to North America early during. These long journeys were called turkey drives, similar to the cattle drives romanticized in film and literature, but without the cowboys, the Old West myths or the. The cattle drive was not a novel concept. In the prewar years Texans drove beef on a small scale to the goldfields of California and the Rockies. Cattle drives are simply that: you are moving cattle from one area to another. In the olden times this was done because there was no other way. Life is better in Cowboy boots. Bring your Team for a Real Cattle drive on our Cowboy Ranch close to Pretoria.
Cattle Drive. Roundup In the years from to the Great Plains of the American West were home to over five million cattle. The cattle survived on the. Arkansas was the source for many cattle drives westward following the California gold rush, and some later cattle drives cut through Arkansas. Credit: MCKIBILLO The cattle drive in this illustration is a bit overmanned, but it still gives you a good idea where cowboys should be positioned. Equitours offers authentic cattle drive vacations in spectacular, wild country from its own Wyoming ranch, in Arizona, in Argentina and in Texas.
Texas cattle were first driven north across eastern Indian Territory to Missouri during the s and s after Texans found better markets for their cattle in St . The great Texas cattle drives started in the 's because we had lots of longhorn and the rest of the country wanted beef. (We get beef from cattle.) From about. You still can be a cowboy. Here are 5 cattle drives on a working cattle ranch you are sure to enjoy as an authentic cowboy. Although there were cattle drives prior to the Civil War their heyday came in the years that followed. The war had pretty much depleted the beef. | 612 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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